UNIT II: 600 - 1450 C.E.

This second era is much shorter than the previous one, but during the years between 600 and 1450 C.E. many earlier
trends continued to be reinorced, while some very important new patterns emerged that shaped all subse!uent times.
QUESTIONS OF PERIODIZATION
Change over time occurs or many reasons, but three phenomena that tend to cause it are"
#ass migrations $ %henever a signiicant number o people leave one area and migrate to another, change occurs
or both the land that they let as well as their destination
&mperial con!uests $ & an empire 'or later a country( deliberately con!uers territory outside its borders, signiicant
changes tend to ollow or both the attac)ers and the attac)ed.
Cross$cultural trade and e*change $ %idespread contact among various areas o the world brings not only new
goods but new ideas and customs to all areas involved.
+uring the classical era 'about 1000 ,CE to 600 CE(, all o these phenomena occurred, as we saw in -nit &. %ith the all
o the three ma.or classical civili/ations, the stage was set or new trends that deined 600$1450 CE as another period with
dierent migrations and con!uests, and more developed trade patterns than beore. 0ome ma.or events and developments
that characteri/ed this era were"
1lder belie systems, such as Christianity, 2induism, Conucianism, and ,uddhism, came to become more
important than political organi/ations in deining many areas o the world. 3arge religions covered huge areas o
land, even though locali/ed smaller religions remained in place.
Two nomadic groups $ the ,edouins and the #ongols $ had a huge impact on the course o history during this era.
4 new religion $ &slam $ began in the 5th century and spread rapidly throughout the #iddle East, 6orthern
4rica, Europe, and 0outheast 4sia.
%hereas Europe was not a ma.or civili/ation area beore 600 CE, by 1450 it was connected to ma.or trade routes,
and some o its )ingdoms were beginning to assert world power.
#a.or empires developed in both 0outh 4merica 'the &nca( and #esoamerica 'the #aya and 4/tec.(
China grew to have hegemony over many other areas o 4sia and became one o the largest and most prosperous
empires o the time.
3ong distance trade continued to develop along previous routes, but the amount and comple*ity o trade and
contact increased signiicantly.
This unit will investigate these ma.or shits and continuities by addressing several broad topics"
The &slamic %orld $ &slam began in the 4rabian 7eninsula in the 5th century CE, impacting political and
economic structures, and shaping the development o arts, sciences and technology.
&nterregional networ)s and contacts $ 0hits in and e*pansion o trade and cultural e*change increase the power
o China, connected Europe to other areas, and helped to spread the ma.or religions. The #ongols irst disrupted
then promoted long$distance trade throughout 4sia, 4rica, and Europe.
China8s internal and e*ternal e*pansion $ +uring the Tang and 0ong +ynasties, China e*perienced an economic
revolution and e*panded its inluence on surrounding areas. This era also saw China ta)en over by a powerul
nomadic group 'the #ongols(, and then returned to 2an Chinese under the #ing +ynasty.
+evelopments in Europe $ European )ingdoms grew rom nomadic tribes that invaded the 9oman Empire in the
5th century C.E. +uring this era, eudalism developed, and Christianity divided in two $ the Catholic Church in
the west and the Eastern 1rthodo* Church in the east. &n both cases, the Church grew to have a great deal o
political and economic power.
0ocial, cultural, economic patterns in the 4merindian world $ #a.or civili/ations emerged, building on the base o
smaller, less powerul groups rom the previous era. The #aya, 4/tec, and &nca all came to control large amounts
o territory and many other native groups.
+emographic and environmental changes $ -rbani/ation continued, and ma.or cities emerged in many parts o the
world. 6omadic migrations during the era included the 4/tecs, #ongols, Tur)s, :i)ings, and 4rabs. 3ong
distance trade promoted the spread o disease, including the plague pandemics in the early ourteenth century.
THE CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS (1000 BCE - 600 CE)
The period ater the decline o river valley civili/ations 'about 1000 ,CE $ 600 CE( is oten called the classical age.
+uring this era world history was shaped by the rise o several large civili/ations that grew rom areas where the earlier
civili/ations thrived. The classical civili/ations dier rom any previous ones in these ways"
1. They )ept better and more recent records, so historical inormation about them is much more abundant. %e )now more
about not .ust their wars and their leaders, but also about how ordinary people lived.
;. The classical societies provide many direct lin)s to today8s world, so that we may reer to them as root civili/ations, or
ones that modern societies have grown rom.
<. Classical civili/ations were e*pansionist, deliberately con!uering lands around them to create large empires. 4s a result,
they were much larger in land space and population than the river civili/ations were.
Three areas where civili/ations proved to be very durable were
The #editerranean $ Two great classical civili/ations grew up around this area" the =ree)s and the 9omans.
China $ The classical era began with the >hou Empire and continued through the 2an +ynasty.
&ndia $ 4lthough political unity was diicult or &ndia, the #auryan and =upta Empire emerged during the
classical era.
COMMON FEATURES OF CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS
The three areas o classical civili/ations developed their own belies, liestyles, political institutions, and social structures.
2owever, there were important similarities among them"
7atriarchal amily structures $ 3i)e the river valley civili/ations that preceded them, the classical civili/ation
valued male authority within amilies, as well as in most other areas o lie.
4gricultural$based economies $ +espite more sophisticated and comple* .ob speciali/ation, the most common
occupation in all areas was arming.
Comple* governments $ ,ecause they were so large, these three civili/ations had to invent new ways to )eep their
lands together politically. Their governments were large and comple*, although they each had uni!ue ways o
governing
E*panding trade base $ Their economic systems were comple*. 4lthough they generally operated independently,
trade routes connected them by both land and sea.
CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS
C!"#$ P%!&"&'(! O#)(*&+("&%* S%'&(! S"#'"#$
,#$$'$ ((-%"
.00-/00 BCE)
#ost enduring inluences come rom
4thens"
:alued education, placed emphasis on
importance o human eort, human ability
to shape uture events
&nterest in political theory" which orm o
government is best?
Celebration o human individual
achievement and the ideal human orm
7hilosophy and science emphasi/ed the use
o logic
2ighly developed orm o sculpture,
literature, math, written language, and
record )eeping
7olytheism, with gods having very human
characteristics
6o centrali/ed government@
concept o polis, or a ortiied
site that ormed the centers o
many city states
=overning styles varied '0parta
a military state, 4thens
eventually a democracy or adult
males(
4thens government irst
dominated by tyrants, or strong
rulers who gained power rom
military prowess@ later came to
be ruled by an assembly o ree
men who made political
decisions.
,oth 4thens and 0parta
developed strong military
organi/ations and established
colonies around the
#editerranean. 0parta
0lavery widely practiced

#en separated rom women
in military barrac)s until age
<0@ women had relative
reedom@ women in 0parta
encouraged to be physically
it so as to have healthy
babies@ generally better
treated and more e!ual to
men than women in 4thens
4thens encouraged e!uality
or ree males, but women
and slaves had little reedom.
6either group allowed to
participate in polis aairs.
0ocial status dependent on
land holdings and cultural
sophistication
Cities relatively small
=reat seaaring s)ills, centered around
4egean, but traveling around entire
#editerranean area
theoretically e!ual@ wealth
accumulation not allowed



R%0$ ((-%"
500 BCE "% 416
CE2 (!"3%)3
$(4"$#* 3(!5
'%*"&*$6 5%#
(*%"3$#
"3%4(*6
7$(#4)
7erection o military techni!ues" con!uer
but don8t oppress@ division o army into
legions, emphasi/ing organi/ation and
rewarding military talent
4rt, literature, philosophy, science
derivative rom =reece
0uperb engineering and architecture
techni!ues@ e*tensive road, sanitation
systems@ monumental architecture
$buildings, a!ueducts, bridges
7olytheism, derivative rom =ree)s, but
religion not particularly important to the
average 9oman@ Christianity developed
during Empire period, but not dominant
until very late
=reat city o 9ome $ buildings, arenas,
design copied in smaller cities
Two eras"
9epublic $ rule by aristocrats,
with some power shared with
assemblies@ 0enate most
powerul, with two consuls
chosen to rule, generally
selected rom the military
Empire $ non$hereditary
emperor@ technically chosen by
0enate, but generally chosen by
predecessor
E*tensive coloni/ation and
military con!uest during both
eras
+evelopment o an overarching
set o laws, restrictions that all
had to obey@ 9oman law sets in
place principle o rule o law,
not rule by whim o the political
leader
,asic division between
patricians 'aristocrats( and
plebeians 'ree armers(,
although a middle class o
merchants grew during the
empire@ wealth based on land
ownership@ gap between rich
and poor grew with time
7ateramilias $ male
dominated amily structure
7atron$client system with
rich supervising elaborate
webs o people that owe
avors to them
&ne!uality increased during
the empire, with great
dependence on slavery
during the late empire@
slaves used in households,
mines, large estates, all )inds
o manual labor
C3&*( ((-%"
500 BCE "% 600
CE)
Conucianism developed during late >hou@
by 2an times, it dominated the political and
social structure.
3egalism and +aoism develop during same
era.
,uddhism appears, but not inluential yet
Threats rom nomads rom the south and
west spar) the irst construction o the
=reat %all@ clay soldiers, lavish tomb or
irst emperor 0hi 2uangdi
Chinese identity cemented during 2an era"
the A2anA Chinese
2an $ a Agolden ageA with prosperity rom
trade along the 0il) 9oad@ inventions
include water mills, paper, compasses, and
pottery and sil)$ma)ing@ calendar with
>hou $ emperor rules by
mandate o heaven, or belie that
dynasties rise and all according
to the will o heaven, or the
ancestors. Emperor was the Ason
o heaven.A

Emperor housed in the orbidden
city, separate rom all others

7olitical authority controlled by
Conucian values, with emperor
in ull control but bound by duty
7olitical power centrali/ed
under 0hi 2uangdi $ oten seen
Bamily basic unit o society,
with loyalty and obedience
stressed
%ealth generally based on
land ownership@ emergence
o scholar gentry
=rowth o a large merchant
class, but merchants
generally lower status than
scholar$bureaucrats
,ig social divide between
rural and urban, with most
wealth concentrated in cities
0ome slavery, but not as
much as in 9ome
7atriarchal society
<65.5 days
Capital o Ci8an possibly the most
sophisticated, diverse city in the world at
the time@ many other large cities
as the irst real emperor
2an $ strong centrali/ed
government, supported by the
educated shi 'scholar
bureaucrats who obtained
positions through civil service
e*ams(
reinorced by Conucian
values that emphasi/ed
obedience o wie to
husband
I*6&(
4ryan religious stories written down into
:edas, and 2induism became the dominant
religion, although ,uddhism began in &ndia
during this era@
#auryans ,uddhist, =uptas 2indu
=reat epic literature such as the 9amayana
and #ahabarata
E*tensive trade routes within subcontinent
and with others@ connections to 0il) 9oad,
and heart o &ndian 1cean trade@ coined
money or trade
0o$called 4rabic numerals developed in
&ndia, employing a 10$based system
3ac) o political unity $
geographic barriers and diversity
o people@ tended to ragment
into small )ingdoms@
political authority less important
than caste membership and
group allegiances
#auryan and =upta Empires
ormed based on military
con!uest@ #auryan
Emperor 4sho)a seen as
greatest@ converted to ,uddhism,
)ept the religion alive
Atheater stateA techni!ues used
during =upta $ grand palace and
court to impress all visitors,
conceal political wea)ness
Comple* social hierarchy
based on caste membership
'birth groups called .ati(@
occupations strictly dictated
by caste

Earlier part o time period $
women had property rights
+ecline in the status o
women during =upta,
corresponding to increased
emphasis on ac!uisition and
inheritance o property@
ritual o sati or wealthy
women ' widow cremates
hersel in her husband8s
uneral pyre(

,LOBAL TRADE AND CONTACT
+uring the classical era the ma.or civili/ations were not entirely isolated rom one another. #igrations continued, and
trade increased, diusing technologies, ideas, and goods rom civili/ation centers to more parts o the world. 2owever,
the process was slow. Chinese inventions such as paper had not yet reached societies outside East 4sia by the end o the
classical era. The %estern 2emisphere was not yet in contact with the Eastern 2emisphere. 6evertheless, a great deal o
cultural diusion did ta)e place, and larger areas o the world were in contact with one another than in previous eras.
1ne very important e*ample o cultural diusion was 2elleni/ation, or the deliberate spread o =ree) culture. The most
important agent or this important change was 4le*ander the =reat, who con!uered Egypt, the #iddle East, and the large
empire o 7ersia that spread eastward all the way to the &ndus 9iver :alley. 4le*ander was #acedonian, but he controlled
=reece and was a big an o =ree) culture. 2is con!uests meant that =ree) architecture, philosophy, science, sculpture,
and values diused to large areas o the world and greatly increased the importance o Classical =reece as a root culture.
Trade routes that lin)ed the classical civili/ations include"
T3$ S&!8 R%(6 $ This overland route e*tended rom western China, across Central 4sia, and inally to the
#editerranean area. Chinese sil) was the most desired commodity, but the Chinese were willing to trade it or
other goods, particularly or horses rom Central 4sia. There was no single route, but it consisted o a series o
passages with common stops along the way. #a.or trade towns appeared along the way where goods were
e*changed. 6o single merchant traveled the entire length o the road, but some products 'particularly sil)( did
ma)e it rom one end to the other.
T3$ I*6&(* O'$(* T#(6$ $ This important set o water routes became even more important in later eras, but the
&ndian 1cean Trade was actively in place during the classical era. The trade had three legs" one connected eastern
4rica and the #iddle East with &ndia@ another connected &ndia to 0outheast 4sia@ and the inal one lin)ed
0outheast 4sia to the Chinese port o Canton.
S(3(#(* T#(6$ $ This route connected people that lived south o the 0ahara to the #editerranean and the #iddle
East. The ,erbers, nomads who traversed the desert, were the most important agents o trade. They carried goods
in camel caravans, with Cairo at the mouth o the 6ile 9iver as the most important destination. There they
connected to other trade routes, so that Cairo became a ma.or trade center that lin)ed many civili/ations together.
S--S(3(#(* T#(6$ $ This trade was probably inspired by the ,antu migration, and by the end o the classical
era people south o the 0ahara were connect to people in the eastern and southern parts o 4rica. This trade
connected to the &ndian 1cean trade along the eastern coast o 4rica, which in turn connected the people o sub$
0aharan 4rica to trade centers in Cairo and &ndia.
TRADE DURIN, THE CLASSICAL ERA (1000 BCE "% 600 CE)
9oute +escription %hat traded? %ho participated? Cultural diusion
0il) 9oad
1verland rom western China to
the #editerranean Trade made
possible by development o a
camel hybrid capable o long
dry trips
Brom west to east $
horses, alala,
grapes, melons,
walnuts
Brom east to west $
sil), peaches,
apricots, spices,
pottery, paper
Chinese, &ndians,
7arthians, central
4sians, 9omans
7rimary agents o trade
$ central 4sian nomads
Chariot warare, the stirrup, music,
diversity o populations, ,uddhism
and Christianity, wealth and
prosperity 'particularly important
or central 4sian nomads(
&ndian
1cean
Trade
,y water rom Canton in China
to 0outheast 4sia to &ndia to
eastern 4rica and the #iddle
East@ monsoon$controlled
7igments, pearls,
spices, bananas and
other tropical ruits
Chinese, &ndians,
#alays, 7ersians,
4rabs, people on
4rica8s east coast
3ateen sail 'lattened triangular
shape( permitted sailing ar rom
coast
Created a trading class with
mi*ture o cultures, ties to
homeland bro)en
0aharan
Trade
7oints in western 4rica south
o the 0ahara to the
#editerranean@ Cairo most
important destination
Camel caravans
0alt rom 0ahara to
points south and west
=old rom western
4rica
%heat and olives
rom &taly
9oman manuactured
goods to western
4rica
%estern 4ricans,
people o the
#editerranean

,erbers most
important agents o
trade
Technology o the camel saddle $
important because it allowed
domestication and use o the camel
or trade
0ub$
0aharan
Trade
Connected 4ricans south and
east o the 0ahara to one
another@ connected in the east to
other trade routes
4gricultural
products, iron
weapons
+iverse peoples in
sub$0aharan 4rica
,antu language, A4ricanityA
THE LATE CLASSICAL ERA: THE FALL OF EMPIRES (900 TO 600 CE)
9ecall that all o the river$valley civili/ation areas e*perienced signiicant decline andDor con!uest in the time period
around 1;00 ,CE. 4 similar thing happened to the classical civili/ations between about ;00 and 600 CE, and because the
empires were larger and more connected, their all had an even more signiicant impact on the course o world history.
2an China was the irst to all 'around ;;0 CE(, then the %estern 9oman Empire '456 CE(, and inally the =upta in 550
CE.
SIMILARITIES
0everal common actors caused all three empires to all"
4ttac)s rom the 2uns $ The 2uns were a nomadic people o 4sia that began to migrate south and west during
this time period. Their migration was probably caused by drought and lac) o pasture, and the invention and use
o the stirrup acilitated their attac)s on all three established civili/ations.
+eterioration o political institutions $ 4ll three empires were riddled by political corruption during their latter
days, and all three suered under wea)$willed rulers. #oral decay also characteri/ed the years prior to their
respective alls.
7rotectionDmaintenance o borders $ 4ll empires ound that their borders had grown so large that their military had
trouble guarding them. 4 primary e*ample is the ailure o the =reat %all to )eep the 2uns out o China. The
2uns generally .ust went around it.
+iseases that ollowed the trade routes $ 7lagues and epidemics may have )illed o as much as hal o the
population o each empire.
DIFFERENCES
Even though the empires shared common reasons or their declines, some signiicant dierences also may be seen.
The =upta8s dependence on alliances with regional princes bro)e down, e*hibiting the tendency toward political
ragmentation on the &ndian subcontinent.
9ome8s empire lasted much longer than did either o the other two. The 9oman Empire also split in two, and the
eastern hal endured or another 1000 years ater the west ell.
The all o empire aected the three areas in dierent ways. The all o the =upta probably had the least impact,
partly because political unity wasn8t the rule anyway, and partly because the traditions o 2induism and the caste
system 'the glue that held the area together( continued on ater the empire ell. The all o the 2an +ynasty was
problematic or China because strong centrali/ed government was in place, and social disorder resulted rom the
loss o authority. 2owever, dynastic cycles that ollowed the dictates o the #andate o 2eaven were well deined
in China, and the Conucian traditions continued to give coherence to Chinese society. The most devastating all
o all occurred in 9ome. 9oman civili/ation depended almost e*clusively on the ability o the government and the
military to control territory. Even though Christianity emerged as a ma.or religion, it appeared so late in the lie o
the empire that it provided little to uniy people as 9omans ater the empire ell. &nstead, the areas o the empire
ragmented into small parts and developed uni!ue characteristics, and the %estern 9oman Empire never united
again.
COMMON CONSEQUENCES
The all o the three empires had some important conse!uences that represent ma.or turning points in world history"
Trade was disrupted but survived, )eeping intact the trend toward increased long$distance contact. Trade on the
&ndian 1cean even increased as conlict and decline o political authority aected overland trade.
The importance o religion increased as political authority decreased. &n the west religion, particularly Christianity
was let to slowly develop authority in many areas o people8s lives. ,uddhism also spread !uic)ly into China,
presenting itsel as competition to Conucian traditions.
7olitical disunity in the #iddle East orged the way or the appearance o a new religion in the 5th century. ,y
600 CE &slam was in the wings waiting to ma)e its entrance onto the world stage.
BELIEF S:STEMS
,elie systems include both religions and philosophies that help to e*plain basic !uestions o human e*istence, such as
A%here did we come rom?A 1r A%hat happens ater death?A or A%hat is the nature o human relationships or
interactions?A #any ma.or belies systems that inluence the modern world began during the Boundations Era 'E000 ,CE
to 600 CE(.
713FT2E&0#
The earliest orm o religion was probably polydaemonism 'the belie in many spirits(, but somewhere in the 6eolithic era
people began to put these spirits together to orm gods. &n polytheism, each god typically has responsibility or one area o
lie, li)e war, the sea, or death. &n early agricultural societies, !uite logically most o the gods had responsibility or the
raising o crops and domesticated animals. The most prominent god in many early societies was the 0un =od, who too)
many orms and went by many names. 1ther gods supervised rain, wind, the moon, or stars. #any societies worshipped
gods o ertility, as relected in statues o pregnant goddesses, or women with e*aggerated emale eatures. Foung male
gods oten had eatures or bulls, goats, or .aguars that represented power, energy, andDor virility. 7erceptions o the gods
varied rom one civili/ation to the ne*t, with some seeing them as ierce and ull o retribution, and others seeing them as
more tolerant o human oibles.
9eligion was e*tremely important to the river$valley civili/ations, and most areas o lie revolved around pleasing the
gods. #onotheism was irst introduced about ;000 ,CE by &sraelites, but monotheism did not grow substantially till
much later. Each o the classical civili/ations had very dierent belie systems that partially account or the very dierent
directions that the three areas too) in succeeding eras. 9ome and =reece were polytheistic, but Christianity had a irm
ooting by the time the western empire ell. 2induism dominated &ndian society rom very early times, although
,uddhism also too) root in &ndia. Brom China8s early days, ancestors were revered, a belie reinorced by the philosophy
o Conucianism. 1ther belie systems, such as +aoism, 3egalism, and ,uddhism, also lourished in China by 600 CE.
2&6+-&0#
The beginnings o 2induism are diicult to trace, but the religion originated with the polytheism that the 4ryans brought
as they began invading the &ndian subcontinent sometime ater ;000 ,CE. 4ryan priest recited hymns that told stories and
taught values and were eventually written down in The :edas, the sacred te*ts o 2induism. 1ne amous story is The
9amayana that tells about the lie and love o 7rince 9ama and his wie 0ita. 4nother epic story is The #ahabharata,
which ocuses on a war between cousins. &ts most amous part is called The ,aghavad =ita, which tells how one
cousin, 4r.una, overcomes his hesitations to ight his own )in. The stories embody important 2indu values that still guide
modern day &ndia.
2induism assumes the eternal e*istence o a universal spirit that guides all lie on earth. 4 piece o the spirit called the
atman is trapped inside humans and other living creatures. The most important desire o the atman is to be reunited with
the universal spirit, and every aspect o an individual8s lie is governed by it. %hen someone dies, their atman may be
reunited, but most usually is reborn in a new body. 4 person8s caste membership is a clear indication o how close he or
she is to the desired reunion. 0ome basic tenets o 2induism are
9eincarnation $ 4tman spirits are reborn in dierent people ater one body dies. This rebirth has no beginning and
no end, and is part o the larger universal spirit that pervades all o lie.
Garma $ This widely used word actually reers to the pattern o cause and eect that transcends individual human
lives. %hether or not an individual ulills hisDher duties in one lie determines what happens in the ne*t.
+harma $ +uties called dharma are attached to each caste position. Bor e*ample, a warrior8s dharma is to ight
honorably, and a wie8s duty is to serve her husband aithully. Even the lowliest caste has dharma attached to it. &
one ulills this dharma, the reward is or the atman to be reborn into a higher caste. 1nly the atman o a member
o the highest caste 'originally the priests( has the opportunity to be reunited with the universal spirit.
#o)sha $ #o)sha is the highest, most sought$ater goal or the atman. &t describes the reunion with the universal
spirit.
The universal spirit is represented by ,rahman, a god that ta)es many dierent shapes. Two o ,rahman8s orms are
:ishnu the Creator, and 0hiva the +estroyer. 2induism is very diicult to categori/e as either polytheistic or monotheistic
because o the central belie in the universal spirit. +o each o ,rahman8s orms represent a dierent god, or are they all
the same? ,rahman8s orms almost certainly represent dierent 4ryan gods rom the religion8s early days, but 2induism
eventually unites them all in the belie in ,rahman.
,-++2&0#
,uddhism began in &ndia in the =anges 9iver are during the 6th century ,CE. &ts ounder was 0iddhartha =uatama, who
later became )nown as the ,uddha, or the AEnlightened 1ne.A 0iddhartha was the son o a wealthy 2indu prince who
grew up with many advantages in lie. 2owever, as a young man he did not ind answers to the meaning o lie in
2induism, so he let home to become an ascetic, or wandering holy man. 2is Enlightenment came while sitting under a
tree in a +eerield, and the revelations o that day orm the basic tenets o ,uddhism"
T3$ F%# N%-!$ T#"34 $ 1( 4ll o lie is suering@ ;( 0uering is caused by alse desires or things that do not
bring satisaction@ <( 0uering may be relieved by removing the desire@ 4( +esire may be removed by ollowing
the Eightold 7ath.
T3$ E&)3"5%!6 P("3 "% E*!&)3"$*0$*" $ The ultimate goal is to ollow the path to nirvana, or a state o
contentment that occurs when the individual8s soul unites with the universal spirit. The eight steps must be
achieved one by one, starting with a change in thoughts and intentions, ollowed by changes in lie style and
actions that prelude a higher thought process through meditation. Eventually, a Abrea)throughA occurs when
nirvana is achieved that gives the person a whole new understanding o lie.
6ote that 2induism supported the continuation o the caste system in &ndia, since castes were an outer relection o inner
purity. Bor e*ample, placement in a lower caste happened because a person did not ulill hisDher dharma in a previous
lie. 2igher status was a ArewardA or good behavior in the past. 4lthough ,uddhism, li)e 2induism, emphasi/es the
soul8s yearning or understandings on a higher plane, it generally supported the notion that anyone o any social position
could ollow the Eightold 7ath successully. ,uddhists believed that changes in thought processes and lie styles brought
enlightenment, not the powers o one8s caste. 4lthough the ,uddha actively spread the new belies during his long
lietime, the new religion aced oppression ater his death rom 2indus who saw it as a threat to the basic social and
religious structure that held &ndia together. ,uddhism probably survived only because
the #auryan emperor 4sho)a converted to it and promoted its practice. 2owever, in the long run, ,uddhism did much
better in areas where it spread through cultural diusion, such as 0outheast 4sia, China, and Hapan.
C16B-C&46&0#
Three important belie systems 'Conucianism, +aoism, and 3egalism( emerged in China during the %arring 0tates
7eriod '40<$;;1 ,CE( between the >hou and 2an +ynasties. 4lthough the period was politically chaotic, it hosted a
cultural lowering that let a permanent mar) on Chinese history.
Conucius contemplated why China had allen into chaos, and concluded that the #andate o 2eaven had been lost
because o poor behavior o not only the Chinese emperor, but all his sub.ects as well. 2is plan or reestablishing Chinese
society prooundly aected the course o Chinese history and eventually spread to many other areas o 4sia as well. 2e
emphasi/ed the importance o harmony, order, and obedience and believed that i ive basic relationships were sound, all
o society would be, too"
EmperorDsub.ect $ the emperor has the responsibility to ta)e care o his sub.ects, and sub.ects must obey the
emperor
BatherDson $ the ather ta)es care o the son, and the son obeys the ather
1lder brotherDyounger brother $ the older brother ta)es care o the younger brother, who in turn obeys him
2usbandDwie $ the husband ta)es care o the wie, who in turn obeys him
BriendDriend $The only relationship that does not assume ine!uality should be characteri/ed by mutual care and
obedience
Conucius also deined the Asuperior manA $ one who e*hibits 9en ')indness(, li 'sense o propriety(, and Ciao
'ilial piety, or loyalty to the amily(.
Conucianism accepted and endorsed ine!uality as an important part o an ordered society. &t conirmed the power o the
emperor, but held him responsible or his people, and it reinorced the patriarchal amily structure that was already in
place in China. ,ecause Conucianism ocused on social order and political organi/ation, it is generally seen as a
philosophy rather than a religion. 9eligions are more li)ely to emphasi/e spiritual topics, not society and politics.
+41&0#
The ounder o +aoism is believed to have been 3ao/i, a spiritualist who probably lived in the 4th century ,CE. The
religion centers on the +ao 'sometimes reerred to as the A%ayA or A7athA(, the original orce o the cosmos that is an
eternal and unchanging principle that governs all the wor)ings o the world. The +ao is passive $ not active good nor bad $
but it .ust is. &t cannot be changed, so humans must learn to live with it. 4ccording to +aoism, human strivings have
brought the world to chaos because they resist the +ao. 4 chie characteristic is wuwei, or a disengagement rom the
aairs o the world, including government. The less government the better. 3ive simply, in harmony with nature. +aoism
encourages introspection, development o inner contentment, and no ambition to change the +ao.
,oth Conucianism and +aoism encourage sel )nowledge and acceptance o the ways things are. 2owever,
Conucianism is activist and e*troverted, and +aoism is relective and introspective. The same individual may believe in
the importance o both belie systems, unli)e many people in western societies who thin) that a person may only adhere to
one belie system or another.
3E=43&0#
The third belie system that arose rom the %arring 0tates 7eriod is legalism, and it stands in star) contrast to the other
belies. &t had no concern with ethics, morality, or propriety, and cared nothing about human nature, or governing
principles o the world. &nstead it emphasi/ed the importance o rule o law, or the imperative or laws to govern, not men.
4ccording to legalism, laws should be administered ob.ectively, and punishments or oenders should be harsh and swit.
3egalism was the philosophy o 0hi 2uangdi, the irst emperor, whose Iin +ynasty rescued China rom chaos. 2owever
when he died, the 2an emperors that ollowed deserted legalism and established Conucianism as the dominant
philosophy.
H-+4&0#
4s noted earlier, Hudaism was the irst clearly monotheistic religion. 4t the heart o the religion was a belie in a
Covenant, or agreement, between =od and the Hewish people, that =od would provide or them as long as they obeyed
him. The Ten Commandments set down rules or relationships among human beings, as well as human relationships to
=od. ,ecause they were specially chosen by =od, Hews came to see themselves as separate rom others and did not see)
to convert others to the religion. 4s a result, Hudaism has remained a relatively small religion. 2owever, its inluence on
other larger religions, including >oroastrianism, Christianity, and &slam is vast, and so it remains as a very signiicant
Aroot religion.A
>oroastrianism is an early monotheistic religion that almost certainly inluenced and was inluenced by Hudaism, and it is
very diicult to )now which one may have emerged irst. ,oth religions thrived in the #iddle East, and adherents o both
apparently had contact with one another. >oroastrianism was the ma.or religion o 7ersia, a great land$based empire that
was long at war with 4ncient =reece and eventually con!uered by 4le*ander the =reat. The religion8s ounder was
>oroaster or >arathushtra, who saw the world immersed in a great struggle between good and evil, a concept that certainly
inluenced other monotheistic religions.
C29&0T&46&TF
Christianity grew directly out o Hudaism, with its ounder Hesus o 6a/areth born and raised as a Hew in the area .ust east
o the #editerranean 0ea. +uring his lietime, the area was controlled by 9ome as a province in the empire. Christianity
originated partly rom a long$standing Hewish belie in the coming o a #essiah, or a leader who would restore the Hewish
)ingdom to its ormer glory days. Hesus8 ollowers saw him as the #essiah who would cleanse the Hewish religion o its
rigid and haughty priests and assure lie ater death to all that ollowed Christian precepts. &n this way, its appeal to
ordinary people may be compared to that o ,uddhism, as it struggled to emerge rom the 2indu caste system.
Christianity8s broad appeal o the masses, as well as deliberate conversion eorts by its early apostles, meant that the
religion grew steadily and eventually became the religion with the most ollowers in the modern world.
Hesus was a prophet and teacher whose ollowers came to believe that he was the son o =od. 2e advocated a moral code
based on love, charity, and humility. 2is disciples predicted a inal .udgment day when =od would reward the righteous
with immortality and condemn sinners to eternal hell. Hesus was arrested and e*ecuted by 9oman oicials because he
aroused suspicions among Hewish leaders, and he was seen by many as a dangerous rebel rouser. 4ter his death, his
apostles spread the aith. Especially important was 7aul, a Hew who was amiliar with =reco$9oman culture. 2e e*plained
Christian principles in ways that =ree)s and 9omans understood, and he established churches all over the eastern end o
the #editerranean, and even as ar away as 9ome.
Christianity grew steadily in the 9oman Empire, but not without clashes with 9oman authorities. Eventually in the 4th
century CE, the Emperor Constantine was converted to Christianity and established a new capital in the eastern city o
,y/antium, which he renamed Constantinople. 4s a result, the religion grew west and north rom 9ome, and also east
rom Constantinople, greatly e*tending its reach.
,y the end o the classical era, these ma.or belie systems had e*panded to many areas o the world, and with the all o
empires in the late classical era, came to be ma.or orces in shaping world history. 1ne ma.or religion $ &slam $ remained
to be established in the 5th century as part o the ne*t great period that e*tended rom 600 to 1450 CE.
THE ISLAMIC ;ORLD
&slam $ the religion with the second largest number o supporters in the world today $ started in the sparsely
populated 4rabian 7eninsula among the ,edouins, a nomadic group that controlled trade routes across the desert. &n the
early 5th century, a ew trade towns, such as #ecca and #edina, were centers or camel caravans that were a lin) in the
long distance trade networ) that stretched rom the #editerranean to eastern China. #ecca was also was the destination
or religious pilgrims who traveled there to visit shrines to countless gods and spirits. &n the center o the city was a simple
house o worship called the Ga8aba, which contained among its many idols the ,lac) 0tone, believed to have been placed
their by 4braham, the ounder o Hudaism. Hews and Christians inhabited the city, and they mi*ed with the ma.ority who
were polytheistic.
THE FOUNDIN, OF ISLAM
&slam was ounded in #ecca by #uhammad, a trader and business manager or his wie, Ghadi.ah, a wealthy
businesswoman. #uhammad was interested in religion, and when he was about 40 he began visiting caves outside the city
to ind !uiet places to meditate. 4ccording to #uslim belie, one night while he was meditating #uhammad heard the
voice o the angel =abriel, who told him that he was a messenger o =od. #uhammad became convinced that he was the
last o the prophets, and that the one true god, 4llah, was spea)ing to him through =abriel. 2e came bac) into the city to
begin spreading the new religion, and he insisted that all other gods were alse. 2is ollowers came to be called #uslims,
or people who have submitted to the will o 4llah.
#uhammad8s ministry became controversial, partly because city leaders eared that #ecca would lose its position as a
pilgrimage center o people accepted #uhammad8s monotheism. &n 6;; C.E. he was orced to leave #ecca or ear o his
lie, and this amous light to the city o Fathrib became )nown as the 2i.rah, the oicial ounding date or the new
religion. &n Fathrib he converted many to &slam, and he renamed the city A#edina,A or Acity o the 7rophet.A 2e called the
community the umma, a term that came to reer to the entire population o #uslim believers.
4s &slam spread, #uhammad continued to draw the ire o #ecca8s leadership, and he became an astute military leader in
the hostilities that ollowed. &n 6<0, the 7rophet and 10,000 o his ollowers captured #ecca and destroyed the idols in
the Ga8aba. 2e proclaimed the structure as the holy structure o 4llah, and the ,lac) 0tone came to symboli/ed the
replacement o polytheism by the aith in one god.
ISLAMIC BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
The Bive 7illars o aith are ive duties at the heart o the religion. These practices represent a #uslim8s submission to the
will o =od.
Baith $ %hen a person converts to &slam, he or she recites the +eclaration o Baith, AThere is no =od but 4llah,
and #uhammad is the #essenger o 4llah.A This phrase is repeated over and over in #uslim daily lie.
7rayer $ #uslims must ace the city o #ecca and pray ive times a day. The prayer oten ta)es place in mos!ues
'&slamic holy houses(, but #uslims may stop to pray anywhere. &n cities and towns that are primarily #uslim, a
mue//in calls people to prayer rom a minaret tower or all to hear.
4lms $ 4ll #uslims are e*pected to give money or the poor through a special religious ta* called alms.
#uhammad taught the responsibility to support the less ortunate.
Basting $ +uring the &slamic holy month o 9amadan, #uslims ast rom sunup to sundown. 1nly a simple meal
is eaten at the end o the day that reminds #uslims that aith is more important than ood and water.
7ilgrimage $ #uslims are e*pected to ma)e a pilgrimage to #ecca at least once in their lietime. This event,
called the ha.., ta)es place once a year, and people arrive rom all over the world in all )inds o conveyances to
worship at the Ga8aba and several other holy sites nearby. 4ll pilgrims wear an identical white garment to show
their e!uality beore 4llah.
The single most important source o religious authority or #uslims is the Iur8an, the holy boo) believed to be the actual
words o 4llah. 4ccording to &slam, 4llah e*pressed his will through the 4ngel =abriel, who revealed it to #uhammad.
4ter #uhammad8s death these revelations were collected into a boo), the Iur8an. #uhammad8s lie came to be seen as
the best model or proper living, called the 0unna. -sing the Iur8an and the 0unna or guidance, early ollowers
developed a body o law )nown as shari8a, which regulated the amily lie, moral conduct, and business and community
lie o #uslims. 0hari8a still is an important orce in many #uslim countries today even i they have separate bodies o
oicial national laws. &n the early days o &slam, shari8a brought a sense o unity to all #uslims.
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM
#uhammad died in 6<; CE, only ten years ater the hi.rah, but by that time, &slam had spread over much o the 4rabian
7eninsula. 0ince #uhammad8s lie represented the Aseal o the prophetsA 'he was the last one(, anyone that ollowed had
to be a very dierent sort. The government set up was called a caliphate, ruled by a caliph 'a title that means AsuccessorA
or Adeputy( selected by the leaders o the umma. The irst caliph was 4bu$,a)r, one o #uhammad8s close riends. 2e
was ollowed by three successive caliphs who all had )nown the 7rophet, and were Arightly guidedA by the Iur8an and the
memory o #uhammad. ,y the middle o the Eth century #uslim armies had con!uered land rom the 4tlantic 1cean to
the &ndus 9iver, and the caliphate stretched 6000 miles east to west.
9eligious /eal certainly played an important role in the rapid spread o &slam during the 5th and Eth centuries C.E.
2owever, several other actors help to e*plain the phenomenon"
%ell$disciplined armies $ Bor the most part the #uslim commanders were able, war tactics were eective, and the
armies were eiciently organi/ed.
%ea)ness o the ,y/antine and 7ersian Empires $ 4s the &slamic armies spread north, they were aided by the
wea)ness o the empires they sought to con!uer. ,oth the ,y/antine and 7ersian Empires were wea)er than they
had been in previous times, and many o their sub.ects were willing to convert to the new religion.
Treatment o con!uered peoples $ The Iur8an orbid orced conversions, so con!uered people were allowed to
retain their own religions. #uslims considered Christians and Hews to be superior to polytheistic people, not only
because they were monotheistic, but also because they too adhered to a written religious code. 4s a result,
#uslims called Christians and Hews Apeople o the boo).A #any con!uered people chose to convert to &slam, not
only because o its appeal, but because as #uslims they did not have to pay a poll ta*.
THE SUNNI-SHI<A SPLIT
The 4rab tribes had ought with one another or centuries beore the advent o &slam, and the religion ailed to prevent
serious splits rom occurring in the caliphate. Each o the our caliphs was murdered by rivals, and the death o
#uhammad8s son$in$law 4li in 661 triggered a civil war. 4 amily )nown as the -mayyads emerged to ta)e control, but
4li8s death spar)ed a undamental division in the umma that has lasted over the centuries. The two main groups were"
0unni $ &n the interest o peace, most #uslims accepted the -mayyads8 rule, believing that the caliph should
continue to be selected by the leaders o the #uslim community. This group called themselves the 0unni, meaning
Athe ollowers o #uhammad8s e*ample.A
0hi8a $ This group thought that the caliph should be a relative o the 7rophet, and so they re.ected the -mayyads8
authority. A0hi8aA means Athe party o 4li,A and they sought revenge or 4li8s death.
Even though the caliphate continued or many years, the split contributed to its decline as a political system. The caliphate
combined political and religious authority into one huge empire, but it eventually split into many political parts. The areas
that it con!uered remained united by religion, but the tendency to all apart politically has been a ma.or eature o #uslim
lands. #any other splits ollowed, including the ormation o the 0ui, who reacted to the lu*urious lives o the later
caliphs by pursuing a lie o poverty and devotion to a spiritual path. They shared many characteristics o other ascetics,
such as ,uddhist and Christian mon)s, with their emphasis on meditation and chanting.
THE CHAN,IN, STATUS OF ;OMEN
The patriarchal system characteri/ed most early civili/ations, and 4rabia was no e*ception. 2owever, women en.oyed
rights not always given in other lands, such as inheriting property, divorcing husbands, and engaging in business ventures
'li)e #uhammad8s irst wie, Ghadi.ah.( The Iur8an emphasi/ed e!uality o all people beore 4llah, and it outlawed
emale inanticide, and provided that dowries go directly to brides. 2owever, or the most part, &slam reinorced male
dominance. The Iur8an and the shari8a recogni/ed descent through the male line, and strictly controlled the social and
se*ual lives o women to ensure the legitimacy o heirs. The Iur8an allowed men to ollow #uhammad8s e*ample to ta)e
up to our wives, and women could have only one husband.
#uslims also adopted the long$standing custom o veiling women. -pper class women in #esopotamia wore veils as
early as the 1<th century ,CE, and the practice had spread to 7ersia and the eastern #editerranean long beore
#uhammad lived. %hen #uslims con!uered these lands, the custom remained intact, as well as the practice o women
venturing outside the house only in the company o servants or chaperones.
ARTS2 SCIENCES2 AND TECHNOLO,IES
,ecause &slam was always a missionary religion, learned oicials )nown as ulama ' Apeople with religious )nowledgeA(
and !adis 'A.udgesA( helped to bridge cultural dierences and spread &slamic values throughout the dar al$&slam, as
&slamic lands came to be )nown. Bormal educational institutions were established to help in this mission. ,y the 10th
century CE, higher education schools )nown as madrasas had appeared, and by the 1;th century they were well
established. These institutions, oten supported by the wealthy, attracted scholars rom all over, and so we see a lowering
o arts, sciences, and new technologies in &slamic areas in the 1;th through 15th centuries.
%hen 7ersia became a part o the caliphate, the con!uerors adapted much o the rich cultural heritage o that land.
#uslims became ac!uainted, then, with the literary, artistic, philosophical, and scientiic traditions o others. 7ersians was
the principle language o literature, poetry, history, and political theory, and the verse o the 9ubaiyat by
1mar Ghayyam is probably the most amous e*ample. 4lthough many o the stories o The 4rabian 6ights or The
Thousand and 1ne 6ights were passed down orally rom generation to generation, they were written down in 7ersian.
&slamic states in northern &ndia also adapted mathematics rom the people they con!uered, using their 2indi numerals,
which Europeans later called A4rabic numerals.A The number system included a symbol or /ero, a very important
concept or basic calculations and multiplication. #uslims are generally credited with the development o mathematical
thought, particularly algebra. #uslims also were interested in =ree) philosophy, science, and medical writings. 0ome
were especially involved in reconciling 7lato8s thoughts with the teachings o &slam. The greatest historian and geographer
o the 14th century was &bn Ghaldum, a #oroccan who wrote a comprehensive history o the world. 4nother &slamic
scholar, 6asir al$+in, studied and improved upon the cosmological model o 7tolemy, an ancient =ree)
astronomer. 6asir al$+in8s model was almost certain used by 6icholas Copernicus, a 7olish mon) and astronomer who is
usually credited with developing the heliocentric model or the solar system.
INTERRE,IONAL NET;OR=S AND CONTACTS
Contacts among societies in the #iddle East, the &ndian subcontinent, and 4sia increased signiicantly between 600 and
1450 CE, and 4rica and Europe became much more important lin)s in the long$distance trade networ)s. ,oth the &ndian
1cean Trade and the 0il) 9oad were disrupted by ma.or migrations during this period, but both recovered and eventually
thrived. Europeans were irst brought into the trade loop through cities li)e :enice and =enoa on the #editerranean, and
the Trans$0aharan trade became more vigorous as ma.or civili/ations developed south o the 0aharan.
Two ma.or sea$trading routes $ those o the #editerranean 0ea and the &ndian 1cean $ lin)ed the newly created #uslim
Empire together, and 4rabic sailors come to dominate the trade. #uslims also were active in the 0il) 9oad trade to &ndia
and China. To encourage the low o trade, #uslim money changers set up ban)s throughout the caliphate so that
merchants could easily trade with those at ar distances. Cities along the trade routes became cosmopolitan mi*tures o
many religions and customs.
AFRICAN SOCIETIES AND EMPIRES
-ntil about 600 CE, most 4rican societies based their economies on hunting and gathering or simple agriculture and
herding. They centered their social and political organi/ation around the amily, and none had a centrali/ed government.
,eginning around 640, &slam spread into the northern part o the continent, bringing with it the uniying orces o
religious practices and law, the shari8a. 4s &slam spread, many 4rican rulers converted to the new religion, and
centrali/ed states began to orm. The primary agents o trade, the ,erbers o the 0ahara, became #uslims, although they
retained their identities and tribal loyalties. 4s a result, &slam mi*ed with native cultures to create a synthesis that too)
dierent orms in dierent places in northern 4rica. This gradual, nonviolent spread o &slam was very conducive to
trade, especially since people south o the 0ahara had gold.
,etween 600 and 1450 CE, two ma.or empires emerged in %est 4rica, .ust south o the 0ahara +esert"
=hana $ ,y the 500s, a arming people called the 0onin)e had ormed an empire that they called =hana 'Awar
chieA( that was growing rich rom ta*ing the goods that traders carried through their territory. Their most
important asset was gold rom the 6iger 9iver area that they traded or salt rom the 0ahara. The 4rab and ,erber
traders also carried cloth, weapons, and manuactured goods rom ports on the #editerranean. =hana8s )ing had
e*clusive rights to the gold, and so controlled its supply to )eep the price high. The )ing also commanded an
impressive army, and so the empire thrived. 3i)e the 4ricans along the #editerranean, =hana8s rulers and elites
converted to &slam, but most others retained their native religions.
#ali $ +uring the 11th century, the 4lmoravids, a #uslim group rom northern 4rica, con!uered =hana. ,y the
1<th century, a new empire, called #ali, dominated %est 4rica. The empire began with #ande$spea)ing people
south o =hana, but it grew to be larger, more powerul, and richer than =hana had been. #ali too based its
wealth on gold. 6ew deposits were ound east o the 6iger 9iver, and 4rican gold became a basic commodity in
long distance trade. #ali8s irst great leader was 0undiata, whose lie inspired an epic poem $The 3egend
o 0undiata $ that was passed down rom one generation to the ne*t. 2e deeated )ingdoms around #ali, and also
proved to be an aective administrator. 7erhaps even more amous was #ansu #usa, a 14th century ruler. 2e is
best )nown or giving away so much gold as he traveled rom #ali to #ecca or the ha.. that he set o a ma.or
round o inlation, seriously aecting economies all along the long$distance trade routes. #ali8s capital city,
Timbu)tu, became a world center o trade, education and sophistication.
The 0wahili city$states $ The people who lived in trade cities along the eastern coast o 4rica provided a very
important lin) or long$distance trade. The cities were not united politically, but they were well developed, with a
great deal o cultural diversity and sophisticated architecture. The people were )nown collectively as the 0wahili,
based on the language that they spo)e $ a combination o ,antu and 4rabic. #ost were #uslims, and the sailors
were renowned or their ability to maneuver their small boats through the &ndian 1cean to &ndia and other areas o
the #iddle East via the 9ed 0ea and bac) again.
THE CHRISTIAN CRUSADES (LATE 11TH THROU,H 1/TH CENTURIES C.E.)
7ope -rban && called or the Christian Crusades in 10J5 with the urgent message that )nights rom %estern Europe must
deend the Christian #iddle East, especially the 2oly 3ands o the eastern #editerranean, rom Tur)ish #uslim
invasions. The Eastern 1rthodo* ,y/antine emperor called on -rban or help when #uslims were right outside
Constantinople. %hat resulted over the ne*t two centuries was not the recovery o the #iddle East or Christianity, but
many other unintended outcomes. ,y the late 1<th century, the Crusades ended, with no permanent gains made or
Christians. &ndeed, Constantinople eventually was destined to be ta)en by #uslims in 145< and renamed &stanbul.
&nstead o bringing the victory that the )nights sought, the Crusades had the ultimate conse!uence o bringing Europeans
s!uarely into the ma.or world trade circuits. The societies o the #iddle East were much richer than European )ingdoms
were, and the )nights encountered much more sophisticated cultures there. They brought home all )inds o trading goods
rom many parts o the world and stimulated a demand in Europe or oreign products, such as sil), spices, and gold. Two
&talian cities $ :enice and =enoa $ too) advantage o their geographic location to arrange or water transportation or
)nights across the #editerranean to the 2oly 3ands. 1n the return voyages, they carried goods bac) to European mar)ets,
and both cities became !uite wealthy rom the trade. This wealth eventually became the basis or great cultural change in
Europe, and by 1450, European )ingdoms were poised or the eventual control o long$distance trade that they eventually
gained during the 1450$1550 era.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE MON,OLS
The #ongol invasions and con!uests o the 1<th century are arguably among the most inluential set o events in world
history. This nomadic group rom Central 4sia swept south and east, .ust as the 2uns had done several centuries beore.
They con!uered China, &ndia, the #iddle East, and the budding )ingdom o 9ussia. & not or the ateul death o the
=reat Ghan 1gadai, they might well have con!uered Europe as well. 4s it is, the #ongols established and ruled the
largest empire ever assembled in all o world history. 4lthough their attac)s at irst disrupted the ma.or trade routes, their
rule eventually brought the 7a* #ongolica, or a peace oten compared to the 7a* 9omana established in ancient times
across the 9oman Empire.
THE RISE OF THE MON,OLS
The #ongols originated in the Central 4slian steppes, or dry grasslands. They were pastoralists, organi/ed loosely into
)inship groups called clans. Their movement almost certainly began as they sought new pastures or their herds, as had so
many o their predecessors. #any historians believe that a severe drought caused the initial movement, and that the
#ongol8s superior ability as horsemen sustained their successes.
4round 1;00 CE, a #ongol )han 'clan leader( named Temu.in uniied the clans under his leadership. 2is acceptance o
the title =enghis Ghan, or Auniversal leaderA tells us something o his ambitions or his empire. 1ver the ne*t ;1 years, he
led the #ongols in con!uering much o 4sia. 4lthough he didn8t con!uer China in his lietime, he cleared the way or its
eventual deeat by #ongol orces. 2is sons and grandsons continued the con!uests until the empire eventually reached its
impressive si/e. =enghis Ghan is usually seen as one o the most talented military leaders in world history. 2e organi/ed
his warriors by the Chinese model into armies o 10,000, which were grouped into 1,000 man brigades, 100$man
companies, and 10$man platoons. 2e ensured that all generals were either )insmen or trusted riends, and they remained
ama/ingly loyal to him. 2e used surprise tactics, li)e a)e retreats and alse leads, and developed sophisticated catapults
and gunpowder charges.
The #ongols were inally stopped in Eurasia by the death o 1godai, the son o =enghis Ghan, who had become the
=reat Ghan centered in #ongolia when his ather died. 4t his death, all leaders rom the empire went to the #ongol
capital to select a replacement, and by the time this was accomplished, the invasion o Europe had lost its momentum. The
#ongols were also contained in &slamic lands by the #amlu) armies o Egypt, who had been enslaved by the 4bbasid
Caliphate. These orces matched the #ongols in horsemanship and military s)ills, and deeated them in battle in 1;60
beore the #ongols could reach the +ardanelle strait. The #ongol leader 2ulegu decided not the press or urther
e*pansion.
THE MON,OL OR,ANIZATION
The #ongol invasions disrupted all ma.or trade routes, but =enghis Ghan8s sons and grandsons organi/ed the vast empire
in such a way that the routes soon recovered. They ormed our Ghanates, or political organi/ations each ruled by a
dierent relative, with the ruler o the original empire in Central 4sia designated as the A=reat Ghan,A or the one that
ollowed in the steps o =enghis. 1nce the #ongols deeated an area, generally by brutal tactics, they were generally
content to e*tract tribute 'payments( rom them, and oten allowed con!uered people to )eep many o their customs. The
#ongol )hans were spread great distances apart, and they soon lost contact with one another. #ost o them adopted many
customs, even the religions, o the people they ruled. Bor e*ample, the &l$)han that con!uered the last caliphate in the
#iddle East eventually converted to &slam and was a great admirer o the sophisticated culture and advanced technologies
o his sub.ects. 0o the #ongol Empire eventually split apart, and the #ongols themselves became assimilated into the
cultures that they had Acon!uered.A
T;O TRAVELLERS
#uch o our )nowledge o the world in the 1<th and14th century comes rom two travelers, &bn ,attuta and #arco 7olo,
who widened )nowledge o other cultures through their writings about their .ourneys.
#arco 7olo $ &n the late 1<th century, #arco 7olo let his home in :enice, and eventually traveled or many years
in China. 2e was accompanied by his ather and uncle, who were merchants an*ious to stimulate trade between
:enice along the trade routes east. 7olo met the Chinese ruler Gublai Ghan '=enghis Ghan8s grandson(, who was
interested in his travel stories and convinced him to stay as an envoy to represent him in dierent parts o China.
2e served the )han or 15 years beore returning home, where he was captured by =enoans at war with :enice.
%hile in prison, he entertained his cellmates with stories about China. 1ne prisoner compiled the stories into a
boo) that became wildly popular in Europe, even though many did not believe that 7olo8s stories were true.
Europeans could not believe that the abulous places that 7olo described could ever e*ist.
&bn ,attutu $ This amous traveler and proliic writer o the 14th century spent many years o his lie visiting
many places within &slamic Empires. 2e was a #oroccan legal scholar who let his home or the irst time to
ma)e a pilgrimage to #ecca. 4ter his ha.. was completed, he traveled through #esopotamia and 7ersia, then
sailed down the 9ed 0ea and down the east 4rican coast as ar south as Gilwa. 2e later traveled to &ndia, the
,lac) 0ea, 0pain, #ali, and the great trading cities o Central 4sia. 2e wrote about all o the places he traveled
and compiled a detailed .ournal that has given historians a great deal o inormation about those places and their
customs during the 14th century. 4 devout #uslim who generally e*pected ine hospitality, &bn ,attutu seldom
)ept his opinions to himsel, and he commented reely on his approval or disapproval o the things that he saw.
4lthough ew people traveled as much as #arco 7olo and &bn ,attutu did, the large empires o the #ongols and other
nomadic peoples provided a political oundation or the e*tensive cross$cultural interaction o the era.
CHINA<S HE,EMON:
2egemony occurs when a civili/ation e*tends its political, economic, social, and cultural inluence over others. Bor
e*ample, we may reer to the hegemony o the -nited 0tates in the early ;1st century, or the conlicting hegemony o the
-nited 0tates and 9ussia during the Cold %ar Era. &n the time period between 600 and 1450 CE, it was impossible or one
empire to dominate the entire globe, largely because distance and communication were so diicult. ,oth the &slamic
caliphates and the #ongol Empire ell at least partly because their land space was too large to control eectively. 0o the
best any empire could do was to establish regional hegemony. +uring this time period, China was the richest and most
powerul o all, and e*tended its reach over most o 4sia.
THE >,OLDEN ERA> OF THE TAN, AND SON,
+uring the period ater the all o the 2an +ynasty in the <rd century C.E., China went into a time o chaos, ollowing the
established pattern o dynastic cycles. +uring the short$lived 0ui +ynasty '5EJ$61E C.E.(, China began to restore
centrali/ed imperial rule. 4 great accomplishment was the building o the =rand Canal, one o the world8s largest
waterwor)s pro.ects beore the modern era. The canal was a series o manmade waterways that connected the ma.or rivers
and made it possible or China to increase the amount and variety o internal trade. %hen completed it was almost 1;40
miles long, with roads running parallel to the canal on either side.
STREN,THS OF THE TAN,
&n 61E a rebel leader sei/ed China8s capital, Ci8an, and proclaimed himsel the emperor o the Tang +ynasty, an empire
destined to last or almost three hundred years 'till J05(. -nder the Tangs China regained strength and emerged as a
powerul and prosperous society. Three ma.or accomplishments o the Tang account or their long$lasting power"
4 strong transportation and communications system $ The =rand Canal contributed to this accomplishment, but
the Tang rulers also built and maintained an advanced road system, with inns, postal stations, and stables to
service travelers along the way. 7eople traveled both on oot and by horse, and the emperor used the roads to send
messages by courier in order to )eep in contact with his large empire.
The e!ual$ield system $ The emperor had the power to allocate agricultural land to individuals and amilies, and
the e!ual$ield system was meant to ensure that land distribution was air and e!uitable. 7art o the emperor8s
motivation was to control the amount o land that went to powerul amilies, a problem that had caused strong
challenges to the emperor8s mandate during the 2an +ynasty. The system wor)ed until the Jth century, when
inluential amilies again came to accumulate much o the land.
4 merit$based bureaucracy $This system was well developed during the 2an +ynasty, but the Tang made good use
o it by recruiting government oicials who were well educated, loyal, and eicient. 4lthough powerul amilies
used their resources to place relatives in government positions, most bureaucrats won their posts because o
intellectual ability.
Tang China e*tended its hegemony by e*tracting tribute 'gits and money( rom neighboring realms and people. China
was oten called Athe #iddle Gingdom,A because its people saw their civili/ation at the center o all that paid it honor. The
empire itsel was ar larger than any beore it, ollowing along the river valleys rom :ietnam to the south and #anchuria
to the north, and e*tending into parts o Tibet. &n 66E, the Tang overran Gorea, and established a vassal )ingdom
called 0illa.


RELI,IOUS ISSUES
3ong beore the Tang +ynasty was ounded, ,uddhism had made its way into China along the trade routes. ,y the pre$
Tang era, ,uddhist monasteries had so grown in inluence that they held huge tracts o land and e*erted political
inluence. #any rulers o the pre$Tang era, particularly those rom nomadic origins, were devout ,uddhists. #any
variations o ,uddhism e*isted, with #ahayana ,uddhism prevailing, a ma.or branch o the religion that allowed a great
deal o variance o ,uddha8s original teachings. Empress %u '6J0$505( was one o ,uddhism8s strongest supporters,
contributing large sums o money to the monasteries and commissioning many ,uddhist paintings and sculptures. ,y the
mid$Jth century, more than 50,000 monasteries e*isted in China.
Conucian and +aoist supporters too) note o ,uddhism8s growing inluence, and they soon came to challenge it. 7art o
the conlict between Conucianism and ,uddhism was that in many ways they were opposite belies, even though they
both condoned ArightA behavior and thought. Conucianism emphasi/ed duties owed to one8s society, and placed its
highest value on order, hierarchy, and obedience o superiors. ,uddhism, on the other hand, encouraged its supporters to
withdraw rom society, and concentrate on personal meditation. Binally in the Jth century, Conucian scholar$bureaucrats
conspired to convince the emperors to ta)e lands away rom the monasteries through the e!ual$ield system. -nder
emperor %u/ong, thousands o monasteries were burned, and many mon)s and nuns were orced to abandon them and
return to civilian lie.
6ot only was ,uddhism wea)ened by these actions, but the Tang +ynasty lost overall power as well. 2owever,
Conucianism emerged as the central ideology o Chinese civili/ation and survived as such until the early ;0th century.
THE FOUNDIN, OF THE SON, D:NAST:
+uring the Eth century, warlords began to challenge the Tang rulers, and even though the dynasty survived until J05 C.E.,
the political divisions encouraged nomadic groups to invade the ringes o the empire. %orsening economic conditions led
to a succession o revolts in the Jth century, and or a ew years China ell into chaos again. 2owever, recovery came
relatively !uic)ly, and a military commander emerged in J60 to reunite China, beginning the 0ong +ynasty. The 0ong
emperors did not emphasi/e the military as much as they did civil administration, industry, education, and the arts. 4s a
result, the 0ong never established hegemony over as large an area as the Tang had, and political disunity was a constant
threat as long as they held power. 2owever, the 0ong presided over a Agolden eraA o Chinese civili/ation characteri/ed by
prosperity, sophistication, and creativity.
The 0ong vastly e*panded the bureaucracy based on merit by sponsoring more candidates with more opportunities to
learn Conucian philosophy, and by accepting more candidates or bureaucratic posts than the 0ui and Tang.
PROBLEMS UNDER THE SON,
The 0ong created a more centrali/ed government than ever beore, but two problems plagued the empire and eventually
brought about its all"
Binances $ The e*pansion o the bureaucracy meant that government e*penses s)yroc)eted. The government
reacted by raising ta*es, but peasants rose in two ma.or rebellions in protest. +espite these warnings, bureaucrats
reused to give up their powerul positions.
#ilitary $ China had always needed a good military, partly because o constant threats o invasion by numerous
nomadic groups. The 0ong military was led by scholar bureaucrats with little )nowledge or real interest in
directing armies. The Hurchens, a northern nomadic group with a strong military, con!uered other nomads around
them, overran northern China, and eventually capturing the 0ong capital. The 0ong were let with only the
southern part o their empire that was eventually con!uered by the #ongols in 1;5J C.E.
ECONOMIC REVOLUTIONS OF THE TAN, AND SON, D:NASTIES
Even though the 0ong military wea)ness eventually led to the dynasty8s demise, it is notable or economic revolutions that
led to Chinese hegemony during the era. China8s economic growth in turn had implications or many other societies
through the trade that it generated along the long$distance routes. The changes actually began during the Tang +ynasty
and became even more signiicant during 0ong rule. 0ome characteristics o these economic revolutions are"
&ncreasing agricultural production $ ,eore this era, Chinese agriculture had been based on the production o
wheat and barley raised in the north. The Tang con!uest o southern China and :ietnam added a whole new
capability or agriculture@ the cultivation o rice. &n :ietnam they made use o a new strain o ast$ripening rice
that allowed the production o two crops per year. 4gricultural techni!ues improved as well, with the use o the
heavy iron plow in the north and water bualoes in the south. The Tang also organi/ed e*tensive irrigation
systems, so that agricultural production was able to move outward rom the rivers.
&ncreasing population $ China8s population about 600 C.E. was about 45 million, but by 1;00 'the 0ong +ynasty(
it had risen to about 115 million. This growth occurred partly because o the agricultural revolution, but also
because distribution o ood improved with better transportation systems, such as the =rand Canal and the
networ) o roads throughout the empire.
-rbani/ation $ The agricultural revolution also meant that established cities grew and new ones were created.
%ith its population o perhaps ;,000,000, the Tang capital o Ci8an was probably the largest city in the world. The
0ong capital o 2ang/hou was smaller, with about 1,000,000 residents, but it too was a cosmopolitan city with
large mar)ets, public theatres, restaurants, and crat shops. #any other Chinese cities had populations o more
than 100,000. ,ecause rice production was so successul and 0il) 9oad and &ndian 1cean trade was vigorous,
other armers could concentrate on specialty ruits and vegetables that were or sale in urban mar)ets.
Technological innovations $ +uring Tang period cratsmen discovered techni!ues or producing porcelain that was
lighter, thinner, more useul, and much more beautiul. Chinese porcelain was highly valued and traded to many
other areas o the world, and came to be )nown broadly as chinaware. The Chinese also developed superior
methods or producing iron and steel, and between the Jth and 1;th centuries, iron production increased tenold.
The Tang and 0ong are best )nown or the new technologies they invented, such as gunpowder, movable type
printing, and seaaring aids, such as the magnetic compass. =unpowder was irst used in bamboo lame throwers,
and by the 11th century inventors had constructed crude bombs.
Binancial inventions $ ,ecause trade was so strong and copper became scarce, Chinese merchants developed
paper money as an alternative to coins. 3etters o credit called Alying cashA allowed merchants to deposit money
in one location and have it available in another. The Chinese also used chec)s which allowed drawing unds
deposited with ban)ers.
NEO-CONFUCIANISM
The conlict between ,uddhism and Conucianism during the late Tang +ynasty eased under the 0ongs, partly because o
the development o 6eo$Conucianism. Classical Conucians were concerned with practical issues o politics and
morality, and their main goal was an ordered social and political structure. 6eo$Conucians also became amiliar with
,uddhist belies, such as the nature o the soul and the individual8s spiritual relationships. They came to reer to li, a
concept that deined a spiritual presence similar to the universal spirit o both 2induism and ,uddhism. This new orm o
Conucianism was an important development because it reconciled Conucianism with ,uddhism, and because it
inluenced philosophical thought in China, Gorea, :ietnam, and Hapan in all subse!uent eras.

PATRIARCHAL SOCIAL STRUCTURES
4s wealth and agricultural productivity increase, the patriarchal social structure o Chinese society also tightened. %ith
amily ortunes to preserve, elites insured the purity o their lines by urther conining women to the home. The custom o
oot binding became very popular among these amilies. Boot binding involved tightly wrapping young girls8 eet so that
natural growth was seriously impaired. The result was a tiny malormed oot with the toes curled under and the bones
brea)ing in the process. The women generally could not wal) e*cept with canes. 7easants and middle class women did
not bind their eet because it was impractical, but or elite women, the practice $ li)e wearing veils in &slamic lands $
indicated their subservience to their male guardians.
=UBLAI =HAN2 THE :UAN D:NAST:2 AND THE EARL: MIN, (191?-1450 C.E.)
The #ongols began to breach the =reat %all under =enghis Ghan, but the southern 0ong was not con!uered until his
grandson, Gublai Ghan captured the capital and set up a new capital in ,ei.ing, which he called Ghanbalu), or Acity o the
Ghan.A This was the city that #arco 7olo described to the world as the inest and richest in all the world. -nder Gublai
Ghan, China was uniied, and its borders grew signiicantly. 4lthough #ongols replaced the top bureaucrats, many lower
Conucian oicials remained in place, and the Ghan clearly respected Chinese customs and innovations. 2owever,
whereas the 0ong had emphasi/ed cultural and organi/ational values, the #ongols were most adept in military aairs and
con!uest. 4lso, even though trade lourished during the Tang and 0ong era, merchants had a much lower status than
scholars did. Gublai Ghan and his successors put a great deal o eort into con!uering more territory in 4sia, and they
elevated the status o merchants, actions deeply resented by the Conucian bureaucrats.
4s borders e*panded once again, the Fuan emperors e*perienced the old problem o empire@ too ew military to protect
too many borders. The #ongols increased tributes and established Ata* arming,A 'a practice that gave middlemen the
responsibility o collecting ta*es(, which led to corruption. The gap between the urban rich and the rural poor also grew,
and a devastating plague spread though the population. 4ll o these problems inspired conspiracy among the Conucian
scholars, who led a revolt, toppled the #ongols, and established the #ing Empire.
The leader o the #ing revolt, >hu Fuan >hang, located the capital in 6an.ing and made great eorts to re.ect the culture
o the #ongols by closing o trade relations with Central 4sia and the #iddle East, and reasserting Conucian ideology.
Thus the #ing set o a yo$yo eect o sorts in China that had been seen beore, but became accentuated in the centuries
that ollowed. China, a great civili/ation that was vitally connected to trade routes, shut hersel o and turned to internal
strengths. +uring this era, it was still possible because o great distances to other empires. China could choose to be let
alone, and no one could do much about it, even i it limited long$distance trade proits. 2owever, in subse!uent eras this
tendency to isolate itsel would strip China o her hegemony and eventually lead to worldwide humiliation.
=OREA AND @APAN
+uring the 5th century Tang armies con!uered much o Gorea, resulting in the Gorean 0illa +ynasty8s )ing recogni/ing
the Tang emperor as his overlord. Tang orces withdrew rom the peninsula, and even though Gorea paid tribute to China,
the 0illa rulers were allowed to have a greatly deal o autonomy. 0igniicantly, though, the tributary relationship
developed in a great deal o Chinese inluence diusing to Gorea. The 0illa built a new capital modeled on the Tang
capital, Conucian schools were ounded, and ,uddhism spar)ed a great deal o popular interest. 2owever, unli)e China,
Gorea never developed a bureaucracy based on merit.
1n the other hand, Chinese armies never invaded Hapan, and even Gublai Ghan8s great orces could not overcome the
treacherous straits that lie between Gorea and Hapan. The straits had isolated Hapan since its beginnings, and its many
islands and mountainous terrain led to separations among people who lived there. 4s a result, small states dominated by
aristocratic clans developed, with agricultural communities developing wherever they were possible. 0ome Chinese
inluence, such as Conucianism, ,uddhism, and Chinese writing characters diused to Hapan, but it remained uni!ue in
many ways. Two e*amples are"
0hintoism $This native religion venerated ancestors, but also had a host o nature spirits and deities. Conucianism
and ,uddhism did not replace 0hintoism, and it remained as an important religion in Hapan.
0eparation o imperial power rom real political power $ Even though a Hapanese emperor did emerge to rule the
various clans, he served as a ceremonial igurehead and symbol o authority. The amily that really ran things
rom 5J4 to 11EE were the Bu.iwaras $ who had military might that allowed them to manipulate the emperor. 4n
important divergence rom Chinese inluence occurred during the late 11th century when the #inamoto clan
sei/ed power and installed their leader as the shogun, a military leader who ruled in place o the emperor.
The Hapanese developed a system o eudalism, a political and economic system less developed than those o centrali/ed
empires, but more powerul than a purely local government. Beudalism was accompanied by a set o political values that
emphasi/ed mutual ties, obligations, and loyalties. The Hapanese elites $ who came to be )nown as daimyos $ ound
military talent in the samurai, proessional warriors who swore loyalty to them. 0amurais lived by a warrior8s code $ the
bushido $that re!uired them to commit suicide 'seppu)u( by disembowelment i they ailed their masters.
DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE (500-1450 C.E.)
-ntil the 5th century most o the European continent was part o the 9oman Empire. 2owever, as the push rom the 2un
migrations rom Central Europe caused other groups to move west as well, the 9oman armies began to have problems in
guarding their borders. 4s other wea)nesses appeared that threatened the empire, =ermanic groups such as the
=oths, 1strigoths, and :andals began to ta)e over, with 9ome alling to the invasions in 456 C.E. %ithout the structure o
the empire, the groups settled into areas o Europe and retained their own ways o lie. The era rom about 500 to 1000
C.E. is sometimes reerred to as the A+ar) 4gesA in European history, partly because many aspects o the 9oman
civili/ation were lost, such as written language, advanced architectural and building techni!ues, comple* government, and
access to long$distance trade. Bor the most part, these early people o Europe could not read or write, and lived much as
their nomadic ancestors had. &n their isolation, they slowly cleared the orested areas or arming, but their greatest need
was or protection. +angers lay not only rom animals in the orests, but also rom other people that had settled in nearby
areas. 2owever, the need or protection grew to be most important when the :i)ings rom 0candinavia invaded many
areas o Europe in the Eth and Jth centuries, ollowed by the #agyars, who came rom the east in the late Jth century. &n
response, Europeans established eudalism, with many eatures similar to Hapanese eudalism, but also with many
dierences.
European eudal institutions revolved around political and military relationships. The lord, a large landholder, provided his
vassals with ies, or landholdings, in return or service. The most important service was military support, so these )nights
spent a great deal o time learning and practicing military techni!ues and horsemanship, as well as maintaining their ies.
:assals also supervised public wor)s pro.ects, and the administration o .ustice. The eudal political order developed into
a complicated networ) o lord$vassal relationships, with lords having overlords, and overlords owing allegiance to )ings.
1n these oundations early )ingdoms, such as England and Brance, were built, but in other areas, such as modern$day
=ermany, the eudal organi/ation remained highly decentrali/ed.
COMPARATIVE FEUDALISM - @APAN AND EUROPE
@APAN EUROPE
S&0&!(#&"&$4 0ystem was grounded in political values that embraced all participants.
The idea o mutual ties and obligations was strong, with rituals and institutions that e*pressed them.

Beudalism was highly militaristic, with values such as physical courage, personal or amily alliances, loyalty,
rituali/ed combat, and contempt or non$warriors.
D&55$#$*'$4
Beudalistic ties relied on group and individual
loyalties.
Beudalistic ties were sealed by negotiated contracts, with
e*plicit assurances o the advantages o the arrangement.

3egacy was a group consciousness in which
collective decision$ma)ing teams were eventually
lin)ed to the state.
3egacy was the reliance on parliamentary institutions in
which participants could discuss and deend legal interests
against the central monarch.
THE DIVISION OF CHRISTENDOM
The 9oman Empire was divided into two parts during the 4th century C.E. when imperial power shited eastward rom
9ome to ,y/antium. The emperor Constantine moved to the new center, and renamed the city Constantinople. 4s
Christianity spread, it developed religious centers in both 9ome and Constantinople, and as the two areas grew more
politically independent, Christian practices and belies also split in dierent directions. Even though the church remained
oicially tied or many years ater 9ome ell in 456, in eect two dierent churches developed" the Eastern 1rthodo*
Church in the east and the 9oman Catholic Church in the west. The schism became oicial in 1054, when the 9oman
7ope and the 7atriarch in Constantinople agreed that their religious dierences could not be reconciled.
THE B:ZANTINE EMPIRE
%hile the west was alling to the =ermanic invasions in the 4th and 5th centuries C.E., the eastern empire remained intact,
partly because it withstood ewer attac)s. This ,y/antine Empire survived or almost a millennium ater the western
empire collapsed. Bor a time, it was a powerul Christian Empire, but it came under pressure rom &slamic Tur)ish people
by the 11th century, and inally ell to the 1ttoman Tur)s in 145<.
Caesaropapism
4s the irst Christian Emperor o 9ome, Constantine claimed to have divine avor or his rule. 2e deined Christian
practices and intervened in theological disputes. This policy came to be )nown as ACaesaropapismA, whereby the emperor
ruled as both secular lord and religious leader. This tendency to e*alt ,y/antine emperors as absolute rulers o both state
and church was reinorced by the appearance o Hustinian in the 6th century. 2e was an energetic, capable ruler with an
energetic, capable wie called Theodora, a very religious Christian. 4lthough they never resolved the many religious
disputes that disrupted the empire, Hustinian had many noteworthy accomplishments"
The building o the 2agia 0ophia, a magniicent domed church that still stands today as a #uslim mos!ue
E*tension o the political boundaries o the empire to regain most o the western territories again, only to be lost
by later emperors
The development o the Hustinian Code, a law code that systemi/ed 9oman law going bac) to the 9epublic and
continuing through the empire
1 the accomplishments listed, the Hustinian Code is the emperor8s most enduring legacy, since it became the basis
o law in %estern Europe and eventually the -nited 0tates.
The +ecline o the Empire
Even Hustinian could not revive the classical 9oman Empire, and within 100 years o his death, large parts o the
,y/antine Empire ell to 4rab invaders. &t thrived or a while as a smaller, more manageable entity, but by the late 11th
century, the 0el.u) Tur)s threatened Constantinople so that the 7atriarch o the Eastern 1rthodo* Church called on 7ope
-rban && or help in deending the capital by Christian Crusaders.
THE CHURCH IN THE ;EST
%hile political and economic decentrali/ation characteri/ed %estern Europe between 500 and 1000 C.E., the Catholic
Church emerged as a uniying institution with great religious, political, and economic power. The time period is
sometimes reerred to as the A4ge o BaithA because the church was so central to lie in Europe.
The power o the church was promoted by an unli)ely =ermanic group )nown as the Bran)s. They controlled much o
what is now Brance by the 5th century C.E. when their leader Clovis led his orces on a campaign that wiped out the
remains o 9oman authority a ew years ater 9ome8s all in 456. Clovis converted to Christianity, under some pressure
rom his wie, and rom then, the Bran)s8 con!uests were done in the name o Hesus. 1ne o his descendants,
Charlemagne, ruled a )ingdom that spread across a huge part o Europe, including both modern day Brance and =ermany.
Charlemagne was able to rescue the 9oman 7ope rom captivity, and the 7ope returned the avor by crowning
Charlemagne as the new A2oly 9oman Emperor,A uniting church and state. 0till, the 7ope was the one controlling the
crown, and the ceremony too) place in 9ome.
The Catholic Church established its inluence in several ways"
+evelopment o a church hierarchy $ The 7ope in 9ome came to be the head o the church, with cardinals that
reported to him. -nder the cardinals were archbishops, who governed bishops that were spread all over Europe.
&ndividual priests lived in villages and towns and were supervised by the bishops.
Establishment o wandering ministries $ 6ot only did the church have priests attached to almost every village, but
it also had wandering priests who represented its inluence. Two orders were the Branciscans, )nown or their
vows o poverty and ability to relate to peasants, and the +ominicans, a more scholarly order who ministered
more to educational needs.
The establishment o monasteries$ #onasteries also spread all over Europe. These retreats rom civili/ation were
inhabited by mon)s who devoted their lives to study, worship, and hard wor). Convents or nuns also were
established, and both monasteries and convents served many vital unctions"
1( 9euge or those in trouble $ The monasteries and convents were seen as sae havens that represented the
protection that the church oered to people.
;( Communication to the central church hierarchy $ 4bbots headed monasteries, and they served as another means
o )eeping church oicials in touch with what was going on.
<( Centers o scholarship, education, and libraries $ #on)s very oten were the only people in Europe that could
read and write, and they spent large amounts o time copying ancient manuscripts that otherwise might have been
lost in the various invasions. 0ome monasteries eventually ormed the irst European universities that began their
library collections with boo)s the mon)s had coped.
THE MANORIAL S:STEM
Beudalism generally deined the military and political relationships among )ings, nobles, and )nights,
but manorialism describes the economic and political ties between landlords and their peasants. #ost people were sers,
who armed sel$suicient agricultural estates called manors. The manorial system had originated in the late 9oman
Empire as it helped people ta)e care o basic economic needs as the empire wea)ened. Barming was diicult, although
made easier by the introduction o the moldboard plow that allowed deeper turning o the soil.
0ers had to give their lord part o their crops in return or gra/ing their animals on his land and milling their grain. They
also did repairs to his castle and wor)ed his land. They were not slaves, but ew other options were open to them. The
lord8s castle and army in turn provided protection or the villages, and ew dared to live outside the conines o the manor.
THE LATE MIDDLE A,ES - 1000- 1450 C.E.
The entire era in Europe between 500 and 1450 is also )nown as the A#iddle 4ges,A a time between the all o the 9oman
Empire and the revival o Acivili/ationA starting with the European 9enaissance in the early 15th Century. 0tarting around
1000, Europe showed signs o revitali/ing, largely because o the results o the Christian Crusades that put Europeans in
touch with more sophisticated cultures to the east through the long$distance trade routes.
,eore about 1<00 Europe was populated by sers, or peasants tied to lands owned by nobility, living in rural areas
relatively isolated rom others. 6o large cities e*isted yet, li)e the metropolises in China, the #iddle East, and northern
4rica. #any demographic changes too) place that radically altered lie in Europe"
The 4gricultural 9evolution $ 3argely through contacts with others, Europeans learned and adapted agricultural
techni!ues and inventions that greatly increased their crop production. They perected the three$ield system, in
which they rotated crops, allowing a ield to remain allow every third year. They also used iron plows much
better suited to the heavy soils o northern and western Europe. %atermills, horses, and horse harnesses 'all in use
in other areas o the world( contributed to arming eiciency.
7opulation increases $ %ith the increase in crop production came population growth, with more hands available to
e*pand agriculture.
9evival o trade $ This revival started in :enice and =enoa, &talian cities that proited rom trade during the
Crusades. 2owever, the growing population spar)ed demand or more products so that trade intensiied town to
town, and a new trade area in present$day northern Brance, ,elgium, and the 6etherlands.
=rowth o townsDnew towns $ The growing trade, crop production, and population stimulated villages to become
towns, and the towns became centers or cratsmen, merchants, and speciali/ed laborers.
Commercial 9evolution $ 1nce European towns connected to the long$distance trade routes, they learned to use
inancial innovations developed elsewhere, li)e ban)s and bills o e*change
=uilds $ Cratsmen ormed guilds, or trade associations or their particular crat. These organi/ations came to be
!uite powerul, passing laws, levying ta*es, and challenging powerul merchants. The guilds set standards or
goods, regulated labor, and supervised apprentices as they learned the trade.
EARL: RUSSIA
Bor centuries beore this era &ndo$European people called the 0lavs had lived in eastern European, very much in the paths
o the east to west migrations that scattered them over the years. The 9ussians were one o these 0lavic peoples who
intermarried with the :i)ing invaders and began to organi/e a large state by the 10th century. The most important early
city was Giev, located in the present$day -)raine, which built up regular trade and contacts with Constantinople. They
adopted the Eastern 1rthodo* religion, and established the 9ussian 1rthodo* Church. The princes o Giev established
irm control over the church, and they made use o the ,y/antine legal codes put together by Hustinian.
9ussia, li)e the rest o Europe, was built on eudalistic ties, and over time the Gievan princes became less powerul than
those that ruled #uscovy '#oscow(, a province northeast o Giev. %hen the #ongols invaded in the 1<th century, the
#uscovites cast their lot with the inevitable victors, serving the #ongols as collectors o tribute. The #ongols bestowed
many avors, and #oscow grew in inluence. 1nce #ongol power wea)ened, the princes saw their opportunity to rebel,
and they sei/ed the territory, calling their leader the Atsar,A a derivative o the word ACaesar.A
THE AMERINDIAN ;ORLD
7rior to 14J;, the western and eastern hemispheres had very little contact with one another. Even though Christopher
Columbus was certainly not the irst to go rom one hemisphere to the other, his voyage does represent the beginning o
sustained contacts, a trend that was a ma.or turning point in world history. 2owever, during the period between 600 and
1450 C.E., large empires emerged in the 4mericas, .ust as they did in Europe, 4rica, and 4sia. 1ne group $ the #aya $
adapted to the .ungles o Central 4merica and the Fucatan 7eninsula. The two largest organi/ed relatively late in the era"
the 4/tecs o #esoamerica, and the &nca o 0outh 4merica.
THE MA:A
The #aya civili/ation lourished between <00 and J00 C.E., occupying present day southern #e*ico, =uatemala, ,eli/e,
2onduras, and El 0alvador. Early on, they were probably dominated by the mysterious people o Teotihuacan, a large city
with several impressive temples that controlled central #e*ico or many years. They developed agricultural techni!ues
that allowed them to successully raise crops in the tropics. 4t irst they practiced slash and burn methods, but they
learned to build terraces ne*t to the numerous rivers designed to catch the rich alluvial soil. Their agriculturally based
civili/ation thrived, and they eventually built more than eighty large ceremonial centers, as well as many smaller
settlements.
THE AZTECS
Civili/ations had long e*isted in what is now central #e*ico beore the appearance o the 4/tecs. The 1lmecs were there
by E00 ,.C.E., and many groups ollowed. +uring the 10th century a powerul group called the Toltecs established a
capital at Tula, about 50 )ilometers rom modern #e*ico City. The Toltecs came to control much o the area around them,
but their civili/ation ell into decay by the end o the 1;th century, .ust about the time that a new group, the #e*ica, began
to grow. They eventually became )nown as the 4/tecs, a name meaning Athe place o the seven legendary caves,A or the
place o their origins. The 4/tecs migrated into the area and settled in an unusual place" an island in the middle o a
swampland o 3a)e Te*ococo, a site that the 0panish would later build as #e*ico City. There they established the great
city o Tenochtitlan, and they e*panded their empire by con!uering nearby people and e*tracting tribute rom them. ,y
the middle o the 15th century, they dominated a huge area that e*tended almost coast to coast.
THE INCA
The &nca civili/ation developed during the 14th and 15th century on the base o older civili/ations, such as
the Chavin, #oche and Chimu. ,y the late 15th century, their empire stretched or almost ;500 miles along the 4ndes
#ountain range rom present$day E!uador to Chile. Their capital was Cu/co, high in the mountains in 7eru, and the city
was connected to all parts o the empire by a comple* system o roads and bridges. The term A&ncaA was at irst a title or
the ruler o Cu/co, but it eventually reerred to all people that spo)e the native language, Iuechua. 3i)e the Chavin beore
them, the &nca lived on the narrow, dry seacoast to the west o the mountains and in the .ungles to the east, but they
centered their civili/ation in the mountain valleys o the 4ndes. -nli)e the people o #esoamerica, the 0outh 4mericans
made use o domesticated animals. 3lamas and alpacas served the highlanders not only as pac) animals on the roads, but
they also provided wool, hides, and dung or uel.
COMPARATIVE AMERIDIAN CIVILIZATIONS
PATTERNS MA:A AZTEC INCA
S%'&(! 7riests had highest social status@
warriors also highly valued
%ar captives oten became slaves 'and
sacriices(@ mysterious demise o
civili/ation about J00 C.E.
9igidly hierarchical society, with a
strong military elite who received land
grants and tribute rom commoners@
large gap between rich and poor
7riests also elite@ learned comple*
calendars, presided over all important
religious rituals
0)illed cratsmen, merchants middle
status
9igidly hierarchical society,
with the &nca and his amily
having status o gods
#ain classes" rulers,
aristocrats, priests, and
peasants
#ilitary and administrative
elite or large army and
bureaucracy
3arge number o slaves, mainly
household servants
7atriarchal society, but women received
high honor or bearing warrior sons@
women who died in childbirth e!ually
honored to men who died in battle
0mall merchant class and
ewer s)illed cratsmen than
4/tec@ trade controlled by
the government
Careully selected virgin
women served the &nca and
his amily
C!"#(!
9eligion central to civili/ation@ cities
were ceremonial centers with great
temples@ practiced human sacriice to
their many gods@ Ti)al main city with
population o about 40,000@ .aguar an
important symbol
Two elaborate calendars used or
agriculture and or religious rituals
Ble*ible and sophisticated writing that
used both symbols and pictures
&nherited 1lmec ballgame, with losers
e*ecuted and sacriiced
9eligion central to civili/ation@ cities
were ceremonial centers with great
temples decorated with gold@ practiced
human sacriice to their many gods
7rincipal gods @ Te/catlipoca 'Athe
0mo)ing #irrorA( and Iuet/alcoatl 'Athe
Beathered 0erpentA(
Tenochtitlan @ ma.or city o ;00,000 K
large suburbs &nherited 1lmec ballgame,
with losers e*ecuted and sacriiced
Elaborate calendar, writing system
9eligion important,
with &nti, the sun god, the
ma.or deity@ &mpressive
temples, palaces, public
buildings@ used s)illully cut
giant
stones with no mortar
decorated with gold
Iuechua native language,
but no writing@ use o a
counting device,
the !uipu to )eep elaborate
records
Elaborate road system, with
two roads 'one on the coast
and one in the mountains(
running the entire length o
the empire
9ich te*tiles, .ewelry, and
pottery made by general
population
E'%*%0&'
4gricultural based@ built platorms to
catch alluvial soil@ main crop mai/e,
but also cacao bean 'source o
chocolate( and cotton@ no domesticated
animals or wor)
4gricultural base@ designed Aloating
gardensA o trapped soil to raise crops in
swampy areas@ raised mai/e, beans,
s!uashes, tomatoes, peppers, and chili no
domesticated animals or wor)
E*acted e*tensive amount o tribute
rom con!uered people@ established
signiicant trade with others in western
hemisphere, including lu*ury goods such
as .ade, emeralds, .aguar s)ins, and sea
shells
4gricultural and pastoral
base@ designed terraces in
mountain valleys to raise
crops@ variety o crops,
depending on elevation,
included potatoes, mai/e,
beans, peppers, chili, coca
leaves 'stimulant(, guinea
pigs
3arge proessional army
7easants owed compulsory
labor to the state@ women
gave tribute through
te*tiles, pottery, and .ewelry
P%!&"&'(! 1rgani/ed into city$states with no
central government or the civili/ation@
city oChichen &t/a dominated some
other states@ re!uent ighting among
9uled by a central monarch
in Tenochtitlan that did not have absolute
power@ council o powerul aristocrats
made many decisions, including who the
2ighly powerul centrali/ed
government, with the &nca
'the ruler( believed to be a
god@ &nca theoretically
city states@ deeated ones became
human sacriices
new ruler would be@ winning wars and
elaborate rituals increased legitimacy o
rule
6o elaborate bureaucracy
owned all land@ elaborate
bureaucracy )ept in touch
with sub.ects@ used !uipu to
)eep e*tensive records
Elaborate road system
reinorced the &nca8s power
DEMO,RAPHIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHAN,ES
The era rom 600 to 1450 C.E. was a time when civili/ation spread geographically, covering many more parts o the world
than previously. 2owever, it was also a time o great migrations o people that had wide impacts on the people in settled
areas. 4rabs, :i)ings, Tur)s, and #ongols, Tur)s all moved rom one part o the globe to another, instigating change
wherever they went.
4rabs $ The most signiicant eect o the 4rab movement rom the 4rabian 7eninsula was the spread o &slam.
4rabs invaded, settled, and eventually ruled, the #iddle East, northern 4rica, and southern Europe. 4lthough the
political structure o the caliphate did not survive, &slam held the areas together culturally as it mi*ed with
natively customs and religions. +espite the political disunity and the splits between 0unni and 0hi8a, the &slamic
%orld emerged as an entire cultural area during this era.
:i)ings $ The :i)ings swept into many parts o Europe $ rom 6ormandy, to #editerranean areas to 9ussia $
during the Eth and Jth centuries, looting and destroying communities, churches, and monasteries. 0ome settled
and intermarried with natives, orming new groups such as the 6ormans and the9us '9ussians(. 2owever, a very
important conse!uence o their invasions was the development o eudalism in Europe. The attac)s convinced
Europeans that protection was vital, and so they organi/ed into a networ) o lords and vassals, that eventually
built )ingdoms with great armies ready to ight.
Tur)s $ The Tur)ish people were originally &ndo$Europeans who migrated into the #iddle East during various
times o the era. The 0el.u) Tur)s invaded the ,y/antine Empire, spar)ing another great migration rom Europe
to the #iddle East $ the Crusaders. 0el.u) Tur)s were indirectly responsible, then, or Europe8s growing interest
and involvement in long$distance trade. ,y the end o the era the 1ttoman Tur)s were on the rise. They captured
Constantinople and many other parts o Europe, and they gained control o trade on the #editerranean. Tur)s
even invaded &ndia, orming the +elhi 0ultanate, and introduced &slam to &ndia with such orce that the
conse!uences reverberated though the rest o &ndian history.
#ongols $ The #ongol con!uests have been depicted as assaults by savage and barbarian people who brought
nothing but death and destruction to the areas they attac)ed. %hereas no one can deny the brutality o the
#ongols, their con!uests had a much more varied impact on world history than has been ac)nowledged by many
historians in the past. 4t the pea) o their power, the 7a* #ongolica meant that once$hostile people lived together
in peace in areas where most religions were tolerated. Brom the &l$Ghan in the #iddle East to the Fuan +ynasty in
China, #ongol rulers established order, and most importantly, provided the stage or intensiied international
contact. 7rotected by #ongol might, the trade routes carried new oods, inventions, and ideas rom one
civili/ation to their others, with nomadic people acting as intermediaries.
,antu$spea)ing people $ 4nother important source o cultural diusion during this era was the ,antu #igration,
which too) place in 4rica. ,antu$spea)ing people originally lived in an area south o the 0ahara, but probably
because the desert was spreading southward they began to migrate to better land. They spread south and east into
many parts o 4rica, and their language became a basis or the ormation o many later languages. The ,antu
#igration is generally believed to be a ma.or source or 4ricanity, or a set o cultural characteristics 'including
language( that are commonly shared on the continent. E*amples include music, the use o mas)s, and scariication
'permanent beauty etchings on the s)in(.
CULTURAL DIFFUSION AND THE 14TH CENTUR: PLA,UES
Cross$cultural e*changes had deadly conse!uences or many parts o the eastern hemisphere during the 14th century. 4s
Eurasians traveled over long distances, they not only e*changed goods and ideas, but they unwittingly helped disease to
spread as well. 0ince people who have had no previous e*posure to a disease react to it much more seriously than those
that have, the conse!uences were proound. The bubonic plague erupted in epidemics throughout most o 4sia, Europe,
and north 4rica. Even though it abated in subse!uent centuries, it bro)e out sporadically rom place to place well into the
seventeenth century.
The plague probably originated in southwestern China, where it had been incubating or centuries, but once long$distance
trade began, it spread rapidly during the 14th century. The pathogen was spread by leas that inested rats and eventually
humans. #ongol military campaigns helped the plague spread throughout China, and merchants and travelers spread it to
the west. ,y the 1<40s it had spread to ,lac) 0ea ports and to &talian cities on the #editerranean. Brom there, the plague
spread rapidly throughout Europe as ar as the ,ritish &sles.
Europeans reerred to the plague as the ,lac) +eath because its victims developed blac) or purpose swellings caused by
buboes, internal hemorrhages that gave the plague its name. 1nce the plague hit a community, typically 60$50 percent o
the population died, and in some cases, no one survived. &mportant results o the plague 'other than individual death( are"
+ecline in population $ &n China decreasing population caused by the plague contributed to the decline o the
Fuan +ynasty and lent support to the overthrow o #ongol control there. Europe8s population dropped by about
;5L during the 14th century. &n Egypt population levels did not recover to pre$plague days probably until the 1Jth
century.
3abor shortages $ The plague was no respecter o social class, and the aected areas lost cratsmen, artisans,
merchants, religious oicials, armers, bureaucrats and rulers. &n many areas arms ell into ruin, towns
deteriorated, and trade almost came to a standstill. 3abor shortages turned into social unrest, and rebellions
popped up in many areas.
ENVIRONMENTAL CHAN,ES
The era rom 600 to 1450 C.E. was not a period o massive environmental change. The most signiicant changes occurred
because o population growth. The structures o civili/ation spread across sub$0aharan 4rica, northern Europe, and
Hapan. 4s civili/ations spread, agriculture claimed additional land, with some deorestation 'especially in Europe( ta)ing
place. 2owever, soil depletion around the #editerranean was not nearly as great as it was during 4ncient 9oman times.
The most severe eects were probably elt in Central 4merica, where population density increased signiicantly. 0mall
civili/ations and nomadic groups that were easy on the environment were replaced by ever larger empires that claimed
rain orest and other natural habitats.
The process o urbani/ation continued during this era, and cities grew larger and more numerous. 4s &slam spread,
administrative centers appeared in the #iddle East, and many grew into cities that attracted people to live under the
protection they aorded. China especially during this era became urbani/ed, with the Tang and 0ong emperors building
roads that connected cities to one another. Trade rom the 0il) 9oad and the &ndian 1cean circuits enriched these cities,
and great dierences in status were accorded those that lived in urban vs. rural areas. =reat cities grew up in the 4mericas,
and towns in Europe grew to be the cities o 7aris and 3ondon. 2owever, agriculture still remained as the primary
occupation o people in civili/ations around the world, so that large numbers still lived in rural areas.
IMPORTANT ISSUES: 600-1450 C.E.
+uring this era several ma.or religions spread across large areas, creating cultural regions that uniied based on their belie
systems. 4s historians, we may spea) o A&slamic landsA or AChristendomA or AConucian 4sia,A and these terms are handy
or comparisons. They may be used eectively to point out commonalities as well as dierences. 2owever, cultural areas
are imperect as units o analysis. 0ome problems include"
I0A$#5$'" -%*6(#&$4 -$"B$$* (#$(4 $ & you are comparing political units with deinite boundaries, the
geographic dierences are clear. 2owever, in using cultural labels, how do you categori/e areas o mi*ed
inluence? Bor e*ample, parts o the #iddle East during this era had signiicant numbers o #uslims, Christians,
and Hews, with a mi*ture o customs rom all three religions. 0outheast 4sia, a crossroads area or trade, had
virtually every religion imaginable.
;&6$ 6&55$#$*'$4 B&"3&* "3$ '!"#$ +%*$4 $ The areas are so broad that the categories oten blur important
cultural dierences within. Bor e*ample, Christendom8s two parts were very dierent, and Christianity was
interpreted in many ways. #uslims in #ali had only limited commonalities with #uslims in Central 4sia.
0till, political boundaries do not provide perect units to measure either. ,oundaries oten cut through cultural areas and
represent artiicial categories or analysis.
Change over time during this era was more characteri/ed by modiication, rather than innovation, with the notable
e*ception o the Tang and 0ong economic revolutions. 6omadic groups during this time period probably reached their
pea) o inluence on the course o world history. %hereas change emanated rom both nomadic groups and civili/ed
areas, the eects o the great migrations o the 4rabs, :i)ings, Tur)s, and #ongols during this era have been unmatched
to the present day. 2owever, little change occurred in other areas, such as gender and social class structures. 7atriarchal
amilies continued to be the norm, and social class distinctions that we saw in the river valley and classical civili/ations
tended to be drawn along the same lines" peasants v. aristocrats and rural v. urban. Elite women seem to have suered the
most, with ties to the home reinorced through practices such as veiling and oot binding. 4lthough in these cases
dierences were accentuated, gender roles went through no basic structural changes. 3ong distance trade grew
signiicantly, but it continued to ollow the old routes established in the previous era. The western hemisphere still was not
drawn into regular contact and communication. 2owever, by 1450 the previously inconse!uential Europeans were on the
cusp o changing all o that, as worldwide trade began to develop in the 1450$1550 era.