Oral Communication in M S and H S

LIST 5326 Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Literacy
Two
WeekModule
2 Professor-Authored
Reading (Nancy Hadaway, Ph.D.
Oral Communication in Middle School and High School
"The inarticulate speak longest."
Japanese proverb from
A World Treasury of Folk Wisdom
So I'm Proud
Our History teacher says, "Be proud you're Canadians."
My father says, "You can be proud you're Jewish."
My mother says, "Stand up straight, Kate.
Be proud you're tall."
So I'm proud.
But what I want to know is
When did I have the chance to be
Norwegian or Buddhist or short?
By Jean Little
The Importance of Oral Language
Oral language development plays a powerful role in school success by laying a
foundation for reading and writing. Children who come from environments with plentiful
opportunities for oral language development have the advantage when they enter
school. They possess a wider vocabulary and conceptual background because they
have participated in wide-ranging opportunities to talk about daily concerns and activities
with caregivers, siblings, peers, and relatives. This advantage only continues throughout
the formal education process since it is through these chances to talk and listen, that
students gain a great many understandings about language and how it functions how
the language sounds in various circumstances from formal to informal, how sentences
are structured, how different words are used with different audiences and for different
occasions.
When we discuss oral language, we are really referring to listening and speaking as
separate from reading and writing. Although it is hard to factor out reading and writing
from oral language since reading aloud to students, for instance, involves a focus on
print matter as we show children the text and they follow along while we read. Indeed,
listening and speaking share some similarities with reading and writing, as well as some
key differences. These common bonds as well as the differences among the four areas
of the language arts listening, speaking, reading, and writing are helpful for teachers
to note as they work with students in the language arts classroom.
2009 University of Texas at Arlington
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The Interrelatedness of the Language Arts
Reading and Listening
Gibbons (1993) notes that reading and listening are closely related.
Both require an active learner who is thinking; the reader and the listener must
be focused on the task and use what they know about language to make
meaning.
Background knowledge is another similarity between listening and reading. Both

the reader and the listener need some degree of background knowledge in terms
of content and the language used in order to process the text (spoken or written).
Finally, reading requires knowledge of the symbols of written language while

listening depends on recognizing the sounds of a language.
As we work with learners to foster listening ability, we can draw their attention to the
similarities between listening and reading. Indeed, students who are struggling with
reading often benefit from practice developing listening skills, which help increase
vocabulary, story structure knowledge, and even attention span. Often we
overemphasize remediating reading when building foundational listening provides
greater benefits.
Speaking and Writing: Similarities
Like reading and listening, writing and speaking share some features in common
(Halliday, 1989).
For instance, both are purposeful acts of communication; we use speaking and
writing to accomplish a task to make meaning.
Speaking and Writing: Differences

But, writing and speaking also have some distinct differences (Gibbons, 1993; Ovando &
Collier, 1998).
Spoken language, like written language, is contextual. Spoken language is often

context embedded or context bound; the meaning is very dependent on the
immediate situation, as when speakers are in visual contact and/or there are
environmental clues to the meaning (e.g., pointing to an object). Students can
see the speakers facial expressions and gestures or the illustrations and objects
to which the speaker is referring.
Written language, on the other hand, tends to be more abstract and context free
or context reduced. As readers, we may not have the author or illustrations
present to help us decipher the written text, and this can lead to comprehension
miscues. Certainly, teachers encounter this as they grade students work and
wish they could ask students what they meant at certain points in a written
assignment.
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Another difference between speaking and writing involves the more

unpredictable and spontaneous nature of oral communication. Speakers, in
general, do not know what responses they may receive from the listener in a
conversation. Thus, speaking involves interactive strategies such as verbal and
nonverbal feedback between participants in a conversation or clarification
sequences such as redundancies.
Despite the differences, a strong oral language foundation is critical to the development
of writing because students early writing attempts are often just speech written down.
And, the exercise of reading ones writing aloud usually helps student writers "hear" or
view their own writing somewhat more objectively. As learners progress, they begin to
see how writing often has a formal tone and more academic purposes that may differ
greatly from informal conversation (Ovando & Collier, 1998). When teachers work with
students, they can demonstrate to students both the parallels and the distinctions among
reading, writing, speaking, and listening and help students move from concrete spoken
interactions to more abstract and context-free uses of language.
For more on the integration of the language arts, read the article found at
http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/arts.html.
How Do Teachers Create a Productive Oral Language Environment?
While reading and writing are the language modes most critical to academic success,
the lack of emphasis on more abstract and academically oriented oral language
represents a missed opportunity for a natural transition to reading and writing. It is also a
necessary step for developing confidence and fluency. We never stop developing our
listening and speaking abilities throughout our adult lives. So, where do teachers begin
to create a productive and challenging oral language focus?
Gibbons (1993) offers a description of the needed elements to foster oral language
development.
The first and most important element needed to support oral language ability is a
comfortable learning environment. When students feel anxious or frightened, this
creates a barrier to communication, and they are less likely to participate in oral
communication activities.
One means of helping students to feel comfortable in the learning environment is

to focus the language used in the classroom on learning about something else. In
other words, dont spend time talking about language but use language as a
medium to learn about the many concepts in the curriculum. In this way, students
are not focused on what they dont know about language, but they are
challenged to learn about the world around them through language.
Next, they need planned opportunities for meaningful interaction with their peers.
Collaborative learning through paired and small-group activities provides
authentic, motivating listening and speaking opportunities, offers a wide range of
language from the teacher, as well as from peers, and can be used to engage
students in discussions of academic content (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992).
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The range of language, however, must be understandable to the learner and

provide new ways of expressing meaning. Students need to hear models of
spoken language that can spur them to increased proficiency and understanding.
Therefore, it is critical that frequent opportunities exist for quality input and
interaction. A variety of input options (e.g., read alouds by the teacher or guests,
books on tape, videos, guest speakers, etc.) could be utilized.
Finally, as students engage in collaborative learning and meaningful interactions

with the teacher and peers, they need to be encouraged to function as problem
solvers rather than information receivers. Students require active involvement
with a language hypothesizing and trying out their hunches about language. In
order to become good language users speaking, understanding, reading, and
writing English they must take responsibility for their own learning. And, as
teachers, we serve as role models of oral communication. So, we should take
responsibility for our own oral presentation skills and constantly self monitor and
reflect on ways we can improve. We also need to be sensitive to how our own
dialect and word pronunciation may be affecting student comprehension.
Videotaping your own teaching is a helpful exercise to examine the nonverbal
behaviors you exhibit which may promote or distract from student learning.
Fundamental Conditions for Oral Communication

Continuing our focus on creating a supportive classroom, Cambourne (1988) suggests
seven fundamental conditions for oral communication. These reflect key ingredients for a
productive oral language experience in K-12 classrooms for English language learners.
First comes immersion or surrounding students with language, both oral and
written, as well as interpersonal and academic language. And, it is imperative
that the classroom provides immersion through meaningful language
interactions. Obviously, reading aloud from quality literature and having trade
books, environmental print, and other print matter for students to browse through
and discuss is a powerful starting point for immersing learners in language.
The second condition is demonstration. Learners must have models of English.

In reality, learners bring many varieties of English to school. Demonstrating the
rich diversity of English helps to build students vocabulary and provide an
awareness of the many styles of language that we may engage in throughout the
day. Many wonderful trade books offer a view of regional, historical, or social
dialect, and they provide proof that there is not just one flavor of English but
many. Indeed, talking about accents and dialects that bombard students at
school and at home leads to valuable discussions about language attitudes and
student feelings as they encounter varieties of English that sound unfamiliar or
that they consider socially stigmatized. The unique styles of English may be
highlighted through read alouds of excerpts from young adult novels or from
childrens books such as James Rices regional stylizations of "The Night Before
Christmas" in The Texas Night Before Christmas (1988), The Cajun Night Before
Christmas (1988), and La Nochebuena South Of The Border (1993). La
Nochebuena South Of The Border, the regional bilingual version of "The Night
Before Christmas," also highlights the impact of Spanish on the English language
and introduces the phenomenon of code switching alternating between
languages within the same text, a fairly common practice here in Texas.
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Texas Night Before Christmas: What does the classic poem, "The Night Before
Christmas," sound like with a Texas twang? Well, James Rice helps us hear a
Texan version of the poem. Closely linked to our demonstrations or models of
language to students is a third element, expectation. What a powerful influence
on learning is teacher expectation! We must send messages that we expect
students to succeed. A positive and supportive environment fosters language
growth and spurs a higher level of motivation among students. Communicating
our expectation that errors are a natural part of the language learning process
frees students to experiment and take more risks with language.
Fourth, students need responsibility for their own language. As educators, we

must allow students to take charge of what they learn. After providing a wellstocked classroom library and modeling language through read alouds, peer
discussions, and other authentic means, we must step back and allow students
to make choices about what language experiences they want to make. Indeed,
student choice can motivate learning, and teachers gain insights into their
classrooms based on the choices students make in terms of their preferences for
certain learning environments, materials, etc., thereby assisting with instructional
decisions (Hadaway & Vardell, in progress). And, responsible students are
empowered students, continuing to hone language skills outside the classroom
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because they realize they are in charge of their own learning and language
development.
The next condition is approximation. Expectations for accuracy of oral or written

language should not be so high that students feel too frustrated to continue.
Sixth, students must be engaged in the employment of English, practicing what

they are learning. In the classroom, we can provide a variety of means for
students to practice in a safe and secure environment.
Finally, closely related to student attempts to practice their new language,

teachers need to provide students with meaningful feedback, responding to the
content and not just the form of what they are saying. Teacher feedback needs to
consist of good modeling of English and enough input to allow students to
eventually self-correct.
What Happens in School?

In the early grades, we may allow more instructional time for students to practice oral
communication since we assume that they are learning these skills and sharpening them
for future use. As students move up to middle school and high school, however,
teachers often assume that students have listening and speaking skills well in control.
Nothing could be further from the truth. A typical breakdown of an instructional day in
high school might look like this:
30% speaking
16% reading
9% writing
45% listening
We see that teachers spend a great deal of time talking, with students listening. But, do
students listen well? And, of the 30% of time spent speaking, do students use effective
speaking skills? Probably not; educators draw a great deal of criticism from business
and industry professionals who complain that high school and college graduates come to
them with poorly developed oral communication skills.
So the question remains: Why arent students taught listening and speaking skills in
school? (Milner & Milner, 1999).
Point: Reasons We Dont Teach Listening and Speaking
Talking and listening are natural acts, so there is no need to focus on them at
school. Children learn them without adult help, so instructional time should be
reserved for skills and knowledge that must be taught, such as how to read and
write.
The schools emphasis is on back to basics math, reading, and writing.
The curriculum does not give a clue as to what to do to teach listening.
There is no research identifying specific listening skills.
Most educators are not aware of the impact of oral language development on
reading.
Children get substantial practice in talking and listening outside of school.
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Talking and listening are too difficult to teach, and teachers have no training in
how to go about teaching these skills.
Teachers have too much to do already without adding talking and listening to the
curriculum.
Talking and listening cannot be tested. We can't spend time on skills and ideas
that are not tested. What we're not accountable for is not our responsibility.
Counterpoint: Why We Should Teach Listening and Speaking
When students talk and listen in class, they learn the skills of clarifying and
understanding the thoughts and perceptions of others and to integrate their own
understandings and those of others, thereby making meaning and extending their
own knowledge.
Talking and listening are the basic communication tools throughout life as we
negotiate the workplace and relate to friends and family.
Oral language skills are strongly correlated to the highly tested skills of reading
and writing. "The relationship of talk to writing is central to the writing process. It
is no longer necessary to justify classroom talk as a means to anything else; it is
properly valued in its own right, but this doesn't detract from our conviction that
good talk helps to encourage good writing. It is probable that of all the things
teachers are now doing to make their pupils approach to writing more stimulating
and the writing itself seem a more integral part of the manifold activities of the
classroom, it is the encouragement of different kinds of talk which is the
commonest and most productive factor." (Britton, Burgess, Martin, McLeod, and
Rosen, 1975, p. 29)
Variables Influencing Listening Comprehension

Listening is the process by which spoken language is converted to meaning.
The following variables impact listening and all language processes; these variables can
be divided into personal variables (e.g., factors that the children bring from home) and
contextual factors (e.g., the context of the listening experience) (Milner, & Milner, 1999).
Personal Variables Influencing Listening Comprehension
Intelligence, particularly verbal intelligence this is the highest correlate of

listening ability.
A hearing sense the ability to hear sounds in normal way (11% of our students
have hearing impairment).
Family children in small families listen better. (Does an environment with more
noise cause less listening?)
Personality and social development good listeners are usually better adjusted
and ready to listen.
Chronological age and grade level listening ability increases with age.
Experiential background life experiences provide a variety of skills, such as the
ability to decipher accented speech, code switching from language to language,
etc.
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Contextual Factors
Social setting of classroom e.g., comfort level, teacher/student and

student/student rapport.
Home environment e.g., are children listened to at home?
Relevance children must feel the information is relevant.
Clear purpose for listening set clear purposes, and involve students in
establishing some purposes for listening.
Availability of information if students feel they can get the information
somewhere else, they don't listen.
Knowledge of information if students already know it, they wont listen.
Importance of information the more children find it doesn't matter, the less
they'll pay attention.
Planned social interaction increases listening ability.
Rate we listen 6 10 times faster than a person can speak.
Different Kinds of Listening

There are many types of listening experiences from listening intently to a difficult lecture
explanation to the pleasant and easy listening of social gatherings and conversations
among family and friends. Students need to understand that spoken language, just like
written language, varies tremendously. And, these different types of listening
experiences require different skills.
Here are some different types of listening experiences that you might provide for
students in your classroom.
Social listening conversation.

Secondary listening listen to background noises.
Aesthetic listening listening for enjoyment (e.g., music, poetry, choral reading,
radio, recordings).
Critical listening listen to determine why, difference between fact/fantasy, make
judgments, answer specific questions, detect bias, etc.
Following directions listening specifically for facts, sequence of processes.
Creative listening associating meaning with listening and creating mental
images from listening.
Instructional Implications Listening
Listening lessons should not be isolated; all day long we have situations where
children can listen for different purposes.
Listening is part of the classroom, within the organization of the classroom.
The teacher can help in the process by
being sure to say what needs to be said.

helping students focus on what they need to listen for once you have their
attention.
giving them the information they need, not necessarily what they already have.
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Teach students to
listen for main idea.

predict the in-between parts.
note details and select important information.
identify significant details from a planned series of questions.
have a discussion centering on main idea.
Model good listening, show students how to
give full attention.

give eye contact.
comment.
Instructional Implications Speaking

Goals of Speaking
Develop talking so that others listen and understand.

Give opportunities to talk and be listened to.
Have children use their own natural language and add and modify.
Provide interaction for children to develop talking.
Informal Oral Communication
Communication in the hallway, not in the classroom.

Provide for some experiences in unplanned talk, while there is not really tight
control they can still learn.
Formal/Organized Discussion
There is more structure when you plan discussion.

Consider opportunities for both whole group and small group discussion.
Teach the Sociolinguistic Rules of Talk
Learn when to talk, when not to talk.

With informal talk going on, learn when one should listen.
Teach when to listen.
Teach about moderating ones tone, students often talk too loudly.
Learn about talking about the right or wrong things at the right or wrong time.
Learn about talking too much or not enough.
Teach students to be aware of their own noise level in group work.
Teacher Modeling
We are models in front of children, so encourage children to behave as we do in

language.
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Analysis of Oral Communication Situation
Make children aware of what's going on during speaking process.

Talk about what's going on (implicit) when one is speaking/listening (e.g., analyze
a class discussion).
Role Play an Oral Communication Situation
Create for children a low-risk environment to try out situations.
Coaching Children in Oral Language
Focus attention on behavior.

Suggest alternatives.
Encourage them to practice to improve behavior.
Setting the Stage for Discussion

Classroom discussions are difficult to lead and, for students, difficult to participate in.
Students have generally been taught to listen to the teacher rather than to peers.
Therefore, teachers will have to spend some time teaching students some interpersonal
rules for conducting effective discussions. Sorenson (1993) notes several important
rules that teachers could use to set the stage for class discussions and peer interaction.
First, require courtesy among peers within the discussion. Teach students to engage in
the following behaviors.
Encourage silent students.

Alert the student who will be called on next by stating that student's name.
Give an opinion so the student to be called on has something to react to.
Ask about the stated opinion.
Second, encourage students in class discussion or literature circles, etc., to look not only
at the teacher, but to look at the students they are talking to. This is difficult because
students have been trained to look at the teacher for cues on how to proceed!
Third, teach students to tolerate silence and use the silent time to consider some of the
following options.
Can you say something similar using other words?

What did you like about the previous contribution?
What new ideas did that contribution give you?
What puzzled you about the last statement?
How did the person who made the last statement arrive at that conclusion?
Can you elaborate, explain, or give another example of the last statement?
What puzzled you as you were trying to think of an answer to this question?
Finally, Sorensen also encourages teachers to teach students the process of selfevaluation. For instance, students could discuss or write their responses to the following
questions after a specified class discussion.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
Did I contribute to the discussion?

Did I encourage others to contribute or clarify ideas?
What would I like to do in the next discussion? How can I do this?
Who was the person who contributed the most interesting or valuable
comments?
5. Who was the Most Valuable Player in keeping the discussion going?
6. Who encouraged me the most in the discussion?
Suann Claunch from Ft. Worth ISD shared this note about encouraging students with
discussion cues/prompts. "In FWISD HAP (High Academic Program), we are to use
Scholarly Language in our discussions. Examples:
I agree with___ because____

I disagree___
According to ____
The evidence shows___
It is amazing how the use of this language has changed our discussions. My kids
stopped the 'Uh-uh's' and 'I don't think so's,' which elevated the tone and reduced the
level of discord."
"You Have to Start Meeting Like This!" is an interesting article about leading meetings.
Since leading class discussions resembles leading a meeting, this article can furnish
some helpful hints to teachers. Check it out at this Web site
http://www.fastcompany.com/online/23/begeman.html.
Assessing Discussions
As noted earlier, some teachers avoid listening and speaking in the classroom because
it is so difficult to evaluate. Matanzo (1996) advocates that teachers focus student
attention on two aspects of the discussion process: behaviors that facilitate discussion
and the actual content to be discussed. These components for effective discussion can
be included in a class observation grid to more objectively quantify listening and
speaking behaviors. As students progress in their discussion skill, they can add their
own characteristics and content issues. Following is a list of Matanzos
recommendations.
Discussion Behaviors
Relate ideas to background.

Avoid interruptions.
Take turns.
Listen before judging.
Stay focused on topic.
Explore topic in depth.
Locate support in text.
Clarify ideas.
Acknowledge others ideas.
Question others.
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Make eye contact.

Project voice appropriately.
Support ideas expressed.
Offer creative solutions.
Encourage agreement.
Reorganize what was said.
Avoid ridiculing others ideas.
Extend ideas of others.
In terms of narrative content to be discussed, Matanzo recommends the following areas

of focus.
Title appropriateness
Character Analysis
Plot analysis
Theme support
Points of view
Dialogue effectiveness
Conflict and resolution
Texts on similar topic, theme
Character interactions
Effect of ending
Effect of setting on story
Character motives
Stereotype analysis
Development of story
Authors use of language (style)
Effectiveness of illustrations
Compare works of given author
Compare text to media on book
In terms of expository content to be discussed, Matanzo recommends the following

areas of focus.
Title appropriateness
Author organization of text
Treatment of topic
Authors credentials
Effectiveness of examples
Authors clarity
Accuracy
Currency
Completeness of presentation
Effectiveness of visuals
Text comparisons on topic
Topic treatment in other genres
Stereotype analysis
Compare text to media treatment on same topic
Authors use of language
Sequence of presentation
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Almost Perfect
"Almost perfect . . . but not quite."
Those were the words of Mary Hume
At her seventh birthday party,
Looking 'round the ribboned room.
"This tablecloth is pink not white -Almost perfect . . . but not quite."
Those were the words of grown-up Mary
Talking about her handsome beau,
The one she wasn't gonna marry.
"Squeezes me a bit too tight
Almost perfect . . . but not quite."
Those were the words of ol' Miss Hume
Teaching in the seventh grade,
Grading papers in the gloom
Late at night up in her room.
"They never cross their t's just right
Almost perfect . . . but not quite."
Ninety-eight the day she died
Complainin' 'bout the spotless floor.
People shook their heads and sighed,
"Guess that she'll like heaven more."
Up went her soul on feathered wings,
Out the door, up out of sight.
Another voice from heaven came
by Shel Silverstein
From A Light in the Attic
How Can Teachers Assist Listening And Speaking Development?
Motivating active listening and focused conversation or discussion in any classroom can
be challenging. In terms of speaking and listening opportunities, here are some
suggestions to help teachers structure classroom activities for oral communication
(Scarcella & Oxford, 1992; Diaz-Rico & Weed, 1995).
Communicate a clear purpose for the activity and make sure that students
understand the purpose.
Choose activities with real, communicative purposes.
Spend some time initially teaching group conversation and interpersonal skills
prior to collaborative tasks.
Provide for a variety of tasks according to student abilities and interests.
Build in multiple opportunities for student interaction.
Integrate listening and speaking activities with reading and writing.
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For early listening activities, make sure the speaker is visible, there are
environmental clues to the meaning, and no highly specialized vocabulary is
used.
For speaking activities, have students respond in some meaningful fashion (e.g.,
asking a question, discussing a point, following a command or request).
What might be the most effective techniques to foster oral communication? First, lets
look at some tasks that concentrate on listening and then, some techniques that focus
on speaking. All of these ideas can be effectively used for grades K-12. And remember,
many of these techniques also integrate elements of speaking, reading, and writing,
which is a goal all teachers should be working toward (Hadaway, Vardell, & Young,
2001).
Matching or Distinguishing. A common task involves students listening to a passage
and then choosing an appropriate response. In preparation for such tasks, teachers
might select a short passage as a read aloud or tell a story focusing on the setting or an
event, and then, have students place pictures or objects in a sequence that matches the
selection or choose a picture or written response that corresponds. Or, students can
discuss in pairs or groups as they match the information heard to some written or visual
task. Poems can also be helpful here. The poems title is often indicative of the main
idea of the poem. Thus, the teacher can read aloud the poem and have students guess
or match the poem title from various possibilities, given the details provided in the poem
(Hadaway, Vardell, & Young, 2001).
Transferring. For this activity, students receive information in one form and then
transfer it or parts of it to another format. After hearing a description of a house, students
might sketch what they heard, and then follow up by comparing their drawing to a
partners and talking through the differences and similarities. I like to bring poetry into
play with the Shel Silverstein (1981) poem, "Shapes." I read the poem, and students
sketch the action that takes place with the personified circle, triangle, and square, and
finally, they compare illustrated versions. As an added bonus, this poem is an easy
introduction to the literacy technique of personification. Such listening activities are great
warm ups at the beginning of the class.
Scanning. While we normally think of scanning as a reading skill, we actually scan both
written and verbal input for information. Scanning activities give students permission not
to focus on the whole text and remember all the details. Instead of remembering
everything, students must target a specific piece of information. For instance, while
listening to a news broadcast, students identify the name of the winning party or
candidate in an election. Or, using a radio advertisement about a special sale or
recreational activity, students determine when and where the event will take place.
Listening teams supply another twist to a scanning activity. Rather than having each
student listen individually for some bit of information, the class can be divided into
teams, with each group focused on different bits of information during the read aloud,
radio show, etc. After the presentation, teams confer to determine if each person came
up with the same answer, and then the whole class pieces the information together. To
individualize and more effectively address the variety of proficiency levels among the
students in many classrooms, teachers can easily create listening centers with oral or
written questions and prompts linked to a variety of recorded selections (e.g., teacher
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read alouds of trade books, newspaper or magazine articles, radio announcements or
advertisements, etc.). The possibilities are endless, and recorded selections can provide
the variety of native speaker models along with input that is fine-tuned to diverse
proficiency levels.
Extending. While the previous tasks focused on lower-level cognitive tasks knowledge
and comprehension activities the task of extending moves students to a higher level of
language processing as they must go beyond what is provided. Not only do extending
activities provide a good comprehension check, they also require some critical thinking.
Following a read aloud for instance, the teacher may have students provide a new
conclusion for a story or imagine what a character might do in different circumstances.
Condensing. To condense, students must reduce what is heard to an outline of main
points or very brief summary, but to do so requires that students determine what is
critical information and what is not. Obviously, teachers need to fine tune the selection
shared to the proficiency level of the students. Interesting articles from newspapers or
magazines, as well as poems and short stories, are an excellent starting point. Following
the read aloud, students can work together to share their recollection of the selection. To
assist students in the task of summarization, they might benefit from the use of a story
map or other graphic organizer to help them focus on the key points of the content.
Predicting. To predict, students must guess outcomes, causes, relationships, etc. A
much needed pre-reading strategy, teachers can assist students in predicting what a
story will be about by reading aloud the title and perhaps the introductory paragraph and
showing the cover of the book and other external clues such as illustrations, etc. Even if
students know little about a topic they can still make predictions about what they believe
an author will present. And, students predictions are a great check on the extent of their
background knowledge.
Role Play. Role-play presents a wonderful opportunity to try out those oral skills and
address various speaking situations; yet, it can prove intimidating to many learners.
Perhaps, nonverbal role-plays would be a good beginning point. These silent
interactions lend themselves to videotaping followed by class discussion of the
appropriate language to use for the action sequence. At this point, some students might
be ready to jump into the whole experience actions with words. Whatever the
sequence of events, however, a critical component to any oral communication activity is
the follow up. Debriefing a role-play, for example, allows the class to analyze the
interaction, comparing the actual language used and making suggestions for future
reenactments. Videotaping role plays and other classroom interaction activities facilitates
analysis and furnishes an assessment for the teacher, as well as allowing students to
more clearly examine their own progress over time.
Choral Reading. When we recite the Pledge of Allegiance at school and make a
mistake, no one really hears our blunder. Choral reading offers this same format of
protected oral language the chance for students individual voices to be lost amidst
their peers voices. Using individual student texts or reading material on the overhead to
guide student participation, there are countless response formats for choral reading such
as: in unison (the whole class reading together), students echo the teachers lines, small
groups read specific lines or sections, the class is divided into two groups and each
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group reads a section, etc. The possibilities are only limited by your own imagination!
Milner and Milner (1999) note, "One of the most effective readings we have observed
both in terms of student learning and audience reaction was a reading of the Declaration
of Independence by a group of 25 students. The document itself, with its powerful and
expressive arguments, was a charged vehicle for such a production, but the oral
arrangements intensified its force. Students were assigned special lines and words so
that their varied voices underscored critical ideas and language of the document. Spatial
arrangements of the presenters, language tempo, modulation, emphasis, and the
number of single or choral voices all contributed to the impact. The resources of a group
create a more expansive range of possibilities for verbal and nonverbal communication."
Some basic guidelines for choral reading can be found at
http://www.d21.k12.il.us/dept_instr/langarts/parentinfo/choral_rdg.html.
List Poem Read Aloud. Using starters (e.g., Fear is . . .), students can brainstorm a list
of completions and then begin to work together to group their completions into list poems
and share these with the class. Any sentence starter can work! I drew ideas from the
books, Live and Learn and Pass It On. These small books offer inspirational completions
to the line "Ive learned that . . ." volunteered by individuals at all ages. Choosing various
sentence completions across the various ages, I put the lines on sentence strips and
passed them out to students. When the age of the person who volunteered that
completion is read by the teacher, the student stands and reads his/her line. A timeline
reflecting age and the sentence completion can also be constructed, and the class can
discuss whether age impacts what we learn. Finally, students come up with their own
completions to "Ive learned that . . . and share these with the class in a read-aloud
format. This particular sentence starter may be a rich one for students as they share
what they have learned since coming to America or beginning to learn English. For a
lesson plan on list poetry, go to
http://www.poetryteachers.com/poetclass/lessons/bugsme.html.
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Live and Learn and Pass It On! This inspirational book of folk wisdom is a great source
of activities for the classroom such as the list poetry idea shared earlier. The author
shares a bit about his book at http://www.instructionbook.com/llpio.html. For some
examples of wisdom from this book, go to http://www.mryoung.com/Protes/Learn.htm.
Audiopublishing. As part of the writing process, a common class activity involves
student publishing of their own work in the form of a class book or paper. Using these
published works, students can go one step further and record their writing on tape.
These tapes along with the written version can be housed in the class listening center,
so that all students might listen, follow along, and share in their peers experiences. I
have found that students love to read each others work and that student-authored books
are often the most popular items in the class library.
Literature Circles. Another technique for developing oral communication skills is group
work and peer discussion of reading. Literature circles (Harste, Short, & Burke, 1988),
offer a wonderful collaborative opportunity for students to share preferences, read aloud,
and talk about reading selections. The small group atmosphere establishes a safety
level that encourages the sharing of more personal opinions and responses, both
positive and negative. According to Christenbury (1992), group work on literature can be
facilitated with the use of assigned roles to question and guide the conversation,
highlight important vocabulary and help group members use context to decipher the
meaning, and focus on good examples of literary elements to discuss. Additionally,
Matanzo (1996) from her work with the Montgomery County Public Schools (1982)
advocates the use of discussion plays to help students improve in their skills to talk
about books. The discussion play provides a model of discussion behaviors and topics
through the medium of a Readers Theater script that is an example of a literature circle.
Students perform the Readers Theater script and then the class examines the behaviors
of the fictional students. (e.g., Did they follow the objective of the discussion? Where do
we see students giving examples related to the objective? Where do we see students
who are off task in the literature circle?) Rather than focusing attention on students
within the real classroom and pointing out what they did or did not accomplish, the
discussion play allows students to spotlight individuals not so close to home and analyze
their positive and negative discussion behaviors. Once students are able to distinguish
nonproductive discussion behaviors, they can even rewrite the discussion play to correct
the off-task behavior, etc. While this method may be time consuming, more focused and
productive discussions are the result of spending the time to coach students through the
process. For some defining characteristics of literature circles, check out the information
at http://www.literaturecircles.com/article1.htm.
Collaborative Learning Activities. Small-group activities provide a natural place for
oral communication development and can extend across the content areas. Teachers
can develop their own collaborative learning opportunities. For instance, buzz groups
provide students with an opportunity to work in a small group on a specific problem to
solve. I especially enjoy the poetry collage activity. Similar to the magnetic poetry pieces
but much less expensive, very short poems can be cut into individual words. Then,
students work together to unscramble the words and massage them into the original
poem. The difficulty level of this activity can be increased by removing all capitalization
and punctuation clues or the complexity level can be decreased by simply cutting the
poem into its existing lines. Whatever the format, the task is to unscramble the
phrases/lines or words. Once students have decided on their version, they transfer this
to a transparency, present it to class, and compare their adaptation of the poem to the
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original one. The objective is not necessarily for the two poems to match; the real power
of this activity lies in the discussions that students have as they try to put the words into
some order. Teachers at all levels are consistently amazed at the very meaningful
conversations that students have while engaged in this activity and the information the
student talk provides about their language knowledge.
Round Table. Using a small-group discussion format with three to five participants per
group, the class is divided into various stations with a different discussion topic at each
table. Students have the opportunity to rotate to different groups to address a variety of
topics. This activity offers an excellent review technique for a unit of study or an
upcoming exam. Or, students could contribute their own topics related to a unit of study,
a particular theme, or a book currently being read. Another engaging format involves
rank ordering a list of items or options (e.g., given an introductory section from a story,
take a set of options and rank order them for the likelihood of their occurrence in relation
to the theme or characters from the story).
Panel Discussion. More formal than the round-table discussions is the panel
discussion. It is possible to have a more impromptu panel discussion, but in general, the
topic of the panel is agreed upon beforehand. Then, each panel member has a certain
facet of the topic to develop while the class serves as an audience. Panel discussions
provide an alternative to teacher talk. For instance, students can be responsible for
reviewing the key areas of study in a unit or for supporting an argument. Or using a
content area emphasis, each panel member might use a different nonfiction trade book
to put together information for their oral presentation and cover all aspects of a topic.
They may even discover that different authors have different points of view on the very
same subject.
Creative Dramatics. Drama provides another great oral communication format.
Pantomime, puppetry, trust walks, improvisation all of these supply opportunities for
students to plan, to discuss, to participate, to reflect. Trust walks foster a sense of team
play and also foster active listening skills as one student gives directions to the other.
Pantomimes offer nonverbal participation but can be discussed in advance before the
performance while improvisation gives students an opportunity for some spontaneous
language interchanges. And, no matter what the age, puppetry is a valuable option. The
ability to "hide behind" a sock or paper bag puppet can increase students confidence.
Creative dramatics helps to:
develop language and communication abilities (e.g., understanding the purposes

and functions of language, such as informing and persuading).
develop problem solving skills (e.g., hypothesizing).
develop creativity (e.g., How does one pretend not to understand?)
develop positive self concept (e.g., increases risk-taking behavior)
develop social awareness (e.g., What is it like to experience discrimination?)
develop empathy (e.g., "walk in anothers shoes)
For more on creative dramatics, check out this article by Bruce Robbins at
http://reading.indiana.edu/ieo/digests/d32.html.
Dialect Activities (Tchudi & Tchudi, 1991). Have students develop an understanding of
their own language by keeping a journal or notebook and writing about any of the
following.
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Their own dialect and their comfort level with the way they speak.
How does their dialect represent their heritage or their culture?
Explore dialects through television news show interviews, sitcoms, etc.
Discuss how stereotypical characters speak in certain ways.
Discuss linguistic prejudice. What impressions do they have of speakers of a
Southern dialect, a Northern dialect? Is this fair?
In conclusion, there are countless possibilities to develop listening and speaking ability.
The suggestions in this section offer the chance for students to work together in low-risk
activities to expand their oral language with teacher support. All of these techniques
work across grades K-12 and can be easily adapted to any classroom.
OFFERING DIVERSE MODELS OF LANGUAGE FOR STUDENTS
In addition to furnishing a variety of listening and speaking tasks for the classroom,
teachers must offer diverse models of language. We all need to hear different language
models. Some possible resources of authentic language, both in and out of the
classroom, include the following (Hadaway, Vardell, & Young, 2001).
Live or Recorded Interviews. The interview format can be tailored to a variety of

formats. For instance, guest speakers provide diverse models of language and afford an
opportunity for students to interview someone outside the class. Or, students might
collect a family history through interviews with family members. Before students try their
hand at interviewing, a short lesson on interview skills is appropriate. Such a lesson
might include clips of television interviews (e.g., presidential news conferences, celebrity
interviews) to highlight questioning procedures and a focus on the specific question and
answer format and language of interviews.
Newscasts. The many varied formats of news reporting can provide some valuable
comparison/contrast for students. For instance, students might compare and contrast
recorded news segments from radio and television along with the printed news in
newspapers. As part of the focus on the newscast, students can analyze the different
news categories (e.g., local and national events, weather, sports, entertainment) for the
types of information presented and the typical vocabulary used. After watching and
discussing many models, students are ready to create their own newscast, either a
generic daily news broadcast or one linked toa short story, novel, or content-area unit.
Videotaping a student-produced newscast provides a valuable assessment tool and can
be used for both teacher evaluation purposes as well as class analysis. Indeed, over
time, a class could create an impressive classroom library of videotaped newscasts and
other class activities that students could check out in learning centers and listen to with
headphones after completing their class assignments.
Speeches. Another example of formal oral language use, speeches present one more
option for oral communication activities in the classroom. Students might consider the
tremendous range of speech events (e.g., State of the Union address, inaugural
address, protest speeches). Some famous speeches, such as Martin Luther King, Jr.s "I
Have a Dream" or John F. Kennedys inaugural address, are available on videotape. As
Page 19 of 28

a wonderful companion to recorded speeches, some picture book versions of famous
speeches have recently been published including I Have A Dream (1997) (see a review
of the book at http://www.education-world.com/a_books/books028.shtml) and Lincolns
Gettysburg Address (1995) (see a review of the book at
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0395698243/102-72602315484139?vi=glance). After a teacher read aloud of Kings speech, a powerful follow-up
includes students creating a class, group, or individual poem starting with the prompt: I
have a dream . . . Check out another lesson plan at
http://www.readwritethink.org/lessons/lesson_view.asp?id=258.
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The illustrated versions of The Gettysburg Address and I Have a Dream are perfect to
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share with a class and discuss public speaking. In addition, Burleigh's Who Said That? is
a great source of information on famous people and interesting quotes attributed to
them.
Radio and Television Programming. The media furnishes many examples for listening
activities: a news program can help students focus on who, what, where, when, main
idea, examples, description; a cooking program can help students focus on sequence or
an advertisement can demonstrate persuasive techniques to grab our attention. An
important distinction between the two media, radio and television, is that radio reflects
more context-free and reduced language because unlike television, there are no visual
clues to meaning. Yet, television offers a range of context-embedded language with
cooking shows, advertisements, and childrens programming, such as Sesame Street,
presenting the most predictable and easy-to-follow language. News or talk shows
perhaps present the most difficult. Peregoy and Boyle (1997) suggest taping a television
program, playing it back with no sound and then having students create their own
dubbed version with dialogue and sound effects. Commercials, spotlighting shots of the
product only, lend themselves to this dubbing technique. Within radio, a range of formats
(e.g., news, talk shows, music, community forums, vintage radio theater) also exists.
Students could try their hand at their own radio show after spending time analyzing a
variety of recorded radio segments.
Music. For a motivational language resource that is an intimate part of most students
lives, teachers can check out the many possibilities offered by music. As with literature,
the lyrics to music across cultures provide valuable insights into the important values,
beliefs, and events of different people and eras. Folksongs, in particular, are an
interesting link to our history and the issues within various eras. Teachers can introduce
contemporary recorded music, as well as literary examples of music to students.
However, recorded music can prove a difficult listening activity since the lyrics are often
slurred or clipped in order to fit the musical rhythm.
Storytelling or Relating Anecdotes. Dont confuse storytelling with memorizing; true
storytelling is an art form with roots deep in our oral tradition. Storytelling activities in the
classroom provide both structured and impromptu language opportunities, and with
practice, children assimilate the concept of story structure introduction, plot episodes,
elaborative details, climax, resolution, conclusion (Buchoff, 1995). Students can prepare
stories or presentations with props a type of staged performance or students might
simply share "on the spot" personal experiences about family, friends, pets, funny
incidents, current events. And storytelling can be a whole group, small group, or
individual student activity. For instance, beginning with an introductory line (e.g.,
Suddenly the lights went out, and I heard a loud crash . . .) or an intriguing picture or
photo, the whole class might work together with each student adding a line to the story.
Since family is a familiar element of most English-language-learners lives, Buchoff
(1995) recommends that we model the concept of storytelling with literature focusing on
family stories. Once students have some good models of family stories as background,
Buchoff (1995) suggests that students collect family stories at home using a variety of
"tell me about . . . prompts and then practice retelling the story to the original teller.
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Tell Me About . . . Prompts
Tell me about something I did when I was little.

Tell me about a time when I got lost.
Tell me about a neighborhood where you lived as a child.
Tell me about someone who used to come and visit at your house when
you were growing up.
Tell me about your favorite relative when you were a child.
Live Conversation/Dialogue. From classroom discussions to informal chats,

spontaneous, live conversation provides a great oral language workout. To encourage
this format, students might drop ideas (e.g., current theme or controversial topic) into a
suggestion box during the month. Then, at the end of the month, students draw a topic
and have a chance to talk in small groups, perform a dialogue, or act out a small-group
chat skit for the whole class.
Furnishing diverse models of language helps students to explore the many varieties of
English that are used on a daily basis. We do not all speak the same, so this section has
highlighted a variety of ways that teachers can draw in other voices to the classroom and
to extend listening and speaking opportunities for students.
USING LITERATURE TO DEVELOP LISTENING AND SPEAKING ABILITY
Literature furnishes an ideal stimulus to the listening and speaking ability of students.
Poetry and repetitive books provide rhythm and predictability and provide a great oral
language workout. Here are just a few suggestions from childrens and young-adult
literature to help students with oral language development!
Drama and Readers Theater. Poetry affords an easy avenue into drama through choral
reading, Readers Theater, and role-play (Gasparro & Falletta, 1994; Kelly, 1992;
McCauley & McCauley, 1992). For instance, after studying one poem, the class divides
into groups. Each group discusses the poem, comes up with their interpretation, and
performs a Readers Theatre of the poem. In this manner, the class is exposed to the
literary selection numerous times, resulting in far more readings than a regular class
situation would have afforded. Such natural repetition of language fosters the
development of oral language and reading fluency (Cullinan, Scala, & Schroder, 1995;
Richard-Amato, 1996). But, poems are not the only source of Readers Theater scripts;
fiction and nonfiction literature furnish an endless stream of material that students can
use to develop scripts. The many benefits of Readers Theater for oral language
development include: purposeful oral reading, an opportunity for cooperative learning,
practice using oral skills, and heightened attention in listening. Because students do not
have to stage a scene they simply read the lines this more simple dramatic
technique is easy to implement into any classroom. For more detail on Readers Theater,
go to http://www.stemnet.nf.ca/CITE/langrt.htm.
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Poetry Performance. This is one of our favorite oral communication techniques

providing opportunities for students to perform as a class, small group, or solo. Teachers
can begin to develop students oral language through choral reading of poetry. Once the
teacher has read a poem aloud for the class, students can then work in groups to script
the poem, making logical divisions of the lines and assignments to readers for solos,
duos, etc., and deciding how readers of each part should use volume, emphasis, speed,
pause, and pitch to communicate meaning. One especially powerful format for poetry
performance involves reading cumulatively, beginning with a few voices and gradually
increasing the number (crescendo) or decreasing the number (decrescendo). This
technique when matched with the right poem can intensify the meaning and the mood.
For instance, Douglas Florians (1994) "Monday the Baby Learned How to Walk," is a
highly exaggerated and humorous view spanning a week with a baby learning to do
various tasks. By the end of the week, "the baby plans to retire." Adding more student
voices as each day of the week and its tasks is presented reinforces the overwhelming
tone of the poem, so that retirement seems the only option at the end. "Ten Tall
Oaktrees" from the collection Earthways, Earthwise: Poems About Conservation (1998),
on the other hand, is a serious ecological statement. So, rather than adding voices, the
tone of the poem calls for a decrescendo of sound. Starting with the whole class reading
and having voices fall out with each stanza as one by one the trees fall in the forest
creates a forceful poetry performance as well as a proclamation about conserving our
resources.
50 Ways to Save the Earth is a stunning nonfiction photo essay book to share with the
class in any discussion about conservation. Young people are very eco-conscious and
this will be a book they will enjoy browsing through!
Wordless Picture Books. With their sequenced illustrations, wordless picture books
supply an idea bank to spur student creativity carrying them through the entire narrative
structure from beginning to end. Students can work together in groups to create the story
Page 24 of 28

or, working individually, a student might tape record his/her own version of a wordless
picture book with the tape serving as an assessment tool. A list of wordless picture
books follows and other suggested books can be found at the following links:
http://www.library.uiuc.edu/edx/wordless.htm
http://nancykeane.com/rl/317.htm
http://www.suelebeau.com/picturebooks.htm
Wordless Picture Books
Aliki. (1995). Tabby: A storyin pictures. USA: HarperCollins Publisher.
Baker, Jeannie. (1991). Window. New York: Puffin.
Banyai, Istvan. (1995). Zoom. New York: The Penguin Group.
Briggs, Raymond. (1978). The snowman. New York: Trumpet Club.
Carle, Eric. (1971). Do you want to be my friend? New York: Harper.
Carle, Eric. (1973). I seea song. New York: Scholastic.
Collington, P. (1992). The midnight circus. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Day, Alexandra. (1989). Carl goes shopping. New York: Farrar.
Day, Alexandra. (1998). Follow Carl! New York: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux.
Goodall, John. (1985). Naughty Nancy goes to school. New York: Atheneum.
McCully, Emily. (1984). Picnic. New York: Harper.
Rohman, Eric. (1994). Time flies. New York: Dragonfly.
Spier, Peter. (1983). Christmas! New York: Scholastic.
Spier, Peter. (1997). Rain. New York: Dell reprint.
Tafuri, Nancy. (1988). Junglewalk. New York: Greenwillow.
Tafuri, Nancy. (1990). Follow me! New York: Greenwillow.
Turkle, Brinton. (1976). Deep in the forest. New York: Trumpet Club.
Van Allsburg, Chris. (1984). The mysteries of Harris Burdick. New York: Houghton
Mifflin.
Wiesner, David. (1988). Free fall. New York: Lothrop.
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Wiesner, David. (1991). Tuesday. New York: Clarion Books.
Van Allsburg's The Mysteries of Harris Burdick is a "sophisticated" wordless picture book
ideal for older students. The black and white drawings with a title and one line serve as
wonderful story starters. For some sample pages from the book, check out the links at
http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/davidc/6c_files/documents/mysteries/divmysteries.htm
Three Minute Tales (Notable Books for a Global Society 2005 List) and One Voice,
Please are wonderful classroom resources filled with quick read alouds. Check them out!
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Oral Communication in M S and H S

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LIST 5326 Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Literacy

2009 University of Texas at Arlington

LIST 5326 Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Literacy

Background knowledge is another similarity between listening and reading. Both

Finally, reading requires knowledge of the symbols of written language while

Speaking and Writing: Differences

Spoken language, like written language, is contextual. Spoken language is often

2009 University of Texas at Arlington

LIST 5326 Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Literacy

Another difference between speaking and writing involves the more

One means of helping students to feel comfortable in the learning environment is

2009 University of Texas at Arlington

LIST 5326 Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Literacy

The range of language, however, must be understandable to the learner and

Finally, as students engage in collaborative learning and meaningful interactions

Fundamental Conditions for Oral Communication

The second condition is demonstration. Learners must have models of English.

2009 University of Texas at Arlington

LIST 5326 Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Literacy

Fourth, students need responsibility for their own language. As educators, we

2009 University of Texas at Arlington

LIST 5326 Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Literacy

The next condition is approximation. Expectations for accuracy of oral or written

Sixth, students must be engaged in the employment of English, practicing what

Finally, closely related to student attempts to practice their new language,

What Happens in School?

2009 University of Texas at Arlington

LIST 5326 Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Literacy

Variables Influencing Listening Comprehension

Intelligence, particularly verbal intelligence this is the highest correlate of

2009 University of Texas at Arlington

LIST 5326 Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Literacy

Social setting of classroom e.g., comfort level, teacher/student and

Different Kinds of Listening

Social listening conversation.

Instructional Implications Listening

The teacher can help in the process by

being sure to say what needs to be said.

2009 University of Texas at Arlington

LIST 5326 Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Literacy

listen for main idea.

Model good listening, show students how to

give full attention.

Instructional Implications Speaking

Develop talking so that others listen and understand.

Informal Oral Communication

Communication in the hallway, not in the classroom.

There is more structure when you plan discussion.

Teach the Sociolinguistic Rules of Talk

Learn when to talk, when not to talk.

We are models in front of children, so encourage children to behave as we do in

2009 University of Texas at Arlington

LIST 5326 Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Literacy

Make children aware of what's going on during speaking process.

Role Play an Oral Communication Situation

Create for children a low-risk environment to try out situations.

Coaching Children in Oral Language

Focus attention on behavior.

Setting the Stage for Discussion

Encourage silent students.

Can you say something similar using other words?

LIST 5326 Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Literacy

Did I contribute to the discussion?

I agree with_ because__