November 2002 | Volume 60 | Number 3

Reading and Writing in the Content Areas Pages 6-11

From Efficient Decoders to Strategic eaders
ic!ard "# Vacca
$ontent literac% &rograms are beginning to emerge as education &olic%ma'ers become more
a(are of t!e literac% needs of adolescent learners#
)% grandson Simon and * !ad +ust boarded a Delta flig!t on our (a% to Florida for a (ee' of fun
in t!e sun# *t (as t!e s&ring brea' of Simon,s 1st grade %ear- and !is confidence in !imself as a
reader (as still some(!at s!a'%# .lt!oug! !e li'ed being read to- !e (as ambivalent about
reading on !is o(n# *f !e !ad !is drut!ers- !e (ould rat!er floss !is teet! nig!tl% t!an engage
voluntaril% in t!e act of reading#
.s soon as (e boarded t!e &lane and settled into our seats- * fumbled t!roug! m% travel bag for a
s&orts maga/ine# . 0t! grader from .tlanta- seated on t!e ot!er side of Simon- reac!ed into !is
bac'&ac' for a Captain Underpants boo'# Simon !adn,t broug!t an%t!ing to read# 1ut no(-
sand(ic!ed bet(een t(o readers- !e began to feel uncomfortable not reading somet!ing# So !e
started rummaging t!roug! t!e &ouc! of materials in front of !im- &ulled out t!e bag for motion
sic'ness- and began reading it for (!at seemed an interminable amount of time#
* couldn,t !el& but observe !o( intentl% Simon focused on one side of t!e bag (!ere t!e &!rase-
2for motion discomfort-3 (as (ritten in eig!t different languages# $all it t!e researc!er in me-
but * (anted to understand (!at !e (as doing# * as'ed- 24!at are %ou reading53 6e re&lied
tersel%- 2"!is#3 Pointing to t!e lines of &rint on t!e bag- * as'ed !im- 24!at,s t!is53 Simon s!ot
me an incredulous loo'- but res&onded b% sa%ing- 2Pa&a- t!ese are different languages#3
*m&ressed- * as'ed !im (!et!er !e 'ne( (!at t!e different languages (ere# 6e gave me anot!er
loo'7t!e t%&e t!at sin's s!i&s7but e8&lained (it! an air of aut!orit% t!at t!e first line of &rint
(as Englis!# 6e ventured a guess t!at t!e second line (as S&anis!# 6e couldn,t identif% t!e lines
t!at (ere (ritten in 9erman- Frenc!- and *talian- but (!en !e &ointed to t!e lines (it! :orean-
;a&anese- and $!inese c!aracters- !e guessed- 2* t!in' t!ese are all $!inese#3
* &us!ed on- as'ing Simon to read t!e line of &rint (ritten in Englis! t!at signified- 2for motion
discomfort#3 6e began- 2For mo# # #- for mo# # # #3 6e sto&&ed- loo'ed &er&le8ed- and as'ed-
2Pa&a- (!% couldn,t t!e% +ust (rite- <*n case %ou !ave to &u'e=>3
.t t!is &oint- * 'ne( t!at m% grandson (as on solid ground as a develo&ing reader# .lt!oug! !e
(as still struggling to develo& decoding s'ills- !e (as alread% constructing meaning- ma'ing
sense- ?uestioning t!e aut!or of t!e te8t7doing all t!e t!ings t!at a t!oug!tful reader s!ould do#
Nearl% 16 mont!s later- !e reads fluentl%- and * can sa% (it! reasonable certaint% t!at !e (ould
rat!er read t!an floss#
Simon (ill li'el% continue to gro( as a reader and (riter7if !is sc!ools su&&ort !is abilit% to
read and (rite strategicall% as !e &rogresses t!roug! t!e grades during !is adolescent %ears#
@nfortunatel%- too man% older students do not receive t!e su&&ort t!e% need to !el& t!em gro(
from fluent decoders into strategic readers7readers (!o 'no( !o( to activate &rior 'no(ledge
before- during- and after readingA decide (!at,s im&ortant in a te8tA s%nt!esi/e informationA dra(
inferences during and after readingA as' ?uestionsA and self-monitor and re&air fault%
com&re!ension Bobb- 2000C# "o &ut t!e matter sim&l%- strategic readers 'no( !o( to t!in' (it!
te8t BVacca D Vacca- 2001C#
Unmet Adolescent Literacy Needs
"!e $ommission on .dolescent Eiterac% of t!e *nternational eading .ssociation recogni/ed t!e
im&ortance of literac% in t!e lives of adolescents in a &osition statement advocating a 2bill of
rig!ts3 for adolescent literac% learnersF
.dolescents entering t!e adult (orld in t!e 21st centur% (ill read and (rite more t!an at an%
ot!er time in !uman !istor%# "!e% (ill need advanced levels of literac% to &erform t!eir +obs- run
t!eir !ouse!olds- act as citi/ens- and conduct t!eir &ersonal lives# "!e% (ill need literac% to co&e
(it! t!e flood of information t!e% (ill find ever%(!ere t!e% turn# "!e% (ill need literac% to feed
t!eir imaginations so t!e% can create t!e (orld of t!e future# *n a com&le8 and sometimes even
dangerous (orld- t!eir abilit% to read (ill be crucial# $ontinual instruction be%ond t!e earl%
grades is needed# B)oore- 1ean- 1ird%s!a(- D %ci'- 1GGG- &# HC
@nfortunatel%- as students move into t!e middle grades and !ig! sc!ool- t!e% often receive little
or no instruction in !o( to use reading and (riting strategies to learn (it! te8ts BVacca- 1GGIC#
.lt!oug! individual teac!ers ma% incor&orate content literac% &ractices into t!eir sub+ect-matter
instruction- literac% &rograms are usuall% limited to s&eciali/ed courses for lo(-ac!ieving
students# .fter Jt! grade- fe( sc!ools &rovide com&re!ensive literac% &rograms for t!e ma+orit%
of students (!o !ave learned to decode (ords easil% and read smoot!l% in elementar% sc!ool#
Public &olic% on literac%- es&eciall% in recent %ears- !as focused &rimaril% on t!e literac% learning
of %oung c!ildren# .lt!oug! * (!ole!eartedl% su&&ort t!e im&ortance of building an earl%
foundation in literac%- it often comes at t!e &rice of a lac' of resources and attention to t!e needs
of adolescent literac% learners# .n earl% literac% em&!asis assumes t!at once c!ildren learn to
read and (rite- t!e% (ill be able to use reading and (riting to learn for t!e rest of t!eir lives#
From a develo&mental &ers&ective- suc! an assum&tion is tenuous at best#
"!e a(areness t!at effective earl% reading &rograms are not enoug! !as begun to (or' its (a% to
t!e &olic%-ma'ing arena# "!e .ND eading Stud% 9rou& concluded in a re&ort &re&ared for
t!e @#S# Kffice of Educational esearc! and *m&rovement-
. c!ild (!o successfull% develo&s beginning reading s'ills ma% not automaticall% become a
s'illed reader# Earge numbers of c!ildren (!o !ave successfull% ac?uired beginning reading
s'ills later fall be!ind in t!eir abilit% to deal (it! sc!ool reading tas's7a &!enomenon t!at
e8&erienced teac!ers call t!e 20t! grade slum&#3# # # "!e recent federal investment t!roug! t!e
Leading E8cellence .ctM and its successor &rograms- eading First and Earl% eading First
Btotaling more t!an NO billion over t!e ne8t five %earsC- (ill be lost unless t!e 'no(ledge base on
reading com&re!ension is furt!er develo&ed# BSno(- 2002- &&# JPIC
. recent re&ort b% t!e $arnegie $or&oration of Ne( Qor' found t!at more t!an !alf of t!e
students entering !ig! sc!ool in t!e HO largest cities in t!e @nited States read at t!e 6t! grade
level or belo(# 1% t!e middle grades- t!e ma+orit% of students ma% a&&ear skillful in t!e
mec!anics of reading but aren,t strategic enoug! in t!eir abilit% to e8&lore and inter&ret meaning#
"!e% often +ust go t!roug! t!e motions of reading and (riting7sa%ing t!e (ords or &utting t!e
(ords on &a&er# .s man% content-area teac!ers (ould attest- more and more of toda%,s middle
and !ig! sc!ool students abandon reading altoget!er as a (a% of learning#
)oreover- students develo& a one-dimensional vie( of (riting# "!e% often receive e8&licit
instruction in Englis! classes on !o( to (rite essa%s for r!etorical &ur&oses7for e8am&le- to
e8&lain- describe- or &ersuade# 1ut students rarel% connect (riting (it! learning b% using (riting
to e8&lore and inter&ret meaning t!at t!e% encounter in te8ts and class discussions#
Content Literacy Instruction Makes a Dierence
*n res&onse to t!e &roblem of adolescent literac%- content literac% &rograms !ave begun to
reemerge in t!e middle grades and !ig! sc!ool# $ontent literac% is often defined as t!e level of
reading and (riting s'ill t!at learners need in an academic sub+ect to com&re!end and res&ond to
ideas in te8ts used for instructional &ur&oses# $ontent literac% instructional &ractices !el& s!a&e
t!e com&re!ension strategies students need to t!in' dee&l% about te8ts#
*n t!e &ast- content literac% instruction did not easil% find its (a% into sub+ect-matter classrooms-
des&ite t!e attention given to it b% literac% researc!ers and educators Bate'in- Sim&son-
.lvermann- D Dis!ner- 1GIOC# "raditionall%- t!e res&onsibilit% for teac!ing reading and (riting
!as rested (it! Englis!Rlanguage arts teac!ers and reading s&ecialists#
.lt!oug! t!e% !ave im&ortant roles to &la% in adolescents, literac% develo&ment- language arts
and reading teac!ers need content-area teac!ers to s!o( students !o( to read and (rite li'e a
scientist- !istorian- or mat!ematician# .ll teac!ers in all sub+ects s!are t!e res&onsibilit% for
literac% develo&ment in middle grades and !ig! sc!ool# "oda%- more and more content-area
teac!ers recogni/e t!is res&onsibilit% and are incor&orating content literac% into t!eir teac!ing
t!roug! a variet% of instructional strategies#
!"am#le$ !m%edding Content Literacy in &eaching
Dar%l- a !ig! sc!ool !istor% teac!er in nort!east K!io- embeds content literac% instructional
strategies in !is teac!ing of @#S# !istor%# Kne of t!e instructional strategies t!at !e uses in !is
classes t!roug!out t!e sc!ool %ear involves s!o(ing students !o( to construct gra&!ic
re&resentations- &o&ularl% 'no(n as graphic organizers B;ones- Pierce- D 6unter- 1GIIR1GIGC#
Dar%l teac!es !is students !o( to construct gra&!ic organi/ers to reflect over-arc!ing te8t
&atterns t!at aut!ors in t!e social sciences use to organi/e ideas- suc! as &roblem-solution-
com&arison-contrast- cause-effect- descri&tion- and se?uence# 9ra&!ic organi/ers enable students
to identif% (!at ideas in an e8&ositor% te8t are im&ortant- !o( t!ese ideas are related- and (!ere
to find s&ecific information about t!ese ideas in t!e te8t#
1eginning earl% in t!e sc!ool %ear- Dar%l graduall% introduces- e8&lains- and demonstrates
different gra&!ic organi/er formats based on common te8t &atterns in course materials# Students
use course materials to &ractice and a&&l% t!eir understanding of eac! gra&!ic organi/er format
t!at Dar%l !as taug!t#
*n one class t!at * observed- Dar%l,s students discussed t!e legac% of t!e 1GG1 Persian 9ulf 4ar#
Students read an article &osted in 1GGI on t!e Washington Post 4eb site# 2*s )ission <Pin&ric's>
or Punitive53 contends t!at t!e Persian 9ulf 4ar- alt!oug! commonl% vie(ed as one of t!e most
successful militar% cam&aigns in @#S# !istor%- !ad limited ob+ectives- limited results- and
unintended conse?uences B.t'inson- 1GGIC#
1efore reading t!e te8t- Dar%l engaged t!e class in a content literac% &ractice called word
exploration BVacca D Vacca- 2001C# 6e as'ed !is students to t!in' about t!e aut!or,s use of t!e
(ord murky in t!e article b% 2?uic'(riting3 a definition based on t!eir &rior 'no(ledge-
associations- and understandings of t!e (ord# . ?uic'(rite involves brainstorming (it! &a&er
and &en# Students (ere given t(o minutes to e8&lore t!e meaning of t!e (ord murky b% (riting
(!atever t!oug!ts came to mind# .fter some of t!e students s!ared t!eir ?uic'(rites- Dar%l led
t!e class in a &rereading discussion of (!at t!e aut!or meant b% a 2mur'% ending3 to t!e Persian
9ulf 4ar#
"!en- Dar%l assigned students to read t!e article in class and discuss t!e aut!or,s main &oints in
small grou&s- (it! eac! grou& res&onsible for constructing a gra&!ic organi/er de&icting t!e
im&ortant ideas in t!e te8t# Eac! grou& selected a student to dis&la% its gra&!ic organi/er on an
over!ead trans&arenc% and to e8&lain t!e grou&,s t!in'ing#
.s Figure 1 s!o(s- several of t!e small grou&s decided to use a 2s&ider ma&3 gra&!ic organi/er#
. s&ider ma& !el&s students organi/e descri&tive information about a to&ic Bfor e8am&le-
2relations (it! *ra?3C around main ideas and su&&orting details# "!e s&ider ma&s varied in s!a&e
and substance from grou& to grou&# "!e variations led to a livel% discussion of t!e students,
&erce&tions of im&ortant ideas in t!e article#
'igure () *mall +rou#,Constructed -*#ider Ma#. /rgani0er
Figure 2 de&icts a 2c%cle3 gra&!ic organi/er in (!ic! a series of events beginning (it! t!e
Persian 9ulf 4ar interact to &roduce a set of results t!at ma% lead full circle to anot!er &otential
(ar (it! *ra?# "!e students (!ose grou& created t!e c%cle organi/er transformed t!e ideas
encountered in t!e te8t into a &o(erful (a% of t!in'ing about t!e conse?uences of a (ar (it!
limited ob+ectives#
'igure 1) *mall +rou#,Constructed -Cycle. /rgani0er
"!e (ord e8&loration ?uic'(rite and gra&!ic organi/er instructional strategies are +ust t(o of
man% t!at Dar%l uses before- during- and after te8t assignments to su&&ort students, literac%
needs in a content learning situation# Dar%l learned about t!ese strategies in a series of
(or's!o&s on content literac% &ractices offered in !is sc!ool district# "!e (or's!o&s (ere &art of
a long-term staff develo&ment effort in t!e district,s middle and !ig! sc!ools#
Suc! su&&orts for content-area teac!ers are crucial# Sc!ools must &rovide classroom teac!ers
(it! reading s&ecialist services- including resource su&&ort and current researc! on literac% and
learning# *n addition- sc!ools need to im&lement ongoing staff develo&ment efforts- including
instructional strateg% (or's!o&s- self-stud%- teac!er in?uir% &ro+ects- and action researc! in t!e
various content areas in t!e middle and !ig! sc!ool curriculums#
&he &ime Is Right
"!e conce&t of content literac% is firml% rooted in t!e traditions of t!e literac% field#
@nfortunatel%- content literac% &ractices !ave not made t!eir (a% into content-area classrooms
on a (ide scale# .s t!e focus of &ublic &olic% begins to broaden to include not onl% beginning
reading but also reading com&re!ension- t!e time is rig!t for a reemergence of content literac%
&rograms in sc!ool districts across t!e @nited States# Per!a&s 2Ever% teac!er- a teac!er of
reading37t!at &erennial !o&e7(ill become a realit%#
Reerences
.t'inson- # B1GGI- December 1IC# *s mission 2&in&ric's3 or &unitive5 The Washington Post- &#
.OO#
;ones- 1# F#- Pierce- ;#- D 6unter- 1# B1GIIR1GIGC# "eac!ing students to construct gra&!ic
re&resentations# Educational Leadership, !B0C- 20P2O#
)oore- D# 4#- 1ean- "# 4#- 1ird%s!a(- D#- D %ci'- ;# .# B1GGGC# "dolescent literacy# " position
statement# Ne(ar'- DEF $ommission on .dolescent Eiterac% of t!e *nternational eading
.ssociation#
ate'in- N#- Sim&son- )#- .lvermann- D#- D Dis!ner- E# B1GIOC# 4!% teac!ers resist content
reading instruction# $ournal of %eading, &'- 0H2P0HJ#
obb- E# B2000C# Teaching reading in middle school# " strategic approach to teaching reading
that impro(es comprehension and thinking# Ne( Qor'F Sc!olastic Professional 1oo's#
Sno(- $# E# B2002C# %eading for understanding# Toward an % ) * program in reading
comprehension# Santa )onica- $.F .ND#
Vacca- # "# B1GGIC# Eet,s not marginali/e adolescent literac%# $ournal of "dult and "dolescent
Literacy, '- 600P60G#
Vacca- # "#- D Vacca- ;# E# B2001C# Content area reading# Literacy and learning across the
curriculum BJt! ed#C# 1ostonF .ll%n D 1acon#
Richard &) 2acca is a &ast &resident of t!e *nternational eading .ssociation and &rofessor of
literac% education at :ent State @niversit%A BHH0C OJ2-2IH6A rvaccaS'ent#edu#
$o&%rig!t T 2002 b% .ssociation for Su&ervision and $urriculum Develo&ment