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BASIC CONCEPTS
1.0 VELOCITIES IN GEAR TRAINS
1.1 Introduction
Gear trains and speed reducers are mechanical components often used for obtaining a desired
angular velocity of an output shaft, while the input shaft rotates at a different angular velocity.
The angular-velocity ratio between input and output members must usually remain constant. The
value of this ratio can be adjusted in some arrangements (usually with a friction or hydraulic
drive and/or clutch arrangement), while in others the ratio is not adjustable. In order, therefore,
to design or select a gear train or speed reducer, one of the first tasks Is the determination of
the angular velocities. This will now be considered.
1.2 Single Gear Mesh
Figures 1, 2 show simple spur-gear meshes with the gears meshing externally (Figure 1) or
internally (Figure 2) on fixed centers.
Let ω1= angular velocity of gear #1, positive counterclockwise;
ω2= angular velocity of gear #2, positive counterclockwise;
N1 = number of teeth on gear #1;
N2 = number of teeth on gear #2.
In the external mesh (Figure 1) the gears rotate in opposite directions while in the internal
mesh (Figure 2) the gears rotate in the same direction. This means that if the angular velocity,
ω1, is positive, angular velocity ω2 will be negative in Figure 1 and positive in Figure 2.
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Figure 2 Internally Meshing Spur Gears
The angular velocity ratio, Z21, is defined as the ratio of the angular velocity of gear #2 to
that of gear #1, with appropriate attention to sign. Thus:
In Figure 1,
Z21 = ω2 = - N1 (1)
ω1 N2
and in Figure 2,
Z21 = ω2 = N1 (2)
ω1 N2
The opposite signs on the right-hand sides of eqs. (1, 2) follows from the fact that in the
external mesh the gears rotate In opposite directions, while in the internal mesh they rotate in
the same direction, as has been stated before.
In bevel gears the situation is similar, but the angular velocity vectors lie on intersecting,
rather than parallel axes.
Figure 3 shows an externally meshing bevel gear pair. The notation Is the same as in Figures
1, 2, except for the angular velocity vectors, ω1 and ω2 These are defined as follows.
Let 0 be the point of intersection of the two shaft axes. Then the positive directions of the
angular velocity vectors, ω1, ω2, are directed outward from point 0. The magnitudes of the
angular velocity vectors, ω1, ω2, are denoted by ω1, ω2 respectively.
The direction of rotation of a bevel gear is then obtained from the right-hand rule, as
illustrated in Figure 4: if the angular velocity vector, ω1, is as shown, the direction of rotation of
the associated bevel gear corresponds to that of a right-handed screw advancing in the direction
of vector ωi .
The angular velocity ratio, Z21, in Figure 3 is again given by:
Z21 = ω2 in magnitude. (3)
ω1
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Figure 3 Externally Meshing Bevel Gears
For externally meshing bevel gears, one angular velocity vector is directed away from 0, while
the other angular velocity vector is directed towards 0. The case of spur gears may be regarded
as a special case in which point 0 recedes to infinity.
The angular velocities in helical and worm gears can be analyzed by similar reasoning. For
details the reader is referred to paragraphs 5.9.4 and 8.5, respectively, in the Section on GEARS.
1.3 Simple Spur-Gear Trains
In a simple gear train, such as shown in Figure 5, only one gear is mounted on each shaft.
Suppose the ith gear (i = 1, 2, 3,......., n) has N teeth and rotates with angular velocity, ωi,
measured positive counterclockwise. Then the angular velocity ratio, Zj1, of the jth gear relative
to the first gear is given by:
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the + sign applies when j is odd; and the - sign applies when j is even. This follows directly from
the fact that the directions of rotation of adjacent shafts are opposite for externally meshing
gears.
For internal gear meshes eq. (4) needs to be modified so as to account for the fact that
shafts connected by an internal-gear mesh rotate in the same direction.
1.4 Compound Spur Gear Trains
Such a gear train is shown in Figure 6. In a compound gear train at least one shaft carries two or
more gears. In the typical train shown in Figure 6, all gears are keyed to their respective shafts,
so that the angular velocities of all gears are equal to that of the shaft on which they are
mounted. The angular velocities of adjacent shafts are governed by the gear ratio of the
associated mesh.
Let Ωi denote the angular velocity of the jth shaft, going from left to right, measured positive
counterclockwise.
Then
Hence the angular velocity ratio, Z~, of shaft 5 to shaft 1, is given by:
where
(5)
This is also equal to the ratio of the angular velocity of gear 8 to that of gear 1.
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1.5 Reverted Gear Trains
A reverted gear train Is a compound gear train at least one gear of which rotates freely on the
shaft on which it is mounted, so that its speed is different from that of its shaft.
In Figure 7, for example, gear #1 is rigidly connected to shaft A and gears #2, 3 are rigidly
connected to shaft B. Gear #4, however, is free to rotate on shaft A.
In this case,
While this formula is analogous to eq. (5), the difference is that angular velocity, w4, is not
generally equal to ω1, even though both gears are mounted on the same shaft.
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Figure 8 Simple Planetary Spur Gear Train
For purposes of kinematic analysis we consider the more general case In which all three
members are moving, but point O1 remains fixed. Let the angular velocities of the sun gear,
planet and arm be denoted by ω1, ω2, ω3, respectively, the positive sense being
counterclockwise. We consider the actual motion of the system as composed of two motions:
a. Motion with the arm: the gears and arm rotate as one integral unit about the center of the
sun gear;
b. Motion relative to the arm: the gears rotate about fixed centers while the arm is stationary.
We then sum both motions in such proportion that the motion is the real motion of the
system. For example, if gear #1 is stationary, its angular velocity when summed must vanish.
This procedure can be conveniently carried out in tabular form and hence is known as the tabular
method:
Motion Gear #1 Gear #2 Arm #3
Rotation
x x x
with arm
z21Y
Rotation
relative Y O
to arm
Hence ω1 = X + Y (i)
ω2 = X+Z21Y (ii)
ω3 = X (iii)
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Eliminating X, V from eqs. (i, ii, iii), we have:
(7)
This is the general relationship between the angular velocities of the gears and arm. It follows
that when all members are free to rotate, it is a two-degree-of-freedom system.
Now we specialize to the case of Figure 8 by setting w1 equal to zero. Eq. (7) then becomes:
(8)
From eq. (8) we note that the angular velocity of the planet is the difference of two angular
velocities: the angular velocity of the arm and the angular velocity of the planet relative to the
arm. For this reason such gear trains are also sometimes called differential gear trains.
In the case of an internal spur gear mesh eq. (7) remains valid, the value of Z21 now being
positive.
The analysis of planetary bevel gear trains can be developed in a similar manner, with careful
attention to the vector directions of each of the angular velocities.
1.7 Compound Planetary Spur Gear Trains
These are also known as coupled epicyclics. Such trains consist of several Interconnected simple
planetary spur gear trains. The interconnections can result in complex systems and practice is
required in order to gain an understanding of their characteristics. A number of methods have
been proposed for the kinematic analysis of compound planetary gear trains. A method which
seems relatively straightforward and general is based on the following considerations.
Any compound planetary gear train, as stated above, consists of a set of interconnected
simple planetary gear trains. We can write the general equation (7) for each simple gear train
and solve these for the various angular velocities. In order to carry Out this procedure we need
to identify the two gears and the arm for each simple train, as well as the fixed member, if any.
Planets in parallel are discarded inasmuch as these are kinematically redundant. They are used
for strength and torque capacity.
We illustrate the procedure in the case of the planetary gear train shown in Figure 9. This
consists of an input arm, 2; a sun gear, 1; a floating link, 3, mounted on the arm and integral
with the coaxial planets 3', 3", and an output gear, 4, coaxial with the axis of the arm.
This is a compound planetary gear train consisting of two simple planetary trains. The first
consists of arm 2, planet 3' and sun gear 1; the second consists of arm 2, planet 3M and gear 4.
We rewrite eq. (7) in the general form:
Zjiωi - ωj (1 - Zji)ωk = 0 (9),
where i, j, denote the gears and k denotes the arm. The number of teeth on each gear and the
angular velocities are defined as follows:
Gear 1: N1 teeth; ω1
Arm2 : ω2
Link 3 : ω3
Gear 3': N3' teeth; ω3
Gear 3": N3" teeth; ω3
Gear 4: N4 teeth; ω4
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Angular velocities are positive counterclockwise when viewed from arrow A in Figure 9.
For the first simple planetary train: i = 1, j = 3' and k = 2, while for the second, i = 3", j = 4
and k = 2. Substituting these values into eq. (9), we have:
Z3'1 ω1 - ω3 + (1 - Z3'1)ω2 = 0 (i)
Z43" ω3 - ω4 + (1 - Z43")ω2 = 0 (ii)
In the table the vectors ω1 (i = 1, 2, 3, 4) denote the vector angular velocities of the four
members of the train. The magnitudes of ω1, ω2, and ω3 and ω1, ω3, and ω4, respectively.
From the last row of the table:
ω1 = X + Y (i)
ω3 = X (ii)
ω4 = X - Y (iii)
Eliminating X, V from eqs. (i, ii, iii), we have, (11)
ω3 = 1/2 (ω1 + ω4)
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Hence
Hence, the angular velocity of the arm is equal to the average of the angular velocities of
gears 1 and 4.
If gears 1 and 4 rotate at the same speed, both the arm and gears 1 and 4 move as a single
unit. If, however, gear 1 is stationary, for example, the speed of the arm is one half that of gear
4.
When the speeds of two members are given (the members being gear 1, gear 4 and the arm),
the speed of the third is determined. Conversely, if only the speed of the arm is specified, the
average of the speeds of gears 1 and 4 is equal to that of the arm, but the magnitude of the
speeds of each gear would be a function of the resisting load on shafts 1 and 4. The latter, for
example, is the case in an automobile differential in which shafts 1 and 4 are the tire axles and
arm 3 is geared to the driveshaft.
2.0 FORCE TRANSMISSION IN GEAR TRAINS
2.1 General
Except for starting and stopping, the gears in gear trains usually operate at constant angular
velocities. A static force analysis suffices for most purposes and hence this discussion will be
limited to statically transmitted forces. For the dynamic tooth load, the reader is referred to the
references at the end of the Section on GEARS.
For design purposes two types of forces need to be considered at the very beginning of gear
train design. The first is associated with bearing reactions and the second with power
transmission. The power-transmitting forces are needed in sizing gears and in determining
efficiencies. They act tangentially at the pitch line and transmit the force from one gear to a
meshing gear. In this paragraph frictional effects will be neglected. Frictional effects will be
considered, however, in the determination of power loss and efficiencies, in which friction can be
very significant.
It is important to realize that the tooth load between gears includes both tangential and
normal components - the latter due to the pressure-angle effect. For purposes of power
transmission, however, we are interested only in the former. Bearing reactions In gear trains can
be quite complex, especially in helical, bevel, worm and hypoid gearing. To determine these the
reader is referred to the references, especially Ref. 3 listed in the Section on GEARS.
2.2 Tangential Forces In A Single Spur Gear Mesh
We consider the simple spur gear train shown in Figure 1 together with Figure 11, which shows
the pitch circles and nomenclature.
A driving torque, M1 (positive counterclockwise) acts on gear #1 and a load torque, M2 (also
positive counterclockwise) acts on driven gear #2.
Let Wtij = tangential force transmitted by gear i to meshing gear j, acting at the pitch line. In
Figure 11, Wt21 is positive when vertical and up, as shown.
For static equilibrium of gear #1, we have,
M1 + Wt21 R1 = 0 (12),
where R1 denotes the pitch radius of gear #1 and moments have been taken about axis 01 of
gear #1. Hence,
Wt21 = - M1 (13).
R1
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Figure 11 Nomenclature for Spur Gear Mesh of Figure 1
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Figure 12 Gear 2 of Figure 5 and Forces Acting on it
whence
Wt32 = Wt12 = M1 (18).
R1
Hence, Wt32 acts vertically up. Since the pitch-line speeds of all gears are identical in magnitude,
we conclude that the tangential forces, Wtij, are identical in magnitude and direction.
This yields
where Rj, wj denote pitch radius and angular velocity of gear j, as previously defined.
The angular velocity ratios can be determined by the methods described in paragraph 1.4. For
example, in Figure 6, suppose we wish to find the tangential force acting between gears 7 and 8.
Then from eq. (20) with i = 7 and j = 8, we have,
ω8 = N1N3N5N7 (iv)
ω1 N2N4N6N8
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Since Wt78 is positive, it acts vertically up.
Reverted gear trains can be handled in an analogous manner, attention being given to the
sign conventions for forces, torques and angular velocities.
2.5 Planetary Spur Gear Trains
The analysis again involves the conditions of static equilibrium for the members of the train.
We illustrate the procedure by considering the compound, planetary spur gear train shown in
Figure 9.
In the figure, M2 denotes the input torque, acting on arm 2, and M4 the load torque exerted
on gear 4. In order to clarify positive senses of rotations and torques, Figure 13 shows an end
view of the train In the direction of arrow A of Figure 9. It is now convenient to denote all forces
by the symbol Fij, where Fij means the force exerted by link i on link j (it follows that Fji = - Fij ).
The positive directions of horizontal and vertical forces are to the right and up, respectively.
F32 = M2 (ii).
R
Figure 13 End View of Gear Train Shown in Figure Figure 14 Free-Body Diagram
9 of Arm 2 of Gear Train
Shown in Figure 9
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The forces acting on floating link 3, which includes the two planet gears 3' and 3", are shown in
Figure 15. The equations of equilibrium for link 3 are:
F13 + F43 + F23 = 0 (iii)
and
R3" F43 + R3' F13 = 0 (iv),
where R3', R3" denote the pitch radii of gears 3', 3", respectively.
Solving for F43 and F13 from eqs. (ii, iii, iv), we find:
Finally we consider the equilibrium of output member 4, as shown In Figure 16. Taking moments
about point O:
- F34R4 + M4 = 0,
so that M4 = F34 R4 (vii)
M4 = M2R3'R4 (viii)
R(R3" - R3')
Although eq. (viii) is not needed in the determination of the forces, it leads to the following
useful check on the consistency of the derivations.
Since this analysis assumes negligible friction, we can equate input power to output power:
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whence
M4 = - ω2 (x).
M2 ω4
Substituting the right-hand side of eq. (viii) for M4 and the right-hand side of eq. (10) for
ω4/ω2 into (x), with R = R1 + R3. and R4 = R1 + R3' - R3", it is not difficult to show that eq. (ix) is
satisified identically.
The forces in planetary gear trains can be very high. In this example, F43 and F13 become
very large when R3. and R3 are nearly equal (see eqs. (v) and (vi)), i.e. if large reduction ratios
are involved. This can be important in the analysis of power losses, which will be discussed in the
section on efficiencies.
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whence
F24 = M4/R (iv).
From Figure 17c,
F12R=F42R (v)
and
F12 + F32 + F42 = 0 (vi).
Let
F12 = F42 = F(say) (vii)
so that from (ii) and (iv) we have
M1 = M4 = M(say) (viii);
Hence, from (vi),
F32 = - 2F (ix).
From Figure 17d,
M3 = F23R = 2FR (x)
Now
M1 = M4 = F21R = - FR (xi).
Hence,
M1 + M3 + M4 = 0 (xii),
which is a consistency check.
From the conservation of energy:
M1ω1 + M4ω4 + M3ω3 = 0 (xiii),
or
- FR ω1 - FR ω4 + 2FR ω3 = 0 (xiv),
or
ω3 = 1/2(ω1 + ω4) (xv),
which confirms eq. (11).
Summarizing:
ω3 = 1/2(ω1 + ω4) (11)
M1 = M4 = - FR (xi)
and
M3 = 2FR (x).
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Now it power is applied to arm 3 (as is the case in an automotive differential, for example), M3
and ω3 are given inputs. Then M1 = M4 = - 1/2 M3 and the power output will be (-M1ω1) at shaft
#1 and (-M4ω4) at shaft 4 (i.e. the shaft carrying gear #4).
If
ω1 = ω3 + ∆ω (xvi)
and
ω4 = ω3 - ∆ω (xvii),
where ∆ω is a measure of the differential speed relative to arm, then
- M1 ω1 = 1/2 M3ω1 = 1/2 M3(ω3 + ∆ω) (xviii)
and
- M4 ω4 = 1/2 M3 ω4 = 1/2 M3 (ω3 - ∆ω) (xix).
Hence, the fraction of power delivered to shafts 1 and 4 depends on the speed differential
relative to the arm. In an automotive differential, for example, in which planet 2 is geared to the
drive shaft, this speed differential Is determined by the radius of the turn made by the
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automobile. In general, for differentials operating with more than -one degree of freedom,
speeds and power flow depend on the resisting torques or load torques exerted on the output
shafts.
The torque distribution and power flow through differential and planetary gearing can be quite
complicated, but the principles of their determination remains the same as in the above example.
3.0 POWER FLOW
3.1 General
The determination of power flow in gear trains is important for several reasons. It is needed in
determining power losses and efficiencies. In some of the more complicated gear trains the
power may branch and the circulation of power within the system may even exceed the
transmitted power. In instrument and control applications the efficiencies ale often critical, while
in power applications both power flow, distribution and efficiency may be critical.
In simple and compound gear trains-the determination of power flow is generally
straightforward If as a first approximation friction is neglected the condition that input power is
equal to output power, is generally sufficient to determine power flow. The problem becomes
more difficult in power-dividing trains, such as planetary gear trains and differentials. The
following gives an elementary account of the subject. For a more in-depth treatment, the
following references are recommended:--
(i) "Gear Handbook", D.W. Dudley, Editor-in-Chief, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, N.Y.
1962:--
(ii) "Spur Gears" by E. Buckingham, McGraw-Hill Book Co Inc., New York, N.Y., 1928.
(iii) "Gear Trains" by H.E. Merritt, Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd., London, 1947.
The latter two are old classics, but still very worth while.
3.2 Fundamentals: The Single Gear Mesh
We consider once again the simple gear train shown in Figure 1 and the associated nomenclature
defined in paragraphs 1.2 and 2.2. Assume torques Mi (i = 1, 2) and angular velocities (i = 1, 2)
acting on gears 1 and 2, respectively, the positive direction being counterclockwise.
If M1 is given in in-lbs and ω1 in rad/sec, the input power will be in units of in-lb/sec. In the
absence of frictional losses, the conservation of energy yields
M1ω1+M2ω2 = 0
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Hence, the power transmitted from the driving to the driven gear is equal to the product:
Wt12v12 = (M1/R1) (R1ω1) = M1ω1, as before.
For purposes of power flow determination, it is useful to summarize the preceding in the
following table:
The product (Wt12v12) of tangential force acting on gear #1 and pitch-line velocity is negative,
while the product of tangential force (Wt12v12) acting on gear #2 and pitch-line velocity is
positive. At the same time we know that the power flow is directed from gear 1 towards gear 2.
Hence, we have the following
PRODUCT RULE:
The power flow is directed from the gear having the negative force-velocity product
to the gear having the positive force-velocity product, the force being the tangential
force acting on that gear.
This is a useful and general criterion for the calculation of power flow, including gear trains in
which the power flow is more complicated.
3.3 Simple And Compound Gear Trains
In a simple spur gear train, each gear transmits the input power to the adjacent gear and the
power flow is straightforward.
In many compound gear trains, such as that of Figure 6, the situation is the same.
In some compound trains, such as that of Figure 18, power branching may occur. In Figure
18 the input power(M1ω1) splits into two branches at point A, one delivering (-M5ω5) and the
other (-M4ω4) in-lb/sec. The problem becomes determinate if we know either one of these, in
view of the energy-conservation condition: M1ω1+M4ω4+M5ω5=0. The problem is then reduced to
the power flow in three simple gear trains: O1A, AO2 and AO3.
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3.4 Planetary Spur Gear Trains
We consider once again the planetary gear train shown in Figure 9 and Figures 13, 14, 15.
Although this is not a split-power train it illustrates the general procedure involving the
force-velocity products very well.
In Figure 13 let us assume a counterclockwise input torque (M2) and input angular velocity
(ω2). Since the power does not branch it follows that the input power, (M2 ω2), is transmitted
through every link of the system. Let us confirm this now by independent calculation of the
force-velocity products.
Let Pij denote the power transmitted by link i to link j. Note that Pji = - Pij. The power
transmitted by arm 2 to link 3 (planet carrier) is given by:
P23 = F23 v23 (i),
where v23 is the linear speed of point P (Figure 13), the axis of the pin joint connecting links 2
and 3. As in the previous derivations velocities are positive to the right and forces are positive
vertically up in the views shown in Figures 13, 14, 15.
From Par. 2.5, we have
F23 = - M2/R (ii).
Furthermore,
v23 = - R ω2 (iii).
Hence, for link 3 the force-velocity product is ( - M2/R) ( - R ω2) = M2 ω2 and this is positive.
For link 2, F32 = - F23 = M2/R and v23 is unchanged. Hence, the force-velocity product for link 2
is negative. Thus we conclude that the total input power (M2 ω2) is transmitted from link 2 to link
3.
Since the pitch-line speed for the mesh between sun gear 1 and gear 3' is zero, no power is
transmitted through this mesh, as is obvious.
Considering now the mesh between gear 3" and gear 4, the force F34 was given in paragraph
2.5 as follows:
F34 = M2R3 (iv)
R(R3" - R3')
Furthermore,
v34 = - R4ω4 = - R4 ω4 ω2 (v).
ω2
Replacing Ni by Ri in eq. (10), we have,
ω4 = R3'R4 - R1R3" (vi).
ω2 R3R4
Combining eqs. (iv) and (v),
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F34v34 = - M2ω2R3'R4 (R3'R4 - R1R3")
R(R3" - R3') R3'R4
= - M2ω2 (R3'R4 - R1R3") (vii)
R(R3" - R3')
If gear 4 is indeed the driven gear and our procedure is correct, it is necessary that the
product F34 v34 be positive and equal to M2 ω2, i.e. it is necessary that
R3'R4 - R1R3" = -1 (viii).
R(R3" - R3')
Setting R = R1 + R3' and R4 = R3' - R3", and substituting Into (viii), we readily obtain the
required identity.
Hence, the force-velocity product rule gives the correct power flow for the gear train.
The procedure In more complex cases remains the same and is particularly useful in the
determination of power loss and efficiency, which will be explained next.
4.0 GEAR TRAIN EFFICIENCY
4.1 General
Power losses in gear trains are associated principally with two factors: tooth friction and churning
losses. Churning losses are relatively independent of the nature of the train and the reduction
ratios and for this reason they tend to be less significant in the design stage than frictional
losses. Churning losses are difficult to calculate and for a discussion of what information is
available on the subject the reader is referred to Ref. 3 (Gear Handbook) cited in the references
in the section on GEARS.
The frictional losses, which are strongly dependent on the arrangement of the gear train and
the reduction ratios, have been the subject of considerable investigation. Tables are available for
calculating the energy lost by friction during tooth engagement for a single mesh as a function of
pressure angle, gear ratio, gear size, and an assumed average value of the coefficient of friction.
These tables involve an analysis of the contact forces and sliding velocities occurring between
contacting gear teeth. The choice of an average coefficient of friction Is based on the materials
involved, the lubricant, if any, service conditions and experience. For details the reader is
referred to the literature cited at the end of the section on GEARS.
For preliminary design calculations the significance of power-loss determination can be
particularly high in gear arrangements involving split power paths and/or large reductions, such
as can occur in planetary gear trains and differentials. In such trains power loss due to friction
can be critical and needs to be estimated in order to size both the gears, and the capacity of the
motor or other driving element.
In order to arrive at an estimate, which provides a good first approximation with minimum
calculation, we follow the recommendation of Buckingham (Spur Gears, McGraw-Hill, 1928),
which is still a good one even today. This, in effect, states that for average operating conditions,
the power loss at each mesh can be approximated as 1 % of the potential power transmitted
through the mesh. Figures quoted in the literature vary from less than 1/2% to 2% and the
reader can always adjust the percentage if desired.
The concept of potential power, which will be explained in the following paragraph, provides
an estimate of power loss which is acceptable for preliminary design purposes. If more precise
information is needed, the reader is referred to the literature cited in paragraph 3.1 on
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power flow, Inasmuch as the phenomena involved are complicated, the only completely reliable
procedure for determining power loss (as in all other cases as well!) is prototype testing.
However, there is no reason to exaggerate the difficulty of the calculations. The subject of power
flow and losses is often regarded and treated as a mysterious specialty. It is not. The basic
principles are simple and readily evaluated. In the following we shall attempt to explain them.
4.2 The Basic Principle Of Power-Loss Determination
Every spur gear train consists of a combination of simple meshes consisting of two meshing
gears and the associated arm, as shown in Figure 19. Except in very rare cases the arm is either
stationary or rotating about a fixed axis (the axis of one of the gears). Once we can determine
the power loss in this simple system we can determine the power loss in an entire planetary or
other gear train.
In Figure 19 both gears and the arm are rotating. The tangentially transmitted force, F12,
between gears 1 and 2 can be determined according to the methods described in Par. 2.0.
According to Buckingham the rate at which power is lost In friction is proportional to the
product of the tangentially transmitted force and the velocity of tooth engagement. The linear
velocity of tooth engagement is equal to the product of the pitch radius and the angular velocity
of tooth engagement.
If the arm were stationary the linear velocity of tooth engagement would simply be the
velocity, v12, of the pitch point P. If on the other hand the arm and gears are rotating as one
rigid system about point 01, there is no relative motion between the gears and the velocity of
tooth engagement vanishes. It follows, therefore, that the linear velocity of tooth engagement,
VE12, is the magnitude of the difference between the velocity of the pitch point, P, and the
velocity of the instantaneously coincident point on the arm:
VE12 = - (ω2 R2 - ω3 R2) = - (w2 - w3) R2 (20),
the positive direction of VE12 being to the right.
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The magnitude of the product of F12 and vE12 is the potential power according to Buckingham.
The power loss due to tooth friction is proportional to this product and estimated at 1%.
Thus denoting the power loss by ∆P12, we have,
∆P12 = | F12vE12| (0.01)
= 0.01 | F12R2| |ω2 - ω3| (21).
Although the potential power is not the actual power except for gears operating on fixed
centers, It corresponds to the power which would be transmitted by the same gear pair operating
on fixed centers at angular velocities (ω1 - ω3) for gear 1 and (ω2 - ω3) for gear 2. The actual
pitch-line velocity of the gear mesh of Figure 19 is ( - R2 ω2). Hence the ratio, µ, of potential
power to actual power is given by:
(22).
In high-reduction planetary gearing the velocity of the output gear (or an intermediate gear)
can be substantially less than that of the associated arm, i.e. ω3/ω2 »1. In such a case the
potential power can be much larger than the actual power. The frictional losses will then be much
greater than In a simple or compound gear train having the same reduction ratio.
The example in the next paragraph illustrates the calculations involved.
4.3 Power Loss In A Planetary Spur Gear Train
We consider once again the planetary gear train shown in Figures 9, 13, 14 and 15.
Suppose the gears are 24 D.P. with the following number of teeth and pitch radii:
N1 = 36 corresponding to R1 = 0.750"
N3. = 24 corresponding to R3' = 0.500"
N3. = 27 corresponding to R3" = 0.5625"
N4 = 33 corresponding to R4 = 0.6875".
Let the Input speed be 250 RPM counterclockwise and the input torque be 25 in-lbs.
counterclockwise.
In this case.
M2 = 25 in-lbs.
ω2 = (250) (2π)/(60) = 26.18 rad/sec.
R = R1 + R3' = 1.25 inches
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the potential power, ∆P13', of the mesh is given by
∆P13' = |F23' VE23'| = (20)(19.64)
= 392.8 in-lb/sec.
The frictional power loss at this mesh, therefore, is estimated at (0.01) (392.8) or 3.93
in-lb/sec.
For the mesh 3" - 4,
F3"4 = 160 lbs.*
= - 5.95 rad/sec.
|VE3"4| = R4 |ω4 - ω2 |
= (0.6815)| - 5.95 - 26.18|
= 22.09 in/sec.
Hence, the frictional power loss associated with this mesh is estimated at 1% of 3534 or 3534
in-lb/sec.
Thus the total power loss of the system (neglecting friction in the pin Joints) is 3.9+35.34 =
39.27 in-lb/sec. The input power, M2 ω2, is (25) (26.18) or 654.5 in-lb/sec. Hence, the efficiency,
η, of the gear train is:
η = 654.5 - 39.27
654.5
= 94%
It is worth noting that the largest power loss occurs at the high-reduction mesh.
The potential power at the 3"-4 mesh is 3534 in-lb/sec. This is more than five times the
transmitted power. In both instrument and power applications this can be significant, since it
may indicate a high rate of heat dissipation and wear.
As a second example, let us consider the case in which N1 = 36, N3 = 24 as before, but N3" =
25 and N4 = 35, corresponding to R3" = 0.5208" and R4 = 0.7292".
____________________
*Strictly speaking F34 should be 1 % less than 160 lbs., due to the power loss in mesh 1-3. In
this example, however, this difference is sufficiently small so that in this preliminary calculation
we shall neglect it. This same approximation will be made for the modified proportions which
follow in the next example.
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In that case F32 = 20 lbs, as before and
F43" = (-)(25)(0.500)
(1.25) (0.0208)
= - 480.76 lbs.
and
VE3"4 = (0.7292) (- 1.87 - 26.18)
= 20.45 in/sec.
The power loss, ∆P13', at the 1-3' mesh is 3.93 in-lbs, as before.
At the 3"-4 mesh the power loss, ∆P3"4, is
P3"4 = (480.76) (20.45)
= 9,831 in-lb/sec.
Hence, the power loss at this mesh is 98.31 in-lb/sec. The total power loss, therefore, is 98.31 +
3.93 = 102.24 in-lb/sec, corresponding to an efficiency of:
η = 654.50 - 102.24
654.50
= 84.37.
Thus increasing the reduction ratio from 4.4 to 14 has increased the power loss from 6% to
15.6% i.e. by a factor of about 2.6.
When a substantial amount of power is transmitted by the system this power loss would
significantly increase the required input power. The gear train would need to be designed so as
to be able to dissipate the heat generated at the 3"-4 mesh, as well as to tolerate the wear at
this mesh.
The efficiency estimate of other planetary gear trains, including bevel gear differentials,
follows along the same lines.
For simple and compound gear trains (in which the gears operate on fixed centers), the
potential power is equal to the actual power at each mesh and the efficiency estimate can be
made more rapidly. While these estimates are adequate for preliminary design purposes, they
are not intended to replace prototype testing and eventual design refinement. The estimate can
be very useful, however, in the preliminary sizing of gears and pointing to potential trouble
spots, which can then be remedied in the design stage.
5.0 MINIMIZATiON OF GEAR TRAIN INERTIA(*)
(*) (i) Black, T. "Designing low-inertia instrument drives", Product Eng'g. 50, Dec. 1979, pp.
31-33.
(ii) Burgess, E.G. "Minimization of gear train inertia", Trans. ASME 76B, J. Eng. Ind., 1954,
pp. 493-496.
(iii) Davis, S.A. and Ledgerwood, B.K. "Gearing", Section 13, Control Engineers Handbook,
J.G. Truxal, Editor, McGraw-Hill, 1958.
(iv) Peterson, D.P. "Predicting minimum-inertia power gear trains", Machine Design 26,
June 1954, pp. 161-167.
(v) Stoner, T.A. and Sipek, G.B. "Design of power spur-gear trains for minimum inertia",
ASME Paper 54-F-8, Sept. 1954.
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5.1 Introduction To Gear Train Inertia Minimization
The minimization of gear train inertia is useful for the following purposes:
* To obtain fastest response for a given Input torque, such as a motor torque.
This is often desirable in instrument drives and control applications.
* To minimize driving torque for a given system response.
In order to arrive at a minimum-Inertia design, certain assumptions are commonly made. For
instrument trains it is often (but not always) assumed that all pinions are identical and of
minimum size consistent with avoiding undercut. For power applications, on the other hand,
pinion size is governed principally by load and wear considerations.
Despite these differences the derivations and results in both cases bear a strong similarity. In
the following we describe the minimization of gear train inertia for instrument and control
applications. The development which follows is based entirely on the fundamental work of
Burgess (see Ref. (ii) below), with the exception of the modifications needed for controlling
backlash. It will be found that the optimization for minimum gear train inertia is remarkably
effective in the sense that output response is far more rapid than what might have been obtained
in the absence of optimization.
5.1.1. The Moment Of Inertia Of Rigid Bodies
(a) Definition of Moment of Inertia
Inertia may be regarded as a property of a body which resists a change in its state of
motion. For example, if a gear rotates at constant speed about a fixed axis, the torque, T,
required to accelerate the gear with a given angular acceleration, α, is proportional to its
moment of inertia, I, about that axis:
T= l α (i).
Thus the moment of inertia is important in determining the torques and accelerations of
rotating systems such as gear trains.
(b) Units and Formulas
The moment of inertia, I, of a mass particle about a given axis is defined as the product of the
mass, m, of the particle and the square of its distance, d, from the axis. Such a moment of
inertia is called a mass moment of inertia. If the weight of the particle is W, then:
I = md2 = Wd2 (ii),
g
where g is the gravitational constant. The units of inertia are in-lb-sec2.
For gear-train calculations we often need the moment of inertia of rotating parts having a solid
or hollow cylindrical cross-section. The moment of inertia about the axis of the cylinder, which is
usually also the axis of rotation, is called a polar (mass) moment of inertia.
For example, for a circular cylinder, radius a, and weight W, the polar moment of Inertia, ip, is
given by:
IP = Wa2 (iii).
2g
For a cylindrical pipe, the outer and inner radii of which are a0 and ai, respectively,
IP = w(a02 - ai2) (iv).
2g
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The moments of inertia of many rigid bodies about various axes has been tabulated in
engineering handbooks.
(C) Equivalent Inertia
In the case of geared systems we are often interested in the acceleration produced by a given
motor torque. Since change ratios are involved at each gear mesh, the simple equation T = l α
[eq. (i)] needs to be modified. The modified, more general equation can be expressed In the
form:
T = lequα (v),
where
T = motor torque
α = angular acceleration at motor pinion
and
lequ = equivalent system Inertia as seen at motor pinion.
The equivalent system inertia is the sum of the effective Inertia of each moving component.
The effective inertia of each moving component Is the product of its polar mass moment of
inertia (Including that of any integrally attached shafting) and the square of the speed ratio, R,,
between It and the motor shaft. If the speed ratio. A,. is defined to be always greater than unity,
the following rule applies:
Rule for effective inertia computation: If the component (gear or pinion) rotates faster
than the motor pinion, multiply its polar moment of inertia by Ri2 lf the motor pinion rotates
faster than the component divide Its polar moment of inertia by Ri2.
For example, for the gear train shown in Figure 19a, which illustrates a three-mesh speed.
reducer train, let
lm = motor Inertia
l1 = inertia of motor pinion
l2 = inertia of gear 1 and pinion 2
l3 = inertia of gear 2 and pinion 3
l4 = inertia of gear 3
lL = load inertia.
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Let NGi, NPi (i = 1, 2, 3) denote the number of teeth of the jth gear and pinion, respectively (NGi
> NPi). Also let
mi = NGi/NPi = reduction ratio of jth mesh
and ω1 = speed of motor pinion
ω2 = speed of gear 1 and pinion 2
ω3 = speed of gear 2 and pinion 3
ω4 = speed of gear 3 and load
Then (vi)
ω2 = ω1/m1
ω3 = ω1/(m1 m2)
ω4 = ω1/(m1 m2 m3)
The equivalent moment of inertia of the gear train as seen at the motor pinion is then given by:
lequ = l1 + l2 + l3 + l4 (vii).
m12 (m1m2)2 (m1m2m3)2
Imagine now that motor and load were interchanged so that the train functions as a
speed-increasing gear train. In this case:
ω4 = angular velocity of motor and gear 3
From eq (vi),
ω3 = ω4 m3
ω2 = ω4 m2 m3
ω1 = ω4 m1 m2 m3 (viii)
Hence, according to the rule given earlier in this paragraph, the equivalent moment of inertia,
lequ at the motor pinion is now given by:
lequ = l4 + l3 m32 + l2 (m2 m3)2 + (l1 + lL) (m1 m2 m3)2
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5.2 The Single Mesh
In Figure 20 a motor exerting a torque, Tm, and having a motor shaft of polar moment of inertia,
Im, carries a pinion (polar moment of inertia lP) on the motor shaft. The pinion drives a gear
(polar moment of inertial lG), the reduction ratio being R. The gear is directly coupled to a rotary
load of polar moment of inertia, lL. All moments of inertia are mass moments.
(23)
Let
lG = kR4lP (24)
lP
where
k = Wg tg (25)
WP tP
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Wg, WP, represent material densities (lbs/in3) of gear and pinion, respectively;
and
tg, tP their respective thicknesses.
The moments of inertia of gear and pinion are obtained by regarding each as a circular disc
having a radius equal to the pitch radius. It Is important to Include the inertia of any shafting
moving Integrally with gear or pinion. Pinion shafts' may or may not contribute significant
inertia, whereas gear shafts are often of sufficient size that their inertia Is not negligible.
Substituting eq. (24) into eq. (23) and differentiating with respect to the reduction ratio, R, in
order to maximize output acceleration, aL, we find R = ROPT, where
In this case, therefore, the optimum reduction ratio can be readily determined.
When the pinion inertias are not equal and the overall reduction ratio is not specified, the
equations become complicated and the method described in the next paragraph for the general
case is recommended.
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Figure 21 Two-Mesh Gear Train
Reprinted with the permission of The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers; see Ref. 1
5.4 The General Case (n-Mesh Train)
In this case an explicit algebraic equation for the optimum reduction ratios is not available, but
the following recursion equation can be used:
where
ri = reduction ratio of ith mesh
ri+1 = reduction ratio of (i + 1)st mesh
lpi = inertia of jth pinion (pinion of ith mesh)
lP(i+1) = inertia of (i + 1)st pinion (pinion of (i + 1)st mesh)
Ki = value of constant, k (eq. (25)) for ith mesh
Ki+1 = value of constant, k (eq. (25)) for (i + 1)st mesh
n = number of meshes in gear train.
The method of solution is now as follows. A trial value is assumed for the first-stage reduction
ratio, r1. Recursion equation (29) is then used to calculate all the succeeding reduction ratios.
These ratios are then substituted into eq. (30) to find the overall reduction ratio, A. If this value
is prescribed, the chances are that the value of A obtained from the initial trial value of r1 will not
match the prescribed value of R. In that case r1 can be incremented in steps until the desired
R-value has been obtained. Such a one-parameter scanning procedure is an effective search
procedure which can readily be computerized.
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5.5 Tradeoff Between Design For Minimum Backlash And Minimum Inertia
For minimum inertia it will be found that the first-stage reduction, r1, is fairly mild, averaging
typically between 1.5 and 2.5. For minimum backlash, however, it is desirable to maximize the
first-stage reduction ratio.
It can be shown that if the first-stage reduction, r1, is specified by backlash considerations,
while the remaining reduction ratios are chosen so as to minimize gear train inertia, equation
(29) remains applicable, the only change being that i ranges from 2 to n, rather than from 1 to
n.
5.6 Inertia Ratio
The angular acceleration, aL, of the load, corresponding to a given motor torque, Tm, is given by:
aL = Tm (31)
Rltm
where ltm denotes the equivalent system inertia seen at the motor shaft:
Hence, maximizing load acceleration is equivalent to minimizing the equivalent system inertia.
Motor and load inertia can be assumed to be given, so that the optimization applies to all the
terms in eq. (32) other than lm and lL Hence, it is reasonable to define an inertia ratio, Rj, as the
ratio of the equivalent system inertia excluding motor and load inertia, to the inertia of the motor
pinion:
(33)
The inertia ratio is a factor of merit for the inertia optimization of the gear train. Clearly it can
never be less Than unity. its value signifies that the equivelent system inertia at the motor shaft
is the same as that of Rl motor pinions. The lower the value of the inertia ratio, the better the
optimization - and conversely.
5.7 Results Of The Optimization
Figures 22-26, which are reproduced from the paper by E.G. Burgess (Ref. (ii), par. 5.0)
illustrate the results of the optimization for two cases:
Case (i): k = 1: all pinions and gears of same material and thickness.
Case (ii): k = 2/9: stainless steel pinions meshing with aluminum gears, 2/3 the thickness of
the mating pinions.
Figure 22 shows the ratio of the (i + 1)st mesh as a function of the ratio of the lth mesh, the
former plotted on logarithmic vertical scale. It is evident that the reduction ratio, ri+1, increased
from unity to 14 as ri increased from approximately 1.5 to 4.5. The curves for k = 1 and k = 2/9
show the same general characteristics. One conclusion which follows from the figures is that
equal mesh reduction ratios are not optimal.
Figures 23 and 24 show the drive motor mesh ratio, r1, as a function of the overall reduction
ratio, A, the latter shown on a logarithmic scale. Here we can observe a marked difference
between one and two meshes; a significant difference between two and three meshes; and
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smaller and smaller differences as the mesh number increases. This shows the dominant
influence of the first few meshes on the Inertia ratio. As the number of meshes increases it is
seen the rate of increase of the motor mesh ratio becomes quite small-with four meshes the
motor mesh ratio remains less than two. This is markedly in contrast to what one might have
concluded from the fact that reflected inertia decreases as the square of the reduction ratio. The
mildness of the optimum motor-mesh ratio takes into account not only the reduction ratio, but
also the size of the gears and pin ions of the train.
Figures 25 and 26 are probably the most significant. These show the inertia ratio, Rl, as a
function of the overall reduction ratio, R, of the optimized gear train. These figures demonstrate
the effectiveness of the optimization. The single-mesh case corresponds to the case of no
optimization. At a reduction ratio of approximately six, the inertia ratio for k = 1 has reached the
highest value (35) on the ordinate scale of the figure. If this curve were extended to a reduction
ratio of 100, the inertia ratio would be huge. By way of contrast the two-mesh train reaches an
inertia ratio of 35 only when A 80. And a four-mesh train reaches an inertia ratio of only about
seven when k = 1. Analogous conclusions follow when k = 2/9. It can be shown (see Burgess)
that provided the first-stage reduction is not less than 1.5 and the parameter k is the same for
all meshes that the limiting value of the Inertia ratio for even an infinite number of meshes
remains finite and approaches the value 2kr12. Hence, the optimization is extremely effective.
In all five figures, we can detect a "law of diminishing returns": as the number of meshes
increases the optimization continues to improve, but the most rapid rate of improvement occurs
in the first few meshes.
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Of course any system optimization is a tradeoff amongst many criteria. These include not only
the inertia ratio, but also backlash, number of moving parts, cost and other considerations. The
results do show, however, that the optimization for inertia ratio is both effective and practical.
T91
In Ref. (i) of paragraph 5.0 the minimization of gear train inertia in instrument drives is
discussed in an essentially similar manner. Analytical results are given for single-stage and
two-stage gear and belt drives and the effectiveness of the results illustrated numerically.
Figure 26 Selection of Number of Gear Meshes for Minimum Inertia Train; K = 219
Reprinted with the permission of The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers; see Ref. 1
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5.8 Power Gear Trains
The minimization of power gear trains is described in references (iii, iv, v) of section 5.0. The
principle of the optimization remains the same, but the assumptions regarding pinion proportions
are based on load/wear and other considerations suitable for power gear trains. Recursion
formulas relating the optimum values of the reduction ratios for the ith and (i + 1)st meshes are
again derived and the resulting optimization found to be effective in limiting the magnitude of the
inertia ratio of the gear train.
6.0 GEAR TRAIN BACKLASH COMPUTATION
The permissible AGMA backlash tolerances for fine-pitch gearing have been given in Table 1.9 in
the Section on GEARS. These values of deliberate reduction of tooth thickness provided during
manufacture of the gears range from Backlash Designation A to E (the latter does not permit any
reduction in tooth thickness).
Backlash calculations for a single mesh were discussed in paragraph 4.10 of the Section on
GEARS. In particular eq. (24) showed the following relationship between angular backlash, aB,
the equivalent linear backlash, Bi, measured along the pitch circle, and the pitch radius (Ri) of
the gear as follows:
aB(minutes) = 3440 Bi
R (34)
The accumulated angular backlash or lost motion of an entire gear train can then be obtained
by summing the individual angular backlashes multiplied by the gear ratio, νi, from the output
(for example) to the mesh involved. This can be expressed as follows:
where aBm-3, for example, is the angular backlash for mesh (m - 3) and (m - 1) is the reference
shaft. This is usually a specific shaft, such as the slowest shaft - often this is also the output
shaft.
The angular backlash can be obtained by dividing the linear backlash by the pitch radius of the
gear involved. This leads to the following equation used by Paul Dean, Jr. of Mechanical
Technology lnc.*
where Ri denotes the pitch radius of the jth gear and backlash is given in minutes.
A three-stage gear train Is shown in Figure 27. Starting at the motor end, there is an 8:1
reduction in the first stage, a 4:1 reduction in the second stage and a 6:1 reduction in the third
stage. Assume also that maximum backlash values are as given in the following table:
________________________
*This equation and the example which follows is reproduced by permission of McGraw Hill Book
Co. Inc. from "Lost Motion in Gear Trains" p. 236, "Gear Design and Application", New York, NY
1967.
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Backlash Relative Bi
Gear Pitch of Mesh Gear Ratio Shaft
Number Diameter (Bi) Riγi
Speed
1 3.00 0.0015 6:1 1.0 0.0010
3 1.25 0.0030 4:1 6.0 0.0008
5 1.25 0.0030 8:1 24.0 0.0002
Then according to eq. (36) the backlash in the gear train at shaft #1 is given by:
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Figure 28 Schematic Representation of a Gear Train
T95
7.5 Example Of Backlash And Transmission-Error Calculation
To illustrate error analysis the following numerical example is presented. This is based upon the
gear train schematic shown in Figure 28 and pertinent design data given in Table 1. The layout of
the gear train, showing orientation of the line-of-centers (θ) is given in Figure 29. The two
meshes connecting the sensor to the load shaft have spring-loaded gears to eliminate all
backlash (see also paragraph on "Methods and Devices for Controlling Backlash").
It is required to calculate: a) the maximum backlash between the motor and load shafts,
measured at S-1; b) the maximum transmission error between the load shaft and the sensor
shaft S-8, measured at the load shaft S-1; and, c) the maximum integrated position error for
part b. Assume all gears are 20º pressure angle.
a) Maximum backlash calculation (S1 to S6)
This is determined in accordance with equation 48 of Par. 11.1, section on GEARS, taking into
account all of the applicable backlash sources for each mesh.
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In regard to center distance variation, since it is specified by X-Y coordinates the orientation
angle, θ, is significant. Center distance variation is related to the coordinate tolerance and angle
θ by the expression:1
te = t (sin θ + cos θ)
where:
t = coordinate tolerance (± value)
te = effective center distance tolerance-(± value)
By this equation a maximum center distance opening can be determined for each mesh. In
addition, any center distance allowance must be applied.
Summing all the backlash sources for each mesh, the results are:
Mesh 1:
(max) ∆ C = (center distance allowance) + (center distance tolerance)
+ (test radius allowance) + (test radius tolerance) + (TCE)
+ (bearing outer race runout) + (bearing inner race runout)
+ (bearing radial play) + (gear to shaft clearance)
+ (bearing to housing clearance) + (shaft runout)
Substituting values from Table 1,
_______________
1Derivations of this equation and cases of unequal coordinate tolerances are given on page 88 of
Reference 5 in the Section on GEARS.
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In the above equation, many of the terms are doubled because the backlash source is
applicable to both gears or shafts of the mesh. A number of the backlash sources are halved
because the values stipulated in Table 1 are TlR (total indicator runout) values, and it is only one
half the runout that causes a maximum backlash.
The derived maximum increase in center distance Is converted to a linear backlash by
equation 22 of par. 4.10 In section on GEARS, and to an angle value by equation 24 of Par. 4.10
in section on GEARS. Thus, for Mesh 1,
Bm-1 = (.00635) 2 tan 20º = (.00635) 2 (.364) = .0046 inches
and the angular backlash is,
aBm-1 = 3440 - B = 3440 (.0046) = 21.6 arc minutes
R .750
In a similar manner, meshes 2 thru 5 are calculated, and the summary of the results is:
max ∆ C B aB Angular Measure at Shaft No.
Mesh 1 .00635 .0046 21.6 S-1
Mesh 2 .00967 .00704 38.7 S-2
Mesh 3 .00970 .00706 38.9 S-3
Mesh 4 .00982 .00715 52.4 S-4
Mesh 5 .00101 .00736 58.4 S-5
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Mesh 6
(max) ET = ± 1/2[(TCE) + (bearing inner race runout)
+ (gear bore to shaft clearance) + (shaft runout)]
In substituting values for the above, the last two error sources do not apply to the pinion
shafts since they are Integral. Therefore:
(max) ET = ± 1/2 [2(.0005) + 2(.0002) + (.0005) + (.0002)] = ± .00105
(max) aET = ET 3440 = ± .00105 3440 = ± 6.42 arc minutes
R 1.125/2
Mesh 7
This mesh is the same design as Mesh 6 and therefore the same linear ET results. Only the
angular transmission errors differ due to different pitch diameter gears on shafts S-7 and S-8.
Thus,
(max) aET = ± .00105 3440 = ± 5.14 arc minutes
1.406/2
Total transmission error from the sensor to the load shaft is calculated per equation 37 as:
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Converting this radial opening of the gear centers to a linear backlash measure by equation 22
B = (.0058) 2 tan 20º = (.0058)(.728) .0042 inch
and the angular backlash is
Bc = .0042 3440 = 20.5 arc minutes
1.406/2
From equation 51 the integrated position error from the load shaft S-1 to the sensor S-8
measured at S-1 is:
Substituting the above Bc value, modified by the gear ratio to S-1, and the transmission error
found in par. (b)
E1 = ± 8.13 + 1 20.5 = ± 11.5 arc minutes measured at S-1
2 3
The above values are maxima and represent the worst possible results necessitating all error
sources to be at their extreme tolerance values. In practice the realistic distribution of parameter
tolerances will result in a distribution of backlash, transmission error, and IPE that ranges far
below the desired maximum values. This is typified by Figure 30. Usually mean values will be but
a fraction of the maximums. Details of how to derive statistical distributions of gear train
backlash, transmission error, and IPE are given in Reference 5 in the section on GEARS.
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B. CONFIGURATIONS AND DESIGNS
8.0 INTRODUCTION
A special type of speed reducer, known as a gearhead, usually has a cylindrical housing (Figure
33). The gear train within the housing is arranged so as to provide in-line input and output
shafts. Gearheads can be attached or coupled to most types of servo motors, but they
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Catalog D220
For further information on our zero-backlash gearheads and speed reducers, the reader is
referred to paragraph 12.2(g).
9.0 BASIC CLASSIFICATION OF SPEED REDUCERS
9.1 General
Speed reducers and gear trains can be classified according to gear type as well as relative
position of Input and output shafts. Of course there are also hybrid types (which use more than
one kind of gear) and unusual configurations.
9.2 Shaft Configurations
Speed-reducer configurations available from stock come in a variety of shaft arrangements.
These are summarized in Figure 34.
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Catalog D220
Table 2 presents an overview of the respective advantages and applications of different gear
types.
Catalog D220
T105
Catalog D220
10.1.1 Simple Gear Trains The most common element of a gear train is the gear pair
connecting parallel shafts (Figures 1, 2, Par. 1.2, Part A: Basic Concepts). The teeth for this type
of arrangement can be spur, helical or herringbone. The angular velocity ratio, Z21, is simply the
inverse of the tooth ratio:
Z21 = ω2 = ± N1 (38)
ω1 N2
where ω1 is the angular velocity of gear i, which has Ni teeth (i = 1,2). The minus sign applies for
external gearing (gear and pinion rotate in opposite directions), while the plus sign applies for
internal gearing (gear and pinion rotate In same direction).
Adding one or more idler gears between input and output shafts (Figure 5, Par. 1.3, Part A:
Basic Concepts) does not affect the final velocity ratio. For a simple gear train the angular
velocity ratio is numerically equal to the inverse of the ratio of the number of teeth of the gears
on the input and output shafts. Idler gears are used to extend the distance between input and
output shafts and/or to change their relative direction of rotation.
The main limitation of a simple gear train is that its maximum speed-change ratio (velocity
ratio) is about 10:1, even when helical gears are used In place of spur gears. For larger velocity
ratios, the size of the last gear in the train, and hence the overall size of the train, becomes too
large. This is undesirable, not only from the point of view of space limitation, but also from the
realization that strength and wear capacities between the end gears become unbalanced,
resulting in an inefficient use of material.
10.1.2 Compound Gear Trains In order to obtain larger velocity ratios economically it is often
advantageous to use compound arrangements (Figure 36). The double reduction shown in Figure
36a is simply two single-reduction trains In series, with two of the gears keyed to a single shaft.
The velocity ratio, Z14, is given by:
For a triple-reduction train, the angular velocity ratio, Z16, is given by:
and so fourth.
By choosing equal center distances for gears and pinions, a double-reduction train can be
arranged to have its Input and output shafts in line (Figure 36b).
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Catalog D220
________________
**(i) "Efficiency of Gears", Gear Handbook, D.W. Dudley, Editor, McGraw-Hill, New York,
N.Y., 1962, Chapter 14.
(ii) "Efficiency of Gear Trains", "Gear Design and Application", N. Chironis, Editor,
McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 1967, pp. 244-245.
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Catalog D220
For gears in which the addendum is the reciprocal of the diametral pitch, HS and Ht can be
simplified as follows:
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Hence,
RP = 4.000"
rp = 0.500"
Ro = RP + 1/Pd , where Pd = diametral pitch = 24 = 4.0417"
ro = rP + 1/Pd= 0.5417"
In addition,
NG = (8)(24) = 192
NP = (1)(24) = 24
Z = 8,f = 0.1 and F = cosφ = cos14½º.
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Tables and charts for estimating the coefficients of friction of the various gear types can be
found in Chapter 14, by E.E. Shipley, in the Gear Handbook cited in Par. 10.2
The power loss in an entire gear train can be obtained from the power loss in each mesh as
described in the next paragraph.
10.4 Efficiency of Gear Trains
The overall efficiency, Et, of a simple gear train or a compound gear train without power dividing
branches is simply the product of the efficiencies (Ei, i = 1, 2, . . .) of the individual gear
meshes:
Et = E1 E2 E3. . . . . . . . . (47)
Thus, if the efficiency of a typical 6:1 gear mesh is 0.96, and it is desired to use a four-stage
compound gear train (without power branching) to obtain a speed reduction of (6) (6) (6) (6) =
1296:1, the overall efficiency of the gear train is (0.96)4 = 0.85. The power loss, therefore, will
be 0.15 or 15%.
if, as in Figure 18 (Section 3.3, Part A: Basic Concepts), a compound train with power
branching is involved, each branch can be treated separately.
For planetary gear trains the procedure outlined in Par. 4.3 (Part A: Basic Concepts) can be
used. The power loss in each mesh can be taken as a fixed percentage of the potential power
transmitted through the mesh. In Par. 4.3 the same percentage was used for each mesh. A more
accurate estimate can be obtained by using the efficiency equations given in the preceding
paragraph to determine the efficiency of each mesh. In a planetary gear mesh, the gear ratio, Z,
for eqs. (43,44), should be computed from the equation:
In eq. (48), ω1, ω2 denote the angular velocities of the gears and ω3 of the arm.
As described in Par. 4.3 (Part A: Basic Concepts), the percentage loss is converted to an
actual power loss by multiplying by the potential power, rather than the actual power.
Multiple-reduction gear trains are frequently limited as to the number of reductions that may
be used effectively, because of the gear-mesh losses. In planetary trains both the number of
meshes and the nature of the gear arrangement of the train influences efficiency. The efficiency
is therefore an important parameter in the design and selection of a speed reducer and/or gear
train.
11.0 CENTER-DISTANCE AND SPEED-RATIO ADJUSTMENTS USING PARALLEL HELICAL
GEARS
11.1 Introduction
Helical gears can be used:
(1) To compensate for center-distance errors (for example when two shafts are
erroneously machined too far apart), without changing the speed ratio
between the input and output shafts.
(2) To change the speed ratio between the input and output shafts without
changing the center-to-center distance between shafts
______________
* "When helical gears get you out of tight spots", by S. Rappaport, "Gear Design and
Application", N. Chironis, Editor, McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y. 1967, pp. 79-82. Permission by
McGraw-Hill to reprint portions of this article is hereby gratefully acknowledged.
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In both cases, varying the helix angle Is the key to the solution, according to a design
approach developed by S. Rappaport*. The pitch diameter of a helical gear (of given pitch) is not
related in a simple linear proportion to the number of teeth, as is the case with spur gears, but is
dependent also on the helix angle. Since for a given number teeth and pitch, the pitch diameter
determines the resulting gear ratio, an infinite number of workable pitch diameters is possible
within a certain range, with a helical gear, Figure 37.
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cos ψ = 2.917/3.012
or
ψ = 14.43 degrees.
One of the helical gears will be left-handed and the other right-handed.
11.3 Changing Gear Ratios
Helical gears can permit a change in gear ratio between two parallel shafts, while maintaining a
constant center distance. This problem sometimes occurs when a product or drive is being
redesigned.
Assume, for example, that two shafts are connected by a pair of spur gears with diametral
pitch 12 and with 30 and 75 teeth, respectively. The correct center distance for the shafts is
4.375 Inches.
It is now desired to change the ratio from 1:2.5 to 1:3.25. This necessitates a change in the
number of teeth. Dividing (30 + 75) by (1 + 3.25) gives 24.705. Therefore, the pinion is selected
to have 24 teeth. The number of teeth for the gear Is (24)(3.25) = 78.
But spur gears of 24 and 78 teeth call for a center distance of 4.250 inches, rather than the
required 4.375 inches. This problem is solved by using a helical gear set with 24 and 78 teeth,
respectively, and with a helix angle, ψ, given by
It should be kept in mind, however, that in contrast to spur gears, helical gears impose both
thrust and radial loads on their shaft bearings. The bearings, therefore, need to be designed to
support both loads (see Figure 1.30 Section 1: Gears). When large helical angles and/or high
loads are involved, herringbone gears or double helicals with opposite hands can be considered in
order to minimize thrust loading. For more information on bearing loads the reader is referred to
the literature cited at the end of Section 1 (GEARS).
12.0 METHODS AND DEVICES FOR CONTROLLING BACKLASH IN PARALLEL-SHAFT
DRIVES
12.1 Introduction
In many gear drives backlash needs to be minimized. This may be desirable for providing
maximum positional accuracy in high-precision applications, particularly when motion reversal
can take place. In addition backlash may be minimized to provide accurate timing and indexing.
In power trains, as well as generally, backlash minimization may be needed in order to reduce
vibrations and transients during motion reversal, startup, stopping, and speed changing.
One way to minimize backlash is by precision manufacture combined with rigidity of parts.
Other designs have been reported for minimizing or eliminating backlash by the addition of parts,
which provide a spring-loading action for taking up backlash. The following provides a selection
of representative anti-backlash designs.
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Figure 38 Adjustable Center Helps Shift Center Distance of Gear in Relation to Its
Mating Gear
Reprinted with the permission of J. Wiley and Sons: See Ref. 4
(a) Adjustable Centers, Figure 38.Backlash can be reduced and controlled by adjusting the
center distance to provide an acceptable level of backlash. The feasibility of this method
depends on the assembly design. Adjustable centers are most advantageous when only the
last mesh of a train is to be adjusted, which often occurs in a reduction train since this
mesh has the greatest effect on total backlash. Obviously, adjusting centers for a series of
meshes is cumbersome because of the interrelation of shafts.
Although adjustable centers require more parts and increase assembly cost, they allow
more liberal tolerances on gear center locations and gear size, which offsets the additional
parts and increased assembly cost. Adjustable centers are particularly useful for nonspur
meshes, such as worms and crossed-helical gears, for which other techniques are not
usable.
However, there are several distinct disadvantages to adjustable centers. They require a
skilled assembler, for adjustments are in the order of 0.0005 to 0.001 in. Thus, there is a
high reliance on the mechanic, who can either make or break the method. Furthermore,
adjustable centers are subject to developing maladjustments, and in the field there is no
assurance that the quality of readjustment will be comparable to that originally made.
_______________
*For paragraphs 12.2 a, b, c, permission by J. Wiley and Sons to reproduce portions of pp.
252-254, 262 of G.W. Michalec's "Precision Gearing: Theory and Practice," J. Wiley and Sons,
New York, N.Y., 1966, is hereby gratefully acknowledged; for paragraphs 12.2 d, e, f, permission
by McGraw-Hill to reproduce portions of F.T. Gutmann's "18 ways to control backlash in gearing,"
pp. 237-242, "Gear Design and Application," N. Chironis, Editor, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New
York, N.Y., 1967, Is hereby gratefully acknowledged.
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When the second clutch is engaged, the reverse happens. In this manner, both gear
trains are always loaded toward the bull gear: the active gear train by the clutch, and the
driven one by friction In the gears and bearings, which is reflected at the bull gear as a
fairly high torque.
Springs or other loading devices are not needed in this setup, but added torque from the
input motor is called for to overcome friction in the inactive but rotating gear train.
Also,high tooth loads result at the pinions meshing with bull gear. Pinions driving the bull
gear should be approximately, but not exactly, 180º apart. This will decrease side thrust on
the bull gear, but also put the two gear trains slightly out of phase to make the output
motion free of excess toothiness.
(ii) Dual-Motor Drive, Figure 43b. This is a variation of mirror-image concept. The two motors
are controlled individually, and if one motor drives, say, counterclockwise, the clockwise
motor will be de-energized. However, it is necessary to insure that the de-energized motor,
when driven through the gear train at high speed, does not act as generator and overload
the entire arrangement. Whether to use the two motors and one clutch rather than one
motor and two clutches depends on components' cost.
(iii) Spring-Loaded Dual Train, Figure 43c. This avoids the need for clutches by using
spring-loaded gears. The drawing shows how the arrangement is used in a speed reducer,
In this case with the aid of torsion springs.
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The standard gear train (A, B1, C1, D1, E) is identical to that which is found In our standard
catalog gearheads & speed reducers. Pinion & gear clusters B2 & C2, in the backlash eliminating
gear train, are duplicates of pinion & gear clusters B1 & C1, In the standard gear train. The pinion
of pinion & gear cluster D2 is identical to the pinion of pinion & gear cluster D1 with the addition
of the torsion spring retaining slot In the end of the D2 pinion. As per normal practice, the gear &
pinion on the D1 cluster are fastened together via press fitting & staking. The gear on the D2
cluster is a slip fit on the mounting diameter of the D2 pinion and is axially retained on the
mounting diameter by the torsion spring. Input pinion E and output gear A are common to both
halves of the train.
In assembling the gearhead to a servo motor or to the input pinion of a speed reducer, the
gear of cluster D1 is restrained from rotation by Inserting a wedge of a soft material (ie:
aluminum, nylon, etc.) through the access hole provided in the housing and Into a tooth space.
The gear of cluster D2 is then rotated, In a direction which winds the torsion spring the desired
number of teeth and restrained from rotating, using a second wedge through the second access
hole. Since all speed reducer input pinions and motor pinions have an odd number of teeth, It is
easier to install the motor pinion or Input pinion, if the D1 & D2 gears are held by the wedges In
a position where a tooth space on-one of the gears is opposite a tooth on the other gear. Once
the pinion is meshed with the D1 & D2 gears and the pilot diameter of the motor or speed
reducer Input is seated within the gearhead shell, the wedges are released, completing the
zero-backlash path.
13.0 RIGHT-ANGLE GEAR SYSTEMS
13.1 Introduction
There are two general classifications of right-angle gear systems:
● Offset types that have non-intersecting or skew axes (axes do not lie in a
common plane). This group includes crossed helical gears, worm gears,
hypoid gears and proprietary gears, such as Cone Drive(i), Spiroid(ii) and
Helicon(ii) gears.
● Coplanar types that have Intersecting axes. This group Includes bevel gears -
straight bevel, Coniflex bevel(iii), Zerol bevel(iii) - as well as face gears and
Beveloid(iv) gears.
13.2 General Kinematic Characteristics
The angular velocities Qf the basic right-angle gear meshes are as follows:
Bevel gears (Figure 1.46, Par. 9.3, Section 1: GEARS) The angular velocity ratio Z21, is given
by the inverse tooth ratio of the gear pair:
Z21 = ω2/ω1 = N1/N2 (52)
In externally meshing bevel gears the angular velocity vector of one gear is directed towards
the point of intersection of the shaft axes and the angular velocity vector of the other gear Is
directed away from that point.
Crossed helical gears (Par. 5.9.2, Figure 1.30, Section 1: GEARS)
_______________
(i) Registered trademark of Cone-Drive Gears Div., Michigan Tool Company.
(ii) Registered trademark of Spiroid Division, Illinois Tool Works.
(iii) Registered trademark of Gleason Works.
(iv) Registered trademark of Vinco Corporation.
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where y1,2, D1,2 denote the helix angles and pitch diameters of gears 1 and 2, respectively.
Worm Gears (Par. 8.0-8.5 and Figure 1.39, Section 1: GEARS) The angular velocity ratio,
Z21, of worm to gear is given by:
Z21 = NG / NW (54)
where NG denotes the number of teeth of the gear and NW the number of threads of the worm.
13.3.1 EffIciency of Bevel Gears According to E.E. Shipley*, eqs. (41-44) of Section 10.2
remain applicable for bevel gears, provided the function, F, is defined according to Table4,.
TABLE 4 DEFINITION OF TERM F
Gear Type F Definition of Symbols
Straight bevel cos θn θn = normal pressure angle
gears cos τ + cos γ τ = pitch-cone angle of bevel
cos θn gears
Spiral bevel = (90º - γ) for a right.angle
(cos τ + cos γ)cos ψ²
gear drive;
γ = pitch-cone angle of bevel
pinion = tan-1NP/NG for
a right-angle drive and NP,
NG number of teeth of
pinion and gear, respectively
(See Figure 1.46, Par. 9.4,
Section 1:GEARS)
ψ = spiral angle
________________
*Chapter 14 ("Loaded Gears in Action"), Gear Handbook, D.W. Dudley, Editor, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., Inc., New York, N.Y., 1962.
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In applying eqs. (42,43) for HS and Ht the radii are defined as follows:
rP = pitch radius of large end of bevel pinion
rO = outside radius of large end of bevel pinion
RP = pitch radius of large end of bevel gear
RO = outside radius of large end of bevel gear.
The efficiency of Zerol gears is comparable to that of straight bevel gears.
The efficiency of spiral bevel gears is quite high. The relationship of the efficiency of spiral
bevel gears to that of straight bevel gears is analogous to that of helical gears to spur gears.
13.3.2 Efficiency of Worm Gears (Right-Angle Drives) The efficiencies given by E.E. Shipley (see
Ref. in Par. 13.3.1) and Merritt ("Gears" by H.E. Merritt, Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, London,
Third Edition, 1955) are shown In Table 5. For preliminary estimates the approximation cosφn =
1 is frequently adequate. For the exact determination of φn for worm and bevel gears the reader
is referred to the references cited at the end of Section 1: GEARS.
TABLE 5 EFFICIENCY OF WORM GEARS
Approximate
Driving Exact Equation Definition
Equation for
Member for Efficiency of Symbols
Efficiency
φn = normal pressure angle
f = coefficient of friction
Worm E1 = cosφn - f tan λ E1 = tan λ η = friction angle
cosφn + f tan λ tan (λ + η) = tan-1 f
Gear E2 = cosφn - f cot λ E2 = tan (λ + η) λ = lead angle of worm
cosφn + f tan λ tan λ = L/πd, where L = lead of
worm, d = pitch diameter of
worm
According to the approximate equations given In Table 5, the system is self-locking when the
worm gear is driving and λ = η. Substituting for A in the approximate efficiency equation when
the worm is driving, we have E1 = tan η /tan2 η, which is approximately equal to one half for
reasonably small values of angle η. This result leads to the commonly used guideline which
states that any worm drive with an efficiency (E1) of less than 50% can be expected to be
self-locking. The efficiency of any reversing worm drive, therefore, should be well in excess of
50%.
13.3.3 Efficiency of Crossed Helical Gears We again quote the result of E.E. Shipley (see
reference cited in Par. 13.3.1):
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The signs to be used in eq. (55) are determined according to the following table:
TABLE 6 SIGNS TO BE USED IN EQ. (55)
Sign of Sign of Hand of ψd > ψf? ψd < ψf?
Numerator Denominator Gear
- + same Makes no difference
- - Opposite No Yes
+ + Opposite Yes No
The efficiency is a maximum when the gears are of the same hand and ψd has a particular
value (see Merritt, p.355).
In both crossed helical and worm gearing there is far more sliding than in spur or bevel
gearing. For this reason the efficiency of worm and crossed helical gears is much lower. This
needs to be kept in mind in determining power requirements and designing for adequate heat
dissipation and minimum wear.
The efficiency of a gear train which includes worm and/or crossed helical meshes can be
computed from the efficiencies of the Individual meshes. This calculation can proceed along the
same lines as outlined for parallel-shaft gearing in Par. 10.4.
13.4 Crossed-Axis Helical Gears (Figures 45a,b)-see also Par. 5.9 of Section 1: GEARS
Crossed-axis helical gears are the simplest form of gearing for transmitting power from one shaft
to another when the shafts are non-parallel and non-intersecting. They can be thought of as
non-enveloping worm gears (see Ref. 3 at end of Section 1: GEARS).
The action of crossed helical gears consists primarily of a screwing or wedging action. Point
contact between mating teeth limits the load-carrying capacity of this type of gearing, but slight
changes in shaft angle and center distance do not affect the conjugate action. Mounting is
therefore greatly simplified and such gears are used in speed reducers (Figure 45b) to provide
right-angle drives and small speed reductions in ratios up to about 4:1. A variety of drive
arrangements are shown in Figure 1.30, Par. 59, Section 1: GEARS.
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14.0 GEAR SIZE AND RATIO ADJUSTMENT USING CROSSED HELICAL GEARS
The excellent adaptability of crossed helical gears permit them to overcome many difficulties in
speed-reducer design. The calculations related to such modifications are not difficult.
14.1 Adjustment of Gear Size While Maintaining Mesh Ratio
Consider, for example, a case in which a pair of crossed helical gears are used in a 1:1 right
angle drive, Figure 46a. Each gear is made with N = 60 teeth; diametral pitch, Pd = 10; helix
angle, ψ = 45º Their pitch diameters can be computed from eq. (56):
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Suppose that because of space problems, there is insufficient clearance between the upper,
driven gear and a frame to accommodate the housing of the drive. Thus, it is desired to reduce
the pitch diameter of the driven gear from 8.485 in. to under 6.0 in., while the 1:1 speed ratio,
the center distance between shafts, and the diametral pitch are to be kept constant. Let us find
the helix angle and pitch diameters of the two gears.
The basic relationships for crossed helical gears are:
d= N (56)
Pd cos ψ
D= N (57)
Pd sin ψ
and
C = ½ (d+D) (58),
where
D = pitch diameter of driving gear
d = pitch diameter of driven (upper) gear
Pd = diametral pitch = 10
C = center distance = 8.485 in.
N = number of teeth on either gear
ψ = helix angle of driven gear
90º- ψ = helix angle of driver.
Combining the above three equations, we have:
Substituting the value for N from eq. (57) into eq. (59) gives:
tan ψ = d (60).
2C - d
Since d must be less than 6, select d = 5.9. This gives
tan ψ = 5.9 = 0.533
(2)(8.485) -5.9
and
ψ = 28.056º.
From eq. (56),
N = (5.9) (10 cos 28.056º) = 52.07 teeth.
Since d need not be exactly equal to 5.9 in., N can safely be taken as 52 teeth. Using a helix
angle of 28º and substituting in eq. (56), we have:
d= 52 = 5.889 in.
10 cos 28º
and from eq. (58), the diameter, D, of the driving gear, will be
d = 2C - d = (2)(8.485) - 5.889
= 11.081 in.
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with a helix angle of (90º - ψ) = 90º - 28º = 62º The driving gear, too, will have 52 teeth.
Thus, a seeming paradox is achieved by having two meshing helical gears of greatly differing
size (Figure 46b) produce a ratio of 1:1. One should not, however, make the driver the smaller
gear and the driven gear the larger one, because beyond a certain point the helix angle begins to
exceed the friction angle and the gears would tend to lock.
14.2 Adjustment of Gear Ratio While Maintaining Center Distance
Crossed helical gears can also be used to change the gear ratio while keeping the shaft positions
of the crossed helical gears constant. Assuming, for example, that for a gear drive with the same
initial 1:1 ratio (Figure 46a), it is desired to produce the ratios below without changing the center
distance:
Case l: 1:1.5
Case ll: 1:2.2
Case lll: 1:2.75
Using the analytical method described previously, the gears shown In Figures 46c, d, e will
meet those requirements.
15.0 METHODS AND DEVICES FOR CONTROLLING BACKLASH IN RIGHT-ANGLE DRIVES
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Low breakaway torque Is another Important prerequisite. All gears are carefully cut to insure
optimum contact and smooth power transmission. In addition, ball bearings are used throughout.
Long life and resistance to various environmental conditions is insured by the use of stainless
steel for all parts in a precision differential.
Ease of maintenance must be designed into these units. The hollow-shaft design may permit
replacement of the entire differential without disassembly of the remaining gearing. Backlash,
due to wear, may be controlled by simple adjustments.
The larger variety of types and available standard sizes provide the designer with a selection
from which he may choose to satisfy almost any requirement.
16.3 Applications of Differentials
16.3.1 The Automotive Differential One of the popular uses of a differential is for the rear
end of automobiles. When an automobile travels around a corner, its outer rear wheel travels
further and therefore faster than its Inner rear wheel. The spider cage of the differential, Figure
49, splits the power input from the drive shaft between the rear wheels. The wheels can adjust
to the radii of the turn, but their average angular velocity is that of the spider cage (see also
"Fundamentals of Mechanical Design" by R.M. Phelan, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y.,
1970, p.432).
16.3.2 Phase-Changing Differentials Differentials can be used for changing the phase
between input and output shafts. Suppose input and output are coupled through a bevel gear
differential with the arm or spider cage held fixed. Phase adjustment, even while the end gears
are moving, can then be achieved by rotating the spider cage in proportion to the desired phase
shift.
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16.3.4 Reversing Gear Train Obtained from Bevel Gear Differential A differential gear
system can also be useful in a reversing gear train, Figure 50. The bevel pinions rotate in
opposite directions at all times, driven by the Input. The Output shaft is engaged to either of the
pinions by shifting the clutch to one side or the other. This reverses the output. Smoothness of
operation depends on the type of clutch employed.
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17.2.2 Types of Worm Drives The characteristic of each drive is first discussed, then related
equations and design procedures are given in a separate section that follows.
__________
*This paragraph is based entirely on excerpts from "Guide to Worm Gear Types" by E.K.
Buckingham, "Gear Design and Application," N. Chironis, Editor, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New
York, N.Y. 1967, pp. 69-77. Permission by McGraw-Hill to reproduce this material is hereby
gratefully acknowledged.
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18.1 Introduction
Shaft limits stops are usually used in one of the following applications:
1. To protect other components against damage due to over-winding.
2. To determine range of operation of a mechanism.
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Figure 53 Screw-and-Traveling-Nut
Type of Limit Stop
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The number of turns between stops is principally a function of the number of teeth on each
gear. To a lesser, though not negligible extent, it is a function also of the location and geometry
of the stop pins. Depending on these parameters, it is possible to obtain shaft motions ranging
from a traction of one turn to many turns.
References:
1. E.G. Burgess, "Minimization of Gear Train Inertia", American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Trans. ASME 76B, J. Eng., IND 1954, pp. 493-496.
2. P. Dean. "Lost Motion in Gear Trains", Gear Design and Application, Chironis, NP.,
Editor, McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, NY 1967, p. 236.
3. S. Rappaport, "When Helical Gears Get You Out of Tight Spots", Gear Design and
Application, Chironis, NP., Editor, McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, NY 1967, pp.
79-82.
4. G.W. Michalec, "Precision Gearing: Theory and Practice", J. Wiley and Sons,
New York, NY 1966.
5. F.T. Gutmann, "18 Ways to Control Backlash In Gearing", Gear Design and Applica-
tion, Chironis, NP., Editor, McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, NY 1967,
pp.237-242
6. R.M. Phelan, "Fundamentals of Mechanical Design", McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc., New
York, NY. 3rd edition 1970.
7. E.K. Buckingham, "Guide to Worm Gear Types", Gear Design and Application, Chironis,
N.P., Editor, McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, NY 1967, pp. 69-77.
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