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Introduction:
The authors of the "Practical Guide To Railway Engineering" wish to provide the reader
a general overview of the specific disciplines common to railway engineering. Railway
engineering design requires that the engineer approach any modern engineering challenge
with an understanding that encompasses the railway as a system; thereby requiring the
practicing engineer have a general understanding of disciplines other than just their own.
The text hereafter is not intended to supplant the AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering, the AREMA C&S Manual or other comprehensive texts covering specific
railway engineering disciplines, but rather to provide background enabling the novice
engineer or practicing engineer unfamiliar with railway engineering design to utilize
available resources. Each author and contributor shares a deep love for the industry, and
it is their desire that the pool of collected information be passed on to the next generation
of "railroader" as well.
Chapter 1 Railway Development
Chapter 1 provides a brief overview of the key occurrences in the history of
transportation leading up to the introduction and implementation of railways and railway
engineering in North America. The goal of this chapter is for the reader to obtain an
appreciation for the reasons behind some of the key current railway engineering practices
based on railway development history. The significant economic role played by
innovations such as CWR, CTC, mechanization of maintenance activities, along with the
evolution of bridge design, materials and construction practices is explored.
Chapter 2 Railway Industry Overview
Chapter 2 is designed so the reader will gain an understand of the organizational structure
of a railway and to recognize the role played in railway operations by safety, operating
rules, authority of movements, speeds and traffic control systems. Critical issues affecting
railway traffic systems are also considered. Various car configurations and related usage
are identified along with factors governing locomotive utilization including:
horsepower and tractive effort
tractive force and adhesion
drawbar pull
train resistance
compensated grades
acceleration and balance speeds
tonnage ratings
ruling grade
momentum grade
power to stop
Chapter 3 Basic Track
Chapter 3 is written for the reader to become more familiar with track components and
terminology and includes over 100 illustrations. The reader will understand the criteria
used to justify maintenance operations and/or capital improvement as well as recognize
the role of track geometry in maintaining and operating today's railway. Specific
maintenance activities along with the function of major production gang activities are
discussed. The role of safety and safety enforcement is also addressed here.
Chapter 4 Right-of-Way and Roadway
Chapter 4 seeks to explain how right of way is defined and utilized. This chapter includes
typical dimensions, property rights, limitations, utility easements, fencing, and
vegetation. Also addressed are issues concerning; basic soil types, geotechnical behavior
of various types of soils, typical track structure and the loading it imposes on the
subgrade, roadbed failure (landslides and track settlement) causes and remediation, and
ways to identify potential hazards to the roadbed and take appropriate action to mitigate
those hazards.
Chapter 5 Drainage
Chapter 5 stresses the importance of drainage in maintaining quality track. The primary
hydrology and hydraulic principles are reviewed along with a demonstration of the use of
commonly available resources. Consideration is provided to the impact poor drainage
design can have on railway neighbors as well as the integrity of the railway itself.
Chapter 6 Railway Track Design
Chapter 6 provides information pertaining to the different design elements of railway
alignments, layout and design. Specific topics include horizontal and vertical alignment
design, turnout geometry, location, and use; railway clearances and vehicular envelope
requirements; typical yard and terminal functions and layouts. Additional considerations
pertaining specifically to design elements of railway alignments and limitations are
discussed as they relate to proposed use (i.e. mainline, branch line, industrial/terminal,
and passenger).
Chapter 7 Communications and Signals
Chapter 7 is intended as a basic overview of railway signaling. The chapter provides an
appreciation of the historical development of railway signal systems as well as an
understanding of basic signal terminology. An easy to understand approach explains
concepts such as ABS and CTC. Basic types of signals, available energy sources,
lightning and surge protection and basic track circuits including: DC track circuits, Coded
DC track circuits, Style C track circuits, Overlay track circuits and AC track circuits are
addressed here. An understanding of track switches, components and their
interconnection to the signal system is provided. Crossing warning device theory of
operation and differences between conventional and solid state devices is highlighted.
The basic principles of CTC, sequence of operation and safety checks are explained along
with concepts associated with microprocessor based coded track circuits and solid-state
interlockings. Finally, a description of the common types of defect detectors in use is
provided.
Chapter 8 Railway Structures
Chapter 8 was prepared to accomplish two primary objectives. For the novice engineer,
the authors wished to provide an overview of the types of railway bridge structures and
their appropriate usage as well as define the primary bridge components and their
functions. Further, drainage structures, retaining walls, tunnels and sheds are classified
by type as well as by common use. For the experienced highway design engineer, the
common design approach differences between highway and railway bridges are
reviewed. Discussion centers on the differences in design loading in Timber Chapter 7,
Concrete Chapter 8 and Steel Chapter 15 of the AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering. Other critical structure criteria are highlighted such as fatigue, fracture
critical members, structure serviceability, bearings and volumetric changes and
composite design.
Chapter 9 Railway Electrification
Chapter 9 compares the various alternatives available when considering and designing an
electrified railway. A general overview of the key components and their primary
function is provided for 3
rd
rail systems and overhead catenary systems (OCS).
Fundamental criteria for selection of style of OCS are discussed along with other design
basics. Finally, the impact that implementation of electrification will have on existing
railroad infrastructure, staff and community is discussed.
Chapter 10 Passenger, Transit and High-Speed Rail
Chapter10 presents an overview of typical design principles, construction practices and
maintenance considerations applied to passenger rail lines. It describes how basic
railroad engineering principles are applied in specialized ways to accommodate passenger
rail requirements. The chapter notes the key distinctions between railroad and transit
operations and introduces six major types of passenger rail modes. The text then
discusses the service, infrastructure, regulatory (U.S.), maintenance and inspection
considerations associated with each. It concludes with discussion of the special topics of
line capacity and cant deficiency.
Chapter 11 - Environmental Regulations And Permitting
Chapter 11 is a general overview of environmental regulations and permitting in the U.S.,
Canada and Mexico with topics that may be encountered during railway activities
(including construction, as well as operation). This information is general in nature and
the reader is cautioned to contact or use a professional environmental consultant to
prepare an Environmental Assessment. Information is given on wetland issues along
with other topics, such as endangered species, cultural resources, Phase I environmental
assessments, hazardous waste, brownfields, asbestos and air quality. Environmental
information includes: the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers wetland definition, Nationwide
and General permits for proposed construction activities, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
non-jurisdictional status over isolated wetlands and Best Management Practices (which
mitigate direct and indirect degradation of the environment to the extent possible). Each
topic concludes on where to locate additional information.
Chapter 12 European Curve & Turnout Mechanics
Chapter 12 serves to provide an appreciation of the European approach design differences
in turnout and curve design from that experienced in North America. The reader will
obtain an understanding of the geometrical and mathematical relationships common to
both North American and European track geometry. The potential for incorporating
European practices in high-speed North American transit initiatives is clearly obvious.
Chapter 13 Case Studies
Chapter 13 presents four case studies drawn from actual railway design projects using
formatted templates to identify critical stakeholders, identify controlling criteria,
recognize potential problems, and learn from past mistakes. These case studies are
intended to serve as a model for which the templates can be utilized for any railway
design/construction project. It is intended that this will be part of an accessible library of
case study solutions yet to be developed.
Appendix
The Appendix contains a wide variety of useful and related information to the material
presented in the text. Included are articles describing the development of maintenance-of-
way practices in the past 40 years from the perspective of a retired Class 1 chief engineer,
geometry solutions for turnout and connection track location, spiral and full body curve
example problem solutions, Bartlett Method of calculating throws for stringlining curves
and a synopsis of one Class 1 railways step by step procedures for performing common
maintenance and capital improvement activities.
Glossary
The glossary contains short definitions of the majority of the terms utilized within the
text. Railway engineering terminology common to the industry is often not self-
explanatory. It is essential that the engineer have a clear understanding of the terms in
use.
TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________
i
Table of Contents
I ntroduction 1
Chapter 1 - Railway Development 5
1.1 Introduction 7
1.2 Determinants of Transportation Development 9
1.3 Pre-Railway Transportation in North America 10
1.4 Physical Determinants of Land Movement 12
1.5 North American Railway Development and Impacts 15
1.6 Developments of the Twentieth Century 19
1.7 Development of Canadian Railways 21
1.8 Mexican Railway Development 23
1.9 Institutional Controls 24
1.10 History of Railway Bridge Engineering 25
1.11 New Technology Bridge Developments in the Last Twenty Years 27
1.11.1 Existing Railway Bridges: Inspection and Assessment 27
1.11.2 New Railway Bridges: Materials, Design, Fabrication and Construction 28
1.12 Trade Journals 29
1.13 Other References 30
Chapter 2 - Railway Industry Overview 31
2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 Railway Companies 33
2.2.1 Organization of a Railway Company 34
Transportation Department 35
Engineering Department 36
Mechanical Department 37
Marketing Department 37
2.3 Regulatory Agencies and Railway Associations 38
2.3.1 Regulatory Agencies 38
United States 38
Canada 39
2.3.2 Railroad Associations 39
AAR and RAC 39
AREMA 40
REMSA 40
RSSI 40
2.4 Operations of Railways 41
2.4.1 Safety First in Railway Operations 41
2.4.2 Bibles of the Railways for Safe Operations 42
2.4.3 Tracks and Authority of Movements 43
2.4.4 Speeds 45
2.4.5 Rail Traffic Control Systems 46
Radio Communication of Train Orders 46
Train Spacing and Block Separation 46
Track Circuit 47
Signal Block Length 47
Centralized Traffic Control 48
Additional Information 49
2-5 Railway Cars 49
2.5.1 Freight Cars 49
Boxcars 50
Insulated Boxcars and Mechanical Reefers 50
Intermodal Cars Piggyback Trailers and Containers 50
Flat Cars 51
Auto Rack Cars 52
Gondola Cars 52
Hopper Cars 52
Rotary Gondola/Hopper Cars 52
Tank Cars 52
Maintenance-of-Way Cars 53
Schnabel Cars 53
2.5.2 Hazardous Commodities 53
2.5.3 Passenger Cars 53
2.6 Locomotives 54
2.6.1 Horsepower (hp) and Tractive Effort 55
2.6.2 Tractive Force and Adhesion 55
TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________
ii
2.6.3 Drawbar Pull 56
2.6.4 Train Resistance 56
Rolling Resistance 56
Davis Formula 57
Starting Resistance 57
Grade Resistance 58
Curve Resistance 58
2.6.5 Compensated Grade 58
2.6.6 Acceleration and Balance Speed 59
2.6.7 Tonnage Ratings of Locomotives 60
2.6.8 Ruling Grade 60
2.6.9 Momentum Grade 60
2.6.10 Power to Stop 61
2.7 Traffic Systems 62
2.7.1 Priority of Trains 63
2.7.2 Effects Of Sharing Tracks By Freight And Passenger Trains Vs. Track Of Single Use 64
2.7.3 Overcoming The Delays That Occur In Freight Yards 65
Chapter 3 - Basic Track 67
3.1 Track Components 69
3.1.1 Rail 69
Identification of Rail 70
3.1.2 Ties 72
Timber Ties 72
Concrete Ties 75
Steel Ties 75
Alternative Material Ties 76
3.1.3 Ballast Section 76
3.1.4 Rail Joints 78
Standard Joints 79
Compromise Joints 79
Insulated Joints 80
3.1.5 Tie Plates 82
3.1.6 Rail Anchors 83
3.1.7 Fasteners 83
Spikes 84
Bolts 85
3.1.8 Specialized components 85
Derails 86
Wheel Stops and Bumping Posts 86
Gauge rods 87
Sliding (Conley) Joints 87
Mitre Rail 87
Bridge/tunnel/overpass guard rails 88
3.2 Turnouts 88
3.2.1 Types of Turnouts 88
Basic Turnout Terminology 89
3.2.2 Switch 90
3.2.3 Switching Mechanism 91
3.2.4 Turnout Rails 91
3.2.5 Frog 92
Rail bound manganese (RBM) 92
Spring Frog 93
Solid Manganese Self-guarded Frog 93
Bolted Rigid Frogs 94
Movable Point Frogs 94
Determining Frog Number 94
3.2.6 Switch Ties 95
3.2.7 Stock Rails 95
3.2.8 Switch Points 96
Identifying Left or Right Hand Points 97
3.2.9 Specialty Components 97
Switch Clips 97
Switch Rods 97
Types of Switch Rods 98
Connecting Rod 98
TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________
iii
3.2.10 Special Turnout Plates 99
Gauge Plates 99
Switch Plates 100
Rail Braces 100
Heel Block Assembly 101
Turnout Plates 101
Hook Twin Tie Plates 101
Frog Plates 102
3.2.11 Guard Rails 102
3.2.12 Switch Stands 103
Spring Switch 103
3.3 Railway Crossings & Crossovers 104
3.4 Highway Crossings 106
3.4.1 Crossing Construction And Reconstruction 108
3.4.2 Crossing Warning Devices 110
3.5 Utility Crossings 111
3.6 Track Geometry 112
3.6.1 Gage 114
3.6.2 Alignment 115
Full Body of the Curve 116
Transition Spiral of the Curve 117
Curve Elevation 117
3.6.3 Surface 118
3.7 Safety 120
3-8 Maintenance Activities 122
3.8.1 Track Disturbance 124
3.8.2 Track Disturbance Activities 125
3.8.3 Rail Lubrication 126
3.8.4 Rail Grinding 127
3.8.5 Rail Defect Testing 128
3.8.6 Geometry Cars 128
3.8.7 Gauge Restraint Measuring System (GRMS) 129
3.8.8 Vegetation Control 129
3.8.9 ROW Stabilization & Drainage 131
3.8.10 Welding 132
3-9 Production Gangs 133
3.9.1 Production Rail Gang 134
3.9.2 Production Tie Gang 136
3.9.3 Production Undercutting 138
3.9.4 Production Surfacing Gangs 139
3.9.5 Road Crossing Renewal Gangs 142
3.9.6 Turnout Renewal 143
3.9.7 New Track Construction/Cutout New
Track Construction /Cutovers 144
References: 147
Chapter 4 - Right-of-Way & Roadway 149
4.1 Introduction 151
4.2 Right-of-Way 152
4.2.1 Right-of-Way Width 152
4.2.2 Fences 153
4.2.3 Utilities 154
4.2.4 Vegetation 154
4.3 Roadway 155
4.3.1 Soils 155
Definition 155
Soil Types 157
Major Soil Divisions 157
Soil Texture and Composition 160
4.3.2 Geotechnical Processes 161
The Concept of Stress and Strain 161
Effective Stress 162
The Effect of Porewater Pressure 162
Clays 163
Sand and Gravel 163
Silt 164
Soil Behavior Under Rapid Loading 164
Effect of Shear Strain 164
Settlement 165
Seepage 166
TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________
iv
4.3.3 Track Structure 167
Historical Background 167
Components and Functions 168
Subgrade 169
Sub-ballast 170
How Track Fails 170
4.3.4 Instability 172
Main Features of Landslides 172
Slides that Affect the Track 172
Triggering Mechanisms 174
Remediation 175
Soil Improvement 176
Improved Slope Geometry 176
Reduce Seepage Pressure 178
Structural Support 179
Inspection of Slopes 180
Monitoring Slope Movements 180
Areas With the Greatest Hazard 181
4.3.5 Settlement 182
Basic Theory 182
Influence of Construction Methods 183
Influence of Soil Type 183
4.3.6 Hazard Identification 184
Understanding the Factors 184
Understanding the Mechanisms 185
Identifying the Hazard 185
4.3.7 Summary 185
Chapter 5 Drainage 189
5.1 Hydrology 191
5.1.1 Equations and Programs 192
5.1.2 Rainfall Intensity or Precipitation 194
5.1.2 Rainfall Intensity or Precipitation 195
5.1.3 Time of Concentration 197
5.1.4 Distribution 198
5.2 Hydraulics 198
5.2.1 Open Channel Hydraulics 198
5.2.2 Culvert Hydraulics 202
5.3 Recommended Procedures 210
5.3.1 Existing Drainage Study 210
5.3.2 Proposed Drainage System 211
5.3.3 Floodplain Encroachment Evaluation 212
5.3.4 Erosion Control Evaluation 213
Chapter 6 - Railway Track Design 216
6.1 Stationing 218
6.2 Horizontal Alignments 219
Staking Spirals By Deflections 227
Staking Spirals By Offsets 228
Applying The Spiral To Compound Curves (Arema 1965) 228
6.3 Vertical Alignments 229
6.4 Alignment Design 232
6.5 Turnouts 244
6.6 Design Of Yards 253
6.7 Clearances 256
References: 262
Chapter 7 - Communications & Signal 263
7.1 Introduction to Signals 265
7.1.1 Railway Operation 265
7.1.2 Timetable Operation 266
7.1.3 Wayside Signals 268
7.1.4 Color Light Signal 269
7.1.5 Signal Terminology 269
7.1.6 Searchlight Signal 270
7.1.7 Operating Principle 270
7.1.8 Automatic Block Signals 271
7.1.9 Signal Location 272
7.1.10 Common Terms 273
7.1.11 Automatic Block Signal System 274
TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________
v
7.1.12 Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) 275
7.2 Energy Source 275
7.2.1 Batteries 275
7.2.2 Battery Charging 276
7.2.3 Lightning Protection 278
7.3 Track Circuits 279
7.3.1 DC Track Circuits 279
7.3.2 Track Circuit Operation 280
7.3.3 Train Shunting 282
7.3.4 Coded DC Track Circuit 283
7.3.5 Style C Track Circuit 286
7.3.6 Overlay Track Circuits 287
7.3.7 Overlay Track Circuit Operation 288
7.3.8 Track Coupling Unit 288
7.3.9 AC Track Circuits and Relays 289
7.3.10 Apparatus Used with AC Track Circuits 290
7.4 Track Switches 291
7.4.1 Hand Operated Switch with SCC 291
7.4.2 Electric Switch Lock 293
7.4.3 Dual Controlled Power Switch Machine 294
7.5 Highway Crossings 297
7.5.1 Crossing Operation 298
7.5.2 Crossing Gates 299
7.5.3 Crossing Motion Detector/Predictor 300
7.6 Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) 302
7.6.1 Operation 302
7.6.2 Sequence of Operation 305
7.6.3 Microprocessor Based Coded Track Circuits 308
7.6.4 Theory of Coded Track Circuit Operation 309
7.6.5 Solid State Interlocking 311
7.7 Defect Detectors 313
7.7.1 Hot Box Detector 313
7.7.2 Hot Wheel Detector 313
7.7.3 Dragging Equipment Detector 313
7.7.4 Wheel Defect Detector 314
7.7.5 Slide Fence 315
7.7.6 Flood Detectors 316
7.7.7 Fire Detectors 316
7.7.8 High/Wide Load Detectors 316
Chapter 8 - Railway Structures 318
8.1 Introduction to Railway Structures 320
8.2 Major Bridge Components 321
8.2.1 Substructure 322
Investigate Underlying Soil & Geologic Conditions 322
Piling 322
Abutments and Piers 327
8.2.2 Superstructure 329
8.2.3 Bridge Deck 330
Open Bridge Decks 331
Ballasted Decks 333
Open Deck Vs. Ballast Deck 335
8.3 Bridge Types 337
8.3.1 Timber Trestles 337
Terminology 337
Caps 339
Stringers 339
Timber Connectors 340
8.3.2 Steel Bridges 340
Girder Spans 340
Truss Spans 342
Steel Trestles 345
Viaducts 345
8.3.3 Concrete Bridges 346
Arches 346
Rigid-Frame Bridge 346
Slab Bridges 347
Concrete Trestles 347
Concrete Girders 348
TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________
vi
8.3.4 Moveable Spans 349
Bascule Bridges 349
Swing Span Bridges 351
Vertical Lift Bridges 352
8.4 Other Structures 355
8.4.1 Drainage Structures 355
8.4.2 Retaining Walls 356
Gravity Retaining Walls 356
Crib Walls 356
Sheet Piling 358
Mechanically Stabilized Earth 359
Drainage of Retaining Walls 360
8.4.3 Tunnels 361
Tunnel Construction Methods 361
8.4.4 Sheds 364
8.5 Structural Design Considerations 365
8.5.1 Introduction 365
8.5.2 Bridge Loading, 366
Dead Load 366
Live Loads 367
Impact 370
Centrifugal Load 372
Lateral Loads 374
Longitudinal Loading 375
Wind Loading 377
Stream Flow, Ice and Buoyancy 378
Seismic Loads 379
Combined Loads 381
8.5.3 Other Structure Design Criteria 381
Fatigue 381
Fracture Critical Members (FCM) 382
Structure Serviceability 383
Bearings and Volumetric Changes 385
Composite Design 387
Bridge Design Assumptions and Constructibility Issues 388
Recommended Construction Considerations 389
8.5.4 Retaining Wall Loads 391
References: 392
Chapter 9 - Railway Electrification 393
9.1 Introduction 395
9.2 Development of Motive Power for Railways 395
9.2.1 Pioneers of Electric Traction Development 398
9.3 Rail Operation Classification 401
9.4 Mainline Railways and Independent Short Lines 403
9.4.1 Mainline Electrification Studies 404
9.4.2 Mainline Infrastructure Compatibility 406
Maintenance 408
Staff Safety 408
9.4.3 Impacts of Mainline Railway Electrification on Communities. 409
9.5 Urban Railways 409
9.5.1 Impacts of an Urban Electrified Light Rail or Commuter Rail System on the Community 410
9.6 Existing Electrification Systems 411
9.7 New Electrification Systems 414
9.7.1 Sources of Primary Power 415
9.7.2 Substations 415
9.7.3 Power Distribution Systems 417
Feeder Cable Sub Systems 417
Negative Feeder Cable Sub Systems 418
Contact System Sub Systems 418
9.7.4 Current Collectors 419
Contact Shoe 419
Trolley Poles 420
Pantographs 420
9.7.5 Characteristics Of Third Rail System 421
Conductor Rail Supports 421
9.7.6 Characteristics Of An Overhead Contact System 422
Single Wire System 423
Catenary Systems 425
TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________
vii
9.7.7 OCS Style Selection 428
Location and Environment 429
Copper Cross-sectional Area 429
Economics 430
Cost Factors of OCS Styles 433
OCS Design Basics 433
9.8 Electrification Interfaces with Other Rail Elements 434
9.8.1 Right-of-Way 434
Track Layout/Realignment 434
Substations 435
Supporting Structures for the Contact System 435
Systemwide Ductbanks 435
9.8.2 Track Structure 435
9.8.3 Civil Structures 436
Tunnels To Be Electrified 436
Bridges Over Electrified Track 437
Bridges Under Electrified Track 437
Station Canopies 437
OCS Attachments 437
9.8.4 Signals and Communications 438
9.9 Interfaces with Project-Wide Staff 439
Bibliography 443
Chapter 10 - Passenger, Transit & High Speed Rail 445
10.1 Introduction 447
10.2 Passenger Rail Modes 448
10.3 Distinctions between Railway Operations and Transit Operations 449
10.4 Passenger Rail Service and Vehicle Characteristics by Mode 450
10.5 Passenger Rail Infrastructure Characteristics by Mode 451
10.6 Passenger Railway Infrastructure Characteristics 453
10.6.1 High-Speed Rail (HSR) 453
Route Alignment Considerations 453
Regulatory Compliance 454
10.6.2 Intercity Rail and Commuter Rail 455
General 455
Route Alignment Considerations 455
Track Standards 455
Regulatory Compliance 456
10.7 Transit Infrastructure Characteristics 457
10.7.1 Rapid Transit 457
Route Alignment Considerations 457
Track Standards 457
Regulatory Compliance 459
10.7.2 Light Rail Transit (LRT) 459
Route Alignment Considerations 459
Track Standards 459
Regulatory Compliance 461
10.7.3 Streetcar and Vintage Trolley 461
Route Alignment Considerations 461
Track Standards 461
Regulatory Compliance 461
10.8 Passenger Railway Maintenance Considerations 462
Maintenance Philosophy 462
Maintenance Practices 462
10.9 Transit Maintenance Considerations 463
Maintenance Philosophy 463
Maintenance Practices 464
10.10 Special Topics Associated with Passenger Railway Operations 465
10.10.1 Passenger Railway Line Capacity 465
10.10.2 The Impact of Superelevation (Or Cant Deficiency and Why Its Important) 467
10.11 Conclusion 469
Chapter 11 - Environmental Conditions & Permitting 471
11.1 Introduction 473
11.2 Environmental Regulations Of The United States 473
11.2.1 Wetlands Regulations 474
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Regulatory Boundaries 476
11.2.2 Wetland Definition 477
TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________
viii
11.2.3 Wetland Regulations 481
Nationwide Permits 481
General Permits 486
USACE Non-Jurisdiction Over Isolated Wetlands 487
11.2.4 Best Management Practices 488
11.2.5 Endangered Species 488
11.2.6 Cultural Resources 491
11.2.7 Phase I Environmental Assessment 492
11.2.8 Hazardous Waste 494
11.2.9 Brownfields 496
11.2.10 Asbestos 496
11.2.11 Air Quality 497
11.3 Environmental Regulations Of Canada 499
11.3.1 Canadian Wetlands Environmental Assessment Guidelines 500
11.3.2 Endangered Species 502
11.3.3 Hazardous Waste 503
11.3.4 Air Quality 504
11.4 Environmental Regulations Of Mexico 504
11.4.1 Regulations 505
11.4.2 Mexico Regulation for Hazardous Waste 506
11.5 Wetland Case Study 507
Chapter 12 - European Curve and Turnout Mechanics 511
12.1 Introduction 513
12.2 Curves 514
12.2.1 Curve Definition 514
12.2.2 Gage 515
12.2.3 Elevation in Curves 517
12.2.4 Elevation Transition 518
12.2.5 Track Warp 523
12.2.6 Horizontal Transition Curves 524
12.2.7 Theory of the Transitional Curves 526
12.3 Gradient Change 529
12.4 Turnouts and Turnout Design 531
12.4.1 Measuring the Frog Angle 533
12.4.2 Turnout Calculations 534
12.4.3 Clothoidal Turnout 537
12.5 Speed Raising Improvements 540
12.5.1 Curve Improvements 542
12.5.2 Surfacing and Lining 543
Chapter 13 - Case Studies 547
13.1 Introduction 549
#1 Kasky, KY Project Survey 551
#2 Crestline, OH Project Survey 557
#3 FEC/SFRC Connection, West Palm Beach, FL For Amtrak Service Project Survey 561
#4 - Ft. Washington PA Project Survey 567
Appendix A-1
Applied Science For Railway Tracks A-3
Turnouts, Connections, And Crossings B-1
Turnouts B-1
Location of Turnouts B-1
Turnouts from Straight Track B-2
Turnouts from Curved Track B-3
Connections B-3
From Straight Track B-3
Turnout from the Inside of a Curved Main Track B-5
Turnout from the Outside of a Curved Main - Track B-12
Parallel Tracks - Sidings B-17
Parallel Tracks Both Straight Tracks B-17
Parallel Tracks - Curved Tracks B-18
Parallel Tracks - Crossovers B-22
Crossovers - Straight Tracks. B-23
Crossovers - Curved Tracks B-24
Ladder Tracks B-25
Intersecting Tracks B-27
Intersecting Tracks - Both Tracks Straight B-27
Intersecting Tracks - One Straight and One Curved Track B-31
Intersecting Tracks - Both Tracks Curved B-34
TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________
ix
Wye Tracks B-35
Wye Track - Straight Main Track B-36
Wye Track - Curved Main Track B-37
Diamond Turnouts B-38
Crossings B-39
Crossing Data B-40
Straight Crossings B-41
Single-Curve Crossings B-42
Double-Curve Crossings B-43
Example Curve Problems With Solutions C-1
PROBLEM 1. C-1
PROBLEM 2. C-1
PROBLEM 3. C-1
PROBLEM 4. C-2
PROBLEM 5. C-2
PROBLEM 6. C-3
PROBLEM 7. C-4
PROBLEM 8. C-8
PROBLEM 9. C-9
PROBLEM 10. C-13
PROBLEM 11. C-18
Spiral Problems & Solutions D-1
Determining Degree Of Curvature E-1
Method Of Determining Degree Of Curvatue E-2
String Lining Curves F-1
Stringlining Of Railroad Curves G-1
Maintenance Processes H-1
Ballast Unloading H-3
Gauging on Wood and Concrete Ties H-7
Mechanical Surfacing of Track H-11
Switch Tie, Yard and Siding Ties & Programmed Maintenance Tie Renewal H-17
Rail Train Rail Pickup H-22
CWR Rail Relay on Wood or Concrete Ties H-27
Mechanized Tie Renewal H-32
Track Abandonment H-37
Track Sledding H-44
Installation of Panelized Turnouts H-50
Unloading Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) H-57
GLOSSARY Glossary-1
C H A P T E R 1 R A I L W A Y D E V E L O P M E N T
7 77 7
Railway Development
1.1 Introduction
History
Ring Out, oh bells. Let cannons roar
In loudest tones of thunder
The iron bars from shore to shore
Are laid and Nations wonder
his quote from the May 11, 1869 The Chicago Tribune celebrated the
completion in Utah of the first transcontinental railway connection in North
America. By 1885 the Canadian Pacific completed the first single company
transcontinental line and the Atlantic and Pacific were also first linked in Mexico in the
19
th
century. The exciting impact of a technology that reduced a six-month to a six-day
trip can hardly be imagined today. In the lifetime of anyone reading this, we have seen
nothing with the impact on all aspects of life as the development of the railway.
Only 44 years earlier on October 27, 1825 George Stephensons steam locomotive,
Locomotion Number 1 hauled a 90 ton load consisting of 36 cars carrying more
than 500 passengers and some freight at a sustained speed of 12 mph along the
Stockton and Darlington Railway in northern England. This was the culmination of
decades of imagination, promotion, engineering and experimentation.
What is a railway? A railway can be defined as an engineered structure consisting of
two metal guiding rails on which cars are self-propelled or pulled by a locomotive. In
his book John Armstrong defines a railway as:
A railroad consists of two steel rails which are held a fixed distance apart on a
roadbed. Vehicles, guided and supported by flanged steel wheels and connected into
trains, are propelled as a means of transportation. Websters Dictionary (1986)
defines a railroad as 1. A road laid with parallel steel rails, along which cars carrying
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passengers or freight are drawn by locomotives, 2. A complete system of such roads,
including land, rolling stock, stations, etc. 3. The persons or corporation owning and
managing such a system.
The terms railway and railroad are sometimes used interchangeably. However, for
this book, railway will generally refer to the track and other closely associated
items, i.e., signals, crossings, bridges, etc. Railroad will be used where the usage
connotes the bigger system.
In commencing a railway engineering career, you are joining many fellow workers
in a complex and increasingly coordinated activity that is an integral part of any
civilized society. About one-seventh of the workers in advanced economies are
involved in some phase of transportation. Transportation, the movement of
persons and goods, of which railroading is a large and vital part, is tied in with the
location and magnitude of all kinds of human activity which depend on the timely
availability of quality goods and services. This ranges from the necessities of food
and fuel and work to leisure pursuits.
Many of you will be considered as transportation engineers specializing in railway
engineering (not operating trains). We can define railway engineering as that branch of
civil engineering involved in the planning, design, construction, operation and
maintenance of railway land facilities used for the movement of people and goods
serving the social and economic needs of contemporary society and its successors. The
complete railway engineer is active in all aspects of civil engineering practice, surveying,
geotechnics, hydrology, hydraulics, environmental and sanitary and structural design as
well as construction technology.
You will frequently encounter the word mode in your railway practice. A mode of
transportation is no more than a particular type of transportation defined in enough
detail for the purpose at hand. It can be as general as the medium through or on which
transportation takes place; for example, air, sea and land modes. The walking or
pedestrian mode involves the moving human. The public transportation mode
includes those systems such as rail commuter lines and public bus and taxi service.
Often, far more detailed descriptions are needed for effective analysis, communication
and understanding. The railway mode is a type of a land transportation mode as
defined above. The light rail transit mode is a further more specifically defined type of
rail service, typically today an urban, electrically powered system operating on its own
right of way with intersections with intersecting public streets. Other terms used in
railway engineering are listed and defined in the Glossary found at the end of this
Manual.
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Figure 1-5 English Railways and Freight Cars, as Illustrated in Stricklands Report, 1826
Railways quickly became a major factor in accelerating the great westward expansion,
as well as tying the older eastern population and industrial centers together, by
providing a reliable, economic and rapid means of transportation. As additional lines
were built, they facilitated the establishment and growth of towns in the West. Except
for the trip from farm to railhead in town, the poor roads and limited canals became
irrelevant. The Federal government and states encouraged and provided financial
support through land grants and loans, which were paid back with reduced rates for
half a century.
Since the first railways, there have been many improvements in all aspects of
railroading. For example, the development of the iron flanged T rail was achieved by
1840. (See Figure 1-8 for an early track section) Until mass steel making was
developed, there was a continuing controversy between the use of malleable iron vs.
cast iron for rail. By 1840 wooden ties kept in place by ballast stone had replaced
simple stone surface support.
Haunch
Grooved
Flange Out
Ringwalt
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Railway Industry
Overview
2.1 Introduction
he railway industry encompasses not only the operating railway companies and
transit authorities, but also the various government regulatory agencies, railway
associations, professional organizations, manufacturers and suppliers of
locomotives, railcars, maintenance work equipment and track materials, consultants,
contractors, educational institutes and, most important of all, the shipping customers.
The information in this chapter is of a general nature and may be considered as typical
of the industry. However, each railway company is unique and as such it must be
understood what is included in this chapter may not be correct for a particular
company.
2.2 Railway Companies
Government owned freight railways are nowadays limited to some regional lines where
transportation service must be protected for the economic well being of the
communities. Passenger railways, on the other hand, are generally owned by
governments. Transcontinental services, such as the Amtrak or VIA Rail in Canada,
are corporations solely owned by the respective Federal Governments. These
passenger railway companies normally do not own the trackage infrastructures. Except
for certain connecting routes and dedicated high-speed corridors, they merely operate
the passenger equipment on existing tracks owned by freight railways. Local rapid
transit systems are usually operated as public utilities by the individual municipalities or
transit authorities on their own trackage. Commuter services may be operated by
government agencies or private sector on either their own or other railway owned
trackage.
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The tractive effort (in pounds) available from a locomotive can be roughly calculated
as:
Tractive Effort (lbs.) = Horsepower X (308)
Speed (mph)
Where 308 is 82% of 375 lb-miles per hour per hp. For example, a 3000 hp
locomotive will have approximately 74,000 lbs. tractive effort at 12.5 mph.
2.6.2 Tractive Force and Adhesion
It is the tractive force at the locomotive driving wheels (drivers) at the rail that starts
and moves tonnage up various grades. The maximum tractive force that can be
developed at the rail is equal to the weight on drivers multiplied by the adhesion
(coefficient of friction) of the wheels on the rail.
The primary factors, among others, affecting adhesion are rail condition and speed.
Adhesion decreases as speed increases. At about 10 mph, adhesion varies from less
than 10% on slimy, wet rail to about 40% on dry, sanded rail. In general, with the aid
of the sanders, approximately 25% adhesion is usually available.
As all the wheels on most diesel locomotives are driving wheels, the weight of the
locomotives must be about four times the tractive force developed. The HHP (high
horsepower) units for main line service weigh about 195 tons each on 6 axles. The
maximum tractive force is therefore approximately 97,000 lb. per locomotive or 16,000
lb. per axle; that is, if there is enough horsepower at the wheel rims to develop the
tractive effort.
2.6.3 Drawbar Pull
After some of the tractive effort is used to move the locomotive itself, the remaining
effort, in the form of drawbar pull, is used to move the rest of the train. As the train
speed increases, the tractive effort from the locomotives decreases and the drawbar
pull available to move the train also decreases.
Due to the limited strength of drawbars and coupler knuckles, the number of
locomotives or motorized axles that can be used in the head end of a train is restricted.
Although rated with a minimum strength of 350,000 lb. (general service coupler made
of Grade B steel), coupler knuckle failure may happen at 250,000 lb. due to age and
wear. Grade E knuckles used on some captive services may have an ultimate strength
of 650,000 lb.
To avoid the risk of drawbar failure enroute, it is recommended to limit the number of
motorized axles in a locomotive consist to 18 (three 6-axle units). If more tractive
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effort is required to move the tonnage of a train, the option of in-train motive power
should be considered.
2.6.4 Train Resistance
Train resistance, the force required to move a train, is the sum of the rolling resistance
on tangent level track, grade resistance and curve resistance of the locomotives and
cars. Other resistances due to wind velocity, tunnels or different train marshalling will
not be discussed here.
Rolling Resistance
Rolling Resistance is the sum of the forces that must be overcome by the tractive effort
of the locomotive to move a railway vehicle on level tangent track in still air at a
constant speed. These resistive forces include:
Rolling friction between wheels and rail that depends mainly on the quality of
track.
Bearing resistance, which varies with the weight on each axle and, at low speed,
the type, design and lubrication of the bearing.
Train dynamic forces that include the effects of friction and impact between the
wheel flanges against the gauge side of the rail and those due to sway, concussion,
buff and slack-action. The rail-flange forces vary with speed and quality of the
wheel tread and rail, as well as the tracking effect of the trucks.
Air resistance that varies directly with the cross-sectional area, length and shape of
the vehicle and the square of its speed.
In general, rolling resistance of a train, R (in lb.), can be calculated using an empirical
expression as follows:
R = A + B V + C D V
2
where A, B, C & D are coefficients defining the different resistive forces that are either
independent, dependent or affected by the square of the train speed V.
Davis Formula
The first empirical formula to compute rolling resistance was developed by W.L. Davis
in 1926. The original Davis formula provided satisfactory results for older equipment
with journal bearings within the speed range between 5 and 40 mph. Roller bearings,
increased dimensions, heavier loadings, higher train speeds and changes to track
structure have made it necessary to modify the coefficients proposed by Davis. Since
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then, there had been various modifications. Interested readers may refer to Section 2.1
of Chapter 16 in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering for more information.
Starting Resistance
The resistance caused by friction within a railway vehicles wheel bearings can be
significantly higher at starting than when the vehicle is moving. Depending on the type
of bearings, weight per axle, and the temperature of the bearing, starting resistance can
range from 5 to 50 lb/ton. The ambient temperature and the duration of the stop as
shown below affect temperature of the bearing.
Type of Bearings
Above Freezing
Below Freezing
Journal Bearing
25 lb/ton
35 lb/ton
Roller Bearing
5 lb/ton
15 lb/ton
Starting resistance is generally not much of a problem with the very large tractive effort
available with modern diesel locomotives, except on steeper grades. If necessary, the
locomotive engineer can bunch up the train first, then start the train one car at a time.
The cars already moving will help start the ones to the rear. This is called taking
slack to start.
Grade Resistance
Grade Resistance is the force required to overcome gradient and is equal to 20 lb. per
ton per percent grade. This force is derived from the resolution of force vectors and is
independent of train speed. An up grade produces a resistive force while a down grade
produces an accelerating (negative resistive) force. A train moving up a long tangent of
1% grade at 10 mph, a speed that most tonnage trains slow down to at ruling grade
locations, will have a train resistance coefficient of 22.4 to 23.5 lb. per ton with the
grade resistance accounted for over 85% of the total.
Curve Resistance
Curve Resistance is an estimate of the added resistance a locomotive or car must
overcome when operating through a horizontal curve. The exact details of the
mechanics contributing to curve resistance are not easy to define. It is generally
accepted in the railway industry that curve resistance is approximately the same as a
0.04% up grade per degree of curvature (which equals 0.8 lb. per ton per degree of
curvature) for standard gauge tracks. At very slow speeds, say 1 or 2 mph, the curve
resistance is closer to 1.0 lb. (or 0.05% up grade) per ton per degree of curve.
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Basic Track
The engineer will frequently work from a set of standardized railway
or transit standards when making his or her selection of track
components for any given design project. However, a basic
understanding of elementary track componentry, geometry and
maintenance operations is necessary if intelligent decisions are to
be made within the options that are typically available.
3.1 Track Components
e begin our study with the prime component of the track the rail.
3.1.1 Rail
Rail is the most expensive material in the track.
2
Rail is steel that has been rolled into
an inverted "T" shape. The purpose of the rail is to:
Transfer a train's weight to cross ties.
Provide a smooth running surface.
Guide wheel flanges.
2
Canadian National Railway Track Maintainers Course
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Switch Ties
Switch ties (Figure 3-3) are commonly
hardwood species, usually provided in either
6" or 12" increments beginning at 9'-0" up
to 23'-0" in length. Nominal cross-section
dimensions are 7" x 9", although larger ties
are specified by some railways. The primary
use for switch ties is relegated to turnouts
(thus their name). However, they are also
used in bridge approaches, crossovers, at hot
box detectors and as transition ties. Some
railways use switch ties in heavily traveled
road crossings and at insulated rail joints.
Switch ties ranging in length from 9'-0" to 12'-0" can also be used as "swamp" ties.
The extra length provides additional support for the track in swampy or poor-drained
areas. Some railways have utilized Azobe switch ties (an extremely dense African
wood) for high-speed turnouts. The benefits associated with reduced plate cutting and
fastener retention may be offset by the high import costs of this timber.
Softwood Ties
Softwood timber (Figure 3-4) is
more rot resistant than hardwoods,
but does not offer the resistance of
a hardwood tie to tie plate cutting,
gauge spreading and spike hole
enlargement (spike killing).
Softwood ties also are not as
effective in transmitting the loads to
the ballast section as the hardwood
tie. Softwood and hardwood ties
must not be mixed on the main
track except when changing from
one category to another.
Softwood ties are typically used in
open deck bridges.
Figure 3-3 Switch Timber Photo by Craig Kerner
Figure 3-4 Softwood Timber - Photo by J. E. Riley
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Concrete Ties
Concrete ties (Figure 3-5) are rapidly
gaining acceptance for heavy haul
mainline use, (both track and
turnouts), as well as for curvature
greater than 2
=
3
s
m
dt
da
The maximum jerk value is set at by experience at:
3
0 . 1
s
m
=
and the common range of values of the jerk is:
56
Professor A. Prudhomme, General Revue for French Railroad, November 1976, Paris, France.
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3
5 . 0 3 . 0
s
m
=
The curved ramp is the second type of ramp configuration used in Europe to
transition in superelevation and is shown in Figure 12.7.
The slope of this ramp varies along the
curve and the greatest slope is located in the
middle of the ramp, at point S in Figure
12.6. It follows:
l
h
n
s
=
1000
2
: 1
The curved ramp (spiral) is longer than the linear ramp and thus, it is more suitable for
higher speeds. The curved ramp is used for speeds up to V=180 km/h (112 mph) and
its length is defined by:
straight curve
L L = 41 . 1
where L
straight
is the length of the associated linear ramp (i.e., about 41% longer)
The greater the rate in acceleration change, the longer the required ramp must be. In
the sinusoidal ramps (utilized in the Tokaido Railroad), the length of ramp is calculated
by:
straight
L L = 60 . 1
sin
In the case of the curved ramps, the resultant curve and the slope increase in the form
of two squared parabolas touching, but whose slope constantly changes.
In the case of sinusoidal ramp, the largest curve is at the beginning and at the end of
the ramp, while the vertical velocity is continual.
Sinusoidal Ramp
Sinusoidal ramps are longer in length than the other forms of transition ramps and
allow higher speeds. For
h km V / 180
V n
s
4 . max =
and
400 =
s
n
Figure 12-6 JZ (Yugoslavian) Superstructure Regulations
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12.4.2 Turnout Calculations
Conventional European turnout calculations are based on a geometric projection of
the length and the relative direction at the points where the connections are made.
This method assumes that kinematic forces rather than dynamic forces determine
vehicle response.
57
To determine the essential equations, one uses one of the
projection methods.
The open polygon method option is shown on Figure 12-23 and the closed polygon
method is shown on Figure 12-24. Elements of the turnout are projected on a
convenient coordinate system. From the geometric length relations, the equation can
be written as:
The equation representing the open polygon of Figure 12-23 is:
cos cos cos cos + + = d c b a E A
Figure 12-23 Courtesy of University of Zagreb Figure 12-24 Courtesy of University of Zagreb
The equations representing the closed polygon in Figure 12-24 are:
0 cos cos cos = c b a
0 sin sin sin = + c b a
On the European Railway network, the tangent of an angle rounded off to the nearest
degree expresses the diverging angle.
57
Mejgyeri, J., Geometric Movement in Turnout Development, Austrian Railway Archive Volume 40, Pages
5965, 1985.
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For example:
( ) " 38 ' 42 5 10 : 1 : 1
0
= = n or
( ) " 08 ' 05 4 14 : 1 : 1
0
= = n
The maximum permissible lateral acceleration is 0.8m/sec
2
. Thus, one could develop a
curve in the closure rail with a radius that, for a desired diverging speed, generated a
lateral acceleration of a = V
2
/R, not exceeding 0.8m/sec
2
.
This curve would be
independent of the frog number utilized. In effect, Europeans will utilize a variety of
turnout closure rail curves with the same movable point frog in order to secure
different diverging speeds. The resultant turnout, obviously lengthens significantly as
the radius of the curve grows. This is in direct opposition to the turnout practices of
North American railways, that utilize one given closure rail curve for a given turnout
number.
The effective radius is performed by calculating the offset at the switch heel, based on a
chord (12.2m or 40) centered about the switch heel. The calculated offset will provide
the effective radius ( R ) at the switch heel by using:
V
C
R
=
8
2
On the JZ (Jugoslavian Railroad), the chord length of 12.2m is the shortest distance
between wheel set centers (truck centers currently in service).
Thus, for example, in high-speed operations, the diverging angle can be:
) 5 . 23 : 1 (tan " 22 ' 29 2 = =
and the permissible diverging radius is R=1390m (4,560 ft.). This permits a diverging
speed of 80 km/h in 120 km/H territory.
For 100km/h in a diverging route, we need a curve with a radius of 1500m.
As determined by the following equation:
V
max
= 2.91 R
1/2
This radius is coupled with a tan " = 1:18.5 or diverging angle " = 30538.4.
For Turnout Model EW (1:40.154) (DB Railroad), "=112 7.5 (tan "=1:40.154)
with a radius of 6100m (20,013 ft), which allows a diverging speed of 200 km/h.
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#1 Casky, KY Project Survey
Project Summary Location
Casky, Christian County, Kentucky
Description
Construct new mainline in order to create new 5,600 TF stub ended
industrial lead track.
Railroad(s) involved
CSX Transportation, Inc.
Construction Cost
$1.47 Million
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Construction Duration
Proposed - Spring 2001 to Fall 2001
Actual Summer 2001 to Spring 2002
Statement of Need
The traffic flow along this corridor is high density and high speed.
Switching industries off the main track has caused transportation delays
for through trains and impacted switching operations for five industries.
In addition, future industrial growth in this area is suspended. This
location is the fastest growing industrial area for the CSXT. Five
industries were installed in the last five years. The benefits gained from
the new construction will allow CSX to increase velocity of trains
operating in this corridor and increase the opportunity for future growth
in the Hopkinsville Industrial Park.
Project
Understanding
(Definition)
A new main track, west of the existing line, will be constructed. The old
main track will be used as an industrial lead with access on the south end
only. Industrial Development gains the opportunity to grow the business
on the north side by future extension of the industrial lead. When fully
developed, this industrial lead will connect to the south end of Casky
Siding, providing CSX with a 20,000 foot siding when the industrial lead
is not in use.
The rate of return is 18% for $1.47 Million
Identify
Stakeholders
Railroad
(Critical
Dependencies)
Train Operations
CSX Transportation, Inc.
Planning Department
Train Operations, Design & Construction, Industrial Development,
M/W, Train Control, Real Property, Inc. and Outside Railroad
Contractors (Design, Grading and Track) were main players from the
railroads approach to the project.
Train Operations/Industrial Development Dept.
Defined project scope and provided funding for construction.
Design & Construction
Design and Construction performed preliminary design, prepared estimate
for the track, performed project inspections, managed budget expenditures,
employed track and grading contractors, monitored construction progress,
ordered track materials, coordinated curfews & track time and coordinated
with the County for local road closing.
Engineering Department
MOW performed track inspections, scheduled work trains and provided
track protection for the project.
Train Control performed all work associated with signals.
Real Estate Department
Real estate group researched property issues and negotiated price sales with
local landowners. In addition, handled deed records for new acquisitions.
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Design Contractor
Provided detailed design engineering and construction quantities.
Grading Contractor
Constructed roadbed in accordance with CSX specifications.
Track Contractor
Constructed all track and performed track shifts in accordance with CSX
specifications.
Identify
Stakeholders
Non-Railroad
(Critical
Dependencies)
Christian County the county transportation officials reviewed road crossing
approach design and helped coordinate road crossing closing. Advance
warning signal protection remained flashing lights only.
WorldCom fiber optic company relocated fiber optic cable outside project
limits to allow the start of construction.
5 Industries Sun Chemical Corp., Budd Talent Co., Seimer Milling,
Continental Mills, and Free Flow Pkg. gain better switching operations.
Coordination with Sun Chemical to relocate switch out of mainline and
install in new industrial lead. Track was out of service for 1 week.
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Project Approach
Feasibility Assessment
Construct new main line on west side of existing main track and realign
existing main track, at each end, into the new main. Will need to purchase
property from adjoining property owners in order obtain enough area to
build roadbed in accordance to CSX specifications.
Alternative Analysis
Build new industrial lead track on east side and relocate all industrial switches
out of the main and into the new lead track. Will need to construct roadbed
and realign all industrial tracks for 5 industries. No new property needed,
right of way is sufficient to support roadbed according to CSX specifications.
Rejected this alternative because all 5 industrial tracks would require sub-
standard curvature.
Design
All construction according to CSX specifications.
Roadway materials to be built in accordance with KYTC specifications.
Maximum degree of curvature for industrial tracks is 12 degrees. (Should
never exceed 17 degrees)
All railroad construction is to not interfere with the wetland area.
All track work and grading work to be performed by outside contractors.
Operating Criteria
Time table speed to remain at 60 mph for this segment of track with
temporary slow orders as the work was in process.
Curfew times would only be available on Mondays and not to exceed 8
hours. Maximum allowable track time for any other day would not exceed 4
hours.
Road crossing could be closed for a period of 1 week.
Project Management
Overall project management falls with the Project Engineer from Design &
Construction. The Roadmaster will schedule track protection during the
work and schedule work trains to dump ballast. In addition, the Roadmaster
will provide final inspection of the track construction. Train Control will be
responsible with progressing along with the track construction and manage
all signal-related issues.
Key Project
Elements
Operating Parameters
The railroad operates approximately 40-45 trains per 24-hour period.
Mondays generally have one scheduled critical train, UPS, which runs during
morning hours.
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Schedule
Project to start early Spring 2001 and be completed prior to Thanksgiving,
due to UPS peak season. In addition, asphalt plants close in early November.
Critical Design
Considerations
Property Acquisition
Need to acquire two adjoining parcels of land in order to construct roadbed
according to CSX specifications.
Utility Service Availability
Utility service for crossing protection and industrial switch is not an issue.
The 5 industrial switches are dispatch controlled and already have electrical
service. Industrial lead switch required one pole drop and power was fed by
a nearby electrical line.
Grade-Crossing Considerations
Asphalt approaches for new road crossing shall fall off at a minimum of 1%,
for a distance of 28 feet from the outside edge of rail. Extending further
away, approaches can fall off no greater than 8% until it ties into the existing
road.
Construction Phasing
Grading construction will start after fiber optic cable has been relocated.
Train Control will install buried signal wire in roadbed prior to subballast
installation. Track contractor will start track work after subballast is installed
and all material delivered. Train Control will work along with track
contractor schedule in order to keep signal protection for the railroad. Track
and Grading contractors will coordinate road crossing installation in order to
minimize road crossing closure time.
Project Challenges
Complete project prior to CSX-UPS peak season, which begins November
23rd and ends December 25th.
Start grading work prior to having all property acquisitions under contract.
In addition, Fiber Optic company was waiting on final property lines to
determine which side of track to relocate fiber optic cable.
Completing grading work within 45 days was not attainable. Contractor
experienced 20 days of weather related delays.
Redirect waterway for pipe outlet after grading contractor built pond for local
property owner. Waterway originally exited into wetland/tree line area.
Local property owner, as part of his construction contract with grading
contractor, instructed the contractor to build a pond near the CSX property
line and direct all ditch lines to the north to empty into pond. The pond
elevation was higher than outlet end of pipe, causing water to pond up in
water channel and soak into roadbed. CSX had grading contractor to close
south water channel to pond and redirect waterway for the pipe in opposite
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direction.
Providing a location to spot 8 ribbons of rail prior to grading work being
completed.
Finding a staging area to receive and distribute track material onto roadbed.
Track contractor did not have same construction easement with local
property owner.
Dump ballast on the new main and surfacing the track prior to the track
shifts. Project had limited access and trucking in ballast was not an option.
Our original proposal was to construct the industrial lead up to the first track
shift location on the south end, then shift the main on to the industrial lead
and run trains through the industrial lead switch for 3 days. This meant that
this section of corridor would operate without signals for 3 days. A week
prior to cutover, Transportation rescinded their original plan of approval.
We then decided to install a temporary turnout on the north end in order to
dump ballast and surface track. Track shifts on the north and south ends
would both occur during the same curfew.
Lessons Learned
Need property acquisition to occur prior to construction season starting.
Property acquisitions for project caused 2 months delay, preventing the
Grading Contractor from starting in April.
Provide language in construction contract where Contractor will be penalized
for not meeting the construction schedule. Granted, 20 days of delay was
attributed to weather delays but other outside interferences caused additional
delays.
Recipe for Success
Be firm with outside contractors. Remember that contractors are working
for you. In addition, cover the general conditions during the pre-bid
meetings and after the contract has been awarded. Contractors sometimes
forget their responsibilities and play stupid when told of them.
Instruct Contractors to complete a daily progress report and provide this to
you on a daily/weekly basis. This will allow you to keep up with days
worked, activities performed on each day and can be used as a tool for future
references.
Preach the importance of Safety from the pre-bid meeting up until the
contractor completes the job.
Watch the finances from the beginning and complete budget forecasting
every few weeks to determine if project is on budget.
AREMA
Reference #
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G-1 11 1
STRINGLINING OF RAILROAD CURVES
1995 ROADMASTERS & MAINTENANCE OF WAY ASSOCIATION
COMMITTEE REPORT
Chairman: A.M. Charrow, Asst. Dir. - Mtce., Santa Fe
Co-chairman: B. Jamison, Tech. Instr., Norfolk Southern
In this age of automatic tampers, computers, geometry cars and, of course, reduced
forces, why bother teaching the traditional methods of stringlining? The answer to that
question is that the traditional methods of stringlining will allow the practitioner to
rapidly field determine curvature and, if necessary, line track with low-tech hardware.
Railroad track is a dynamic structure, and there are many causes of its movement from
design alignment to one of irregular alignment, particularly on curves. Train operations
impart forces to the track structure, which, over time, tend to change the alignment.
Our predecessors who discovered that as speeds increased, the alignment entering and
leaving simple curves became distorted recognized this early, which in turn lead to the
development of transition curves between the tangents and simple curves and spirals.
However, even with perfectly designed curves with the correct superelevation and
spiral length for the associated curvature and track speed, lateral forces will still occur as
not every train will be operating at design speed. Running traffic at an unbalanced
condition is a compensation for this, but lateral forces will still be imparted to the track
related to directional tonnage, grades and current of traffic operation.
Therefore, alignment should be expected to change or deteriorate as time goes by
through normal operations, eventually requiring surfacing and lining. Compounding
the above, there exist locations not blessed with perfectly designed or constructed
subgrades, which for various reasons, poor original location, poorly constructed fill,
slides or high water, the alignment changes.
Another type of track instability relates to thermal expansion and contraction, primarily
the dreaded sun-kink, which can make the alignment most irregular, possibly leading to
catastrophic results. Less dramatic changes in alignment will occur also, as I am sure
most of you have seen curves gradually shift in and out during the different seasons,
especially where insufficient ballast exists.
Another cause of irregular curve alignment, or at least alignment different from what
was originally designed, is previous lining. Years of smoothing and surfacing without
staking will result in a curve that while perhaps not particularly bad looking or poor
riding might be off alignment. Likewise, normal maintenance operations, such as tie
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G L O S S A R Y
Glossary-1 11 1
GLOSSARY
GENERAL RAILWAY DEFINITIONS
AND COMMON RAILWAY TERMS
A
AAR:
See Association of American Railroads
Adjacent Track:
In relation to excepted track and for the purposes
of the Track Safety Standards, any track or tracks
next to a track that is designated as an excepted
track. Any tracks or tracks with centerlines that
are 30 feet or closer to the excepted track in
question are considered as adjacent and speeds on
those tracks must not exceed 10 m.p.h.
Adjustment, Rail:
A process whereby the neutral temperature of
continuous welded rail (CWR) is raised or
lowered through the removing or adding of rail.
Administrator:
The chief officer of the Federal Railroad
Administration. That person has the authority to
issue safety regulations and other emergency
directives.
Advanced Signal:
A fixed signal used in connection with one or
more signals to govern the approach of a train or
engine to such signal.
Advanced Train Control System: (ATCS)
Term referring to the next generation of train
control. Aspects of control include accurate train
location, train and locomotive monitoring and
reporting, computerized analysis and track orders,
and automatic order enforcement.
Adzing Machine:
Portable power-operated machine designed to adz
(smooth) the rail seat on ties to provide proper
bearing for rail or tie plates.
AEI:
See Automatic Equipment Identification System
A End:
In a railway freight car, the end that does not
have the brake handle; opposite to the B end
SEE B End.
Air Dump Car:
Hopper Car with air dumping capabilities.
Alinement [or alignment]:
The position of the track or rail in the horizontal
plane expressed as tangent or curve.
Angle Cock:
An appliance used for the purpose of opening or
closing brake pipe on ends of cars, rear ends of
tenders, and front ends of switch engines so
equipped. Provision is made for the supporting
hose at proper angle.
Antisplitting Iron:
A piece of steel strip, beveled on both sides at
one edge, and bent to a desired shape, for
application by driving into the end (cross section)
of a tie or timber to control its splitting.
Approach Track:
In signaling, the section of track on the approach
side of a signal which is equipped with a circuit to
detect the arrival of a train and transmit its
presence to the controlling circuits of the signal
and its associated route. Used to lock a route and
prevent it from being altered once a train has
approached within a safe braking distance, known
as approach control. This prevents the route
being changed at a time when the train could run
onto it and be derailed.
Also use to clear signals normally maintained at
danger until a train has approached within a given
distance. This distance is calculated to ensure the
locomotive engineer sees a red signal as he
approaches. This has the effect of causing the
locomotive engineer to reduce train speed to a
required level, at which point the signal will clear.
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Glossary-32 32 32 32
U
Unbalanced:
The superelevation in a curve that is less than a
calculated value that will otherwise equally
distribute onto both rails the dynamic force of
trains that are traveling at the maximum
authorized speed.
Unbalance Speed:
Traveling through a curve faster than balance
speed. This may also be expressed as the curve
being under elevated for the speed. The amount
of reduction in elevation from balanced can be as
much as 3 inches for conventional equipment.
Undercutter:
Production machine that removes the ballast
from the track in one continuous operation.
Under balanced:
See unbalanced.
Uniform Code of Operating Rules:
An operating rules book formerly used in the
U.S.A.
Unit Train:
A freight train consisting of carloads of the same
commodity moving from origin to one
destination, on one day from one shipper to one
consignee on one bill of lading.
V
V-max:
The maximum speed, based on a mathematical
formula, permitted on a curve based on the
average curvature and average superelevation.
Variation (Crosslevel):
The change in crosslevel between two points
exactly 31 feet apart in a short spiral. [see
definition of short spiral]
W
Waivers:
See exemption.
Waters of the U.S.:
Regulated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
and sometimes state and local authorities they
include: (1) Waters used for interstate or foreign
commerce, (2) all other waters including lakes,
rivers, streams, mudflats, sandflats, wetlands,
sloughs, prairie potholes, wet meadows, playa
takes, or natural ponds, (3) impoundments,
(4) tributaries of waters of the U.S., (5) the
territorial seas, and (6) wetlands adjacent to
waters.
Warp:
See Difference-in-cross-level
Welded Rail:
Two or more rails welded together.
Wetlands:
The transitional land between the terrestrial and
aquatic environment where the water table is
usually at or near the surface, or the land is
covered by shallow water.
Wheel Impact Load Detector (Wild):
A device found in some Hot Box Detectors or as
stand alones, which measure excessive wheel
impact on rail.
Wig Wag:
A reference to the motion of lights on railway,
vehicle-crossing signals.
Willful Violation:
To intentionally circumvent or ignore a regulatory
safety requirement.
Wing Rail:
See Frog: Wing Rail.
Wing Wheel Riser:
See Frog: Wing Wheel Riser.
Wood Trestle:
A wood structure composed of bents supporting
stringers, the whole forming a support for loads
applied to the stringers through the deck.
Work Train:
A train engaged in railway maintenance or repair
work.
Written Authorization:
The formal procedure where a person is
designated in a document generated by a railroad
to conduct certain safety related functions such as
track inspection or maintenance of track under
traffic conditions.
Wye Track:
See Track: Wye.
Y
Yard:
A system of tracks within defined limits provided
for making up trains, storing cars, and other
purposes, over which movements not authorized
by time table or by train-order may be made,
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