Derrik Horman

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Robert Thorn
Math 1030-004
29 April 2014
Final Project
Sailors have been using math to circumnavigate the globe for thousands of years. The curiosity
of how this was done before the age of computers, global positioning systems, and satellites is rather
interesting. The tools used to find the position of the ship while at sea include the sextant and an
extremely accurate chronometer, or clock. The compass is used to establish the heading of the ship and
math is used to determine the most correct reading. Specific math formulas are used to determine the
time, speed, and distance a ship needs to travel. These skills will assist any navigator in planning the
correct route to sail and reach the desired location.
Finding Latitude

(sextantbook.com)
Latitude refers to the lines seen on a map or globe that run horizontally north and south. These
lines begin at the equator and are separated every 10 degrees. The equator is 0 degree, the North Pole is

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90 degrees north and the South Pole is -90 degrees south. A sextant is a complicated manufactured
piece of equipment used to determine the latitude position of the ship. The name of this tool comes
from the latin term for one-sixth or sextans. The arc of the sextant is one sixth of a circle or 60 degrees.
This device uses the celestial bodies such as the sun, moon, and stars. The angle between the celestial
body and the horizon of the sea can be used to discover the latitude of the ship. The sextant consists of
two mirrors; the mirror directly in front of the telescope is half-silvered which allows some light to pass
through. This is the mirror the navigator will look through to find the horizon. The second mirror is
attached to a movable arm. Light from the heavenly body, such as Polaris, the sun or the moon, reflect
off this mirror. By releasing the clamp to the movable arm it is then swung where the relection of the
celestial body is seen in the bottom mirror. The clamp is then set again. What is seen in the bottom
mirror is the star, moon or sun superimposed or next to the horizon seen in the second half of the
mirror. The angle between the two object is then read from the marking on the scale of the sextant.
If a navigator would like to determine the latitude of the ship at night, the first thing needing to
be done is to find the horizon in the bottom mirror. Next, the sailor will need to find Polaris, which is in
a fixed position above the North Pole, in the top mirror by swinging the movable arm until Polaris is
seen superimposed next to the horizon in the bottom mirror. The clamp of the movable arm is set and
the reading on the scale is written down. Then, subtract the reading from 90 degrees and this will
determine the latitude of the ship.
Finding the ship's latitude during the day is a bit more complicated. First, the navigator will
need to find the horizon in the bottom mirror and next find the sun in the top mirror. Filters are
provided on the sextant to prevent damaging the navigator's eye. Unlike Polaris, from the navigator's
point-of-view the sun is a moving object. Also, since the earth rotates at an angle this must be taken
into account. These factors play into the sun declination. This term refers to the angle of the sun's light

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rays in relation to the earth's equator and the day of the year. Depending on the time of year, the earth
can be tilted at an angle of -23.44 degrees or +23.44 degrees.
To calculate the latitude during the day is a four step process. First, figure out how many days
have passed since January 1 to the present day. Second, add 10 to the number of days that have passed
since January 1. Third, divide 360 (degrees) by the number of days in the year or 365. The fourth step
has two parts; part A: multiply the number from step 2 by the number from step 3. Part B: find the
cosine from Part A and multiply by -23.44 degrees. The result from this four step equation will
determine the solar declination of the sun at that specific time of the year.
If the navigator does not want to do these calculations, the best time to figure out the latitude
during the day is at noon. The sun is in its highest point of the sky and less math is required. Solar
declination charts are also available. If wanting to find the latitude of the ship at noon, the navigator
will need to know the date and the time and use the angle found on the arc of the sextant. Subtract the
reading from 90 degrees and add the solar declination according to the chart. This easier method will
determine the latitude of the ship during the day.
Finding Longitude
The term longitude is referring to the vertical lines that run east and west on a map or globe.
The lines begin at 0 degree longitude which passes through Greenwich, England or the meridian of
time or the universal time coordinated (UTC). The lines are spaced 15 degrees apart because the earth
rotates 15 degrees every hour. Finding the longitude of the ship requires a chronometer or a very
accurate clock. The clock will require two timepieces or two faces. One timepiece must be set to the
time of the ship's current time zone. The other clock needs to be set to the time in Greenwich, England.
For example, if your local time was 3:00 and UTC time was 13:00, subtract 13:00 from 3:00 equaling
-10:00. Divide -10 by 24 which equals -0.4166. Then multiply -0.4166 by 360 degrees and the answer
is -150 degrees. If the number is negative then the location is to the west from Greenwich and if the

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number is postive the location is to the east.

(yesteryearsnews.wordpress.com)
Finding A Heading
A compass is used to determine the heading or direction a ship should travel. 0 degree is north, 90
degrees is east, 180 degrees is south and 270 degrees is west. The majority of navigational charts and
maps will have a compass rose placed in various locations, with the top of the map indicating north.
The northern direction on a map is generally not the same as the reading a navigator will see on a
compass. The reason for this variation is due to the pull of the earth's magnetic field has on the needle
of a compass. To accurately plot a course or a Magnetic Course (Sailing is Math 6) the variation must
be added to by 7 degrees if heading to the west. Suppose the boat is heading to the east then the
variation is subtracted by 9 degrees. Two examples of this process include: 168 degress east 9 degrees
east= 159 degrees magnetic course to the east. Also, 26 degress west + 7 degrees west= 33 degrees
magnetic course to the west.
Finding Time, Distance and Speed
The lines of longitude and latitude on a map, chart or globe represent degrees and minutes of
arc. Each degree on the map is equal to sixty minutes of arc or travel. This means the lines on a map
are not only meridians of positioning, but also used to calculate distance. Early mapmakers
determined that one-minute of longitude or latitude would also equal one nautical mile (Sailing is

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Math 7). Navigators know that 1 degree of arc equals 60 minutes and 1 minute equals 1 nautical mile
(nm), therefore distance can be found by looking at a chart. Speed, time and distance are factors used in
the formulas to discover the needed information. Hours are multiplied by 60 to change them into
minutes. The formulas used by navigators are: D= (S x T)/60, T= (60 x D)/S, and S= (60 x D)/T.
According to Sailing is Math, here are some examples of how these formulas can be used. If a
boat sails at a speed of 4.2 knots in 18 minutes, how far has it gone? D= (4.2 x 18) / 60 = 1.26 nautical
miles. If it takes 28 minutes to sail 3.2 nautical miles at what speed are you traveling? S= (60 x 3.2) /
28 = 6.8571 knots. How long will it take to sail 5 nautical miles at a speed of 5.4 knots? T= (60 x 5) /
5.4 = 55.55 minutes.
Finding the boat's position by using the sextant to discover latitude and knowing the time
variance between the ship's current location and Greenwich, England to find the longitude are
important skills for any navigator to pocess. Without this basic knowledge any ship would be
completely lost while at sea. The significance of knowing how to work and read a compass also play a
roll in navigation, otherwise the ship would have no heading. Finally, using these math formulas to
calculate time, distance and speed are very crucial in planning a ship's journey to reach the desired port.

Works Cited
Compass. yesteryearsnews.wordpress.com. 2014. Web. 19 April 2014
How to Calculate Latitude With Sextant. ehow. Ehow, 2014. Web. 5 April 2014
How to Calculate Longitude. ehow. Ehow, 2014. Web. 5 April 2014
How to Calculate the Sun's Declination. ehow. Ehow, 2014. Web. 5 April 2014
How to Use a Sextant. robinsdocksideshop. Robin's Dockside Shop, 2014. Web. 5 April 2014
Sextant. sextantbook.com. 2014. Web. 18 April 2014
Trontell, Doreen. "Sailing is Math." (2005): 9. Web. 7 Apr. 2014. <www.raritanval.edu>.