This is an unedited, uncorrected chapter. The final chapter will be available in time for fall. NOTE: Figures and tables appear at the end of the chapter.Wel WebCH04T0SFeb10S.wpd February 9, 2005 February 9, 2005 WEB CHAPTER W4 Design Loads and Design Philosophy W4.1 Some Load Tables and Figures from ASCE Standard 7-98 The loads for which a particular building must be designed are usually stipulated by an applicable building code, Where such a code is nonexistent, use of the ASCE Standard 7: Minimum design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures is recommended. For ease of reference, the following tables and figures from the ASCE 7-98 are reproduced in this section [ASCE, 2000] ASCES Table I-I: Classification of Buildings and Other Structures for Flood, Wind, Snow and Earthquake Loads ASCES Table C3-1: Minimum Design Dead Loads ASCES Table C3-2: Minimum Densities for Design Loads for Materials ASCES Table 4-1: Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, L., and Minimum Concentrated Live Loads ASCES Table 4-2: Live Load Element Factor, K, ASCES Figure 6-1: Basic wind speed ASCES Table 6-1: Importance Factor, / (Wind Loads)ASCES Table 6-5: ASCES Table 6-6: ASCES Figure 6-3: ASCES Table 6-7: ASCES Figure 7-1: ASCES Table 7-2: ASCES Table 7-3 ASCES Table 7-4 ASCES Figure 7-2 ASCES Figure 7-5 W4.2. Velocity Pressure wa-2 Velocity pressure Exposure Coefficients, Ki, and K, Wind Directionality Factor, K, Main wind force resisting system. Internal Pressure Coefficients for Buildings, GC,; Ground snow loads, p, for the United States. Exposure Factor, C, Thermal Factor, C, Importance Factor, J (Snow Loads) Graphs for determining roof slope factor C, for warm and cold roofs. Balanced and unbalanced snow loads for hip and gable roofs. W421 Stagnation Pressure In accordance with Bernoulli's equi nn for streamline flow of fluids, when a column of air strikes normal to an immovable body, the increase in statie pressure on the object, also known as the stagnation pressure, equals the decrease in kinel c energy. Thus ve (W4.2.1) we g niewa-3 where g, is the stagnation pressure, w is the weight in pounds per cubic foot of the fluid, g is the acceleration due to gravity (= 32.2 fs and v, is the velocity of the fluid in ft/sec. For the so called standard atmosphere, with a temperature of 59°F, at a sea level pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury, the weight of air is 0.0765 pef. Also, v, = (5280V,)/3600 where V, is the wind velocity in miles per hour. If these substitutions are made in the above equation: Gy = 0.00256 V2 (W4.2.2) where F,, is wind speed in mph and q, is the stagnation pressure in psf, acting on a flat surface that is perpendicular to the wind direction. Thus, it is seen that a wind speed of 88 mph converts toa wind pressure, q, of 20 psf, and a wind speed of 100 mph corresponds to 25.6 psf. W4.2.2 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, K, Wind velocity increases with height because the friction of the earth’s surface reduces velocity near the ground. The effect of friction becomes progressively smaller with distance from the ground. At heights high enough for the wind to be virtually independent of surface friction, the wind moves freely under the influence of the pressure gradient and attains the so called gradient velocity, V_. The height at which this occurs is known as the gradient height, z,. The layer of air below the gradient height is known as the boundary layer. ‘The characteristics of the wind in the boundary layer are those which are of concem to engineers in the calculation of wind loading on structures,wa-4 The variation of wind velocity with height can be expressed, for a given exposure ¢, by a simple power law formula of the form (Davenport, 1968]: 3 z a —|* for (W4.2.3) V, Zz. e \ Fee = 1 for where z= height above ground = wind speed at height z in exposure € = gradient height for exposure ¢ ¥, = gradient wind speed (ie., wind speed at height z,,) @, = coefficient depending on ground roughness of exposure ¢ TABLE W4.2.1 Wind Exposure Constants (Adapted from Table 6.4 of the ASCES) The values of gradient height z,. and the exponential coefficient «, depend on the ground surface roughness. The roughness is a function of the spacing, size, and height of structures, trees, vegetation, elc. on the ground. It is a minimum over large bodies of water and a maximum over centers of large cities. The ASCE Standard divides the ground roughness into four categories, namely, Exposures A, B, Cand D, Values of parameters z,, and, are given in Table W4.2.1, and velocity profiles for Exposures A, B, C and D are schematically shown in Fig, W4.2.1. TheyW4-5 are based on the classical work of Davenport [1968]. Guidelines for selecting the appropriate exposure categories are given below: Exposure A Large city centers with at least 50% of the buildings having a height in excess of 70 ft. Because wind speeds are lowest in downtown areas, the standard imposes certain restrictions on the use of these lower velocity pressures. Thus, use of this exposure category is limited to those areas for which terrain representative of exposure A prevails in the upwind direction for a distance of at least one-half mile or 10 times the height of building whichever is greater. Exposure B Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, and other terrain wit numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of single family dwellings or larger. Use of this exposure category is limited to those areas for which terrain representative of Exposure B prevails in the upwind direction for a distance of at least 1500 ft or 10 times the height of the building or structure, whichever is greater Exposure C Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally less than 30 f. This category includes flat open country, grass lands, and shorelines in hurricane prone regions. This exposure category should be used whenever terrain does not fit thew46 description of other exposure categories. Also, use of this exposure category is mandatory for determining wind pressures on components and cladding of buildings with a mean roof height of less than 60 ft Exposure D Flat, unobstructed areas exposed to wind flowing over open water (excluding shorelines in hurricane prone regions) for a distance of at least 1 mile. Shorelines in Exposure D include inland waterways, the Great Lakes, and coastal areas of California, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. This exposure shall be used only for those buildings and other structures exposed to wind coming from over the water. Exposure D extends inland from the shoreline a distance of 1500 ft or 10 times the height of the building or structure, whichever is greater. Figure W4.2.1 Variation of wind speed with height and terrain. As the surface friction (roughness) increases, the gradient height also increases. Thus, ina particular weather situation, the gradient level will be at progressively higher elevations going from open country and suburban locations to a nearby downtown location (W4.2.1). Buildings and structures are required to be designed to resist wind from any direction, and the exposure category applicable to each wind direction should be used.w4-7 The basic wind speed values, V, provided in the standard ( Fig. 6.1 of the ASCES ) are for flat, 33 ff. As the gradient wind speed, F,. is open country terrain typical of Exposure C terrain at the same at all four gradient levels considered in the standard, the power law affords a method of adjusting design wind speeds from the open country conditions (Exposure C) to the other exposure conditions. We have from Eq. W4.2.3: ve = (wa.2.4) and Ao (4.2.5) where V = basic wind speed from contour map (wind speed at 2 = 33 ft above ground level in Exposure C) gradient wind speed design wind speed at height z and given exposure e (= A, B, C, or D) z= height above round = gradient height for Exposure C ye = gfadient height for exposure ¢ X= power law coefficient for exposure ¢ &% = power law coefficient for Exposure C Using Eqs. W4.2.2 and W4.2.5, and noting that the gradient height for Exposure C (from Table W4.2.1) is 900 fi, , the velocity pressure for any height (2) and exposure (e) may be expressed as:Or, 0.00256 K. 4. where K, is known as the velocity pressure exposure coefficient and is given by 2 2 e (4.2.7) z, ee} Values of K, are tabulated in the ASCE Standard to 500 ft above ground, for Exposure categories A,B,C, and D. TABLE W4.2.1: Wind Exposure Constants Exposure «, Zq (ft) A 5.0 1500 B 10 1200 c 95 900 D us 700 (Adapted from ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www pubs.asee.org,)w49 W4.3 Earthquake Loads, E Material will be added later. W4.4 Probabilistic Basis for LRFD Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) is that design philosophy in which the structure is proportioned such that the probability of exceeding a limit state is held to an acceptably small value. It recognizes that neither the external loads acting on a structure nor the resistance are deterministic but are random in character. The probabilistic design format used by Galambos and Ravindra [1976] to develop the LRED criteria for steel structures is due to Cornell [1969] and Lind [1971]. The format is explained briefly in the following. Structural safety is a function of the resistance. &, of the structure and of the load effect, Q, acting on it. R and Q are statistically random variables. ‘The frequency distributions for Q and R are shown in Fig. W4.4.1a as separate curves on a common plot for a hypothetical structure. As long as the resistance R is greater than (to the right of) the effects of the loads Q, a margin of safety for the particular limit state exists, However, because Q and X are random variables, there is some small probability that the resistance R may be less than the load effect Q( ie., R< Q). This is related to the degree of overlap of the frequency distributions (shaded limit state probabil area in Fig. W4.4.1a). This area depends on the relative positioning of (R,, vs Q,,) and their dispersions. Here, R,, and Q,, are the mean values of the variables R and Q, respectively.Wa-10 Figure W4.4.1 Definitions of structural safety in LRFD. An equivalent representation of structural safety is shown in Fig. W4.4.15. Ifthe expression R < Qis divided by Q and the result expressed logarithmically, the result will be a single distribution curve combining the uncertainties of both R and Q. The probability of attaining a limit state (R< Q) is equal to the probability that In(R /Q) < In(1)= 0 and is represented by the shaded area in the diagram, The smaller this area is, the more reliable is the structure. In this ease the probability of failure (a given limit state being reached) is P= olin( 2) <0 (W4.4.1) L Va) If we introduce the standard variate, U, defined by In(R/Q) - [In(R/Q)] ee ia ain (w4.4.2) Fin (Rio) in which [In(R/Q)],, and Oy,¢p,9) are the mean and standard deviation of the distribution of the natural logarithm of the ratio (R /Q). The variable In(R/Q) is a normally distributed variable. For this reason U'is a normally distributed variable as well, having a mean value of 0 and a standard deviation of I (ie., U,,=0 and 0) = 1), The expression for the probability of failure from Eq. W4.4.1, becomes _ InR/QDIy P, = Plin(RiQ) < 0] = ning)W4-lL [n(R/Q)), Fn crio Bole) (W4.4.3) Here Fis the cumulative distribution function of the normalized variable U. The quantity [In(R/Q) jn /Finceioy = B (W444) defines the reliability of the structure under consideration, The coefficient represents the number of standard deviations that the mean value of In ( R /Q) is located from the origin. Now, the farther away the mean of In ( R /Q) is from the origin (ie., the larger the value of ), the smaller will be the probability of failure. Hence, theoretically one can make Pas small as is, desired, by making larger, although it can never be equal to zero. This indicates that there is always some probability that the structure will fail. Hence, Bis called the safety index or reliability index. For any given distribution In (R/Q), the larger fis, the smaller is the probability of exceeding a limit state. The relationship between the safety index # and the probability of failure P,, on the assumption that Q and & are distributed normally, is given in Table W4.4.1 TABLE W4.4.1 Probability of Failure as a Function of Safety Index After some lengthy transformations and simplifications, Eq.W4.4.4 yields [Galambos and Ravindra, 1976; Lind, 1971}W4-12 (W4.4.5a) or oR, = YO, (W4.4.56) where R, = nominal or theoretical value of the resistance R Q, = nominal value of the load 0 R, = mean value of the resistance R Q, = mean value of the load O = coefficient of variation of the resistance R = coefficient of variation of the load Q B= safety index = resistance factor y = load factor The objective of a good design specification is to ensure that the probability (risk) of failure is comparable with other risks an occupant of the building designed using the specification, has to face ina modern society. That is, a level too high means unsafe design, whereas a level too low means over design and waste. The model briefly described above, is known as a First-Order ‘Second-Moment (FOSM) Probabilistic Model, where only the first two moments (mean andW4-13 standard deviation) of the random variables are used to develop the statistical properties of resistance, load, and structural safety. The load combinations and load factors were developed by Ellingwood et al. [1982]. The target reliability indices, 8, underlying the load factors are: 3.0 for combinations with gravity loads only (dcad, live, rain, and snow loads), 2.5 for combinations with wind included, and 1.75 for combinations with earthquake loads (see Table W4.4.1 for the corresponding probabilities of, failure). The target value for the safety index Jused in LRFDS is 3 for all members (tension members, beams, columns, and beam-columns), while a higher value of 4.5 is used for connections. From Table W4.4.1, we observe that the probability of reaching a limit state is, therefore, much smaller for connections than the members, translating the design philosophy in existence over the last 80 years; that the connections should be stronger than the members that they connect. The basis of determining has been described by Galambos and Ravindra [1976] TABLE W4.4.2: Typical Resistance Factors Referenceswal wa w43 wad was W46 wWa7 W48 w49 W414 AISC [1999]: Load and Resistance Factor Design Specifications for Structural Steel Buildings, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL. (Also referred to as LREDS in this book.) ASCE [1965]: "Wind Forces on Structures," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, vol. 91, ST3. ASCE [2000]: Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-98, American Society of Civil Engineers. (Also referred to as ASCES in this book.) ASCE [2003]: Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-02, American Society of Civil Engineers. Cornell, C. A. [1969]: "A Probability-Based Structural Code," Journal American Concrete Institute, vol. 55, no. 12, December, pp. 974-985. Davenport, A. G. [1968]: "A Rationale for the Determination of Design Wind Velocities," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, vol. 94, ST6, June. Ellingwood, B. E., McGregor, J. G., Galambos, T. V., and Comell, C. A. [1982] “Probability-Based Load Criteria: Load Factors and Load Combinations," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, vol. 108, no. 5, pp. 978-997. Galambos, T. V., and Ravindra, M. K. [1976]: "Proposed Criterion for Load and Resistance Factor Design of Steel Building Structures," Research Report No. 45, Civil Engincering Department, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, May. Lind, N. C. [1971]: "Consistent Partial Safety Factors," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, vol. 97, ST6, Proc. Paper 8166, June, pp. 1651-1669,W4-15 TABLE W4.4.1: Probability of Failure as a Function of Safety Index. 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 Py 158* 10" | 227x107 | 135x107 | 3.16% 10% | 2.86 <107 B= safety index; P, = probability of failure TABLE W4.4,2: Typical Resistance Factors Application 1.00, Slip resistant bolt shear values, standard holes; web local yielding under concentrated loads 0.90 Yielding in the gross section of tension members; bending strength ofF beams; sheer strength of webs of beams; base metal in grove welds; shear yielding or tension yielding of the connecting elements; flange local ‘ending; web compression buckling: web pancl-rone shear 08s Column strength in flexural buckling and flexural torsional bucklings axial strength of composite colurmns: steel area; flexural strength of composite beams; web sidesway buckling oxo. Shear on effective area of complete-joint-penetration grove welds; tension normal 1o effective arca of partial-joint-penetration grove welds Fracture in the not section of tension members; pin connected members in tension or shear; fillet welds: shear on effective throat area; plug and slot welds shear parallel to faying surface; partal-joint-penetration grove welds: shear parallel to axis of weld; tension, shear, or combined shear and tension on bolts; tension rupture of the connection elements; block shear rupture strength; bearing strength of bolts; bearing of pins, rollers and rockers; web crippling 0.70 Slip resistance for bolts in Iong-slotted holes when holes are parallel 0 the direction of load 0.60 Bearing on concrete foundations; slip resistance for bolts in long-slotted, holes when holes ate transverse to the direction of load,1-1, Classification of Buildings and Other Structures for Flood, Wind, Snow, and Earthquake Loads Nature of Occupancy Category Buildings and other structures that represent a low hazard to human life ithe event of failure inching, 1 but not limited to: * Agricultural facilites * Cerain temporary facilites + Minor storage facilities All buildings and other structures except thoxs listed in Categories I, I and 1V 0" Buildings und other structures that representa substantial hazard to human life in the event of failure m including. but not limited to + Buildings and other structures where more than 300 people congregate in one area + Buildings and other structures with day-care facilities with capacity greater than 150 + Buildings and other structures with elementary or secondary school facilities with capacity greater than 150 + Bui facilities ‘+ Health care facilities with a capacity of $0 oF more resi emergency treatment facilities “Jails an detention Facilities + Power generating stations and oxher public snd other structures with 2 capacity grester than $00 For colleges oF adult education patients but not having surgery or ty facilities mot included in Category 1V i nus and other structures containing sufficient quantities of toxic, explosive or other hazardous substances to be dangerous to the public i released including, but not hited to + Petrochemical facilites + Fuel storage Facilities + Manufacturing or storage facilities for hazardous chemicals, + Manufacturing or storage Facilites for explosives Ruildings and other structures tht are equipped with secondary eontuinment of toxic, explosive a other wv hazardous subsiances (including. but not Himited to double wal tank, dike of sufiescnt size to contain a spill. or other means fo contain a spill or a last within the property boundary of the facility and prevent release of harnful quantities of contaminants to the ai, soil, ground water, oF surface water) or atmosphere (where appropriate) shall be eligible for classification a a Category I In hurricane prone regions. buildings and other structures that contain toxic, explosive, or other hurardous substances and do not qualify as Category IV structures shall be eligibe fr classi as Category IC sinvetures for wind loads if these srdctres are operated in aecordance with mandatory procedures that are acceptable 1 the authority having jurisdiction and which effectively minis the effects of wind on critical structural elements which altematively protect spainse harmful releases during and after hureicanes other siactures designated as essential facilities including, but nol limited: * Hospitals and other healthcare facilities having surgery or emergency teatment facilities + Fire. rescue and police stations and emergency vehicle garages + Designated earthquake, hurricane. of other emergency shelters + Communications cemers and other facilities required for emergency response bli unity facilities reguired i an emergency structures (including, but wot lited 29 communication towers, fuel storage tanks, cooling towers, cketrical substation structures, fire water aks or other stroctures housing. Supporting water oF other fire-suppression material or equipment) required tor operation of Category IV structures during an emergency + AN Wers ar traffic contol centers and emergency sreraft hangars + Water storage failiies and pump structures required to maintain water presure fr fire suppression + Buildings and other structures having erica mitiomal defense functions ASCES Table 1-1 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Leads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubsasce.org.TABLE C31. Minimum Design Dead Lost? aish Uns -Avoustxal Fier Beart 1 ee ‘Gypann boot per ty chiens bas i 7” Plster sin wove lah FLOORS AND FLOR FINISHES “ Soopeied etal koh gym pn I Cate ary ue ad Bi Dery fu 27 AN se or mt a 1 ap Shhiremn kn Bo wee “oN Roman 12 Terrarze (1am) om stone-concsete fill tee Spas 19 Tenn Lin Pa sane este S @ reat ready oe 1 Wino baton me vitae U9 a nas fe ‘Comugated sbe-ts-cement roting 4 pee ee eee ee “wees tem aor : ace oe ‘Gypoum sheathing, a TITIONS rary a Cellular glass 07 Woadl ve sicel sas, 1 2-n. gypsum boars . : . My wowed per 6am, thickness as © 16m, 35 oa tn is rel fame, 34 wie iss $x tl walls ah bck em 4 ASCES Table C3-1 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.TABLE C3. Materia Binwianispratuts Asphatiom Portia Patotew, cde Petlewn. fine Pata Pach Ti Brass Lirorve Candee mary (ecient snc, sa « bein Cinder (Cinders. in bak Gout Anthacits. pled Biren, ignite, ped Peat ey. pet Concrete. plain Expanded sag agererste Maystechonnad-ciy Shas Stone dncleding gravel) ‘oth Hight sono beating rogate, Meal beatin Cogent Reson Cite site Stone Ginsting gravel) cone Corks compressed earch (oot sulery Clay. de las. dame Clay an atl dy pcked Silt. towing Send an gravel dy. oe Sond and arse dy. pase Sond and grave. aah umes Cl Soil River mad Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials (English Units) Lal tie 8 44 2 1 on 136 536 u ne ust vos. Joo hw bo Materia abt ims Hydated, kane 2 Grnite is Limestone, erstalline las Cmestone lic ns Marble bs Sandstone mn Masonry, Bich acd dow absption) 13H ‘Mediu ames asompion) ns Soft thigh absenpion) vo Masonry, Conerete Lighiweighe ants ws Mesirn wih its ns. Normal weight nits ns Masonry Grout He Masons, Rutile Stine Granite 15 Limestone, ey stalline WT Limestone, alii ik Marble 156 Sandstone 7 Mona. cement ot Ive Li Partilebnand 48 Plywe 30 Sandstone Sand and dry iver dy Shae ‘Bank Bath screnings Machine Sand site Stel, eid dew Stone. Quasted. Pie Basal. gram. ges Limestone, mtb, quatt Sarah Shoke Gecgnstre, horablende a Costa, Aehitetwal oi ied ikl anit Tn Wer ASCES Table C3-2 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.TABLE C3-2. Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials (English Units) (Continued) Load Load Material cabs Material uastr Sand or gravel © Fresh 62 Sand or gravel und clay 6 Sea 6 Gisss 160 Wood, Seasoned Gravel. dy Joa ‘Ash, commercial white 41 Gypsum, loose 70 Cypress, southern M Gypsum, walthoard 50 Fir, Douglas, coast region u ee 57 8 Iron Oak. commercial reds and whites a Cast 450 Pine, southor yellow 7 ‘Wrought 80 Redwo 2s Spruce, red, white end Stika » ‘Wester hemlock x Zine, rolled sheet 49 ASCES Table C3-2 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.TABLE 41, Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, 2. and Mi jum Concentrated Live Loads Union ‘Concentation Oocupemey oF Use pst skin IhkN) purine aor wesnental Afuew fw 9)seHm ‘OFee use 5004) 2000 (8), Computer se 100 4799 20m 188) Armory an del sony 150 2.185 ssc areas and theaters Fixe sats dase 1 Hoar e287 oo 100 (479), Movanis seats 100 4879) Plettorestassomy oy 479) 150 (718 alsonics texteior 109 (4.79) “On one-run eesences omy, and mot ona) Tevecsing HID 1849.3 Bowling alleys pwclrooms and similar rcreational arcs 751359) CCatwatks Tor maintenance access ania) ws Cotridors Fist feo: 100 63.79) (Other oor, same ws ascopancy served except 28 indicate ance fall and balleoms 1a 64.79) Decks (patio and ot) ‘Sr anta served, of forthe type of cupsney seeiuntaated Dining rooms att restaurents 100 4.79) Divellings face resident levotor rain room grating fon atea of 4 in? 2580 mn, 3011.32) Finish ight for plate constraction [on ares of 1 Hn” (685 ram] 300408) Free escapes 40 4.79), ‘Of single-family Gvettings only 40.92) od Ladders See Section 4 passenger eats only) 20.2401 “Trucks ane’ Dunes . ‘Geandstand (oe stadine and arena bleachers} Gymaasims mn Hoare ad aleomes 10 4.794 Handrails guards and gab bars ‘ee Section 4 Hospitals ‘Operating som, laboratories sr 1.000 (2.48) Prvate mom 401192) Lom 5) Wank 4011.92) How cas, Comiders stove fst hoor HM) How ss Howes (ee residential) Litwaree Reading rooms sr Low 43) Stack goons 10 718" L000 G48) Cerridees above fet Boor 01383) 1000 5) Minutactning Cate 125 6.00) 2.000 (8.90) Heaey 301197) 3.000 413.40) Morqices ama Canopies 31859) ‘omtice Huitings| Tie and computer rocms stall be designed for eae lcs aed on aenicipated upaney ‘thes and ie Noor comics Wo 4.29) 2.009 6.90) Onnises $002.80) 2.001 (880) Cordors ove ies Hor NOG) 2H 890) ASCES Table 4-1 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.TABLE 4-1. M ’imum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, L, and Minimum Concentrated Live Loads (Continued) Unitarm ‘Concentration Occupancy vf Use at (Nin To ikN) Penal Institutions Cell blocks 40.92) Corrs 200 (4.79) Residential Dwellings (one- and two-family Unintabtable ates without storage Wo coats Unintabitable atues with storage 2010.96) Habitable ates and sleeping afeas wash All her ateas except stairs and balconies 401.9) Hotels and multifamily houses Private raoms ain corridors serving them 40.1.9) Public rooms and eoreidors serving the 100 (4.79) Reviewing stands, grandstands and bleachers 100 «4.79)" Rouls See Sections 4.3 and 4.9 Schools ‘Classrooms 400.92) 1,000 (4.45) ‘Corridors above Fist Rose A G83) 1.900 (4.45) Fist floor corridors 10 14.73) 1.900 «445) Soutles, slight ribs. and accesible esiings 200 (9.58) Sidewalks, vehiclar deveways and yards. subject to 250.1197), 8.000 (35.601 ‘wucking ‘Stadiums and Arenas Bleachers 100 4.7991 Fined Seats (fastened to oor) 600287" Stairs and exinways 100 (4.79) . ‘One- and two-family esidences wy 4011825 Stoeaye areas above ceilings 2040.56) ‘Storage warehouses (shall be designed for heavier loads if required for anticipated scorages Light 125 (@.00) Hewy 250 (11.97) Rel Fits Noor 100 (4:79) 1.000 (4.45) Upper floors 7313.59), Eon 4.48) Wholese, all ours 125 (6.001 1.000 (4.45) Vehicle barners See Section 44 Walkways and elevated platforms (other than exitways) 601287) Yarus and terraces. pedestrians 100 13.79), "Floor in garages ur purtans of bling wed for the stone of mekoe vehicles sal be designed for de aiforily Usted Hive owls “Tahle +1 or the folowing concentrated loa: (1) for pasenge cars asvonmodating no mare than aie passengers, 20 Th (OD KN ting 1 of 20 in (12900 my 2) nechanical pking rates wthou sla ce ck, passenger carol 1-500 Th (670 KX! por whee. ‘Garay accommadatng trucks and hes sal Be designed an aseordance with an ayproved mtd which contains provsons tuck an tas Tein ‘The weight of books and celsng shal be computed usag an assuned density of 6S Ny Iams por cub est, smi 11027 &Nim’y and converted te 2 uafemly dsiued ld thi oad sll Re wed ft exc 180 Iv (118 KN bbrevised pe | addon the vertical ive load, horvomal sang Frcs parallel and ema othe leg seats fil Be ila nthe dos tothe requirement ANSNEPA 102 [3 scoring ‘Omer unitorm foals iv scurdance with an approved method which contios povision for Muck ladings shill alo be comsidest wher The concentrated wheel load al be appeal aa eco 20 in” (12.900 ma ‘inion concentrate fl on tar ts Jo ae of (2.580 om? 6 HOD 1.38 AN, ASCES Table 4-1 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of theInerior columns ne colums without cantilever slabs bs Commer colanms with eantilever slabs w without cantilever slabs besamis with cantilever slabs Cantilever bears hwo way slabs Members without provisions for coatinaous shear trans "an teu of the » ucts ponmited to Factor, Ku hers nol identified above incluxing normal to dhelr span he alee ASCES Table 4-2 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Mi Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASC publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asceorg. imum Design Loads for Buildings and . Reproduced by permission of theASCES Figure 6-1 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.AT] 7 90(40) 5 ae ae 100/45) DAHA, r10¢40) ae: PE» 19054) Be 13058) y 440163) 4130/58) 140(63) 140163 Ey ‘aotes) Feaien “ IN| 150167) : : ial Wind Regi a || Special Wind Region 100145) 11130158) pcan ee 410049) 120054) await yo” (an Puerto Rico 145 (65) Guam 470 (76) Virgin Islands 145 (65) American Samoa © 125—(56) Notes: 4. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour (m/s) at 33 ft (10 m) above ground for Exposure C category. 2. Linear interpolation between wind contours is permitted. 3. Islands and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed contour of the coastal area. 4, Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions shall be examined for unusual wind conditions. FIGURE 6-1. (Continued ASCES Figure 6-1 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.Traportance Factor, QWind Loads) Non-Hurricane Prone Regions | Hurricane Prone Regions Category swith V > 100 mph I ps7 on " 1.00 um has 1 Las Is Note: The building and structure classification estegories are listed in Table 1-1 ASCES Table 6-1 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.Velocity Presvure Exposure Cocificents, Ky and Ky Exposure (Note 1) Height above ground level, 2 B ic D | om [caset ] case2 | caset | case2 O15 | we | 068 om) 0st. 20) wf O68 70 oa as] |_ 04s 0.70 0.66 0.00 ol 0.76 | “056 ) Of 068 40 | 02.2) | oox sr isart— os Oat ao Gish | ne tas en oer tis Si] 04) | 0.68 O93 ray | oe “358 Tan [ as) | 8 055 130} tear | oss iat tao | “a9 } oa 1 taf aka | O88 in igo tay] nae Lp 200" 61.0} “0.90 [130 30} C62] 0s 138 300-[-9ray [108 Las “380 [itoo [112 Tat so [ ator] Ls ar aso | (1373, 138 53 Soo | 334] 139 1s6 Notes: 1. Case 1: a. All components and cladding. b. Main wind force resisting system in low-rise buildings designed using Figure 6-4 2. All main wind force resisting syste designed using Figure 6-4 2, All main wind force resisting systems in other structures Case in buildings except those in low-rise buildings 2. The velocity pressure exposure coeticient K, a For218 fh K.-201 2,7" K,=201 (152) Note: z shall not be taken less than 100 feet for Case | in exposure A or less than 30 feet for Case Tin exposure B. y be determined from the following fornia 3. wand 7, are tabulated in Table 6-4 4. Linear interpolatior for insermediate values uf beight z is aecepta 5. Exposure categorses are defined in 6.5.6 ASCES Table 6-5 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org,Structure Type Dircetionality Factor K,° Buildings Main Wind Force Resisting System oa Components and Cladding uss oss Arched Roots Square Hexagonal Round Solid Signs, 08s Open Signs and Lattice Framework, os Trussed Towers Triangular, square, rectangular ss 098 All other eross sections *Directionality Factor K, has heen calibrated with combinations of loads specified im Section 2. Tins factor shall only be applied when in 23nd 24. it: load combinations speci ASCES Table 6-6 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.[eesiscd Farah Encied Buidings — 1s Es 1 wn, Fy = t 2 “14 ZS eu AUMMIEEEEE cc, ' = aan exes GABLE. HIP ROOF CUTTTAL oe Many fe Mian = of fitter . = ee f = ioe Zt Tih = TEETH 9 6c, “ = mtu run 7 asian MONOSLOPE ROOF (NOTE 4) Sa LTTE, wt ‘amy, eee ne ain, wo. | = eee ee tatty "ck a LULL DUDA OTH HadED vac main fusion MANSARD ROOF (NOTE 8) ASCES Figure 6-3 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.Main Wind Force Resitiag System Figure 63 (con) J External Pressure Coefficients, Cy aa Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings a Snook Wall Pressure Coefficients G, Surface LB G Use With Windward Wall All values 08, 4 o 05 Leeward Wal 03 Bt 02 Side Wall All.values 07 ‘Roof Pressure Coefficients, Cy for use with Windward Leeward a8 Ane 0 (dere) oes, =e Ear ps i 03 [05 | 06 Normal o4_|oore 04 | ooo 2 ia 03 joo dg for peat “19 7 0. 0 10: 007 a os | os | 06 “9: 3 07 | 06 Hora distance from ‘i Normal windward edge * Value i provided fo interpolation purposes. 10 Toko riagefor | <08 [Rio * Value ean be reduced linearly with area over o= 10 moh ‘whieh itis applicable as follows and >a 3 Paral corm rea eat Redustion Factor tw ridge a 7100199 samp —_ for all Tr 7 [20010333 samy 03. E1000 93.9754 mt) os. Notes 1." Pus and minus sans signify pressures acting toward and away fom the sueieas, respectively 2 Finca interpolation it permed for values of 2B. AL and otter tn shown. interpolation shal only heard ont bctweun yes ofthe same sign. Where no vale of the same signi given assume 0 fac interpolation purpeses ‘Where two values of pate listed, this indicates that the windward roof slope is subjected to ether pesitve or negative préacies and he root structure shall be designed for bah conditions. Infepolation foc mermediat ratios of AL i this case shall only be cari oat between Cp values of Fike sign For monoslope roofs, entire roof surface is either a windward or leeward surface Forleuble buildings use appropriate Gas determined by rational analysis Refer to Table 6-8 for stched 008 Novation 2 Horizontal dimension of building in feet (rater), measured normal wind diection. Merion dimension of busing, i fest mete), measured parallel to wind directon, Ji Men oot height in fet (cers), except tat eave height sal be used fr = 10 deares, Height above ground, in feet (meter). i: Gin ete actor Velocity pressre in pounds per square foot (Nin), evaluated at respective he { Rngle of plane of root trom horizontal in dress For mansard roots the top horizontal surface and leeward inclined surface shal be treated as leeward Surfaces rom he table ‘or ro slopes greater than 80°. use p~ 08 ASCES Figure 6-3 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.Enclosure Classification Open Buildings 0.00 Partially Enclosed Buildings 055 0.55 Enclosed Buildings ros 0.18 Notes: 1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures aeting toward and away from the 2. Values of GC,, shall be used with g, or qs as specified in 6.5.12. Two cases shall be considered to determine the critical load requirements for the appropriate condition: () positive value of GC applied to all internal surfaces (1) a negative value of GC;, applied to all internal surfaces ASCES Table 6-7 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE, www.pubs.asce.org.FIGURE 7-1. Ground Snow Loads, p, for the United States Inte) ASCES Figure 7-1 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.FIGURE 7-1. (Continued) ASCES Figure 7-1 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.TABLE 7-2. Exposure Factor, C, Exposure of Root ‘Terain Category Fully Exposed Partially Exposed Sheltered A (soe Section 63.3) NA ui 13 B (sce Section 6.5.3) 09 10 ie € (see Sexton 6.5.3) 09 Lo a see Section 6.5.3) os oo Lo Above the teeline in windswept mountainous areas. or ox NA Tn Alaska, in areas where trees do not exist within 07 08 NA 44 2mile 3-km) radius of the site, [Note:The tena category and roof exposure condo chose sll be eprescoutive of the anoipated conditions dig the fie of Ue structure [An exponir Ficor sl De delemined for eich ool of a sovctee *Desinons Partially Exposed: Ait oo except a indicated belo. Fully Exposed: Roots exposed on al ses with no sheer” afforded by tera, higher ttures or tes, Roofs that cota several are pieces of mechanical equipment. parapets which extend above the eight of te Balanced snow load Uy), rote abstuctions ae ot it this category Sheltered: Roots lcd ght in among confers that quali as obstructions Obsretons within a distance of 10h, provide “shelter,” where the height ofthe obstruction above te wf evel: If the only abstrutions are low eid tes which ac leafless winter, the “fully expo” citegry sal be was except for trsin Catery "AL Nae that ‘eve ate heights above the coo Heights usd tetas the Test Category in Secton 6.4 ae Reis above the ground ASCES Table 7-2 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.‘TABLE 7-3. Thermal Factor, C, ‘Thermal Condition! ¢ All structures except as indicated below 10 Structures kept just above freezing and others with cold, ventilated roofs in which the thermal resistance 1. ‘evalue)hetween the ventilated space and the heated space exceeds 25°F htm 44 K-m/W. [Uneated siractures and structures intentionally kept below treving. 12 ‘Continuously’ heated greenhouses” with a roo? having a thermal resistance (R-value) less than 24°F -h ons $0/Buu «0.4 Kom "These conditions shall be representative ofthe anticipated codons during wines for the Mf of the structure “Green houses with a constantly mini inferior temperature of SOPF (IC) oF more a any pont 3 above the aor lve uring winters andl having ether 8 maintenance attendant on diy at all ics or tmperatere aor wytem to provide warning inthe event oa esting flr TABLE 7-4. Importance Factor, 1, (Snow Loads) Category 1 iv " ho mW uM wv 1 ‘See Section 1 and Table 1 ASCES Tables 7-3 and 7-4 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org.3468 1212 1212 12 3468 12 jan on on en on 12 212 12 ett | _ an Ay T TTT | 2 Warm ots th ; b. Cod roots wih - y= 10 orless + ex Ga12 4 og \ doe \ | ‘ | , \ . ; 0.6 |— \ Alt 4 bP \ All Other Surfaces \ Other Surfaces C.F \ a+ 4 0.4 | _ Unobstructed — } _Unobstructed = Slippery Surfaces Slippery Surfaces \ Lwin 90°53") for \, 4J- 4 Unventilated Roots \ 0.2 -- orR220"(35")for —\ Es \ | | "‘Ventiated Roots \ [semi iew r [oie r \ 4 Fig ot pitiiit oO 30° 60° 90° 0 30° 60° 905 Roof Slope Roof Slope FIGURE 7-2. Graphs for Determining Roof Slope Factor C, for Warm and Cold Roofs ASCES Figure 7-2 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Min Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASC! publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asce.org. imum Design Loads for Buildings and . Reproduced by permission of then a 1S Cyfoross* Lip o,for0> 5° wean 0.5% woot ee 121+ B2B/C, W> 20m and 98> G75 Bo/7™) 12010, ao . iar a Wemkene ~~) Scares eee 120 +P) POS 12 (Cy) «7h ‘Note: Unbalanced loads weed not be considered for 82 70" or for 8< TOW +0 FIGURE 7-5. Balanced and Unbalanced Snow Loads for Hip and Gable Roofs ASCES Figure 7-5 From ASCE Standards, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Copyright 2002 ASCE. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ASCE. www.pubs.asceorg.Exposure D Gradient speed, Vy ie 7,= 1,800 Exposure C Exposure B Exposure A Figure W4.2.1: Variation of wind speed with height and terrain,Probability det frequeney, f Load effect SR) > Qn Rn Load, @ Resistance, R Measure of failure Frequency distribution of load effect @ and resistance R (a) Probability density fln(R/Q)) ————— EE WO In(R/O)m n(R/Q) Failure vival Definitions of the safety index ) Figure W4.4.1: Definitions of structural safety in LRFD.