Thermal Destruction of Microorganisms

source from: Professor Douglas Goff, Dairy Science and Technology Education, University
of Guelph, Canada, !foodsci!uoguelph!ca"dairyedu"home!html!
Heat is lethal to microorganisms, but each species has its own particular heat tolerance.
During a thermal destruction process, such as pasteurization, the rate of destruction is
logarithmic, as is their rate of growth. Thus bacteria subjected to heat are killed at a rate that is
proportional to the number of organisms present. The process is dependent both on the
temperature of exposure and the time required at this temperature to accomplish to desired rate
of destruction. Thermal calculations thus involve the need for knowledge of the concentration of
microorganisms to be destroed, the acceptable concentration of microorganisms that can remain
behind !spoilage organisms, for example, but not pathogens", the thermal resistance of the target
microorganisms !the most heat tolerant ones", and the temperature time relationship required for
destruction of the target organisms.
The extent of the pasteurization treatment required is determined b the heat resistance of the
most heat#resistant enzme or microorganism in the food. $or example, milk pasteurization
historicall was based on Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetti, but with the
recognition of each new pathogen, the required time temperature relationships are continuousl
being examined.
% thermal death curve for this process is shown below. &t is a logarithmic process, meaning
that in a given time interval and at a given temperature, the same percentage of the bacterial
population will be destroed regardless of the population present. $or example, if the time
required to destro one log ccle or '() is known, and the desired thermal reduction has been
decided !for example, *+ log ccles", then the time required can be calculated. &f the number of
microorganisms in the food increases, the heating time required to process the product will also
be increased to bring the population down to an acceptable level. The heat process for
pasteurization is usuall based on a *+ D concept, or a *+ log ccle reduction in the numbers of
this organism.
,everal parameters help us to do thermal calculations and define the rate of thermal lethalit.
The D value is a measure of the heat resistance of a microorganism. &t is the time in minutes at a
given temperature required to destro * log ccle !'()" of the target microorganism. !-f course,
in an actual process, all others that are less heat tolerant are destroed to a greater extent". $or
example, a D value at .+/0 of * minute means that for each minute of processing at .+/0 the
bacteria population of the target microorganism will be reduced b '(). &n the illustration
below, the D value is *1 minutes !1(#+2" and would be representative of a process at .+/0.
Thermal destruction of microorganisms * #$%&'
The 3 value reflects the temperature dependence of the reaction. &t is defined as the
temperature change required to change the D value b a factor of *(. &n the illustration below the
3 value is *(/0.
4eactions that have small 3 values are highl temperature dependent, whereas those with
large 3 values require larger changes in temperature to reduce the time. % 3 value of *(/0 is
tpical for a spore forming bacterium. Heat induced chemical changes have much larger 3
values that microorganisms, as shown below.

3 !/0" D*+* !min"
bacteria 5#*( *#5
enzmes 6(#1( *#5
vitamins +(#+5 *5(#+((
pigments 1(#.( *5#5(
Thermal destruction of microorganisms + #$%&'
The figure below illustrates the relative changes in time temperature profiles for the
destruction of microorganisms. %bove and to the right of each line the microorganisms or qualit
factors would be destroed, whereas below and to the left of each line, the microorganisms or
qualit factors would not be destroed. Due to the differences in 3 values, it is apparent that at
higher temperatures for shorter times, a region exists !shaded area" where pathogens can be
destroed while vitamins can be maintained. The same holds true for other qualit factors such
as colour and flavour components. Thus in milk processing the higher temperature, shorter time
!HT,T" process !.+/07*2 sec" is favored compared to a lower temperature longer time !batch or
vat" process since it results in a slightl lower loss of vitamins and better sensor qualit.
%lkaline phosphatase is a naturall#occurring enzme in raw milk which has a similar 3
value to heat#resistant pathogens. ,ince the direct estimation of pathogen numbers b microbial
methods is expensive and time consuming, a simple test for phosphatase activit is routinel
used. &f activit is found, it is assumed that either the heat treatment was inadequate or that
unpasteurized milk has contaminated the pasteurized product.
A working example of how to use D and Z values in pasteurization calculations:
8ooled raw milk at the processing plant has bacterial population of 1x*(exp57m9. &t is to be
processed at .'/0 for +* seconds. The average D value at 25/0 for the mixed population is .
min. The 3 value is ./0. How man organisms will be left after pasteurization: ;hat time
would be required at 25/0 to accomplish the same degree of lethalit:
Answer:
%t .'/0, the D value has been reduced b two log ccles from that at 25/0 since the 3 value
is ./0. Hence it is now (.(. min. The milk is processed for +*72(<(.65 min, so that would
accomplish 5 log ccle reductions to 1 organisms7m9. %t 25/0, ou would need 65 minutes to
accomplish a 5D reduction.
STER!Z"# DE$"T%" and S&'(%!S )D* z* $+
Thermal destruction of microorganisms 6 #$%&'
Pasteurization
8asteurization is one tpe of preservation b heat that most people are familiar with. This
process involves heating a particular food to a certain temperature and keeping that temperature
over a specific amount of time to kill the organisms Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella
burnetii. These two organisms are the most heat resistant of pathogens that are not spore
forming. =ilk is a product that most people know is pasteurized. There are man different
time7temperature combinations that can be used in the pasteurization of milk. The 9T9T !low#
temperature7long#time" process involves brining the milk to a temperature of *15( !26)" for
6( minutes. 0onversel, the HT,T !high#temperature7short#time" method brings the milk to a
temperature of *2*( !.+)" for *5 seconds. >oth of these processes accomplish the same thing?
the destruction of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetii. ,o, ou can see that not
onl is temperature important, but the time at that temperature is also important.
-rganisms that can survive pasteurization temperature belong to the groups of organisms
referred to as thermodurics and thermophiles. Thermoduric organisms are those that can survive
high temperature, but dot necessaril grow and reproduce at those temperatures. Thermophiles
are organisms that can grow and reproduce at high temperatures. 4emember pschrotrophs and
pschrophiles.
Sterilization
,ome products are referred to as commerciall sterile. This means that no viable organisms
can be grown from traditional culture methods. &n other words, the product should have been
subjected to a heat treatment having a sufficientl high lethal effect so that # after incubation at
6( or 65 for 5 das # no spoilage occurs and the changes in flavor, odor, color and
nutritional value are minimized. &n addition to ensuring the destruction of microorganisms, the
heat treatment of milk also results in a number of other reactions and changes occurring.
The main changes are?
&nactivation of enzmes
Denaturation and complex formation
=aillard browning reactions
9osses of vitamins
9osses of amino acids
=an canned products are referred to in this manner. Time7temperature relationships are
different for different products, depending on the tpes of microbes that are commonl found in
the fresh product.
,- DE$"T%" %$ .STER!E. A"D .STER!ZAT%".
Sterile
Free from viable micro-organisms
Sterilization
Any physical or chemical process which destroys all life forms, with special regard to
Thermal destruction of microorganisms 1 #$%&'
microorganisms (including bacteria and sporogenous forms), and inactivates viruses
Therefore the terms @sterile@ and @sterilization@, in a strictl biological sense, describe the
absence or destruction of all viable micro#organisms. &n other words, the are absolute terms? an
object or sstem is either @sterile@ or @non#sterile@. The destruction of a microbial population
subjected to a sterilization process follows a logarithmic progression. Therefore onl a treatment
of infinite duration provides the absolute certaint that the entire microbial population has been
destroed and that the sstem is sterile.
=aking the characteristics of the sterilization treatment more drastic !i.e. increasing time and7or
temperature" usuall entails a deca of the qualities of the product and certainl increases
process costs. &t is therefore agreed that the product is acceptable as sterile when the probabilit
of finding a non#sterile unit in a sterilized batch entails a risk which is lower than the other risks
associated with the use of the product itself.
=ore properl, in the pharmaceutical industr, in order to define a unit as sterile we must be able
to certif, on a statistical basis related to the conditions of preparation and sterilization of that
specific product and of that specific batch, that less than one unit in a million is exposed to the
risk of not being sterile.
The probabilit of finding a non#sterile unit !8A,B < 8robabilit of Aon ,terile Bnit" must
therefore be lower than *(
#2
.
/0T Aseptic Technolog1 22 /ltra 0igh Temperature Sterilization
% sterilization process is defined as a BHT !Bltra High Temperature" process, if the product
is heat#treated in a continuous flow at a temperature of not less than *65 for a ver short time,
asepticall packaged in sterile containers, and has undergone minimum chemical, phsical and
-rganoleptic changes in relation to the severit of the heat treatment required for sterilization.

Thermal Death Time (TDT)
Thermal death time is the amount of time that is necessar to kill a specific number of
microbes at a specific temperature. This value is obtained b keeping temperature constant and
measuring the time necessar to kill the amount of cells specified.
Decimal reduction time (D-value)
The D#value, which denotes the decimal reduction time, is the time required at a specific
temperature and under specified conditions to reduce a microbial population b one decimal.
The decimal reduction time is dependent on the temperature, the tpe of microorganism and the
composition of the medium containing the microorganism.

The term D#value refers to decimal reduction time. This is the amount of time that it takes at
a certain temperature to kill '() of the organisms being studied. Thus after an organism is
reduced b * D, onl *() of the original organisms remain. The population number has been
Thermal destruction of microorganisms 5 #$%&'
reduced b one decimal place in the counting scheme. ;hen referring to D values it is proper to
give the temperature as a subscript to the D. $or example, a hpothetical organism is reduced b
'() after exposure to temperatures of 6(($ for + minutes, Thus the D#value would be written as
D
6(($
< + minutes.
&t is often more convenient to use the D#value as a measure of rate of microbial inactivation.
The D#value is the exposure time required for the number of survivors to change b a factor of
*( or the time required to achieve a decrease of one log ccle in the survivor curve Cin other
words the temperature or radiation dosed required to reduced the initial population b '() . The
D#value ma be estimated graphicall see graph or mathematicall from the equation
The D#value and D are specific for each set of microorganisms and each sterilization process.
Thus with data for heat inactivation of microbes the temp is shown D*+* . $or radiation
inactivation the d#value is stated in the terms absorbed dose !kE".
D#value is the time required to kill '() of the spores or vegetative cells of a given
microorganism at a specific temperature in a specific medium. D#values can be determined from
survivor curves when the log of population is platted against time !$igure TD#* for a
microorganism having a D
*F5
< *.( minutes", or b the formula?
D
reference temperature
< Time7!9og
a
#9og
b
"
;here a < the initial population, and b < the survivors after a time interval
The 12-D Process
0anned foods are susceptible to the spores of the organism Clostridium botulinum. This is the
organism that causes botulism. These bacterial spores can survive man heat treatment
processes. However, in modern food production, canned foods are subjected to a
time7temperature process that will reduce the probabilit of the survival b the most heat#
resistant 0. botulinum spores b *+ logs or *+#D at +5(( !the temperature used in the
calculation of most commercial *+#D processes is +5((, and the D#value for this organism at
+5(( is (.+* minutes". This process is based on the assumption of the number of surviving
spores in one can. &f we assume that there are *( surviving spores in one can, then we can
calculate the time for a *+#D process to occur b using the following formula?
$
(
< D
+5((!log a # log b", where a < initial population and b < final population.
,o $
(
< !(.+*min."!log *(
*
# log *(
#**
", we move down *+ log values !* # !#**"" < *+
,o, $
(
< !(.+*min."!* # !#**"", or (.+* x *+ < +.5+ minutes.
,impl put, !D#value at +5((" x !*+" results in a *+#D process.
The Z2value-
The Z-value is the increase or decrease in temperature required to reduce or
increase the decimal reduction time by one decimal. It is a measure of the change in
death rate with a change in temperature.
Thermal destruction of microorganisms 2 #$%&'
The number of degrees $ahrenheit or 0entigrade required for a thermal death time curve to
traverse * log ccle. This is the temperature increase required to reduce the thermal death time
b a factor of *(. The z#value gives an indication of the relative impact of different temperatures
on a microorganism, with smaller values indicating greater sensitivit to increasing heat. The z#
value is obtained b plotting the logarithms of at least + D#values against temperature or b the
formula?
3 < !T
+
#T
*
"7!logD
*
#logD
+
"
;here T < temperature and D < D#value

The z#value of an organism is the temperature, in degrees $ahrenheit, that is required for the
thermal destruction curve to move one log ccle. ;hile the D#value gives us the time needed at
a certain temperature to kill an organism, the z#value relates the resistance of an organism to
differing temperatures. ,o, the z#value allows us to calculate a thermal process of equivalenc, if
we have one D#value and the z#value. ,o, if it takes an increase of *(( to move the curve one
log, then our z#value is *(. ,o then, if we have a D#value of 1.5 minutes at *5((, we can
calculate D#values for *2(( b reducing the time b * log. ,o, our new D#value for *2(( is
(.15 minutes. This means that each *(( increase in temperature will reduce our D#value b *
log. 0onversel, a *(( decrease in temperature will increase our D#value b * log. ,o, the D#
value for a temperature of *1(( would be 15 minutes.
Sterilizing effect or lethalit1
The sterilizing effect, which is also called lethalit or death rate, indicates the effect of a heat
treatment, expressed as the number of decimal reductions in the number of microorganisms.
$2value
The $ value for a process is the number of minutes required to kill a known population of
microorganisms in a given food under specified conditions. This $ value is usuall set at *+ D
values to give a theoretical *+ log ccle reduction of the most heat#resistant species of
Thermal destruction of microorganisms . #$%&'
mesophilic spores in a can of food. $or example, if there were *(,((( spores of a species of
spore in a can of food and a *+ D process was given, the initial *(,((( spores !*(
1
spores"
would be reduced to a theoretical *(
#F
living spores per can, or again in theor, one living spore
per *(
F
cans of product !one spore per one hundred million cans". To refer back to the original
example where the D +1( was * min., the $ value for the process would be *+ min. or $ +1( <
*+ min.
;hen $ is used without a subscript indicating temperature, +5( is assumed. ;hen the
smbol $ is used, a z value of *F is assumed with an exposure temperature of +5( . The
actual processing time a can of food is given in a retort is alwas greater than the $ value due to
heat penetration requirements. &ndustr makes extensive use of $ values in maintaining
processes and in developing new schedules. -ptimall the old and new processes are equated to
acceptable $ values. Two different processes are considered equivalent when the processes are
equall effective with respect to destruction of a given microorganism.
Thermal destruction of microorganisms F #$%&'