SHEET METAL

EMPIRICAL
FORMULAE
&
DESIGN
GUIDELINES

CONSULTANCY SERVICES

Experience certainty.
For internal use only
 CONTENTS:

1. BLANKING

2. PIERCING (PUNCHING)

3. EXTRUDED HOLE

4. FORMING AND BENDING

5. EMBOSSING

6. DRAWING

7. GAUGING

8. NESTING

9. TOLERANCE AND FLATNESS VALUE

10. K-FACTOR

11. DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY AND GUIDELINES

12. REFERENCES

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 COST EFFECTIVE DESIGN PRINCIPLES IN
SHEETMETAL PROCESS

BLANKING

Minimum Practical Section should never be less

than material thickness or 0.060in.
A minimum section must be one and one half times
material thickness for high shear strength material
for the most practical stamping.
Corners can be sharp if material thickness is 1/16in
or less. For over 1/16in thick sheet allow corner
radii should be a minimum radius of 0.5 x material
thickness or 0.4 mm (0.016in) whichever is
greater. Sharper corners can be produced but at a
greater die maintenance costs and more burrs.
Slots or tabs widths should be greater than 1.5 X
stock thickness.
The length can be a maximum of 5 times slot/tab
width.
These rules can be violated at an increased tooling cost-- width as low as
1 X thickness and length as high as 7 X thickness can be achieved.
Avoid full radii across the width of stock (Tab). A square cut is best. If
radius is necessary, then an angle –blended radius is best to avoid feather
edges.

NOTCH AND TAB GUIDELINES

PRACTICAL DESIGN FOR ECONOMY MANUFACTURE OF TAB

W = .060 MINIMUM FOR MATERIALS THINNER THAN .060" WIDER IF POSSIBLE.

W1 = NEVER LESS THAN MATERIAL THICKNESS, WIDER IF POSSIBLE.

L = 5 X W IS MAXIMUM DEPTH, SHOULD BE LESS IF POSSIBLE.

L1 = 5 X W IS MAXIMUM LENGTH, SHOULD BE LESS IF POSSIBLE

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 PIERCING

Do piercing together to ensure good hole to hole tolerance.

To avoid distortion, produce holes by staggered pattern shown in Fig A.
To pierce holes with economical tools and operations, the hole diameter
must not be less than the stock thickness. If the hole diameter is less than
the material thickness (or less than .060") it usually must be drilled
and deburred and each of these operations is slower than punching.
Minimum hole (and short slot) to bend distance should be 2.5 X the stock
thickness + bend radius. For long slots, the distance should be 4 X the
stock thickness + bend radius.
Minimum hole diameter should be at
least 20 % greater than stock thickness.
In the case of stainless steels, it should
be 2 times the material thickness.
Minimum wall thickness (distance from
hole to edge or hole to hole) should be at
least 2 times stock thickness.
For non-round slots, the minimum wall
thickness should be 2 times thickness for
short slots < 10 thickness long; and 4
times thickness for long slots > 10
thickness long.
For long slots, the distance should be 4 ×
the stock thickness + bend radius.
The addition of the word "thru" to any
hole diameter, regardless of tolerances,
indicates the requirement of the hole to be reamed. Reaming and the
additional chamfer to remove burr add two extra operations to the cost of
the part.
Piercing also can combined with Lance – Form and Extrude operation
If Diameter of hole less than 5 times of sheet thickness, the hole edge to
edge should 1.5 times of sheet thick; and 2 times thickness between
edge to edge if diameter of hole less than 10 x sheet thickness.

Fig A

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 Fig.B indicates a hole diameter with a tolerance of plus or minus .002".
We can pierce a hole within these limits on the punch side for
approximately 25% to 30% of the material thickness as indicated in Fig C.
The percent of thickness varies with the shear strength of the materials.
On holes where a machine finish is required, they can be punched
undersized, redrilled and reamed to size as shown.(See Fig "E".)
If the web (distance between the hole and edge of material) is a minimum
of the stock thickness, the hole can be punched which is less expensive
than drilling and deburring.(See Fig D.)
A web that is less than the stock thickness will result in a bulge on the
blank. Bulge conditions would increase progressively as the web
decreases, until there would be a complete break through. (See Fig F.)
As a suggestion, if the web is too narrow, the profile of the blank could be
changed by adding an ear of sufficient dimensions and shape to eliminate
the problem.(See Fig G.)
Another alternate suggestion would be to change the contour of the blank
to include the hole as a notch. (See Fig H.)

PIERCING – ADJACENT TO BENDS:

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 The minimum inside distance required from the edge of a hole to a
bend is 1-1/2 times the material thickness plus the bend radius. Fig.A
Otherwise distortion will occur as indicated in fig "B" - or piercing after
form must be considered.
In Fig C indicates a similar condition to “A” except for openings with an
edge parallel to bend. In this case the following requirements apply for
economical tooling and production

When "L" = up to 1" - 2T + R (minimum).

When "L" = 1" to 2" - 2-1/2T + R (minimum).
When "L" = 2" or more - 3T to 3-1/2T + R (minimum).

Minimum recommended tolerances are shown below: (on multiple bends

each bend is made separately).

DEFINITION AND LIMIT OF EXTRUDED HOLE

An extruded hole is formed by punching a smaller hole and then flanging
the sides.
R = Outer radius
H = Flange height
D = Inner diameter
T = Material thickness

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 FORMING AND BENDING:
FORMING DESIGN CONSIDERATION

On bends, the short leg (inside length) should be a minimum

of 2.5 x T + bend radius.
Minimum hole (Slot) to bend distance should be 2.5 x T + bend
radius for short slots.
For long slots , the distance should be 4 x T + bend radius.
Bending using tight radiuses or in hard materials often results
in burrs and fractures on the outside of bends. This can be eliminated
by using larger bend radiuses and by providing relief notches.
Bend relief notches should be provided by the following ratios,
Notch width should be 2 x T or At least minimum 1.5mm / 0.060 in
Length should be Bend radius + T

AIR BENDING: The inner radius of the bend is the same as the radius on the
punch.

BOTTOMING OR COINING: The inner radius of the work piece should be

a minimum of 1 material thickness in the case of bottoming; and up to
0.75 material thickness, in the case of coining.

BEND RELIEF:

In the Fig. A the left side design is not desirable for quality or economy.
When the form is inside the blank profile, as shown, the material must be
torn through the stock thickness and the bend radius. if

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 the part is under stress, this tear will likely cause fatigue failures. In
addition, stock tooling cannot be adopted because the flat area adjacent
to the form must be held in position during forming, which means extra
tooling expense.

Fig.B is a similar condition, but with the form just outside the blank profile.
In this case, the tear extends to the center of the required bend radius.

Fig C and D shows the possible solution by changing the blank profile to
provide relief for bends. Besides eliminating the chance of fatigue under
stress, there is a possibility of using stock 90degree “Vee” punches and
dies. The results are better quality and less expensive engineering charges.

If the relief notches shown in fig D are wide enough compared to the
material thickness and shear strength, or are designed like the shown in Fig
E, they can be included in the blanking operation for little engineering cost
and no extra operation.

Use the above empirical relation to solve the bend relief.

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 BEND ALLOWANCE FORMULA:

MINIMUM BEND RADII:

The bend radii listed are the standard minimum for manufacturing in Aerospace
and Space applications. Commercial sheet metal radii are created with less
concern for stresses created during forming and radii can approach zero (sharp
internal corner) for many thin sheet metal gauges.

When bending to an angle of 90 °, the minimum bend radius

= 2 to 5t for C-Steel
= 1t for Stainless Steel
= 2 to 3.5 for Titanium Alloy
= .3 to .5 for Brass
= .35t for Aluminum
However to prevent any damage to punch and die, the bend radius should not be
less than 0.8mm.

ALUMINUM
Note: Bend radius of zero is achievable for 0.12-0.050 material thickness.

MATERIAL SHEET THICKNESS

-- .012 .016 .020 .025 .032 .040 .050 .063 .071 .080 .090 .100 .125 .160 .190

2024-0 & W .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .09 .09 .12 .12 .16 .19 .22 .31 .36

2024-T3 .06 .06 .06 .09 .09 .12 .16 .22 .25 .31 .38 .44 .62 .75 1.00

2024-T36 .06 .09 .09 .09 .12 .16 .19 .25 .31 .38 .44 .50 .75 1.00 1.25

3003-0 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .09 .09 .09 .12 .12 .16 .19

3003-H14 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .09 .09 .12 .12 .16 .19 .22 .31 .38 .44

5052-0 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .09 .09 .09 .12 .12 .16 .19 .22

6061-0 & W .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .09 .09 .09 .12 .12 .16 .19 .22

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 6061-T4 &
.06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .09 .09 .12 .12 .16 .19 .22 .31 .38
T6
7075-0 & W .06 .06 .06 .06 .09 .09 .12 .16 .19 .22 .25 .31 .38 .50 .62

7075-T6 .06 .09 .12 .12 .16 .22 .25 .31 .41 .44 .50 .69 .87 1.00 1.25

7178-0 & W .06 .06 .06 .06 .09 .09 .12 .19 .22 .25 .31 .38 .50 .75 -

7178-T6 .06 .09 .16 .19 .22 .31 .38 .50 .56 .62 .62 .75 1.00 1.25 -

STAINLESS STEEL

MATERIAL SHEET THICKNESS

-- .012 .016 .020 .025 .032 .036 .040 .045 .050 .063 .080 .090 .112 .125 .160 .190
302
.06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .09 .09 .09 .09 .12 .12 .16 .19 .22 .25
Annealed
347-1A .06 .06 .06 .09 .09 .06 .06 .09 .09 .09 .12 .12 .16 .19 .22 .25
1/4 Hard
.06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .09 .09 .09 .12 .12 .16 .19 .22 .25 .31 .38
Cres
1/2 Hard
.06 .06 .06 .09 .09 .12 .12 .12 .16 .16 .25 .25 .31 .38 .50 .62
Cres
Full Hard
.06 .06 .09 .12 .12 .16 .16 .19 .22 .25 .31 .38 .44 .50 .62 .87
Cres

EMBOSSING
V-BEAD

L = 3T
Reduce to 2T for commercial grades of steel, One-quarter hard tempers and
alloys of aluminum

OFFSET

L = R1 + R2
Reduce to .5(R1 + R2) for commercial grades of steel, One-quarter hard tempers
and alloys of aluminum.

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 STYLE OF EMBOSSING

EDGE CONDITIONS OF FORMED PARTS

“Hemmed Edge” – This is formed for smoothness and stiffness.

“Curled Edge” – This is formed for maximum stiffness and smoothness

“Lance – Formed”

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 DRAWING
Round shapes are easiest to draw.
Square shapes can also be drawn if the inside and outside radiuses are at
least 6 x T
Draft should added to deep drawing

EDGE CONDITION OF DRAWN PARTS

GAUGING
Aluminum
Gauge Standard Steel Galvanized Steel
Thickness
(ga) Thickness (inches) Thickness (inches)
(inches)
3 0.2391 0.2294
4 0.2242 0.2043
5 0.2092 0.1819
6 0.1943 0.1620

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 7 0.1793 0.1443
8 0.1644 0.1285
9 0.1495 0.1532 0.1144
10 0.1345 0.1382 0.1019
11 0.1196 0.1233 0.0907
12 0.1046 0.1084 0.0808
13 0.0897 0.0934 0.0720
14 0.0747 0.0785 0.0641
15 0.0673 0.0710 0.0571
16 0.0598 0.0635 0.0508
17 0.0538 0.0575 0.0453
18 0.0478 0.0516 0.0403
19 0.0418 0.0456 0.0359
20 0.0359 0.0396 0.0320
21 0.0329 0.0366 0.0285
22 0.0299 0.0336 0.0253
23 0.0269 0.0306 0.0226
24 0.0239 0.0276 0.0201
25 0.0209 0.0247 0.0179
26 0.0179 0.0217 0.0159
27 0.0164 0.0202 0.0142
28 0.0149 0.0187 0.0126
29 0.0135 0.0172 0.0113
30 0.0120 0.0157 0.0100
31 0.0105 0.0142 0.0089
32 0.0097 0.0134 0.0080
33 0.0090 0.0071
34 0.0082 0.0063
35 0.0075 0.0056

NESTING
In the design of a blanking die set, the first step is to prepare blanking layout.
While doing so, the major consideration is the economy of the material. The
different ways of arranging to blank the given work piece as shown. The
arrangement at Figure a can be worked at single row, single pass with a single
punch. For arrangement in Figure b, the strip either has to be fed twice, once for

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 each row or double blanking will have to be employed. Figure c shows a single
row, double pass strip. Here the strip will have to be passed through the dies
once, turned over and passed through dies a second time.

Fig a

Fig b

Fig c

BACK SCRAP (A) W T

SCRAP BRIDGE (B)

H B W

FEED (S) FRONT B

SCRAP (a)
Y

L
Fig d

With reference to Fig d the distance between the blank and the edge of the strip,
known as Back Scrap (A) is determined by the equation, A = T + 0.015 H

The distance between successive blanks and also the scrap bridge (B) is given in
table below:

Material Thickness (mm) B (mm)

0.8 0.8
0.8 to 3.2 T
Over 3.2 3.2

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 The feed or advance or the length of once piece of stock needed to produce one
blank is: S = W + B

The number of blanks which can be produced from one length of stock can be
found out as, N = (L – B)/ S

The scrap remaining at the end of one length of strip may be calculated from,
Y = L – (N x S+B)

TOLERANCE AND FLATNESS VALUE OF STAMPED PARTS

For lowest tooling price we can give plus or minus .005 tolerances between holes
centers. For slightly higher tooling price we can give plus or minus .002
tolerances between holes centers.

From 0” – 1” Flatness 0.005” T.I.R

From 1” - 4” Flatness 0.005”/inch T.I.R
Over 4" - .020" plus or minus .004/inch of additional length, T.I.R.

T.I.R – Total Indicator Reading

The typical tolerance and size graph is shown below.

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 K-FACTOR
K-Factor is where the neutral axis is situated in the bend. It is signified as “k”
in the development formulas. Since the inside compression cannot exceed the
outside tension, the K-factor can never exceed .50 in practical use. This
means that the neutral axis cannot migrate paste the midpoint of the material
(i.e. towards the outside). A reasonable assumption is that the K-factor
cannot be less than 0.25.

DIFFERENT BEND TYPES AND K-FACTORS

WRAPPED HEM (.29 K-FACTOR)

MACHINE BEND WITH SET (.33 K FACTOR)

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 MACHINE BEND WITH NO SET (.38 K-FACTOR)

V-BEND WITH BRAKE TOOL (.42K-FACTOR)

ROTARY BENDERS (.43K-FACTOR)

GRADUAL BENDS /LARGE RADII (.50 K-FACTOR)

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 DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY GUIDELINES
BENDS

Bends should be tolerance plus or minus one-half degree at a location

adjacent to the bends.
For the ease of manufacturing, multiple bends on the same plane should
occur in the same direction.
Avoid large sheet metal parts with small bent flanges.
In low carbon steel sheet metal, the minimum radius of a bend should be
one-half the material thickness or 0.80 mm (0.03 inch), whichever is
larger.

COUNTERBORES

The minimum distance between two counter bores is eight times the
material thickness.
The minimum distance from a counter bore to an edge is four times the
material thickness.
The minimum distance from a counter bore to a bend is four times the
material thickness plus the bend radius.

COUNTERSINKS

The maximum depth is 3.5 times the material thickness at an angle of the
hardware.
A minimum of 50% contact between the hardware and the countersink is
required.
The minimum distance between two countersinks is eight times the
material thickness.
The minimum distance from one countersink and an edge is four times the
material thickness.
The minimum distance from a countersink and a bend is four times the
material thickness plus the bend radius.

CURLS

The minimum radius is two times the material thickness with an opening
to a minimum of one material thickness.
The minimum distance between a curl and the edge of a hole is the radius
of the curl plus the material thickness.
The minimum distance a curl should be from an internal bend is six times
the material thickness plus the radius of the curl.
The minimum distance a curl should be from an external bend is nine
times the material thickness plus the radius of the curl.

DIMPLES

The maximum diameter should be six times the material thickness, and a
maximum depth of one-half the inside diameter.

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 The minimum distance that a dimple should be from a hole is three times
the material thickness plus the radius of the dimple.
The minimum distance that a dimple should be from the edge is four times
the material thickness plus the inside radius of the dimple.
The minimum distance that a dimple should be from a bend is two times
the material thickness plus the inside radius of the dimple plus the radius
of the bend.
The minimum distance between one dimple and another is four times the
material thickness plus the inside radius of each dimple.

EMBOSSMENTS

The maximum depth is proportional to the internal radius or material

thickness.
The maximum depth for a flat embossment is equal to the internal radius
plus the external radius.
The maximum depth for a V embossment is equal to three times the
material thickness.

EXTRUDED HOLES

The minimum distance between two extruded holes is six times the
material thickness.
The minimum distance from an extruded hole to an edge is three times
the material thickness.
The minimum distance from an extruded hole to a bend is three times the
material thickness plus the bend radius.

FLANGES

The minimum height of a bent flange is directly related to the material

thickness, bend radius, and length of bend.
The minimum width of a bend relief is one material thickness or 1.50 mm
(0.06 inch), whichever is greater.

GUSSETS

The width and depth, recommended at an angle of 45 degrees, is directly

proportional to the radius and material thickness.
The minimum distance that a gusset should be from the edge of a hole in
a parallel plane is eight times the material thickness plus the radius of the
gusset.

HEMS

The minimum diameter of a teardrop hem is equal to the material

thickness, with a return flange height equal to or greater than four times
the material thickness, and a minimum opening of 1/4 of the material
thickness.

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 The minimum diameter of an open hem is equal to the material thickness
with a return flange height equal to or greater than four times the
material thickness.
The minimum return flange height of a closed hem is equal to or greater
than four times the material thickness (the diameter is zero).

NOTE: Closed hems tend to fracture at the bend and cause entrapment of
solutions during the finishing process.

The minimum distance from a hole to a hem is two times the material
thickness plus the radius of the hem.
The minimum distance a hem should be from an internal bend is five
times the material thickness.
The minimum distance a hem should be from an external bend is eight
times the material thickness.

HOLES

The minimum diameter of a hole should be equal to the materials

thickness or 1.00 mm (0.04 inch), whichever is greater.
The minimum distance between holes is directly proportional to the size
and shape for the hole feature and the material thickness
The minimum distance the edge of a hole should be from a form is three
times the material thickness plus the form radius.
The minimum distance the edge of a hole should be from a bend is two
times the material thickness plus the bend radius.
The minimum distance between a hole and the edge of the material is
directly proportional to the size and shape of the hole and the material
thickness.
The minimum distance between the leading edge of a hole through a bend
should be equal to the thickness of material plus the bend radius or two
times the material thickness, whichever is greater.

LANCES

The minimum width of an open lance is two times the material thickness
or 3.00 mm (0.125 inch), whichever is greater, with a maximum length of
five times the width.
The minimum width of a closed lance is two times the material thickness
or 1.60 mm (0.06 inch), whichever is greater, and a maximum height of
five times the material thickness at a 45-degree angle.
The minimum distance from a lance to a bend in a parallel plane is eight
times the material thickness plus the radius of the bend.
The minimum distance from a lance to a bend in a perpendicular plane is
ten times the material thickness plus the radius of the bend.
The minimum distance from a lance to a hole is three times the material
thickness.

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 NOTCHES

The minimum width is equal to the material thickness or 1.00 mm (0.04

inch), whichever is greater.
The maximum length for a straight/radius end notch is equal to five times
the width.
The maximum length for a V notch is equal to two times the width.
The minimum distance between a hole and the edge of a notch is directly
proportional to the size/shape of the hole and the material thickness.
The minimum distance from a notch to a bend in a parallel plane is eight
times the material thickness plus the radius of the bend.
The minimum distance from a notch to a bend in a perpendicular plane is
three times the material thickness plus the radius of the bend.
The minimum distance beyond the bend on the side edge is equal to the
thickness of the material plus the bend radius, or two times the material
thickness, whichever is greater.
The minimum distance between two notches is two times the material
thickness or 3.200 mm (0.125 inch), whichever is greater.

RIBS

The maximum inside radius is equal to three times the material thickness,
with a maximum depth of the inside radius.
The minimum distance from a center line of a rib to the edge of a hole is
three times the material thickness plus the radius of the rib.
The minimum distance a rib should be from an edge in a perpendicular
plane is four times the material thickness plus the radius of the rib.
The minimum distance a rib should be from an edge in a parallel plane is
eight times the material thickness plus the radius of the rib.
The minimum distance a rib should be from a bend perpendicular to the
rib is two times the material thickness, plus the radius of the rib, plus the
radius of the bend.
The minimum distance between two parallel ribs is ten times the material
thickness plus the radii of the ribs.

SEMI-PIERCED HOLE

The minimum distance from a semi-pierced hole and a form is three times
the material thickness plus the form radius.
The minimum distance from a semi-pierced hole and a bend is two times
the material thickness plus the bend radius.
The minimum distance between semi-pierced holes is eight times the
material thickness.

SLOTS

The minimum width of a slot is equal to the material thickness or 1.00

mm (0.04 inch), whichever is greater.
The minimum distance from the inside surface of a bend to the edge of a
slot is directly proportional to the length of the slot, material thickness,
and radius of the bend.

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 When using slots and tabs the maximum width of the slot must be greater
than the thickness of the tab and the tab length should equal the material
thickness.

TABS

The minimum width is equal to two times the material thickness or 3.200
mm, whichever is greater, while the maximum length is five times the
width.
The minimum distance between tabs is equal to the material thickness or
1.00 mm (0.04 inch), whichever is greater.

WELDING

Spot welding should be restricted to joining coplanar surfaces.

The minimum distance between welds is 10 times the material thickness.
Using 20 times the material thickness is ideal.
The minimum distance between a weld and the edge is two times the
diameter of the spot weld.
The minimum distance from a weld to a form is the spot diameter plus the
bend radius.
Use PEMs instead of threaded inserts.

PLATING

Outside sharp corners receive twice as much plating as flat surfaces.

Allow for pitch diameters for screw threads, which can increase four times
the plating thickness.
Tapped holes may need to be re-tapped after plating to ensure accuracy.
Projections accumulate more plating than other areas.
Recessed areas may be difficult to plate, resulting in little or no coverage.
Lap-welded joints trap plating solutions. One solution is to raise welds on
embossed areas by 0.015 in. (0.3 mm) to allow for flushing and blow
drying between the surfaces.
Masking of stampings and fabrications to anodize certain areas is not
recommended.
Design drain holes/vent holes for plating solutions and rinsing.
Design tabs/holes for attachment to part racks.

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 REFERENCES:

www.sheetmetaldesign.com
www.engineersedge.com
www.efunda.com
www.sheetmetalworld.com
www.daytonrogers.com

BOOKS:
Sheet metal handbook, by Ron Fourier and Sue Fourier.
Working sheet metal, by David j. Gingery.
Advanced sheet metal fabrication, by Tim Remus.
Sheet metal fabrication, by Jack Rudman.
Sheet metal fabrication basics, by Timothy Remus.
Mechanics of sheet metal forming, by Jack Hu.
Sheet metal forming, by Roger Pearce.
Sheet metal forming process and die design, by Vukota Boljanovic.
Drawing Requirements Manual, by Jerome H. Lieblich

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