Evolution Option

Origin of Life on Earth

Species and Speciation
Human Evolution
HL: The Hardy Weinberg Principle
HL: Phylogeny and systematics

How did it all start?... The origin

of life on Earth.
No one knows, but there are several
ideas about how it may have occurred.
Heres the thinking and the evidence

What is needed for the spontaneous

origin of life on Earth?
Simple organic molecules must be
synthesized from non-living processes.
2. Polymers must be made from these simple
molecules.
3. Self replicating molecules, that make
inheritance possible, must exist.
4. Molecules necessary for life must be
packaged into membranes so that their
internal environment is different from their
surroundings.
1.

What is needed for the spontaneous

origin of life on Earth?
1.

Simple organic molecules must be

synthesized from non-living processes.
But how?
Comparative studies of Mars and Venus
indicate that the atmosphere of Earth was
very different than how it is today.
There was no oxygen, but there were other
chemicals like CH4, H2O, CO2, N2, H2, NH3,
etc.

We dont know if the complex

molecules of life existed

Is it possible that complex molecules of

life could be created by chemical
processes?

Urey-Miller Experiment
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/9834092339/student_view
0/chapter26/animation_-_millerurey_experiment.html
25 different amino acids were found by
mixing these basic molecules that
probably existed on Earth 4 billion years
ago.

Is it possible that complex

molecules of life could be created
by chemical processes?
Yes.
Amino acids are nice, but what about
genetic material that can be acted upon
by natural selection?
Making the complex molecules of life
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nVnAY
DdM1iM
16:16 25:32

Where did these organic

molecules most likely originate?
Small ponds of primordial soup
On top of volcanoes, or where
volcanoes meet bodies of water
Extraterrestrial bodies

In biology, Carbon 14 (14C) and

Potassium 40 (40K) dating are the
most common dating techniques.

Half Life = The time it takes for half of a

radioactive isotope to decay.

238Uranium

(used in the How Life

Began video) can also be used to date
rocks, but it is rarely used in biology due
to its long half-life (4.5 billion years).

Carbon 14 dating
12Carbon

has 6 protons and 6 neutrons

in its nucleus.
14C is formed by cosmic rays hitting
nitrogen in the atmosphere.

14C

in carbon dioxide (CO2) is

then converted into organic
molecules by photosynthesis

These organic molecules are then eaten

by animals.

Cosmic radiation

Photosynthesis

neutron
14N

14C

O2

proton
CO2
Atmospheric gases

In the atmosphere, and therefore

living things (plants and animals)
there is a natural ratio of 14C : 12C
When an organism dies, it no longer
receives more 14C. Scientists can
estimate the age of the dead organism
by determining the ratio of 14C : 12C.
The half life of 14C is 5730 years 40
years.
14C 14N which is stable atom.

Radioactive decay rate for C-14

(N = the number of atoms)
HalfLives
0
1

Years
Past
0
5,730

C-14
Atoms
1N
1/2 N

C-12
Atoms
1N
1N

11,460

1/4 N

1N

17,190

1/8 N

1N

22,920

1/16 N

1N

28,650

1/32 N

1N

34,380

1/64 N

1N

40,110

1/128 N

1N

Uncertainties associated with 14C

dating

Is the current ratio of 14C : 12C the same

as it was in the past?
It is hard to determine this accurately.

Due to the relatively fast rate of decay,

14C dating is only useful for things that
died up to 50,000 years ago.

Potassium argon dating

40K 40Ar
The half life of 40K is 1.25 billion years.
Potassium is a very common element in
rock, but 40K is very rare except in
volcanic rock and ash.
The rock that is formed when a volcano
explodes has a lot of 40K and no 40Ar.
The ratio of 40K : 40Ar tells how old the
rock is.

Potassium argon dating is used

to tell how old fossils are by
dating the layers of volcanic rock
above and below fossils
dirt
volcanic ash
dirt
volcanic ash
dirt
dirt
Because fossils

How old is
the bone?
1,500,000 years old
1,750,000 years old

are found between layers of volcanic

rock, there can be a relatively large uncertainty
associated with potassium argon dating.

Potassium - argon dating is

usually used for dating human
fossils and our ancestors fossils
The range of dates for potassium
argon dating are from 100,000 4.54
billion years ago.
Because fossils are found between
layers of volcanic rock, there can be a
relatively large uncertainty associated
with potassium argon dating.

How is absolute dating done?

http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/ra
dioactive-dating-game

For more, clear information about

radioactive dating, read
http://anthro.palomar.edu/time/time_5.ht
m

Organic compounds and water

have been found on comets that
impacted earth.
In the early days of Earth, the planet
was continuously impacted by comets
and has continued to be hit until the
present.
One possible explanation for the origin
of organic molecules on Earth is that
comets brought the organic compounds.

Panspermia
The hypothesis, based on the fact that
some extremophile bacteria can be
dormant in harsh conditions (possibly
space) for hundreds of thousands of years.
Maybe bacteria travelled to Earth on a
meteor, survived the impact with Earth,
found favorable conditions, and started the
evolutionary process of life.

Where did these organic

molecules most likely originate?
Small ponds of primordial soup
On top of volcanoes, or where
volcanoes meet bodies of water
Extraterrestrial bodies
Deep-sea hydrothermal vents
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D69h
GvCsWgA

Problem: The water, gases, and

sunlight on Earths surface break
down polymers.
Where could polymers of amino acids,
saccharides, and nucleotides have
formed?
Hydrothermal vents deep under the
ocean where sunlight does not reach.

Why are volcanoes, ponds of

primordial soup, comets, and
hydrothermal vents likely places
for life to occur?
Comets are cold enough to preserve
organic molecules indefinitely.
The other locations are warm enough to
cause reactions, but not so hot that
macromolecules are broken down.

What is needed for the spontaneous

origin of life on Earth?
1.
2.

Simple organic molecules must be

synthesized from non-living processes.
Polymers must be made from these simple
molecules.
Random chance. Over millions of years, the
chances that a polymer will form are large.
Maybe there is something in the environment
that aids polymer formation (like clays).
http://exploringorigins.org/nucleicacids.html

What is needed for the spontaneous

origin of life on Earth?
Simple organic molecules must be
synthesized from non-living processes.
2. Polymers must be made from these simple
molecules.
3. Self replicating molecules, that make
inheritance possible, must exist.
1.

Polymers of RNA can have enzymatic

properties (e.g. self replicating properties).
Once self replication occurs, then variation of
the template, and other functions, are possible.
Again - http://exploringorigins.org/nucleicacids.html

Scientists think that an RNA

world likely existed in the first
forms of life.
Why?
RNA can replicate itself.
RNA can perform enzymatic activities.

Think ribosomes.

Thus, maybe there was an RNA World

before a DNA World.
This is called the RNA World Hypothesis

What is needed for the spontaneous

origin of life on Earth?
Simple organic molecules must be
synthesized from non-living processes.
2. Polymers must be made from these simple
molecules.
3. Self replicating molecules, that make
inheritance possible, must exist.
4. Molecules necessary for life must be
packaged into membranes so that their
internal environment is different from their
surroundings.
1.

Life probably started out in

things called protobionts
Proto = first or precursor
Coacervates are a type of protobiont
made of lipid droplets that contain
enzymes and organic molecules that
can concentrate substances and
release their products to the external
environment.
When they get too big, they can divide
into two coacervates.

Coacervates
Could exist and contain RNA that can
synthesize itself (and maybe change into
other forms over time).
With time, metabolism and division could
have been controlled.
These first cells would have been
heterotrophic and anaerobic (because
there was no oxygen in Earths
atmosphere at that time).

Microspheres are another

possibility of early life before
cells.
It has been shown in laboratory
experiments that the amino acids present
on early earth could polymerize.
They could also form very small (2m
wide) spheres which could control their
internal environment and divide by
budding.

0.5m

Any questions on the processes

necessary for life to occur?
Simple organic molecules must be
synthesized from non-living processes.
2. Polymers must be made from these simple
molecules.
3. Self replicating molecules, that make
inheritance possible, must exist.
4. Molecules necessary for life must be
packaged into membranes so that their
internal environment is different from their
surroundings.
1.

Prokaryotes changed the

atmosphere of Earth using
photosynthesis
Life has existed on Earth for about 4
billion years.
The pigment chlorophyll, and the
process of photosynthesis, started on
earth about 2 billion years ago.

Photosynthesis fixes CO2 as an organic

molecule and releases O2 as a waste
product.

The increased oxygen in the

atmosphere had several effects on
Earth

O2 becomes O3 (ozone) which creates

the ozone layer, decreasing the amount
of sunlight that hits Earths surface.
Less organic molecules were created

O2 causes the breakdown of chemicals

into CO2 so anything not protected from
O2 was oxidized.

Photosynthesis also creates a lot

of chemical energy which
organisms can use.
This made the cyanobacteria into prey
for other single celled organisms.
This predation of cyanobacteria could
have led to the creation of eukaryotes.

The Theory of Endosymbiosis

States that chloroplasts and
mitochondria were once free living
prokaryotes that were engulfed by
larger prokaryotes and survived to
evolve into modern organelles.
There were two kinds of prokaryotic
early life on earth; archaea
(extremophiles) and bacteria.

How did the evolution of complex life on Earth begin?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q71DWYJD-dI

The Theory of Endosymbiosis

http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/9834092339/student_view
0/chapter4/animation__endosymbiosis.html

Evidence for Endosymbiosis

Mitochondria and chloroplasts have
their own circular DNA, that replicates
separately from the larger cells DNA,
and is more like prokaryotic DNA than
eukaryotic DNA.
Both organelles have a double
membrane. The inner membrane is
similar to the bacterial membranes and
the outer is similar to the host cell.

Evidence for Endosymbiosis

New organelles are created through a
process very similar to binary fission.
The structure and biochemistry of
chloroplasts is very similar to
cyanobacteria.
Ribosomes in both organelles resemble
those of bacteria (70S)

Evidence of Endosymbiosis
There is evidence of host-organelle
mixing of DNA.
Some proteins coded for in the nucleus
are transported to the organelles,
because the organelles have lost the
DNA to make it themselves.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FQmAnmLZtE

Species and Speciation

Allele Frequency: the proportion of an
allele in comparison to all other alleles
at the same gene locus.
Ex: ratio of recessive allele to dominant
allele in a gene pool, or the number of
alleles for green eyes the number of
all eye color alleles.
Ex: 5% of alleles in a population are for
hemophilia (h), while 95% are the nonhemophilia allele (H).

Evolution
Gene pool: The total aggregate of all
alleles in a population at one time.
Evolution involves a change in allele
frequency in a populations gene pool
over a number of generations.

Discuss the definition of the term

species
What is the definition we have used in
the past?
Species: a group of organisms that can
interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
This is the most commonly used
definition but it brushes over several
details that you must be able to discuss.

Other definitions of species

A group of organisms with a common gene pool.

A group of organisms adapted to a particular set
of resources, called a niche, in an environment.
A group of organisms that shares an ancestor; a
lineage that maintains its integrity with respect to
other lineages through time and space. At some
point in the progress of such a group, some
members may diverge from the main group and
become a subspecies, or develop differences so
large that they are considered a completely
different species.

Intriguing points for consideration

Some members of the same species

cannot physically mate, therefore they
would be genetically isolated.

Intriguing points for consideration

Ring species: adjacent populations can

interbreed, but the populations at the
ends of the ring cannot.

Cannot interbreed

Ring species
Watch Evolution in Action: Ring
Species
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5KE
ssNSkAM

Intriguing points for consideration

Hybrids between two species are
usually infertile.
Ex: a mule (63 chromosomes) is a
Horse (64 chromosomes) x Donkey (62
chromosomes)
Why is having 63 chromosomes a
problem reproductively?
The Liger
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1zO
WYj59BXI

What about the bacteria?

Most definitions of species refer to

sexually reproductive species, not
single celled organisms.

What about fossils?

Are these fish the same species

or from different species?

In the case of fossils

The best definition to use compares the

different lineages based on their traits
that can be observed.

When talking about species

The definition stays the same.

A group of organisms that can interbreed
and produce fertile offspring.

You should be able to discuss the

various aspects of this definition.

How does speciation happen?

There must be barriers between gene
pools.
What kind of barriers?
Geographic barriers

Rivers, oceans, mountain ranges, deserts, etc.

Ostrich
Kiwi
Tinamou

Cassowary

Rhea
Emu

Temporal barriers

Organisms may exist in the same

geographic space, but at different times
of the day, month, or year.

Behavioral Isolation
Organisms chose mates in a very
particular way.
Mating behaviors, like song, dance, or
hormone secretions, cause one organism
to reject or accept a potential mate.
Behavior can be genetic and a measure
of how different organisms are.

Behaviors include displays which

indicate fitness

Behaviors include actions which

tell if the mates are compatible or
not.

Mating behaviors

Swans
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cY-k_Zm1rN0
Cuttle fish
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fR7Dqf0vzzQ
Bower Birds
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GPbWJPsBPdA
Parakeets
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UtbdQSRzLbc
Blue Footed Booby
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1NAKg46s1DA

Hormones

Tell other organisms when an organism

is ready to mate.

Mechanical isolation
When organisms do not fit together.
Bush babies of different species have
genitalia/sexual organs that are
incompatible.

Mechanical isolation in plants

Different plants have different pollen

shapes and pollinators.

The bee does not

pollinate the flower on
the left very well, and
the butterfly does not
pollinate the flower on
the right very well.

Hybrid infertility

If hybrids were fertile, then two

populations could come back together
to become one population.
But then they wouldnt technically be
hybrids in the first place.

Hybrid infertility maintains different

species.

Videos on factors that cause

speciation

Prezygotic barriers
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WHX
rvl-J6hQ
Postzygotic barriers
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1M6E
zm6Ht5I&feature=relmfu

Polyploidy can lead to speciation

We have talked about diploid organisms

so far, but there are haploid, triploid,
tetraploid, etc. organisms.

Polyploidy can lead to speciation

Just like in horses, donkeys, and mules,
having different numbers of
chromosomes are a barrier to
reproduction.
Have half, twice, or any multiple number
of chromosomes is a barrier to
reproduction.
Caused by complete non-disjunction
Helps plants be larger, resist disease,
and overall protein production.

Record is 84-ploid by a fern that has a total of 1260 chromosomes

There are two main pathways for

speciation: Allopatric speciation
Allopatric (different fathers) speciation
Speciation caused by geographic,
temporal, and/or behavioral isolation.
Gene flow between the populations
does not occur which allows the
populations to grow different from each
other, enough to be separate species.
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/co
ntent/chp24/2402002.html

There are two main pathways for

speciation: Allopatric speciation
The Founder Effect is when a small
population of organisms starts a new
population in an environment that does
not have ecological competition from
other members of the same species.
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0010122009/student_view
0/chapter4/animation_quiz__simulation_of_genetic_drift.html

There are two main pathways for

speciation: Sympatric speciation
Sympatric (same father) speciation
The formation of two or more species from
a single ancestral species all occupying
the same geographic location.
Can you think of any examples of this
happening? What would prevent gene flow
that would bring the populations back
together?
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/conte
nt/chp24/2402001.html

Outline the process of adaptive radiation

When one single ancestor species
branches into many species through
phenotypic adaptation of a variety of
different morphological and physiological
traits which can exploit a variety of
divergent environments.
Think Darwins Finches.

Darwins Finches
An ancestral population colonized the
islands from mainland South America.
Different groups populated different
islands with different environments that
were largely isolated from each other.
Natural selection occurred.
The beaks of the finches are now
homologous structures used for
different functions.

Adaptive radiation is an example

of Divergent Evolution
One species becomes two or more due
to natural selection.
The species have homologous
structures.

What traits do humans and an

octopus have in common?
What is an octopus?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=949e
YdEz3Es
They both have a complex eye

Evolution of the Eye

The complex eye has evolved at least 50 times throughout biological history

The complex eye is an example

convergent evolution

Convergent Evolution
When unrelated lineages of organisms
evolve similar biological characteristics.
Can you think of any organisms that are
distantly related, but have evolved
similar structures or abilities?
Example: Echolocation by whales and
bats

Little Auk

Coloration
Penguin

Flight even evolved

in Flying Fish!

Hummingbird

Hawk Moth

Discuss the pace of evolution

There are two main theories:
Gradualism is the idea that evolutionary
changes in species occur at a slow and
steady pace.
Punctuated equilibrium is the idea that
species are stable for long periods of time
with little change and then sudden
moments of immense change caused by a
major event.

Most of evolutionary thought is

based on Darwins theory of slow
change over time Gradualism

Genetic Drift and competition that slowly

allows a species to better fit its
environment over time.

Punctuated equilibrium is more

relevant to speciation events
There are two phases of punctuated
equilibrium: stasis and the punctuation.
During stasis, stabilizing selection could
be occurring which prevents genetic
drift.
During punctuation, directional or
disruptive selection could be occurring.

What causes these punctuations?

Isolation events like volcanic eruptions,
meteor impacts, droughts, etc.
One example is Darwins finches whose
ancestors were likely on South America
and then very abruptly spread out over the
Galapagos.
Stasis mixing genes on South America
Punctuation not being able to mix genes
and needing to adapt to different
environmental pressures.

Example of Punctuated equilibrium

Lake Turkana in Kenya has fossils that

tell an interesting story.

Lake Turkana

Example of Punctuated equilibrium

Lake Turkana in Kenya has fossils that
tell an interesting story.
Fossils of snails were small for millions
of years, and then they suddenly
change to being long and thin.
What caused this rapid change?
Drought.

Drought caused geographic

isolation of snails into different
pools in Lake Turkana
When the drought ended, there had
been so much adaptive evolution to fit
the environment of each of their small
ponds, that hybridization was no longer
possible.
One species out competed the rest, and
the fossil record changed in a very short
period of time.

Meteor impact
Meteors have a large proportion of the
element Iridium compared with the rest
of earths rock.
65 million years ago the K/T extinction
event caused the extinction of over half
of the known species on earth.
The remaining organisms, could
survive, and quickly diverged from each
other (through directional selection).

Meteor Impact
This directional selection led to rapid
evolution and speciation.
After the impact, a different diversity of
species quickly appeared on Earth.

Discuss Transient Polymorphism

Polymorphism = many forms/shapes
In England, before the Industrial
Revolution there was a moth that could
have different patterns of color.
The Industrial Revolution changed the
color of the environment in which some
of the moths lived (near factories or
cities) to a black color.
So, the moths changed their color.

The selective pressure was

predation by birds that use sight
to hunt their prey.

Having camouflage that fit the

environment was very important to
survival.

This example of transient

polymorphism is called industrial
melanism.
The dark variety of moth (dark allele)
never became 100% of the gene pool.
Once Great Britain introduced the Clean
Air Act in 1956, more light colored
moths started appearing, especially
outside of urban areas.

Sickle Cell Anemia is an example

of Balanced Polymorphism
When two alleles are maintained in a
population due to the advantages
gained to the population of having both
alleles.
The sickle cell allele of hemoglobin
exists in populations that have been
historically exposed to malaria.

Heterozygous individuals have

malarial resistance and mild
anemia
This gives them an advantage over
severely anemic individuals, or
individuals with Malaria.
So, the polymorphism is maintained in
the population.

Human Evolution
What anatomical features do we share
with primates?
Grasping pentadactyl limbs

Used for manipulating tools and food items

and transportation in trees
Forelimbs can rotate/twist
Wide range of motion in the shoulder

Binocular vision
Allows for depth perception (very useful in
judging distances)

Anatomical features humans

share with primate

Reduced nose size which leads to

reduced olfaction (ability to smell)
Compare humans and primates to dogs,
wolves, and bears.

Omnivorous teeth (generalized dentition)

Sharp teeth in front for tearing meat,
rounded flat teeth in back for grinding plant
matter. Transitional teeth have combined
functions

Other features humans share with

primates

Slow reproduction
Long gestation period, usually one
offspring at a time

Social dependency and cooperation

Large skull relative to body size
Large and complex brain

What trends can we see in the

fossils of human ancestors?

Hominid
Skulls

From the oldest skulls, to the

youngest, what trends are there?

More volume for the brain

Humans
vs.
Chimpanzees

From the oldest skulls, to the

youngest, what trends are there?
More volume for the brain
Shortening and flattening of the face
Loss of brow ridges
Hole in the skull, where the spinal cord
exits, is further forward in younger skulls.

What other structural

Lucy (3.2 million
changes
years ago)
occurred?
Chimpanzee

Human

Human knees are under the center of

gravity, instead of out for knuckle walking
Human spine has curves to keep the
center of gravity aligned for bipedalism.
Human pelvis is wider
Human legs straighten completely when
walking.
Humans lack an opposable big toe

But humans have an arched foot which

allows better and more efficient walking

Human arm length:leg length is smaller

When did these changes occur?

http://www.pbs.org/
wgbh/nova/beta/ass
ets/swf/1/who-inevo/tree.swf

General trends of Hominid evolution

Larger brain size.
Smaller teeth that reflects changes in
diet from a diet based largely on
vegetation to one based on a variety of
foods like meat or even cooked foods.
Change from quadrupedalism to
bipedalism.

The human fossil record is

incomplete Why?
When an organism dies, it rarely
becomes a fossil because
decomposition happens rapidly.
Scavengers break up skeletons and
chew up/carry away bones.
Conditions for fossilization must be just
right, thus, only a very small fraction of
organisms ever become fossils.

Skulls and teeth are the most

common fossils
Having only a few specimens for data
leaves large gaps in the fossil record.
This lead to lots of proposed
explanations about our history which
can be quickly changed if a new piece
of evidence is found.

We still lack a fossil for our last

common ancestor with chimpanzees.

Did we ever live with other

hominins?
Human Prehistory: Review video
https://www.23andme.com/gen101/preh
istory/prologue/
Yes

Throughout the evolution of

humans, brain size has increased
Benefits of a larger brain:
A wider range of behavior

Less instinctual behavior

Teaching and learning could occur

Complex tools could be used

Use of fire for cooking, protection, and
warmth

What costs are associated with

larger brains?
A long gestation (pregnancy) period
A long development period before
offspring are self reliant
Much more brain development happens
after birth than for any other animal.
Large brain requires a lot of energy to
develop and maintain.

Increased needs for energy are

closely correlated with a change
in diet in hominins
Less plant matter was consumed.
More animal proteins was consumed.
Larger brains made cooperative hunting
possible, as well as more complex
social interactions like complex
language.

All of these developments may

be due to a genetic mutation that
made humans less strong
Evolution: Jaw Muscle and Brain Cavity
Size
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g0D_
k4lYrdo

Cultural Evolution
We know about genetic evolution
Cultural Evolution: the changing of
ideas held, and actions carried out, by
societies and the transmission of these
ideas through social learning from one
generation to the next.
Examples: the use of tools and
weapons, fire, agriculture, religion,
beliefs, etc.

Cultural Evolution
Human cultural evolution has
progressed through 3 main stages over
the millions of years of humanity: the
nomadic (hunting and gathering),
agricultural (settled), and industrial.
Genetically, modern humans have
existed for 80,000 years with only slight
variations coming into existence.

Culture is a powerful ecological

force
Culture: the beliefs, social forms, and
material traits of a group of people.
Through culture, humans have found
ways to change their environment,
rather than change evolutionarily in
response to the demands of our
environment.

Genetic vs cultural evolution

Genetic evolution has a clear correlation
with changing characteristics over time.
Cultural evolution is harder to correlate,
because culture is more complex and
responsible for those things that make us
distinctly human.
Example: language, compassion,
cooperation, creativity, art, value
systems, religion, societal ranking,
sexuality, gender roles, etc.

Nature vs. Nurture

Are our characteristics and behaviors,
because of our genetic inheritance, or
because of our cultural upbringing?
Maybe culture is responsible for our
most recent genetic traits becoming
fixed in the human gene pool

Cultural and Genetic Evolution

Allow human populations to rise above environmental limiting
factors like food, disease, waste accumulation, etc.
Genetic Evolution

Cultural Evolution

Unit of inheritance: gene

Changes in anatomy /
physiology

Example: bipedalism, cranial

size

Inherited through biological

means

Precedes cultural evolution (the

ability to learn must first be

present to allow culture)

Is still occurring. Ex: Hbs and

malaria resistance, resistance to

HIV

Unit of inheritance: word,

gesture, image, symbol,
language, tool, etc.
Linked to technology, cultural
revolution
Example: ideas, agriculture, etc.
Inherited by people who are not
necessarily related
Occurs more quickly than
genetic evolution
Occurs more quickly with
technology, internet, etc.

The Hardy-Weinberg Principle

We have been studying evolution (a
change in allele frequency of a
population), and how it happens.
The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes
a stable population where no evolution
is taking place.

What is required in order to have

no evolution within a population?
1.

2.

3.
4.
5.

No mutations take place.

No immigration or emigration that
would cause gene transfers between
separate gene pools.
Only random mating occurs no
differential mating success.
No selection occurs.
The population must be very large.

If these five factors are

happening in a population

No evolution is happening and the

population is said to be in HardyWeinberg equilibrium.

The Hardy-Weinberg principle

was created from knowledge of
Mendels experiments in 1908.
How?
Take a population of 100 cats, 84 are
black (B allele), 16 are white (b allele).
Can we deduce the underlying allele
frequencies of these two alleles from
this information?
Yes, if we assume they are in HardyWeinberg equilibrium.

Remember Punnett squares?

What is the ratio of probabilities of the

three possible genotypes (BB, Bb, and
bb) from crossing two heterozygous
parents?

BB

Bb

Bb

bb

1BB : 2Bb : 1bb

What if we cross all of the

theoretical alleles in the population
B

BB

Bb

Bb

bb

Now, the parents are no

longer individuals, but
are representatives of
the possible crosses in
a population from
random mating.
Now, we need to know
the probabilities of each
allele.

Deriving the equilibrium equation

p = the frequency of the dominant allele (B)
q = the frequency of the recessive allele (b)
(p + q) = 1, because there are only two
alleles in the population. (ex: 84% + 16%)
What is the chance of getting a pp or qq
individual?
You must first know the chance of getting
one q from their father and another q from
their mother in separate events (gamete
formation).

What multiplied by the same

number (q x q) equals 0.16?
0.40 x 0.40 = 0.16, this is the chance of
getting a homozygous recessive (bb or
qq) offspring, since that is what is
currently present in the population.
So, q = 0.40
Therefore, using (p + q) = 1, what is the
allele frequency of p?
p = 0.60

Now we can see that the chances of

getting any offsprings genotype is
the crossing of the genotypic
probabilities in the gene pool

Deriving the equilibrium equation

Thus, (p + q)2 = 1
Can look like p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
Because, the sum of all 3 possible
genotypes (BB, Bb, and bb) must also
add up to 100%, or 1.
So, (0.60)2 + 2(0.24) + (0.40)2 = 1
Check: 0.36 + 0.48 + 0.16 = 1

The Punnett Square could also be

viewed as
(p + q)2 = (p + q)(p + q) = 1
So the offspring BB would have the
chance of p x p of existing, or p2.
The offspring Bb, would have the
chance of 2(p x q) of existing, or 2pq.
The offspring bb, would have the
chance of q x q of existing, or q2.

We can check this equation again

Check for understanding.

In a population of roses, red flowers (R)
are dominant to yellow (r).
In a field of roses, 96% of flowers are
red and 4% are yellow.
What are the allele frequencies of these
two alleles?
Yellow = 0.20, Red = 0.80

Further check for understanding

http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/co
ntent/chp23/2302002.html
Good Youtube explanation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xPkO
AnK20kw
Online quiz
http://people.cst.cmich.edu/swans1bj/h
we/hwetutorial.html

Taxonomy and classification

Why classify organisms?

Newly discovered species can be readily
classified and identified using traits that
are shared by groups of organisms.
Classification allows for understanding of
evolutionary links between organisms.

What is the whales closest land

relative?

What is the llamas closest

relative? Sheep or camels?

Review: How are DNA and

protein structures evidence of the
common ancestry of all life?

All life that currently exists on Earth is based

on DNA as the inherited material and proteins
to do their functions and form their shape.
The more similar the DNA and proteins the
more closely related the organisms.
Comparing DNA sequences can lead to
classification, and deduction of how distant the
relatives are from each other.

The protein, Cytochrome C Oxidase is

considered to be too complex to have
developed several times throughout
evolution, yet almost every organism on
earth has it in their cell membranes.

Lets say you find a fossil

You can determine its age by using Potassium
40 dating techniques.
It is 10 million years old.
By using the fossil record, you discover that it is
the last common ancestor of the Hippopotamus
and the Blue Whale.
Then you compare the DNA of Hippos and Blue
Whales. You discover that their DNA is 90% the
same, or that there are 100 million nucleotides
differences between the two species.

What is the rate of mutation?

100 million mutations 10 million years
= 10 mutations year-1
What if you find another fossil that is
only 5 million years old.
Could you estimate how many
mutations had occurred that would
account for the differences between the
fossils?
Yes.

Tracking these biochemical

variations are how evolutionary
clocks are determined
But! Is the rate of mutation, or the rate
of change in allele frequency, always
constant?
No, there are large uncertainties
associated with evolutionary clocks, but
they are still useful.

Clade and Cladistics

Clades are groups of organisms which
consist of a common ancestor and its
descendants.
Cladistics are the methods of classifying
species of organisms into groups called
clades.

Cladistics uses cladograms to show

separate clades
Bryophytes Filicinophytes

Conifers

Angiosperms
Flowers

Seeds

Vascular Tissue

Analogous vs. homologous

characteristics
Homologous characteristics are
inherited from a common ancestor.
Large or small changes may have
occurred since divergence. Ex: Darwins
finch beaks.
Analogous characteristics are not
inherited from a common ancestor, but
are examples of convergent evolution.
Ex: wings in bats, birds, and insects

Cladograms can be based on

biochemistry instead of morphology

How do you make a cladogram?

First you must recognize that these two

cladograms are representations of the
same thing.

Which of these organisms are

most closely related?
Sister clades
(Have a common ancestor)

Outgroup

Nodes
(Common ancestors)

Root

Terminal nodes

Cladograms can be scaled with time

Or unscaled
where all
branches are
represented
equally
(time from
branching is
not scaled)

Rooted

Root

Unrooted

What can you tell me about the

organisms in this cladogram?
Node 3 occurred
most recently, while
Node 1 is the most ancient.
Node 3 is the most recent
common ancestor for C & D
Node 2 is the most recent common ancestor
for B, C, & D
Node 1 is the common ancestor of all taxa

If organisms share homologous

structures/behaviors then they are
from the same clade

Mammals produce milk

I
Platypus videos
http://www.youtu
be.com/watch?v
=OVneqhu9oZk
&feature=relmfu
http://www.youtu
be.com/watch?v
=QNoQvjlmGdk

If organisms share homologous

structures/behaviors then they are
from the same clade
Mammals produce milk
Birds have feathers
Insects have chitinous exoskeletons

When making a cladogram

First you get all of the data about

homologous structures that are shared
by species.

Organize the data

Characters
Energy
obtained
from other
organisms

Porifera Cnidaria

Have mouth
and anus

Can make a
CaCO3 shell

Bilateral
symmetry

Segmented
body
Exoskeleton
made of
chitin

Mollusca Annelida Arthropoda

Have
nematocysts

Platyhelmin
thes

X
X

Make a Venn Diagram from your

organized data

Convert the Venn Diagram into a

cladogram

The data
Characters
Energy
obtained
from other
organisms

Porifera Cnidaria

Have mouth
and anus

Can make a
CaCO3 shell

Bilateral
symmetry

Segmented
body
Exoskeleton
made of
chitin

Mollusca Annelida Arthropoda

Have
nematocysts

Platyhelmin
thes

X
X

Porifera Cnidaria

Platyhelminthes

Have
nematocysts

Arthropoda Mollusca
Annelida
Present
Can make
Chitin
CaCO3 shell
exoskeleton
Segmented
body
Mouth and anus
Time
Bilateral symmetry

Energy obtained from

other organisms

Past

Cladogram Video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ouZ9
zEkxGWg

Powerpoint created by Kris Wilson at UWC-USA

Kris.Wilson@uwc-usa.org