Geometric Design Manual of Ethiopian Road Authority PDF

Geometric Design Manual - 2002
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface..............................................................................................................................i
Foreword ........................................................................................................................iv
Acknowledgements .........................................................................................................v
List of Illustrations ........................................................................................................xi
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Introduction
General .............................................................................................................1-1
Purpose.............................................................................................................1-1
Scope ................................................................................................................1-1
Organization of the Manual..............................................................................1-1
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards

Introduction ......................................................................................................2-1
Design Standards..............................................................................................2-1
Departures from Standards...............................................................................2-1
3.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Route Corridor Selection

Project Cycle ....................................................................................................3-1
Desk Study .......................................................................................................3-2
Preliminary Identification of Potential Corridors.............................................3-4
Site Visit and Survey........................................................................................3-9
Topographical and Geomorphologic Characteristics .....................................3-10
Recommendations ..........................................................................................3-11
Report Outline................................................................................................3-11
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
Survey Requirements
Introduction ......................................................................................................4-1
Method of Data Collection- Photogrammetry vs. Field Survey.......................4-1
Survey Data Products .......................................................................................4-2
Survey Data by Project Type............................................................................4-3
Field Surveys....................................................................................................4-3
Topography ......................................................................................................4-5
Bench Marks ....................................................................................................4-6
Profile and Cross Sections ...............................................................................4-7
Photogrammetry...............................................................................................4-7
Detailed Survey and Alignment Design...........................................................4-8
5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
Design Controls and Criteria

Introduction ......................................................................................................5-1
Road Functional Classification and Numbering ..............................................5-1
Terrain ..............................................................................................................5-4
Design Vehicle .................................................................................................5-9
Density and Character of Adjoining Land Use ..............................................5-13
Design Traffic Volume...................................................................................5-13
Geometric Design Standards for Low Volume Roads ...................................5-14
Design Speed..................................................................................................5-15
Ethiopian Roads Authority
Page vii
Table of Contents
6.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
Cross Section Elements

Introduction......................................................................................................6-1
Lane Widths .....................................................................................................6-1
Shoulders .........................................................................................................6-2
Normal Crossfall..............................................................................................6-2
Side Slopes and Back Slopes ...........................................................................6-3
Roadside Ditches .............................................................................................6-4
Clear Zone........................................................................................................6-5
Right-of-Way ...................................................................................................6-5
Four-Lane and Divided Roads .........................................................................6-6
Single Land Roads ...........................................................................................6-7
Typical Cross Sections.....................................................................................6-7
7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
Sight Distances
General Considerations....................................................................................7-1
Stopping Sight Distance...................................................................................7-1
Control of Sight Distance ................................................................................7-2
Stopping Sight Distance: Single Lane Roads ..................................................7-3
Passing Sight Distance.....................................................................................7-4
Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance. ..............................................7-5
8.
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
Horizontal Alignment
General.............................................................................................................8-1
Tangent Sections..............................................................................................8-1
The Circular Curve ..........................................................................................8-1
Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves......................8-6
Isolated Curves.................................................................................................8-7
Minimum Length of Curves.............................................................................8-7
Widening on Curves and Embankments..........................................................8-7
Switchback Curves ..........................................................................................8-8
Transition Curves...........................................................................................8-10
Superelevation ...............................................................................................8-11
Superelevation Run-Off .................................................................................8-11
Shoulder Superelevation ................................................................................8-13
9.
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
Vertical Alignment
Introduction......................................................................................................9-1
Vertical Curve Formula ...................................................................................9-1
Crest and Sag Curves .......................................................................................9-3
Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves .............................................................9-3
Maximum Gradients ........................................................................................9-8
Maximum Gradients at Switchbacks ...............................................................9-9
Minimum Gradients.........................................................................................9-9
Gradients through Villages ..............................................................................9-9
Critical Length of Gradient ..............................................................................9-9
Climbing Lanes..............................................................................................9-10
Vertical Clearances ........................................................................................9-13
Page viii
Table of Contents
10.
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Alignment Defects Due to Mis-Phasing.........................................................10-1
Types of Mis-Phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action .......................10-1
Vertical Curve Overlaps one End of the Horizontal Curve ...........................10-1
The Economic Penalty Due to Phasing ..........................................................10-3
11.
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
Earthwork Quantities and Mass Haul Diagram

Introduction ....................................................................................................11-1
End Area Calculations....................................................................................11-1
Calculating Earthwork....................................................................................11-2
Mass Haul Diagram........................................................................................11-3
Balancing Earthwork Using the Mass Haul Diagram ....................................11-4
Methods of Balancing Earthwork ..................................................................11-8
12.
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10
12.11
At-Grade Junctions
Introduction ....................................................................................................12-1
Design Requirements .....................................................................................12-1
Selection of Junction Type.............................................................................12-2
T-Junctions.....................................................................................................12-2
Cross Junctions ..............................................................................................12-4
Distance Between Adjoining Junctions..........................................................12-4
Visibility Splay...............................................................................................12-5
Turning Lanes ................................................................................................12-6
Traffic Islands ................................................................................................12-9
Private Access ..............................................................................................12-10
Roundabouts.................................................................................................12-10
13.
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
Grade-Separated Junctions
General ...........................................................................................................13-1
Choice of Scheme ..........................................................................................13-1
Geometric Standards ......................................................................................13-1
Design Principles ...........................................................................................13-3
Types of Junction ...........................................................................................13-4
14.
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
Safety and Miscellaneous Design Items

Introduction ....................................................................................................14-1
Safety Rest Areas and Scenic Overlooks .......................................................14-1
Bus Lay-Byes and Parking Bays ....................................................................14-1
Parking Lanes .................................................................................................14-4
Public Utilities................................................................................................14-4
Railway Grade Crossings ...............................................................................14-6
Safety Barriers................................................................................................14-8
Emergency Escape Ramps ...........................................................................14-10
15.
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
Road Furniture and Markings

Introduction ....................................................................................................15-1
Traffic Signs...................................................................................................15-1
Road Markings ...............................................................................................15-1
Marker Posts...................................................................................................15-2
Traffic Signal..................................................................................................15-3
Lighting ..........................................................................................................15-3
Page ix
Table of Contents
Appendices
A
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
Classification and Description of Roads................................................... A1-A10

Coefficient of Friction.......................................................................................B1
Measuring and Recording Sight Distance on Plans ................................... C1-C2
Utilities....................................................................................................... D1-D2
Typical Cross Sections.............................................................................. E1-E15
Procedure for Design .................................................................................. F1-F7
Plans and Drafting...................................................................................... G1-G3
Terms & Definitions ................................................................................ H1-H13
Abbreviations................................................................................................ I1-I3
Bibliography...................................................................................................Bib1-Bib3
Page x
List of Illustrations
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
I.
FIGURES
Figure 4-1
Figure 5-1
Figure 5-2
Figure 5-3
Figure 5-4
Figure 5-5
Figure 5-6
Figure 5-7
Figure 5-8
Figure 5-9
Figure 5-10
Figure 5-11
Figure 5-12
CHAPTER 4 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS

Standard Bench Mark ...............................................................................4-6
CHAPTER 5 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA
The Design Process ...................................................................................5-3
Flat Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment ....................................................5-5
Rolling Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment................................................5-5
Rolling Terrain; Flat to Rolling Roadway Alignment ..............................5-6
Rolling Terrain; Rolling Roadway Alignment..........................................5-6
Mountain Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment ............................................5-7
Mountain Terrain; Mountain Roadway Alignment...................................5-7
Escarpment Terrain; Mountain Roadway Alignment ...............................5-8
Escarpment Terrain; Escarpment Roadway Alignment ............................5-8
Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Truck (DV2) ...........5-10
Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Bus (DV3)...............5-11
Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination (15m
Overall) also Applicable for Truck (Tandem) Plus Trailer (DV4) .........5-12
Figure 6-1
Figure 6-2
CHAPTER 6 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

Designation of Roadside Regions .............................................................6-3
Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils..........................................6-5
Figure 7-1
Figure 7-2
Figure 7-3
Figure 7-4
CHAPTER 7 SIGHT DISTANCES

Stopping Sight Distance at Sag .................................................................7-2
Stopping Sight Distance at Crest...............................................................7-2
Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves .......................................................7-3
Passing Sight Distance .............................................................................7-5
Figure 8-1
Figure 8-2
Figure 8-3
Figure 8-4
Figure 8-5
Figure 8-6
Figure 8-7
Figure 8-8
Figure 8-9
CHAPTER 8 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Side Friction Factors for Rural Highways.................................................8-2
Curve Elements .........................................................................................8-3
Isolated Curves..........................................................................................8-5
Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves ...............8-6
Switchback Curve .....................................................................................8-9
Switchback Curve for Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle ..........................8-10
Spiral Curve Transition...........................................................................8-12
Circular Curve Transition .......................................................................8-12
Shoulder Superelevation (for Surfaced Roads).......................................8-13
Page xi
Figure 9-1
Figure 9-2
Figure 9-3
Figure 9-4
Figure 9-5
Figure 9-6
CHAPTER 9 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Crest Curve ...............................................................................................9-2
Sag Curve..................................................................................................9-2
Hidden Dip and Roller Coaster Profiles ...................................................9-5
Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves .............................................9-6
Minimum Values for Sag Vertical Curves ...............................................9-7
Layout for Climbing Lane.......................................................................9-12
Figure 10-1
CHAPTER 10 PHASING OF HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Curves ............................................10-4
Figure 11-1
Figure 11-2
Figure 11-3
Figure 11-4
Figure 11-5
Figure 11-6
CHAPTER 11 EARTHWORK QUANTITIES & MASS HAUL DIAGRAM

Relationship of Profile Grade and Haul to Mass Haul Diagram ............11-4
Location of Balance Line of Mass Haul Diagram ..................................11-6
Overhaul in the Mass Haul Diagram ......................................................11-8
Balancing Earthwork Using Borrow and Waste Determined from the
Mass Haul Diagram ................................................................................11-9
Computations of V.P.I. Elevation Changes Using Unit Mass Data
(Excess Excavation- Raise V.P.I. Elevations) ......................................11-10
Computations of V.P.I. Elevation Changes Using R.D.S. Mass Data
(Excess Embankment and Excavation- Raise V.P.I. Elevations) .........11-12
Figure 12-3
Figure 12-4
Figure 12-5
Figure 12-6
Figure 12-7
Figure 12-8
Figure 12-9
Figure 12-10
Figure 12-11
Figure 12-12
Figure 12-13
CHAPTER 12 AT-GRADE JUNCTIONS

Junction Selection Based on Traffic Flows ............................................12-3
T-Junction Selection for Various Major and Minor Road Traffic
Flows ......................................................................................................12-3
Staggered X-Junctions ............................................................................12-4
Visibility Splay for Yield Conditions..................................................12-5
Visibility Splay for Stop Conditions ...................................................12-5
Layout for Right-Turn Lane....................................................................12-6
Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Single Carriageway.....................................12-7
Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Dual Carriageway.......................................12-8
Typical Access ......................................................................................12-10
Roundabout Layout...............................................................................12-12
Vehicle Path through Roundabout........................................................12-12
Roundabout Dimensions.......................................................................12-13
Checklist for Junction Design...............................................................12-14
Figure 13-1
CHAPTER 13 GRADE - SEPARATED JUNCTIONS

Typical Layouts for Grade-Separated Junctions .....................................13-6
Figure 14-1
Figure 14-2
Figure 14-3
Figure 14-4
CHAPTER 14 SAFETY AND MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ITEMS

Engineering Design Features Affecting Road Section ...........................14-3
Bus Lay-Byes and Parking Bays .............................................................14-4
Utilities Placement Detail .......................................................................14-6
Railway Crossing Details with Rumble Strips .......................................14-7
Figure 12-1
Figure 12-2
Page xii
Figure 14-5
Figure 14-6
Figure 14-7
Railway Crossing Details on Vertical Curve ..........................................14-7

Guardrail ...............................................................................................14-10
Basic Types of Emergency Escape Ramps ...........................................14-12
Figure B-1
CHAPTER 16 APPENDICES
Skid Resistance for Various Tire and Pavement Conditions ...................B-1
Figure C-1
Scaling and Recording Sight Distances on Plans.....................................C-1
Figure E-T1
Figure E-T2
Figure E-T3
Figure E-T4
Figure E-1
Figure E-2
Figure E-3
Figure E-4
Figure E-5
Figure E-6
Figure E-7
Figure E-8
Figure E-9
Figure E-10
Typical Fill and Cut Sections ................................................................... E-2

Escarpment Section.................................................................................. E-3
Two Lane Town Section .......................................................................... E-4
Four Lane Town Section .......................................................................... E-5
Design Standard 1 Normal &Town Section (DS1).................................. E-6
Design Standard 5 Normal &Town Section (DS5)................................ E-10
Design Standard 9 Normal &Town Section (DS9& DS10)................... E-14
Design Standard 10 Normal Section (DS10) ......................................... E-15
Figure F-1
Checklist for Final Road Link Design ..................................................... F-6
Figure H-1
Cross section Elements ...........................................................................H-1
Page xiii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
II.
TABLES
CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY OF STANDARDS

Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT................................2-3
Shoulder Widths..........................................................................................2-4
Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS1 (Paved Dual
Carriageway) ..............................................................................................2-5
Table 2-4 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS2 (Paved) ..............2-5
Table 2-5 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS3 (Paved) .............2-6
Table 2-6 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS4 (Paved) ..............2-6
Table 2-7 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS5
(Paved or Unpaved).....................................................................................2-7
Table 2-8 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS6 (Unpaved)..........2-7
Table 2-12 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS10 (Unpaved)........2-9
Table 2-1
Table 2-2
Table 2-3
Table 4-1
Table 4-2
Table 4-3
CHAPTER 4 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS

Survey Data Requirements..........................................................................4-2
Required Level of Accuracy for Surveys ....................................................4-6
Air Photo Scales for Various Project Tasks ................................................4-8
Table 5-1
Table 5-2
CHAPTER 5 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics ........................................5-9
Design Standard vs. Road Classification and AADT ...............................5-14
Table 6-1
CHAPTER 6 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

Slope Ratio Table- Vertical to Horizontal ..................................................6-4
Table 7-1
Table 7-2
Table 7-3
CHAPTER 7 SIGHT DISTANCES

Sight Distance .............................................................................................7-1
Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speed...............................................7-4
Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance ........7-5
Table 8-1
Table 8-2
Table 8-3
Table 8-4
Table 8-5
Page xiv
CHAPTER 8 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 8% Superelevation.......................8-1
Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 4% Superelevation
(Urban Streets).............................................................................................8-2
Widening on Curves and High Fills ............................................................8-8
Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 8%....................................8-14
Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 4%....................................8-15
Table 9-1
Table 9-2
Table 9-3
Table 9-4
Table 9-5
CHAPTER 9 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves ................................................9-4
Minimum Values for Sag Vertical Curves ..................................................9-4
Maximum Gradients ....................................................................................9-8
Climbing Lanes..........................................................................................9-11
Vertical Clearance for Superstructure to Design Flood Level (DFL)........9-13
Table 12-1
Table 12-2
Table 12-3
Table 12-4
Table 12-5
Table 12-6
CHAPTER 12 AT-GRADE JUNCTIONS

Access Control...........................................................................................12-4
Visibility Splay for Yield Conditions.....................................................12-5
Visibility Splay for Stop Conditions ......................................................12-5
Length of Right-Turn Lane ........................................................................12-6
Length of Left-Turn Lane ..........................................................................12-8
Length of Storage Sections for Left-Turn Lanes .......................................12-8
CHAPTER 13 GRADE - SEPARATED JUNCTIONS

Table 13-1 Widths for Loops .......................................................................................13-3
CHAPTER 14 SAFETY AND MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ITEMS
Table 14-1 Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials ..............................14-13
CHAPTER 15 ROAD FURNITURE & MARKINGS
Table 15-1 Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves..............................................................15-2
Table A-1
Table A-2
CHAPTER 16 APPENDICES
Numbering of Trunk Roads ........................................................................A-1
Numbering of Roads...................................................................................A-2
Table D-1
Table D-2
Minimum Vertical Clearance of Wires above Road Surface .....................D-1

Trench Dimensions for Water and Sewerage Pipe Culverts.......................D-2
Page xv
Geometric Design Manual-2002
1.
Chapter 1
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Geometric Design is an essential component in the design development of a highway. This
Geometric Design Manual is prepared under the direction of the Ethiopian Roads Authority
to establish basic design techniques for economical design of highway geometric including
typical sections, horizontal and vertical alignment, and design of junctions. It is intended for
use in the design of all roads in Ethiopia.
1.2 Purpose
ERA has initiated a comprehensive program to rehabilitate, upgrade and expand the highway
network in Ethiopia. To plan and implement the program in a coherent way, using modern
standards and technology, ERA decided to establish a uniform framework. Developing a
Geometric Design Manual was part of this framework.
The purpose of this design manual is to give guidance and recommendations to the engineers
responsible for the geometric design of roads in Ethiopia.
1.3 Scope
The procedures for the geometric design of roads presented in this manual are applicable to
trunk roads, link roads, main access roads, collector roads, feeder roads and unclassified
roads as defined by ERA in this Geometric Design Manual.
The use of the procedures described in this manual should help in achieving reasonable
uniformity in geometric design for a given set of conditions.
1.4 Organization of the Manual
The overall organization of this manual and of the design process are as follows.
After this introduction, a summary of the standards developed within the manual together
with departures from standards and the method of dealing with departures from standards,
are given in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 deals with preliminary design considerations. Specifically, it lists procedures for
identification of potential alignments in the route corridor selection process and Chapter 4
discusses survey requirements.
Chapter 5 discusses those external controls and criteria affecting the selection of the
geometric design values. These include a discussion of the road hierarchy and functional
classification; terrain considerations; the design vehicle; density and character of adjoining
land use; design traffic volume; and design speed.
Page 1-1
Chapter 1
Introduction
Cross sectional elements of the road include lane widths, shoulders, cross fall, side slopes
and back slopes, roadside ditches, clear zones, and right-of-way. These issues are developed
in Chapter 6.
A significant element in the geometric design of roads is sight distance. Chapter 7 develops
the formulae and application of both stopping and passing sight distances.
Horizontal alignment elements include tangent sections, curves, and superelevation. Chapter
8 provides information on tangent sections, and proceed to a discussion of curve elements,
including circular curves, reverse, broken-back, compound curves, and isolated curves. Lane
widening requirements for curves are explained, and the special considerations in
switchback, or hairpin, curves are listed. Transition curve requirements are discussed.
Superelevation standards are then developed, including rates, run-off and shoulder
superelevation.
Chapter 9 is devoted to the issue of vertical alignment. Subchapters deal with the topics of
crest and sag curves, maximum and minimum gradients, climbing lanes, and vertical
clearances.
Chapter 10 relates to the need for phasing between horizontal and vertical design, problems
associated with mis-phasing and possible corrective actions.
The topic of geometric design would be incomplete without a chapter dealing with
earthwork quantities and the mass haul diagram. This topic is developed in Chapter 11.
Attention to these elements during the design process will usually result in an optimized
alignment with minimized costs.
Chapter 12 discusses at-grade junctions, including design requirements, selection of junction
type, t-junctions, cross junctions and roundabouts; sight distances; and junction elements
including turning lanes and traffic islands.
Grade-separated junctions are discussed in a similar manner in Chapter 13. Included topics
are the choice of scheme, geometric standards, design principles and types of junctions.
Safety and miscellaneous items are listed in Chapter 14. Items appearing in this chapter
include the design of safety rest areas and scenic overlooks, bus lay-byes and parking bays,
parking lanes, public utilities, railway grade crossings, safety barriers and emergency escape
ramps.
Items defined as roadway furniture are discussed in Chapter 15. This includes traffic signs,
road markings, marker posts, traffic signals and lighting.
Finally, the appendix provides information on Classification of Roads the current extent of
ERAs road network, providing those figures and tables deemed best placed here rather than
in the body of the text, in providing further explanation of the method of determining sight
distances, in listing utility location requirements, in providing typical cross sections and
Supplementary information on procedure for Design and on preparations of Plans and
Drafting, and Terms & Definitions and Abbreviations are presented.
Page 1-2
Chapter 2
Summary of Standards
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Geometric design the process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is designed to
meet the needs of the road users. The principal geometric features are the road cross-section and
horizontal and vertical alignment. Appropriate standards and combinations of geometric design
elements should fulfill the following objectives:
Topography, land use and physical features.

Environmental considerations.
Road safety considerations.
Road function and control of access.
Traffic volume and capacity.
Design speed and other speed controls.
Design vehicle and vehicle characteristics.
Economic and Financial considerations.
Alternative construction technologies.
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The design standards to be used for roads of various traffic volumes (AADT) are summarized in
the several following tables. Of these, Table 2-1 presents an overview of design standards relating
to road functional classification and traffic volumes, and illustrates the split between paved and
unpaved standards.
Tables 2-2 to 2-11 give several parameters of the Ethiopian Roads Authoritys ten design
standards, reflecting the government policy of design flexibility and emphasis on labor-based
techniques. These standards apply to divided highways, trunk and link roads, main access and
collector roads, and feeder roads.
Finally, Table 2-12 shows the variability of the shoulder widths for the different design standards,
including parameters associated with terrain and urban sections.
The determination of each particular standard item is discussed further in this manual.
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It is anticipated that there may be situations where the designer will be compelled to deviate from
these standards. An example of a Departure from Standard is the inclusion of a switchback or the
use of a gradient greater than the desirable value. Where the designer departs from a standard, he
must obtain written approval from ERA. The Designer shall submit the following information to
ERA:

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Chapter 2
The number, name, and description of the road

The facet of design for which a Departure from Standards is desired;
A description of the standard, including normal value, and the value of the Departure
from Standards
The reason for the Departure from Standards, and
Any mitigation to be applied in the interests of safety.
The Designer must submit all major and minor Departures from Standards to the Design and
Research Division Manager for evaluation. If the proposed Departures from Standards are
acceptable, the Departures from Standards will be submitted to the General Manager for final
approval.

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10005000
2001000
100 200
50100
3075
2550
025
015
DS4
DS5
DS6
DS7
DS8
DS9
DS10
500010000
DS2
DS3
Paved
10000**15000
DS1
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Paved
Paved
Paved
Surface
Type
Design Design Traffic

Standard Flow (AADT)*
3.3
4.0
4.0
4.0
6.0
7.0
6.7
7.0
7.3
Dual 2 x 7.3
***
Carriageway
See T.2-2
See T.2-2
See T.2-2
See T.2-2
See T.2-2
See T.2 -2
See T.2-2
See T.2-2
See T.2-2
See T.2-2
Shoulder
Width (m)
60
60
60
60
60
70
85
100
120
120
Flat
40
40
50
50
50
60
70
85
100
100
Rolli
ng
30
30
40
40
40
50
60
70
85
85
20
20
30
30
30
40
50
60
70
70
Mountaino Escarpment
us
Design Speed (km/hr)
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40
40
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
Urban/Peri
-Urban
Chapter 2

should be followed. *** The width of each lane is 3.65m
3DJH
* The design two-way traffic flow is recommended to be not more than one Design Standard step in excess of the first year AADT (excluding DS7). ** For traffic volume more than 15000 a different design approach
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! Median with trees (DS1) is allowed for cross section shown in the table i.e. 2lane +parking lane + Footway if otherwise the median should be a covered and an open one
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covered median with no trees or other wise a lower width of a median barrier should be designed.
* shoulders included in the carriageway width given in Table 2-1

** Shoulders included in the carriageway width given in Table 2-1
*** To be provided where urbanization requires this facility
+ Where these classes of roads pass through urban areas, the road shall be designed to Standard DS6
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Design Element
Unit
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
Escarpment
Design Speed
Min. Stopping Sight Distance
Min. Passing Sight Distance
Min. Horizontal Curve Radius
Transition Curves Required
Max. Gradient (desirable)
Max. Gradient (absolute)
Minimum Gradient
Maximum Superelevation
Crest Vertical Curve
Sag Vertical Curve
Normal Crossfall
Shoulder Crossfall
Right of Way
km/h
m
m
m
120
285
425
630
Yes
3
5
0.5
8
210
74
2.5
4
50
100
205
375
395
Yes
4
6
0.5
8
105
51
2.5
4
50
85
155
340
270
Yes
6
8
0.5
8
60
36
2.5
4
50
70
110
275
175
No
6
8
0.5
8
31
25
2.5
4
50
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%
%
%
%
k
k
%
%
m
Urban/PeriUrban
50
55
175
85
Yes
6
8
0.5
4
10
12
2.5
4
50
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Design Element
Unit
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
Escarpment
Design Speed
% Passing Opportunity
Minimum Gradient
Sag Vertical Curve
Normal Crossfall
Shoulder Crossfall
Right of Way
km/h
m
m
%
m
120
285
425
50
630
Yes
3
5
0.5
8
210
74
2.5
4
50
100
205
375
50
395
Yes
4
6
0.5
8
105
51
2.5
4
50
85
155
340
25
270
Yes
6
8
0.5
8
60
36
2.5
4
50
70
110
275
0
175
No
6
8
0.5
8
31
25
2.5
4
50
%
%
%
%
k
k
%
%
m
Urban/PeriUrban
50
55
175
20
85
yes
6
8
0.5
4
10
12
2.5
4
50

3DJH
Chapter 2
7DEOH

Design Element
Unit
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
Escarpment
Design Speed
Minimum Gradient
Sag Vertical Curve
Normal Crossfall
Shoulder Crossfall
Right of Way
km/h
m
m
%
m
100
205
375
50
395
Yes
3
5
0.5
8
105
51
2.5
4
50
85
155
340
33
270
Yes
4
6
0.5
8
60
36
2.5
4
50
70
110
275
25
175
No
6
8
0.5
8
31
25
2.5
4
50
60
85
225
0
125
No
6
8
0.5
8
18
18
2.5
4
50
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%
%
%
%
k
k
%
%
m
Urban/PeriUrban
50
55
175
20
85
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6
8
0.5
4
10
12
2.5
4
50

Design Element
Unit
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
Escarpment
Design Speed
Minimum Gradient
Sag Vertical Curve
Normal Crossfall
Shoulder Crossfall
Right of Way
km/h
m
m
%
m
85
155
340
25
270
Yes
4
6
0.5
8
60
36
2.5
4
50
70
110
275
25
175
Yes
5
7
0.5
8
31
25
2.5
4
50
60
85
225
15
125
No
7
9
0.5
8
18
18
2.5
4
50
50
55
175
0
85
No
7
9
0.5
8
10
12
2.5
4
50
%
%
%
%
k
k
%
%
m
Urban/PeriUrban
50
55
175
20
85
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9
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4
10
12
2.5
4
50

3DJH
Chapter 2
7DEOH

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Design Element
Unit
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
Escarpment
Design Speed
Minimum Gradient
Sag Vertical Curve
Normal Crossfall (Paved)
Shoulder Crossfall (Paved)
Normal and Shoulder
Crossfall (Unpaved)
Right of Way
km/h
m
m
%
m
%
%
%
%
k
k
%
%
%
70
110
275
25
175
No
4
6
0.5
8
31
25
2.5
4
4
60
85
225
25
125
No
5
7
0.5
8
18
18
2.5
4
4
50
55
175
15
85
No
7
9
0.5
8
10
12
2.5
4
4
40
45
125
0
50
No
7
9
0.5
8
5
8
2.5
4
4
Urban/PeriUrban
50
55
175
20
85
No
7
9
0.5
4
10
12
2.5
4
4
50
50
50
50
50
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Design Element
Unit
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
Escarpment
Design Speed
Minimum Gradient
Sag Vertical Curve
Normal and Shoulder
Crossfall (Unpaved)
Right of Way
km/h
m
m
%
m
%
%
%
%
k
k
%
60
85
225
20
125
No
6
8
0.5
8
18
18
4
50
55
175
20
85
No
7
9
0.5
8
10
12
4
40
45
125
15
50
No
10
12
0.5
8
5
8
4
30
30
75
0
30
No
10
12
0.5
8
3
4
4
Urban/PeriUrban
50
55
175
20
85
No
7
9
0.5
4
10
12
4
30
30
30
30
40

3DJH
Chapter 2
7DEOH

Design Element
Unit
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
Escarpment
Design Speed
Minimum Gradient
Sag Vertical Curve
Normal and Shoulder
Crossfall (Unpaved)
Right of Way
km/h
m
m
%
m
%
%
%
%
k
k
%
60
85
225
20
125
No
6
8
0.5
8
18
18
4
50
55
175
20
85
No
7
9
0.5
8
10
12
4
40
45
125
15
50
No
10
12
0.5
8
5
8
4
30
30
75
0
30
No
10
12
0.5
8
3
4
4
Urban/PeriUrban
50
55
175
20
85
No
7
9
0.5
4
10
12
4
30
30
30
30
30
7DEOH *HRPHWULF'HVLJQ3DUDPHWHUVIRU'HVLJQ6WDQGDUG'68QSDYHG

Design Element
Unit
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
Escarpment
Design Speed
Minimum Gradient
Sag Vertical Curve
Normal and Shoulder
Crossfall (Unpaved)
Right of Way
Max. Spacing of Passing
Bays
Design Vehicle
km/h
m
m
m
%
%
%
%
k
k
%
60
85
225
125
No
6
8
0.5
8
18
18
4
50
55
175
85
No
7
9
0.5
8
10
12
4
40
45
125
50
No
10
12
0.5
8
5
8
4
30
30
75
30
No
10
12
0.5
8
3
4
4
Urban/PeriUrban
50
55
175
85
No
7
9
0.5
4
10
12
4
m
m
20
500
20
500
20
500
20
500
20
500
DV 2/3

3DJH
Chapter 2

Design Element
Unit
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
Escarpment
Design Speed
Minimum Gradient
Sag Vertical Curve
Normal and Shoulder
Crossfall (Unpaved)
Right of Way
Bays
Design Vehicle
km/h
m
m
m
%
%
%
%
k
k
%
60
85
225
125
No
6
8
0.5
8
18
18
4
40
45
125
50
No
7
9
0.5
8
5
8
4
30
30
75
30
No
13
15
0.5
8
3
4
4
20
20
50
15
No
13
15
0.5
8
2
2
4
Urban/PeriUrban
40
45
125
50
No
7
9
0.5
8
5
8
4
m
m
20
500
20
500
20
500
20
500
20
500

DV 2/3

Design Element
Design Speed
Minimum Gradient
Sag Vertical Curve
Normal and Shoulder
Crossfall (Unpaved)
Right of Way
Bays
Design Vehicle

Unit
km/h
m
m
m
%
%
%
%
k
k
%
Flat
60
85
225
125
No
6
8
0.5
8
18
18
4
Rolling
40
45
125
50
No
7
9
0.5
8
5
8
4
Mountainous
30
30
75
30
No
14
16
0.5
8
3
4
4
Escarpment
20
20
50
15
No
14
16
0.5
8
2
2
4
Urban
40
45
125
50
No
7
9
0.5
8
5
8
4
m
m
20
500
20
500
20
500
20
500
20
500
DV 1
3DJH
Chapter 3
3 ROUTE CORRIDOR SELECTION

3.1
Project Cycle
Projects are planned and carried out using a sequence of activities known as the project
cycle. The cycle is composed of the following steps: identification, feasibility, design
commitment and negotiation, operation, and evaluation. Route corridor selection comprises
of portion of the first three of these activities.
3.1.1 IDENTIFICATION
The first stage of the cycle is to find potential projects. This is sometimes known is the prefeasibility stage. There are many sources from which suggestions may come, including
well-informed technical specialists, local leaders, proposals to extend existing programs or
projects, and from operating agencies responsible for project implementation.
The decision to proceed to the feasibility stage arouses expectations for the project. Dubious
projects shall therefore be rejected at the identification stage. It becomes increasingly
difficult to stop a project at the later stages of the cycle.
3.1.2 FEASIBILITY
The feasibility study will provide sufficient information to decide whether to proceed to a
more advanced stage of planning. The level of detail of this study will depend on the
complexity of the project and how much is already known about the proposal. The feasibility
study shall define the objectives of the project. It shall consider alternative ways of achieving
these and eliminating poor alternatives. The study provides the opportunity to mould the
project to fit its physical and social environment to maximize the return on the investment.
Once the feasibility study has indicated which project is likely to be the most worthwhile,
detailed planning and analysis can begin. Less promising projects will have been eliminated
by this time, and the selected project may be redefined and modified as more detailed
information becomes available. At this stage, studies of traffic, geotechnics and design will
be carried out to refine the prediction of costs and benefits and to enable an economic
analysis to be carried out.
3.1.3 DESIGN
Preliminary design and feasibility are often simultaneous, but detailed design, which can be
very costly (up to 15 percent of project costs), usually follows a provisional commitment to
the project. Numerous decisions, which will affect economic performance, are taken
throughout design; and economic appraisal often results in redesign.
Page 3-1
Chapter 3
3.1.4 COMMITMENT AND NEGOTIATION

Commitment of funds often takes place is a series of stages. This is followed by invitation to
tender and negotiations with contractors, potential financiers and suppliers. At this stage,
there are still considerable uncertainties.
3.1.5 IMPLEMENTATION
Detailed recommendations on project implementation are beyond the scope of this chapter.
However, several aspects of the earlier stages in the project cycle will affect the success of
the implementation.
The better and more realistic plan, the more likely it is that the plan can actually be carried
out and the full benefits realized. A flexible implementation plan shall be sought. It is almost
inevitable that some circumstances will change during the implementation. Technical
changes may be required as more detailed soils information becomes available or as the
relative prices of construction materials change. Project managers may need to change and
re-plan parts of the project to take account of such variations. The more innovative and novel
the project is, the greater is the likelihood that changes will have to be made during
implementation.
3.1.6 OPERATION
This refers to the actual use of the road by traffic; it is during this phase that benefits are
realized and maintenance is undertaken.
3.1.7 EVALUATION
The final phase of the project cycle is evaluation. This consists of looking back
systematically at the successful and unsuccessful elements of the project experience to learn
how planning can be improved in the future.
For evaluation to be successful, it is important that data about the project is collected and
recorded in a systematic way throughout all stages of the project cycle.
Without this, it is usually impossible to determine details of events and information that were
available during periods leading up to the taking of important decisions.
Many different people may carry out evaluation. For each stage of the project, data shall be
collected for identifying problems that need to be brought to the attention of the projects
management.
The evaluation shall result in specific recommendations about improving aspects of the
project design, which can be used to improve ongoing and future planning.
3.2
Desk Study
Road Design, Construction and Maintenance require an approach depending on the terrain.
The shortest road alignment is not necessarily the easiest, quickest or most economical
option for construction and maintenance. Frequently, topography, slope stability, flood
Page 3-2
Chapter 3
hazard and erosion potential are likely to be the most significant controls in the choice of the
most suitable alignment and design of cross-section.
Variations in geology and slope greatly influence road design and hence the cost of
construction, and these variations can occur over very short lengths of alignment. Geology,
geomorphology and hydrology, therefore, are key factors in the design, construction and
maintenance of roads in Ethiopia. An appreciation of these factors alone is not enough to
construct roads in an environmentally sound way. Road geometry, earth works, retaining
structures and drainage measures must be designed in such a manner as to cause the least
impact on the stability of the surrounding slopes and natural drainage systems.
Excessive blasting, cutting, side tipping of spoil and concentrated or uncontrolled surface
water runoff can lead to instability and erosion. Although many of these effects are often
unavoidable, the design and the construction method adopted should aim to minimize them.
This chapter describes the methodology for analyzing possible corridors and selecting the
optimum route from technical, economic, social and environmental considerations.
Before commencing with selection of the route corridors, the controlling requirements of the
route need to be defined. These may include the following:
What are the constraints in regard to the beginning and ending points of the road?
Must these be at existing junctions in villages or towns? Are such junctions
inadequate from a standpoint of skew or right-of-way? Do economic considerations
such as amount of earthworks limit the alternatives?
Through which villages must the route pass? Must the route pass directly through
these villages, or can linking roads connect the villages? If so, what are the
implications to the villages in terms of lost trade?
If major rivers are to be crossed, what are the possible crossing locations, given
constraints of topography and geology? What are the economics of the alternative
bridge sights with the corresponding road geometries?
What is the desired design speed and design standard? How does this standard fit
the terrain in terms of geometric parameters such as gradients, and horizontal and
vertical curves?
The desk study comprises a review of published and unpublished information concerning the
physical, economic and environmental characteristics of a study area. Some of the data that
may be required for the desk studies are the following sources:
Published literature covering a range of topics including road construction and
maintenance case histories and geological, economic and environmental reviews.
Topographical maps
Geological maps, agricultural soil maps and other natural resource maps; and
Aerial photography
For studying and selecting suitable alignment corridors, a detailed analysis based on the
following references, maps, and aerial photography may be required:
Page 3-3
Chapter 3
REFERENCE:
-
Index Map of Coverage Scales

Atlas of Ethiopia
Topographic Maps scale 1:250,000
Topographic Maps scale 1:50,000
Aerial photographs, approximate scale 1:50,000
Geological Map of Ethiopia, scale 1:2,000,000
- Hydrological Map of Ethiopia, scale 1:2,000,000

- Land Use and Land Cover Map, scale 1:1,000,000
- Hydrogeological Map, Scale 1:1,000, 000
SOURCE
Ethiopian Mapping Authority
Geological Survey of Ethiopia,
Ministry of Mines
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture
Ethiopian Institute of Geological
Survey
It should be noted that at present there is less than complete coverage of all of the above
maps for the entire country. It may therefore also be advisable to obtain SPOT satellite
imagery for the route corridor. Archival photographic products at 1:50,000 can be obtained
from:
SPOT IMAGE
5, rue des Satellites
BP 4359
France
Maps of topography, geology and soils can be combined to form Land System Maps. Areas
of the world mapped at a land system level include the whole of Ethiopia. These are
produced at a scale of 1:250,000 to 1:1,000,000, and are available through:
Land Resources Department, Natural Resources Institute
Chatham Maritime
Central Avenue
Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB United Kingdom
3.3
Preliminary Identification of Potential Corridors
Using the 1:50,000 scale maps and with knowledge of the constraints as listed in Section 3.2,
it is possible to trace out some possible alternative alignments. This is readily accomplished
by referring especially to the vertical geometric design criteria for maximum grade and
plotting possibilities through correlation with the contour lines shown on the map.
For instance, assume that the road classification and terrain are such that a 10% maximum
grade is permissible. Assume also that the contour interval on the 1:50,000 map is 20 meters.
A preliminary alignment needs to be selected such that a distance of no less than 200 meters
is used to achieve the 20-meter interval, giving a 10% grade.
The steps in the survey process are summarized in the following sections.
Page 3-4
Chapter 3
3.3.1 PROJECT IDENTIFICATION

The purpose of this reconnaissance stage of the survey process is to identify possible
alternative routes in terms of the corridors within which they lie.
Possible routes shall be examined on maps, satellite images and air photos, where available,
and a broad terrain classification shall be made for collation of the regional information,
possibly on a data storage system. Visits shall be made to site to check interpretations, and
findings shall be summarized to assist in planning and next stage.
Aerial photos at a scale of approximately 1:100 000 and Landsat images at 1:500 000 or
1:250 000 shall be used to interpret boundaries between terrain types, where changes in
topography, geology, drainage pattern or vegetation (land use) occur. A change in any of
these will give rise to different engineering conditions, which could affect the design of the
road. Such items as the following shall be considered:
Changing course of major rivers

Drainage areas of major river systems
Extent of flooding of low-lying areas
Possible sources of water for construction
Possible sources of construction materials
Pattern of regional instability
Extent of erosion
Spread of deforestation
Assessment of land acquisition/site clearance problems
Location of all possible bridge sites
3.3.2 FEASIBILITY
At this stage, the corridors are appraised to select the best route. This shall be carried out
mainly using aerial photos for all detailed interpretations, ideally at a scale of 1:20 000
1:60 000, as available. These can be supplemented by color information from Land sat
images (see previous text for suppliers).
Detailed interpretations shall be made of conditions on all routes and, if necessary, a more
detailed terrain classification of the area shall be made. The following items shall be
investigated:
Foundation conditions
Drainage area and the location of culverts
Locations of spoil and borrow areas
Possible sources of construction materials
Identification of most favorable bridge sites
Possible major hazard areas such as poorly drained soils, springs, unstable areas,
and erosion in river courses
Page 3-5
Chapter 3
Site investigations shall be carried out for alternative routes, guided by the terrain evaluation.
These shall note key physical and geotechnical features. Selected laboratory and field-testing
shall also be carried out, again guided by the terrain evaluation.
Finally, cost comparisons shall be made of alternative alignments to assist in the
recommendation of the best route.
3.3.3 DESIGN FOR PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
The final stage of the geotechnical survey process is to make detailed field studies of the
selected route to enable a design to be carried out to engineering standards.
A further land classification shall be carried out at a more detailed level on the selected route
corridor. Detailed air photo interpretation shall be continued in support of all field activities
to help plan a comprehensive site investigation of the selected route, which shall be carried
out with a full sampling and testing program.
This shall examine:
Construction materials
Subgrade conditions
Cuts and embankments
Areas of instability
Erosion and soft ground
Requirements for frequency and size of culverts
Bridge sites
The geotechnical survey phase of the appraisal process concludes by preparing detailed
designs and cost estimates.
3.3.4 ROUTE CORRIDOR ASSESSMENT
Route corridor options can be divided into the following categories:
Ridge top alignment
Compound alignments
Valley floor alignments
Ridge top alignments are often the most stable and least costly. They are also favored on
socio-economic and environmental grounds, as they usually follow established lines of
communication and habitation. However, steep slopes and changes in ridge-top elevation
dictate that alignments are frequently required to traverse a side slope beneath ridge tops.
Climbing sections of mountain roads can be designed as gradual traverses of side slopes at a
limiting gradient, as switchbacks, or as a combination of the two.
Page 3-6
Chapter 3
In choosing between these possibilities, it should be noted that the switchback has the
following advantages:
A greater flexibility in route corridor location can normally be achieved.
The crossing of steep and unstable lower valley side slopes can be minimized or
avoided; and
The use of switchbacks to connect lengths of relatively easy ground, such as valley
floors and ridge tops, can in some cases lead to a more direct alignment with a
saving in overall route length.
The disadvantages associated with the switchback approach are:
On side slopes steeper than 30o, limited space to construct cut and fill slopes
necessitates either a relaxation in geometric standards or more expensive retaining
structures;
Lack of spoil sites and access difficulties create problems during construction.
Instability and erosion can easily extend from one loop of the road to another, both
up slope and down slope.
Storm runoff tends to become concentrated requiring large-capacity drainage
structures and erosion protection works, and the cost associated with failure of any
part of the drainage system is usually high; and
Switchbacks result in a Departure from Design Standards.
If the topography allows, creating offset switchbacks, in which the hairpins are not
immediately above one another but are staggered across the slope, can reduce the problems
associated with switchbacks. This will minimize drainage problems and limit the danger of
instability to fewer hairpin loops.
The advantages of a valley floor alignment are:
Relatively little climbing and descent are involved, thus making route alignment
easier and shorter, with correspondingly lower vehicle operating costs and higher
speeds.
A ready supply of construction materials is normally available.
Control of spoil disposal and construction of pilot tracks can be less demanding.
However, despite the attractiveness of a more direct route and low gradients, the
construction costs of a valley floor alignment may be significantly higher than a ridge top
alternative, because of the high costs of bridging and cross-drainage. On socio-economic
grounds, valley routes may be less favored if the majority of villages are located on ridge
tops.
For each of the possible alternative alignment corridors, the existing maps should be studied
and aerial photographs examined with a stereoscope. From this study it will be possible to
assess the positive or negative influence of the following local factors:
Page 3-7
Chapter 3
Topographic, geologic, and physical characteristics.

Number, type and characteristics of water courses
Potential risk of slides, slope instability or floods
Human settlements affected by the road; and
Environmental impact of the selected route.
On the basis of the study of the existing maps and aerial photography and of the criteria
mentioned in Section 3.1, aerial photography can be accomplished for the possible
alternative alignments. From this aerial photography, maps at a scale of 1:10,000 can be
produced for use in carrying out a more detailed desk study of the corridor and a preliminary
road alignment.
3.3.5 IDENTIFY CORRIDORS AND PROPOSE ALIGNMENT ALTERNATIVES
Dividing the future project road into distinct workable sections containing possible
alternative alignments can conclude the desk study of existing documentation and the site
visit and survey.
The proposed corridors along the above mentioned alternative alignments are next studied
and compared in the Preliminary Design. This should be accomplished at 1:50,000 scale
using the topographic maps.
The terrain level and its variation along the proposed alignment corridors are shown in the
longitudinal profile at scale 1:50,000/1:5,000 horizontal/vertical.
The possible alternatives are next evaluated by the following criteria:
Page 3-8
What are the relative lengths of the alternatives? Normally the shortest distance
is preferable.
What are the average and mean gradients of the alternatives? Normally the least
severe grade alternative is preferred. However, the relation of minimum grade
may be the inverse to the shortest length route.
Which alternative more closely follows an existing road or track? This makes
survey and construction easier and may indicate the route of least earthworks.
Which alternative follows the least severe terrain type? An alignment through,
for instance, rolling terrain should be less costly to construct, have lower
vehicle operating costs and maintenance costs, and less severe horizontal
curves than a route through mountainous terrain.
Which route remains for a longer period on the crest of the terrain? Such an
alignment minimizes the need for drainage structures.
Which alignment minimizes the need for land acquisition? Which alignment
minimizes the need to demolish buildings and houses?
What is the total number of bridges required for each alternative? What is the
total aggregate length of these bridges?
Which route results in the least environmental disturbance to the surrounding
area?
Which route has the least overall project cost, including both design and
construction?
3.4
Chapter 3
Site Visit and Survey
After the preliminary office work, a site visit must be made to the road. Where terrain
constraints made such a visit problematic, a flight can be made over the terrain and all
potential routes can be directly examined from the air.
When potential route corridors have been identified from the desk study analysis, then a
reconnaissance survey is usually employed to verify interpretations, to help determine the
preferred corridor, and to identify factors that will influence the feasibility design concept
and cost comparisons.
A team consisting of the following personnel should make a site inspection visit:
Highway Engineer
Soils & Materials Engineer
Hydrologist
Chief Surveyor
Bridge/Structures Engineer
Environmentalist/Sociologist, and
Local Administrative Personnel.
In most cases, the reconnaissance survey will significantly modify the desk study
interpretations. Reconnaissance survey data can either be recorded onto topographical maps
or aerial photographs.
During the reconnaissance survey, the following information should be determined:
Terrain classification;
The location of topographical constrains, such as cliffs, gorges, ravines, rock
out crops, and any other features not identified by the desk study;
Slope steepness and limiting slope angles identified from natural and artificial
slopes (cutting for paths, agricultural terraces and existing roads in the region);
Slope stability and the location of pre-existing land slides;
Rock types, geological structures, dip orientations, rock strength and rip ability;
Percentage of rock in excavations;
Materials sources, presence and distribution;
Water sources;
Soil types and depth (a simple classification between residual soil and
colluvium is useful at this stage);
Soil erosion and soil erodibility;
Slope drainage and groundwater conditions;
Drainage stability and the location of shifting channels and bank erosion;
Land use and its likely effect on drainage, especially through irrigation;
Likely foundation conditions for major structures;
Approximate bridge spans and the sizing and frequency of culverts;
Page 3-9
Chapter 3
Flood levels and river training/protection requirements;

Environmental considerations, including forest resources, land use impacts and
socio-economic considerations;
Verify the accuracy of the information collected during the desk study;
The possibility of using any existing road alignments including local realignment
Improvements; and
Information on the physical accessibility to bridge sites and the proposed
corridors, including the geomorphology of drainage basins, soil characteristics,
slopes, vegetation, erosion and scouring.
During the site inspection the team should examine all alternatives. This information can be
combined with the results of the desk study to determine the most appropriate alignment
alternative.
3.5
Topographic and Geomorphologic Characteristics
This section of the report concerns the main geomorphologic, geological and geotechnical
features of the corridor where the different route alternatives are located.
The general study of the corridor should be conducted using the 1:50,000 scale aerial photos,
while the local conditions of rocks and soils characteristics should come from the field
survey.
The aerial photo study should be supported by the "Geological Map of Ethiopia," the
Hydrogeological Map of Ethiopia," the "Atlas of Ethiopia," and the topographical maps at
scale 1:250,000 and 1:50,000.
3.5.1 TOPOGRAPHY AND HYDROLOGY
The report on the corridor selection should provide details relating to the general topography
of the region. Major features include the Western and South Eastern Highlands; the Central
and Outer Lowlands; and the Lower Rift Valley. Details are provided of relief, and general
stream directions and drainage patterns are given.
3.5.2 GEOLOGY AND TECTONICS
Details of geology are obtained to gain an appreciation of the nature and possible sources of
construction materials; to determine the need for rock earthworks; and to anticipate
pavement structure requirements. The general geology through which the route passes
should be described. Similarly a tectonic investigation can reveal both material sources and
areas that should be designed taking into account possible seismic activity. The tectonic
investigation is only necessary in proven earthquake areas as determined by the Atlas of
Ethiopia, for example.
Page 3-10
Chapter 3
3.5.3 ROCK OUTCROPS AND SOILS

Rock outcrops should also be mapped, identified by type, and evaluated as possible material
sources. Similarly sedimentary rocks in riverbeds can be evaluated as material sources and
for foundation strength at possible river crossings. Types of soils encountered can be
identified and mapped not only to estimate pavement structure requirements but to identify
possible borrow material sources.
3.5.4 STABILITY AGAINST SLIDING AND EROSION
In stable areas where there are possible occurrences of landslides, slips, earth flows, and rock
falls should be identified. These areas are to be avoided if possible in identifying alignment
alternatives. Similarly cuts on steep slopes in volcanic rock should be avoided as this may
result in collapse of the hillside. Areas of unstable soil and marked erosion should also be
avoided.
3.5.5 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
The survey along the route corridor should indicate adequate availability of construction
materials, as follows:
Embankment: Materials for construction of embankment can be obtained from highly
weathered and decomposed basalt or other formations like trachytes and conglomerates.
Such sources need to be identified along the route.
Gravel Aggregate: Natural gravel aggregate is available in some riverbeds and banks.
Formations such as regoliths can supply natural aggregate, but the fine content and the
grading curve must be carefully ascertained. Crushed Aggregate, essential for concrete
works and for pavement surface layers requires fresh and hard rock such as basalt.
3.6
Recommendations
The route corridor selection process concludes with detail as to why a certain alignment
alternative was selected and why others were considered, but rejected.
All the selected alignment options, however, need to be considered in the Preliminary
Engineering Design, and cost estimates prepared for comparison.
It will then be possible to select for the most viable route to be selected, taking due account
of construction costs, benefits to the local population, and length of travel, for each
alternative.
3.7
Report Outline
The route corridor selection report should be presented in the following report format
outline:
Page 3-11
Chapter 3
Page 3-12
1.
1.1
1.2
Introduction
General
Requirements of the TOR
2.
Study of Maps, Aerial Photography and Literature
3.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Proposed Corridors
Preliminary Identification of Potential Corridors
Proposed Alignment Alternatives: A, B, and C
Estimation of Bridge Requirements: A, B, and C
Estimated Road Link Lengths: A, B, and C
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Site Visit and Survey

General: Condition of Existing Road, if Any
First Section
Second Section
Third Section
5.
Towns Passed Through by Project Road
6.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.4.1.
6.4.2.
6.4.3.
6.4.4.
Orographic and Morphological Characteristics

General
Morphology and Hydrology of the Area
Geology (Tectonics if required)
Field Survey
Introduction
Rock Outcrops and Soils
Slope Stability and Erosion
Construction Materials
7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
Socio-Environmental Impact of the Project on the Area

General
Alternative Alignments
Impact of Construction
8.
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
Recommendations
Alternative A
Alternative B
Alternative C
Summary
Chapter 4
Survey Requirements
4 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS
4.1
Introduction
This chapter presents the survey requirements associated with the geometric design process.
Survey data for design purposes consists of mapping of sufficient detail for the level of
design being undertaken. In some instance a digital terrain model (DTM) for use with
computer design software may be required.
The survey data product is dependent on project type and can be collected by aerial
photography, field topographical survey, or a combination of the two.
The following factors should be considered when determining the survey data required:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Size and scope of the project

Time requirements to move from data collection to the start of design
Estimated data collection costs
Level of accuracy and detail needed
The project designer is responsible for identifying the appropriate survey data requirements
(type of data, accuracy, area of coverage). The project designer is also responsible for
obtaining the survey data and for selecting the method of data collection.
4.2
Method of Data Collection: Photogrammetry vs. Field Survey
Topographical ground survey has the capability of achieving greater accuracy than
photogrammetry. The effectiveness of aerial photography depends on location (urban or
rural), ground cover, etc.
Photogrammetry is sufficiently accurate for most applications and can be more cost effective
for all but small projects. For mapping and DTMs, photogrammetry is usually the preferred
choice. However, if a project is short, has dense foliage, or requires only mapping of limited
features, a field survey is the logical choice. Some fieldwork will be required for most
projects to compile property lines, right-of-way (ROW) information, utility, and culvert,
tree, building, bridge and sign data unavailable through aerial photography.
Elevations of photogrammetric DTM points on hard surfaces are accurate to within 60
millimeters. If more precise vertical accuracy is required for areas of a project, the data must
be obtained through a field survey. If precise vertical accuracy is required, such as for
highway pavement elevations, or if obstructed views occur, photogrammetric data can be
supplemented with survey elevations. It is recommended that survey data be collected before
the photogrammetric data to help assure the accuracy of the DTM. Table 4-1 provides
guidelines for when photogrammetry, survey, or a combination of both should be used. It
must be noted that this table is a guideline only, and that appropriate methods also depend on
factors such as project location (rural or urban), and length.
Page 4-1
Chapter 4
Survey Requirements
4.3
Survey Data Products
While survey data requests will typically originate from the unit responsible for the design,
they should also serve the requirements of Construction. The project designer has the
responsibility to ensure that survey data obtained by Design meets Construction needs,
eliminating the need for additional pre-construction ground data.
Mapping used for design development and right-of-way is generally provided at 1:2000
scale. In addition, 1:500 scale mapping can be provided for highly complex projects or
bridge sites.
If vertical data is required, it is provided as DTMs that have replaced contours and cross
sections. DTMs allow more flexibility for the designer and potential follow-up use in
construction. Using the DTM approach, earthwork quantities for payment purposes can be
calculated based on the final design centerline. With DTM data, cross sections for stakeout
purposes can be generated at any desired interval and with any desired station numbering.
DTMs should be requested if the project will be designed using CADD design software, if
cross sections along multiple alignments are required, or if Construction needs require
centerline cross section data.
Photogrammetric mapping products consist of 2D graphic files and 3D DTM surfaces (i.e.
*.ttn or *. dtm files) for use in the CADD system.
Field survey data must be obtained using total stations or GPS, the output from which should
be compatible with the CADD system to be used.
Table 4-1:
Project Type
Survey Data Requirements
Appropriate
Terrain Data
New Construction and

Reconstruction
Mapping1& DTM2
Resurfacing & Rehabilitation
Mapping1& DTM2
Resurfacing & Rehabilitation

Over 0.5 km long
Under 0.5 km long
Resurfacing
Mapping1 & DTM2

No Mapping3
Mapping1& DTM
(may be required)
Intersection Reconstruction
Mapping1 &DTM2
New Bridge & Bridge

Replacement4
Over 6 ha
Under 6 ha
Mapping1 & DTM2

No Mapping3
1.
2.
3.
4.
Collection
Method
Typical
Bandwidth
Photogrammetry2
100 m - 150 m
Photogrammetry2
25 m - 120 m
Survey
N/A
25 m - 120 m
N/A
Survey
25 m - 100 m
Photogrammetry2
Survey
NA
100m - 150 m
100 m - 150 m
100 m 150 m
Mapping scales will be 1:2000

If accuracy greater than 60 mm is required, the DTM needs to be supplemented with surveyed elevations
Instead of new mapping, consider the use of record plans and photo enlargements supplemented by field survey checks.
For bridges, mapping scales must be enlarged. The bandwidth should be a distance up/downstream consistent with the ERA Bridge
Design Manual-2002.
Page 4-2
4.4
Chapter 4
Survey Requirements
Survey Data by Project Type
Table 4-1 shows the amount and type of survey data that is generally required and the
method of data collection for each project type. Some projects may require a combination of
products. The table shows typical bandwidths by project type. These should be kept as
narrow as possible but should be usable for ROW mapping. The bandwidth can vary within
a project and the DTM band can be smaller than the mapping band.
Bridge rehabilitation projects will generally not require any terrain data unless necessary for
major rehabilitation. When terrain data is necessary, use the same terrain guidelines used for
new bridges and bridge replacement projects.
Resurfacing and rehabilitation projects usually do not require project wide mapping.
However, limited data may be required such as pavement elevations where superelevation
adjustments are anticipated. Other projects may require very limited data such as pavement
and shoulder edges. If only limited data is needed then a field survey is preferred.
4.5
Field Surveys
Detailed ground surveys along the length of the proposed project roads should use the most
up-to-date surveying equipment such as total stations or GPS to examine the road alignment
and cross sections and any bridge sites and culvert sites that are considered necessary to
complete the detailed design and the estimation of quantities.
Since projects are to be carried out utilizing CADD, it is essential to organize the
topographic surveys as the first step of a coherent data collection - design chain. Therefore
the whole topographic survey should be made using total stations which will directly record
the alignment, profile, and cross section data on diskette files which will be retrieved by the
CADD system during the design stage. A control traverse should be established using GPS
or coordinated and tied into the national grid system. These points shall be referenced in the
field in permanent concrete posts and shall be shown on the plan and profile drawings.
The existing road centerline should be identified and staked every 20 meters. The
coordinates will be recorded automatically using Total Station theodolites.
The start and end of horizontal curves, and roadway cross sections will also be taken.
The following methodology will be used to establish the original setting out data for the
reestablishment of the centerline:
The control traverse will be established, monumented, and the coordinates in X, Y,
Z accurately measured and tied in to the National Grid System. Concrete beacons
will be established at intervals of 150 - 300 meters. These beacons will be located as
close as possible to the limit of the road reserve and where one beacon is visible
from the other along the road.
Using the established polygon network of beacons, each of the centerline points will
be coordinated.
Page 4-3
Chapter 4
Survey Requirements
Using the method of least squares, the best-fit horizontal alignment through the
coordinated points will be established.
Cross sections will be leveled for each centerline point to a minimum of 25 meters distance
from the centerline. Road edges, cuts, ditch edges, culverts, hilltops, water crossings and
embankments will be taken. Topographic survey information will be collected for an
adequate distance on each side of the centerline and cross sections at appropriate intervals,
depending on the type of terrain.
Each cross section will comprise such numbers of points as to enable it to properly define
the existing road and such other spots as are required to define the ground shape for an
adequate distance beyond the existing construction width. The data will be used to generate a
Digital Terrain Model (DTM) for the whole road. All pertinent features including buildings,
drainage structures details, built up areas, etc. will be recorded for inclusion on the design
drawings.
New alignments will be recommended where inadequate horizontal sight distances and sharp
curves exist and wherever the existing route is not to the standards. Therefore, the vertical
and horizontal alignments shall be given due attention with respect to sight distance,
maximum grade, maximum length of grade criteria, and safety. In introducing new
alignments, major bridges and drainage structures as control points or as node points are to
be retained on the new centerline wherever they are in good condition. Should there be a
need for realignment of the existing road, topographic surveys along the chosen realignment
will be established. The centerline of the road will be defined every 20 meters interval.
Topographical cross-sections, extending at least 25 meters either side of the centerline, will
be taken at each of the centerline reference points.
Recommended bridge and major culvert sites will be surveyed and mapped at a scale of
1:500 with contours at 0.5 meters intervals or greater in the more severe sections. Each of
the site surveys will be tied to the elevation of the primary traverse.
Topographic data will be processed by the project computer system as work progress.
Detailed site investigation and surveys shall be carried out for areas susceptible to flooding
or landslide and at all recommended new or replacement drainage structure locations
including a sufficient length upstream and downstream to the structure. All topographical
surveys under taken shall be acceptable to international standards for such works.
Each survey crew will be equipped with an electronic total station, a three-prism line road,
and an electronic field book. The total station will have unlimited on-board data storage by
utilizing integrated circuit data storage cards. Each card, containing at least 32 KB of
memory, should be capable of storing 500 points. The use of an electronic field book will
allow the Total Station operator to code in descriptions and other important information for
each data point.
Survey teams can carry out the topographic field work requirements as follows:
Page 4-4
Chapter 4
Survey Requirements
One team for the location of the control points, whether GPS or National Grid;
One team to survey the center line and the longitudinal profile,
One team to survey the cross sections, and
One team for the land acquisition survey
The output from the Total Station and data collection is a computer file which contains
horizontal coordinate points, vertical elevations, and a description of all points needed to
develop a full topographic map of the area. The computer file must be capable of being
downloaded directly into a computerized design and drafting program. These programs
should then be able to generate, if so desired, a three-dimensional digital terrain model. The
plot can be checked and verified by the surveyors shortly after the fieldwork. The step-bystep procedure to be used for data collection is as follows:
Base map information may be obtained from the Ethiopian Mapping Authority.
The road is divided into survey subsections at a distance of 2 km. A coordinate
system will be established for the roadway sections.
A Global Positioning System (GPS) Survey Control System will be used to
locate precisely the topographic control points required for the project. A series
of receiver stations will be used to generate these points with a high degree of
accuracy by measuring signals generated from a group of three or four
geosynchronous satellites. The establishment of the zero-zero coordinate point
will be determined after a review of the existing coordinate information.
A bench circuit will be run using accepted level procedures and degrees of
accuracy. Each benchmark will be monumented and assigned coordinate
points. Once horizontal and vertical controls are established, the survey crews
will then cross-section the roadway alignment. The width of each cross-section
will be dependent on the terrain of the roadway and the different natural and
man-made features. The minimum distance from centerline for cross-sectioning
will be 25 meters. The number of points will depend on the topography, road
lane characteristics, project road features within the right-of-way, and as
required for the purpose of design and computations of quantities for earthwork
and profile course. Areas where existing roads cross the alignment and areas
affected by cross drainage will require additional topographic survey. Such
supplementary topographic survey will be carried out concurrently during the
progress of survey along the alignment.
4.6
Topography
All points of detail are to be located by a right-angle offset wherever possible, with chainage
and offset being recorded. Only when this method is not possible are other techniques such
as bearing and distance, to be used. Structures (buildings, bridges, culverts, etc.) are to be
checked by detailed face measurements. All physical features adjacent to the line whether
natural or artificial are to be recorded within a range of 25 meter either side of the centerline
in open country and in small villages (market centers) and towns.
Page 4-5
Chapter 4
Survey Requirements
4.7
Bench Marks
Standard benchmark leveling procedure is to be followed with the following limitations

observed:
A benchmark is to be established every 300 - 500 meters along the line close to the
right of way, and at all major structures (bridges and box culverts) Bench marks
must be inter-visible (see Figure 4-1 Standard Bench Mark).
Every benchmark is to be checked leveled by a forward run and a subsequent
backward run forming a closed "loop."
The following standard of accuracy is to be maintained:
C=K
Where
C = maximum permissible error of closure in centimeters,

K = distance between bench marks in kilometers
This gives Table 4-2 for comparison of accuracy

Table 4-2: Required Level of Accuracy for Surveys
K
(km)
C
(cm)
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.0
2.0
1.4
5.0
2.2
10.0
3.2
Figure 4-1: Standard Bench Mark
Page 4-6
4.8
Chapter 4
Survey Requirements
Profile and Cross Sections
Profile and cross-section leveling can be run simultaneously. All profiling is to be done by
direct leveling to two decimal places of a meter, and wherever practicable the cross section
levels are to be obtained in the same manner. Where impracticable direct leveling may be
replaced or extended by the use of either a hand level or Rhodes arc for cross-section work.
Where it is not possible to close a day's work on a permanent benchmark as in the case of
failing light, a sudden storm, etc. A Temporary Benchmark (TBM) shall be established from
which the work may be resumed.
Cross-sections shall be taken to a minimum distance of 25 meters each side of the centerline.
Profile leveling will be run between each pair of consecutive benchmarks, previously
established, and the leveler must close on each successive benchmark as a turning point. For
each succeeding length of profile any error from the preceding length shall be discarded, the
elevation of the intervening benchmark, previously established, being accepted and used for
the succeeding length of profile.
The disclosure on each previously established benchmark shall not exceed 1.5 centimeters.
Check that closure on each successive benchmark is within the prescribed tolerance. Where
the difference is outside this limit the run must be repeated.
4.9
Photogrammetry
The processes of detailed survey, alignment design and setting out are time consuming,
especially if changes to the alignment are made later owing to unforeseen ground conditions
or changing design criteria. The use of photogrammetry can speed up these procedures and
provide the flexibility to allow additional off-site engineering works such as access to
borrow pits, spoil disposal sites and slope drainage works, to be designed at a later date.
As an example, photogrammetry from aerial photographs of 1:25,000 scale can yield
uncontrolled contour mapping at a maximum scale of 1:5,000, with contours at 5-meter
intervals. It is advisable to correct the contour model by establishing two ground control
points in each stereo pair, by tying points on the photographs either to the national or local
grid, or by GPS. The main problems associated with the use of photogrammetry relate to the
lack of ground definition in areas of shade, cloud or dense forest cover.
It may be worthwhile taking photography with an 80 percent photograph overlap in order to
be able to select an appropriate air base for the amount of exaggeration required. For
interpretation in areas of high relief the viewer would use every photograph in the run (80
percent overlap, giving a short air base and minimum relief exaggeration). For areas of low
relief the viewer could select every other photograph, to double relief exaggeration. In
extreme circumstances of very flat ground the viewer could select every third or even every
fourth photograph, doubling the relief exaggeration each time.
The scale of photography is an important factor to consider in the reliability and ground
resolution of the interpretation. Table 4-3 indicates the optimum scales of photography
required to perform various desk study and design tasks.
Page 4-7
Chapter 4
Survey Requirements
4.10
Detailed Survey and Alignment Design
With the route corridor confirmed, the alignment engineer, with a survey team, will flag the
approximate centerline. An approximate alignment should first be drawn onto
photogrammetrically plotted contour maps and enlarged prints of aerial photographs in the
office prior to embarking on detailed fieldwork.
Table 4-3: Air Photo Scales for Various Project Tasks
Task Activity
Feasibility Study:
Route corridor identification
Terrain classification
Drainage/Drainage Area mapping
Landslide hazard mapping
Contour Mapping for preliminary estimation of quantities
Preliminary Design:
Detailed interpretation of chosen corridor(s) for
geotechnical purposes
Ground (contour) model for preliminary alignment design
and quantities
Detailed Design
Ground (contour) model for detailed alignment design and
quantities
Optimum Air
Photo Scale
1: 20,000
1: 15,000
1: 20,000
1: 10,000
1: 15,000
- 1: 30,000
- 1: 25,000
- 1: 30,000
- 1: 20,000
- 1: 25,000
1: 10,000 - 1: 15,000
1: 10,000 - 1: 15,000
1: 5,000 - 1: 10,000
If slope stability is critical to the alignment, then geotechnical-mapping surveys should

be undertaken at scales of between 1:1,000 and 1:5,000. It will be easier for personnel
to locate themselves with the required accuracy if an approximate centerline has been
set out, but the engineer should be prepared to modify the location of the centerline in
the light of the geotechnical survey. In very difficult ground, these surveys should
ideally be carried out prior to the centerline flagging exercise using aerial photograph
enlargements or compass traverse as a means of location positioning.
With the alignment confirmed, detailed design of all subsequent works can proceed.
Design of the detailed vertical and horizontal alignments will require topographical
mapping at a scale of 1:1,000 with contour intervals at a maximum of 2 meters, using
ground survey, photogrammetry or a combination of the two. Ground survey may be
preferable at this stage due to the greater survey accuracy required. The use of
photogrammetry will require the establishment of a base line traverse and the
commissioning of air photography at a scale of between 1:5,000 and 1:10,000. Plan
and profile drawings, and schedules of earthwork and retaining wall designs and
quantities can then be produced for contract documentation.
Page 4-8
Chapter 5
Design Controls & Criteria
DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA
5.1
Introduction
The choice of design controls and criteria is influenced by the following factors: the
functional classification of the road; the nature of the terrain; the design vehicle; the traffic
volumes expected on the road; the design speed; the density and character of the adjoining
land use; and economic and environmental considerations.
As these factors usually vary along a route of some length, the design does not have to be
constant for the whole length of a road. On the contrary, changes in the design are usually
required in order to obtain proper correlation between the road layout and the above factors,
whilst maintaining construction costs at realistic levels.
The design process is illustrated in Figure 5-1. The following text describes some of the
factors affecting design controls and criteria.
5.2
Road Functional Classification and Numbering
The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes.

The following are the functional classes with their description.
I.
Trunk Roads (Class I)
Centers of international importance and roads terminating at international boundaries are

linked with Addis Ababa by trunk roads (see Table A-1). They are numbered with an "A"
prefix: an example is the Addis-Gondar Road (A3). Trunk roads have a present AADT
1000, although they can have volumes as low as 100 AADT (see Table 2-1).
II.
Link Roads (Class II)
Centers of national or international importance, such as principal towns and urban centers,
must be linked between each other by link roads (see Table A-2). A typical link road has
over 400 - 1000 first year AADT, although values can range between 50-10,000 AADT.
They are numbered with a "B" prefix. An example of a typical link road is the WoldiyaDebre Tabor- Woreta Road (B22), which links, for instance, Woldiya on Road A2 with
Bahir Dar of Road A3.
III.
Main Access Roads (Class III)
Centers of provincial importance must be linked between each other by main access roads
(see Table A-3). First year AADTs are between 30-1,000. They are numbered with a "C"
prefix.
Page 5-1
Chapter 5
IV.
Collector Roads (Class IV)
Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to a more important center, or to
higher class roads must be linked by a collector road. First year AADTs are between 25-400.
They are numbered with a "D" prefix (see Table A-4).
V.
Feeder Roads (Class V)
Any road link to a minor center such as market and local locations is served by a feeder road.
First year AADTs are between 0-100. They are numbered with an "E" prefix and are
presented in Appendix A.
Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function to provide
mobility, while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access. The roads of
intermediate classes have, for all practical purposes, to provide both mobility and access.
The classification and description of all existing trunk, link and main access roads within the
country, including road name, distance, type of road and road numbering, are given in
Appendix A.
Page 5-2
Chapter 5
Page 5-3
Chapter 5
5.3
Terrain
The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain through which the
road passes. Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as follows:
Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road,
having continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope
up to 5 percent).
ROLLING: Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall
moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some restrictions
in alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25 percent).
MOUNTAINOUS: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of
terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often
involves long steep grades and limited sight distance (transverse terrain slope from 25
percent to 50 percent).
ESCARPMENT: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is added to
cater to those situations whereby the standards associated with each of the above terrain
types cannot be met. We refer to escarpment situations inclusive of switchback roadway
sections, or side hill transverse sections where earthwork quantities are considerable, with
transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent).
In general, construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more difficult and higher
standards will become less justifiable or achievable in such situations than for roads in either
flat or rolling terrain. Drivers accept lower standards in such conditions and therefore adjust
their driving accordingly, so minimizing accident risk. Design speed will therefore vary with
transverse terrain.
It is often the case in Ethiopia that the roadway can be designed to a higher speed than is
indicated by the transverse terrain type. For instance, an alignment could be chosen through
rolling terrain that gives essentially a flat highway configuration. Similarly, a narrow plateau
should be chosen for an alignment in otherwise mountainous terrain. The discrepancy arises
from an ability to choose a roadway longitudinal slope significantly superior to the
transverse slope. Under such circumstances, the Engineer should use his judgment in
assigning a higher design speed to the roadway segment.
Photographic representations of various terrain configurations are shown in Figures 5-2

through 5-9. Alignments that are superior to transverse terrain are those shown in Figures 53, 5-6, and 5-8.
Page 5-4
Chapter 5
Figure 5-2 Flat Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment
Figure 5-3: Rolling Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment
Page 5-5
Chapter 5
Figure 5-4: Rolling Terrain; Flat to Rolling Roadway Alignment
Figure 5-5: Rolling Terrain; Rolling Roadway Alignment
Page 5-6
Chapter 5
Figure 5-6: Mountainous Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment
Figure 5-7: Mountainous Terrain; Mountainous Roadway Alignment
Page 5-7
Chapter 5
Figure 5-8: Escarpment Terrain; Mountainous Roadway Alignment
Figure 5-9: Escarpment Terrain; Escarpment Roadway Alignment
Page 5-8
Chapter 5
5.4
Design Vehicle
Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are controls in
geometric design. Vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include power to
weight ratio, minimum turning radius and travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and
width. The road elements affected include the selection of maximum gradient, lane width,
horizontal curve widening, and junction design.
The present vehicle fleet in Ethiopia includes a high number of four-wheel drive utility
vehicles and overloaded trucks. Until more detailed information becomes available regarding
the makeup of the vehicle fleet in Ethiopia, the four design vehicles indicated in Table 5-1
should be used in the control of geometric design:
Table 5-1: Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics
Design Vehicle
Design
Vehicle
Designation
Height
Width
Length
DV1
DV2
DV3
DV4
1.3
4.1
4.1
4.1
2.1
2.6
2.6
2.6
5.8
11.0
12.1
15.2
4x4 Utility Vehicle

Single Unit Truck
Single Unit Bus
Semi-Trailer
Combination
Overall (m)
Overhang
(m)
Front Rear
0.9
1.5
2.1
1.2
1.5
3.0
2.4
1.8
Wheelbase (m)
3.4
6.5
7.6
4.8+8.4= 13.2
Min.
Design
Turning
Radius
(m)
7.3
12.8
12.8
13.7
The maximum turning path for a single unit truck, a single unit bus, and a semi-trailer
combination are shown in Figures 5-10 through 5-12, respectively.
Page 5-9
Chapter 5
Figure 5-10: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Truck (DV2)
Page 5-10
Chapter 5
Figure 5-11: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Bus (DV3)
Page 5-11
Chapter 5
Figure 5-12: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination (15m
overall) also Applicable for Truck (Tandem) Plus Trailer DV4
Roads conforming to Design Standards DS1 trough DS5 should be designed to

accommodate the most restrictive of the above design vehicle. Standards DS6 and DS7, two
lane roads should accommodate all but the semi-trailer combination DV4. Standards DS8
and DS9, for single lane roads should be designed similarly to DS6 and DS7; and Standard
DS10 roads need only accommodate the requirements for utility vehicle and passenger cars DV1.
Page 5-12
Chapter 5
5.5 Density and Character of Adjoining Land Use

For urban or peri-urban conditions, the design speed selection is influenced by other factors.
In such areas, speed controls are frequently included. Traffic speeds are in fact influenced by
the presence of other vehicles traveling in and across the through lanes, physical and rightof-way constraints, together with pedestrian and safety considerations. However, of note is
the fact that the present speed limit through villages is 30 km/h. It is possible that this limit
will be increased in the future. A design speed through peri-urban or urban areas of 50 km/h
shall be used, although such segments are posted presently at 30 km/h. Legal speed limits
should not necessarily be used as design parameters.
5.6 Design Traffic Volume
A further factor influencing the development of road design standards, and in particular the
design speed, is the volume and composition of traffic. The design of a road should be based
in part on factual traffic volumes. Traffic indicates the need for improvement and directly
affects features of design such as widths, alignments, and gradients. Traffic data for a road or
section of road, including traffic trends, is generally available in terms of annual average
daily traffic (AADT).
Using road functional classification selection and design traffic flow, a design class, or
standard, is selected from Table 2-1, with reference to the design parameters associated with
that class as given in Tables 2-2 through 2-12.
The functional hierarchy is such that traffic aggregates as it moves from feeder to main
collector to link the trunk roads. However the actual flows will vary from region to region
and it is important that the designation of a road by functional type should not give rise to
over-design for the traffic levels actually encountered.
Design classes DS1 to DS10 have associated bands of traffic flow as was shown in Table 21. The range of flows extends from less than 20 to 15,000 motorized vehicles per day
(excluding motorcycles), and covers the design conditions for all single and dual
carriageway roads.
Although the levels of flow at which design standards change are based on the best current
evidence, the somewhat subjective boundaries should be treated as approximate in the light
of uncertainties inherent in traffic estimation and future forecasting. Therefore, the Design
Traffic Flow shall normally be limited to be no more than one Design Class step higher than
the average daily traffic (AADT) in the first year of opening. For example, a road with a
first year traffic flow of 190 vehicles per day rising to 1,100 vehicles per day in the last year
of its design life, should be constructed to Design Class DS4 rather than Design Class DS3
(see Table 2.1)
The design traffic flow band in this case is therefore 200 - 1000 vehicles per day (DS4)
Design to the higher Design Class DS3 would result in an over-design of the road during
almost the whole of the life of the road and may provide a solution that was less than
economic.
Page 5-13
Chapter 5
It may be desirable, especially for primary roads, to develop geometric standards that are
consistent despite variations in traffic volumes. Conversely, a policy dependent on AADT
would result in a more economical allocation or resources. This dichotomy requires a special
attention of the engineer in choosing the geometric design parameters. Table 5-2 repeats the
overlaps that may exist between road functional classifications and AADTs.
Table 5-2: Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT

Road Functional
Classification
F
E
E
D
E
R
C
O
L
L
E
C
T
O
R
M
A
I
N
A
C
C
E
S
S
L
I
N
K
T
R
U
N
K
Design Standard No.
Design Traffic Flow

(AADT)
DS1
10,000 15,000
DS2
5,000 10,000
DS3
1,000 5,000
DS4
200 1,000
DS5
100 200
DS6
50 100
DS7
30 75
DS8
25 50
DS9
0 25
DS10
0 15
5.7 Geometric Design Standards for Low Volume Roads

The geometric standards for low volume roads have less importance than whether a road
exists and whether it is passable at all times.
Page 5-14
Chapter 5
In such circumstances, it is appropriate to adopt inexpensive standards that enable the further
development of a system of such feeder roads at minimal cost. This policy encourages
overall national economic development.
5.8
Design Speed
The Design Speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to
the design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with
a reasonably consistent speed environment. In practice, most roads will only be constrained
to minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric elements.
Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, superelevation, sight
distance and gradient are directly related to, and vary, with design speed. Thus all of the
geometric design parameters of a road are directly related to the selected design speed. The
design speeds given in Table 2-1 have been determined in accordance with the following
guidelines:
(i)
Drivers on long-distance journeys are apt to travel at higher speeds than local traffic.
(ii)
On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high speeds are undesirable.
(iii) Drivers usually adjust their speeds to physical limitations and prevailing traffic conditions.
Where a difficult location is obvious to the driver, he is more apt to accept a lower speed of
operation.
(iv) Economic considerations (road user savings vs. construction costs) may justify a higher
design speed for a road carrying large volumes of traffic than for a less heavily trafficked
road in similar topography.
(v)
Change in design speed, if required due to a change in terrain class, should not be effected
abruptly, but over sufficient distances to enable drivers to change speed gradually. The
change in design speed should not be greater than one design speed step, and the section
with the lower geometric standards should be long enough to be clearly recognizable by
drivers (not, for example, just one single curve).
(vi) It is often the case that the physical terrain changes two steps, i.e.- from mountainous to flat
terrain. Where possible in such circumstances, a transition section of road shall be provided
with limiting parameters equivalent to the rolling terrain type. Where this is not possible,
i.e.- a Departure from Standards,
special attention shall be given to the application of warning signs and/or rumble strips to
alert the driver to the changing conditions.
It is important to note that the design of a road in accordance with a chosen design speed
should ensure a safe design. The various design elements have to be combined in a balanced
way, avoiding the application of minimum values for one or a few of the elements at a
particular location when the other elements are considerably above the minimum
requirements.
Page 5-15
Chapter 6
6 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

6.1
Introduction
A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage

features, and earthwork profiles. These terms are defined in the Definition portion of the
manual text; major elements are repeated here for clarity:
Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including
traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing
lanes, and passing lanes, and bus bays and lay-byes.
Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders, parking lanes and viewing
areas
Earthwork profiles- includes side slopes and back slopes
For urban cross-sections, cross-section elements may also include facilities for pedestrians,
cyclists, or other specialist user groups. These include curbs, footpaths, and islands. It may
also provide for parking lanes. For dual carriageways, the cross-section will also include
medians. Typical Cross Sections are illustrated in Appendix E of this manual. Bus lay-byes,
parking lanes, passing lanes, and viewing areas are presented in Chapter 14.
Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to traffic requirements and characteristics of
the terrain. The cross-section may vary over a particular route because these controlling
factors vary. The basic requirements are, however, that changes in cross-section standards
shall be uniform within each sub-section of the route and that any changes of the crosssection shall be effected gradually and logically over a transition length. Abrupt or isolated
changes in cross-section standards lead to increased hazards and reduced traffic capacity and
complicate construction operations.
In certain cases, however, it may be necessary to accept isolated reductions in cross-section
standards, for example when an existing narrow structure has to be retained because it is not
economically feasible to replace it. In such cases a proper application of traffic signs and
road markings is required to warn motorists of the discontinuity in the road. However, all
such narrow structures must be widened or replaced however when the width across the
structure is less than the adjacent carriageway width.
6.2
Lane Widths
A feature of a highway having great influence on safety and comfort is the width of the
carriageway. Lane widths of 3.65m are used for Design Classes DS1 and DS2. The extra
cost of 3.65 m above that for 3.0 m is offset to some extent by a reduction in cost of shoulder
maintenance and a reduction in surface maintenance due to lessened wheel concentrations at
the pavement edges. The wider 3.65m lane also provides desired clearances between large
commercial vehicles on two-way rural highways.
Narrower lanes are appropriate on lower volume roads. Standards for carriageway widths
are shown in Table 2-1 for all Road Design Standards.
Page 6-1
Chapter 6
Auxiliary lanes at intersections often help to facilitate traffic movement. Such added lanes
are discussed in the Chapters 12 and 13.
6.3
Shoulders
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the
accommodation of stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic,
animals, and pedestrians; emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles; and lateral support
of the pavement courses. Shoulder widths vs. design standards, terrain type, and urban/rural
environment are presented in Table 2-2. They vary from no shoulder on minor rural roads
where there is no surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0m or even greater sealed shoulder on major roads
depending on the terrain and design classification. Wider configurations cater to the need for
a parking lane in urban/peri-urban areas where paved carriageways exist. For unpaved
carriageways, the shoulders are included in the carriageway width given in Table 2-2.
Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder should also be sealed with a single bituminous
surface treatment. This has several advantages. It would prevent edge raveling and
maintenance problems associated with parking on a gravel shoulder. It would provide paved
space for vehicular parking outside of the traffic flow. It would provide a better surface for
vehicles experiencing emergency repairs. It would also provide for the very heavy pedestrian
traffic observed in the villages, traffic that would otherwise, especially during inclement
weather, use the roadway. All of the above also indicate an improvement in terms of
roadway safety.
The sealed shoulder width may increase to 3.5 meters in urban/peri-urban areas where a
provision for a parking lane is required. The degree of urbanization determines whether a
parking lane is required. In urban areas, the shoulders should be paved rather than sealed.
For Design Standard DS3 roads, the engineer often needs to be observant and use his
discretion in defining the width of the shoulder. On market days, the urban center can cause
a high volume of pedestrian traffic commencing a significant distance outside of the center,
indicating a need to consider the higher limit over this distance. The actual shoulder width
provided shall be determined from an assessment of the total traffic flow and level of nonmotorized traffic for each road section.
In cases where terrain is severe, the existing roadway width is narrow, and where the
shoulder width could only be maintained through an excessive volume of earthwork e.g. at
escarpment conditions, standards can be reduced through the Departure from Standard
process presented in Chapter 2.
6.4
Normal Crossfall
Normal crossfall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide adequate surface
drainage whilst not being so great as to make steering difficult. The ability of a surface to
shed water varies with its smoothness and integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum
acceptable value of crossfall should be related to the need to carry surface water away from
the pavement structure effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion of material
starts to become a problem.
Page 6-2
Chapter 6
The normal crossfall should be 2.5 percent on paved roads and 4 percent on unpaved roads.
Shoulders having the same surface as the roadway should have the same normal crossfall.
Unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 percent steeper than the crossfall of the
roadway. The precise choice of normal crossfall on unpaved roads will vary with
construction type and material rather than any geometric design requirement. In most
circumstances, crossfalls of 4 percent should be used, although the value will change
throughout the maintenance cycle. The recommended applications of normal crossfall are
given in Tables 2-3 to 2-12. For shoulder crossfall in superelevated conditions, refer to
Section 8.8.
6.5
Side Slopes and Back Slopes
Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway and to provide a
reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.
Three regions of the roadside are important when evaluating the safety aspects: the top of the
slope (hinge point), the side slope, and the toe of the
slope (intersection of the fore slope with level ground or with a back slope, forming a ditch).
Figure 6-1 illustrates these three regions.
Research has found that rounding at the hinge point can significantly reduce the hazard
potential. Similarly, rounding at the toe of the slope is also beneficial.
(1) HINGE POINT
CARRIAGEWAY
(2) SIDESLOPE
(5) BACKSLOPE
(4) DITCH B OTTOM
SHOULDER
(3) TOE OF SLOPE
Figure 6-1: Designation of Roadside Regions

Source: AASHTO
Refer to Table 6-1 for details of side slopes and back slopes.
Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic may be defined as recoverable, nonrecoverable, or critical. Recoverable slopes include all embankment slopes 1:4 or flatter.
Motorists who encroach on recoverable slopes can generally stop their vehicles or slow them
enough to return to the roadway safely. Fixed obstacles such as culvert head walls should not
extend above the embankment within the clear zone distance.
Page 6-3
Chapter 6
A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is traversable, but from which most
motorists will be unable to stop or to return to the roadway easily. Typically, vehicles on
such slopes typically can be expected to reach the bottom. Embankments between 1:3 and
1:4 generally fall into this category.
Since a high percentage of encroaching vehicles will reach the toe of these slopes, the clear
zone distance extends beyond the slope, and a clear runout area at the base is desirable.
A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn. Slopes steeper than 1:3
generally fall into this category.
The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety considerations, height of
cut or fill, and economic considerations. Further, the guideline in this chapter may be most
applicable to new construction or major reconstruction. On maintenance and rehabilitation
projects, the primary emphasis is placed on the roadway itself. It may not be cost-effective or
practical because of environmental impacts or limited right-of-way to bring these projects
into full compliance with the side slope recommendations provided in this guide.
Table 6-1 indicates the side slope ratios recommended for use in the design according to the
height of fill and cut, and the material.
Table 6-1: Slope Ratio Table Vertical to Horizontal
Material
Height of Slope
Side Slope
Back Slope
Cut
Fill
Earth or Soil
0.0 - 1.0m
1:4
1:4
1:3
1.0 - 2.0m
1:3
1:3
1:2
Over 2.0m
1:2
1:2
1:1.5
Rock
Any height
See Standard Details
Black Cotton Soil* 0.0 - 2.0m
1:6
Over 2.0m
1:4
*Move ditch away from fill as shown in Figure 6-2
Zone Description
Recoverable
Non-recoverable
Critical
Critical
Recoverable
However, this table should be used as a guide only, particularly as concerns applicable
standards in rock cuts, where a controlling influence is cost. Note also that certain soils that
may be present at subgrade may be unstable at 1:2 side slopes, and for these soils a higher
standard will need to be applied. Slope configuration and treatments in areas with identified
slope stability problems should be addressed as a final design issue.
6.6
Roadside Ditches
For detailed design of roadside ditches, refer to ERA Drainage Design Manual -2002.
However, a summary of minimum ditch dimensions is given as follows. Minimum depth of
ditches should be 0.6m in mountainous and escarpment terrain, and 1.0m elsewhere, using a
v-ditch configuration. The side slope and back slope of ditches should generally be no less
than 1:2; however, these slopes should conform to the slopes given in Table 6-1.
Page 6-4
Chapter 6
Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as black cotton soils.
Where this is not possible, they shall be kept at a minimum distance of 4-6m from the toe of
the embankment, dependent on functional classification (6m for trunk roads), as shown in
Figure 6-2. The ditch in this instance should have a trapezoidal, flat-bottom configuration.
Figure 6-2: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils

6.7
Clear Zone
Once a vehicle has left the roadway, an accident may occur. The end result of an
encroachment depends upon the physical characteristics of the roadside environment. Flat,
traversable, stable slopes will minimize overturning accidents, which are usually severe.
Elimination of roadside furniture or its relocation to less vulnerable areas are options in the
development of safer roadsides. If a fixed object or other roadside hazard cannot be
eliminated, relocated, modified, or shielded, for whatever reason, consideration should be
given to delineating the feature so it is readily visible to a motorist.
For adequate safety, it is desirable to provide an unencumbered roadside recovery area that is
as wide as practical on a specific highway section. The cleared width should be a minimum
of 15 meters each side from the edge of the roadway for the higher road standards.
For lower standard roads, the clear zone can be reduced as practical. It should extend beyond
the toe of the slope. Lateral clearances between roadside objects and obstructions and the
edge of the carriageway should normally be not less than 1.5 meters. At existing pipe
culverts, box culverts and bridges, the clearance cannot be less than the carriageway width; if
this clearance is not met, the structure must be widened. New pipe and box culvert
installations, and extensions to same, must be designed with a 1.5-meter clearance from the
edge of the shoulder.
Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. shall be a minimum of 1.0m from the
edge of the carriageway.
6.8
Right-of-Way
Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided in order to accommodate road width and to
enhance the safety, operation and appearance of the roads. The width of right-of-way
Page 6-5
Chapter 6
depends on the cross section elements of the highway, topography and other physical
controls together with economic considerations. Although it is desirable to acquire sufficient
right-of-way to accommodate all elements of the cross section and appropriate border areas,
right-of-way widths should be limited to a practical minimum in both rural and developed
areas affecting the economy of the inhabitants.
Right of ways will be equidistant from the centerline of the road to the left and to the right of
the carriageway. It should always be determined and shown on the final design plans of road
projects.
Road reserve widths applicable for the different road classes are given in Tables 2-3 through
2-12. In mountainous or escarpment terrain, a cut section may be of such depth that the
right-of-way width is exceeded from the top of cut on one side to the other top of cut.
Additional areas required for outlets etc., should be provided in a manner that will not
endanger the future integrity of the drainage facility and will provide adjoining land owners
restricted use of this land after completion of the road.
Reduced widths should be adopted only when these are found necessary for economic,
financial or environmental reasons in order to preserve valuable land, resources or existing
development or when provision of the desirable width would incur unreasonably high costs
because of physical constraints. In such cases, it is recommended that the right-of-way
should extend a minimum of a nominal 3 meters from the edges of the road works. However,
where this occurs, it is advisable to restrict building activity along the road to prevent
overcrowding, to preserve space for future improvements, and to provide for sight distances
at curves. The distance across the carriageway from building line to building line should be a
minimum of 15m.
For dual carriageway roads it may be necessary to increase the road reserve width above the
given values.
6.9
Four-Lane and Divided Roads
Mention was made in Chapter 5 regarding traffic volumes and the need to increase the
roadway to a four-lane facility when a certain volume is reached.
It is also the case that some cities and villages have included a four-lane roadway as a feature
in their master plans.
Four lane and divided roads are required when the design traffic volume is sufficient to
justify their use. They are also frequently used in urban/peri-urban areas.
A minimum median width of 5.0 meters is required to allow the provision of left-turning
lanes outside of the adjacent carriageway, and to avoid having a turning passenger vehicle
from the minor road protrude into the through lanes. Geometric Standards for four lane roads
are given in Tables 2-1, 2-2, and 2-3.
Page 6-6
Chapter 6
6.10 Single Lane Roads

For low traffic volume roads (<100ADT), single lane operation is adequate as there will be
only a small probability of vehicles meeting, and the few passing maneuvers can be
undertaken at very reduced speeds using either the shoulder (DS6 and DS7) or passing bays
(DS8 to DS10). Provided sight distances are adequate for safe stopping, these maneuvers can
be performed without hazard, and the overall loss in efficiency brought about by the reduced
speeds will be small, as only a few such maneuvers will be involved.
The lowest design standards (DS8, DS9 and DS10) will not allow passing and overtaking to
occur on the carriageway and passing bays must be provided. The increased width at passing
bays should be such as to allow two design vehicles to pass, i.e. a minimum of 5.0 meters
width, and vehicles would be expected to stop or slow to a very slow speed.
Normally, passing bays should be located every 300 to 500 meters depending on the terrain
and geometric conditions. However, adjacent passing bays must be intervisible. Account
should be taken of sight distances, the likelihood of vehicles meeting between passing bays
and the potential difficulty of reversing. In general, passing bays should be constructed as
the most economic locations as determined by terrain and ground conditions, such as
transitions from cuttings to embankment, rather than at precise intervals.
The length of individual passing bays will vary with local conditions and the type of design
vehicle but, generally, a length of 20 meters including tapers will cater for most commercial
vehicles.
Significant cost savings may be realized in mountainous and escarpment terrain by
incorporating short lengths of DS8 standard within a DS6 road. This Departure from
Standard may be economically justified, especially in escarpment terrain, for design traffic
flows of less than 100 vehicles per day. However, appropriately placed, intervisible passing
bays are essential to ensure the free flow of traffic.
6.11 Typical Cross Sections & standard cross sections
Typical cross sections are illustrated in ERA Standard Detail Drawings-2002 and Standard
cross sections for the 10 standard classes of roads are illustrated in Appendix E of this
manual.
Page 6-7
Chapter 7
Sight Distances
7 SIGHT DISTANCES
7.1
General Considerations
Simply put, sight distance is the distance visible to the driver of a passenger car. For
highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of sufficient length that drivers
can control the operation of their vehicles. They must be able to avoid striking an
unexpected object on the traveled way. Two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight
distance to enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing maneuvers, without
risk of accident.
Two-lane rural highways should generally provide such passing sight distance at frequent
intervals and for substantial portions of their length (see Table 7-2). The length and interval
of passing sight distance should be compatible with the criteria established in the chapter 3
for the specific highway design classifications.
7.2
Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle
traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. The
minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the following formula, which takes into
account both the driver reaction time and the distance required to stop the vehicle. The
formula is:
d = (0.278)( t )(V) +
V2
254f
where
d =
t =
V=
F =
distance (meter)
driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
initial speed (km/h)
coefficient of friction between tires and roadway (see Table 7-1)
Table 7-1: Sight Distances
Design Speed
(km/h)
Coefficient
of Friction (f)
Stopping Sight
Distance (m)
20
30
40
50
60
70
85
100
120
.42
.40
.38
.35
.33
.31
.30
.29
.28
20
30
45
55
85
110
155
205
285
Passing Sight
Distance (m)
from formulae
160
217
285
345
407
482
573
670
792
Reduced Passing
Sight Distance for
design (m)
50
75
125
175
225
275
340
375
425
Page 7-1
Chapter 7
Sight Distances
The coefficient of friction values shown in Table 7-1 have been determined from test results
such as those shown in Figure B-1 of Appendix B, using the lowest results of the friction
tests. The values shown in the fourth column of Table 7-1 for minimum stopping sight
distance are rounded from the above formula.
If terrain or right-of-way problems result in an inability to meet these criteria, right-of-way
must be obtained and/or geometrics improved to meet this important safety element.
Alternatively in rare cases it may be necessary to seek a Departure from Standard, and here a
reduction would require lowering the design speed in the section and provision of proper
signage.
7.3
Control of Sight Distance
Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to meet the
minimum requirements. The following values should be used for the determination of sight
lines (see Figures 7-1 and 7-2):
Driver's eye height:
Object height for stopping sight distance:
Object height for passing sight distance:
1.07 meters
0.15 meters
1.30 meters
Figure 7-1: Stopping Sight Distance at Sag
Figure 7-2: Stopping Sight Distance at Crest
Page 7-2
Chapter 7
Sight Distances
On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees or other
sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance
(see Figure 7-3).
Figure 7-3: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves

Relevant formulae are as follows:
Sight Line (S) = 2R sin where = Deflection angle (o)
2
Middle ordinate (M) = R(1-cos )
2
Example: Radius = 1000 meters, = 20o;
S = 2R sin
2
= 2(1000)(sin 100)
= 347 meters
M = R (1 cos )
2
= 1000(1- cos 10o)
= 15.2 meters
The available sight distance needs to be checked separately for both stopping and passing
sight distance, for each direction of travel.
7.4
Stopping Sight Distance: Single Lane Roads
Certain classes of roads only have a single lane, with passing pullouts. In these
circumstances, a stopping sight distance is required to enable both approaching drivers to
stop. This distance is the sum of the stopping sight distance for the two vehicles, plus a 30meter safety distance. The resultant distance is that shown in Table 7-1, doubled, plus 10
meters.
Example:
Design speed = 50 km/hr. From Table 7-1
SSD = (55 x 2) + 30 = 140 meters
Page 7-3
Chapter 7
Sight Distances
7.5
Passing Sight Distance
Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that
must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
Within the sight area the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the roadway.
Otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions and widen
cuttings on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance. Care must be exercised
in specifying passing/no-passing zones in areas where the sight distance may be obscured in
the future due to vegetative growth.
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:
d1 = 0.278 t1 (v m + at1)
2
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
d2 = 0.278 vt2
Where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent
on ambient speeds as per Table 7-2:
Table 7-2: Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds
Speed Group (km/h)
d3 (m)
50-65
30
66-80
55
81-100
80
101-120
100
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2

less the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:
d4 = 2d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
Resulting passing sight distances are as indicated in Table 7-1.
Page 7-4
Chapter 7
Sight Distances
The usual values resulting from application of the formulae are reduced in this manual, as it
is deemed appropriate to address the distances covered by twice the d4 distance and the
clearance distance d3. A driver finding that he has insufficient distance after initiating the
passing maneuver can choose to abort the maneuver (see Figure 7-4). Values for Minimum
Passing Sight Distance at various design speeds are given in the fifth column of Table 7-1.
Figure 7-4: Passing Sight Distance

A method of measuring and recording sight distances on plans is given in Appendix C.
7.6
Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance
Sight distance records also are useful on two-lane highways for determining the percentage
of length of highway on which sight distance is restricted to less than the minimum needed
for passing. This is important in evaluating capacity. With recorded sight distance, as in the
lower part of Figure C-1 of Appendix C, it is a simple process to determine the percentage of
length of highway with a given sight distance or greater.
Passing Sight Distance is a desirable requirement for two-way single roadway roads.
Sufficient visibility for passing increases the capacity and efficiency of a road, and should be
provided for as much of the road length as possible within financial limitations.
Table 7-3 gives guide values for the extent to which passing sight distance should be
provided, labeled percent passing opportunity.
Table 7-3 Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance
DESIGN
STANDARD
DS2
DS3
DS4
DS5
DS6
DS7
PERCENT PASSING OPPORTUNITY vs. TERRAIN

Flat
50%
50%
25%
25%
20%
20%
Rolling
50%
33%
25%
25%
20%
20%
Mountainous
25%
25%
15%
15%
15%
15%
Escarpment
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
Urban/PeriUrban
20%
20%
20%
20%
20%
20%
Page 7-5
Chapter 8
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
8.1
General
The design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or straight section, the
circular curve, the transition curve (spiral) and the superelevation section. These elements
are presented in detail in the following text.
8.2
Tangent Sections
From an aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in flat country but
are less so in rolling or mountainous terrain. From a safety standpoint, they provide better
visibility and more passing opportunities. However, long tangent sections increase the
danger from headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding. In hot climate areas,
such as on the Awash- Djibouti Road, long tangents have been shown to increase driver
fatigue and hence cause accidents. This issue needs to be addressed in the course of the
horizontal design. The maximum length of a tangent section should not exceed 4.0
kilometers.
8.3
The Circular Curve
When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radially outward by centrifugal force.
The centrifugal force is counterbalanced by superelevation of the roadway and/or the side
friction developed between the tires and the road surface. For calculation of the minimum
horizontal radius, R min, for a particular design speed, the following equation shall be used:
R min =
V2D
127(e + f )
Where
VD
=
Design Speed (km/h)
e=
Maximum superelevation (%/100)
f=
Side friction coefficient (given in Tables 8-1 and 8-2, and Figure 8-1)
Table 8-1: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 8% Superelevation
Design Speed
VD (km/h)
Min. Horiz.
Radius R (m)
Side Friction
Factor (f)
20
30
40
50
60
70
85
100
120
15
30
50
85
125
175
270
395
630
0.18
0.17
0.17
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.12
0.10
Page 8-1
Chapter 8
Table 8-2: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 4% Superelevation (Urban Streets)
Design Speed
VD (km/h)
Min. Horiz.
Radius R .(m)
Side Friction
Factor (f)
20
30
40
50
60
70
85
100
120
15
35
60
100
150
215
320
490
810
0.40
0.32
0.25
0.22
0.19
0.17
0.14
0.12
0.10
Limiting values have been established for both e and f in the formula. Side friction
coefficients are dependent on vehicle speed, type, condition and texture of roadway surface,
weather conditions, and type and condition of tires. Tables 8-1 and 8-2 were developed
based on the results of several studies. Figure 6-1 illustrates the graphical results of those
studies for rural highways. As the driver in an urban environment tolerates a higher degree
of discomfort, the values of side friction in Table 8-2 differ from those in Table 8-1,
particularly at lower speeds.
Figure 8-1: Side Friction Factors for Rural Highways
Example: V = 100 km/hr, emax = 8% f = 0.12 (from Table 8-1):

R=
1002
= 393.7 meters, round to 395 meters
127(0.08 + 0.12)
Other equations used in the calculation of horizontal curve elements are given below and
illustrated in Figure 8-2.
Page 8-2
Chapter 8
Elements of a Circular Curve
1) : Deflection Angle by Arc Definition (in

degrees)
2) R : Radius of Curve by Arc Definition
3) T (Tangent Distance) T = R tan

2
4) E (External Distance)
5) L (Curve Length)
E = R Sec 1
2
L = R
6) M (Middle Ordinate)
2
360
M = R 1 cos
7) C (Chord from P.C. to P.T.) C = 2R sin

2
8) Point-of-Curvature (P.C.) Station P.C.= P.I. T
Figure 8-2: Curve Elements
9) Point-of-Tangency (P.T.) Station P.T. = P.C.+ L

Example:
A curve has a deflection angle of = 23o 18 02, and a Radius of 1432.6m. The Point of
Intersection (PI) is 5+053.87. Calculate tangent distance (T), external distance (E), curve
length (L), Point of Curvature (PC), and Point of Tangent (PT).
T = R tan
2318'02'
= (1432.6) tan
= 1432.4(.2026) = 295.35meters
2
2
E = R sec 1 = 1432.6
1 = 1432.4(.02103) = 30.12meters
2
cos
2
L =
R 2
1432.6 2 3.14
= 23.3
= 582.51meters
360
360
Page 8-3
Chapter 8
P.C.= P.I. T = 5+053.87 295.35 = 4 + 758.52

P.T. = P.C. + L = 4 + 758.49 + 582.51 = 5+341.00
The desirable standards shown in Tables 8-1 and 8-2 are based on these formulae.
Minimum radius is also dependent on maximum superelevation as given in section 8.8.
Tables 8-1 and 8-2 list the minimum radii for horizontal curves for maximum superelevation rates of 8 percent and 4 percent, respectively.
Note that 4 x 4 utility vehicles, buses and trucks, and trucks with trailers (DV1, DV2/3,
and DV4) require minimum design turning radii of 7.3, 12.8, and 13.7m, respectively.
As it is not practically possible to exclude any of these categories from the lower
standard roads, and as a certain amount of tolerance is required for safe operations, the
minimum horizontal curve radius of 15m is specified in Tables 8-1 and 8-2 for all
design standards. The result is that a curve with an absolute minimum radius of 15m
shall be constructed (except at switchback curves- see following text).
The horizontal curvature over a particular road section should be as consistent as
possible. Isolated sharp curves on an otherwise straight alignment are dangerous (see
Figure 8-3). Increasing severity of horizontal curvature should be affected gradually.
Particular care should be taken to avoid sharp curves at the ends of long straight
sections.
Page 8-4
Chapter 8
Figure 8-3: Isolated Curves
Page 8-5
Chapter 8
8.4
Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves
Curves are more frequent in rugged terrain. Tangent sections are shortened, and a stage may
be reached where successive curves can no longer be dealt with in isolation. Three cases of
successive curves are (see Figure 8-4):
Reverse Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the opposite direction

Broken-Back Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the same direction
Compound curve: curves in the same direction, but without any intervening
tangent section
Figure 8-4: Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves
The occurrence of abrupt reverse curves (having a short tangent between two curves in
opposite directions) should be avoided. Such geometrics make it difficult for the driver to
remain within his lane. It is also difficult to superelevate both curves adequately, and this
may result in erratic operation.
The "broken-back" arrangement of curves (having a short tangent between two curves in the
same direction) should be avoided except where very unusual topographical or right-of way
Page 8-6
Chapter 8
conditions dictate otherwise. Drivers do not generally anticipate successive curves in the
same direction. This also creates problems with superelevation and drainage.
The use of compound curves affords flexibility in fitting the road to the terrain and other
controls. Caution should however be exercised in the use of compound curves, because the
driver does not expect to be confronted by a change in radius once he has entered a curve.
Their use should also be avoided where curves are sharp.
Compound curves with large differences in curvature introduce the same problems as are
found at the transition from a tangent to a small-radius curve. Where the use of compound
curves cannot be avoided, the radius of the flatter circular arc should not be more than 50
percent greater than the radius of the sharper arc; i.e. R1 should not exceed 1.5 R2. A
compound arc on this basis is suitable as a form of transition from either a flat curve or a
tangent to a sharper curve, although a spiral transition curve is preferred (see Section 8.8).
8.5
Isolated Curves
Long tangent roadway segments, joined by an isolated curve designed at or near the
minimum radius, result in unsafe operations, as a driver will anticipate derivable speeds in
excess of the design speed. Good design practice is to avoid the use of minimum standards in
such conditions. For isolated curves, the minimum horizontal curve radius as shown in
Tables 2-2 through 2-11 shall be increased by 50 percent. This will result, generally, in the
ability to negotiate the curve at a speed approximately 10 km/h higher than the design speed.
8.6
Minimum Length of Curve
For small changes of direction it is desirable to use large radius curves. This improves the
appearance of the road by removing rapid changes in edge profile. It also reduces the
tendency for drivers to cut the corners of small radius curves. Providing the curve radii are
sufficiently large, it may be possible to maintain a passing zone through a curve. The
minimum length of curve for a deflection angle of 5o or less is 300 meters.
8.7
Widening on Curves and Embankments
The use of long curves of tight radii should be avoided where possible, as drivers following
the design speed will find it difficult to remain in the traffic lane. Curve widening reduces
such problems.
Widening on curves shall be provided to make operating conditions comparable to those on
tangents. This is necessary as the wheel tracking width is increased. Curve widening is
required on all standards of roads and should be sufficient to cater for the design vehicle.
Table 8-3 below gives the values to be adopted in the design. Curve widening shall generally
be applied to both sides of the roadway. It should start at the beginning of the transition
curve and be fully widened at the start of the circular curve.
Widening is also required for Design Standards DS1 through DS5 at high fills for the
psychological comfort of the driver. Widening for curvature and high embankment shall be
added where both cases apply. The height of hill is measured from the edge of the shoulder
to the toe of the slope.
Page 8-7
Chapter 8
Table 8-3: Widening on Curves and High Fills

Radius of
Curve (m)
>250
120- 250
60-120
40-60
20-40
<20
8.8
Curve
Widening:
Single Lane (m)
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.6
0.6
Curve
Fill Widening
Widening: Two Height of fill (m) Amount (m)
Lanes (m)
0.0
0.0-3.0
0.0
0.6
3.0- 6.0
0.3
0.9
6.0 - 9.0
0.6
1.2
Over 9.0
0.9
1.5
Over 9.0
0.9
See section 8.8: Switchbacks
Switchback Curves
Switchback or hairpin curves are used where necessary in traversing mountainous and
escarpment terrain. Employing a radius of 20m or less, with a minimum of 10m, they
are generally outside of the standards for all road design standards DS1-DS10, and are
specified using the guidelines listed in the Departure from Standards section
(subchapter 2.2).
Switchback curves require a careful design to ensure that all design vehicles can travel
through the curve. They must therefore provide for the tracking widths of the design
vehicles, as indicated in Figures 5-9 through 5-11. These figures show that the
minimum outer radii for design vehicles DV2 through DV4 are 12.5m, 14.1m, and
12.5m, respectively. Minimum inner radii are 8m, 7.4m, and 6m, respectively.
Switchback requirements can be determined which allow for:
Passage of two opposing DV4 vehicles. This is recommended for Design
Standards DS1- DS3
Passage of a single DV4 and a DV1. This is recommended for Design
Standards DS4- DS5
Passage of only a single DV4. This is recommended to Design Standards
DS6- DS9
Figure 8-5 illustrates a switchback curve. For a design example, select Design
Standard DS6, which allows for only the passage of a single DV4 vehicle. By
superimposing Figure 3-11 for design vehicle DV4 over Figure 8-5 at the same scale,
it can be shown that the requirements are (see Figure 8-6):
R = 10m
Page 8-8
Ri = 6m
Rs 14m
Chapter 8
Thus, although the normal carriageway width for DS6 is 6.0m, at the switchback curve a
width of 8m is required.
Figure 8-5: Switchback Curve
Page 8-9
Chapter 8
Figure 8-6: Switchback Curve for Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle
Requirements vary depending on passage requirements, radius, deflection angle, and design
standard, and a template shall be used based on the design vehicle turning radii to ensure that
the vehicles can negotiate each switchback.
It is important to provide relief from a severe gradient through the switchback. Gradient
parameters associated with a switchback curve are indicated in subchapter 9.5.
8.9
Transition Curves
The characteristic of a transition curve is that it has a constantly changing radius. Transition
curves may be inserted between tangents and circular curves to reduce the abrupt
introduction of lateral acceleration. They may also be used between two circular curves.
Page 8-10
Chapter 8
Drivers employ their own transition on entry to a circular curve and hence transition curves
contribute to the comfort of the driver in only a limited number of situations. For large radius
curves, the rate of change of lateral acceleration is small and transition curves are not
normally required. It can also be argued that transition curves are not a requirement for
certain roads, particularly those of lower classification, where there is insufficient
justification for the additional survey and design work required. Another possible warrant
would be to consider spirals for roads where a significant portion of the curves has a
superelevation in excess of 60 percent of the maximum superelevation. For Ethiopian roads,
transition curves are a requirement for trunk and link road segments having a design speed of
equal to or greater than 80 km/hr.
If the choice is made to employ a transition curve, the Euler spiral, which is also known as
the clothoid, shall be used. The radius varies from infinity at that tangent end of the spiral to
the radius of the circular arc at the circular curve end. By definition the radius at any point of
the spiral varies inversely with the distance measured along the spiral.
In the case of a combining spiral connecting two circular curves having different radii, there
is an initial radius rather than an infinite value.
8.10 Superelevation
Factors limiting selection of higher values are as follows. Low friction values may prevail
with thin layers of mud on the pavement surface, with oil spots, and with high speeds and
sufficient depth of water on pavement surface to permit hydroplaning. Account has to be
taken of the situation in Ethiopia where truck and heavily and/or badly loaded vehicles move
slowly due to poor mechanical condition.
In urban areas where traffic congestion or extensive marginal development acts to curb top
speeds, it is common practice to utilize a low maximum rate of superelevation, usually 4
percent. Similarly, either a low maximum rate of superelevation or no superelevation is
employed within important intersection areas or where there is a tendency to drive slowly
because of turning and crossing movements, warning devices, and signals. Superelevation is
a requirement for all standards of roads.
8.11 Superelevation Runoff
In alignment design with spirals the superelevation runoff is effected over the whole of the
transition curve. The length of runoff is the spiral length with the tangent to spiral (TS) at the
beginning and the spiral to curve (SC) at the end. The change in cross slope begins by
removing the adverse cross slope from the lane or lanes on the outside of the curve on a
length of tangent just ahead of TS (the tangent runout). Between the TS and SC (the
superelevation runoff) the traveled way is rotated to reach the full superelevation at the SC.
This procedure is reversed on leaving the curve. By this design the whole of the circular
curve has full superelevation, as shown in Figure 8-7.
Page 8-11
Chapter 8
Figure 8-7: Spiral Curve Transition
In design of curves without spirals the superelevation runoff is considered to be that length
beyond the tangent runout. Empirical methods are employed to locate the superelevation
runoff length with respect to the point of curvature (PC).
Current design practice is to place approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the tangent
approach and one-third on the curve, as shown in Figure 8-8.
Figure 8-8 Circular Curve Transition
Tables 8-4 and 8-5 give both superelevation rates and length of runoff for horizontal curves
at different speeds for 8 percent and 4 percent maximum superelevation, respectively.
Page 8-12
Chapter 8
8.12 Shoulder Superelevation
Figure 8-9 depicts shoulder superelevation rates corresponding to carriageway

superelevation rates. The figure shows that on the low side (inner shoulder) of superelevated
curves, the shoulder superelevation matches the roadway superelevation. On the high side
(outer shoulder), the superelevation is set such that the grade break between the roadway and
the shoulder is 8 percent. An exception to this occurs at a maximum superelevation of 8
percent, where the resultant shoulder superelevation would be an undesirable flat
configuration. Here the superelevation is set at -1% to drain the shoulder.
Note: For the Design classes DS4 to DS10 the shoulder may be sloped with the carriageway, but the shoulder
should then be surfaced on the outside of the curve.
Figure 8-9: Shoulder Superelevation (for Surfaced Roads)
Page 8-13
Page 8-14
7000
5000
3000
2500
2000
1500
1400
1300
1200
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
250
200
175
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
R
(m)
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
RC
2.1
2.5
3.0
3.4
3.8
4.0
4.2
4.4
4.7
4.9
5.2
5.5
5.9
6.4
6.9
7.5
8.0
Rmin=30
Vd=30km/h
e
(%)
Chapter 8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17
17
17
17
17
18
19
20
21
23
23
25
26
28
31
33
36
38
L(m)
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
RC
RC
2.2
2.7
3.4
4.0
4.6
5.0
5.4
5.6
5.8
6.0
6.3
6.5
6.9
7.2
7.5
7.8
8.0
Rmin = 50
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
22
22
22
22
22
22
24
26
28
29
30
31
32
33
36
37
39
40
41
Vd=40 km/h
e
(%)
L (m)
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
RC
33
RC
33
RC
33
2.2
33
2.4
33
2.7
33
3.0
33
3.4
33
3.9
33
4.7
33
5.6
34
6.2
37
7.0
42
7.4
44
7.8
47
7.9
47
8.0
48
Rmin = 125
Vd =60 km/h
e
(%)
L(m)
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
NC
0
NC
0
RC
56
2.1
56
2.6
56
3.4
56
3.6
56
3.8
56
4.1
56
4.8
56
5.2
56
5.7
56
6.3
56
6.9
56
7.8
56
8.0
64
Rmin = 395
Vd=100 km/h
e
(%)
L(m)
NC
0
NC
0
2.4
101
2.9
101
3.5
101
4.6
101
4.9
101
5.2
101
5.6
101
6.5
101
7.1
101
7.6
103
8.0
108
Rmin = 665
Vd= 120 km/h

e
(%)
L(m)
8.0%
radius of curve
assumed design speed
rate of superelevation
minimum length of runoff(does not include tangent runout)
normal crown section
remove adverse crown, superelevation at normal crown slope
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
RC
47
2.2
47
2.5
47
2.6
47
2.8
47
3.0
47
3.5
47
4.2
47
4.6
47
5.1
47
6.5
47
7.2
47
7.8
51
8.0
55
Rmin = 270
Vd=85 km/h
e
(%)
L(m)
Note : Lengths rounded in multiples of 10m to permit simpler calculations
emax
R
V
e
L
NC
RC
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
RC
39
2.1
39
2.2
39
2.4
39
2.8
39
3.1
39
3.4
39
3.8
39
4.3
39
4.9
39
5.7
39
6.7
44
7.3
48
7.9
52
8.0
52
Rmin = 175
Vd=70 km/h
e
(%)
L(m)
Table 8-4: Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 8%
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
RC
28
RC
28
RC
28
2.2
28
2.6
28
3.0
28
3.6
28
4.5
28
5.1
28
5.8
31
6.2
33
6.7
36
6.9
37
7.1
38
7.3
39
7.6
41
7.8
42
7.9
43
8.0
43
Rmin = 80
Vd=50 km/h
e
(%)
L (m)
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
RC
RC
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.2
3.3
3.5
3.7
3.9
7000
5000
3000
2500
2000
1500
1400
1300
1200
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
250
200
175
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
L(m)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
18
19
Rmin=35
Vd=30km/h
e
(%)
R
(m)
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
RC
RC
2.1
2.3
2.6
2.8
2.9
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
Rmin = 60
Vd=40 km/h
e
(%)
L (m)
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
RC
33
RC
33
RC
33
2.1
33
2.3
33
2.5
33
2.7
33
2.9
33
3.3
33
3.6
33
3.8
33
3.9
33
4.0
33
Rmin = 150
Vd =60 km/h
e
(%)
L(m)
emax
R
V
e
L
NC
RC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
RC
RC
RC
RC
2.2
2.4
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.1
3.4
3.8
3.9
NC
0
NC
0
RC
56
2.2
56
2.6
56
2.7
56
2.8
56
2.9
56
3.2
56
3.4
56
3.5
56
3.7
56
3.9
56
4.0
56
Rmin = 490
Vd=100 km/h
e
(%)
L(m)
4.0%
radius of curve
assumed design speed
rate of superelevation
minimum length of runoff(does not include tangent runout)
normal crown section
remove adverse crown, superelevation at normal crown slope
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
RC
47
2.1
47
2.2
47
2.3
47
2.5
47
2.7
47
2.9
47
3.2
47
3.4
47
3.5
47
3.7
47
3.9
47
4.0
47
Rmin = 285
Vd=85 km/h
e
(%)
L(m)
Source: AASHTO
Use of emax = 4.0% should be limited to urban conditions
Page 8-15
Note : Lengths rounded in multiples of 10meters to

permit simpler calculations
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0
0
0
0
0
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
Rmin = 215
Vd=70 km/h
e
(%)
L(m)
Table 8-5: Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 4%
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
NC
0
RC
28
RC
28
RC
28
2.1
28
2.3
28
2.5
28
2.8
28
3.0
28
3.3
28
3.5
28
3.7
28
3.8
28
3.8
28
3.9
28
4.0
28
4.0
28
Rmin = 100
Vd=50 km/h
e
(%)
L (m)
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment
9
9.1
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Introduction
The two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is governed by
sight distance criteria, and gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of
service. The following text gives the formula and features of the vertical curve; gives values
for maximum and minimum gradients; indicates gradient requirements through villages;
develops the criteria for incorporation of a climbing lane; and provides vertical clearance
standards.
9.2
Vertical Curve Formula
Vertical curves are required to provide smooth transitions between consecutive gradients.
The simple parabola is specified for these. The parabola provides a constant rate of change
of curvature, and hence acceleration and visibility, along its length and has the form:
g 2 g1
r=
L
Where
r
g1
g2
L
y
x
BVC
EVC
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
y=
rx 2
+ g1x + elevation of BVC
2
rate of change of grade per section (%)

starting grade (%)
ending grade (%)
length of curve (horizontal distance m)
elevation of a point on the curve
distance in stations from the BVC (meters/100)
beginning of the vertical curve
end of the vertical curve
A related formula is:
G*L x
y=
200 L
Where
y = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (meters)
x = horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve (meters)
G = algebraic difference in gradients (%)
L = length of vertical curve (meters).
Examples of crest and sag vertical curves are shown in Figures 9-1 and 9-2, respectively.
Page 9-1
Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment
Geometric Design Manual- 2002
Figure 9-1: Crest Curve
Figure 9-2: Sag Curve
Example: two grade lines intersect at Station 2+200 where the point of vertical intersection
(PVI) elevation is 239.5 m. The starting grade is 6 percent and the ending grade is +2
percent. The length of curve is 400 m. Compute the elevation at station 2+200.
r=
g 2 g1 2 (6)
=
= +2.00%
L
400
BVC = 2 + 200
400
= 2 + 000
2
x = 2 + 200 2 + 000 = 200
Elev (B.V.C.) = 239.5 + 0.06(200) = 251.5

y=
Page 9-2
0.02(2) 2
+ (6)(2) + 251.5 = 243.5
2
9.3
Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment
Crest and Sag Curves
The formulae for design of crest and sag vertical curves can be rather complex to apply, and
thus the design is best accomplished through the application of a computer program, or by
use of design charts. Figures 9-4 and 9-5 show the minimum length requirements for crest
and sag curves, respectively, for differing design speeds and algebraic differences in grade.
Example: Starting grade = -6%, ending grade = +2%, design speed = 100 km/hr.
Algebraic difference in grade = 8%, sag curve.
From Figure 9-2: 400-meter length
The minimum lengths of crest and sag curves have been designed to provide sufficient
stopping sight distance. The design is based on minimum allowable "K" values, as defined
by the formula:
K = L/A
Where
K = limiting value, horizontal distance required to achieve a 1% change in grade
L = length of vertical curve (m)
A = Algebraic difference in approach and exit grades (%)
Minimum lengths of crest and sag vertical curves have been recommended based on design
speeds and stopping sight distance requirements. They provide for ride comfort, appearance,
and most importantly, safety. These are shown in Tables9-1 and 9-2, respectively, in terms
of K values.
Example: Design Speed = 100 km/h, Sag Curve from Table 9-2 K= 51
Algebraic difference in grades 2-(-6) = 8%
Minimum length L = AK = 8(51) = 408 meters
9.4
Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves
Especially for trunk and link roads, where the algebraic difference between successive
grades is often small, the intervening minimum vertical curve, applying in the above
formulae, becomes very short. This can create the impression of a kink in the grade line. For
this reason, where the algebraic differences in grade is less than 0.5 percent, a minimum
curve length is recommended for purely aesthetic reasons. A minimum length of 200 meters
is recommended, except in mountainous or escarpment terrain.
However, for lower standard roads (DS6-DS10), no minimum length should be specified. In
these cases, the curve lengths should be kept to a minimum to enhance drainage capabilities,
and the curve lengths should match as a minimum the K values
given in Tables 2-7 through 2-11 for stopping sight distance. Where the difference in grade
is less than 0.5 percent, the vertical curve is often omitted.
Page 9-3
Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment
For higher volume roads, a minimum length should be considered between vertical curves.
If the vertical alignment is allowed to contain many curves of short length, the result can be
a hidden dip profile, and/or a roller coaster type profile, as indicated in Figure 9-3.
Table 9-1: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves

Design Speed
(Km/h)
20
30
40
50
60
70
85
100
120
Rate of Vertical Curvature, K

for Stopping Sight Distance
2
3
5
10
18
31
60
105
210
K, For Passing
Sight Distance
10
50
90
130
180
250
350
480
680
Table 9-2: Minimum Values for Sag Vertical Curves

Design Speed
(km/h)
20
30
40
50
60
70
85
100
120
Page 9-4
Rate of Vertical Curvature, K

for Stopping Sight Distance
2
4
8
12
18
25
36
51
74
K, For Passing
Sight Distance
10
50
90
130
180
250
350
480
680
Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment
Figure 9-3: Hidden Dip and Roller Coaster Profiles
Page 9-5
Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment
Figure 9-4: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves
Page 9-6
Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment
Figure 9-5: Minimum Values for Sag Vertical Curves
Page 9-7
Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment
9.5
Maximum Gradients
Vehicle operations on gradients are complex and depend on a number of factors: severity
and length of gradient; level and composition of traffic; and the number of overtaking
opportunities on the gradient and in its vicinity.
For very low levels of traffic flow represented by only a few four-wheel drive vehicles other
references advocate a maximum traversable gradient of up to 18 percent. Small commercial
vehicles can usually negotiate an 18 per cent gradient, whilst two-wheel drive trucks can
successfully manage gradients of 15-16 per cent except when heavily laden.
However, the vehicle fleet in Ethiopia is composed of a high percentage of vehicles that are
underpowered and poorly maintained. Certain existing roads in fact are avoided and
underutilized by traffic due to an inability to ascend the existing grades. The ERA finds it is
in a position where it has no choice but to limit gradients based on the design vehicle of
existing fleet, although this translates into an added cost to develop the road infrastructure.
Maximum vertical gradient is therefore and extremely important criterion that greatly effects
both the serviceability and cost of the road. The design standards given in Tables 2-2
through 2-11 therefore include both desirable and absolute maximum values. These
performance considerations have formed the basic limiting criteria for gradients as shown in
Table 9-3.
Table 9-3: Maximum Gradients
Topography
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
Escarpment
Urban
DS1 to DS3
D
A
3
5
4
6
6
8
6
8
6
8
Maximum Gradient (%), for Design Standard

DS4 & DS5
DS6 to DS8
DS9
D
A
D
A
D
A
4
6
6
8
6
8
5
7
7
9
7
9
7
9
10
12
13
15
7
9
10
12
13
15
7
9
7
9
7
9
DS10
D
6
7
14
14
7
A
8
9
16
16
9
Note: First value shown is desirable value (D), second is absolute value (A).
When gradients of 10 percent or greater are reached, consideration should be given to the
possibility of paving these steep sections to enable sufficient traction to be achieved, as well
as for pavement maintenance reasons. However, this is clearly not practical for all classes of
roads, particularly at lower traffic volumes. There may be cases where paving greater than
10 percent will be economical. This depends on the standard and the service of the road to be
provided.
As traffic flows increase, the economic dis-benefits of more severe gradients, measured as
increased vehicle operating and travel time costs, are more likely to result
in economic justification for reducing the severity and/or length of a gradient. On the higher
design classes or road, the lower maximum recommended gradients reflect these economics.
Page 9-8
Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment
However, a separate economic assessment of alternatives to long or severe gradients should

be undertaken where possible or necessary.
Standards for desirable maximum gradients were set to assure user comfort and to avoid
severe reductions in the design speed. If the occasional terrain anomaly is encountered that
requires excessive earthworks to reduce the vertical alignment to the desirable standard an
absolute maximum gradient can be used. Employment of a gradient in excess of the
desirable maximum can only be authorized through the employment of a Departure from
Standard (see Section 2.2).
9.6
Maximum Gradients at Switchbacks
Where switchback curves are unavoidable in mountainous or escarpment terrain, there is a

need to reduce the maximum allowable gradient at any point through the curve. The
maximum allowable gradient through a switchback curve is 4 percent for road standards
DS1-DS5, and 6 percent for DS6-DS10. Minimum allowable gradient is 0.5%.
Corresponding crest and sag curves approaching the switchback curve must meet the
requirements of subsections 9.2 and 9.3, and the transitions must be completed outside of the
switchback curve. The sag curve above the switchback shall be made as long as possible to
allow ascending vehicles to accelerate at the flatter grade when leaving the switchback..
9.7
Minimum Gradients
The minimum gradient for the usual case is 0.5 percent. However, flat and level gradients on
uncurbed paved highways are acceptable when the cross slope and carriageway elevation
above the surrounding ground is adequate to drain the surface laterally. With curbed
highways or streets, longitudinal gradients should be provided to facilitate surface drainage.
9.8
Gradients Through Villages
In many instances the natural grade level is flat through villages. The adjacent roadside
ditches in such circumstances can readily become clogged and ineffective. It is also the case
that they are deliberately blocked to provide access to adjacent property or to channel flow
for agricultural use. Theses practices lead to saturation of the sub-grade and hence pavement
failure, and should be avoided.
9.9
critical length of gradient
Critical length may be defined at the point at which a truck reaches a certain speed or the
point at which it has lost a certain amount of speed.
Critical length of gradient is considered to be the maximum length of a designated upgrade
upon which a loaded truck can operate without unreasonable reduction in speed.
Critical length of gradient is, to some extent, dependent on the gradient of the approach; a
downhill approach will allow vehicles to gain momentum and increase the critical length. In
Page 9-9
Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment
general, the critical length of gradient decreases, as gradient increases. This is shown in
Table 9-4 below. Where it is necessary to exceed the critical length of gradient on heavily
trafficked roads, it is desirable to provide either with safe passing distances on the rise, or a
climbing lane for heavy vehicles.
9.10
Climbing Lanes
A climbing lane is an effective means of reducing the impact of a steep gradient. A climbing
lane is an auxiliary lane added outside the continuous lanes and has the effect of reducing
congestion in the through lanes by removing slower moving vehicles from the traffic stream.
It also enhances road safety by reducing the speed differential in the through lane. The
requirements for climbing lanes are therefore based on road standard, speed and traffic
volume.
Benefits from the provision of a climbing lane accrue because faster vehicles are able to
overtake more easily, resulting in shorter average journey times, reduced vehicle-operating
costs, and increased safety. Benefits will increase with increases in gradient, length of
gradient, traffic flow, the proportion of trucks, and reductions in overtaking opportunities.
The effect of a climbing lane in breaking up queues of vehicles held up by a slow moving
truck will continue for some distance along the road.
Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when present traffic volumes are greater than
400 ADT. Thus the application of climbing lanes is limited particularly to trunk and link
roads. Table 9-4 is prepared according to the criteria that a 20 km/h speed reduction is
expected for a truck. It is used in the design to indicate locations where climbing lanes are
recommended.
A climbing lane layout is shown in Figure 9-6. Climbing lanes must be clearly marked and,
where possible, should end on level or downhill sections where speed differences between
different classes of vehicles are lowest to allow safe and efficient merging maneuvers. The
introduction and termination of a climbing lane shall be effected by tapers of lengths of 100
meters. The tapers shall not be considered as part of the climbing lanes.
The starting point of the grade can be approximated as a point halfway between the
preceding vertical point of intersection and the end of the vertical curve.
Page 9-10
Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment
Table 9-4: Climbing Lanes

Design Class
Gradient
(%)
DS2 &3
DS2, 3 & 4
DS2, 3 & 4
DS2, 3 & 4
DS2, 3 & 4
DS2, 3 & 4
DS2, 3 & 4
DS4
DS4
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Critical Length of Gradient

above which a Climbing
Lane is required (m)
300
240
200
170
150
130
Required
Required
Required
Maximum
Desirable Length
of Gradient (m)
900
800
700
600
500
400
400
400
400
There is a problem in the application of a climbing lane in escarpment terrain. Here the
carriageway and shoulder widths may have been reduced, and thus a climbing lane will
increase the roadway width. Consideration must be given to a balance between the benefits
to traffic and the initial construction cost. In sections requiring heavy side cut, the provision
of climbing lanes may be unreasonably high in relation to the benefits. Reduced level of
service over such sections is an alternative.
The climbing lane is sometimes not effectively utilized, especially when traffic flows are
heavy, because the drivers of slower vehicles fear that they will not be allowed to merge
with the faster vehicles where the climbing lane ends. The preferred layout forces faster
vehicles to merge with the slower, thus allaying this fear to some extent. This layout is
preferred based purely on that fact that a vehicle can merge more readily with a slower-than
with a faster-moving stream of traffic (see Figure9-6).
The performance characteristics of a heavy vehicle are such that, for a particular gradient,
the vehicle speed will reduce to final ambient speed that can be maintained by that vehicle
on that grade. This limits, in most references, any discussion on the maximum length
allowable at a given grade even considering the employment of a climbing lane. However, in
the interests of factors such as vehicle operating costs and travel time losses, the absolute
recommended maximum lengths at any given grade are also indicated in the last column of
Table 9-4. When these distances are reached, it is necessary to design a relief gradient of less
than 6 percent between steep sections. The relief gradient shall extend a minimum of 100
meters.
These values have also taken into consideration the safety factors associated with the
increase in speed resulting in the descent of steep grades. Although they may mitigate the
safety hazard, they do not eliminate it. For example, a non-braking "typical" heavy truck will
accelerate from 0 km/hr to 90 km/hr over a distance of 500 meters at a descending grade of 5
percent. This emphasizes the need to provide warning signs for such vehicles at all long
continuous grades.
Page 9-11
Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment
Figure 9-6: Layout for Climbing Lane
Page 9-12
Chapter 9
Vertical Alignment
9.11
Vertical Clearances
Bridges over water shall normally have a minimum clearance height according to Table 7-5.
Unless a refined hydraulic analysis has been made. The standard minimum headroom or
clearance under bridges or tunnels shall be 5.1m for all classes of roads. This clearance
should be maintained over the roadway(s) and shoulders. Where future maintenance of the
roadway is likely to lead to a raising of the road level, then an additional clearance of up to
0.1m may be provided. Light superstructures (i.e.- timber, steel trusses, steel girders, etc)
over roadways shall have a clearance height of at least 5.3m. See ERA's Bridge Design
Manual-2002 for further reference.
Table 9-5: Vertical Clearance from Superstructure to Design Flood Level (DFL)
Design Flow at Bridge (m3/s)
5 to 30
30 to 300
>300
Vertical Clearance (m)

0.6
0.9
1.2
Source: ERA Bridge Design Manual-2002
Underpasses for pedestrians and bicycles shall not be less then 2.4m. For cattle and wildlife,
underpasses shall be designed as the normal height of the actual kind of animal plus 0.5m,
and for horse-riding the clear height shall be not less than 3.4m. Bridges above railways shall
have a clearance height of at least 6.1m- if not otherwise stated- to facilitate possible future
electrification.
Over existing pipe culverts and box culverts, the roadway elevation cannot be less than as
indicated in the ERA Drainage Design Manual- 2002.
Page 9-13
10
Chapter 10
Phasing of Horizontal & Vertical Alignment
PHASING OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
10.1 Alignment Defects Due to Mis-phasing

Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their coordination so that the
line of the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of hazards and
visual defects. It is particularly important in the design of high-speed roads on which a driver
must be able to anticipate changes in both horizontal and vertical alignment well within the
safe stopping distance. It becomes more important with small radius curves than with large.
Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased. Defects may be purely visual and do no
more than present the driver with an aesthetically displeasing impression of the road. Such
defects often occur on sag curves. When these defects are severe, they may create a
psychological obstacle and cause some drivers to reduce speed unnecessarily. In other cases,
the defects may endanger the safety of the user by concealing hazards on the road ahead. A
sharp bend hidden by a crest curve is an example of this kind of defect.
10.2 Types of Mis-Phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action
When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they are
coincident, no phasing problem occurs and no corrective action is required. Where defects
occur, phasing may be achieved either by separating the curves or by adjusting their lengths
such that vertical and horizontal curves begin at a common station and end at a common
station. In some cases, depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if only one end of each of
the curves is at a common station.
Cases of mis-phasing fall into several types. These are described below together with the
necessary corrective action for each type.
10.3 Vertical Curve Overlaps One End of the Horizontal Curve
If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a drivers
perception of the change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may be delayed
because his sight distance is reduced by the vertical curve. This defect is hazardous. The
position of the crest is important because the vehicles tend to increase speed on the down
gradient following the highest point of the crest curve, and the danger due to an unexpected
change of direction is consequently greater. If a vertical sag curve overlaps a horizontal
curve, an apparent kink may be produced, as indicated in Figures 10-1b and c.
The defect may be corrected in both cases by completely separating the curves. If this is
uneconomic, the curves must be adjusted so that they are coincident at both ends, if the
horizontal curve is of short radius, or they need be coincident at only one end, if the
horizontal curve is of longer radius.
Page 10-1
Chapter 10
10.3.1 INSUFFICIENT SEPARATION BETWEEN THE CURVES

If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and vertical curves, a
false reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of the horizontal
curve. This is a visual defect, illustrated in Figure 10-1d.
Corrective action consists of increasing the separation between the curves, or making the
curves concurrent, as in Figure 10-1a.
10.3.2 BOTH ENDS OF THE VERTICAL CURVE LIE ON THE HORIZONTAL CURVE
If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal curve
may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If the
vertical curve is a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to increase. An
example of such a visual defect is shown in Figure10-1e. The corrective action is to make
both ends of the curves coincident as in Figure 10-1a, or to separate them.
10.3.3 VERTICAL CURVE OVERLAPS BOTH ENDS OF THE HORIZONTAL CURVE
If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may be
created because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the passage of
the vertical curve while sight distance is reduced.
The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident. If the horizontal curve is
less sharp, a hazard may still be created if the crest occurs off the horizontal curve. This is
because the change of direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve will then occur on a
downgrade (for traffic in one direction) where vehicles may be increasing speed.
The corrective action is to make the curves coincident at one end so as to bring the crest on
to the horizontal curve.
No action is necessary if a vertical curve that has no crest is combined with a gentle
horizontal curve.
If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip, depending on the hand of the
horizontal curve will appear in the road alignment.
The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident or to separate them.
10.3.4 OTHER MIS-PHASING
Other types of mis-phasing are also indicated in Figure 10-1:
A sag curve occurs between two horizontal curves in the same direction in Figure 10-1g.
This illustrates the need to avoid broken back curves in design (see Chapter 8: Horizontal
Alignment).
Page 10-2
Chapter 10
A double sag curve occurs at one horizontal curve in Figure 10-1h. This illustrates the effect
in this case of a broken back vertical alignment on design (see Chapter 9: Vertical
Alignment).
Figure 10-1i shows a lack of phasing of horizontal and vertical curves. In this case, the
vertical alignment has been allowed to be more curvilinear than the horizontal alignment.
10.4 The Economic Penalty Due to Phasing
The phasing of vertical curves restricts their movement and fitting to the ground so that the
designer is prevented from obtaining the lowest cost design. Therefore, phasing is usually
bought at the cost of extra earthworks and the designer must decide at what point it becomes
uneconomic. He will normally accept curves that have to be phased for reasons of safety. In
cases when the advantage due to phasing is aesthetic, the designer will have to balance the
costs of trail alignments against their elegance.
Page 10-3
Chapter 10
Figure 10-1: Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Curves
Page 10-4
11
Chapter 11
Mass Haul Diagram
EARTHWORK QUANTITIES AND MASS HAUL DIAGRAM
11.1 Introduction
The topic of geometric design would be incomplete without a chapter devoted to the issue of
earthwork quantities and a mass haul diagram. The careful attentions to limiting earthwork
quantities through the preparation of a mass haul diagram are essential elements in providing
the best-combined horizontal, vertical, and cross-sectional design. This is especially true
when the design includes consideration of the least cost in relation to earthworks.
Key terms associated with this process, as listed in Definitions, include:
Borrow- material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening
cuts, flattening back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within the
right-of-way, or from selected borrow pits as may be noted on the plans
Waste- material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the
embankment
Free Haul- the maximum distance through which excavated material may be
transported without the added cost above the unit bid price
Overhaul- excavated material transported to a distance beyond the free haul distance
Economic Limit of Haul- distance through which it is more economical to haul
excavated material than to waste and borrow
The steps involved in the computation of earthwork quantities and the development of the
optimal mass haul diagram are:
End area calculations

Earthwork calculations
Preparation of mass haul diagram
Balancing earthworks using the mass haul diagram
These steps are presented in the following text. Of note is the fact that most current highway
design computer programs, including MX (MOSS), will produce the mass haul diagram as
part of the output when typical sections and horizontal and vertical alignments are inputs. A
final stage of geometric design is then usually to make adjustments to the alignments in the
interests of balancing or minimizing the earthwork quantities.
11.2 End Area Calculations
End area calculations are usually made by one of the following methods:
1. Planimeter Method - The original ground line and template section (cross section)
must be plotted on grid paper. Centerline profile grade must first be calculated for
each cross section station to determine the centerline reference of each template plot.
Areas of cut and fill quantities are calculated using a planimeter, converted to square
meters, and tabulated for each section.
Page 11-1
Chapter 11
Mass Haul Diagrams
2. Electronic Computer Method - This method is widely used due to its versatility and
speed of calculations. The end area calculation on modern computer programs is an
integral part of the alignment design program and shown on output listings along
with the geometric of each section.
11.3 Calculating Earthwork
There are several ways of calculating earthwork but the most common is the "average end
area" method. This method consists of averaging the cut and fill quantities of adjacent
stations and multiplying by the distance between stations to produce cubic meters of
excavation and embankment between the two stations. This procedure is followed when
manual methods are used. Projects designed by computer will be tabulated on the mass plot
listing and these calculations are integral parts of the alignment design program.
Compaction factors of excavated material must be determined or estimated in order to
determine earthwork quantities of excavation and embankment. When common material is
excavated from natural ground and compacted in an embankment, it loses volume. When
solid rock is broken up and compacted in an embankment, it usually swells. Although
adjustment factors can be applied to either embankment or excavation quantities, it is general
practice to apply the compaction factor to the excavation so that a compaction factor of 25
percent would result in 100 cubic meters of excavation required for an embankment of 75
cubic meters. Likewise, a 10 percent swell factor would result in 100 cubic meters of rock
excavation required for an embankment of 110 cubic meters.
Compaction factors should be determined or estimated for each project taking into
consideration the various types of soils and depth of proposed cuts and fills.
The designer should avoid using one factor for the entire project as these results in incorrect
distribution of earthwork quantities. Cuts through rock should be classified using parameters,
such as swell, associated with the particular rock, and not as a common value for all types of
excavation.
Sometimes the use of stripping factors or pre-rolling factors of the natural ground prior to
placing embankments are employed. This is done by assuming that the natural ground will
be stripped or compacted a certain depth, such as 75 100 millimeters, thus increasing the
volume of the required embankment to be placed on the natural ground. This assumption
may prove satisfactory on projects following virgin country having fairly uniform type of
soil, however, problems develop on projects that follow an existing road as only those areas
beyond the toe of slopes of the existing roadway will compact the estimated depth. This
manual does not recommend the use of natural ground or stripping factors on ERA projects.
Instead it is recommended that if the designer considers this volume to be significant, it is
recommended to increase the compaction factors from say 20 percent to 25 percent.
Accumulation totals of cut and fill can now be calculated as follows:
Total accumulated cut is the total of adjusted cuts (excavation volume x adjustment
factor) added from station to station.
Total accumulated fill is the sum of the embankments from station to station (no
adjustment).
Page 11-2
Chapter 11
Mass Haul Diagram
The mass ordinate can now be calculated by taking the algebraic sum of adjusted excavation
and unadjusted embankment from station to station, using "+" for excavation and "-" for
embankment.
11.4 Mass Haul Diagram
The mass haul diagram is a curve in which the abscissas represent the stations of the survey
and the ordinates represent the algebraic sum of excavation and embankment quantities from
some point of beginning on the profile. The plot can be to any scale, depending on the
quantities involved. Project designed by computer will list, tabulate, and plot all of the data
shown above including a mass haul diagram and balance points.
The mass haul diagram shows excavation (adjusted) and embankment quantities from some
point of beginning on the profile, considering cut volumes positive and fill volumes
negative. At the beginning of the curve the ordinate is zero, and ordinates are calculated
continuously from the initial station to the end of the project.
The mass haul diagram can be used to determine:
Proper distribution of excavated material

Amount and location of waste
Amount and location of borrow
Amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic meters
Direction of haul.
Figure 11-1 shows a mass haul diagram curve with an accompanying profile of existing
ground line and grade line.
The double line in the profile and the mass haul diagram indicate areas of excavation.
Arrows indicate direction of haul. Note in the mass haul diagram that the material moves
from the rising line to the falling line.
Note that properties of mass haul diagrams are as follows:
a) An upward slope on the mass curve indicates excavation, and conversely, a
downward slope indicates embankment. The steeper the slope of the mass curve, the
greater the cubic meters of excavation or embankment.
b) The maximum ordinate of the mass curve occurs at the point where excavation ends
and embankment starts. Similarly, the minimum ordinate occurs at the point where
embankment ends and excavation starts.
c) Cut and fill quantities between the points at which any horizontal line cuts off a loop
of the mass curve will exactly balance. Such horizontal lines are called balance lines
and the points at which these lines intersect the mass curve are called balance points.
d) Areas below the balance line indicate that hauling of excavation to embankment is
from right to left, whereas areas above the balance line indicate that the haul is from
left to right.
Page 11-3
Chapter 11
Mass Haul Diagrams
e) The area between a balance line and its corresponding loop of the mass curve is a
measure of haul (product of the volume and distance in station-meters).
f) The ordinate at any station represents the accumulated amount of surplus or deficit of
material at the station. It does not indicate the amount of cut or fill volume at that
station.
Figure 11-1: Relationship of Profile Grade and Haul to Mass Haul Diagram
11.5 Balancing Earthwork Using the Mass Haul Diagram
The designer should carefully assess the project before start of design and set certain
guidelines for balancing the earthwork. A determination should be made as to the maximum
haul distance or distance between balance points, whether tight balances will be used or
whether it will be more economical to excavate to spoil in some areas and obtain borrow
material in others.
Listed below are a few considerations in determining the best earthwork design:
a) Right-of-way restrictions may necessitate importing borrow material for the required
embankments.
b) Where large quantities of inferior or deleterious material are encountered in the
excavation, it will be necessary to waste this material, which is unsuitable for use as
embankment.
Page 11-4
Chapter 11
Mass Haul Diagram
c) Special conditions through deep cuts, such as sloughing, sight distance requirements,
or sand drift conditions may require very flat back slopes resulting in large amounts
of excavation and no large embankments within a reasonable haul distance. This
situation will require that some excavated material will be wasted.
d) The need to carry the road level considerably above the existing ground for extended
distances through flood plain areas will generally require borrow excavation.
After the designer has analyzed all of the above factors and determined how he proposes to
balance the earthwork, he is ready to start calculations as previously outlined.
In order to obtain a better perspective of the work the project should be broken down to
sections not to exceed 5 kilometers in length. This allows the designer to work with smaller
sections, solving the individual problems of each section involving drainage, grades, erosion
control, and earthwork distribution. Figure 11-2 shows three situations where the balance
line can be at the top, bottom or at the center of the mass curve. Note that Case 3 where the
balance line is located at the center of the mass curve is not necessarily the ideal situation in
all cases. The profile grade should be studied along with the mass haul diagram to determine
where it will be more economical to haul towards back stations (Case 1), towards forward
stations (Case 2), or to haul equally towards back and forward stations (Case 3).
Free haul is defined as the maximum distance through which excavated material may be
transported without added cost above the unit bid price. Prior to the use of high-speed
pneumatic-tired earth moving equipment, free haul distances were limited to approx. 1000
meters, but distances of up to 2000 meters are not uncommon now. Special conditions on a
project may require longer hauls, where restrictions do not allow excavation or borrow in the
immediate area. Some ERA contracts do not provide for separate payment for haul and/or
overhaul, but make this work incidental to the excavation item. Haul and overhaul figures
shall be made available to prospective bidders to assist them in determining their excavation
bid price. A note on the mass haul diagram, in the plans, or in the specifications shall state
that the contractor may be required to haul material a specified distance, or within balance
points shown on the plans, without additional compensation.
The economical limit of haul is defined as the distance through which it is more economical
to haul excavated material than to waste and borrow. The following formula is presented as a
guide to assist the designer in determining the economic limit of haul:
E.L.H. = F.H. distance + Unit Price of Borrow
Unit Price of Overhaul
Where:
E.L.H = Economic limit of haul
F.H. = Free haul distance
Page 11-5
Chapter 11
Mass Haul Diagrams
Figure 11-2: Location of Balance Line on Mass Haul Diagram
Page 11-6
Chapter 11
Mass Haul Diagram
Example: Assume F.H. Distance = 15 stations (1500 meters)

Borrow U.P. = ETB 8.00/m3
Overhaul U.P.= ETB 5.00/100/meter/m3
E.L.H = 15 + 8
5
E.L.H = 15 + 16 = 31 stations
The designer can make some quick estimates to determine whether to use long haul
distances, to borrow or waste, or whether a redesign to shorten balance distances is required.
Overhaul is the product of volume times distance and is represented on the mass haul
diagram as the area between the zero balance line and the curve of the mass after eliminating
all free haul. When the mass is computed using adjusted cut (adjusted for swell), it is
necessary to correct overhaul volume to unadjusted excavation by applying the proper
correction factor.
In Figure 11-3 the shaded areas show overhaul in the mass haul diagram.
Waste and borrow should be avoided on most types of projects by hauling suitable material
within economical limits of haul. These terms are defined as follows:
a)
Waste is material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the
embankments. It must be pointed out that this material is not necessarily wasted
as the word implies, but can be used in widening embankments, flattening slopes
or filling ditches or depressions for erosion control.
b)
Borrow is material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by

widening cuts, flattening cut back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to
the road within the right-of-way, or from selected borrow pits as may be noted
on the plans. Borrow areas should be carefully selected after consideration of the
suitability of the material; economic haul; access to the pits, including cost of
access roads; drainage problems; and impact on the environment including
timber production, fish life, watershed, soil erosion and all multiple land uses
present and future.
Page 11-7
Chapter 11
Mass Haul Diagrams
Figure 11-3: Overhaul in the Mass Haul Diagram

11.6 Methods of Balancing Earthwork
As stated in the previous discussion, after the mass haul diagram is plotted using the trial
profile grade, a determination is made whether to borrow, waste, or adjust the grade to
achieve tight balances.
The following three examples with accompanying mass haul diagrams illustrate different
methods of balancing earthwork:
a)
Page 11-8
The first example, Figure 11-4, assumes that grades have been adjusted as much
as the terrain will permit and the required balances have not been obtained,
therefore, it will be necessary to borrow and waste to balance the earthwork.
Chapter 11
Mass Haul Diagram
The mass haul diagram shows that the balance line is dropped 10,000 cubic meters at the
beginning of the job due to excess embankment requiring 10,000 cubic meters of borrow
between stations 0+00 and 3+50. This will result in new balance points at stations 3+50,
11+00, 20+50 and 27+00.
Due to excess of excavation ahead of station 27+00, the balance line is adjusted upwards
23,000 cubic meters with balance points at 32+50, 41+00 and 50+00. Excess excavation
between stations 27+00 and 32+50 must be wasted.
Figure 11-4: Balancing Earthwork Using Borrow and Waste Determined from
the Mass Haul Diagram
b)
The next example, Figure 11-5, considers the mass haul diagram after the trial
grade results in excess excavation from station 0+00 to 72+50.
Project designed using computer programs can be easily balanced by for instance lowering
vertical P.I.'s to remove excess embankment and raising vertical P.I.'s to remove excess
excavation. Using the earthwork design computer program, the designer is furnished with a
complete plot of the mass haul diagram, including stationing, unadjusted volume of
embankment, adjusted mass ordinate and location of all balance points. The mass plot is
followed by a listing, which tabulates vertical P.I. data, including stations, P.I. elevations,
percent grades, middle ordinates and curve lengths.
The last column on this listing is shown as UNIT MASS and will tabulate three or four digit
figures opposite each P.I. station. These figures indicate the approximate change in the mass
ordinate up or down effected by raising or lowering that V.P.I. by some amount, such as 0.3
meters.
Note in the example that Unit Mass figures of 4290, 8570, 5420, 4910 and 6410 are
tabulated for V.P.I.'s at stations 8+00, 27+50, 41+00, 53+00 and 65+00 respectively.
Page 11-9
Chapter 11
Mass Haul Diagrams
The designer superimposes a desired zero mass line on the diagram and scales the difference
in mass ordinates between the existing and desired zero mass line at each V.P.I (tabulated as
5000, 18,000, 18,000, 23,000, 27,500 and 30,000).
Next the designer calculates the difference in mass ordinates between succeeding V.P.I's
(tabulated as 5000, 13,000, 0, 5000, 4500 and 2500) as shown in Figure 11-5. Note that the
desired mass ordinate change between stations 0+00 and 8+00 is 5000 cubic meters and that
the unit mass at station 8+00 is 4290 cubic meters which results in an elevation change of
5000/4290 = +1.17 meters. Likewise, the P.I. elevation at station 27+50 must be raised 1.52
meters (13,000/8570). Since there is no required change in mass ordinate between station
27+50 and 41+00, no elevation change is required at station 41+00. The P.I. elevation at
station 53+00 must be raised +1.02 meters (5000/4910). Note that since the last P.I. at station
72+50 will not be adjusted, the ordinate differences of 4500 and 2500 must be added and
divided by the unit mass at station 65+00 (6410), resulting in an elevation change of +1.09
meters for the P.I. at station 65+00.
It must be pointed out that the unit mass figure is calculated by the computer program
assuming that the roadway template is moved up or down uniformly and the results are not
reliable if large elevation changes are made which result in changes in fill slopes or cut
slopes. The above procedure is an approximation but will prove quite valuable in achieving
the desired zero mass line in successive trial balances.
Figure 11-5: Computations of V.P.I. Elevation Changes Using Unit Mass Data
(Excess Excavation- Raise V.P.I. Elevations)
Page 11-10
c)
Chapter 11
Mass Haul Diagram
The third example, Figure 11-6, is very similar to the one described in paragraph
B, except that the mass haul diagram starts with excess embankment and then
goes into excess excavation. This will require the lowering of some V.P.I.'s and
raising of others. The procedure followed in achieving the desired zero-mass line
is the same as described in b. above using unit mass, ordinate for zero mass line,
difference in ordinates, and elevation changes. Note the V.P.I's at stations 14+25
and 44+00 are labeled "Hold", meaning that the elevations of these V.P.I.'s will
not be altered.
The mass difference used in determining the elevation change at station 22+50 must be
increased by 500 since the V.P.I. at station 10+00 shows a hold. Similarly, the mass
difference at station 52+00 is 7000 (4000+3000) since the V.P.I. at station 44+00 shows a
hold.
Experience has shown that balancing earthworks using the unit mass figures furnished by
computer listings are quite reliable and a very useful tool in balancing earthwork. Designers
are encouraged to use this method.
Page 11-11
Chapter 11
Mass Haul Diagrams
Figure 11-6: Computation of V.P.I. Elevation Changes Using R.D.S. Unit Mass
Data (Excess Embankment and Excavation- Raise V.P.I. Elevations)
Page 11-12
12
Chapter 12
AtGrade Junctions
AT-GRADE JUNCTIONS
12.1 Introduction
A junction, or intersection, is the general area where two or more roads join. A
disproportionate amount of traffic accidents occur at junctions, and thus from a traffic safety
aspect junctions require attention and careful design. Good junction design should allow
transition from one route to another or through movement on the main route and intersecting
route with minimum delay and maximum safety. To accomplish this, the layout and
operation of the junction should be obvious to the driver, with good visibility between
conflicting movements.
Differing junction types will be appropriate under different circumstances depending on
traffic flows, speeds, and site limitations. Types of junctions include:
1)
2)
3)
4)
T-Junctions
Cross-Junctions
Roundabouts
Grade Separation: Discussed in Chapter 13
This chapter describes the design for all at-grade junctions. A checklist for junction design is
presented in Figure 12-12 at the end of the chapter.
12.2 Design Requirements
The design of junctions must take account of the following basic requirements:
Safety
Operational comfort
Capacity
Economy
A junction is considered safe when it is visible, comprehensible, and maneuverable. These
three requirements can generally be met by complying with the following guidelines.
12.2.1 VISIBILITY
The junction should be sited so that the major road approaches are readily visible. The angle
of skew of the junction should be no more than 20 degree from perpendicular.
12.2.2 COMPREHENSION
(i) The right of way should follow naturally and logically from the junction layout.
(ii) The types of junctions used throughout the whole road network should be
similar.
(iii) The use of road signs is necessary. Road markings and other road furniture may
also be required.
Page 12-1
Chapter 12
At-Grade Junctions
12.2.3 MANEUVERABILITY
(i) All traffic lanes should be of adequate width and radius for the appropriate
vehicle turning characteristics. To accommodate truck traffic, turn radii shall be
15 meters minimum.
(ii) The edges of traffic lanes should be clearly indicated by road markings.
The operation of the junction depends principally upon the frequency of gaps that naturally
occur between vehicles in the main road flow. These gaps should be of sufficient duration to
permit vehicles from the minor road to merge with, or cross, the major road flow. In
consequence junctions are limited in capacity, but this capacity may be optimized by, for
example, canalization or the separation of maneuvers.
12.3 Selection of Junction Type
The choice of a junction type requires knowledge of traffic demand, intersection
performance and accident prediction. It is often difficult to determine the best intersection
type of any particular situation, taking into account capacity, delay, safety and physical
layout factors. Several alternatives may be possible at a junction. A guide for the selection of
junction type based on different combinations of traffic flows is presented in Figure 12-1.
For the lower volume junctions, the applicable junction type vs. traffic flow is presented in
further detail in Figure 12-2. Basic advantages and disadvantages of different junction types,
including grade separation, are as follows:
Priority (T-Junction, Cross-Junction). For low flows. Can cause long delays.
Requires sufficient stopping sight distance. Delays can be improved by signal
installation.
Roundabouts. For low to medium flows. Minimal delays at lower flows. Shown
to be safer than priority junctions. Requires attention to pedestrian movements
and accommodation of slow-moving traffic.
Grade-Separation. For high flows. Results in minimal delays. Expensive.
Subsequent text gives further information on each junction type.

12.4 T-Junctions
The basic junction layout for rural roads is the T-junction with the major road traffic having
priority over the minor road traffic. Applications of T-junctions include staggered Tjunction, which caters to cross-traffic. Staggered T-junctions are often the result of a
realignment of the minor route to improve the angle of the skew of the crossing, as shown In
Figure 12-3. Where such staggered T-junctions are used, the left-right stagger is preferred to
the right-left stagger (see Figure 12-3). The reason for this is that, in the latter case, a
crossing vehicle must re-enter the minor road by making a left turn on the major roadway. In
such cases, the inclusion of a left-turning lane between the staggers should be considered.
The minimum distance between the T-junctions is shown in Table 12-1.
Page 12-2
Chapter 12
AtGrade Junctions
Figure 12-1: Junction Selection Based on Traffic Flows
Figure 12-2: T-Junction Selection for Various Major and Minor Road Traffic Flows
Page 12-3
Chapter 12
At-Grade Junctions
Figure 12-3: Staggered X-Junctions
12.5 Cross Junctions

A cross junction has four legs and is present where two highways cross each other. Overall
principles of design, island arrangements, use of turning lanes, and other parameters are
similar to those used in T-junctions.
Experience in some countries has shown that converting crossroads into roundabouts can
reduce accident costs by more than 80 percent.
Where more complex junction layouts involving the intersection of four or more roads are
encountered, these should be simplified by redesign to two junctions, or a roundabout should
be used.
Having selected the basic junction layout, it is necessary to adapt this basic layout in
accordance with the following principles to ensure that a safe, economic and geometrically
satisfactory design will be produced.
12.6 Distance between Adjoining Junctions
Level of service and driver perception is affected by the spacing of junctions. It certain
cases, it may be necessary to limit the junctions for reasons of safety and serviceability.
Table 12-1 gives a guide to the minimum spacing for each road design standard, and should
be used for the design of new roads or when reviewing junction layouts.
Table 12-1:
Access Control
DESIGN STANDARD
MINIMUM SPACING OF
JUNCTION (M)
DS1
1000
DS2
500
DS3- DS4
300
DS5- DS6
100
DS7- DS10
20
Note: Classifications and spacing are for the major elements of the junction
Page 12-4
Chapter 12
AtGrade Junctions
12.7 Visibility Splay

At all junctions, adequate visibility splay must be provided. For conditions where the minor
road yields to the major road traffic, drivers of vehicles on the major road must be able to see
traffic on the minor road, and vice-versa, as indicated in yield conditions in Figure 12-4 and
Table 12-2. For conditions where the minor road stops before proceeding to the major road,
drivers must have a sight distance for stop conditions as indicated in Figure 12-5 and Table
12-3. If the minor road approach is on a curve, the stopping sight distance for the minor road
design speed must be maintained, and a Stop Ahead sign must be employed.
Figure 12-4: Visibility Splay for Yield Conditions
Table 12-2: Visibility Splay for Yield Conditions

Junction Design speed (km/h)
Approach Length, LA (m)
40
110
50
135
60
160
70
185
85
225
100
260
120
310
100
400
120
500
Figure 12-5: Visibility Splay for Stop Conditions
Table 12-3: Visibility Splay for Stop Conditions

Junction Design speed (km/h)
Stop Length, LS (m)
40
120
50
145
60
185
70
230
85
315
Page 12-5
Chapter 12
At-Grade Junctions
12.8 Turning Lanes

Left and right turning lanes are of particular value on the higher speed and volume roads
when a vehicle slowing down to turn and leave the major road may impede following
vehicles. These are incorporated into the Standard Detail Drawing for all junctions on trunk
and link roads.
12.8.1 RIGHT TURN LANE
Right turn lanes, comprising a taper section and deceleration lane, shall be provided for all
trunk and link road DS1, DS2, and DS3 junctions, and for other road standards meeting any
of the following conditions:
On four or more lane roads and divided highways

When the major road design speed is 100 km/hr or greater, and the present year
AADT on the major road is greater than 1500 AADT
When the present year AADT of the right-turning traffic is greater than 750
AADT
A detail of the layout for the Right Turn Lane is given in Figure 12-6. The length of the right
turn lane including the taper, measured as shown in the figure, is related to design speed as
indicated in Table 12-4. The width of the major approach lane shall be the same as the width
of the traffic lanes.
Figure 12-6: Layout for Right Turn Lane
Table 12-4:
Design Speed of Major Road
(km/h)
70 or less
85
100
120
Page 12-6
Length of Right Turn Lane
Diverging Section
Length (LC) m
30
40
50
60
Deceleration Section
Length (LD)
30
50
70
110
Total Length
(L) m
60
90
120
170
Chapter 12
AtGrade Junctions
12.8.2 LEFT TURN LANES

Warrants are the same as for a right-turning lane. A separate lane for left turning traffic
(traffic turning left from the major road into the minor road) shall be provided for all trunk
and link road DS1, DS2, and DS3 junctions. Warrants for inclusion of left turn lanes for
other road standards are under any of the following conditions:
On four or more lane roads and divided highways
When the major road design speed is 100 km/hr or greater, and the present year
AADT on the major road is greater than 1500 AADT
When the present year AADT of the left-turning traffic is greater than 750
AADT
A left turn lane will consist of a taper section, a deceleration section and a storage section.
The minimum lengths for taper sections are as for right turn lanes. A detail of the layout for
a Left Turn Lane for a single carriageway is given in Figure 12-7; the configuration for dual
carriageways is shown in Figure 12-8. The length of the left turn lane including the taper,
measured as shown in the figure, is related to design speed as indicated in Table 12-5. The
length of the storage section is as indicated in Table 12-6.
Note:
Central reservation to be formed by road markings
Where:
Lc = Length of diverging section
LD = length of deceleration section
LS = Length of storage section
WL = width of through traffic lanes
Figure 12-7: Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Single Carriageway
Page 12-7
Chapter 12
At-Grade Junctions
Notes:
Where:
Edges of central reserve may be curbed in
Lc = Length of diverging section
vicinity of junction. If raised curbs are
LD = length of deceleration section
used then they must be set back 0.25m
LS = Length of storage section
WL = width of through carriageway
from lane edges.
WC = width dependent upon width of central
reserve
CR = Normal central reserve width
Figure 12-8: Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Dual Carriageway

Table 12-5:
Design Speed of Major
Road (km/h)
40
50
60
70
85
100
120
Length of Left-Turn Lane
Diverging Section
Length (LC) m
30
30
30
30
40
50
60
Deceleration Section
Length (LD) m
30
50
60
70
85
100
120
Table 12-6: Lengths of Storage Sections for Left-Turn Lanes

Left-Turning Traffic (AADT)
0-1500
1500-3000
>3000
Page 12-8
Length of Storage Section

(LS) m
20
40
60
Chapter 12
AtGrade Junctions
Provision of left turn lanes can be made for both the major and minor road. On single
roadway roads where a left turn lane is to be provided, a painted central reserve shall always
be used.
In order to accommodate a left turn lane on a single roadway road the roadway has to be
widened to provide the required width. The widening shall be designed so that the through
lanes are given smooth and optically pleasing alignments. The width of the through lanes at
the junction shall be the same as the approach lanes.
The widening shall be provided by the deviation of both through lanes from the centerline.
This shall be achieved by introducing a taper of 100-meter length at the beginning and
ending of the widening.
12.9 Traffic Islands
A traffic island is a defined area between traffic lanes for the control of vehicle movements
and which may also be used as a pedestrian refuge. Traffic islands may take the form of an
area delineated by barrier curbs or a pavement area marked by paint or a combination of
these.
Traffic islands may be included in the design of junctions for one or more of the following
purposes:
Separation of conflicts
Control of angle of conflict
Reduction of excessive pavement areas
Regulation of traffic and indication of proper use of junction
Arrangements to favor a predominant turning movement
Protection of pedestrians
Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles
Location of traffic signs
Islands are either elongated or triangular in shape and are situated in areas not normally used
as vehicle paths, the dimensions depending upon the particular junction or bus stop layout.
The layout of an island is determined by the edges of the through traffic lanes, turning
vehicles and the lateral clearance to the island sides. Island curbs should be offset a
minimum of 0.3 meters from the edge of through traffic lanes even if they are mountable. A
sample of a junction including divisional traffic islands is given in the Standard Detail
Drawings.
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Chapter 12
At-Grade Junctions
12.10 Private Access

A private access is defined as the intersection of an unclassified road with a classified road.
An access shall have entry and exit radii of 6 meters or greater, depending upon the turning
characteristics of the expected traffic. The minimum width shall be 3m. A typical access is
show in Figure 12-9; dotted lines show possible edge of corresponding shoulders. The
location of the access must satisfy the visibility requirement for "stop conditions" given in
Figure 12-4. A drainage pipe shall be placed as required. The access shall be constructed
back to the right-of-way line, with a taper to match the existing access.
Figure 12-9: Typical Access

12.11 Roundabouts
A roundabout is a one-way circulatory system around a central island, entry to which is
controlled by markings and signs. Priority is given to traffic already in the roundabout.
Roundabouts provide high capacity and minimal delay. Roundabouts have a good safety
record.
12.11.1
USE OF ROUNDABOUTS
Near built-up areas and in village centers where the through road may be crossed by local
roads carrying heavy traffic, the use of roundabouts may be considered.
The following factors influence the choice of selecting a roundabout over some other form of
intersection control:
12.11.2
SAFETY
Roundabouts should not be introduced on rural roads where the design speeds of adjacent
sections are 90 km/h or greater. For design speeds approaching this value, consideration
should be given to the use of rumble strips and warning signs at the approaches to warn the
driver to anticipate the roundabout.
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Chapter 12
AtGrade Junctions
Roundabouts are usually more difficult for pedestrians to cross than normal junctions.
12.11.3
TRAFFIC FLOW
High proportions of turning movements favor roundabouts. Roundabouts should generally

be used if the minor road flow is greater than one third of the major road flow. Roundabouts
are also an advantage where peak flows are 50 percent greater than the average flows. The
roundabout depicted in Figure 12-10 and in the Standard Detail Drawings is acceptable for
traffic volumes of up to 15,000. This is based on empirical regression theory, rather than
gap-acceptance theory.
12.11.4
SITE CONDITIONS
Roundabouts generally take up more land than fully canalized junctions do. The additional
land acquisition costs for roundabouts should be balanced against the increased capacity
offered.
12.11.5
DRIVER BEHAVIOR
Roundabouts regularize traffic flow and should reduce accidents as well as increase capacity.
THE GENERAL LAYOUT
12.11.6
The general layout of a roundabout should provide for the following (see Figure 12-12):
Adequate entry widths

Adequate circulation space compatible with entry widths
Central islands of diameter sufficient only to give drivers guidance on the
maneuvers expected.
Deflection of the traffic to the right on entry to promote movement and ensure
low traffic speeds.
A simple and clear layout
Suitable visibility at any entry of each adjacent entry
Entry and exit deflection angles and central island radius should prevent
through speeds in excess of 50 km/h. This is accomplished by maximizing the
difference between the shortest track a driver can take through the roundabout,
vs. the straight-line distance from an entry to the opposite exit. No vehicle path
should allow a vehicle to traverse the roundabout at a radius greater than 100
meters (see Figure 12-11).
A standard design for the layout of a roundabout suitable for use in villages is given in the
Standard Detail Drawings.
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Chapter 12
At-Grade Junctions
Figure 12-10: Roundabout Layout
Figure 12-11: Vehicle Path through Roundabout

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Chapter 12
AtGrade Junctions
Figure 12-12: Roundabout Dimensions

The following steps may be followed in laying out a trial geometry for a roundabout:
1.
2.
Select the general design criteria to be used

Select the appropriate design vehicle for the site. This will generally be the DV4 for all design
standards.
3. Adopt a minimum design vehicle turning radius. This will generally be 15m radius. Check the
design using the template from Figure 5-11.
4. Determine from traffic flows the number of lanes required on entry, exit and circulation
5. Identify the needs of pedestrians
6. Identify the location of controls such as right-of-way boundaries, utilities, access requirements,
and establish the space available
7. Select a trial central island diameter and determine the width needed of the circulating
carriageway
8. Draw the roundabout
9. Check that the size and shape is adequate to accommodate all intersecting legs with sufficient
separations for satisfactory traffic operations
10. Lay out the entrance/exit islands
11. Check the achievement of adequate deflection (Figure 12-11). Adjust as required.
12. Check site distances at approaches and exits.
13. Layout lane and pavement markings.
14. Layout lighting plan
15. Layout sign plan.
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Chapter 12
At-Grade Junctions
FIGURE 12-13: CHECKLIST FOR JUNCTION DESIGN
1. Will the junction be able to carry the expected/future traffic levels without becoming
overloaded and congested?
2. Have the traffic and safety performance of alternative junction designs been
considered?
3. Is the route through the junction as simple and clear to all users as possible?
4. Is the presence of the junction clearly evident at a safe distance to approaching
vehicles for all directions?
5. Are warning and information signs placed sufficiently in advance of the junction for
a driver to take appropriate and safe action given the design speeds on the road?
6. On the approach to the junction, is the driver clearly aware of the actions necessary
to negotiate the junction safely?
7. Are turning movements segregated as required for the design standard?
8. Are drainage features sufficient to avoid the presence of standing water?
9. Is the level of lighting adequate for the junction, location, pedestrians, and the
design standard?
10. Are the warning signs and markings sufficient, particularly at night?
11. Have the needs of pedestrian and noon-motorized vehicles been met?
12. Are sight lines sufficient and clear of obstructions including parked and stopped
vehicles?
13. Are accesses prohibited a safe distance away from the junction?
14. Have adequate facilities such as footpaths, refuges, and crossings, been provided
for pedestrians?
15. Does the design, road marking and signing clearly identify rights of way and
priorities?
16. Is the design of the junction consistent with road types and adjacent junctions?
17. Are the turning lanes and tapers where required of sufficient length for speeds and
storage?
Date: ................................ Designer
Date: ..................... Responsible Engineer
...........................................................................................................................................
Page 12-14
13
Chapter 13
Grade - Separated Junctions
GRADE SEPARATED JUNCTIONS
13.1 General
The circumstances in which the use of a grade separated junction is warranted are usually as
follows:
An at-grade junction has insufficient capacity (see Figure 13-1)
The junction is justified economically from the savings in traffic delays and
accident costs
Grade separation is cheaper on account of topography or on the grounds that
expensive land appropriation can be avoided by its construction
For operational reasons
Where roads cross motorways
In deciding on the location of a grade-separated junction, the following factors should be
taken into account:
Trip length (travel distance)
Size of urban areas
Predicted traffic volumes
Cost of junction
Congestion control
The use of grade separation results in the separation of traffic movements between the
intersecting roads so that only merging or diverging movements remain. The extent to which
individual traffic movements should be separated from each other depends mainly upon
capacity requirements and traffic safety aspects; it also depends upon the extent to which
important traffic movements should be given free flow conditions.
13.2 Choice of Scheme
From a study of conflicting traffic movements, it will generally be apparent which traffic
streams must be grade separated, leaving the other streams to be dealt with by junctions at
grade; the choice of these will depend upon the capacities needed. A study of the
characteristics of various types of grade-separated junctions is necessary, and a number of
alternative designs should be prepared. The final choice of scheme must satisfy capacity
requirements, geometric standards, and operational needs, and represent an economical
design. In some instances the choice of a particular design will be determined by the
adoption of two-stage construction, e.g. constructing an at-grade junction first and providing
grade separation later.
13.3 Geometric Standards
The geometric standards given in this manual for roads and at-grade junctions also apply to
grade separated junctions. However, the low design speeds of loops and other ancillary roads
necessitate further standards to be given. These are described below:
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Chapter 13
13.3.1 DESIGN SPEED

The design speed for the through traffic movements shall be determined in accordance with
Chapter 5. Stopping sight distances appropriate for the design speed should always be
provided.
Where a dual carriageway intersects with another dual carriageway, the junction between the
facilities shall be effected in such a manner that the loop roads do not entail any significant
reduction in the design speeds of the crossing carriageways.
13.3.2 ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION LANES
The minimum standards to be applied for right turn deceleration lanes are the same as for atgrade junctions.
The total length of the acceleration lane (i.e. not including the merging taper) shall never be
less than 150 meters or more than 400 meters.
13.3.3 HORIZONTAL CURVES AND SUPERELEVATION
The maximum superelevation for loops shall be e = 8% which, at a design speed of 50 km/h,
leads to a minimum radius of 80 meters. Where smaller radii are unavoidable, warning signs
will be necessary.
It is important where transitions occur from high to low speeds that the curves should be
compound or transitional, the radius at any point being appropriate for the vehicle speed at
that point.
13.3.4 VERTICAL CURVES
To ensure reasonable standards of visibility, comfort and appearance, vertical curves should
be introduced at all changes in gradient. Vertical curve lengths should be determined in
accordance with Chapter 9 so as to provide safe stopping sight distances.
13.3.5 GRADIENTS
Maximum gradient shall be 8%.
13.3.6 WIDTHS OF LOOPS
The minimum carriageway width for loops on straight sections and horizontal radii greater
than 150m shall be 4.0m with shoulders of 1.5 meters on the near side and 1.0 meter on the
far side (widened by 0.5 meter where guardrail is required). For loops on radii of 150 meter
or less, the carriageway width shall be in accordance with Table 13-1.
Page 13-2
Chapter 13
Table 13-1: Widths for Loops

Radius (meters)
25
30
40
50
75
100
150
Carriageway Width (m)
5.3
5.0
4.6
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.0
13.3.7 GRADIENTS
For loops, an up gradient of 5% and a down gradient of 7% should normally be regarded as
maximal.
13.3.8 CLEARANCES
The required vertical and horizontal clearances shall be in accordance with Chapters 6 and 9.
13.3.9 CAPACITY
Grade-separated junctions are generally designed using traffic volumes given in Daily High
Volume (DHV) rather than Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADTs). A detailed traffic study
and analysis can be made to determine these values. In the absence of such a study, it can be
assumed that DHV, in an urban area, is 10% of AADT. It is also a good estimate of vehicles
per hour. The capacity of each traffic lane, in DHV, is usually given as 1000 vehicles per
hour.
Thus, for instance, Table 2-1, which gives a dual carriageway Design Standard DS1,
indicates a design traffic flow of 10,000 to 15,000 AADT. The capacity of this facility would
be exceeded at more than 1000 vehicles per hour per lane, which equates to 4000 vehicles
per hour for all four lanes, and approximately is 40,000 AADT. In practice, this volume is
undesirable, and the volumes of between 10,000-15,000 are appropriate for design.
These DHV values are necessary in choosing the number of lanes for the loops
corresponding to the junction.
13.3.10 MINIMUM SPACING
The distance between two successive grade-separated junctions is an element of great
importance in ensuring the desired level of service. In suburban zones, therefore, it is
necessary to establish a minimum distance between successive grade-separated junctions.
The recommended minimum distance is 2.0km.
13.4 Design Principles
Special design principles apply to grade separated junctions and must be considered when
comparing the characteristics of alternative designs. The main principles and described
below:
Page 13-3
Chapter 13
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The high speeds normally met with on roads where grade separation is required
and the low design speeds of ancillary roads make it necessary to pay particular
attention to the transitions between high and low speed. This not only
influences the use of long speed-change lanes and compound curves but also
the choice of types of interchange which do not result in abrupt changes in
vehicle speeds.
Weaving between lanes on the main roadway within the interchange is
undesirable and can be avoided by arranging for diverging points to precede
merging points.
On a road with a large number of grade-separated junctions, a consistent design
speed is desirable for loops. This speed shall be not less then 65% of the speed
of the adjoining major road.
As a general rule, left-turning movements that are grade separated should be
made through a right-hand loop.
Unexpected prohibited traffic movements, especially where traffic is light, are
difficult to enforce and cause danger. If possible the geometric layout should be
designed to make prohibited movements difficult, e.g. on one-way loops entry
contrary to the one way movement can be restricted by the use of suitably
shaped traffic islands to supplement the traffic signs.
13.5 Types of Junction

Grade separated junctions generally fail into four categories depending upon the number of
roads involved and their relative importance. These categories are as follows:
Three-way junctions;
Junctions of major/minor roads;
Junctions of two major roads; and
Junctions of more than two major roads.
Each category is discussed briefly below with reference, where appropriate, to the basic line
diagram layouts shown in Figure 13-1.
13.5.1 THREE-WAY JUNCTIONS (LAYOUTS A AND B)
For some Y-junctions where grade separation of only one traffic stream is required, Layout
A may be appropriate. The movements associated with the missing leg would have to be
channeled to another location. This would only be appropriate of the traffic volumes on the
missing leg were slight and were capable of being served by an at-grade junction elsewhere.
See Figure 12-1 for an indication of appropriate volumes.
Layout B shows a typical three-leg junction. It is appropriate for traffic where the major road
is DS1 and the minor road is DS2- DS6. This configuration is appropriate for traffic volumes
of up to 30,000 AADT on the four-lane major road (3,000 vehicles per hour). With a single
loop lane, it is appropriate for loop traffic of 1,000 vehicles per hour. Higher loop traffic
would require multiple loop lanes.
Page 13-4
Chapter 13
13.5.2 JUNCTIONS OF MAJOR/MINOR ROADS (LAYOUTS C AND D)

Layouts C and D are the most simple for major/minor road junctions and both transfer the
major traffic conflicts to the minor road. These configurations are appropriate for traffic
volumes of up to 30,000 AADT on the four-lane major road (3,000 vehicles per hour), with
traffic of up to 10,000 ADT on the minor road. They are appropriate for traffic where the
major road is DS1 and the minor road is DS2- DS6. With a single loop lane, it is appropriate
for loop traffic of 1,000 vehicles per hour. Higher loop traffic would require multiple loop
lanes.
Layout C shows the half cloverleaf type of junction, which has the advantage of being
easily adapted to meet difficult site conditions.
Layout D shows the normal diamond junction, which requires the least land appropriation.
The choice between these options is generally dependent on land requirements.
13.5.3 JUNCTIONS OF TWO MAJOR ROADS (LAYOUTS E AND F)
Layouts E and F show the two basic junction layouts use where high traffic flows would
make the use of simpler layouts unsatisfactory. They are appropriate for traffic volumes on
both crossing roads of between 10,000 and 30,000 AADT (3,000 vehicles per hour).
.
Layout E shows a full cloverleaf junction involving only one bridge but requiring a large
land appropriation.
Layout F shows a typical roundabout interchange involving two bridges. This layout would
only be suitable if the secondary road containing the roundabout was of a low design speed
but carried a comparatively higher volume of traffic.
13.5.4 JUNCTIONS OF MORE THAN TWO MAJOR ROADS
These junctions are difficult to design, operationally difficult, occupy large areas of land and,
requiring numerous bridges, are extremely expensive. This type of junction, although
unlikely to be required on rural roads in Ethiopia, can often be reduced by changes in the
major road alignments, which will simplify the traffic pattern, to a combination of the more
simple and economic layouts described above.
Page 13-5
Chapter 13
LAYOUT A
LAYOUT C
LAYOUT B
LAYOUT D
LAYOUT F
LAYOUT E
Figure 13-1: Typical Layouts for Grade-Separated Junctions
Page 13-6
14
Chapter 14
Safety
SAFETY AND MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ITEMS
14.1 Introduction
Road user safety has economic consequences in terms of property damage and loss of
earnings or production resulting from physical injury, in addition to the motional
consequences of pain, suffering and death. Safety and economy are the foundations on which
competent design rests. Inadequate consideration of either will automatically result in
inadequate design. A checklist of engineering design features that affect road safety is given
in Figure 14-1.
Miscellaneous design items in this chapter include safety rest areas and scenic overlooks,
bus lay-byes and parking bays, parking lanes, public utilities, railway grade crossings, safety
barriers, and emergency escape ramps.
14.2 Safety Rest Areas and Scenic Overlooks
Safety rest areas and scenic overlooks are desirable elements of the complete highway
development and are provided for the safety and convenience of the highway user.
A safety rest area is a roadside area with parking facilities separated from the roadway,
provided for the motorist to stop and rest for short periods. The rest area shall provide the
user with an opportunity to halt in an atmosphere that affords a distinct change from the
monotony of driving.
A scenic overlook is a roadside area provided for motorists to park their vehicles, beyond the
shoulder, primarily for viewing the scenery or for taking photographs in safety. The
attraction of such a facility depends upon the presence of scenic and historical points of
interest. The facilities shall be designed so as to avoid marring the landscape.
Site selection for safety rest areas and scenic overlooks should consider the scenic quality of
the area, accessibility, and adaptability to development. Site plans should be developed that
should include proper and safe location of entrances and exits, road signs and markings,
acceleration and deceleration lanes as required, and parking areas for cars and trucks. They
may also include certain types of rest facilities (benches, tables, shelters, drinking fountains,
restrooms).
Where such facilities are specified, the average distance between rest areas shall be 15- 25
km. As far as possible, locations for such facilities shall be avoided where adjacent roadway
gradients are in excess of 4%.
14.3 Bus Lay-Byes and Parking Bays
Rural Bus lay-byes serve to remove buses from the traffic lanes. Parking bays are provided
for taxis and other vehicles to stop outside of the roadway. The location and design of lay-
Page 14-1
Chapter 14
Safety
byes should provide ready access in the safest and most efficient manner possible. Providing
lay-byes clear of the lanes for through traffic can considerably reduced the interference
between buses, taxis and other traffic.
To be fully effective, lay-byes should incorporate
A deceleration lane or taper to permit easy entrance to the loading area
A standing space sufficiently long to accommodate the maximum number of
vehicles expected to occupy the space at one time
A merging lane to enable easy reentry into the through-traffic lanes.
The deceleration lane should be tapered at an angle flat enough to encourage the bus or taxi
operator to pull completely clear of the through lane. A taper of 5:1, longitudinal to
transverse, is a desirable minimum.
A loading area should provide 15 meters of length for each bus. The width should be at least
3.5 meters and preferably 4.0 meters. The merging or reentry taper may be somewhat more
abrupt than the deceleration taper but, preferably, should not be sharper than 3:1.
The total length of lay-byes for a two-bus loading area of minimum design should be as
shown in Figure 14-2 and in the Standard Detail Drawings. These lengths of lay-byes
expedite bus maneuvers, encourage full compliance on the part of bus and taxi drivers, and
lessen interference with through traffic. Sufficient footpath shall be provided at the bus layby.
The standard detail drawings show a bus turnout at a mid-block location. They also depict a
parking bay (see also Figure 14-2).
Page 14-2
Chapter 14
Safety
Figure 14-1: Engineering Design Features Affecting Road Safety
Page 14-3
Chapter 14
Safety
Figure 14-2: Bus Lay-Byes and Parking Bays

Locating bus lay-byes and parking bays on the near side of junctions is to be discouraged.
Where possible, bus turnouts should be positioned subsequent to junctions. This location
minimizes congestion and delays at the junction. It is preferable that they are located at least
75m past an intersection.
14.4 Parking Lanes
Parking lanes differ from parking bays in that they allow for parking of vehicles rather than
buses and taxis. They should be provided at all congested business and shopping areas. The
parking lane width for parallel parking is 3m, which may be reduced to 2.5m where available
space is limited. Where additional parking capacity is desired and sufficient carriageway
width is available, angle parking may be adopted.
14.5 Public Utilities
14.5.1 GENERAL
All highway improvements, whether upgraded within the existing right-of-way or entirely on
new right-of-way, generally entail adjustment of utility facilities. The costs of utility
adjustment vary considerably depending on the location of project. Utilities include:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Page 14-4
Sanitary sewers
Water supply lines
Overhead and underground power and communications lines
Drainage and irrigation lines
Chapter 14
Safety
The following factors should be considered in the location and design of utility installations.
Utility lines should be located to minimize need for later adjustment, to accommodate future
highway improvements, and to permit servicing such lines with minimum interference to
traffic.
Longitudinal installation should be located on a uniform alignment as near as practicable to
the right-of-way line so as to provide a safe environment for traffic operation and preserve
space for future highway or street improvements of other utility installations.
To the extent feasible and practicable, utility line crossings of the highway should cross on a
line generally normal to the highway alignment. Those utility crossings those are more likely
to require future servicing should be encased or installed in tunnels to permit servicing
without disrupting the traffic flow.
The horizontal and vertical location of utility lines within the highway right-of-way limits
should conform to the clear roadside policies and specific conditions for the particular
section involved. Safety of the traveling public should be a prime consideration in the
location and design of utility facilities on highway rights-of-way.
Sometimes attachment of utility facilities to highway structures, such as bridges, is a
practical arrangement and may be authorized. Electric and Telephone Cables and watermain
placing in one trench should be done according to Figure 14.3 unless otherwise stated by the
concerned institutions.
All utility installations on, over, or under highway right-of-way and attached structures
should be of durable materials designed for long service-life expectancy, relatively free from
routine servicing and maintenance, and meet or exceed the requirements of the applicable
industry codes or specifications.
On new construction in road locations no utility should be situated under any part of the
road, except where it must cross the highway.
Utility poles and other aboveground utility appurtenances that would constitute hazards to
errant vehicles should not be permitted within the highway clear zone. The only exceptions
permitted would be where the appurtenance is breakaway or could be installed behind a
traffic barrier erected to protect errant vehicles from some other hazard. The clear zone
dimension that is to be maintained for a specific functional classification is found in Chapter
6: Cross Section Elements.
14.5.2 ETHIOPIAN ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER AUTHORITY
The placement of light poles, power poles, wires, and underground cables, as per the
Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority guidelines, is given in the Appendix D.
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Chapter 14
Safety
14.5.3 ADDIS ABABA WATER AND SEWERAGE AUTHORITY

The placement of water and sewerage pipes, as per the Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage
Authority, is given in the Appendix D.
14.5.4 ETHIOPIAN TELECOMMUNICATIONS CORPORATION
The placement of telecommunications cables, as per the Ethiopian Telecomm unications
Corporation, is given in the Appendix D.
Figure 14-3 Utilities placement detail

14.6 Railway Grade Crossings
The horizontal and vertical geometrics of a highway approaching an at-grade railway
crossing should be constructed in a manner that does not necessitate a driver to divert
attention to roadway conditions. If possible, the highway should intersect the tracks at a right
angle with no nearby intersections or driveways.
This layout enhances the driver's view of the crossing and tracks and reduces conflicting
vehicular movements.
Where this is not possible, the angle of skew shall be not greater than 45 (see Figure 14-4).
Crossings should not be located on either highway or railway curves. Roadway curvature
inhibits a driver's view of a crossing ahead and a driver's attention may be directed towards
negotiating the curve rather than looking for a train. Railway curvature may inhibit a driver's
view down the tracks from both a stopped position at the crossing and on the approach to the
crossings.
Page 14-6
Chapter 14
Safety
Figure 14-4: Railway Crossing Details with Rumble strips

Where highways that are parallel with main tracks intersect highways that cross the tracks,
there should be sufficient distance between the tracks and the highway intersections to
enable highway traffic in all directions to move expeditiously and safely.
It is desirable that the intersection of the highway and railroad be made as level as possible
from the standpoint of sight distance, ride ability, braking and acceleration distances (see
Figure 14-5). Vertical curves should be of sufficient length to insure an adequate view of the
crossing, and crest and sag curves are the same as for the roadway design. The sight distance
requirements down the tracks are similar to those for a roadway junction.
It is necessary to install signing to provide a safe crossing. Traffic control devices for
railroad-highway grade crossings consist of signs and pavement markings. Standards for
design and placement of these devices are covered in the Standard Detail Drawings.
Not to scale
Figure 14-5: Railway Crossings Details on Vertical Curve
Page 14-7
Chapter 14
Safety
14.7 Safety Barriers

Many accidents on high-speed roads involve vehicles leaving the road and coming into
collision with hazardous obstacles such as trees, bridge supports, or simply rolling down a
high embankment. Similarly, a vehicle leaving a lane on a dual carriageway runs the risk of
collision with an oncoming vehicle. Barriers may also protect roadside facilities from vehicle
impact. The risk of these types of accidents can be reduced by the use of safety barriers
(guardrails). The purpose of the barrier is to absorb or deflect the impact with as little
severity as possible.
Safety barriers should be placed sufficiently far from the carriageway edge so as not to cause
a hazard to vehicles, nor to reduce the effective width of the carriageway.
There is no standardization of the configuration of safety barriers at present. A description of
each type of guardrail and a brief discussion of the positive and negative elements of each
type follows.
14.7.1 JERSEY BARRIERS
Of the guardrail types available, the Jersey barrier is the configuration classified as the
safest. Constructed of concrete, this rigid barrier has the best chance of preventing the
vehicle from proceeding beyond the barrier.
It also has the best chance of avoiding vehicle and occupant injury if impacted, as the profile
allows the vehicle to ride up the barrier. However, the following problems have been noted:
Jersey barriers must be continuous, as an opening, in addition to providing no
protection, is in itself a hazard.
The beginning and end of the barriers usually include no transition sections,
and thus represent a hazard when hit head-on.
14.7.2 GROUTED ROCK GUARDRAIL
This rigid barrier makes economic sense in that it employs materials available locally in its
construction, and also serves as a means of labor-intensive employment. However, the rail
tends to be of a wider configuration than the others, and therefore requires a larger
construction width. As it is of solid and substantial construction, it also represents a hazard
of itself. This could be mitigated by the inclusion of end sections, and by the employment of
a cross-section more closely approximating to that of a Jersey barrier.
14.7.3 STEEL RAIL GUARDRAIL
This is perhaps the most common worldwide configuration of guardrail. This flexible barrier
allows energy absorption by the barrier, leading to less severe accidents. Using a steel rail
supported by wood or concrete posts, its configuration is shown in Figure 14-6. Special
attention should be paid to the end sections, which should not be blunt. The safest
configuration is for the end section to be buried into the side slope.
Page 14-8
Chapter 14
Safety
14.7.4 WIRE-ROPE BARRIERS

This type of guardrail consists of two strands of cables fed through concrete posts. These
guardrails are the least desirable configuration due to two factors:
If the cable is snapped due to an impact, the entire length of guardrail becomes
ineffective. By comparison, if a steel rail configuration is hit, only one segment is
ineffective.
It appears that in some cases the cable is lost due to theft, whether for use in towing a
vehicle or for some other reason.
14.7.5 SUGGESTIONS REGARDING PLACEMENT OF BARRIERS
The routine employment of barriers is called into question for several reasons:
In addition to the construction cost of the guardrail itself, there are other related costs.
These include the need to construct a wider roadway width to provide a platform for
the construction of the guardrail. This is necessary particularly in mountainous terrain
and in rock cuts, and adds more to the construction costs than the cost of the guardrail
itself.
Traffic volumes are light on low-standard roads. It is likely that, in light of these
volumes, if the placement of guardrails were quantified using a cost/benefit analysis,
the indication is that they would not be cost effective.
Where mountainous terrain with steep side slopes is encountered, the conscientious
driver will automatically adjust his behavior to compensate for the safety hazards
anticipated associated with the terrain, minimizing the need for the guidance provided
by the guardrail.
Guidelines rather than standards usually govern the placement or non-placement of
guardrails. Thus they are not an essential requirement for the road construction.
The above factors can create problems with liability. Liability is minimized when
guardrail placement is not a requirement. Conversely, if guardrails are placed but not
maintained, the chances of a finding of liability are much greater.
The conclusion reached from consideration of the above is that guardrails should not
routinely be constructed where long and steep side slopes are encountered. However, a
compromise in the interest of safety is to provide delineators at all such sections.
Conversely, short sections of guardrail should be employed on the approaches to all bridges.
Without these, an errant driver can impact on the blunt end of the bridge rail, or proceed
down the steep side slope into the river. Guardrails should be used at all four corners of the
bridges, and should be of a parabolic end section configuration such that the guardrail begins
a distance from the edge of the lane. The end treatment should not be blunt, but should be
buried into the ground. Decreasing the spacing of the guardrail posts to provide a transition
from the deformable rail section to the solid bridge railing should strengthen the section
closest to the bridge railing. The end of the last rail should be doweled into the face of the
bridge rail. Details are as indicated on the ERA Standard Detail Drawings-2002.
Page 14-9
Chapter 14
Safety
Where guardrails are employed, they should include reflectors to aid in the guidance of
vehicles at night.
Safety barriers, or guardrails, are a compromise between the conflicting demands of
construction costs and safety, and are themselves a hazard. To be warranted guardrails
should be a lesser hazard than that which they are intended to replace.
On existing roads an important warrant for guardrail installation is an adverse accident
history. Another warrant for the installation of guardrails is to install these where the driver
cannot anticipate the danger associated with the roadway segment.
In the case of proposed roads, it is necessary to consider whether an accident would be more
likely with or without guardrails, and whether the outcome of such an accident is likely to be
more serious without guardrails than with them. In certain areas where guardrails may be of
benefit, for instance in mountainous terrain, it is often the case that the additional width
requirement for such installation cannot be achieved without significant earthwork costs,
often comprising rock materials
Another factor is that where guardrails are employed they need to be maintained. The
responsible authority cannot be held liable for not installing guardrails, but could be held
liable for an accident due to an un-maintained portion of guardrail.
Guardrails are only mandated at approaches to narrow bridges, being those of a width of
7.32 meters or narrower. A standard guardrail detail is shown in the ERA Standard Detail
Drawings 2002 and in Figure 14-6.
Figure 14-6: Guardrail
14.8 Emergency Escape Ramps

Where long, descending gradients exist, the provision of an emergency escape ramp at an
appropriate location is desirable for the purpose of stopping an out-of control vehicle away
from the main traffic stream.
Page 14-10
Chapter 14
Safety
14.8.1 NEED AND LOCATION

Highway alignment, gradient, length, and descent speed contribute to the potential for out-of
control vehicles. For existing highways a field review of the problem grade may reveal
damaged guardrail, gouged pavement surfaces or spilled oil, indicating locations where
operators of heavy vehicles have had difficulty negotiating a downgrade.
While there are no universal guidelines available for new and existing facilities, a variety of
factors are used in selecting the specific site for an escape ramp. Each location presents a
different array of design needs requiring analysis of factors including topography, length and
percent of grade, potential speed, economics, environmental impact, and accident
experience. Ramps should be located to intercept the greatest number of runway vehicles,
such as at intermediate points along the grade.
Escape ramps generally may be built at any feasible location where the main road alignment
is tangent. They should be built in advance of curves that cannot be negotiated safely by a
runaway vehicle, and in advance of populated areas.
14.8.2 TYPES
There are four emergency escape ramps types. These designs are sand pile; and arrester beds,
classified by grade: descending grade, horizontal grade, and ascending grade. These four
configurations are illustrated in Figure 14-7. All function by application of the decelerating
effect of loose material.
Sand piles, composed of loose, dry sand dumped at the ramp site, are usually no more than
120 meters in length. The influence of gravity is dependent on the slope of the surface.
The increase in rolling resistance is supplied by the loose sand. Deceleration characteristics
of sand piles are usually severe and the sand can be affected by weather. Because of these
characteristics, the sand pile is less desirable than the arrester bed.
However, at locations where inadequate space exists for another type of ramp, the sand pile
may be appropriate because of its compact dimensions.
Escape ramps are constructed adjacent to the carriageway. The use of loose material in the
arrester bed increases the rolling resistance to slow the vehicle. Descending ramps can be
rather lengthy because gravitational effects are not acting to help reduce the speed of the
vehicle.
Page 14-11
Chapter 14
Safety
Source: AASHTO
Figure 14-7: Basic Types of Emergency Escape Ramps
The preferred type of escape ramp is the ascending type with an arrester bed. Ramp
installations of this type use gradient resistance to advantage, supplementing the effects of
the aggregate in the arrester bed, and generally, reducing the length of ramp necessary to
stop the vehicle. The loose material in the arresting bed increases the rolling resistance, and
also serves to hold the vehicle in place on the ramp grade after it has come to a safe stop.
Each one of the ramp types is applicable to a particular situation and must be compatible
with location and topographic controls at possible sites.
14.8.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The design and construction of effective escape ramps involve a number of considerations as
follows:
1. To safely stop an out-of-control vehicle, the length of the ramp must be sufficient to
dissipate the energy of the moving vehicle.
2. The alignment of the escape ramp should be tangential to the carriageway to relieve
the driver of undue vehicle control problems.
3. The width of the ramp should be adequate to accommodate large vehicles, i.e.
minimum 5m width. Widths of ramps range from 3.6 to 12 meters.
4. The in-fill material used in the arrester bed should be clean, not easily compacted, and
have a high coefficient of rolling resistance. In-fill material should be single-sized
natural or crushed coarse granular material or sand. The use of single-size aggregate
Page 14-12
Chapter 14
Safety
5.
6.
7.
8.
minimizes the problems due to moisture retention as well as minimizing required

maintenance, which must be performed by scarifying when the material compacts.
Such material will maximize the percentage of voids, thereby providing optimum
drainage and minimizing compaction. Loose gravel or sand can also be used. A
maximum particle size of 40 millimeters is recommended.
Contamination of in-fill material can reduce the effectiveness of the arrester bed by
creating a hard surface layer at the bottom of the bed. Therefore, an aggregate depth
up to 1.0m is recommended. To assist in decelerating the vehicle smoothly, the depth
of the bed should be tapered from a minimum of 75 millimeters at the entry point to
the full depth of aggregate in the initial 30 to 60 meters of the bed.
A positive means of draining the arrester bed should be provided to avoid
contamination of the arrester bed material. This can be accomplished by grading the
base to drain, intercepting water prior to entering the bed or edge drains. Geotextiles
can be used between the sub-base and the bed materials to prevent infiltration of
fines.
The entrance to the ramp must be designed so that a vehicle traveling at a high rate of
speed can enter safely. Sight distance preceding the ramp should be provided so that
an operator can enter safely. The full length of ramp should be visible to the vehicle
operator. The angle of a departure for the ramp should be small. The main roadway
surfacing should be extended to a point at the bed entrance such that both front
wheels of the out-of-control vehicle will enter the arrester bed simultaneously.
Advance signing is required to inform a driver of the existence of an escape ramp and
to prepare the operator well in advance so that the operator will have enough time to
decide whether or not to use the escape ramp. Regulatory signs near the entrance
should be used to discourage stopping or parking at the ramp.
To determine the distance required to bring a vehicle to a stop with consideration of the
rolling resistance and gradient resistance, the following equation may be used:
L=
V2
254(R G ) / 100
Where:
L
V
G
R
=
=
=
=
distance to stop (i.e. the length of the arrester bed), m

entering velocity, km/h
percent gradient of ramp
rolling resistance expressed as equivalent percent gradient (Table 14-1)
Table 14-1: Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials

Surfacing Material
Crushed aggregate, loose
Gravel, loose
Sand
Pea gravel
Rolling Resistance Equivalent Grade

(kg/100 kg GVM)
(%)a
50
5.0
100
10.0
150
15.0
250
25.0
Rolling resistance expressed as equivalent gradient.

Page 14-13
Chapter 14
Safety
For example, assume that topographic conditions at a site selected for an emergency escape
ramp limit the gradient of an ascending ramp to 10 percent (G = + 0.10). The arrester bed is
to be constructed with loose gravel for an entering speed of 140 km/h. Using Table 14-1, R
is determined to be 0.10. The length necessary is determined from the above equation. For
this case the length of the arrester bed is about 400 meters.
A plan and profile of an emergency escape ramp with typical appurtenances is shown in the
Standard Detail Drawings.
Where a full-length ramp is to be provided with full deceleration capability for the design
speed, a "last chance" device should be considered when the consequences of leaving the
end of the ramp are serious. The use of a ramp end treatment should be designed with care to
insure that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages.
Mounds of in-fill material between 0.6 and 1.5 meter high with 1:1.5 slopes have been used
at the end of ramps in several instances as the "last chance" device.
14.8.4 MAINTENANCE
After each incident the in-fill materials should be reinstated. The arrester beds should be
inspected periodically and the in-fill materials replaced as necessary.
Page 14-14
15
Chapter 15
Road Furniture & Markings
ROAD FURNITURE AND MARKINGS
15.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with road furniture and markings. These features include the elements
intended to improve the driver's perception and comprehension of the continually changing
appearance of the road. Elements addressed herein include traffic signs, road markings,
marker posts, traffic signals, and lighting.
Traffic signs provide essential information to drivers for their safe and efficient maneuvering
on the road. Road markings delineate the pavement edges and thereby clarify the paths that
vehicles are to follow. Marker posts assist in a timely perception of the alignment ahead and,
when equipped with reflectors, provide good optical guidance at night. Traffic signals are
key elements for the efficient functioning of many urban roads and for some rural junctions.
Finally, lighting is provided to improve the nighttime safety of a road.
Traffic signs, road markings, and marker posts shall conform to ERA/RTA standards.
Standards for traffic signs and road markings and their placement are provided in the ERA
Standard Detail Drawings-2002.
15.2 Traffic Signs
The extent to which signs and markings are required depends on the traffic volume, the type
of road, and the degree of traffic control required for safe and efficient operation.
The safety and efficiency of a road depends to a considerable degree on its geometric design.
However, physical layout must also be supplemented by effective traffic signing as a means
of informing and warning drivers, and controlling drivers. Design of traffic signs and road
markings is an intricate part of the design process.
Traffic signs are of three general types:
Regulatory Signs: indicate legal requirements of traffic movement
Warning Signs: indicate conditions that may be hazardous to highway users
Informatory Signs: convey information of use to the driver
15.3 Road Markings
The function of road markings is to encourage safe and expeditious operation. Road
markings either supplement traffic signs and marker posts or serve independently to indicate
certain regulations or hazardous conditions. There are three general types of road markings
in use- pavement markings, object markings and road studs.
Page 15-1
Chapter 15
15.2.1 PAVEMENT MARKINGS

Consist of centerlines, lane lines, no overtaking lines, edge lines, etc. Nighttime visibility of
these markings can be markedly improved by mixing small glass beads into the paint or
thermoplastic before applying it to the road surface. Other pavement markings such as stop
and pedestrian crossings and various word and symbol markings may supplement pavement
markings.
15.2.2 OBJECT MARKERS
Physical obstructions in or near the carriageway should be removed in order to provide the
appropriate clear zone. Where removal is impractical, such objects should be adequately
marked by painting or by use of other high-visibility material. Where the object is in the
direct line of traffic, the obstruction and marking thereon should be reflectorized.
15.2.3 ROAD STUDS
Road studs are manufactured plastic objects incorporating reflectorized patches. Hybrid
markings consisting of both reflective road markings and reflective studs can be useful for
nighttime driving in unlit areas. They are generally placed along the centerline of the road, in
the middle of the broken-line portion of the marking, for added demarcation. The studs can
also be used to give an audible and tactile warning of crossing any line that incorporates
them, such as a pedestrian crossing.
The configuration for road markings is shown in the ERA Standard Detail Drawings-2002.
All permanent pavement and object markings shall be formed in thermoplastic materials and
shall be reflectorized.
15.4 Marker Posts
Marker posts have the function of controlling traffic to encourage safe and expeditious
operation. There are two types of marker posts in use guideposts and kilometer posts.
Guideposts are intended to make drivers aware of potential hazards such as abrupt changes
in shoulder width, abrupt changes in the alignment, approaches to structures etc. for changes
in shoulder width and approaches to structures, guide posts should be placed at 50m
intervals. For spacing of guideposts at curves, see Table 15-1.
Table 15-1: Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves
Curve Radius (m)
500
200
100
50
30
Page 15-2
Guide Post Spacing (m)

35
20
12
8
5
Chapter 15
Kilometer posts are a requirement for all trunk and link roads. The kilometer posts shall be
numbered as indicated in Appendix A beginning at Addis Ababa or beginning at the trunk
road the link road intercepts. Kilometer posts shall be placed every 1 km, past the edge of the
shoulder.
Marker posts shall be constructed from either concrete or plastic. Plastic marker posts may
have the following advantages:
Lower initial costs;
Lower maintenance cost due to their ability to absorb an impact and remain
intact;
Minimal damage to impacting vehicle;
Safer highway environment; and
Unlikely to be removed by local population for alternative use.
The incorporation of reflective panels into the marker post greatly improves their visibility at
night.
15.5 Traffic Signal
Traffic Signals control vehicular and pedestrian traffic by indicating the priority of
movement for certain predetermined or traffic-actuated intervals of time. They are key
elements for the efficient functioning of many urban roads and for some rural junctions. The
phasing of the signals at each road junction should be integrated to achieve optimum
efficiency. In designing the road, careful consideration should be given to the junction
location and geometry with respect to traffic signal visibility and pedestrian requirements.
The layout of traffic lanes at signal-controlled junctions determines the functioning of the
junction. Adequate provision should be made for right and left turning lanes and signals
must be phased accordingly. Consideration should also be given to the provision of
pedestrian signals at major junctions.
15.6 Lighting
Lighting is provided to improve the safety of a road. Statistics indicate that the nighttime
accident rate is higher than during daylight hours, which, to a large degree, may be attributed
to impaired visibility. In urban areas, where there are concentrations of pedestrians and
junctions, fixed source lighting tends to reduce accidents. However, lighting of rural
highways is seldom justified except at junctions, intersections, and railway level crossings,
narrow or long bridges, tunnels, sharp curves, and areas where there is activity adjacent to
the road (e.g. markets).
To minimize the effect of glare and to provide the most economical lighting installation,
luminaries should be mounted at a height of at least 9 meters. High mounted luminaries
provide greater uniformity of lighting and mounting heights of 10 to 15 meters are
frequently used. High mast lighting (special luminaries on masts of 30 meters) is used to
Page 15-3
Chapter 15
illuminate large areas such as intersections. This type of lighting gives a uniform distribution
of light over the whole area and thus illuminates the layout of the intersection.
Lighting columns (poles) should be placed behind vertical kerbs whenever practical. The
appropriate distance is 0.5m behind the kerb for roads with a design speed of 50 km/h or
less, and 1.2m or greater for roads with a design speed of 80 km/h or greater. Where poles
are located within the clear zone, regardless of distances from the edge of the carriageway,
they should be designed to include a frangible impact attenuation feature. However, these
types of poles should not be used on roads in densely populated areas, particularly with
footways. When struck, these poles may collapse and cause injury to pedestrians or damage
adjacent property. Because of lower speeds and parked vehicles on urban roads, there is
much less chance of injuries to vehicle occupants from striking fixed poles as compared to
higher speed roads.
On dual carriageways, lighting may be located either in the median or on the right hand side
of each carriageway. However, with median installation, the cost is generally lower and
illumination is higher on the high-speed outer lanes. On median installations, dual mast arms
should be used, for which 12-15 meter mounting heights are favored.
These should be protected with a suitable safety barrier. On narrow medians, it is preferable
to place the lighting poles so that they are integral with the median barrier.
When it is intended to install highway lighting in the future, providing the necessary
conduits/ducts as part of the initial road construction can effect considerable savings.
Page 15-4
Appendix A
Classification of Roads
A.
CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF ROADS

The following are the classified roads in Ethiopia under the five classes. This
classification should always be updated and the information should be used after
getting confirmation from the relevant ERA Division by the designer.
Table A-1: Numbering of Trunk Roads

Number
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
A10
A10a
Road Section
Addis- Assab
Addis- Axum
Addis- Gondar
Addis- Gimbi
Addis- Metu
Jima-Mizan Teferi
Mojo- Arba Minch
Shashemene- Agere Maryam
Nazareth- Asela
Awash- Dengego- Degehabur
Dengego- Dire Dawa
Total
Length (km)
853
1071
737
445
510
554
432
214
77
572
20
5485
Page A-1
Appendix A
Table A-2: Numbering of Roads

Number
Road Section
D11
I. Trunk Roads
Addis- Assab
Addis Modjo
Modjo- Nazreth
Nazreth - Metehara
Metehara- Awash Junction
Awash Junction Gewane
Gewane Mille
Mille - Semera
Semera Serdo
Serdo - Dobi
Dobi - Burie
Dobi - Galafi
II. Link Roads
Mille - Kombolcha
Mille Bati
Bati - Kombolcha
III. Main Access Roads
-----------IV. Collector Roads
Assaita junc. - Assaita
E11
V. Feeder Roads
Modjo - Ejere - Arerti
A1
A1-1
2 A1-2
A1-3
A1-4
A1-5
A1-6
A1-7
A1-8
A1-9
A1-10
A1a
B11
B11-1
B11- 2
Page A-2
Length
(km)
853
71
25
95
46
153
150
75
30
50
130
28
Surfacing Type
Paved
130
88
42
Unpaved
Paved
50
Unpaved
60
Unpaved
B20
B21
B21-1
B21-2
B22
B22-1
B22-2
B22-3
B22-4
B22-5
I. Trunk Roads
Addis- Axum
Addis Debreberehan
Debreberehan Debresina
Debresina Efeson/Ataye
Efeson/Ataye-Kemisse-Kombolcha
Kombolcha- Dessie
Dessie Woldiya
Wodiya Waja
Waja - Maichew
Maichew- Mekele
Mekele - Adigrat
Adigrat - Adiabun
Adiabun - Axum
II. Link Roads
Addigrat - Zalanbesa
Dessei - Gundowoin
Dessei Mekane Selam
Mekane Selam - Gundowoin
Weldiya -Woreta
Weldiya- Gashena
Gashena Filakit
Filakit Debrezebit
Debrezebit Debre Tabour
Debre Tabour - Woreta
C21

D/Berehan Deneba Jihur
D21
D22
IV. Collector Roads

Tarmaber - Mehalemeda
Robit - Awash
E21
E22
E23
V. Feeder Roads
Senbo - Kesem
D/Berhan - Ankober
Tarmaber - Seladingay
A2
A2-1
A2-2
A2-3
A2-4
A2-5
A2-6
A2-7
A2-8
A2-9
A2-10
A2-11
A2-12
Appendix A
1071
130
60
110
105
25
120
66
80
120
125
108
22
Paved
Paved
Paved
Paved
Paved
Paved/Unpav.
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Paved
Unpaved
Unpaved
35
240
180
60
299
120
22
21
96
40
Paved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
86
Unpaved
135
40
Unpaved
Unpaved
85
42
22
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Page A-3
Appendix A
A3
A3-1
A3-2
A3-3
A3-4
A3-5
A3-6
A3-7
A3-8
A3-9
A3-10
I. Trunk Roads
Addis- Gondar
Addis Commando
Commando Abay River
Abay River Dejen
Dejen Debre Markos
Debre Markos Bure Junction
Bure Junction Dangla
Dangla Bahir Dar
Bahir Dar Werota
Werota Azezo Airport
Azezo Airport - Gondar
737
113
95
22
72
110
73
80
53
101
18
B30
B30-1
B30-2
B30-3
B30-4
B30-5
B31
B31-1
B31-2
B32
B32-1
B32-2
B32-3
B32-4
II. Link Roads

Gondar Axum
Gondar Debark
Debark Adi Arkay
Adi Arkay Boya River
Boya River Inda Selassei
Inda Selassei - Axum
Tik Bahir Dar
Tik - Mota
Mota Bahir Dar
Bure Junction Nekempte
Bure Junction Abay River
Abay River - Gida
Gida Ander Guten
Ander Guten - Nekempte
356
103
73
20
97
63
259
139
120
257
60
89
46
62
Unpaved
C31
C32
C33
C33-1
C33-2
C33-3
C33-4
C34
C35

Mukautre - Alemketema
Mankussa - Birsheleko
Kosober Bambudi
Kosober Chagni
Chagni - Mambuk
Mambuk - Guba
Guba junc. - Bambudi
Azezo - Metema
Gondar - Humera
105
26
323
56
56
131
80
185
250
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
250
53
22
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
23
5
2
Unpaved
Unpaved
D31
D32
D33
IV. Collector Roads

Dogolo Aksta Tenta DawntGashena
Dibate junc. - Dibate
Tissabay junc. Tissabay
E31
E32
V. Feeder Roads
Chancho - Deneba
Azezo - Gorgora
Page A-4
Paved
Paved
Paved
Paved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Paved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Appendix A
A4
A4-1
A4-2
A4-3
A4-4
A4-5
A4-6
I. Trunk Roads
Addis- Gimbi
Addis- Holeta
Holeta - Ambo
Ambo Gedo
Gedo - Bako
Bako - Nekempte
Nekempte - Gimbi
441
40
85
65
57
81
113
B40
B40-1
B40-2
B40-3
B40-4
B41
B42
B42-1
B42-2
B43
B43-1
B43-2
II. Link Roads

Gimbi Assosa
Gimbi Nejo
Nejo Mendi
Mendi Bambasi
Bambasi - Assosa
Ambo Giyon (Weliso)
Nekempte Junction Bedele
Nekempte Junction Dedessa Bridge
Dedessa Bridge Bedele
Gimbi(Mekenajo) Dembidolo
Gimbi(Mekenajo) Alem Teferi
Alem Teferi Dembidolo
233
70
70
51
42
60
92
62
30
197
111
86
Unpaved
C40
C41
C42
C44
C44 -1
C44 -2
C44 -3
C44-4
C44a

Asosa - Kurmuk
Holeta - Muger
Gedo - Fincha
Bambasi - Gambela
Bambasi - Begi
Begi - Mugi
Mugi - Shebel
Shebel - Gambela
Mugi - Dembidolo
96
85
134
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
D41
E41
Paved
Paved
Paved
Paved
Paved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
70
114
94
43
Unpaved
IV. Collector Roads

Nedjo Jarso Shemel Toke
79
Unpaved
V. Feeder Roads
Asossa junc. - Dabus
51
Unpaved
Page A-5
Appendix A
A5
A5-1
A5-2
A5-3
A5-4
A5-5
A5-6
A5-7
B50
B50-1
B50-2
B51
B51-1
B51-2
B51-3
B51-4
B52
B52-1
B52-2
B52-3
B53
B53-1
B53-2
B53-3
C50
C51
C52
C52-1
C52-2
C53
C54
I. Trunk Roads
Addis- Metu
Addis (Alemgena) Giyon (Weliso)
Giyon (Weliso) Walkite
Walkite Gibe River
Gibe River - Saja
Saja - Jimma
Jimma - Bedele
Bedele- Metu
II. Link Roads
Metu Gambella
Metu - Gore
Gore Gambella
Alemgena - Sodo
Alemgena - Butajira
Butajira -Hosaina
Hosaina - Areka
Areka - Sodo
Jima -Sodo
Jima - Chida
Chida - Waka
Waka - Sodo
Gore Mizan Teferi
Gore Gecha
Gecha - Tepi
Tepi Mizan Teferi
Gambela - Jikawo
Welkite - Hosaina
Indibir Ziway
Indibir Butajira
Butajira - Ziway
Bole junc. - Tolay
Limmu Junc.- Sintu - Atnago
580
94
42
33
65
87
143
116
Paved
Paved
Paved
Paved
Paved
Paved/Unpav.
Paved/Unpav.
164
18
146
339
130
100
69
40
241
82
74
85
179
73
55
51
Unpaved
120
150
108
60
48
65
80
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
D51
D52
IV. Collector Roads

Gambela - Abobo
Metu - Alge
V. Feeder Roads
45
50
Unpaved
Unpaved
E51
E52
E53
E54
E55
Tulubolo - Arbuchulule
Atat junc. - Kose
Gubre junc.-Bojobar
Agaro Gera Agriculture devt.
Metu Sor Hydro Electric Power
27
47
62
72
32
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Page A-6
Appendix A
A6
A6-1
A6-2
I. Trunk Roads
Jima- Mizan Teferi
Jima- Bonga
Bonga - Mizan Teferi
216
101
115
Unpaved
80
74
Unpaved
Unpaved
446
87
89
70
70
130
Paved
V. Feeder Roads
E61
E62
Bonga Chida
Shishinda - Tepi
A7
A7-1
A7-2
A7-3
A7-4
A7-5
I. Trunk Roads
Mojo- Arba Minch
Mojo- Ziway
Ziway Shashemene
Shashemene - Alaba
Alaba - Sodo
Sodo - Arba Minch
II. Link Roads
--------------------------------
C70
C70-1
C70-2
C70-3
C70-4
C71
C71-1
C71-2
C71-3
C72
C73

Arbaminch - Kelem
Arbaminch - Konso
Konso - Woito
Woito - Turmi
Turmi Kelem
Sodo Woito
Sodo Sawla
Sawla Jinka
Jinka Keyafer Woito
Arbaminc junction Gerese-Sawla
Konso Yabelo
D70a
IV. Collector Roads

Meno Fejej
Unpaved
85
46
130
Unpaved
139
92
135
Unpaved
Unpaved
135
Unpaved
Page A-7
Appendix A
A8a
A8
A8-1
A8-2
A8-3
A8-4
I. Trunk Roads
Shashemene Wondo Genet
Shashemene- Hgere Mariam
Shashemene- Awassa
Awassa - Aposto
Aposto - Dilla
Dilla - Hgere Mariam
20
120
20
35
54
11
Unpaved
Paved
B81
B82
B82-1
B82-2
II. Link Roads

Shashemene-Dodola
(Aposto) Wendo-Negele
(Aposto) Wendo-Kebre Mengeste
Kebre Mengeste Negele
73
279
154
125
Unpaved
Unpaved
C80
C80-1
C80-2
C80-3
C81
C82
C82-1
C82-2
C82-3
C83
C83-1
C83-2

Hageremariam Moyale
Hageremariam Yabelo
Yabelo Mega
Mega Moyale
Agere Selam-Daye-Mejo-Soyema
Mega Bulbul
Mega Wachile
Wachile Bulbul
Bulbul Negele
Goba -Bitat
Goba - (Delo)Mena
(Delo)Mena - Bitat
300
94
99
107
100
205
85
60
60
223
112
111
Paved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
IV. Collector Roads

D81
D82
D82-1
D82-2
Page A-8
Wondo Dila
Negele Dolo
Negele Filtu
Filtu - Dolo
37
314
112
202
Unpaved
Unpaved
Appendix A
A9
B90
B90-1
B90-2
B90-3
B90-4
B90-5
B90a
B91
B91-1
B91-2
B92
I. Trunk Roads
Nazareth- Asela
II. Link Roads
Asela -Gode
Asela-Dodola
Dodola-Robe
Robe-Ali-Ginir
Ginir-Imi
Imi -Gode
Robe- Goba
Dera- Chole
Dera- Sire
Sire-Chole
Iteya- Diksis - Robi
C90
C91
C91-1
C91-2
C92
C92-1
C92-2

Robe - Goro Ginir
Chole -Arberekti
Chole- Mechara
Mechara - Gelemso -Arberekti
Robe - Shek Husen
Robe - Seru
Seru - Shek Husen
E91
V. Feeder Roads
Sodere Nura era
77
Paved
608
120
113
138
180
57
14
123
23
100
76
Unpaved
141
164
66
98
1
55
90
65
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
60
Page A-9
Appendix A
A10
A10-1
A10-2
A10-3
A10-4
A10-5
A10-6
A10a
B100
B100-1
B100-2
B101
B102
B102-1
B102-2
B102-3
I. Trunk Roads
Awash Junction Degehabur
Awash Junction Arbereketi
Arbereketi Kulubi
Kulubi - Dengego
Dengego - Harar
Harar - Jijiga
Jijiga Degehabur
Dengego Dire Dawa
II. Link Roads
Degehbur-Gode
Degehbur-Kebridar
Kebridar-Gode
Metehara- Chole
Babile-Imi
Babile-Fik
Fik- Hamero
Hamero- Imi
572
106
130
31
31
103
171
20
Paved
Paved
Paved
Paved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Paved
398
233
165
200
365
160
105
100
Unpaved
224
54
120
205
135
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
12
81
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved
Unpaved

C100
C101
C102
C103
C104
Diredawa - Dewole
DiredawaHurso-Erer
Kebridar - Warder
Gode - Hargele.
Gode Kelafo - Ferfer
IV. Collector Roads
D10 1
D10 2
Page A-10
Kobo - Deder
Harer - Jarso - Bombas
B.
Appendix B
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
The coefficient of friction as determined by studies is as shown in Figure B-1.
Figure B-1: Skid Resistance for Various Tire and Pavement Conditions
Page B-1
C.
Appendix C
Measuring Sight Distance
MEASURING AND RECORDING SIGHT DISTANCE ON PLANS
By determining graphically the sight distances on the plans and recording them at frequent
intervals, the designer can appraise the overall layout and effect a more balanced design by
minor adjustments in the plan of profile. Once the horizontal and vertical alignments are
tentatively established, the practical means of examining sight distances along the proposed
highway is by direct scaling on the plans. Methods for scaling sight distances are
demonstrated in Figure C-1. The figure also shows a typical sight distance record that could
be shown on the final plans.
Because the view of the highway ahead may change rapidly in a short distance, it is desirable
to measure and record sight distance for both directions of travel at each station. Both
horizontal and vertical sight distances should be measured and the shorter lengths recorded.
In the case of two-lane highways, passing sight distance in addition to stopping sight
distance should be measured and recorded.
Figure C-1: Scaling and Recording Sight Distances on Plans
Page C-1
Appendix C
Measuring Sight Distance
Horizontal sight distance on the inside of a curve is limited by obstructions such as

buildings, hedges, wooded areas, high ground, or other topographic features. These generally
are plotted on the plans. Horizontal sight is measured with a straightedge, as indicated at the
upper left in Figure C-1. The cut slope obstruction is shown on the worksheets by a line
representing the proposed excavation slope at a point 600 millimeters (approximate average
of 1070 millimeters and 150 millimeters) above the road surface for stopping sight distance
and at a point about 1100 millimeters above the road surface for passing sight distance. The
position of this line with respect to the centerline may be scaled from the plotted highway
cross sections. Preferably, the stopping sight distance should be measured between points on
the one traffic lane, and passing sight distance from the middle of one lane to the middle of
the other lane. Such refinement on two-lane highways generally is not necessary and
measurement to the centerline or traveled way edge is suitable. Where there are changes of
grade coincident with horizontal curves that have sight-limiting cuts slopes on the inside, the
line-of-sight intercepts the slope at a level either lower or higher than the assumed average
height. In measuring sight distance the error in the use of the assumed 600-or 1100millimeters height usually can be ignored.
Vertical sight distance may be scaled from a plotted profile by the method illustrated at the
right center of Figure C-1. A transparent strip with parallel edge 1300 millimeters apart and
with scratched lines 150 millimeters and 1070 millimeters from the upper edge, in
accordance with the vertical scale, is a useful tool. The 1070-millimeter line is placed on the
station from which the vertical sight distance is desired, and the strip is pivoted about this
point until the upper edge is tangent to the profile. The distance between the initial station
and the station on the profile intersected by the 150 millimeters line is the stopping sight
distance. The distance between the initial station and the station on the profile intersected by
the lower edge of the strip is the passing sight distance.
A simple sight distance record is shown in the lower part of Figure C-1. Sight distances in
both directions are indicated by arrows and figures at each station on the plan and profile
sheet of the proposed highway. Sight distance less than 500 m may be scaled to the nearest
10 meters and those greater than 500 meters to the nearest 50 meters. Sight distances can
easily be determined also where plans and profiles are drawn using computer-aided design
and drafting systems (CADD), although such programs presently do not automatically make
this determination.
Sight distance records for two-lane highways may be used to advantage to tentatively
determine the marking of no-passing zones (Ref MUTCD). No-passing zones thus
established serve as a guide for markings when the highway is completed. The zone so
determined should be checked and adjusted by field measurements before actual markings
are placed.
Page C-2
Appendix D
Utilities
D.
UTILITIES
D.1 Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority

The Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority Distribution Manual, dated January 1975,
shows the following parameters:
Minimum vertical clearance of wires above roads:
The manual generally gives no guidance on the placement of the utility within the road
reserve. A drawing shows that street lighting is to be placed 1 meter behind a curb on a main
road. The manual does not state placement for un-curbed roads, and such placement should
not be allowed. Similarly, power poles are placed 60 cm behind curbs; in rural areas, the
poles shall be placed at least 15 meters from the center of the road.
For underground cables crossing the road, unprotected cables are placed 80 cm below a
gravel road; or cables encased with concrete pipe are placed 100 cm below an asphalt road or
paved sidewalk. The EELPA shows vertical clearances as per Table D-1.
Table D-1: Minimum Vertical Clearance of Wires above Road Surface in Centimeters
Type of
Location
When crossing above:
Railroads
Streets, alleys, and
roadways
Private driveways
Walkways for pedestrians
only
When wires are along:
Streets or alleys
Roads in rural districts
Guys,
Open-Supply Wires, Voltage to Ground
Messengers,
0 to 750
750 to
15,000 to
Etc.
15,000
50,000
820
820
850
910
550
310
550
310
610
610
670
670
240
460
460
520
550
430
550
460
610
550
670
610
D.2 Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority

The Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority reports that they generally follow the
proposals indicated in the Master Plan for pipe laying. This consists of laying pipes under
the sidewalks. However, in situations where the sidewalk is narrow or does not exist, pipes
are laid in the median, if there is one, or in the edge of the asphalt road.
For pipes up to 150 millimeters diameter, pipes are laid at a depth as indicated in Table D-2.
For larger pipes, the depth is generally greater than 1.5 meters.
Page D-1
Appendix D
Utilities
Table D-2: Trench Dimensions for Water and Sewerage Pipe Culverts
Diameter
(mm)
150
125
100
75
50
Depth
(cm)
85
72.5
70
57.5
55
Width
(cm)
70
70
50
40
40
Bedding thickness
(cm)
10
10
10
-
D.3 Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation

The Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation reports that for directly buried cable
installation, the ETC uses a depth of 1.0-1.2 meters for primary cable and 0.6-0.8 meters for
secondary cable. ETC does not have a standard location plan within the road right-of-way at
the time of the preparation of this manual.
Page D-2
E.
Appendix E
Typical Cross Sections
TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS AND STANDARD CROSS SECTIONS
The desirable standards to be adopted in the typical road design are depicted in Figures E-T1
to E-T4. The geometry shown is set taking into account the requirements of vehicular traffic
and the needs of pedestrians and non-motorized traffic.
Note that many towns have master plans that will show a slightly different configuration
from the town sections shown. In such cases, our typical section should represent the
minimal requirements.
Standard Cross Sections for road classes from DS1 to DS10 are shown in Figures E-1 to E10.
Page E-1
Appendix E
Figure E-T 1: Typical Fill & Cut Sections.
Page E-2
Appendix E
Figure E- T2: Escarpment Section
Page E-3
Appendix E
Figure E-T3: Two Lane Town Section
Page E-4
Appendix E
Figure E-T4: Four Lane Town Section
Page E-5
Appendix E
Figure E-1: Design Standard 1 Normal & Town Sections (DS1)
Carriageway Width
2X7300
Shoulder
3000
Variable
side slope
see table 6.1
2 X Lane width
2 X Lane width
7300
7300
Shoulder
3000
Variable side
slope
see table 6.1
CL
4%
Crossfall 2.5 %
Crossfall 2.5 %
4%
Pavement
structure
Normal section of design standard DS1
Varies
5m min.
Parking
lane
3000
3500
2500
Footway
2 X Lane width
7300
2 X Lane width
7300
Parking
lane
3000
3500
15
2500
Footway
15
Crossfall 2.5%
Crossfall 2.5 %
Concrete Curb
Covered Drain
Covered Drain
Town section of design standard DS1

(Paved dual carriageway)
Page E-6
Appendix E
Shoulder
3000
Variable
slope see
table 6-1
Lane width
3650
Lane width
3650
Shoulder
3000
Variable
slope see
table 6-1
C
L
Crossfall 2.5 % Crossfall 2.5 %
4%
4%
Pavement
structure
2500
Footway
Parking
lane
3500
Lane width
3650
Lane width
3650
Parking
lane
3500
2500
Footway
C
L
Variable
slope see
table 6-1
Variable
slope see
table 6-1
Crossfall 2.5 % Crossfall 2.5 %
Covered Drain
Fill material
Barrier
Covered Drain
Pavement
structure
Page E-7
Appendix E
Shoulder
Lanewidth
Varies
from1500
to3000
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
Lanewidth
3500
3500
C
L
Shoulder
Varies
from1500
to3000
Crossfall 2.5% Crossfall 2.5%
4%
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
4%
Pavement
structure
Normal sectionof designstandard DS3
2500
Footway
Parking
lane
3500
3500
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
Lanewidth
Lanewidth
3500
Parking
lane
C
L
3500
2500
Footway
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
Crossfall 2.5%Crossfall 2.5%
CoveredDrain
CoveredDrain
Pavement structure
Fill material
Townsectionof designstandard DS3
Page E-8
Appendix E
Shoulder
1500
Lanewidth
Lanewidth
3350
3350
Shoulder
1500
C
L
4%
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
Crossfall 2.5%Crossfall2.5%
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
4%
Pavement
Structure
Normal sectionofdesignstandardDS4
2500 Parkinglane Lanewidth

Footway
3350
3500
Lanewidth Parkinglane
3350
3500
2500
Footway
C
L
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
Crossfall2.5% Crossfall2.5%
CoveredDrain
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
CoveredDrain
PavementStructure
Fillmaterial
TownsectionofdesignstandardDS4
Page E-9
Appendix E
Variable
sideslope
seetable
6-1
Lanewidth
Lanewidth
3500
3500
Crossfall 4%
C
L
Variable
sideslope
seetable
6-1
Crossfall 4%
Unpavedpavement structure
Normal sectionof designstandardDS5
2500
Footway
Variable
sideslope
seetable
6-1
Parking
lane
including
shoulder
3500
Lanewidth
Lanewidth
3500
3500
Parking
lane
including
shoulder
3500
C
L
Crossfall 4%
Footway
Variable
sideslope
seetable
6-1
Crossfall 4%
Unpavedpavement structure
CoveredDrain
2500
CoveredDrain
Fill material
Townsectionof designstandardDS5
Page E-10
Appendix E
Lanewidth
Lanewidth
3000
3000
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
C
L
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
Crossfall4%
Crossfall4%
Unpavedpavementstructure
NormalsectionofdesignstandardDS6
2500
Footway
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
Parking
Parking
lane
lane
including
including
shoulder Lanewidth Lanewidth shoulder
3000
3500
3000
3500
C
L
Crossfall4%
Crossfall4%
2500
Footway
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
CoveredDrain
CoveredDrain
Fillmaterial
Page E-11
Appendix E
Shoulder
Carriagewaywidth
4000
1000
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
Crossfall4%
Shoulder
1000
C
L
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
Crossfall4%
Earth
2500
Footway
Parking
lane
including
shoulder
Carriagewaywidth
4000
3500
Parking
lane
including
shoulder
3500
Crossfall4%
Footway
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
C
L
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
2500
Crossfall4%
CoveredDrain
CoveredDrain
Fillmaterial
Page E-12
Appendix E
Carriageway width
4000
Variable
slope see
table 6-1
C
L
Variable
slope see
table 6-1
Crossfall 4% Crossfall 4%
Unpaved pavement structure
Parking
lane
including
shoulder
3500
2500
Footway
Carriageway width
4000
Parking
lane
including
shoulder
3500
2500
Footway
C
L
Variable
slope see
table 6-1
Variable
slope see
table 6-1
Crossfall 4 % Crossfall 4 %
Unpaved pavement structure
Covered Drain
Covered Drain
Fill material
Page E-13
Appendix E
Carriagewaywidth
4000
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
C
L
Crossfall4% Crossfall4%
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
Earth
Parking
lane
including
2500 shoulder
Footway 3500
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
Carriagewaywidth
4000
C
L
Parking
lane
including
shoulder
3500
2500
Footway
Variable
slopesee
table6-1
Crossfall4%Crossfall4%
Earth
CoveredDrain
CoveredDrain
TownsectionofdesignstandardDS9&DS10
Page E-14
Appendix E
Carriageway width
3300
Variable
slope
see table
6-1
C
L
Crossfall 4 % Crossfall 4 %
Variable
slope
see table
6-1
Earth
Page E-15
F.
Appendix F
Procedure for Design
PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN
F.1 Introduction
This chapter has been prepared as a guide and checklist for personnel engaged in road
design. It is not intended as a textbook nor should the contents be considered mandatory in
the design of all road projects. It is recognized that whilst the design procedure is generally
the same for any project, there are many specific issues, which the designer must consider in
proceeding with the design of each individual project
Reference is made in this chapter to the procedures to be followed in the preparation of data
for processing by computer-aided methods. However, whether the designer uses manual or
computer methods, he must always be aware that good engineering judgment must be
exercised at all times. A complete review of all field data, project requirements, economics
and applicable specifications must be considered in order to produce the most technically
sound and economic design for each project.
The designer must also be aware of any relevant safety and environmental regulations and
incorporate these features in the design. The chapter ends with the presentation of a checklist
for road link design.
F.2 Review of Field Data
Horizontal Alignment-In many instances the designer has little control over the location of
the horizontal alignment due to right-of-way restrictions, previous commitments with local
community groups, or other factors. The following items should be considered:
1. Review topographical data along with horizontal alignment to insure that steep
gradients are avoided where possible.
2. Review topography to insure that alignment does not parallel major drainages, which
may result in channel changes, extra culvert lengths due to skews, etc.
3. Review curve data to insure that degree of curvature meets the allowable maximum
for the required design speed. Also avoid broken curves in alignment or short
tangents on switch back curves that make it impossible to design adequate super
elevation transitions.
Projects to be designed by computer-aided methods should have horizontal alignment data
submitted as follows:
1. If the project has been located on photogrammetric manuscripts, the designer need
only submit beginning station and degree of curvature and coordinates of every
horizontal P.I.
2. If the project has been located by ground surveys, the designer should submit
horizontal alignment data in notebook form.
Page F-1
Appendix F
The designer will furnish ERA with copies of horizontal alignment listing (HAL), which will
list all stations and coordinates of P.C., P.I. and P.T. of each curve, including curve data.
Terrain Cross Sections - the terrain cross sections (original cross sections) should be
reviewed for accuracy keeping the following points in mind:
1. Check to see that notes are complete and that cross sections extend sufficient
distances from the centerline to accommodate the template and will permit shifting of
the alignment, if necessary, without re-cross sectioning.
2. Check all benchmarks, turning points, H.I.'s etc., to insure that cross section
elevations will be reduced correctly.
Check to see that stream profiles have been surveyed and so noted in the field notes to
distinguish them from cross sections.
For projects where terrain data is taken directly from aerial photography, the designer will
convert the data for processing. The level of detail from aerial photographs depends on the
flying height, cloud cover and ground vegetation.
Topography Data - Topography data obtained by field ground surveys will generally be
collected electrically for downloading to appropriate computer-aided design software.
Topography data obtained by photogrammetry can be more complete and accurate in that it
will include all planimetric features such as fences, walls, utility poles, and existing
improvements, in addition to elevation contours and spot elevations.
The topography data should be checked for completeness and accuracy against other maps
available to the designer.
Topography data will be of great use to the designer in determining right-of-way restrictions,
swamp or rock locations, and the need for relocating utility lines or other physical features
that affect the design.
F.3 Design criteria
Prior to commencing the design, the designer should tabulate all design criteria to be used on
the particular project so that other personnel working on the project will be aware of it. This
data will be obtained through discussions with the ERA Engineer, commitments to local
governing bodies, or through his own analysis of design requirements.
The following items should be tabulated and included in the design file:
1. Design speed.
2. ADT present and future. The ADT should be noted as actual count, listing the date of
count or estimate.
3. A typical section sketch should be prepared showing the proposed geometric section,
such as finished and subgrade widths, ditch dimensions, crown and superelevation,
cut and fill slope selections, etc.
4. The files should show design criteria used in determining drainage requirements, such
as 25-year flood frequency, hydrologic chart, etc.
Page F-2
Appendix F
5. Right-of-way widths should be noted including agreements for construction

easement.
6. If a soils profile has been taken, it should be part of the file with cover thickness
tabulated. In some areas, a chemical analysis at culvert locations may be required to
determine need for protective coating of pipes.
7. The designer should note whether the profile grade should roll with the terrain,
avoiding high fills and cuts, or whether grades should be as smooth as possible.
8. All control profile elevations should be noted such as, existing pavements to be
matched, minimum pipe cover requirements, railroad elevations crossings, bridge
elevations to be matched, as well as any other elevation requirements, which may
have been agreed to with abutting property owners.
9. Locations of possible borrow and aggregate pits should be noted.
10. The designer should note the requirements for earthwork balancing such as maximum
balance distance, whether tight balance or borrow and waste designs should be
followed and whether ditches can be widened or slopes flattened to achieve better
balanced design.
11. Shrinkage and swell factors should be noted, whether calculated or estimated.
12. Location of rock outcrops, swamps, springs should be indicated.
13. The need for fencing, gates, cattle guards, cattle passes, curbing, guard rail, etc.,
should be noted and criteria used for determining these needs.
14. The need for road approaches, and acceleration, deceleration and passing lanes should
be noted.
15. All available information on base course and surfacing should be noted to determine
thickness, asphalt requirements, need for bituminous seal coats, etc.
16. All other items that may have a bearing on the design should be noted such that all
personnel involved in the design will be aware of criteria and design requirements.
The designer should obtain copies of all correspondence on the project and make it
part of the design file.
F.4 Site Trip
It is imperative that the designer makes a field trip to the site and walks the entire alignment
reviewing the topography before start of actual design. At this time he can note special
problems and design considerations discussing these items with the ERA Engineer or his
staff. The designer should take photographs of special problem areas to enable him to best
solve design problems.
After this field trip and discussions, the designer has a much better overall picture of the
project and its requirements and can best determine the extent of construction details to go
on the plans. Projects to be designed for contract work will require more details and
explanation on pay quantities than force account projects.
F.5 Preliminary Design Drawings
During the early stages of design, preferably prior to the field trip, the following preliminary
design drawings or sketches should be prepared:
Page F-3
Appendix F
1. Typical section of roadway showing geometric (sketch is adequate).

2. Drainage plan map showing all drainage areas and stationing were they cross the
proposed road. This drawing need not be to scale.
3. Profile plot of existing centerline ground line. This can be plotted at a scale of usually
1:1000 vertical and 1:10,000 horizontal.
4. Plan plot of alignment. This shows all planimetric features of the terrain - (scale is
usually 1: 10,000). Right - of - way lines should be superimposed on this drawing to
determine if there will be any restrictions.
5. Soils profile plot and material pit drawings showing type and depth of material.
6. Stream profiles extending a sufficient distance upstream and downstream to
determine pipe grade and skew angles.
F.6 Preliminary Design Procedure
Up to this time the designer has been primarily engaged in reviewing and assembling field
data, setting design criteria and establishing project requirements with very little design work
accomplished. The following guideline will assist the designer in proceeding with
preliminary design:
1. If the Designer is at liberty to change the horizontal alignment he should make the
decision whether the proposed alignment is the most feasible or whether offsetting
the alignment could result in a more economical design. The horizontal alignment
should be coordinated with the profile by studying a continuous stretch of the plan
and profile, visualizing the road in three dimensions to determine if changes are
required.
2. Calculate drainage areas and waterway openings for all pipe culverts, box culverts
and bridges. After determining the waterway openings the pipe sizes should be
calculated to determine control points on the grade line. The Designer need not make
the final decision as to exact pipe size or type of structure (CMP, RCP, or concrete
box culvert) at this time, and an approximation will suffice.
No effort is make in this handbook to describe the methods used to determine
drainage structure requirements since these methods are given in the ERA Drainage
and Bridge Manuals-2001. It is recommended that the Engineer obtain copies of
these manuals for drainage structure calculations.
3. Spot culvert locations on the profile plot noting flow line elevations and sizes of
pipes. Note control elevations that must be met such as minimum pipe cover, existing
pavement, and bridge elevations.
4. The first trial grade line can now be drawn on the profile plot. The grade can either be
the finished pavement or the subgrade profile.
The following items should be considered in laying the trial grade:
1. Projects staring at a "T" intersection should begin with a minimal grade for a
minimum of 20 meters from the intersection before entering steeper grades in order to
Page F-4
Appendix F
provide better sight distance and to allow stopping and starting of vehicles on near
level grades.
2. Vertical P.I.'s should be placed at even stations or plus 50's for ease in calculating
grades and staking. Where possible, V.P.I.'s should be spaced 300 - 500 meters apart
and curve lengths should be determined to provide proper site distance for the design
speed. Where possible, minimum curve lengths of 100 meters should be maintained
and extremely long crest vertical curves should be avoided since many drivers refuse
to pass on vertical curves.
3. Avoid placing V.P.I.'s where intersecting side roads will be on crest vertical curves as
this reduces sight distances and creates safety hazards.
F.7
Checklist for Final Road Link Design
A flowchart for the design process is presented in Figure 5-1. Figure F-1 serves as a
checklist for ensuring that all critical elements of the final design have been addressed.
Page F-5
Appendix F
FIGURE F-1: CHECKLIST FOR FINAL ROAD LINK DESIGN
General
1. Has the design standard been selected?
2. Does the selected standard fit into the environment and road hierarchy?
3. Has the design speed been selected?
4. Does the standard selected provide for the design vehicle(s)?
5. Does the standard selected provide for the traffic volume?
6. Does sufficient right-of-way exist, or can it be obtained?
Cross Sections
7. Are the cross-section widths adequate for the levels of traffic flow predicted?
8. Have cross-sections been widened at sharp horizontal curves?
9. Does the design include adequate shoulders?
10. Has the full carriageway cross-section been continued across culverts and minor
bridges up to 30m span?
11. Are side slopes and back slopes adequate?
12. Does the cross section provide for drainage?
13. Have the clear zone requirements been met?
Alignment
14. Are stopping sight distances along the road above the minimum values required for
the design speeds for both horizontal and vertical alignments?
15. Are the radii of horizontal curves, with superelevation where required, above the
minimum values identified for the design speed?
16. Have reverse curves, broken-back curves, and compound curves been avoided?
17. Are isolated curves of sufficient radius?
18. Is superelevation according to standards?
19. Are the vertical curves adequate for the design speeds?
20. Are the gradients below the maximum permissible values?
21. Are the gradients as indicated on cross-sections and longitudinal sections sufficient
to avoid standing water?
22. Does the alignment allow regular overtaking opportunities, including for single lane
standards?
23. Have climbing lanes been introduced where necessary to provide adequate and safe
overtaking opportunities?
24. Is road access too open or too restricted?
25. Do the combined geometric design elements produce a consistent and safe
alignment?
26. Will the road allow safe driving in darkness?
27. Will the design lead to reduced severity in the event of an accident?
Page F-6
Appendix F
Junctions
28. Does the junction design minimize potential conflicts to the extent
possible/practical?
29. Is the type of junction selected appropriate for the conditions present?
30. Do the junction approaches provide adequate visibility?
31. Does the junction cater to the needs of pedestrians and non-motorized vehicles as
required?
32. Have turning lanes been considered?
33. Has lighting been considered?
Provision for Pedestrians
34. Has pedestrian usage been estimated, and have appropriate facilities been provided
for pedestrian and non-motorized safety both along and across the road?
Miscellaneous
35. Has provision been made for the placement of utilities?
36. Have traffic signs, signals, road markings and guideposts been provided?
37. Have centerline and edgeline markings been designed which give adequate
guidance/control for drivers?
38. Has adequate provision been made for the provision of bus lay-byes, and for parked
and stopped vehicles?
39. Are railway crossings adequately designed?
40. Have guardrails been considered, especially at bridge approaches?
41. Is there any scope for the installation of emergency escape ramps?
42. Have speed limit zones, safety barriers, and emergency escape ramps been
considered?
Departures from Standards
43. Are departures from standards necessary? Have these been documented and has
proper action been taken?
Date: ................................ Designer
Date: ................ Responsible Engineer
...........................................................................................................................................
Page F-7
PLANS AND DRAFTING
G.1
General
Appendix G
Plans & Drafting
The final plans are the graphic portrayal of the complete highway design. These plans,
together with the specifications, enable the Engineer and the contractor to locate and
construct on the ground the highway facility as visualized by the designer. Plans should be
kept as simple as possible yet be complete enough so that the need not be compelled to try to
guess what the designer intended.
Unique drawing numbers must be included on the drawings. The drawings should not
contain any estimated quantities. The minimum size of lettering chosen must be legible after
plan reduction.
G.2
Completeness of Plans
The completeness of plans and profiles and level of detail adopted for a given project shall
be consistent with the type of road, and the nature of the work to be undertaken.
Plans for tender and construction purposes shall be produced at 1:2000 scale on A1 size
paper, which may be reduced to A3 size for tender purposes. The plans shall include a title
sheet, project location plan, plan and profile drawings, typical cross sections, structural
details, material pits and road furniture details.
1. Title sheet: The title sheet is a standard form and shall show the road functional
classification number, the project number, and project length and location, with arrows
designating the beginning and ending stations on the route map. Design criteria such as
design speed, maximum curvature, gradient, terrain class, etc., will be tabulated. An
index of all drawings will be shown and a title block for signatures by the Consultant
will appear in the lower right hand corner.
2. Typical cross section sheet: This sheet will show the road section or sections with all
dimensions, such as lane, carriageway, and shoulder widths and other details.
3. Plan and Profile sheet: These sheets are standard with the upper half for alignment and
the lower half for profile.
The alignment in rural areas is normally plotted at a scale of 1:4000 (A3) and will
show centerline in heavy lines and right-of-way lines in lighter lines. Thick marks
will be shown on the centerline every 100 meters, with a heavier tick mark every 5
stations. The alignment will be clearly defined with stationing, bearings, curve data,
and north arrow. Alternatively, the setting-out data can be presented in a computer
file.
Page G-1
Appendix G
Plans & Drafting
The location of all land lines, forest boundaries, city limits, railroads, present roads,
existing and proposed fences pole lines, channels, ditch structures, bridges, culverts,
utility lines, large trees, improvements within or adjacent to right-of-way, approach
roads, right-of-way markers, and detour roads shall be properly shown to scale.
Notes will accompany the notations clearly stating the work to be accomplished,
such as: to be removed, to remain in place, work by other, construct, etc.
Description, location and elevation of all benchmarks are generally noted along the
profile portion of the plan and profile sheet.
The profile is normally plotted at a scale of 1:200 vertical and 1:2000 horizontal
(A1) on the lower half of the plan and profile sheet. The horizontal scale must be the
same as the scale used in the alignment, or plan view.
The elevation of the ground and proposed grade line should be plotted accurately,
noting P.V.I. station, elevation, length of curve, middle ordinate, beginning and
ending of curve and percent gradient. The grade line should be continuous along
parabolic curves and should be the profile grade (top of finished surface or
subgrade) as noted on the typical section.
All cross drainage structures and bridges shall be noted, including graded ditches,
ditch blocks, grade of special ditches and cross section of ditches and dikes. Existing
culverts must be shown with dashed lines, and new structures must be shown with
solid lines.
4. Structure detail sheets. These sheets include bridge details, curb and gutter details,
concrete box culverts, headwalls, drains, underpasses, cattle guards and other special
structures. These drawings should be complete and include location, elevations,
dimensions, estimate of quantities, and applicable specifications, if not covered in the
specifications.
5. Material Pits. This drawing will show the location, shape and size of material pits for
borrow, subbase, base course, mineral aggregate for bituminous material and chips, and
concrete aggregates. In addition to the sketch of the pit, the location of test holes and the
results of sample tests should be tabulated. Existing roads to be used or haul roads
(length and location) should be noted.
6. Detail Drawings: These can include junction and driveway details, bus lay-by details,
climbing lane details, guard rail details, striping details, destination sign details, and
fencing details, as appropriate. Standard details are given in the ERA Standard Detail
Drawings-2002.
7. Mass Haul Diagram: Earthwork quantities are represented graphically and are tabulated
on this sheet.
Page G-2
G.3
Appendix G
Plans & Drafting
Size of Plans
All drawings should be the standard A1 size and printing should be bold and large to permit
legibility when reduced 1/2 size (to A3 size).
G.4
Uniformity of Plans
The designer should strive to maintain uniformity in preparation of road plans rather than
giving them "his personal touch". Plans prepared using uniform standards are easier to
understand by both the engineer and the contractor and will generally result in fewer
disputes or claims.
G.5
Abbreviated Plans
Certain types of construction projects use less intense design than other types. Projects such
as rehabilitation projects usually do not consist of new alignments and may have only spot
geometric improvements. Such projects may require only minor engineering control, and
therefore the plans may be abbreviated. For instance, in the above example, no plan and
profile sheets need be included except in areas requiring relocations or substantial grade or
curve changes. Plans will be similar to complete plans except plan and profile sheets will be
limited to sections affected by such improvements.
However, sufficient information concerning horizontal and vertical alignment must be
shown to enable the contractor to stake the project.
Page G-3
Appendix H
Terms/Definitions
H.
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Figure H-1 Cross section Elements
A
Access
Way whereby the owner or occupier of any land has access to a public road, whether
directly or across land lying between his sand and such public road.
At-Grade Junction
Junction where all roadways join or cross at the same level.
Auxiliary Lane
Part of the roadway adjoining the carriageway for parking, speed change, turning,
storage for turning, weaving, truck climbing, and for other purposes supplementary to
through traffic movement.
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
Total yearly traffic volume in both directions divided by the number of days in the year.
Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
Total traffic volume during a given time period in whole days greater than one day and
less than one year divided by the number of days in that time period.
Ehiopian Roads Authority
Page H-1
Appendix H
Terms/Definitions
B
Back Slope
Area proceeding from ditch bottom to the limit of the earthworks.
Borrow
Material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening cuts, flattening
cut back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within the right-of-way, or
from selected borrow pits as may be noted on the plans.
Bus Lay-Byes
Lay-by reserved for public service vehicles.
C
Camber
Convexity given to the curved cross-section of a roadway or footpath.
Capacity
Maximum practicable traffic flow in given circumstances.
Capping Layer
A layer of selected fill material placed on the topmost embankment layer or the bottom
of excavation.
Carriageway
Part of the roadway including the various traffic lanes and auxiliary lanes but excluding
shoulders.
Centerline
Axis along the middle of the road.
Circular Curve
Usual curve configuration used for horizontal curves.
Clear Zone
Unencumbered roadside recovery area.
Climbing Lane
An auxiliary lane in the upgrade direction for use by slow moving vehicles and to
facilitate overtaking, thereby maintaining capacity and freedom of operation on the
carriageway.
Coefficient of Friction
Ratio of the frictional force on the vehicle and the component of the weight of the
vehicle perpendicular to the frictional force.
Page H-2
Appendix H
Terms/Definitions
Collector Roads
Secondary Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to more important
centers or to higher class roads.
Compound Curve
Curve consisting of two or more arcs of different radii curving in the same direction and
having a common tangent or transition curve where they meet.
Control of Access
Conditions where the right of owners or occupants of adjoining land or other persons to
access, light, air or view in connection with a road is fully or partially controlled by
public authority.
Crest
Peak formed by the junction of two gradients.
Crest Curve
Convex vertical curve with the intersection point of the tangents above the road level.
Critical Slope
Side slope on which a vehicle is likely to overturn.
Cross-Roads
Four-leg junction formed by the intersection of two roads at approximately right angles.
Cross-Section
Vertical section showing the elevation of the existing ground, ground data and
recommended works, usually at right angles to the centerline.
Crown
Highest portion of the cross-section of a cambered roadway.
Curb
Border of stone, concrete or other rigid material formed at the edge of the roadway or
footway.
Cycle Track
Way or part of a road for use only by pedal cycles.
D
Deceleration Lane
An auxiliary lane to enable a vehicle leaving the through traffic stream to reduce speed
without interfering with other traffic.
Deflection Angle
Successive angles from a tangent subtending a chord and used in setting out curves.
Page H-3
Appendix H
Terms/Definitions
Departure from Standards

Deviation from values given in the reference, requiring prior approval of the Ethiopian
Roads Authority.
Design Capacity
Maximum number of vehicles that can pass over a lane or a roadway during a given
time period without operating conditions falling below a pre-selected design level.
Design Speed
Design speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to
the design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented
with a reasonably consistent speed environment. In practice, most roads will only be
constrained to minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric
elements.
Design Traffic Volume
Number of vehicles or persons that pass over a given section of a lane or roadway
during a time period of one hour or more.
Design Vehicle
Vehicle whose physical characteristics and proportions are used in setting geometric
design.
Design Volume
Volume determined for use in design, representing traffic expected to use the road.
Diverging
Movement of a vehicle out of a traffic stream.
Divided Road
Road in which there are two physically separated roadways reserved for traveling in
opposite directions.
E
Economical Limit of Haul
Distance through which it is more economical to haul excavated material than to waste
and borrow.
Embankment
That portion of the road prism composed of approved fill material, which lies above the
original ground and is bounded by the side slopes, extending downwards and outwards
from the outer shoulder breakpoints and on which the pavement is constructed.
Escarpment (Terrain)
Steep country inclusive of switchback sections and side hill traverses; transverse terrain
slope > 75 percent.
Page H-4
Appendix H
Terms/Definitions
Eye Height
Assumed height of drivers' eyes above the surface of the roadway used for the purpose
of determining sight distances.
F
Feeder Road
Lowest level of road in the network hierarchy with the function of linking traffic to and
from rural areas, either directly to adjacent urban centers, or to the Collector road
network.
Fill
Material which is used for the construction of embankments.
Flat (Terrain)
Flat terrain with largely unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment; transverse terrain
slope up to 5 percent.
Free Haul
Maximum distance through which excavated material may be transported without added
cost above the unit bid price.
Footpath
Portion of a road reserved exclusively for pedestrians.
G
Geometric (Design) Standards
Guidelines for limiting values of road alignment and cross-section design.
Grade Separated Junction
Junction where two roads cross at different levels and are connected by ramps.
Grade Separation
Crossing of two roads, or a road and a railway at different levels.
Gradient
Rate of rise or fall on any length or road, with respect to the horizontal.
Guardrail
Continuous barrier erected alongside a road to prevent traffic from accidentally leaving
the roadway or from crossing the median.
Page H-5
Appendix H
Terms/Definitions
H
Direction and course of the road centerline in plan.
Horizontal Clearance
Lateral clearance between the edge of shoulder and obstructions.
Horizontal Curve
Curve in plan.
I
Interchange
Network of roads at the approaches to a junction at different levels that permits traffic
movement from one to the other one or more roadways or roads.
J
Junction (Intersection)
a) Common zone of two or more roads allowing vehicles to pass from one to the other;
b) Meeting of one road with another.
K
K-value
Ratio of the minimum length of vertical crest curve in meters to the algebraic difference
in percentage gradients adjoining the curve.
L
Lane
Strip of roadway intended to accommodate a single line of moving vehicles.
Lay-by
Part of the road set aside for vehicles to draw out of the traffic lanes for short periods.
Left -Hand Lane
On a dual roadway, the traffic lane nearest to the central reserve.
Left Turn Lane
An auxiliary lane to accommodate deceleration and storage of left-turning vehicles at
junctions.
Page H-6
Appendix H
Terms/Definitions
Level of Service
Qualitative rating of the effectiveness of a road in serving traffic, measured in terms of
operating conditions.
Limited Access Road
Road with right of access only at a limited number of places.
Link Road
National Road linking nationally important centers.
Local Road
Road (or street) primarily for access to adjoining property. It may or may not be a
classified road.
Longitudinal Profile
Outline of a vertical section of the ground, ground data and recommended works along
the centerline.
M
Main Access Road
Primary Road linking provincially important centers to each other or to higher class
roads.
Markers
Post, generally fitted with reflective material or small reflecting studs, but not usually
lighted, erected off the roadway to give warning or guidance to traffic.
Meeting Sight Distance
Distance required to enable the drivers of two vehicles traveling in opposite directions
on a two-way road with insufficient width for passing to bring their vehicles to a safe
stop after becoming visible to each other. It is the sum of the stopping sight distances for
the two vehicles plus a short safety distance.
Median
Area between the two carriageways of a dual carriageway road. It excludes the inside
shoulders.
Merging
Movement of a vehicle or vehicles into a traffic stream.
Mountainous (terrain)
Terrain that is rugged and very hilly with substantial restrictions in both horizontal and
vertical alignment; transverse terrain slope 25-75 percent.
Page H-7
Appendix H
Terms/Definitions
N
Network (Hierarchy)
Classification of roads according to Trunk, Link, Main Access, Collector, and Feeder.
Nonrecoverable Slope
Transversible side slope where the motorist is generally unable o stop or return to the
roadway.
Normal Crossfall
Difference in level measured traversely across the surface of the roadway.
O
Object Height
Assumed height of a notional object on the surface of the roadway used for the purpose
of determining sight distance.
Operating Speed
Highest overall speed at which a driver can travel on a given road under favorable
weather conditions and under prevailing traffic conditions without at any time exceeding
the safe speed as determined by the design speed on a section-by-section basis.
Overpass
Grade separation where the subject road passes over an intersecting road or railway.
P
Parking Bay
Area provided for taxis and other vehicles to stop outside of the roadway.
Passing Bay
Widened section of an otherwise single lane road where a vehicle may move over to
enable another vehicle to pass.
Minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that must be available to
enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely and comfortably without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed, should it
come into view after the overtaking maneuver is started.
Pavement
A multi-layered horizontal structure which is constructed for the purpose of carrying
traffic.
Page H-8
Appendix H
Terms/Definitions
Pavement Layers
The layers of different materials, which comprise the pavement structure.
Pedestrian Crossing
Transverse strip of roadway intended for the use of pedestrians crossing the road. The
crossing may be uncontrolled or controlled.
Pedestrian Refuge
Raised platform or a guarded area so sited in the roadway as to divide the streams of
traffic and to provide a safety area for pedestrians.
R
Ramp
a) Inclined section of roadway over which traffic passes for the primary purpose of
ascending or descending so as to make connections with other roadways;
b) Interconnecting length of road of a traffic interchange or any connection between
roads of different levels, on which vehicles may enter or leave a designated road.
Recoverable Slope
Side slope of limited grade such that a motorist can generally return to the roadway.
Reverse Curve
Composite curve consisting of two arcs or transitions curving in opposite directions.
Right Hand Lane
On a dual roadway, the traffic lane nearest to the shoulder.
Right-Turn Lane
Auxiliary lane to accommodate deceleration and storage of right- turning vehicles at
junctions.
Right-of-Way
Strip of land legally awarded to the Roads Authority, in which the road is or will be
situated and where no other work or construction may take place without permission
from the Roads Authority. The width of the road reserve is measured at right angles to
the centerline.
Road
Way for vehicles and for other types of traffic which may or may not be lawfully usable
by all traffic.
Road Bed
The natural in-situ material on which the embankment or capping layers are to be
constructed.
Page H-9
Appendix H
Terms/Definitions
Road Functional Classification

Classification of roads according to service provided in terms of the road hierarchy.
Road Prism
The cross sectional area bounded by the original ground level and the sides of slopes in
cuttings and embankments excluding the pavement.
Roadway
Part of the road comprising the carriageway, shoulders and median.
Roadway Width
Measurement at right angle to the centerline incorporating carriageway, shoulders and,
when applicable, median.
Roadside
General term denoting the areas adjoining the outer edges of the shoulders.
Rolling (Terrain)
Terrain with low hills introducing moderate levels of rise and fall with some restrictions
on vertical alignment; traverse terrain slope 5-25 percent.
Roundabout
Road junction designed for movement of traffic in one direction around a central island.
S
Safety Rest Area
Roadside area with parking facilities for the motorist to stop and rest.
Sag Curve
Concave vertical curve with the intersection point of the tangents below the road level.
Scenic Overlook
Safety rest area primarily for viewing scenery.
Shoulder
Part of the road outside the carriageway, but at substantially the same level, for
accommodation of stopped vehicles for emergency use, and for lateral support of the
carriageway.
Shoulder Breakpoint
The point on a cross section at which the extended flat planes of the surface of the
shoulder and the outside slope of the fill and pavement intersect.
Page H-10
Appendix H
Terms/Definitions
Side Drain
A longitudinal drain offset from, and parallel to, the carriageway.
Side Slope
Area between the outer edge of shoulder or hinge point and the ditch bottom.
Sight Distance
Distance visible to the driver of a passenger car measured along the normal travel path
of a roadway to the roadway surface or to a specified height above the roadway surface,
when the view is unobstructed by traffic.
Single Lane Road
Road consisting of a single traffic lane serving both directions, with passing bays.
Speed
Rate of movement of vehicular traffic or of specified components of traffic, expressed in
kilometers per hour (km/h).
Speed Bump
Device for controlling the speed of vehicles, consisting of a bar or recess on the
roadway.
Distance required by a driver of a vehicle traveling at a given speed, to bring his vehicle
to a stop after an object on the roadway becomes visible. It includes the distance
traveled during the perception and reaction times and the vehicle braking distance.
Superelevation
Inward tilt or transverse inclination given to the cross section of a roadway throughout
the length of a horizontal curve to reduce the effects of centrifugal force on a moving
vehicle; expressed as a percentage.
Superelevation Run-off
Length of road over which superelevation is reduced from its maximum value to zero.
Switchbacks
Sequence of sharp curves at or near minimum radius employed to traverse a
mountainous or escarpment terrain section.
T
T-Junction
Three-leg junction in the general form of a T.
Page H-11
Appendix H
Terms/Definitions
Tangent
Portion of a horizontal alignment of straight geometrics.
Taper
Transition length between a passing place, auxiliary lane or climbing lane and the
standard roadway.
Through Road
Road primarily for through traffic in relation to the area considered, on which vehicular
traffic is usually given priority over the traffic on intersecting roads. It may or may not
be a classified road.
Traffic
Vehicles, pedestrians and animals traveling along a route.
Traffic Capacity
Maximum number of vehicles which has a reasonable expectation of passing over a
given section of a lane or a roadway in one direction or in both directions for a two-lane
single roadway road, during a given time period under prevailing road and traffic
conditions.
Traffic Flow
Number of vehicles or persons that pass a specific point in a stated time, in both
directions unless otherwise stated.
Traffic Lane
Part of a carriageway intended for a single stream of traffic in one direction, which has
normally been demarcated as such by road markings.
Traffic Island
Central or subsidiary area raised or marked on the roadway, generally at a road junction,
shaped and placed so as to direct traffic movement.
Transition Curve
Curve whose radius changes continuously along its length, used for the purpose of
connecting a tangent with a circular arc or two circular areas of different radii.
Transition Length
Length of the transition curve.
Trunk Road
International Trunk Road linking centers of international importance and crossing
international boundaries or terminating at international ports.
Turning Lanes
Lanes which separate turning vehicles from the through traffic lanes.
Page H-12
Appendix H
Terms/Definitions
Typical Cross-Section
Cross-section of a road showing standard dimensional details and features of
construction.
V
Vertical Alignment
Direction of the centerline of a road in profile.
Vertical Curve
Curve on the longitudinal profile of a road, normally parabolic.
W
Waste
Material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the embankments. It
must be pointed out that this material is not necessarily wasted as the word implies, but
can be used in widening embankments, flattening slopes, or filling ditches or
depressions for erosion control.
Weaving
Movement in the same general direction of vehicles within two or more traffic streams
intersecting at a shallow angle so that the vehicles in one stream cross other streams
gradually.
Page H-13
Appendix I
Abbreviations
I.
ABBREVIATIONS
A
AADT
Average Annual Daily Traffic
AASHTO
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AAWSA
Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority
ADT
Average Daily Traffic
B
BVC
Beginning of Vertical Curve
C
CADD
Computer-Aided Design and Drafting
CMP
Corrugated metal pipe
D
DHV
Daily High Volume
DS
Design standard
DTM
Digital Terrain Model
DV
Design vehicle
E
EELPA
Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority
ELH
Economic Limit of Haul
EMA
ERA
ETB
Ethiopian Birr
ETC
Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation
EVC
End of Vertical Curve
Page I-1
Appendix I
Abbreviations
F
FH
Free Haul
G
GPS
Global Positioning System
H
HAL
Horizontal Alignment Listing
I
IDA
International Development Agency
L
LOS
Level of service
M
MUTCD
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
P
PC
Point of Curvature
PI
Point of Intersection
PSD
PT
Point of Tangency
PVI
Point of Vertical Intersection
R
RCP
Reinforced concrete pipe
RFCS
Road Functional Classification System
ROW
Right-of-way
RPSD
Reduced Passing Sight Distance
RTA
Road Transport Authority
Page I- 2
Appendix I
Abbreviations
S
SSD
T
TBM
Temporary Bench Mark
TCDE
Transport Construction Design Enterprise
TOR
Terms of Reference
TRL
Transport Research Laboratory
TRRL
Transport and Road Research Laboratory
V
VPI
Vertical Point of Intersection
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Geometric Design Manual of Ethiopian Road Authority PDF

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Geometric Design Manual of Ethiopian Road Authority PDF

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Geometric Design Manual - 2002

Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards

Route Corridor Selection

Design Controls and Criteria

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2002

Cross Section Elements

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2002

Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Earthwork Quantities and Mass Haul Diagram

Safety and Miscellaneous Design Items

Road Furniture and Markings

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2002

Classification and Description of Roads................................................... A1-A10

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2002

CHAPTER 4 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS

CHAPTER 6 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

CHAPTER 7 SIGHT DISTANCES

CHAPTER 8 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2002

CHAPTER 9 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

CHAPTER 10 PHASING OF HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

CHAPTER 11 EARTHWORK QUANTITIES & MASS HAUL DIAGRAM

CHAPTER 12 AT-GRADE JUNCTIONS

CHAPTER 13 GRADE - SEPARATED JUNCTIONS

CHAPTER 14 SAFETY AND MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ITEMS

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2002

Railway Crossing Details on Vertical Curve ..........................................14-7

Scaling and Recording Sight Distances on Plans.....................................C-1

Typical Fill and Cut Sections ................................................................... E-2

Checklist for Final Road Link Design ..................................................... F-6

Cross section Elements ...........................................................................H-1

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2002

CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY OF STANDARDS

CHAPTER 4 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS

CHAPTER 5 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

CHAPTER 6 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

CHAPTER 7 SIGHT DISTANCES

CHAPTER 8 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Geometric Design Manual - 2002

CHAPTER 9 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

CHAPTER 12 AT-GRADE JUNCTIONS

CHAPTER 13 GRADE - SEPARATED JUNCTIONS

Minimum Vertical Clearance of Wires above Road Surface .....................D-1

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual-2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual-2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual-2002

Topography, land use and physical features.

Geometric Design Manual-2002

The number, name, and description of the road

Design Design Traffic

Design Speed (km/hr)

should be followed. *** The width of each lane is 3.65m

Geometric Design Manual-2002

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