Basic Engineering Mathematics

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Alphonce Kimutai Kirui

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Basic
Engineering
Mathematics
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Inmemoryof Elizabeth
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BasicEngineering
Mathematics
FourthEdition
J ohnBird, BSc(Hons), CMath, CEng, FIMA, MIEE, FIIE(Elec), FCollP
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Newnes
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First published1999
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Thirdedition2002
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Fourthedition2005
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Contents
Preface xi
1. Basic arithmetic 1
1.1 Arithmeticoperations 1
1.2 Highest commonfactorsandlowest commonmultiples 3
1.3 Order of precedenceandbrackets 4
2. Fractions, decimals and percentages 6
2.1 Fractions 6
2.2 Ratioandproportion 8
2.3 Decimals 9
2.4 Percentages 11
Assignment 1 13
3. Indices, standard form and engineering notation 14
3.1 Indices 14
3.2 Workedproblemsonindices 14
3.3 Further workedproblemsonindices 16
3.4 Standardform 17
3.5 Workedproblemsonstandardform 18
3.6 Further workedproblemsonstandardform 19
3.7 Engineeringnotationandcommonprexes 19
4. Calculations and evaluation of formulae 21
4.1 Errorsandapproximations 21
4.2 Useof calculator 22
4.3 Conversiontablesandcharts 25
4.4 Evaluationof formulae 27
Assignment 2 29
5. Computer numbering systems 30
5.1 Binarynumbers 30
5.2 Conversionof binarytodenary 30
5.3 Conversionof denarytobinary 31
5.4 Conversionof denarytobinaryviaoctal 32
5.5 Hexadecimal numbers 33
6. Algebra 37
6.1 Basicoperations 37
6.2 Lawsof indices 39
6.3 Bracketsandfactorization 41
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vi Contents
6.4 Fundamental lawsandprecedence 43
6.5 Direct andinverseproportionality 45
Assignment 3 46
7. Simple equations 47
7.1 Expressions, equationsandidentities 47
7.2 Workedproblemsonsimpleequations 47
7.3 Further workedproblemsonsimpleequations 49
7.4 Practical problemsinvolvingsimpleequations 50
7.5 Further practical problemsinvolvingsimpleequations 52
8. Transposition of formulae 54
8.1 Introductiontotranspositionof formulae 54
8.2 Workedproblemsontranspositionof formulae 54
8.3 Further workedproblemsontranspositionof formulae 55
8.4 Harder workedproblemsontranspositionof formulae 57
Assignment 4 59
9. Simultaneous equations 60
9.1 Introductiontosimultaneousequations 60
9.2 Workedproblemsonsimultaneousequationsintwounknowns 60
9.3 Further workedproblemsonsimultaneousequations 62
9.4 Moredifcult workedproblemsonsimultaneousequations 63
9.5 Practical problemsinvolvingsimultaneousequations 65
10. Quadratic equations 69
10.1 Introductiontoquadraticequations 69
10.2 Solutionof quadraticequationsbyfactorization 69
10.3 Solutionof quadraticequationsbycompletingthesquare 71
10.4 Solutionof quadraticequationsbyformula 72
10.5 Practical problemsinvolvingquadraticequations 73
10.6 Thesolutionof linear andquadraticequationssimultaneously 75
11. Inequalities 77
11.1 Introductiontoinequalities 77
11.2 Simpleinequalities 77
11.3 Inequalitiesinvolvingamodulus 78
11.4 Inequalitiesinvolvingquotients 79
11.5 Inequalitiesinvolvingsquarefunctions 79
11.6 Quadraticinequalities 80
Assignment 5 82
12. Straight line graphs 83
12.1 Introductiontographs 83
12.2 Thestraight linegraph 83
12.3 Practical problemsinvolvingstraight linegraphs 88
13. Graphical solution of equations 94
13.1 Graphical solutionof simultaneousequations 94
13.2 Graphical solutionsof quadraticequations 95
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Contents vii
13.3 Graphical solutionof linear andquadraticequationssimultaneously 99
13.4 Graphical solutionof cubicequations 100
Assignment 6 102
14. Logarithms 103
14.1 Introductiontologarithms 103
14.2 Lawsof logarithms 103
14.3 Indicial equations 105
14.4 Graphsof logarithmicfunctions 106
15. Exponential functions 107
15.1 Theexponential function 107
15.2 Evaluatingexponential functions 107
15.3 Thepower seriesfor e
x
108
15.4 Graphsof exponential functions 110
15.5 Napierianlogarithms 111
15.6 EvaluatingNapierianlogarithms 111
15.7 Lawsof growthanddecay 113
Assignment 7 116
16. Reduction of non-linear laws to linear-form 117
16.1 Determinationof law 117
16.2 Determinationof lawinvolvinglogarithms 119
17. Graphs with logarithmic scales 124
17.1 Logarithmicscales 124
17.2 Graphsof theformy =ax
n
124
17.3 Graphsof theformy =ab
x
127
17.4 Graphsof theformy =ae
kx
128
18. Geometry and triangles 131
18.1 Angular measurement 131
18.2 Typesandpropertiesof angles 132
18.3 Propertiesof triangles 134
18.4 Congruent triangles 136
18.5 Similar triangles 137
18.6 Constructionof triangles 139
Assignment 8 141
19. Introduction to trigonometry 142
19.1 Trigonometry 142
19.2 Thetheoremof Pythagoras 142
19.3 Trigonometricratiosof acuteangles 143
19.4 Solutionof right-angledtriangles 145
19.5 Anglesof elevationanddepression 147
19.6 Evaluatingtrigonometricratiosof anyangles 148
20. Trigonometric waveforms 151
20.1 Graphsof trigonometricfunctions 151
20.2 Anglesof anymagnitude 152
20.3 Theproductionof asineandcosinewave 154
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viii Contents
20.4 Sineandcosinecurves 155
20.5 Sinusoidal formA sin(t ) 158
Assignment 9 161
21. Cartesian and polar co-ordinates 162
21.1 Introduction 162
21.2 ChangingfromCartesianintopolar co-ordinates 162
21.3 Changingfrompolar intoCartesianco-ordinates 163
21.4 Useof RP andP R functionsoncalculators 164
22. Areas of plane gures 166
22.1 Mensuration 166
22.2 Propertiesof quadrilaterals 166
22.3 Workedproblemsonareasof planegures 167
22.4 Further workedproblemsonareasof planegures 171
22.5 Areasof similar shapes 172
Assignment 10 173
23. The circle 174
23.2 Propertiesof circles 174
23.3 Arclengthandareaof asector 175
23.4 Theequationof acircle 178
24. Volumes of common solids 180
24.1 Volumesandsurfaceareasof regular solids 180
24.2 Workedproblemsonvolumesandsurfaceareasof regular solids 180
24.3 Further workedproblemsonvolumesandsurfaceareasof regular solids 182
24.4 Volumesandsurfaceareasof frustaof pyramidsandcones 186
24.5 Volumesof similar shapes 189
Assignment 11 190
25. Irregular areas and volumes and mean values of waveforms 191
25.1 Areasof irregular gures 191
25.2 Volumesof irregular solids 193
25.3 Themeanor averagevalueof awaveform 194
26. Triangles and some practical applications 198
26.1 Sineandcosinerules 198
26.2 Areaof anytriangle 198
26.3 Workedproblemsonthesolutionof trianglesandtheir areas 198
26.4 Further workedproblemsonthesolutionof trianglesandtheir areas 200
26.5 Practical situationsinvolvingtrigonometry 201
26.6 Further practical situationsinvolvingtrigonometry 204
Assignment 12 206
27. Vectors 207
27.2 Vector addition 207
27.3 Resolutionof vectors 209
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Contents ix
27.4 Vector subtraction 210
27.5 Relativevelocity 212
28. Adding of waveforms 214
28.1 Combinationof twoperiodicfunctions 214
28.2 Plottingperiodicfunctions 214
28.3 Determiningresultant phasorsbycalculation 215
29. Number sequences 218
29.1 Simplesequences 218
29.2 Thenthtermof aseries 218
29.3 Arithmeticprogressions 219
29.4 Workedproblemsonarithmeticprogression 220
29.5 Further workedproblemsonarithmeticprogressions 221
29.6 Geometricprogressions 222
29.7 Workedproblemsongeometricprogressions 223
29.8 Further workedproblemsongeometricprogressions 224
Assignment 13 225
30. Presentation of statistical data 226
30.1 Somestatistical terminology 226
30.2 Presentationof ungroupeddata 227
30.3 Presentationof groupeddata 230
31. Measures of central tendency and dispersion 235
31.1 Measuresof central tendency 235
31.2 Mean, medianandmodefor discretedata 235
31.3 Mean, medianandmodefor groupeddata 236
31.4 Standarddeviation 237
31.5 Quartiles, decilesandpercentiles 239
32. Probability 241
32.1 Introductiontoprobability 241
32.2 Lawsof probability 241
32.3 Workedproblemsonprobability 242
32.4 Further workedproblemsonprobability 243
Assignment 14 246
33. Introduction to differentiation 247
33.1 Introductiontocalculus 247
33.2 Functional notation 247
33.3 Thegradient of acurve 248
33.4 Differentiationfromrst principles 249
33.5 Differentiationof y =ax
n
bythegeneral rule 250
33.6 Differentiationof sineandcosinefunctions 252
33.7 Differentiationof e
ax
andlnax 253
33.8 Summaryof standardderivatives 254
33.9 Successivedifferentiation 255
33.10 Ratesof change 255
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x Contents
34. Introduction to integration 257
34.1 Theprocessof integration 257
34.2 Thegeneral solutionof integralsof theformax
n
257
34.3 Standardintegrals 257
34.4 Deniteintegrals 260
34.5 Areaunder acurve 261
Assignment 15 265
List of formulae 266
Answers to exercises 270
Index 285
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Preface
Basic Engineering Mathematics, 4th Edition introducesandthenconsolidatesbasicmathematical principlesandpromotesawareness
of mathematical concepts for students needingabroadbasefor further vocational studies. Inthis fourthedition, newmaterial has
beenaddedonengineeringnotation, inequalities, graphswithlogarithmicscalesandaddingwaveforms, together withextrapractical
problemsinterspersedthroughout thetext.
Thetext covers:
(i) theApplied Mathematics content of the GNVQ mandatory unit Applied Science and Mathematics for Engineering at
Intermediatelevel (i.e. GNVQ2)
(ii) themandatoryMathematics for Engineering atAdvancedlevel (i.e. GNVQ3) inEngineering
(iii) theoptional Applied Mathematics for Engineering atAdvancedlevel (i.e. GNVQ3) inEngineering
(iv) theMathematicscontent of Applied Science and Mathematics for Technicians for Edexcel/BTEC First Certicate
(v) themandatoryMathematics for Technicians for National CerticateandNational DiplomainEngineering
(vi) Mathematics 1 for City& GuildsTechnicianCerticateinTelecommunicationsandElectronicsEngineering
(vii) basic mathematics for awiderangeof introductory/access/foundationmathematicscourses
(viii) GCSE revision, andfor similar mathematicscoursesinEnglish-speakingcountriesworld-wide.
Basic Engineering Mathematics 4th Edition providesaleadintoEngineering Mathematics 4th Edition.
Eachtopicconsideredinthetext ispresentedinawaythat assumesinthereader littlepreviousknowledgeof that topic. Theoryis
introducedineachchapter byabrief outlineof essential theory, denitions, formulae, lawsandprocedures. However, thesearekept
toaminimum, for problemsolvingisextensivelyusedtoestablishandexemplifythetheory. It isintendedthat readerswill gainreal
understandingthroughseeingproblemssolvedandthensolvingsimilar problemsthemselves.
Thistextbookcontainssome600 worked problems, followedbyover 1050 further problems (all withanswers attheendof the
book). Thefurther problems arecontainedwithinsome129 Exercises; eachExercisefollows ondirectly fromtherelevant section
of work. 260 line diagrams enhancetheunderstandingof thetheory. Whereat all possibletheproblemsmirror practical situations
foundinengineeringandscience.
At regular intervalsthroughout thetext are15 Assignments tocheck understanding. For example, Assignment 1coversmaterial
containedinchapters 1and2, Assignment 2covers thematerial containedinchapters 3and4, andso on. TheseAssignments do
not haveanswers givensinceit is envisagedthat lecturers couldset theAssignments for students to attempt as part of their course
structure. Lecturersmay obtainacomplimentary set of solutionsof theAssignmentsinanInstructors Manual availablefromthe
publishersviatheinternet seebelow.
At theendof thebookalist of relevant formulae containedwithinthetext isincludedfor convenienceof reference.
Learning by Example isat theheart of Basic Engineering Mathematics 4th Edition.
J ohnBird
DefenceCollegeof Electro-Mechanical Engineering, HMSSultan,
formerlyUniversityof PortsmouthandHighburyCollege, Portsmouth
Instructors Manual
An Instructors Manual containing the full worked solutions for all the Assignments in this book is available for down-
load for lecturers only. To obtain a password please e-mail J.Blackford@Elsevier.comwith the following details: course title,
number of students, your job title and work postal address. To download the Instructors Manual use the following direct URL:
http://books.elsevier.com/manualsprotected/0750665750
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1
Basic arithmetic
1.1 Arithmetic operations
Wholenumbersarecalledintegers. +3, +5, +72arecalledposi-
tiveintegers;13,6,51arecallednegativeintegers.Between
positiveandnegativeintegers is thenumber 0whichis neither
positivenor negative.
Thefour basicarithmeticoperatorsare: add(+), subtract(),
multiply() anddivide()
For additionandsubtraction, whenunlike signs aretogether
inacalculation, theoverall signisnegative. Thus, addingminus
4to 3is 3+4andbecomes 34=1. Like signs together
giveanoverall positive sign. Thussubtractingminus4from3is
3 4andbecomes3+4=7. For multiplicationanddivision,
whenthenumbershaveunlike signs, theanswer isnegative, but
whenthenumbers havelike signs theanswer is positive. Thus
3 4=12, whereas34=+12. Similarly
4
3
=
4
3
and
4
3
= +
4
3
Problem 1. Add27, 74, 81and19
Thisproblemiswrittenas2774+8119
Addingthepositiveintegers: 27
81
Sumof positiveintegersis: 108
Addingthenegativeintegers: 74
19
Sumof negativeintegersis: 93
Taking the sumof the negative integers fromthe sumof the
positiveintegersgives:
108
93
15
Thus27 74 +81 19 =15
Problem 2. Subtract 89from123
Thisiswrittenmathematicallyas12389
123
89
34
Thus123 89 =34
Thisproblemiswrittenas377 74. Likesignstogether give
anoverall positivesign, hence
37774=377+74 377
+74
451
Thus377 74 =451
The problemis 126243. When the second number is larger
thantherst, takethesmaller number fromthelarger andmake
theresult negative.
Thus126243=(243126) 243
126
117
Thus126 243 =117
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2 Basic Engineering Mathematics
269318. Thesumof thenegativeintegersis
269
+318
587
Thus269 318 = 587
Problem 6. Multiply74by13
Thisiswrittenas7413
74
13
222 743
740 7410
Adding: 962
Thus74 13 =962
Problem 7. Multiplyby178by46
Whenthenumbershavedifferent signs, theresult will benega-
tive. (With this in mind, the problemcan now be solved by
multiplying178by46)
178
46
1068
7120
8188
Thus17846=8188and178 (46)=8188
Problem 8. Dividel043by7
Whendividingbythenumbers1to12, itisusual touseamethod
calledshort division.
149
7
_
10
3
4
6
3
Step 1. 7into10goes1, remainder3. Put1abovethe0of 1043
andcarrythe3remainder tothenextdigitontheright,
makingit 34;
Step 2. 7into34goes4, remainder6. Put4abovethe4of 1043
andcarrythe6remainder tothenextdigitontheright,
makingit 63;
Step 3. 7into63goes9, remainder0. Put9abovethe3of 1043.
Thus1043 7 =149
Problem 9. Divide378by14
Whendividingby numberswhicharelarger than12, it isusual
touseamethodcalledlong division.
27
14
_
378
28
98
98
00
(2) 214
(4) 714
(1) 14into37goestwice.
Put 2abovethe7of 378.
(3) Subtract. Bringdownthe
8. 14into98goes7times.
Put 7abovethe8of 378.
(5) Subtract.
Thus378 14 =27
Problem 10. Divide5669by46
This problem may be written as
5669
46
or 566946 or
5669/46
UsingthelongdivisionmethodshowninProblem9gives:
123
46
_
5669
46
106
92
149
138
11
Astherearenomoredigitstobringdown,
5669 46 =123, remainder 11 or 123
11
46
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 1 Further problems on arithmetic operations
(Answers on page 270)
InProblems1to21, determinethevaluesof theexpressions
given:
1. 6782+34
2. 124273+481398
3. 927114+182183247
4. 2417487+242417784712
5. 384192177+2440799+2834
6. 271518250+114711509+113274
7. 7357
8. 813(674)
9. 647872
10. 3151(2763)
11. 48724683
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Basic arithmetic 3
12. 2314847724
13. 3844153774
14. (a) 2617 (b) 4629
15. (a) 78311 (b) 7324
16. (a) 2738 (b) 7729
17. (a) 44823 (b) 143(31)
18. (a) 2886 (b) 97911
19. (a)
1813
7
(b)
896
16
20. (a)
21432
47
(b) 1590456
21. (a)
88738
187
(b) 4685779
22. A screwhasamassof 15grams. Calculate, inkilograms,
themassof 1200suchscrews.
23. Holesaredrilled35.7mmapartinametal plate. If arow
of 26holes is drilled, determinethedistance, in centi-
metres, betweenthecentresof therst andlast holes.
24. Calculate the diameter d and dimensions A and B for
thetemplateshowninFigure1.1. All dimensionsarein
millimetres.
110
B
12
60
50 38
120
d
A
Fig. 1.1
1.2 Highest common factors and lowest
common multiples
When two or more numbers are multiplied together, the indi-
vidual numbers are called factors. Thus a factor is a number
whichdividesintoanothernumberexactly.Thehighest common
factor (HCF) is thelargest number which divides into two or
morenumbersexactly.
A multiple is a number which contains another number an
exact number of times. The smallest number which is exactly
divisibleby each of two or morenumbers is called thelowest
common multiple (LCM).
Problem 11. DeterminetheHCF of thenumbers 12, 30
and42
Eachnumber isexpressedintermsof itslowest factors. Thisis
achievedbyrepeatedlydividingbytheprimenumbers2, 3, 5, 7,
11, 13. . . (wherepossible) inturn. Thus
12 2 2 3
30 2 3 5
42 2 3 7
Thefactorswhicharecommontoeachof thenumbersare2in
column1and3incolumn3, shownby thebrokenlines. Hence
theHCF is 2 3, i.e. 6. That is, 6is thelargest number which
will divideinto12, 30and42.
Problem 12. DeterminetheHCF of thenumbers30, 105,
210and1155
UsingthemethodshowninProblem11:
30 2 3 5
105 3 5 7
210 2 3 5 7
1155 3 5 711
Thefactorswhicharecommontoeachof thenumbersare3in
column2and5incolumn3. HencetheHCF is 3 5 =15.
Problem 13. DeterminetheLCM of thenumbers 12, 42
and90
TheLCM is obtained by nding thelowest factors of each of
thenumbers, as showninProblems 11and12above, andthen
selectingthelargest groupof anyof thefactorspresent. Thus
12 2 2 3
42 2 3 7
90 2 3 3 5
Thelargest groupof anyof thefactorspresent areshownbythe
brokenlinesandare22in12, 33in90, 5in90and7in42.
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Hence the LCM is 2 2 3 3 5 7 =1260, and is the
smallestnumber which12, 42and90will all divideintoexactly.
Problem14. DeterminetheLCMof thenumbers150,210,
735and1365
UsingthemethodshowninProblem13above:
150 2 3 5 5
210 2 3 5 7
735 3 5 7 7
1365 3 5 7 13
The LCM is 2 3 5 5 7 7 13 =95550
Exercise 2 Further problems on highest common
factors and lowest common multiples
InProblems1to6nd(a) theHCF and(b) theLCM of the
numbersgiven:
1. 6, 10, 14 2. 12, 30, 45
3. 10, 15, 70, 105 4. 90, 105, 300
5. 196, 210, 910, 462 6. 196, 350, 770
1.3 Order of precedence and brackets
Whenaparticular arithmetic operationistobeperformedrst,
thenumbers andtheoperator(s) areplacedinbrackets. Thus 3
timestheresultof 6minus2iswrittenas3(62).Inarithmetic
operations, theorder inwhichoperationsareperformedare:
(i) todeterminethevaluesof operationscontainedinbrackets;
(ii) multiplication and division (the word of also means
multiply); and
(iii) additionandsubtraction.
This order of precedence can be remembered by the word
BODMAS, standingfor Brackets, Of, Division, Multiplication,
AdditionandSubtraction, takeninthat order.
Thebasiclawsgoverningtheuseof bracketsandoperatorsare
shownbythefollowingexamples:
(i) 2+3=3+2, i.e. theorder of numbers when adding does
not matter;
(ii) 23=32, i.e. the order of numbers when multiplying
doesnot matter;
(iii) 2+(3+4)=(2+3)+4, i.e. the use of brackets when
addingdoesnot affect theresult;
(iv) 2(34)=(23)4, i.e. the use of brackets when
multiplyingdoesnot affect theresult;
(v) 2(3+4)=2(3+4)=23+24, i.e. anumber placed
outsideof abracket indicatesthat thewholecontentsof the
bracket must bemultipliedbythat number;
(vi) (2+3)(4+5)=(5)(9)=45, i.e. adjacent brackets indicate
multiplication;
(vii) 2[3+ (4 5)] = 2[3+ 20] = 2 23 = 46, i.e. whenan
expression contains inner and outer brackets, the inner
bracketsareremovedrst.
Problem 15. Findthevalueof 6+4(53)
Theorderof precedenceof operationsisrememberedbytheword
BODMAS.
Thus 6+4(53) = 6+42 (Brackets)
= 6+2 (Division)
= 8 (Addition)
Problem 16. Determinethevalueof
1323+14(2+5)
1323+14(2+5) = 1323+147 (B)
= 1323+2 (D)
= 136+2 (M)
= 156 (A)
= 9 (S)
Problem 17. Evaluate
16(2+6) +18[3+(46) 21]
16(2+6)+18[3+(46)21]
= 16(2+6)+18[3+2421) (B)
= 168+186 (B)
= 2+186 (D)
= 2+108 (M)
= 110 (A)
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Basic arithmetic 5
Problem 18. Findthevalueof
234(27) +
(1444)
(148)
234(27)+
(1444)
(148)
= 23414+
36
6
(B)
= 23414+6 (D)
= 2356+6 (M)
= 2956 (A)
= 27 (S)
Exercise 3 Further problems on order of precedence
and brackets (Answers on page 270)
SimplifytheexpressionsgiveninProblems1to7:
1. 14+315
2. 17124
3. 86+24(142)
4. 7(2318)(125)
5. 6328(142)+26
6.
112
16
11917+(319)
7.
(5014)
3
+7(167)7
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2
Fractions, decimals and percentages
2.1 Fractions
When 2 is divided by 3, it may be written as
2
3
or 2/3.
2
3
is
calledafraction. Thenumber abovetheline, i.e. 2, iscalledthe
numerator andthenumber belowtheline, i.e. 3, is calledthe
denominator.
Whenthevalueof thenumerator islessthanthevalueof the
denominator, thefractioniscalledaproper fraction; thus
2
3
isa
proper fraction. Whenthevalueof thenumerator isgreater than
the denominator, the fraction is called an improper fraction.
Thus
7
3
is an improper fraction andcan also beexpressedas a
mixed number, that is, an integer and aproper fraction. Thus
theimproper fraction
7
3
isequal tothemixednumber 2
1
3
.
When a fraction is simplied by dividing the numerator
and denominator by the same number, the process is called
cancelling. Cancellingby0isnot permissible.
Problem 1. Simplify
1
3
+
2
7
TheLCM of thetwodenominatorsis37, i.e. 21.
Expressingeachfractionsothattheirdenominatorsare21, gives:
1
3
+
2
7
=
1
3
7
7
+
2
7
3
3
=
7
21
+
6
21
=
7+6
21
=
13
21
Alternatively:
Step(2) Step(3)

1
3
+
2
7
=
(71) +(32)
21
Step(1)
Step 1: theLCM of thetwodenominators;
Step 2: for thefraction
1
3
, 3into21goes7times, 7the
numerator is71;
Step 3: for thefraction
2
7
, 7into21goes3times, 3the
numerator is32.
Thus
1
3
+
2
7
=
7+6
21
=
13
21
asobtainedpreviously.
Problem 2. Findthevalueof 3
2
3
2
1
6
Onemethodistosplitthemixednumbersintointegersandtheir
fractional parts. Then
3
2
3
2
1
6
=
_
3+
2
3
_
_
2+
1
6
_
= 3+
2
3
2
1
6
= 1+
4
6
1
6
= 1
3
6
= 1
1
2
Another method is to express themixed numbers as improper
fractions.
Since3=
9
3
, then3
2
3
=
9
3
+
2
3
=
11
3
Similarly, 2
1
6
=
12
6
+
1
6
=
13
6
Thus 3
2
3
2
1
6
=
11
3

13
6
=
22
6

13
6
=
9
6
=1
1
2
as obtained
previously.
Problem 3. Evaluate7
1
8
5
3
7
7
1
8
5
3
7
=
_
7+
1
8
_
_
5+
3
7
_
= 7+
1
8
5
3
7
= 2+
1
8
3
7
= 2+
7183
56
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Fractions, decimals and percentages 7
= 2+
724
56
= 2+
17
56
= 2
17
56
=
112
56

17
56
=
11217
56
=
95
56
= 1
39
56
Problem 4. Determinethevalueof 4
5
8
3
1
4
+1
2
5
4
5
8
3
1
4
+1
2
5
= (43+1) +
_
5
8
1
4
+
2
5
_
= 2+
55101+82
40
= 2+
2510+16
40
= 2+
31
40
= 2
31
40
3
7
14
15
Dividingnumerator anddenominator by3gives:
1
3
7

14
15
5
=
1
7
14
5
=
114
75
Dividingnumerator anddenominator by7gives:
1
14
2
1
75
=
12
15
=
2
5
Thisprocessof dividingboththenumerator anddenominator of
afractionbythesamefactor(s) iscalledcancelling.
Problem 6. Evaluate1
3
5
2
1
3
3
3
7
Mixednumbersmust beexpressedasimproper fractionsbefore
multiplicationcanbeperformed. Thus,
1
3
5
2
1
3
3
3
7
=
_
5
5
+
3
5
_
_
6
3
+
1
3
_
_
21
7
+
3
7
_
=
8
5
7
1
3
24
8
7
1
=
818
511
=
64
5
= 12
4
5
Problem 7. Simplify
3
7
12
21
3
7
12
21
=
3
7
12
21
Multiplyingbothnumerator anddenominator by thereciprocal
of thedenominator gives:
3
7
12
21
=
1
3
1
7
21
3
12
4
1
12
121

21
1
12
1
=
3
4
1
=
3
4
This methodcanberememberedby therule: invert thesecond
fractionandchangetheoperationfromdivisiontomultiplication.
Thus:
3
7
12
21
=
1
3
1
7
21
3
12
4
=
3
4
asobtainedpreviously.
Problem 8. Findthevalueof 5
3
5
7
1
3
The mixed numbers must be expressed as improper fractions.
Thus,
5
3
5
7
1
3
=
28
5

22
3
=
14
28
5

3
22
11
=
42
55
Problem 9. Simplify
1
3
_
2
5
+
1
4
_

_
3
8
1
3
_
The order of precedence of operations for problems contain-
ing fractions is the same as that for integers, i.e. remembered
byBODMAS (Brackets, Of, Division, Multiplication,Addition
andSubtraction). Thus,
1
3
_
2
5
+
1
4
_
_
3
8
1
3
_
=
1
3
42+51
20

3
1
24
8
(B)
=
1
3
13
520

8
2
1
(D)
=
1
3
26
5
(M)
=
(51) (326)
15
(S)
=
73
15
= 4
13
15
Problem 10. Determinethevalueof
7
6
of
_
3
1
2
2
1
4
_
+5
1
8
3
16
1
2
7
6
of
_
3
1
2
2
1
4
_
+5
1
8
3
16
1
2
=
7
6
of 1
1
4
+
41
8

3
16
1
2
(B)
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=
7
6
5
4
+
41
8

3
16
1
2
(O)
=
7
6
5
4
+
41
1
8
16
2
3

1
2
(D)
=
35
24
+
82
3

1
2
(M)
=
35+656
24

1
2
(A)
=
691
24

1
2
(A)
=
69112
24
(S)
=
679
24
= 28
7
24
Exercise 4 Further problems on fractions (Answers
on page 270)
EvaluatetheexpressionsgiveninProblems1to13:
1. (a)
1
2
+
2
5
(b)
7
16
1
4
2. (a)
2
7
+
3
11
(b)
2
9
1
7
+
2
3
3. (a) 5
3
13
+3
3
4
(b) 4
5
8
3
2
5
4. (a) 10
3
7
8
2
3
(b) 3
1
4
4
4
5
+1
5
6
5. (a)
3
4
5
9
(b)
17
35
15
119
6. (a)
3
5
7
9
1
2
7
(b)
13
17
4
7
11
3
4
39
7. (a)
1
4
3
11
1
5
39
(b)
3
4
1
4
5
8. (a)
3
8
45
64
(b) 1
1
3
2
5
9
9.
1
3
3
4
16
27
10.
1
2
+
3
5
9
15
1
3
11.
7
15
of
_
15
5
7
_
+
_
3
4
15
16
_
12.
1
4
2
3
1
3
3
5
+
2
7
13.
_
2
3
1
1
4
_

_
2
3
+
1
4
_
+1
3
5
14. If astoragetank is holding 450litres when it is three-
quarters full, howmuchwill it containwhenit is two-
thirdsfull?
15. Threepeople, P, QandRcontributetoafund, Pprovides
3/5 of the total, Q provides 2/3 of the remainder, and
R provides 8. Determine(a) thetotal of thefund, (b)
thecontributionsof P andQ.
2.2 Ratio and proportion
Theratioof onequantitytoanotherisafraction,andisthenumber
of times one quantity is contained in another quantity of the
same kind. If onequantityisdirectly proportional toanother,
then as one quantity doubles, the other quantity also doubles.
When aquantity is inversely proportional to another, then as
onequantitydoubles, theother quantityishalved.
Problem 11. Divide126intheratioof 5to13.
Becausetheratioistobe5partsto13parts, thenthetotal number
of partsis5+13, that is18. Then,
18partscorrespondto126
Hence 1part correspondsto
126
18
=7,
5 parts correspond to 57=35 and 13 parts correspond to
137=91
(Check: theparts must addupto thetotal 35+91=126=the
total.)
Problem12. Apieceof timber273cmlongiscutintothree
piecesintheratioof 3to7to11. Determinethelengthsof
thethreepieces.
The total number of parts is 3+7+11, that is, 21. Hence 21
partscorrespondto273cm
1part correspondsto
273
21
= 13cm
3partscorrespondto 313= 39cm
i.e.the lengths of the three pieces are 39 cm, 91 cmand143 cm.
(Check: 39+91+143=273)
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Problem 13. A gear wheel having80teethisinmeshwith
a25toothgear. What isthegear ratio?
Gear ratio=80: 25=
80
25
=
16
5
=3.2
i.e. gear ratio=16:5 or 3.2:1
Problem 14. Express25pasaratioof 4.25l
Workinginquantitiesof the same kind, therequiredratiois
25
425
i.e.
1
17
That is, 25pis
1
17
thof 4.25. Thismaybewritteneither as:
25:425: :1:17 (statedas25isto425as1isto17) or as
25
425
=
1
17
Problem 15. Analloyismadeupof metalsA andBinthe
ratio2.5:1bymass. Howmuchof A hastobeaddedto6kg
of B tomakethealloy?
RatioA:B: :2.5:1i.e.
A
B
=
2.5
1
=2.5
WhenB=6kg,
A
6
=2.5fromwhich, A=62.5=15 kg
Problem 16. If 3peoplecancompleteatask in4hours,
nd howlong it will take5 peopleto completethesame
task, assumingtherateof workremainsconstant.
The more the number of people, the more quickly the task is
done, henceinverseproportionexists.
3peoplecompletethetaskin4hours,
1persontakesthreetimesaslong, i.e. 43=12hours,
5peoplecandoit inonefthof thetimethat onepersontakes,
that is
12
5
hoursor 2 hours 24 minutes.
Exercise 5 Further problems on ratio and proportion
1. Divide312mmintheratioof 7to17.
2. Divide621cmintheratioof 3to7to13.
3. 4.94istobedividedbetweentwopeopleintheratioof
9to17. Determinehowmucheachpersonwill receive.
4. Whenmixingaquantityof paints, dyesof four different
colours areusedintheratioof 7:3:19:5. If themass of
therstdyeusedis3
1
2
g, determinethetotal massof the
dyesused.
5. Determine how much copper and how much zinc is
needed to makea99kg brass ingot if they haveto be
intheproportionscopper:zinc: :8:3bymass.
6. Ittakes21hoursfor12mentoresurfaceastretchof road.
Findhowmanymenittakestoresurfaceasimilarstretch
of roadin50hours24minutes, assumingthework rate
remainsconstant.
7. It takes 3 hours 15 minutes to y from city A to
city B at aconstant speed. Find how long thejourney
takesif:
(a) thespeedis1
1
2
timesthat of theoriginal speedand
(b) if thespeedisthree-quartersof theoriginal speed.
2.3 Decimals
Thedecimal systemof numbers is based on thedigits 0 to 9.
A number suchas53.17iscalledadecimal fraction, adecimal
pointseparatingtheinteger part, i.e. 53, fromthefractional part,
i.e. 0.17.
A number which can be expressed exactly as a decimal
fractionis calledaterminating decimal andthosewhichcan-
not beexpressed exactly as adecimal fraction arecalled non-
terminating decimals. Thus,
3
2
=1.5 is a terminating
decimal, but
4
3
=1.33333. . . is a non-terminating decimal.
1.33333. . . can be written as 1.
3, called one point-three

recurring.
Theanswer toanon-terminatingdecimal maybeexpressedin
twoways, dependingontheaccuracyrequired:
(i) correct to a number of signicant gures, that is, gures
whichsignifysomething, and
(ii) correcttoanumber of decimal places, thatis, thenumber of
guresafter thedecimal point.
Thelast digit intheanswer is unalteredif thenext digit onthe
right isinthegroupof numbers0, 1, 2, 3or 4, but isincreased
by1if thenextdigitontherightisinthegroupof numbers5, 6,
7, 8or 9. Thusthenon-terminatingdecimal 7.6183. . . becomes
7.62, correct to3signicant gures, sincethenext digit onthe
right is8, whichisinthegroupof numbers5, 6, 7, 8or 9. Also
7.6183. . . becomes7.618, correct to3decimal places, sincethe
next digit ontheright is3, whichisinthegroupof numbers0,
1, 2, 3or 4.
Problem 17. Evaluate42.7+3.04+8.7+0.06
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Thenumbersarewrittensothatthedecimal pointsareundereach
other. Eachcolumnisadded, startingfromtheright.
42.7
3.04
8.7
0.06
54.50
Thus42.7 +3.04 +8.7 +0.06 =54.50
Problem 18. Take81.70from87.23
Thenumbersarewrittenwiththedecimal pointsundereachother.
87.23
81.70
5.53
Thus87.23 81.70 =5.53
23.417.8357.6+32.68
Thesumof thepositivedecimal fractionsis
23.4+32.68= 56.08
Thesumof thenegativedecimal fractionsis
17.83+57.6= 75.43
Takingthesumof thenegativedecimal fractions fromthesum
of thepositivedecimal fractionsgives:
56.0875.43
i.e. (75.4356.08)=19.35
Problem 20. Determinethevalueof 74.33.8
Whenmultiplyingdecimal fractions: (i) thenumbersaremulti-
pliedasif they areintegers, and(ii) thepositionof thedecimal
point intheanswer is suchthat thereareas many digits to the
rightof itasthesumof thedigitstotherightof thedecimal points
of thetwonumbersbeingmultipliedtogether. Thus
(i) 743
38
5944
22290
28234
(ii) As there are (1+1)=2 digits to the right of the deci-
mal points of the two numbers being multiplied together,
(74.33.8), then
74.3 3.8 =282.34
Problem 21. Evaluate 37.811.7, correct to (i) 4 sig-
nicant guresand(ii) 4decimal places.
37.811.7=
37.81
1.7
Thedenominator is changed into an integer by multiplying by
10. Thenumerator is alsomultipliedby 10tokeepthefraction
thesame. Thus
37.811.7=
37.8110
1.710
=
378.1
17
Thelong division issimilar tothelongdivisionof integersand
therst four stepsareasshown:
22.24117..
17
_
378.100000
34
38
34
41
34
70
68
20
(i) 37.81 1.7 =22.24, correct to 4 signicant gures, and
(ii) 37.81 1.7 =22.2412, correct to 4 decimal places.
Problem 22. Convert (a) 0.4375toaproper fractionand
(b) 4.285toamixednumber.
(a) 0.4375canbewrittenas
0.437510000
10000
withoutchanging
itsvalue,
i.e. 0.4375=
4375
10000
Bycancelling
4375
10000
=
875
2000
=
175
400
=
35
80
=
7
16
i.e. 0.4375 =
7
16
(b) Similarly, 4.285 =4
285
1000
=4
57
200
Problem 23. Expressasdecimal fractions:
(a)
9
16
and(b) 5
7
8
(a) Toconvertaproperfractiontoadecimal fraction, thenumer-
ator is divided by the denominator. Division by 16 can
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be done by the long division method, or, more simply, by
dividingby2andthen8:
4.50 0.5625
Thus,
9
16
=0.5625
2
_
9.00 8
_
4.5
5
0
2
0
4
0
(b) Formixednumbers, itisonlynecessarytoconverttheproper
fractionpartof themixednumbertoadecimal fraction.Thus,
dealingwiththe
7
8
gives:
0.875
i.e.
7
8
= 0.875
8
_
7.000
Thus5
7
8
=5.875
Exercise 6 Further problems on decimals (Answers
on page 270)
InProblems1to7, determinethevaluesof theexpressions
given:
1. 23.6+14.7118.97.421
2. 73.84113.247+8.210.068
3. 5.734.2
4. 3.84.10.7
5. 374.10.006
6. 421.817, (a) correct to 4 signicant gures and
(b) correct to3decimal places.
7.
0.0147
2.3
, (a) correct to5decimal placesand
(b) correct to2signicant gures.
8. Convert toproper fractions:
(a) 0.65(b) 0.84(c) 0.0125(d) 0.282and(e) 0.024
9. Convert tomixednumbers:
(a) 1.82(b) 4.275(c) 14.125(d) 15.35and
(e) 16.2125
In Problems 10 to 15, express as decimal fractions to the
accuracystated:
10.
4
9
, correct to5signicant gures.
11.
17
27
, correct to5decimal place.
12. 1
9
16
13. 53
5
11
, correct to3decimal places.
14. 13
31
37
15. 8
9
13
16. Determinethedimensionmarkedx inthelengthof shaft
showninFigure2.1. Thedimensionsareinmillimetres.
82.92
27.41 8.32 34.67 x
Fig. 2.1
17. A tank contains 1800litres of oil. How many tins
containing0.75litrescanbelledfromthistank?
2.4 Percentages
Percentages are used to give a common standard and are
fractions having the number 100 as their denominators. For
example, 25per cent means
25
100
i.e.
1
4
andiswritten25%.
Problem 24. Express as percentages: (a) 1.875 and
(b) 0.0125
A decimal fractionis convertedto apercentageby multiplying
by100. Thus,
(a) 1.875correspondsto1.875100%, i.e. 187.5%
(b) 0.0125correspondsto0.0125100%, i.e. 1.25%
Problem 25. Expressaspercentages:
(a)
5
16
and(b) 1
2
5
To convert fractions to percentages, they are (i) converted to
decimal fractionsand(ii) multipliedby100
(a) By division,
5
16
=0.3125, hence
5
16
corresponds to
0.3125100%, i.e. 31.25%
(b) Similarly, 1
2
5
=1.4whenexpressedasadecimal fraction.
Hence1
2
5
=1.4100%=140%
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Problem26. Ittakes50minutestomachineacertainpart.
Usinganewtypeof tool, thetimecanbereducedby15%.
Calculatethenewtimetaken.
15%of 50minutes=
15
100
50=
750
100
=7.5minutes.
Hencethenew time taken is507.5=42.5 minutes.
Alternatively, if the time is reduced by 15%, then it now
takes 85% of the original time, i.e. 85% of 50=
85
100
50=
4250
100
=42.5 minutes, asabove.
Problem 27. Find12.5%of 378
12.5% of 378 means
12.5
100
378, since per cent means per
hundred.
Hence12.5%of 378=
12.5
1
100
8
378=
378
8
=47.25
Problem 28. Express 25 minutes as a percentage of
2hours, correct tothenearest 1%.
Working in minute units, 2 hours=120 minutes. Hence
25minutesis
25
120
thsof 2hours.
Bycancelling,
25
120
=
5
24
Expressing
5
24
asadecimal fractiongives0.208
3
Multiplyingby100toconvertthedecimal fractiontoapercentage
gives:
0.208
3100=20.8
3%
Thus25 minutes is 21% of 2 hours, correct tothenearest 1%.
Problem 29. A Germansilver alloyconsistsof 60%cop-
per, 25%zincand15%nickel. Determinethemassesof the
copper, zincandnickel ina3.74kilogramblockof thealloy.
Bydirect proportion:
100% correspondsto3.74kg
1% correspondsto
3.74
100
= 0.0374kg
60% correspondsto600.0374= 2.244kg
Thus, the masses of the copper, zinc and nickel are 2.244 kg,
0.935 kg and 0.561 kg, respectively.
(Check: 2.244+0.935+0.561=3.74)
Exercise 7 Further problems percentages (Answers
on page 271)
1. Convert topercentages:
(a) 0.057 (b) 0.374 (c) 1.285
2. Expressaspercentages, correct to3signicant gures:
(a)
7
33
(b)
19
24
(c) 1
11
16
3. Calculatecorrect to4signicant gures:
(a) 18%of 2758tonnes (b) 47%of 18.42grams
(c) 147%of 14.1seconds
4. When 1600 bolts aremanufactured, 36 areunsatisfac-
tory. Determinethepercentageunsatisfactory.
5. Express:
(a) 140kgasapercentageof 1t
(b) 47sasapercentageof 5min
(c) 13.4cmasapercentageof 2.5m
6. A blockof monel alloyconsistsof 70%nickel and30%
copper. If itcontains88.2gof nickel, determinethemass
of copper intheblock.
7. A drilling machine should be set to 250rev/min. The
nearest speedavailableonthemachineis 268rev/min.
Calculatethepercentageoverspeed.
8. Twokilogramsof acompoundcontains30%of element
A, 45%of element B and25%of element C. Determine
themassesof thethreeelementspresent.
9. A concretemixturecontains seven parts by volumeof
ballast, four parts by volumeof sandandtwo parts by
volumeof cement. Determinethepercentageof eachof
these three constituents correct to the nearest 1%and
themass of cement in atwo tonnedry mix, correct to
1signicant gure.
10. Inasampleof ironore, 18%is iron. Howmuchoreis
neededtoproduce3600kgof iron?
11. A screws dimension is 12.58%mm. Calculate the
possiblemaximumandminimumlengthof thescrew.
12. Theoutputpowerof anengineis450kW.If theefciency
of theengineis75%, determinethepower input.
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Assignment 1
This assignment covers the material contained in
Chapters 1 and 2. The marks for each question are
showninbracketsat theendof eachquestion.
1. Evaluatethefollowing:
(a) 2016(593)
(b) 73+35(114)
(c)
120
15
13319+(217)
(d)
2
5
1
15
+
5
6
(e) 49.3197.763+9.440.079 (14)
2. Determine, bylongmultiplication3742 (3)
3. Evaluate, bylongdivision
4675
11
(3)
4. Find(a) thehighestcommonfactor, and(b) thelowest
commonmultipleof thefollowingnumbers:
15 40 75 120 (6)
5. Simplify(a) 2
2
3
3
1
3
(b)
1
_
4
7
2
1
4
_
_
1
3
+
1
5
_
+2
7
24
(9)
6. A piece of steel, 1.69mlong, is cut into three pieces
intheratio 2to 5to 6. Determine, incentimeters, the
lengthsof thethreepieces. (4)
7. Evaluate
576.29
19.3
(a) correct to4signicant gures
(b) correct to1decimal place (4)
8. Express7
9
46
correct to2decimal places (2)
9. Determine, correct to 1 decimal places, 57% of
17.64g (2)
10. Express 54.7mmas apercentageof 1.15m, correct to
3signicant gures. (3)
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3
Indices, standard form and engineering
notation
3.1 Indices
Thelowest factorsof 2000are2222555. These
factorsarewrittenas2
4
5
3
, where2and5arecalledbases and
thenumbers4and3arecalledindices.
Whenanindex is aninteger it is calledapower. Thus, 2
4
is
calledtwotothepowerof four, andhasabaseof 2andanindex
of 4. Similarly, 5
3
iscalledvetothepower of 3 andhasabase
of 5andanindexof 3.
Special namesmaybeusedwhentheindicesare2and3, these
beingcalledsquared andcubed, respectively.Thus7
2
iscalled
sevensquared and9
3
iscalledninecubed. Whennoindexis
shown, thepower is1, i.e. 2means2
1
.
Reciprocal
Thereciprocal of anumber iswhentheindexis1anditsvalue
is given by 1 divided by the base. Thus the reciprocal of 2 is
2
1
anditsvalueis
1
2
or 0.5. Similarly, thereciprocal of 5is5
1
whichmeans
1
5
or 0.2
Square root
The square root of a number is when the index is
1
2
, and
the square root of 2 is written as 2
1/2
or

2. The value of a
squareroot is thevalueof thebasewhich when multiplied by
itself givesthenumber. Since33=9, then
9=3. However,
(3)(3)=9, so
9=3. There are always two answers

whenndingthesquareroot of anumber andthis is shownby
puttingbotha+ anda signinfront of theanswer toasquare
root problem. Thus
9=3and4
1/2
=
4=2, andsoon.
Laws of indices
When simplifying calculations involving indices, certain basic
rules or laws can beapplied, calledthelaws of indices. These
aregivenbelow.
(i) When multiplying two or morenumbers having thesame
base, theindicesareadded. Thus
3
2
3
4
= 3
2+4
= 3
6
(ii) When a number is divided by a number having the same
base, theindicesaresubtracted. Thus
3
5
3
2
= 3
52
= 3
3
(iii) When a number which is raised to a power is raised to a
further power, theindicesaremultiplied. Thus
(3
5
)
2
= 3
52
= 3
10
(iv) Whenanumber hasanindexof 0, itsvalueis1.Thus3
0
=1
(v) A number raised to a negative power is the reciprocal of
that number raised to a positive power. Thus 3
4
=
1
3
4
Similarly,
1
2
3
=2
3
(vi) Whenanumberisraisedtoafractional powerthedenomina-
torof thefractionistherootof thenumberandthenumerator
isthepower.
Thus 8
2/3
=
3
8
2
= (2)
2
= 4
and 25
1/2
=
2
25
1
=
25
1
= 5
(Notethat
)
3.2 Worked problems on indices
Problem 1. Evaluate: (a) 5
2
5
3
, (b) 3
2
3
4
3 and
(c) 22
2
2
5
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Indices and standard form 15
Fromlaw(i):
(a) 5
2
5
3
=5
(2+3)
=5
5
=55555=3125
(b) 3
2
3
4
3=3
(2+4+1)
=3
7
=33. . . to7terms
=2187
(c) 22
2
2
5
=2
(1+2+5)
=2
8
=256
Problem 2. Findthevalueof: (a)
7
5
7
3
and(b)
5
7
5
4
Fromlaw(ii):
(a)
7
5
7
3
=7
(53)
=7
2
=49
(b)
5
7
5
4
=5
(74)
=5
3
=125
Problem 3. Evaluate: (a) 5
2
5
3
5
4
and
(b) (33
5
) (3
2
3
3
)
Fromlaws(i) and(ii):
(a) 5
2
5
3
5
4
=
5
2
5
3
5
4
=
5
(2+3)
5
4
=
5
5
5
4
=5
(54)
=5
1
=5
(b) (33
5
)(3
2
3
3
)=
33
5
3
2
3
3
=
3
(1+5)
3
(2+3)
=
3
6
3
5
=3
65
=3
1
=3
Problem 4. Simplify: (a) (2
3
)
4
(b) (3
2
)
5
, expressing the
answersinindexform.
Fromlaw(iii):
(a) (2
3
)
4
=2
34
=2
12
(b) (3
2
)
5
=3
25
=3
10
Problem 5. Evaluate:
(10
2
)
3
10
4
10
2
Fromthelawsof indices:
(10
2
)
3
10
4
10
2
=
10
(23)
10
(4+2)
=
10
6
10
6
= 10
66
= 10
0
= 1
Problem 6. Findthevalueof (a)
2
3
2
4
2
7
2
5
and(b)
(3
2
)
3
33
9
Fromthelawsof indices:
(a)
2
3
2
4
2
7
2
5
=
2
(3+4)
2
(7+5)
=
2
7
2
12
=2
712
=2
5
=
1
2
5
=
1
32
(b)
(3
2
)
3
33
9
=
3
23
3
1+9
=
3
6
3
10
=3
610
=3
4
=
1
3
4
=
1
81
Problem 7. Evaluate(a) 4
1/2
(b) 16
3/4
(c) 27
2/3
(d) 9
1/2
(a) 4
1/2
=
4 =2
(b) 16
3/4
=
4
16
3
=(2)
3
=8
(Notethat it doesnot matter whether the4throot of 16isfound
rst or whether 16 cubed is found rstthe same answer will
result.)
(c) 27
2/3
=
3
27
2
=(3)
2
=9
(d) 9
1/2
=
1
9
1/2
=
1
9
=
1
3
=
1
3
Exercise 8 Further problems on indices
InProblems1to12, simplifytheexpressionsgiven, express-
ingtheanswersinindexformandwithpositiveindices:
1. (a) 3
3
3
4
(b) 4
2
4
3
4
4
2. (a) 2
3
22
2
(b) 7
2
7
4
77
3
3. (a)
2
4
2
3
(b)
3
7
3
2
4. (a) 5
6
5
3
(b) 7
13
/7
10
5. (a) (7
2
)
3
(b) (3
3
)
2
6. (a) (15
3
)
5
(b) (17
2
)
4
7. (a)
2
2
2
3
2
4
(b)
3
7
3
4
3
5
8. (a)
5
7
5
2
5
3
(b)
13
5
1313
2
9. (a)
(93
2
)
3
(327)
2
(b)
(164)
2
(28)
3
10. (a)
5
2
5
4
(b)
3
2
3
4
3
3
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11. (a)
7
2
7
3
77
4
(b)
2
3
2
4
2
5
22
2
2
6
12. (a) 1313
2
13
4
13
3
(b)
5
7
5
2
5
8
5
3
3.3 Further worked problems on indices
Problem 8. Evaluate
3
3
5
7
5
3
3
4
Thelawsof indicesonly apply totermshaving the same base.
Groupingtermshavingthesamebase, andthenapplyingthelaws
of indicestoeachof thegroupsindependentlygives:
3
3
5
7
5
3
3
4
=
3
3
3
4

5
7
5
3
= 3
(34)
5
(73)
= 3
1
5
4
=
5
4
3
1
=
625
3
= 208
1
3
2
3
3
5
(7
2
)
2
7
4
2
4
3
3
2
3
3
5
(7
2
)
2
7
4
2
4
3
3
= 2
34
3
53
7
224
= 2
1
3
2
7
0
=
1
2
3
2
1
=
9
2
= 4
1
2
4
1.5
8
1/3
2
2
32
2/5
4
1.5
=4
3/2
=
4
3
=2
3
=8, 8
1/3
=
3
8=2, 2
2
=4
32
2/5
=
1
32
2/5
=
1
5
32
2
=
1
2
2
=
1
4
Hence
4
1.5
8
1/3
2
2
32
2/5
=
82
4
1
4
=
16
1
=16
Alternatively,
4
1.5
8
1/3
2
2
32
2/5
=
[(2)
2
]
3/2
(2
3
)
1/3
2
2
(2
5
)
2/5
=
2
3
2
1
2
2
2
2
= 2
3+12(2)
= 2
4
= 16
3
2
5
5
+3
3
5
3
3
4
5
4
DividingeachtermbytheHCF (i.e. highest commonfactor) of
thethreeterms, i.e. 3
2
5
3
, gives:
3
2
5
5
+3
3
5
3
3
4
5
4
=
3
2
5
5
3
2
5
3
+
3
3
5
3
3
2
5
3
3
4
5
4
3
2
5
3
=
3
(22)
5
(53)
+3
(32)
5
0
3
(42)
5
(43)
=
3
0
5
2
+3
1
5
0
3
2
5
1
=
125+31
95
=
28
45
3
2
5
5
3
4
5
4
+3
3
5
3
To simplify thearithmetic, eachtermis dividedby theHCF of
all theterms, i.e. 3
2
5
3
. Thus
3
2
5
5
3
4
5
4
+3
3
5
3
=
3
2
5
5
3
2
5
3
3
4
5
4
3
2
5
3
+
3
3
5
3
3
2
5
3
=
3
(22)
5
(53)
3
(42)
5
(43)
+3
(32)
5
(33)
=
3
0
5
2
3
2
5
1
+3
1
5
0
=
25
45+3
=
25
48
Problem 13. Simplify
7
3
3
4
3
2
7
5
5
2
, expressing the
answer inindexformwithpositiveindices.
Since 7
3
=
1
7
3
,
1
3
2
=3
2
and
1
5
2
=5
2
then
7
3
3
4
3
2
7
5
5
2
=
3
4
3
2
5
2
7
3
7
5
=
3
(4+2)
5
2
7
(3+5)
=
3
6
5
2
7
8
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16
2
9
2
43
3
2
3
8
2
expressing the
answer inindexformwithpositiveindices.
Expressingthenumbersintermsof their lowest primenumbers
gives:
16
2
9
2
43
3
2
3
8
2
=
(2
4
)
2
(3
2
)
2
2
2
3
3
2
3
(2
3
)
2
=
2
8
3
4
2
2
3
3
2
3
2
6
=
2
8
3
4
2
2
3
3
2
3
DividingeachtermbytheHCF (i.e. 2
2
) gives:
2
8
3
4
2
2
3
3
2
3
=
2
6
3
4
3
3
2
=
2
6
3
4
(3
3
2)
_
4
3
_
3
_
3
5
_
2
_
2
5
_
3
givingtheanswer withpositiveindices.
A fraction raised to a power means that both the numerator
and the denominator of the fraction are raised to that power,
i.e.
_
4
3
_
3
=
4
3
3
3
A fractionraisedtoanegativepower hasthesamevalueasthe
inverseof thefractionraisedtoapositivepower.
Thus,
_
3
5
_
2
=
1
_
3
5
_
2
=
1
3
2
5
2
= 1
5
2
3
2
=
5
2
3
2
Similarly,
_
2
5
_
3
=
_
5
2
_
3
=
5
3
2
3
Thus,
_
4
3
_
3
_
3
5
_
2
_
2
5
_
3
=
4
3
3
3

5
2
3
2
5
3
2
3
=
4
3
3
3

5
2
3
2

2
3
5
3
=
(2
2
)
3
2
3
3
(3+2)
5
(32)
=
2
9
3
5
5
Exercise 9 Further problems on indices (Answers
on page 271)
In Problems 1 and 2, simplify the expressions given,
expressing the answers in index form and with positive
indices:
1. (a)
3
3
5
2
5
4
3
4
(b)
7
2
3
2
3
5
7
4
7
3
2. (a)
4
2
9
3
8
3
3
4
(b)
8
2
5
2
3
4
25
2
2
4
9
2
3. Evaluate(a)
_
1
3
2
_
1
(b) 81
0.25
(c) 16
(1/4)
(d)
_
4
9
_
1/2
Inproblems4to10, evaluatetheexpressionsgiven.
4.
9
2
7
4
3
4
7
4
+3
3
7
2
5.
3
3
5
2
2
3
3
2
8
2
9
6.
3
3
7
2
5
2
7
3
3
2
57
2
7.
(2
4
)
2
3
2
4
4
2
3
16
2
8.
_
1
2
_
3
_
2
3
_
2
_
3
5
_
2
9.
_
4
3
_
4
_
2
9
_
2
10.
(3
2
)
3/2
(8
1/3
)
2
(3)
2
(4
3
)
1/2
(9)
1/2
3.4 Standard form
A number writtenwithonedigit totheleft of thedecimal point
andmultipliedby10raisedtosomepowerissaidtobewrittenin
standard form.Thus: 5837iswrittenas5.83710
3
instandard
form, and0.0415iswrittenas4.1510
2
instandardform.
Whenanumber iswritteninstandardform, therst factor is
calledthemantissa andthesecondfactoriscalledtheexponent.
Thusthenumber5.810
3
hasamantissaof 5.8andanexponent
of 10
3
(i) Numbers having the same exponent can be added or
subtracted in standard form by adding or subtracting the
mantissaeandkeepingtheexponent thesame. Thus:
2.310
4
+3.710
4
= (2.3+3.7) 10
4
= 6.010
4
and 5.910
2
4.610
2
= (5.94.6) 10
2
= 1.310
2
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When the numbers have different exponents, one way of
adding or subtracting thenumbers is to express oneof the
numbers in non-standard form, so that both numbers have
thesameexponent. Thus:
2.310
4
+3.710
3
= 2.310
4
+0.3710
4
= (2.3+0.37) 10
4
= 2.6710
4
Alternatively,
2.310
4
+3.710
3
= 23000+3700= 26700
= 2.6710
4
(ii) Thelaws of indices areused when multiplying or dividing
numbersgiveninstandardform. For example,
(2.510
3
) (510
2
) = (2.55) (10
3+2
)
= 12.510
5
or 1.2510
6
Similarly,
610
4
1.510
2
=
6
1.5
(10
42
)=410
2
3.5 Worked problems on standard form
Problem 16. Expressinstandardform:
(a) 38.71 (b) 3746 (c) 0.0124
For anumber to beinstandardform, it is expressedwithonly
onedigit totheleft of thedecimal point. Thus:
(a) 38.71must bedividedby 10toachieveonedigit totheleft
of thedecimal point andit must alsobemultipliedby10to
maintaintheequality, i.e.
38.71=
38.71
10
10=3.871 10 instandardform
(b) 3746=
3746
1000
1000=3.746 10
3
instandardform
(c) 0.0124=0.0124
100
100
=
1.24
100
=1.24 10
2
in standard
form
Problem 17. Express the following numbers, which are
instandardform, asdecimal numbers:
(a) 1.72510
2
(b) 5.49110
4
(c) 9.8410
0
(a) 1.72510
2
=
1.725
100
=0.01725
(b) 5.49110
4
=5.49110000=54 910
(c) 9.8410
0
=9.841=9.84 (since10
0
=1)
Problem 18. Express in standard form, correct to 3
signicant gures:
(a)
3
8
(b) 19
2
3
(c) 741
9
16
(a)
3
8
=0.375, andexpressingit instandardformgives:
0.375= 3.7510
1
(b) 19
2
3
=19.6=1.97 10 in standard form, correct to 3
signicant gures.
(c) 741
9
16
=741.5625=7.42 10
2
in standard form, correct
to3signicant gures.
Problem 19. Express the following numbers, given in
standardform, asfractionsor mixednumbers:
(a) 2.510
1
(b) 6.2510
2
(c) 1.35410
2
(a) 2.510
1
=
2.5
10
=
25
100
=
1
4
(b) 6.2510
2
=
6.25
100
=
625
10000
=
1
16
(c) 1.35410
2
=135.4=135
4
10
=135
2
5
Exercise 10 Further problems on standard form
InProblems1to5, expressinstandardform:
1. (a) 73.9 (b) 28.4 (c) 197.72
2. (a) 2748 (b) 33170 (c) 274218
3. (a) 0.2401 (b) 0.0174 (c) 0.00923
4. (a) 1702.3 (b) 10.04 (c) 0.0109
5. (a)
1
2
(b) 11
7
8
(c) 130
3
5
(d)
1
32
InProblems6and7, expressthenumbersgivenasintegers
or decimal fractions:
6. (a) 1.0110
3
(b) 9.32710
2
(c) 5.4110
4
(d) 710
0
7. (a) 3.8910
2
(b) 6.74110
1
(c) 810
3
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3.6 Further worked problems on
standard form
(a) 7.910
2
5.410
2
(b) 8.310
3
+5.41510
3
and
(c) 9.29310
2
+1.310
3
expressing the answers in
standardform.
Numbershavingthesameexponent canbeaddedor subtracted
byaddingor subtractingthemantissaeandkeepingtheexponent
thesame. Thus:
(a) 7.910
2
5.410
2
=(7.95.4)10
2
=2.5 10
2
(b) 8.310
3
+5.41510
3
=(8.3+5.415)10
3
=13.71510
3
=1.3715 10
4
instandardform.
(c) Since only numbers having the same exponents can be
addedbystraightadditionof themantissae, thenumbersare
convertedtothisformbeforeadding. Thus:
9.29310
2
+1.310
3
= 9.29310
2
+1310
2
= (9.293+13) 10
2
= 22.29310
2
= 2.229310
3
instandardform.
Alternatively, the numbers can be expressed as decimal
fractions, giving:
9.29310
2
+ 1.310
3
= 929.3+1300
= 2229.3
= 2.229310
3
instandardformasobtainedpreviously.Thismethodisoften
thesafest wayof doingthistypeof problem.
Problem 21. Evaluate(a) (3.7510
3
)(610
4
) and
(b)
3.510
5
710
2
expressinganswersinstandardform.
(a) (3.7510
3
)(610
4
)=(3.756)(10
3+4
)
=22.5010
7
=2.25 10
8
(b)
3.510
5
710
2
=
3.5
7
10
52
=0.510
3
=5 10
2
Exercise 11 Further problems on standard form
In Problems 1 to 4, nd values of the expressions given,
statingtheanswersinstandardform:
1. (a) 3.710
2
+9.8110
2
(b) 1.43110
1
+7.310
1
(c) 8.41410
2
2.6810
2
2. (a) 4.83110
2
+1.2410
3
(b) 3.2410
3
1.1110
4
(c) 1.8110
2
+3.41710
2
+5.97210
2
3. (a) (4.510
2
)(310
3
) (b) 2(5.510
4
)
4. (a)
610
3
310
5
(b)
(2.410
3
)(310
2
)
(4.810
4
)
5. Writethefollowingstatementsinstandardform.
(a) Thedensityof aluminiumis2710kgm
3
(b) Poissonsratiofor goldis0.44
(c) Theimpedanceof freespaceis376.73
(d) Theelectronrest energyis0.511MeV
(e) Protoncharge-massratiois95789700Ckg
1
(f) The normal volume of a perfect gas is
0.02241m
3
mol
1
3.7 Engineering notation and
common prexes
Engineering notation issimilartoscienticnotationexceptthat
thepower of tenisalwaysamultipleof 3. For example,
0.00035=3.510
4
inscienticnotation,
but 0.00035=0.3510
3
or 35010
6
inengineeringnotation.
Units used in engineering and science may be made larger or
smaller by usingprexes that denotemultiplicationor division
byaparticular amount. Theeight most commonmultiples, with
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Table 3.1
Prex Name Meaning
T tera multiplyby1000000000000 (i.e. 10
12
)
G giga multiplyby1000000000 (i.e. 10
9
)
M mega multiplyby1000000 (i.e. 10
6
)
k kilo multiplyby1000 (i.e. 10
3
)
m milli divideby1000 (i.e. 10
3
)
micro divideby1000000 (i.e. 10
6
)
n nano divideby1000000000 (i.e. 10
9
)
p pico divideby1000000000000 (i.e. 10
12
)
their meaning, arelistedinTable3.1, whereit isnoticedthat the
prexesinvolvepowersof tenwhichareall multiplesof 3.
For example,
5 MV means 51000000=510
6
=5 000 000 volts
3.6 k means 3.61000=3.610
3
=3600 ohms
7.5 C means 7.51000000=
7.5
10
6
or 7.510
6
=0.0000075 coulombs
and 4 mA means 410
3
or
4
10
3
=
4
1000
=0.004 amperes
Similarly,
0.00006 J =0.06 mJ or 60 J
5 620 000 N=5620 kN or 5.62 MN
47 10
4
=470000=470 k or 0.47 M
and 12 10
5
A= 0.00012A=0.12 mA or 120 A
A calculator is needed for many engineering calculations, and
havingacalculator whichhas anEXP andENG functionis
most helpful.
For example, to calculate: 310
4
0.510
6
volts, input
your calculator in the following order: (a) Enter 3 (b) Press
EXP (c) Enter 4 (d) Press (e) Enter 0.5 (f) PressEXP
(g) Enter 6 (h) Press=
The answer is 0.015 V. Now press the ENG button, and the
answer changes to 15 10
3
V. The ENG or Engineering
button ensures that thevalueis stated to apower of 10 that is
a multiple of 3, enabling you, in this example, to express the
answer as15 mV.
Exercise 12 Further problems on engineering notation
and common prexes (Answers on
page 271)
1. Express the following in engineering notation and in
prexform:
(a) 100000W (b) 0.00054A (c) 1510
5
(d) 22510
4
V (e) 35000000000Hz
(f) 1.510
11
F (g) 0.000017A (h) 46200W
2. Rewritethefollowingasindicated:
(a) 0.025mA=....... A (b) 1000pF=..... nF
(c) 6210
4
V=....... kV (d) 1250000=.....M
3. Useacalculatortoevaluatethefollowinginengineering
notation:
(a) 4.510
7
310
4
(b)
(1.610
5
)(2510
3
)
(10010
6
)
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4
Calculations and evaluation of formulae
4.1 Errors and approximations
(i) Inall problemsinwhichthemeasurementof distance, time,
massor other quantitiesoccurs, anexact answer cannot be
given; only ananswer whichis correct to astateddegree
of accuracycanbegiven. Totakeaccount of thisanerror
due to measurement issaidtoexist.
(ii) To takeaccount of measurement errors it is usual to limit
answerssothat theresult givenisnot more than one sig-
nicant gure greater than the least accurate number
given in the data.
(iii) Rounding-off errors canexist withdecimal fractions. For
example, to state that =3.142 is not strictly correct,
but =3.142 correct to 4 signicant gures is a true
statement.
(Actually, =3.14159265. . .)
(iv) It ispossible, throughanincorrect procedure, toobtainthe
wronganswer toacalculation. Thistypeof error isknown
asa blunder.
(v) Anorder of magnitude error is saidto exist if incorrect
positioningof thedecimal point occursafter acalculation
hasbeencompleted.
(vi) Blundersandorder of magnitudeerrorscanbereducedby
determiningapproximate values of calculations.Answers
whichdo not seemfeasiblemust becheckedandthecal-
culation must berepeated as necessary. An engineer will
often need to make a quick mental approximation for
a calculation. For example,
49.118.4122.1
61.238.1
may be
approximated to
5020120
6040
and then, by cancelling,
50
1
20
120
21
160
40
21
=50. An accurateanswer somewhere
between45and55couldthereforebeexpected. Certainly
an answer around 500or 5would not beexpected. Actu-
ally, bycalculator
49.118.4122.1
61.238.1
=47.31, correct to
4signicant gures.
Problem 1. TheareaA of atriangleisgivenby A=
1
2
bh.
Thebaseb whenmeasuredisfoundtobe3.26cm, andthe
perpendicular height h is7.5cm. Determinetheareaof the
triangle.
Area of triangle=
1
2
bh =
1
2
3.267.5=12.225cm
2
(by
calculator).
Theapproximatevalueis
1
2
38=12cm
2
, sothereareno
obvious blunder or magnitude errors. However, it is not usual
inameasurement typeproblemto statetheanswer to anaccu-
racygreater than1signicantguremorethantheleastaccurate
number inthedata: thisis7.5cm, sotheresult shouldnot have
morethan3signicant gures
Thusarea of triangle =12.2 cm
2
Problem2. Statewhichtypeof errorhasbeenmadeinthe
followingstatements:
(a) 7231.429=2262.9
(b) 160.087=89.6
(c) 11.7140.0088=0.3247, correct to 4 decimal
places.
(d)
29.740.0512
11.89
=0.12, correctto2signicantgures.
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(a) 7231.429=2262.888 (by calculator), hence a
rounding-off error has occurred. The answer should
havestated:
7231.429=2262.9, correct to 5 signicant gures or
2262.9, correct to1decimal place.
(b) 160.087=
4
16
8
100
25
7
=
327
25
=
224
25
=8
24
25
=8.96
Henceanorder of magnitude error hasoccurred.
(c) 11.7140.0088 is approximately equal to 12910
3
,
i.e. about 10810
3
or 0.108. Thus a blunder has been
made.
(d)
29.740.0512
11.89

30510
2
12
=
150
1210
2
=
15
120
=
1
8
or 0.125
hence no order of magnitude error has occurred.
However,
29.740.0512
11.89
=0.128 correct to 3 signi-
cant gures, which equals 0.13 correct to 2 signicant
gures.
Hencearounding-off error hasoccurred.
Problem 3. Without using a calculator, determine an
approximatevalueof
(a)
11.719.1
9.35.7
(b)
2.19203.617.91
12.18.76
(a)
11.719.1
9.35.7
isapproximatelyequal to
1020
105
, i.e. about 4
(By calculator,
11.719.1
9.35.7
=4.22, correct to 3signicant
gures.)
(b)
2.19203.617.91
12.18.76

220020
1010
= 2220after
cancelling
i.e.
2.19203.617.91
12.18.76
80
(By calculator,
2.19203.617.91
12.18.76
=75.3, correct to
3signicant gures.)
Exercise 13 Further problems on errors (Answers
on page 271)
InProblems1to5statewhichtypeof error, or errors, have
beenmade:
1. 250.061.4=0.21
2. 1376.842=937.4
3.
240.008
12.6
=10.42
4. For a gas pV =c. When pressure p =103400Pa and
V =0.54m
3
thenc =55836Pam
3
.
5.
4.60.07
52.30.274
=0.225
InProblems6to8, evaluatetheexpressionsapproximately,
without usingacalculator.
6. 4.76.3
7.
2.874.07
6.120.96
8.
72.11.9648.6
139.35.2
4.2 Use of calculator
The most modern aid to calculations is the pocket-sized elec-
troniccalculator. Withoneof these, calculationscanbequickly
andaccuratelyperformed, correct toabout 9signicant gures.
Thescientic typeof calculator has madetheuseof tables and
logarithmslargelyredundant.
To help you to become competent at using your calculator
checkthatyouagreewiththeanswerstothefollowingproblems:
Problem4. Evaluatethefollowing, correctto4signicant
gures:
(a) 4.7826+0.02713 (b) 17.694111.8762
(c) 21.930.012981
(a) 4.7826+0.02713=4.80973=4.810, correct to 4 signi-
cant gures.
(b) 17.694111.8762=5.8179=5.818, correct to 4 signi-
cant gures.
(c) 21.930.012981=0.2846733. . . =0.2847, correct to
4signicant gures.
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Calculations and evaluation of formulae 23
Problem 5. Evaluatethefollowing, correct to 4decimal
places:
(a) 46.3297.170.01258 (b)
4.621
23.76
(c)
1
2
(62.490.0172)
(a) 46.32 97.17 0.01258 = 56.6215031. . . = 56.6215,
correct to4decimal places.
(b)
4.621
23.76
=0.19448653. . . =0.1945, correct to 4 decimal
places.
(c)
1
2
(62.490.0172)=0.537414=0.5374, correct to 4
decimal places.
places:
(a)
1
52.73
(b)
1
0.0275
(c)
1
4.92
+
1
1.97
(a)
1
52.73
places.
(b)
1
0.0275
places.
(c)
1
4.92
+
1
1.97
=0.71086624. . . =0.711, correct to 3
decimal places.
Problem 7. Evaluate the following, expressing the
answers in standard form, correct to 4 signicant
gures.
(a) (0.00451)
2
(b) 631.7(6.21+2.95)
2
(c) 46.27
2
31.79
2
(a) (0.00451)
2
=2.0340110
5
=2.034 10
5
, correct to
4signicant gures.
(b) 631.7(6.21+2.95)
2
=547.7944=5.47794410
2
=
5.478 10
2
(c) 46.27
2
31.79
2
=1130.3088=1.130 10
3
, correct to
4signicant gures.
places:
(a)
(2.37)
2
0.0526
(b)
_
3.60
1.92
_
2
+
_
5.40
2.45
_
2
(c)
15
7.6
2
4.8
2
(a)
(2.37)
2
0.0526
places.
(b)
_
3.60
1.92
_
2
+
_
5.40
2.45
_
2
=8.37360084. . . =8.374, correct
to3decimal places.
(c)
15
7.6
2
4.8
2
=0.43202764. . . =0.432, correctto3decimal
places.
Problem9. Evaluatethefollowing, correctto4signicant
gures:
(a)

5.462 (b)

54.62 (c)

546.2
(a)

5.462=2.3370922. . . =2.337, correct to 4 signicant
gures.
(b)

gures.
(c)

gures.
Problem 10. Evaluatethefollowing, correct to3decimal
places:
(a)

0.007328 (b)

52.91
31.76
(c)
_
(1.629110
4
)
(a)

0.007328=0.08560373=0.086, correct to 3 decimal
places.
(b)

52.91
31.76=1.63832491. . . =1.638, correct to

3decimal places.
(c)
_
(1.629110
4
)=
_
(16291)=127.636201. . . =127.636,
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Problem 11. Evaluatethefollowing, correct to4signi-
cant gures:
(a) 4.72
3
(b) (0.8316)
4
(c)
_
(76.21
2
29.10
2
)
(a) 4.72
3
=105.15404. . . =105.2, correct to 4 signicant
gures.
(b) (0.8316)
4
=0.47825324. . . =0.4783, correct to 4 signi-
cant gures.
(c)
_
(76.21
2
29.10
2
)=70.4354605. . . =70.44, correct to4
signicant gures.
Problem 12. Evaluatethefollowing, correct to3signi-
cant gures:
(a)
_
_
6.09
2
25.2
7
_
(b)
3
47.291
(c)
_
(7.213
2
+6.418
3
+3.291
4
)
(a)
_
_
6.09
2
25.2
7
_
=0.74583457. . . =0.746, correct to
3signicant gures.
(b)
3

gures.
(c)
_
(7.213
2
+6.418
3
+3.291
4
)=20.8252991. . . =20.8,
correct to3signicant gures.
Problem 13. Evaluate the following, expressing the
answersinstandardform, correct to4decimal places:
(a) (5.17610
3
)
2
(b)
_
1.97410
1
8.6110
2
3.462
_
4
(c)
_
(1.79210
4
)
(a) (5.17610
3
)
2
=2.679097. . . 10
5
=2.6791 10
5
,
(b)
_
1.97410
1
8.6110
2
3.462
_
4
=0.05808887. . .
=5.8089 10
2
, correct to4decimal places
(c)
_
(1.79210
4
)=0.0133865. . . =1.3387 10
2
,correct
to4decimal places.
Exercise 14 Further problems on use of calculator
InProblems1to3, useacalculatortoevaluatethequantities
showncorrect to4signicant gures:
1. (a) 3.249
2
(b) 73.78
2
(c) 311.4
2
(d) 0.0639
2
2. (a)
4.735 (b)
35.46 (c)
73280
(d)
0.0256
3. (a)
1
7.768
(b)
1
48.46
(c)
1
0.0816
(d)
1
1.118
InProblems4to11, useacalculator toevaluatecorrect to
4signicant gures:
4. (a) 43.2712.91 (b) 54.310.5724
5. (a) 127.80.043119.8 (b) 15.764.329
6. (a)
137.6
552.9
(b)
11.821.736
0.041
7. (a)
1
17.31
(b)
1
0.0346
(c)
1
147.9
8. (a) 13.6
3
(b) 3.476
4
(c) 0.124
5
9. (a)
347.1 (b)
7632 (c)
0.027
(d)
0.004168
10. (a)
_
24.680.0532
7.412
_
3
(b)
_
0.268141.2
2
32.611.89
_
4
11. (a)
14.32
3
21.68
2
(b)
4.821
3
17.33
2
15.8611.6
12. Evaluatecorrect to3decimal places:
(a)
29.12
(5.81)
2
(2.96)
2
(b)
53.98
21.78
13. Evaluatecorrect to4signicant gures:
(a)
_
_
(15.62)
2
29.21
10.52
_
(b)
_
(6.921
2
+4.816
3
2.161
4
)
14. Evaluatethefollowing, expressingtheanswersinstand-
ardform, correct to3decimal places:
(a) (8.29110
2
)
2
(b)
_
(7.62310
3
)
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4.3 Conversion tables and charts
It is often necessary to make calculations fromvarious con-
versiontablesandcharts. Examplesincludecurrency exchange
rates, imperial tometricunitconversions, trainorbustimetables,
productionschedulesandsoon.
Problem 14. Currency exchangerates for vecountries
areshowninTable4.1
Table 4.1
France 1=1.50euros
J apan 1=175yen
Norway 1=11.25kronor
Switzerland 1=2.20francs
U.S.A. 1=1.82dollars($)
Calculate:
(a) howmanyFrencheuros27.80will buy,
(b) the number of J apanese yen which can be bought
for 23,
(c) thepoundssterlingwhichcanbeexchangedfor 6412.5
Norwegiankronor,
(d) thenumberofAmericandollarswhichcanbepurchased
for 90, and
(e) thepounds sterlingwhichcanbeexchangedfor 2794
Swissfrancs.
(a) 1=1.50euros, hence
27.80=27.801.50euros=41.70 euros
(b) 1=175yen, hence
23=23175yen=4025 yen
(c) 1=11.25kronor, hence
6412.5kronor=
6412.5
11.25
=570
(d) 1=1.82dollars, hence
90=901.82dollars=$163.80
(e) 1=2.20Swissfrancs, hence
2794franc=
2794
2.20
=1270
Problem15. Someapproximateimperial tometricconver-
sionsareshowninTable4.2
Table 4.2
length 1inch=2.54cm
1mile=1.61km
weight 2.2lb=1kg
(1lb=16oz)
capacity 1.76pints=1litre
(8pints=1gallon)
Usethetabletodetermine:
(a) thenumber of millimetresin9.5inches,
(b) aspeedof 50milesper hour inkilometresper hour,
(c) thenumber of milesin300km,
(d) thenumber of kilogramsin30poundsweight,
(e) the number of pounds and ounces in 42 kilograms
(correct tothenearest ounce),
(f ) thenumber of litresin15gallons, and
(g) thenumber of gallonsin40litres.
(a) 9.5inches=9.52.54cm=24.13cm
24.13cm=24.1310mm=241.3 mm
(b) 50m.p.h. =501.61km/h=80.5 km/h
(c) 300km=
300
1.61
miles=186.3 miles
(d) 30lb=
30
2.2
kg=13.64 kg
(e) 42kg=422.2lb=92.4lb
0.4lb=0.416oz=6.4oz=6oz, correct to the nearest
ounce. Thus42kg=92 lb 6 oz, correcttothenearestounce.
(f ) 15gallons=158pints=120pints
120pints=
120
1.76
litres=68.18 litres
(g) 40litres=401.76pints=70.4pints
70.4pints=
70.4
8
gallons=8.8 gallons
Exercise 15 Further problems conversion tables
and charts (Answers on page 272)
1. Currencyexchangerateslistedinanewspaper included
thefollowing:
Italy 1=1.52euro
J apan 1=180yen
Australia 1=2.40dollars
Canada 1=$2.35
Sweden 1=13.90kronor
Calculate(a) howmany Italian euros 32.50 will buy,
(b) the number of Canadian dollars that can be pur-
chasedfor 74.80, (c) thepoundssterlingwhichcanbe
exchangedfor 14040yen, (d) thepoundssterlingwhich
canbeexchangedfor1751.4Swedishkronor, and(e) the
Australiandollarswhichcanbebought for 55
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Table 4.3 Liverpool, HuntsCrossandWarringtonManchester
Reproducedwithpermissionof BritishRail
2. Belowisalist of somemetrictoimperial conversions.
Length 2.54cm=1inch
1.61km=1mile
Weight 1kg=2.2lb(1lb=16ounces)
Capacity 1litre=1.76pints
(8pints=1gallon)
Usethelist todetermine(a) thenumber of millimetres
in 15 inches, (b) a speed of 35mph in km/h, (c) the
number of kilometres in 235 miles, (d) the number
of pounds and ounces in 24kg (correct to the nearest
ounce),(e)thenumberof kilogramsin15lb,(f)thenum-
berof litresin12gallonsand(g)thenumberof gallonsin
25litres.
3. Deduce the following information fromthe BR train
timetableshowninTable4.3:
(a) At what timeshouldamancatchatrainat Mossley
Hill toenablehimtobeinManchester Piccadillyby
8.15a.m.?
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(b) A girl leaves Hunts Cross at 8.17 a.m. and trav-
els to Manchester Oxford Road. How long does
thejourney take. What is theaveragespeedof the
journey?
(c) A manlivingat EdgeHill hastobeat workatTraf-
ford Park by 8.45 a.m. It takes him10 minutes to
walk to his work fromTraffordPark station. What
timetrainshouldhecatchfromEdgeHill?
4.4 Evaluation of formulae
Thestatement v =u +at is saidtobeaformula for v interms
of u, a andt.
v, u, a andt arecalledsymbols.
The single termon the left-hand side of the equation, v, is
calledthesubject of the formulae.
Provided values are given for all the symbols in a formula
exceptone, theremainingsymbol canbemadethesubjectof the
formulaandmaybeevaluatedbyusingacalculator.
Problem 16. Inanelectrical circuitthevoltageV isgiven
by Ohms law, i.e. V =IR. Find, correct to 4 signicant
gures, thevoltagewhenI =5.36A andR=14.76.
V = IR = (5.36)(14.76)
Hence voltage V =79.11V, correct to 4 signicant gures.
Problem 17. ThesurfaceareaA of ahollowconeisgiven
by A=rl. Determine, correct to 1 decimal place, the
surfaceareawhenr =3.0cmandl =8.5cm.
A = rl = (3.0)(8.5)cm
2
Hence surface area A=80.1 cm
2
, correct to1decimal place.
Problem 18. Velocity v is given by v =u +at. If
u =9.86m/s, a =4.25m/s
2
and t =6.84s, nd v, correct
to3signicant gures.
v = u +at = 9.86+(4.25)(6.84)
= 9.86+29.07
= 38.93
Hence velocity =38.9 m/s, correct to 3 signicant
gures.
Problem 19. Thearea, A, of acircleisgivenbyA=r
2
.
Determinetheareacorrectto2decimal places, givenradius
r =5.23m.
A = r
2
= (5.23)
2
= (27.3529)
Hence area, A=85.93 m
2
, correct to 2 decimal places.
Problem 20. Thepower P wattsdissipatedinanelectrical
circuit may beexpressed by theformulaP =
V
2
R
. Evalu-
ate the power, correct to 3 signicant gures, given that
V =17.48V andR=36.12.
P =
V
2
R
=
(17.48)
2
36.12
=
305.5504
36.12
Hence power, P =8.46W, correct to 3 signicant
gures.
Problem 21. ThevolumeV cm
3
of aright circular cone
is given by V =
1
3
r
2
h. Given that r =4.321cmand h =
18.35cm, ndthevolume, correct to4signicant gures.
V =
1
3
r
2
h =
1
3
(4.321)
2
(18.35)
=
1
3
(18.671041)(18.35)
Hence volume, V =358.8 cm
3
, correct to 4 signicant gures.
Problem 22. Force F newtons is given by the formula
F =
Gm
1
m
2
d
2
, wherem
1
andm
2
aremasses, d their distance
apart andG isaconstant. Findthevalueof theforcegiven
thatG=6.6710
11
, m
1
=7.36, m
2
=15.5andd =22.6.
Expresstheanswerinstandardform, correctto3signicant
gures.
F =
Gm
1
m
2
d
2
=
(6.6710
11
)(7.36)(15.5)
(22.6)
2
=
(6.67)(7.36)(15.5)
(10
11
)(510.76)
=
1.490
10
11
Hence force F =1.49 10
11
newtons, correct to 3 signicant
gures.
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Problem23. Thetimeof swingt seconds, of asimplepen-
dulumisgivenby t =2
_
l
g
. Determinethetime, correct
to3decimal places, giventhat l =12.0andg =9.81.
t = 2
_
l
g
= (2)
_
12.0
9.81
= (2)
1.22324159
= (2)(1.106002527)
Hence time t =6.950 seconds, correct to 3 decimal places.
Problem 24. Resistance, R, varies with temperature
accordingto theformulaR=R
0
(1+t). EvaluateR, cor-
rect to 3signicant gures, givenR
0
=14.59, =0.0043
andt =80.
R = R
0
(1+t) = 14.59[1+(0.0043)(80)]
= 14.59(1+0.344) = 14.59(1.344)
Hence resistance, R=19.6 , correct to 3 signicant gures.
Exercise 16 Further problems on evaluation of
formulae (Answers on page 272)
1. TheareaA of arectangleisgivenbytheformulaA=lb.
Evaluatetheareawhenl =12.4cmandb =5.37cm.
2. ThecircumferenceC of acircleisgivenbytheformula
C =2r. Determinethecircumferencegiven =3.14
andr =8.40mm.
3. AformulausedinconnectionwithgasesisR=(PV)/T.
EvaluateR whenP =1500, V =5andT =200.
4. Thevelocityof abodyisgivenbyv =u +at.Theinitial
velocity u is measuredwhentimet is 15seconds and
found to be 12m/s. If the acceleration a is 9.81m/s
2
calculatethenal velocityv.
5. Calculate the current I in an electrical circuit, when
I =V/R ampereswhenthevoltageV ismeasuredand
foundtobe7.2V andtheresistanceR is17.7.
6. Findthedistances, giventhats =
1
2
gt
2
.Timet =0.032
secondsandaccelerationduetogravityg =9.81m/s
2
.
7. The energy stored in a capacitor is given by
E =
1
2
CV
2
joules. Determinetheenergy whencapaci-
tanceC =510
6
faradsandvoltageV =240V.
8. FindtheareaA of atriangle, givenA=
1
2
bh, whenthe
baselengthb is23.42mandtheheight h is53.7m.
9. Resistance R
2
is given by R
2
=R
1
(1+t). Find
R
2
, correct to 4 signicant gures, when R
1
=220,
=0.00027andt =75.6.
10. Density=
mass
volume
. Findthedensity whenthemass is
2.462kgandthevolumeis173cm
3
. Givetheanswer in
unitsof kg/m
3
.
11. Velocity=frequencywavelength. Find the velocity
when thefrequency is 1825Hz and thewavelength is
0.154m.
12. EvaluateresistanceR
T
, given
1
R
T
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
+
1
R
3
whenR
1
=5.5, R
2
=7.42 andR
3
=12.6.
13. Findthetotal costof 37calculatorscosting12.65each
and19drawingsetscosting6.38each.
14. Power=
forcedistance
time
. Findthepowerwhenaforce
of 3760Nraisesanobject adistanceof 4.73min35s.
15. The potential difference, V volts, available at battery
terminals is given by V =E Ir. Evaluate V when
E =5.62, I =0.70andR=4.30.
16. Given forceF =
1
2
m(v
2
u
2
), nd F when m=18.3,
v =12.7andu =8.24.
17. Thecurrent I amperes owinginanumber of cells is
givenbyI =
nE
R+nr
. Evaluatethecurrentwhenn =36,
E =2.20, R=2.80andr =0.50.
18. Thetime, t seconds, of oscillationfor asimplependu-
lumis givenby t =2
_
l
g
. Determinethetimewhen
=3.142, l =54.32andg =9.81.
19. Energy, E joules, is given by the formula E =
1
2
LI
2
.
EvaluatetheenergywhenL =5.5andI =1.2.
20. The current I amperes in an a.c. circuit is given by
I =
V
_
(R
2
+X
2
)
. Evaluatethecurrent when V =250,
R=11.0andX =16.2.
21. Distances metresisgivenbytheformulas =ut +
1
2
at
2
.
If u =9.50, t =4.60 and a =2.50, evaluate the
distance.
22. The area, A, of any triangle is given by
A=
_
[s(s a)(s b)(s c)] where s =
a +b +c
2
.
Evaluatetheareagiven a =3.60cm, b =4.00cmand
c =5.20cm.
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23. Given that a =0.290, b =14.86, c =0.042, d =31.8
ande =0.650, evaluatev giventhat
v =
_
_
ab
c

d
e
_
Assignment 2
Thisassignmentcoversthematerial containedinChap-
ters3and4. Themarksfor eachquestionareshownin
bracketsat theendof eachquestion.
1. Evaluatethefollowing:
(a)
2
3
22
2
2
4
(b)
(2
3
16)
2
(82)
3
(c)
_
1
4
2
_
1
(d) (27)
1/3
(e)
_
3
2
_
2
2
9
_
2
3
_
2
(14)
2. Expressthefollowinginstandardform:
(a) 1623 (b) 0.076 (c) 145
2
5
(6)
3. Determinethevalueof thefollowing, givingtheanswer
instandardform:
(a) 5.910
2
+7.3110
2
(b) 2.7510
2
2.6510
3
(6)
4. Is thestatement
730.009
15.7
=4.1810
2
correct? If
not, what shouldit be? (2)
5. Evaluate the following, each correct to 4 signicant
gures:
(a) 61.22
2
(b)
1
0.0419
(c)

0.0527 (6)
6. Evaluatethefollowing, eachcorrectto2decimal places:
(a)
_
36.2
2
0.561
27.812.83
_
3
(b)
_
_
14.69
2
17.4237.98
_
(7)
7. If 1.6km=1mile, determinethespeedof 45miles/hour
inkilometresper hour. (3)
8. TheareaA of acircleisgivenbyA=r
2
. Findthearea
of acircleof radius r =3.73cm, correct to 2 decimal
places. (3)
9. Evaluate B, correct to 3 signicant gures, when
W =7.20, v =10.0andg =9.81, giventhat
B =
Wv
2
2g
(3)
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5
Computer numbering systems
5.1 Binary numbers
Thesystemof numbersineverydayuseisthedenary ordecimal
systemof numbers, using thedigits 0to 9. It has ten different
digits(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8and9) andissaidtohavearadix or
base of 10.
Thebinary systemof numbershasaradixof 2andusesonly
thedigits0and1.
5.2 Conversion of binary to denary
Thedenarynumber 234.5isequivalent to
210
2
+310
1
+410
0
+510
1
i.e. is thesumof terms comprising: (adigit) multipliedby (the
baseraisedtosomepower).
Inthebinary systemof numbers, thebaseis 2, so 1101.1is
equivalent to:
12
3
+12
2
+02
1
+12
0
+12
1
Thus the denary number equivalent to the binary number
1101.1is
8+4+0+1+
1
2
, that is13.5
i.e. 1101.1
2
=13.5
10
, thesufxes2and10denotingbinary and
denarysystemsof numbersrespectively.
Problem 1. Convert 11011
2
toadenarynumber.
Fromabove: 11011
2
=12
4
+12
3
+02
2
+12
1
+12
0
=16+8+0+2+1
= 27
10
Problem 2. Convert 0.1011
2
toadecimal fraction.
0.1011
2
= 12
1
+02
2
+12
3
+12
4
= 1
1
2
+0
1
2
2
+1
1
2
3
+1
1
2
4
=
1
2
+
1
8
+
1
16
= 0.5+0.125+0.0625
= 0.6875
10
2
toadenarynumber.
101.0101
2
= 12
2
+02
1
+12
0
+02
1
+12
2
+02
3
+12
4
= 4+0+1+0+0.25+0+0.0625
= 5.3125
10
Exercise 17 Further problems on conversion of
binary to denary numbers (Answers
on page 272)
In Problems 1 to 4, convert the binary numbers given to
denarynumbers.
1. (a) 110 (b) 1011 (c) 1110 (d) 1001
2. (a) 10101 (b) 11001 (c) 101101 (d) 110011
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Computer numbering systems 31
3. (a) 0.1101 (b) 0.11001 (c) 0.00111 (d) 0.01011
4. (a) 11010.11 (b) 10111.011
(c) 110101.0111 (d) 11010101.10111
5.3 Conversion of denary to binary
An integer denary number can be converted to a correspond-
ing binary number by repeatedly dividing by 2 and noting the
remainder at eachstage, asshownbelowfor 39
10
0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
2 39 Remainder
2 19 1
2 9 1
2 4 1
2 2 0
2 1 0
(most significant bit) (least significant bit)
Theresult is obtainedby writingthetopdigit of theremainder
as theleast signicant bit, (abit is abinary digit andtheleast
signicant bit is the one on the right). The bottombit of the
remainder isthemost signicant bit, i.e. thebit ontheleft.
Thus 39
10
=100111
2
The fractional part of a denary number can be converted to a
binary number by repeatedly multiplyingby 2, asshownbelow
for thefraction0.625
0.625 2 1. 250
0.250 2 0. 500
0.500 2
1. 000
1 1 0 (most significant bit). (least significant bit)
For fractions, themost signicant bit of theresult is thetopbit
obtainedfromtheinteger part of multiplicationby 2. Theleast
signicant bit of theresult is thebottombit obtainedfromthe
integer part of multiplicationby2.
Thus 0.625
10
=0.101
2
Problem 4. Convert 47
10
toabinarynumber.
Fromabove, repeatedly dividingby 2andnotingtheremainder
gives:
2 47 Remainder
2 23 1
2 11 1
2 5 1
2 2 1
2 1 0
0
1
1 0 1 1 1 1
Thus 47
10
=101111
2
10
toabinarynumber.
Fromabove, repeatedlymultiplyingby2gives:
0.40625 2 0. 8125
0.8125 2 1. 625
0.625 2 1. 25
0.25 2 0. 5
0.5 2 1. 0
0 1 1 0 1
i.e. 0.40625
10
=0.01101
2
10
toabinarynumber.
Theinteger part isrepeatedlydividedby2, giving:
2 58 Remainder
2 29 0
2 14 1
2 7 0
2 3 1
2 1 1
0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0
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Thefractional part isrepeatedlymultipliedby2giving:
0.3125 2 0.625
0.625 2
1.25
0.25 2
0.5
0.5 2
1.0
. 0 1 0 1
Thus 58.3125
10
=111010.0101
2
Exercise 18 Further problems on conversion of denary
to binary numbers (Answers on page 272)
In Problems 1 to 4, convert the denary numbers given to
binarynumbers.
1. (a) 5 (b) 15 (c) 19 (d) 29
2. (a) 31 (b) 42 (c) 57 (d) 63
3. (a) 0.25 (b) 0.21875 (c) 0.28125 (d) 0.59375
4. (a) 47.40625 (b) 30.8125
(c) 53.90625 (d) 61.65625
5.4 Conversion of denary to binary
via octal
Fordenaryintegerscontainingseveral digits, repeatedlydividing
by2canbealengthyprocess. Inthiscase, it isusuallyeasier to
convertadenarynumber toabinarynumber viatheoctal system
of numbers. This systemhas aradix of 8, usingthedigits 0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Thedenary number equivalent to theoctal
number 4317
8
is
48
3
+38
2
+18
1
+78
0
i.e. 4512+364+18+71 or 2255
10
An integer denary number can be converted to a correspond-
ing octal number by repeatedly dividing by 8 and noting the
10
8 493 Remainder
8 61 5
8 7 5
0 7
7 5 5
Thus493
10
=755
8
Thefractional part of adenary number canbeconvertedto an
octal numberbyrepeatedlymultiplyingby8, asshownbelowfor
thefraction0.4375
10
0.4375 8 3 . 5
0.5 8
. 3 4
4 . 0
For fractions, themost signicant bit isthetopinteger obtained
bymultiplicationof thedenaryfractionby8, thus
0.4375
10
= 0.34
8
Thenatural binarycodefordigits0to7isshowninTable5.1, and
anoctal number canbeconvertedtoabinarynumber bywriting
downthethreebitscorrespondingtotheoctal digit.
Table 5.1
Octal digit Natural
binarynumber
0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
Thus437
8
=100011111
2
and26.35
8
=010110.011101
2
The 0 on the extreme left does not signify anything, thus
26.35
8
=10110.011101
2
Conversionof denary tobinary viaoctal isdemonstratedinthe
followingworkedproblems.
Problem 7. Convert3714
10
toabinarynumber, viaoctal.
Dividingrepeatedlyby8, andnotingtheremainder gives:
8 58 0
0 7
7 2 0 2
8 3714 Remainder
8 464 2
8 7 2
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FromTable5.1, 7202
8
=111010000010
2
i.e. 3714
10
=111 010 000 010
2
10
to a binary number,
viaoctal.
Multiplyingrepeatedlyby8, andnotingtheintegervalues, gives:
0.59375 8 4.75
0.75 8 6.00
. 4 6
Thus 0.59375
10
=0.46
8
FromTable5.1, 0.46
8
=0.100110
2
i.e. 0.59375
10
=0.100 11
2
10
to a binary number,
viaoctal.
Theinteger partisrepeatedlydividedby8, notingtheremainder,
giving:
8 5613 Remainder
8 701 5
8
8
87 5
10
8 1
0
7
2
1
2 7 5 5 1
Thisoctal numberisconvertedtoabinarynumber,(seeTable5.1)
12755
8
=001010111101101
2
i.e. 5613
10
=1010111101101
2
Thefractional part isrepeatedlymultipliedby8, andnotingthe
integer part, giving:
0.90625 8 7.25
0.25 8 2.00
. 7 2
Thisoctal fractionisconvertedtoabinarynumber,(seeTable5.1)
0.72
8
=0.111010
2
i.e. 0.90625
10
=0.11101
2
Thus, 5613.90625
10
=1 010 111 101 101.111 01
2
2
to a denary
number viaoctal.
Grouping the binary number in threes fromthe binary point
gives: 011110011.100010
2
Using Table 5.1 to convert this binary number to an octal
number gives: 363.42
8
and
363.42
8
=38
2
+68
1
+38
0
+48
1
+28
2
=192+48+3+0.5+0.03125
=243.53125
10
Exercise 19 Further problems on conversion between
denary and binary numbers via octal
In Problems 1 to 3, convert the denary numbers given to
binarynumbers, viaoctal.
1. (a) 343 (b) 572 (c) 1265
2. (a) 0.46875 (b) 0.6875 (c) 0.71875
3. (a) 247.09375 (b) 514.4375 (c) 1716.78125
4. Convert thefollowingbinary numbers to denary num-
bersviaoctal:
5. (a) 111.0111 (b) 101001.01
(c) 1110011011010.0011
5.5 Hexadecimal numbers
Thecomplexity of computers requires higher order numbering
systemssuchasoctal (base8) andhexadecimal (base16) which
are merely extensions of the binary system. A hexadecimal
numbering system has a radix of 16 and uses the following
16distinct digits:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E andF
A correspondsto10inthedenarysystem, Bto11, Cto12, and
soon.
To convert from hexadecimal to decimal:
For example 1A
16
=116
1
+A 16
0
=116
1
+101=16+10=26
i.e. 1A
16
=26
10
Similarly, 2E
16
=216
1
+E16
0
=216
1
+1416
0
=32+14=46
10
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and 1BF
16
=116
2
+B16
1
+F16
0
=116
2
+1116
1
+1516
0
=256+176+15=447
10
Table 5.2 compares decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal
numbersandshows, for example, that
23
10
= 10111
2
= 27
8
= 17
16
Table 5.2
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal
0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
16 10000 20 10
17 10001 21 11
18 10010 22 12
19 10011 23 13
20 10100 24 14
21 10101 25 15
22 10110 26 16
23 10111 27 17
24 11000 30 18
25 11001 31 19
26 11010 32 1A
27 11011 33 1B
28 11100 34 1C
29 11101 35 1D
30 11110 36 1E
31 11111 37 1F
32 100000 40 20
Problem 11. Convertthefollowinghexadecimal numbers
intotheir decimal equivalents: (a) 7A
16
(b) 3F
16
(a) 7A
16
=716
1
+A 16
0
=716+101
=112+10=122
Thus 7A
16
=122
10
(b) 3F
16
=316
1
+F16
0
=316+151
=48+15=63
Thus 3F
16
=63
10
intotheir decimal equivalents: (a) C9
16
(b) BD
16
(a) C9
16
=C16
1
+916
0
=1216+91
=192+9=201
Thus C9
16
=201
10
(b) BD
16
=B16
1
+D16
0
=1116+131
=176+13=189
Thus BD
16
=189
10
Problem 13. Convert 1A4E
16
intoadenarynumber.
1A4E
16
=116
3
+A 16
2
+416
1
+E16
0
=116
3
+1016
2
+416
1
+1416
0
=14096+10256+416+141
=4096+2560+64+14=6734
Thus 1A4E
16
=6734
10
To convert from decimal to hexadecimal:
This is achieved by repeatedly dividing by 16 and noting the
10
0 1 1
16
most significant bit 1 A least significant bit
16 A
16
10 1
16 Remainder 26
Hence 26
10
=1A
16
Similarly, for 447
10
16
16 B
16
0 1
16
1
1 B F
11
16
F
16
Remainder
15
447
27
1
Thus 447
10
=1BF
16
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Problem 14. Convertthefollowingdecimal numbersinto
their hexadecimal equivalents: (a) 37
10
(b) 108
10
(a) 16
16 5
16
0 2 2
16
most significant bit 2 5 least significant bit
Remainder
5
37
2
Hence 37
10
=25
16
(b) 16
16 C
16
0 6
16
6 C
Remainder
12
6
6
108
Hence 108
10
=6C
16
Problem 15. Convertthefollowingdecimal numbersinto
their hexadecimal equivalents: (a) 162
10
(b) 239
10
(a) 16
16 2
16
0 A
16
A 2
Remainder
2
10
10
162
Hence 162
10
=A2
16
(b) 16
16 F
16
0 E
16
E F
Remainder
15
14
14
239
Hence 239
10
=EF
16
To convert from binary to hexadecimal:
Thebinarybitsarearrangedingroupsof four, startingfromright
toleft, andahexadecimal symbol isassignedtoeachgroup. For
example, thebinarynumber 1110011110101001
isinitiallygroupedinfoursas: 1110 0111 1010 1001
andahexadecimal symbol assigned E 7 A 9
toeachgroup fromTable5.2
Hence1110011110101001
2
=E7A9
16
To convert from hexadecimal to binary:
Theaboveprocedureisreversed, thus, for example,
6CF3
16
=0110110011110011fromTable5.2
i.e. 6CF3
16
=110110011110011
2
Problem 16. Convert thefollowingbinary numbers into
their hexadecimal equivalents:
(a) 11010110
2
(b) 1100111
2
(a) Groupingbitsinfoursfromthe
right gives: 0101 0110
andassigninghexadecimal symbols
toeachgroupgives: D 6
fromTable5.2
Thus, 11010110
2
=D6
16
(b) Groupingbitsinfoursfromthe
toeachgroupgives: 6 7
fromTable5.2
Thus, 1100111
2
=67
16
Problem 17. Convert thefollowingbinary numbers into
their hexadecimal equivalents:
(a) 11001111
2
(b) 110011110
2
(a) Groupingbitsinfoursfromthe
toeachgroupgives: C F
fromTable5.2
Thus, 11001111
2
=CF
16
(b) Groupingbitsinfoursfromthe
right gives: 0001 1001 1110
toeachgroupgives: 1 9 E
fromTable5.2
Thus, 110011110
2
=19E
16
intotheir binaryequivalents: (a) 3F
16
(b) A6
16
(a) Spacingout hexadecimal digitsgives: 3 F
andconvertingeachintobinarygives: 0011 1111
fromTable5.2
Thus, 3F
16
=111111
2
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(b) Spacingout hexadecimal digitsgives: A 6
fromTable5.2
Thus, A6
16
=10100110
2
intotheir binaryequivalents: (a) 7B
16
(b) 17D
16
(a) Spacingout hexadecimal digitsgives: 7 B
fromTable5.2
Thus, 7B
16
=1111011
2
(b) Spacingout hexadecimal digitsgives: 1 7 D
andconvertingeachintobinarygives:
0001 0111 1101
fromTable5.2
Thus, 17D
16
=101111101
2
Exercise 20 Further problems on hexadecimal num-
bers (Answers on page 272)
InProblems1to4, convert thegivenhexadecimal numbers
intotheir decimal equivalents.
1. E7
16
2. 2C
16
3. 98
16
4. 2F1
16
InProblems5to8, convert thegivendecimal numbersinto
their hexadecimal equivalents.
5. 54
10
6. 200
10
7. 91
10
8. 238
10
InProblems9to12, convert thegivenbinarynumbersinto
their hexadecimal equivalents.
9. 11010111
2
10. 11101010
2
11. 10001011
2
12. 10100101
2
In Problems 13 to 16, convert the given hexadecimal
numbersintotheir binaryequivalents.
13. 37
16
14. ED
16
15. 9F
16
16. A21
16
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6
Algebra
6.1 Basic operations
Algebra is that part of mathematics inwhichtherelations and
propertiesof numbersareinvestigatedbymeansof general sym-
bols. Forexample, theareaof arectangleisfoundbymultiplying
the length by the breadth; this is expressed algebraically as
A=l b, where A represents the area, l the length and b the
breadth.
The basic laws introduced in arithmetic are generalized in
algebra.
Let a, b, c andd represent anyfour numbers. Then:
(i) a +(b +c)=(a +b)+c
(ii) a(bc)=(ab)c
(iii) a +b =b +a
(iv) ab =ba
(v) a(b +c)=ab +ac
(vi)
a +b
c
=
a
b
+
b
c
(vii) (a +b)(c +d)=ac +ad +bc +bd
Problem 1. Evaluate3ab 2bc +abc whena =1, b =3
andc =5
Replacinga, b andc withtheir numerical valuesgives:
3ab 2bc +abc = 313235+135
= 930+15= 6
Problem 2. Find the value of 4p
2
qr
3
, given that p =2,
q =
1
2
andr =1
1
2
Replacingp, q andr withtheir numerical valuesgives:
4p
2
qr
3
= 4(2)
2
_
1
2
_ _
3
2
_
3
= 422
1
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
= 27
Problem 3. Findthesumof 3x, 2x, x and7x
Thesumof thepositivetermsis: 3x +2x =5x
Thesumof thenegativetermsis: x +7x =8x
Takingthesumof thenegativetermsfromthesumof thepositive
termsgives:
5x 8x = 3x
Alternatively
3x +2x +(x) +(7x) = 3x +2x x 7x = 3x
Problem 4. Findthesumof 4a, 3b, c, 2a, 5b and6c
Eachsymbol must bedealt withindividually.
For thea terms: +4a 2a =2a
For theb terms: +3b 5b =2b
For thec terms: +c +6c =7c
Thus4a +3b +c +(2a)+(5b)+6c
=4a +3b +c 2a 5b +6c
=2a 2b +7c
Problem 5. Findthesumof 5a 2b, 2a +c, 4b 5d and
b a +3d 4c
The algebraic expressions may be tabulated as shown below,
formingcolumnsfor theas, bs, csandds. Thus:
+5a 2b
+2a + c
+4b 5d
a + b 4c +3d
Addinggives: 6a +3b 3c 2d
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Problem 6. Subtract 2x +3y 4z fromx 2y +5z
x 2y +5z
2x +3y 4z
Subtractinggives: x5y +9z
(Notethat +5z 4z =+5z +4z =9z)
Analternativemethodof subtractingalgebraicexpressionsis
tochangethesignsof thebottomlineandadd. Hence:
x 2y +5z
2x 3y +4z
Addinggives: x 5y +9z
Problem 7. Multiply2a +3b bya +b
Each termin therst expression is multiplied by a, then each
termintherstexpressionismultipliedbyb, andthetworesults
areadded. Theusual layout isshownbelow.
2a +3b
a + b
Multiplyingbya 2a
2
+3ab
Multiplyingbyb +2ab +3b
2
Addinggives: 2a
2
+5ab +3b
2
Problem 8. Multiply3x 2y
2
+4xy by2x 5y
3x 2y
2
+4xy
2x 5y
Multiplying
by2x 6x
2
4xy
2
+8x
2
y
Multiplying
by5y 20xy
2
15xy +10y
3
Addinggives: 6x
2
24xy
2
+8x
2
y 15xy +10y
3
Problem 9. Simplify2p 8pq
2p 8pq means
2p
8pq
. This can bereduced by cancelling as in
arithmetic.
Thus:
2p
8pq
=
2p
8p p
=
1
4q
Problem 10. Divide2x
2
+x 3byx 1
2x
2
+x 3 is called the dividend and x 1 the divisor. The
usual layout isshownbelowwiththedividendanddivisor both
arrangedindescendingpowersof thesymbols.
2x +3
x 1
_
2x
2
+ x 3
2x
2
2x
3x 3
3x 3
0 0
Dividing therst termof thedividend by therst termof the
divisor, i.e.
2x
2
x
gives 2x, which is put abovetherst termof
the dividend as shown. The divisor is then multiplied by 2x,
i.e. 2x(x 1)=2x
2
2x, whichisplacedunder thedividendas
shown. Subtractinggives3x 3.
Theprocessisthenrepeated, i.e. thersttermof thedivisor, x,
isdividedinto3x, giving3, whichisplacedabovethedividend
asshown.
Then3(x 1)=3x 3, whichisplacedunder the3x 3.The
remainder, onsubtraction, iszero, whichcompletestheprocess.
Thus(2x
2
+x 3)(x 1)=(2x +3)
(A checkcanbemadeonthisanswer bymultiplying(2x +3) by
(x 1), whichequals(2x
2
+x 3)
x
3
+y
3
x +y
(1) (4) (7)
x
2
xy + y
2
x +y
_
x
3
+0 +0 + y
3
x
3
+x
2
y
x
2
y + y
3
x
2
y xy
2
xy
2
+ y
3
xy
2
+ y
3
0 0
(1) x intox
3
goesx
2
. Put x
2
abovex
3
(2) x
2
(x +y)=x
3
+x
2
y
(3) Subtract
(4) x intox
2
y goesxy.
Put xy abovedividend
(5) xy(x +y)=x
2
y xy
2
(6) Subtract
(7) x intoxy
2
goesy
2
. Put y
2
abovedividend
(8) y
2
(x +y)=xy
2
+y
3
(9) Subtract
Thus
x
3
+y
3
x +y
=x
2
xy +y
2
Thezerosshowninthedividendarenotnormallyshown, butare
included to clarify thesubtraction process and to keep similar
termsintheir respectivecolumns.
Problem 12. Divide4a
3
6a
2
b +5b
3
by2a b
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Algebra 39
2a
2
2ab b
2
2a b
_
4a
3
6a
2
b +5b
3
4a
3
2a
2
b
4a
2
b +5b
3
4a
2
b +2ab
2
2ab
2
+5b
3
2ab
2
+ b
3
4b
3
Thus
4a
3
6a
2
b +5b
3
2a b
=2a
2
2ab b
2
, remainder 4b
3
.
Alternatively, theanswer maybeexpressedas
2a
2
2ab b
2
+
4b
3
2a b
Exercise 21 Further problems on basic operations
1. Findthevalueof 2xy +3yz xyz, whenx =2, y =2
andz =4
2. Evaluate3pq
2
r
3
whenp =
2
3
, q =2andr =1
3. Findthesumof 3a, 2a, 6a, 5a and4a
4. Simplify
4
3
c +2c
1
6
c c
5. Findthesumof 3x, 2y, 5x, 2z,
1
2
y,
1
4
x
6. Addtogether 2a +3b +4c, 5a 2b +c,
4a 5b 6c
7. Addtogether 3d +4e, 2e +f , 2d 3f ,
4d e + 2f 3e
8. From4x 3y +2z subtract x +2y 3z
9. Subtract
3
2
a
b
3
+c from
b
2
4a 3c
10. Multiply3x +2y byx y
11. Multiply2a 5b +c by3a +b
12. Simplify(i) 3a 9ab (ii) 4a
2
b 2a
13. Divide2x
2
+xy y
2
byx +y
14. Divide3p
2
pq 2q
2
byp q
6.2 Laws of Indices
Thelawsof indicesare:
(i) a
m
a
n
=a
m+n
(ii)
a
m
a
n
=a
mn
(iii) (a
m
)
n
=a
mn
(iv) a
m/n
=
n
a
m
(v) a
n
=
1
a
n
(vi) a
0
=1
Problem 13. Simplifya
3
b
2
c ab
3
c
5
Groupingliketermsgives: a
3
a b
2
b
3
c c
5
Usingtherst lawof indicesgives: a
3+1
b
2+3
c
1+5
i.e. a
4
b
5
c
6
=a
4
b
5
c
6
1/2
b
2
c
2
a
1/6
b
1/2
c
Usingtherst lawof indices,
a
1/2
b
2
c
2
a
(1/6)
b
(1/2)
c = a
(1/2)+(1/6)
b
2+(1/2)
c
2+1
= a
2/3
b
5/2
c
1
a
3
b
2
c
4
abc
2
and evaluatewhen a =3,
b =
1
8
andc =2
Usingthesecondlawof indices,
a
3
a
= a
31
= a
2
,
b
2
b
= b
21
= b
and
c
4
c
2
=c
42
=c
6
Thus
a
3
b
2
c
4
abc
2
=a
2
bc
6
Whena =3, b =
1
8
andc =2,
a
2
bc
6
= (3)
2
_
1
8
_
(2)
6
= (9)
_
1
8
_
(64) = 72
p
1/2
q
2
r
2/3
p
1/4
q
1/2
r
1/6
and evaluate when
p =16, q =9andr =4, takingpositiverootsonly.
Usingthesecondlawof indicesgives:
p
(1/2)(1/4)
q
2(1/2)
r
(2/3)(1/6)
= p
1/4
q
3/2
r
1/2
Whenp =16, q =9andr =4,
p
1/4
q
3/2
r
1/2
= (16)
1/4
(9)
3/2
(4)
1/2
= (
4
16)(
9
3
)(
4) = (2)(3
3
)(2) = 108
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x
2
y
3
+xy
2
xy
Algebraicexpressionsof theform
a +b
c
canbesplitinto
a
c
+
b
c
.
Thus
x
2
y
3
+xy
2
xy
=
x
2
y
3
xy
+
xy
2
xy
= x
21
y
31
+x
11
y
21
= xy
2
+y
(sincex
0
=1, fromthesixthlawof indices.)
x
2
y
xy
2
xy
The highest common factor (HCF) of each of the three terms
comprisingthenumerator anddenominator isxy. Dividingeach
termbyxy gives:
x
2
y
xy
2
xy
=
x
2
y
xy
xy
2
xy

xy
xy
=
x
y 1
a
2
b
ab
2
a
1/2
b
3
TheHCF of eachof thethreetermsisa
1/2
b. Dividingeachterm
bya
1/2
b gives:
a
2
b
ab
2
a
1/2
b
3
=
a
2
b
a
1/2
b
ab
2
a
1/2
b

a
1/2
b
3
a
1/2
b
=
a
3/2
a
1/2
b b
2
Problem 20. Simplify(p
3
)
1/2
(q
2
)
4
Usingthethirdlawof indicesgives:
p
3(1/2)
q
24
= p
(3/2)
q
8
(mn
2
)
3
(m
1/2
n
1/4
)
4
Thebracketsindicatethateachletterinthebracketmustberaised
tothepower outside.
(mn
2
)
3
(m
1/2
n
1/4
)
4
=
m
13
n
23
m
(1/2)4
n
(1/4)4
=
m
3
n
6
m
2
n
1
m
3
n
6
m
2
n
1
= m
32
n
61
= mn
5
Problem 22. Simplify (a
3
c
5
)(
a
3
b
2
c
3
) andevalu-
atewhena =
1
4
, b =6andc =1
Usingthefourthlawof indices, theexpressioncanbewrittenas:
(a
3
b
1/2
c
5/2
)(a
1/2
b
2/3
c
3
)
Usingtherst lawof indicesgives:
a
3+(1/2)
b
(1/2)+(2/3)
c
(5/2)+3
= a
7/2
b
7/6
c
11/2
Itisusual toexpresstheanswerinthesameformasthequestion.
Hence
a
7/2
b
7/6
c
11/2
=
a
7
6
_
b
7
c
11
Whena =
1
4
, b =64andc =1,
a
7
6
b
7
c
11
=
_
_
1
4
_
7
(
6
64
7
)(
1
11
)
=
_
1
2
_
7
(2)
7
(1) = 1
Problem 23. Simplify (a
3
b)(a
4
b
2
), expressing the
answer withpositiveindicesonly.
Usingtherst lawof indicesgives: a
3+4
b
1+2
=a
1
b
1
Usingthefthlawof indicesgives: a
1
b
1
=
1
a
+1
b
+1
=
1
ab
Problem24. Simplify
d
2
e
2
f
1/2
(d
3/2
ef
5/2
)
2
expressingtheanswer
withpositiveindicesonly.
d
2
e
2
f
1/2
(d
3/2
ef
5/2
)
2
=
d
2
e
2
f
1/2
d
3
e
2
f
5
d
23
e
22
f
(1/2)5
=d
1
e
0
f
9/2
=d
1
f
(9/2)
sincee
0
=1from
thesixthlawof indices
=
1
df
9/2
fromthefthlawof indices
(x
2
y
1/2
)(
x
3
_
y
2
)
(x
5
y
3
)
1/2
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Algebra 41
Usingthethirdandfourthlawsof indicesgives:
(x
2
y
1/2
)(
x
3
_
y
2
)
(x
5
y
3
)
1/2
=
(x
2
y
1/2
)(x
1/2
y
2/3
)
x
5/2
y
3/2
Usingtherst andsecondlawsof indicesgives:
x
2+(1/2)(5/2)
y
(1/2)+(2/3)(3/2)
= x
0
y
1/3
= y
1/3
or
1
y
1/3
or
1
3
y
fromthefthandsixthlawsof indices.
Exercise 22 Further problems on laws of indices
1. Simplify(x
2
y
3
z)(x
3
yz
2
) andevaluatewhenx =
1
2
, y =2
andz =3
2. Simplify (a
3/2
bc
3
)(a
1/2
b
1/2
c) and evaluate when
a =3, b =4andc =2
3. Simplify
a
5
bc
3
a
2
b
3
c
2
andevaluatewhena =
3
2
, b =
1
2
and
c =
2
3
InProblems4to11, simplifythegivenexpressions:
4.
x
1/5
y
1/2
z
1/3
x
1/2
y
1/3
z
1/6
5.
a
2
b +a
3
b
a
2
b
2
6.
p
3
q
2
pq
2
p
2
q
7. (a
2
)
1/2
(b
2
)
3
(c
1/2
)
3
8.
(abc)
2
(a
2
b
1
c
3
)
3
9. (
x
_
y
3
3
z
2
)(
x
_
y
3
z
3
)
10. (e
2
f
3
)(e
3
f
5
), expressing the answer with positive
indicesonly
11.
(a
3
b
1/2
c
1/2
)(ab)
1/3
(
a
3
b c)
6.3 Brackets and factorization
When two or more terms in an algebraic expression contain
a common factor, then this factor can be shown outside of
abracket. For example
ab +ac = a(b +c)
whichissimplythereverseof law(v) of algebraonpage36, and
6px +2py 4pz = 2p(3x +y 2z)
Thisprocessiscalledfactorization.
Problem26. Removethebracketsandsimplifytheexpres-
sion(3a +b)+2(b +c)4(c +d)
Bothb andc inthesecondbracket haveto bemultipliedby 2,
and c and d in thethird bracket by 4 when thebrackets are
removed. Thus:
(3a +b) +2(b +c) 4(c +d)
= 3a +b +2b +2c 4c 4d
Collectingsimilar termstogether gives: 3a +3b 2c 4d
2
(2a ab)a(3b +a)
When the brackets are removed, both 2a and ab in the rst
bracketmustbemultipliedby1andboth3b anda inthesecond
bracket bya. Thus
a
2
(2a ab) a(3b +a)
= a
2
2a +ab 3ab a
2
Collectingsimilar termstogether gives: 2a 2ab.
Since2a is acommonfactor, theanswer canbeexpressedas
2a(1 +b)
Problem 28. Simplify(a +b)(a b)
Each termin the second bracket has to be multiplied by each
termintherst bracket. Thus:
(a +b)(a b) = a(a b) +b(a b)
= a
2
ab +ab b
2
= a
2
b
2
Alternatively a + b
a b
Multiplyingbya a
2
+ab
Multiplyingbyb ab b
2
Addinggives: a
2
b
2
Problem 29. Remove the brackets fromthe expression
(x 2y)(3x +y
2
)
(x 2y)(3x +y
2
) = x(3x +y
2
) 2y(3x +y
2
)
= 3x
2
+xy
2
6xy 2y
3
Problem 30. Simplify(2x 3y)
2
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(2x 3y)
2
= (2x 3y)(2x 3y)
= 2x(2x 3y) 3y(2x 3y)
= 4x
2
6xy 6xy +9y
2
= 4x
2
12xy +9y
2
Alternatively, 2x 3y
2x 3y
Multiplyingby2x 4x
2
6xy
Multiplyingby3y 6xy +9y
2
Addinggives: 4x
2
12xy +9y
2
Problem 31. Removethebracketsfromtheexpression
2[p
2
3(q +r) +q
2
]
In this problemthere are two brackets and the inner one is
removedrst.
Hence 2[p
2
3(q +r)+q
2
]=2[p
2
3q 3r +q
2
]
=2p
2
6q 6r +2q
2
Problem32. Removethebracketsandsimplifytheexpres-
sion: 2a [3{2(4a b)5(a +2b)} +4a]
Removingtheinnermost bracketsgives:
2a [3{8a 2b 5a 10b} +4a]
Collectingtogether similar termsgives:
2a [3{3a 12b} +4a]
Removingthecurly bracketsgives:
2a [9a 36b +4a]
2a [13a 36b]
Removingtheouter bracketsgives:
2a 13a +36b
i.e. 11a +36b or 36b 11a (seelaw(iii), page37)
Problem 33. Simplifyx(2x 4y)2x(4x +y)
Removingbracketsgives:
2x
2
4xy 8x
2
2xy
6x
2
6xy
Factorizinggives:
6x(x +y)
since6x iscommontobothterms.
Problem 34. Factorize(a) xy 3xz (b) 4a
2
+16ab
3
(c) 3a
2
b 6ab
2
+15ab
For eachpartof thisproblem, theHCF of thetermswill become
oneof thefactors. Thus:
(a) xy 3xz =x( y 3z)
(b) 4a
2
+16ab
3
=4a(a +4b
3
)
(c) 3a
2
b 6ab
2
+15ab =3ab(a 2b +5)
Problem 35. Factorizeax ay +bx by
Therst twotermshaveacommonfactor of a andthelast two
termsacommonfactor of b. Thus:
ax ay +bx by = a(x y) +b(x y)
The two newly formed terms have a common factor of
(x y). Thus:
a(x y) +b(x y) = (xy)(a+ b)
Problem 36. Factorize2ax 3ay +2bx 3by
a isacommonfactorof thersttwotermsandb acommonfactor
of thelast twoterms. Thus:
2ax 3ay +2bx 3by = a(2x 3y) +b(2x 3y)
(2x 3y) isnowacommonfactor thus:
a(2x 3y) +b(2x 3y) = (2x3y)(a+b)
Alternatively, 2x isacommonfactorof theoriginal rstandthird
termsand3y isacommonfactorof thesecondandfourthterms.
Thus:
2ax 3ay +2bx 3by = 2x(a +b) 3y(a +b)
(a +b) isnowacommonfactor thus:
2x(a +b) 3y(a +b) = (a +b)(2x 3y)
asbefore.
Problem 37. Factorizex
3
+3x
2
x 3
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Algebra 43
x
2
isacommonfactor of therst twoterms, thus:
x
3
+3x
2
x 3= x
2
(x +3) x 3
1isacommonfactor of thelast twoterms, thus:
x
2
(x +3) x 3= x
2
(x +3) 1(x +3)
(x +3) isnowacommonfactor, thus:
x
2
(x +3) 1(x +3) = (x +3)(x
2
1)
Exercise 23 Further problems on brackets and
factorization (Answers on page 273)
InProblems1to13, removethebracketsandsimplifywhere
possible:
1. (x +2y)+(2x y)
2. (4a +3y)(a 2y)
3. 2(x y)3(y x)
4. 2x
2
3(x xy)x(2y x)
5. 2(p +3q r)4(r q +2p)+p
6. (a +b)(a +2b)
7. (p +q)(3p 2q)
8. (i) (x 2y)
2
(ii) (3a b)
2
9. 3a(b +c)+4c(a b)
10. 2x +[y (2x +y)]
11. 3a +2[a (3a 2)]
12. 25[a(a 2b)(a b)
2
]
13. 24p [2(3(5p q)2(p +2q))+3q]
InProblems14to17, factorize:
14. (i) pb +2pc (ii) 2q
2
+8qn
15. (i) 21a
2
b
2
28ab (ii) 2xy
2
+6x
2
y +8x
3
y
16. (i) ay +by +a +b (ii) px +qx +py +qy
17. (i) ax ay +bx by (ii) 2ax +3ay 4bx 6by
6.4 Fundamental laws and precedence
The laws of precedence which apply to arithmetic also apply
to algebraic expressions. The order is Brackets, Of, Division,
Multiplication, AdditionandSubtraction(i.e. BODMAS)
Problem 38. Simplify2a +5a 3a a
Multiplicationisperformedbeforeadditionandsubtractionthus:
2a +5a 3a a = 2a +15a
2
a
= a +15a
2
= a(1 +15a)
Problem 39. Simplify(a +5a)2a 3a
Theorderof precedenceisbrackets, multiplication, thensubtrac-
tion. Hence
(a +5a) 2a 3a = 6a 2a 3a = 12a
2
3a
= 3a(4a 1)
Problem 40. Simplifya +5a (2a 3a)
Theorderof precedenceisbrackets, multiplication, thensubtrac-
tion. Hence
a +5a (2a 3a) = a +5a a = a +5a
2
= a 5a
2
= a(1 5a)
Problem 41. Simplifya 5a +2a 3a
Theorder of precedenceis division, thenadditionandsubtrac-
tion. Hence
a 5a +2a 3a =
a
5a
+2a 3a
=
1
5
+2a 3a =
1
5
a
Problem 42. Simplifya (5a +2a)3a
The order of precedence is brackets, division and subtraction.
Hence
a (5a +2a) 3a = a 7a 3a
=
a
7a
3a =
1
7
3a
Problem 43. Simplifya (5a +2a 3a)
Theorder of precedenceisbrackets, thendivision. Hence:
a (5a +2a 3a) = a 4a =
a
4a
=
1
4
Problem 44. Simplify3c +2c 4c +c 5c 8c
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Theorder of precedenceisdivision, multiplication, additionand
subtraction. Hence:
3c +2c 4c +c 5c 8c =3c +2c 4c +
c
5c
8c
=3c +8c
2
+
1
5
8c
=8c
2
5c +
1
5
or
c(8c 5) +
1
5
Problem 45. Simplify(3c +2c)4c +c 5c 8c
The order of precedence is brackets, division, multiplication,
additionandsubtraction. Hence
(3c +2c)4c +c 5c 8c =5c 4c +c 5c 8c
=5c 4c +
c
5c
8c
=20c
2
+
1
5
8c or
4c(5c 2) +
1
5
Problem 46. Simplify3c +2c 4c +c (5c 8c)
Theorder of precedenceisbrackets, division, multiplicationand
addition. Hence:
3c +2c 4c +c (5c 8c) =3c +2c 4c +c 3c
=3c +2c 4c +
c
3c
Now
c
3c
=
1
3
Multiplyingnumerator anddenominator by1gives
11
31
i.e.
1
3
Hence:
3c +2c 4c +
c
3c
=3c +2c 4c
1
3
=3c +8c
2
1
3
or
c(3 +8c)
1
3
Problem 47. Simplify(3c +2c)(4c +c)(5c 8c)
Theorder of precedenceisbrackets, divisionandmultiplication.
Hence
(3c +2c)(4c +c) (5c 8c) = 5c 5c 3c
= 5c
5c
3c
= 5c
5
3
=
25
3
c
Problem 48. Simplify(2a 3)4a +563a
Thebracketaroundthe(2a 3) showsthatboth2a and3have
tobedividedby4a, andtoremovethebracket theexpressionis
writteninfractionform. Hence:
(2a 3) 4a +563a =
2a 3
4a
+563a
=
2a 3
4a
+303a
=
2a
4a

3
4a
+303a
=
1
2
3
4a
+303a
= 30
1
2

3
4a
3a
1
3
of 3p +4p(3p p)
ApplyingBODMAS, theexpressionbecomes
1
3
of 3p +4p 2p
andchangingof to gives:
1
3
3p +4p 2p
i.e. p +8p
2
or p(1 +8p)
Exercise 24 Further problems on fundamental laws
and precedence (Answers on page 273)
InProblems1to12, simplify:
1. 2x 4x +6x 2. 2x (4x +6x)
3. 3a 2a 4a +a 4. (3a 2a)4a +a
5. 3a 2a(4a +a) 6. 2y +46y +345y
7. (2y +4)6y +345y
8. 2y +46y +3(45y)
9. 3y +2y +1
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Algebra 45
10. p
2
3pq 2p 6q +pq
11. (x +1)(x 4)(2x +2)
12.
1
4
of 2y +3y(2y y)
6.5 Direct and inverse proportionality
Anexpressionsuchas y =3x contains twovariables. For every
valueof x thereisacorrespondingvalueof y. Thevariablex is
calledtheindependent variable andy iscalledthedependent
variable.
Whenanincreaseordecreaseinanindependentvariableleads
toanincreaseordecreaseof thesameproportioninthedependent
variable this is termed direct proportion. If y =3x then y is
directlyproportional tox,whichmaybewrittenasy x ory =kx,
wherek iscalledthecoefcient of proportionality (inthiscase,
k beingequal to3).
When an increase in an independent variable leads to a
decrease of the same proportion in the dependent variable (or
viceversa) this is termedinverse proportion. If y is inversely
proportional to x then y
1
x
or y =k/x. Alternatively, k =xy,
that is, for inverseproportionalitytheproduct of thevariablesis
constant.
Examplesof lawsinvolvingdirectandinverseproportional in
scienceinclude:
(i) Hookes law, which states that within theelastic limit of
amaterial, thestrain producedisdirectlyproportional to
thestress, , producingit, i.e. or =k.
(ii) Charless law, whichstatesthat for agivenmassof gasat
constant pressurethevolumeV is directly proportional to
itsthermodynamictemperatureT, i.e. V T or V =kT.
(iii) Ohms law, whichstatesthatthecurrent I owingthrough
axedresistorisdirectlyproportional totheappliedvoltage
V, i.e. I V or I =kV.
(iv) Boyles law, which states that for a gas at constant tem-
perature, thevolumeV of axedmass of gas is inversely
proportional to its absolutepressurep, i.e. p (1/V) or
p =k/V, i.e. pV =k
Problem 50. If y isdirectlyproportional tox andy =2.48
whenx =0.4, determine(a) thecoefcient of proportion-
alityand(b) thevalueof y whenx =0.65
(a) y x, i.e. y =kx. If y =2.48whenx =0.4, 2.48=k(0.4)
Hencethecoefcient of proportionality,
k =
2.48
0.4
= 6.2
(b) y =kx, hence, whenx =0.65, y =(6.2)(0.65)=4.03
Problem 51. Hookes law states that stress is directly
proportional to strain within the elastic limit of a
material.When,formildsteel,thestressis2510
6
pascals,
thestrainis0.000125. Determine(a) thecoefcientof pro-
portionality and(b) thevalueof strain when thestress is
1810
6
pascals.
(a) , i.e. =k, from which k =/. Hence the
coefcient of proportionality,
k =
2510
6
0.000125
= 200 10
9
pascals
(The coefcient of proportionality k in this case is called
Youngs Modulus of Elasticity)
(b) Since =k, =/k
Hencewhen =1810
6
, strain
=
1810
6
20010
9
= 0.00009
Problem 52. Theelectrical resistanceR of apieceof wire
isinverselyproportional tothecross-sectional areaA.When
A=5mm
2
, R=7.02ohms. Determine (a) the coefcient
of proportionalityand(b) thecross-sectional areawhenthe
resistanceis4ohms.
(a) R
1
A
, i.e. R=k/A or k =RA. Hence, whenR=7.2and
A=5, thecoefcient of proportionality, k =(7.2)(5)=36
(b) Sincek =RA thenA=k/R
WhenR=4, thecrosssectional area, A=
36
4
=9 mm
2
Problem 53. Boyles law states that at constant temper-
ature, the volume V of a xed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its absolute pressure p. If a gas occupies
a volume of 0.08m
3
at a pressure of 1.510
6
pascals
determine(a) thecoefcientof proportionalityand(b) the
volumeif thepressureischangedto410
6
pascals..
(a) V
1
p
, i.e. V =k/p or k =pV
Hencethecoefcient of proportionality,
k = (1.510
6
)(0.08) = 0.12 10
6
(b) VolumeV =
k
p
=
0.1210
6
410
6
=0.03 m
3
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Exercise 25 Further problems on direct and inverse
proportionality (Answers on page 273)
1. If p is directly proportional to q and p =37.5 when
q =2.5, determine (a) the constant of proportionality
and(b) thevalueof p whenq is5.2.
2. Charlesslawstatesthat for agivenmassof gasat con-
stant pressurethevolumeis directly proportional to its
thermodynamic temperature. A gas occupies avolume
of 2.25litres at 300K. Determine (a) the constant of
proportionality, (b) the volume at 420K and (c) the
temperaturewhenthevolumeis2.625litres.
3. Ohmslawstatesthatthecurrentowinginaxedresis-
tor isdirectlyproportional totheappliedvoltage. When
30volts is appliedacross aresistor thecurrent owing
through the resistor is 2.410
3
amperes. Determine
(a) theconstantof proportionality, (b) thecurrentwhen
the voltage is 52volts and (c) the voltage when the
current is3.610
3
amperes.
4. If y is inversely proportional to x and y =15.3 when
x =0.6, determine(a) thecoefcientof proportionality,
(b) thevalueof y whenx is1.5, and(c) thevalueof x
wheny is27.2.
5. Boyleslawstatesthat for agasat constant temperature,
thevolumeof axed mass of gas is inversely propor-
tional toitsabsolutepressure. If agasoccupiesavolume
of 1.5m
3
at apressureof 20010
3
pascals, determine
(a) theconstantof proportionality,(b) thevolumewhen
the pressure is 80010
3
pascals and (c) the pressure
whenthevolumeis1.25m
3
.
6. The power P transmitted by a vee belt drive varies
directly as the driving tension T and directly as the
belt speed v. A belt transmits 4kW when the tension
is 500N and the speed is 4m/s. Determine the power
transmittedwhenthetensionis300Nandthebeltspeed
is2.5m/s.
Assignment 3
Chapters 5 and 6. The marks for each question are
1. Convertthefollowingbinarynumberstodecimal form:
(a) 1101 (b) 101101.0101 (5)
2. Convert thefollowingdecimal number tobinaryform:
(a) 27 (b) 44.1875 (6)
3. Convert the following denary numbers to binary, via
octal:
(a) 479 (b) 185.2890625 (7)
4. Convert (a) 5F
16
intoitsdecimal equivalent
(b) 132
10
intoitshexadecimal equivalent
(c) 110101011
2
intoitshexadecimal
equivalent (6)
5. Evaluate3xy
2
z
3
2yz whenx =
4
3
, y =2andz =
1
2
(3)
6. Simplifythefollowing:
(a) (2a +3b)(x y) (b)
8a
2
b
c
3
(2a
2
)
c
(c)
xy
2
+x
2
y
xy
(d) 3x +42x +524x (10)
7. Removethebrackets inthefollowingexpressions and
simplify:
(a) 3b
2
2(a a
2
b)b(2a
2
b) (b) (2x y)
2
(c) 4ab [3{2(4a b)+b(2a)}] (7)
8. Factorize3x
2
y +9xy
2
+6xy
3
(2)
9. If x is inversely proportional to y and x =12 when
y =0.4, determine(a) thevalueof x when y is 3, and
(b) thevalueof y whenx = 2 (4)
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7
Simple equations
7.1 Expressions, equations and identities
(3x 5) is an example of an algebraic expression, whereas
3x 5=1 is an example of an equation (i.e. it contains an
equals sign).
Anequationissimply astatement that twoquantitiesareequal.
For example, 1m=1000mmor F =
9
5
C +32or y =mx +c.
Anidentity is arelationshipwhichis truefor all values of the
unknown, whereasanequationisonlytruefor particular values
of theunknown. For example, 3x 5=1is an equation, since
it is only truewhen x =2, whereas 3x 8x 5x is an identity
sinceit istruefor all valuesof x.
(Note meansisidentical to).
Simple linear equations (or equations of therst degree) are
thoseinwhichanunknownquantityisraisedonlytothepower1.
Tosolve an equation meanstondthevalueof theunknown.
Anyarithmeticoperationmaybeappliedtoanequationas long
as the equality of the equation is maintained.
7.2 Worked problems on simple
equations
Problem 1. Solvetheequation4x =20
Dividingeachsideof theequationby4gives:
4x
4
=
20
4
(Notethat thesameoperationhasbeenappliedtoboththeleft-
handside(LHS)andtheright-handside(RHS)of theequationso
theequalityhasbeenmaintained) Cancellinggives: x =5, which
isthesolutiontotheequation.
Solutions tosimpleequations shouldalways becheckedand
thisisaccomplishedbysubstitutingthesolutionintotheoriginal
equation. Inthiscase, LHS=4(5)=20=RHS.
Problem 2. Solve
2x
5
=6
TheLHS is afractionandthis canberemovedby multiplying
bothsidesof theequationby5. Hence5
_
2x
5
_
=5(6)
Cancellinggives: 2x =30
Dividingbothsidesof theequationby2gives:
2x
2
=
30
2
i.e. x =15
Problem 3. Solvea 5=8
Adding5tobothsidesof theequationgives:
a 5+5= 8+5
i.e. a = 13
Theresult of theaboveprocedureis tomovethe5 fromthe
LHSof theoriginal equation, acrosstheequalssign, totheRHS,
but thesignischangedto+.
Problem 4. Solvex +3=7
Subtracting3frombothsidesof theequationgives:
x +33= 73
i.e. x = 4
Theresult of theaboveprocedureis tomovethe+3 fromthe
LHSof theoriginal equation, acrosstheequalssign, totheRHS,
but thesign is changed to . Thus atermcan bemoved from
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onesideof anequationtotheother aslongasachangeinsign
ismade.
Problem 5. Solve6x +1=2x +9
Insuchequationsthetermscontainingx aregroupedononeside
of theequation and theremaining terms grouped on theother
sideof theequation. AsinProblems3and4, changingfromone
sideof anequationtotheothermustbeaccompaniedbyachange
of sign.
Thussince 6x +1=2x +9
then 6x 2x =91
4x =8
4x
4
=
8
4
i.e. x =2
Check: LHSof original equation=6(2)+1=13
RHSof original equation=2(2)+9=13
Hencethesolutionx =2iscorrect.
Problem 6. Solve43p =2p 11
Inorder tokeepthep termpositivethetermsinp aremovedto
theRHSandtheconstant termstotheLHS.
Hence 4+11 =2p +3p
15 =5p
15
5
=
5p
5
Hence 3 =p or p =3
Check: LHS=43(3)=49=5
RHS =2(3)11=611=5
Hencethesolutionp =3iscorrect.
If, inthisexample, theunknownquantitieshadbeengrouped
initiallyontheLHSinsteadof theRHSthen:
3p 2p = 114
i.e. 5p = 15
5p
5
=
15
5
and p = 3, as before
It is often easier, however, to work with positivevalues where
possible.
Probelm 7. Solve3(x 2)=9
Removingthebracket gives: 3x 6= 9
Rearranginggives: 3x = 9+6
3x = 15
3x
3
=
15
3
i.e. x = 5
Check: LHS=3(52)=3(3)=9=RHS
Hencethesolutionx =5iscorrect.
Problem 8. Solve4(2r 3)2(r 4)=3(r 3)1
Removingbracketsgives:
8r 122r +8=3r 91
Rearranginggives: 8r 2r 3r =91+128
i.e. 3r =6
r =
6
3
=2
Check: LHS=4(43)2(24)=28+12=16
RHS=3(23)1=151=16
Hencethesolutionr =2iscorrect.
Exercise 26 Further problems on simple equations
Solvethefollowingequations:
1. 2x +5=7 2. 83t =2
3.
2
3
c 1=3 4. 2x 1=5x +11
5. 74p =2p 3 6. 2.6x 1.3=0.9x +0.4
7. 2a +65a =0 8. 3x 25x =2x 4
9. 20d 3+3d =11d +58
10. 2(x 1)=4
11. 16=4(t +2)
12. 5( f 2)3(2f +5)+15=0
13. 2x =4(x 3)
14. 6(23y)42=2(y 1)
15. 2(3g 5)5=0
16. 4(3x +1)=7(x +4)2(x +5)
17. 10+3(r 7)=16(r +2)
18. 8+4(x 1)5(x 3)=2(52x)
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Simple equations 49
7.3 Further worked problems on simple
equations
Problem 9. Solve
3
x
=
4
5
Thelowest common multiple(LCM) of thedenominators, i.e.
thelowestalgebraicexpressionthatbothx and5will divideinto,
is5x.
Multiplyingbothsidesby5x gives:
5x
_
3
x
_
= 5x
_
4
5
_
Cancellinggives:
15=4x
15
4
=
4x
4
i.e. x =
15
4
or 3
3
4
Check: LHS=
3
3
3
4
=
3
15
4
=3
_
4
15
_
=
12
15
=
4
5
=RHS
(Note that when there is only one fraction on each side of an
equation, cross-multiplication canbeapplied.) Inthisexample,
if
3
x
=
4
5
then(3)(5)=4x, whichisaquicker wayof arrivingat
equation(1) above.
Problem 10. Solve
2y
5
+
3
4
+5=
1
20
3y
2
TheLCM of thedenominators is 20. Multiplyingeachtermby
20gives:
20
_
2y
5
_
+20
_
3
4
_
+20(5) = 20
_
1
20
_
20
_
3y
2
_
Cancellinggives:
4(2y)+5(3)+100=110(3y)
i.e. 8y +15+100=130y
Rearranginggives:
8y +30y = 115100
38y = 114
y =
114
38
= 3
Check: LHS=
2(3)
5
+
3
4
+5=
6
5
+
3
4
+5
=
9
20
+5=4
11
20
RHS=
1
20
3(3)
2
=
1
20
+
9
2
=4
11
20
Hencethesolutiony =3iscorrect.
Problem 11. Solve
3
t 2
=
4
3t +4
Bycross-multiplication: 3(3t +4)=4(t 2)
Removingbracketsgives: 9t +12=4t 8
Rearranginggives: 9t 4t =812
i.e. 5t =20
t =
20
5
=4
Check: LHS=
3
42
=
3
6
=
1
2
RHS=
4
3(4)+4
=
4
12+4
=
4
8
=
1
2
Hencethesolutiont =4iscorrect.
Problem 12. Solve
x =2
[
x =2 is not a simple equation since the power of x is

1
2
i.e.
x =x
(1/2)
; however, itisincludedheresinceitoccursoften
inpractise].
Wherever square root signs are involved with the unknown
quantity, bothsidesof theequationmust besquared. Hence
(
x)
2
=(2)
2
i.e. x =4
Problem 13. Solve2
2=8
To avoid possible errors it is usually best to arrange the term
containingthesquareroot onitsown. Thus
2
d
2
=
8
2
i.e.

d =4
Squaringbothsidesgives: d =16, whichmaybecheckedinthe
original equation.
Problem 14. Solve
_
b +3
b
_
=2
Toremovethefractioneachtermismultipliedby
b. Hence:
b
_
b +3
b
_
=
b(2)
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Cancellinggives:

b +3=2
b
Rearranginggives: 3=2
b =
b
Squaringbothsidesgives: 9 =b
Check: LHS=
9+3
9
=
3+3
3
=
6
3
=2=RHS
Problem 15. Solvex
2
=25
This probleminvolves a square termand thus is not a simple
equation(itis,infact,aquadraticequation).Howeverthesolution
of suchanequationis oftenrequiredandis thereforeincluded
here for completeness. Whenever a square of the unknown is
involved, thesquareroot of bothsides of theequationis taken.
Hence
x
2
=
25
i.e. x =5
However, x =5 is also a solution of the equation because
(5)(5)=+25 Therefore, whenever the square root of a
number is requiredtherearealways two answers, onepositive,
theother negative.
Thesolutionof x
2
=25isthuswrittenasx =5.
Problem 16. Solve
15
4t
2
=
2
3
Cross-multiplying gives: 15(3)=2(4t
2
)
i.e. 45=8t
2
45
8
=t
2
i.e. t
2
=5.625
Hencet =
5.625=2.372, correct to4signicant gures.

Exercise 27 Further problems on simple equations
Solvethefollowingequations:
1.
1
5
d+3=4
2. 2+
3
4
y =1+
2
3
y +
5
6
3.
1
4
(2x 1)+3=
1
2
4.
1
5
(2f 3)+
1
6
( f 4)+
2
15
=0
5.
1
3
(3m6)
1
4
(5m+4)+
1
5
(2m9)=3
6.
x
3
x
5
=2 7. 1
y
3
=3+
y
3
y
6
8.
2
a
=
3
8
9.
1
3n
+
1
4n
=
7
24
10.
x +3
4
=
x 3
5
+2 11.
3t
20
=
6t
12
+
2t
15
3
2
12.
y
5
+
7
20
=
5y
4
13.
v 2
2v 3
=
1
3
14.
2
a 3
=
3
2a +1
15.
x
4
x +6
5
=
x +3
2
16. 3
t =9 17. 2
y =5
18. 4=
_
_
3
a
_
+3 19.
3
x
1
x
=6
20. 10=5
_
_
x
2
1
_
21. 16=
t
2
9
22.
_
_
y +2
y 2
_
=
1
2
23.
6
a
=
2a
3
24.
11
2
=5+
8
x
2
7.4 Practical problems involving simple
equations
Problem17. Acopperwirehasalengthl of 1.5km, aresist-
anceR of 5 andaresistivityof 17.210
6
mm. Find
thecross-sectional area, a, of thewire, giventhat R=l/a
Since R=l/a then
5=
(1.7210
6
mm)(150010
3
mm)
a
Fromtheunitsgiven, a ismeasuredinmm
2
.
Thus 5a =17.210
6
150010
3
and a =
17.210
6
150010
3
5
=
17.2150010
3
10
6
5
=
17.215
105
=5.16
Hence the cross-sectional area of the wire is 5.16 mm
2
.
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Simple equations 51
Problem 18. A rectangular box with squareends has its
length15cmgreater thanitsbreadthandthetotal lengthof
itsedgesis2.04m. Findthewidthof theboxanditsvolume.
Let x cm=width=height of box. Then the length of the
box is (x +15)cm. The length of the edges of the box is
2(4x)+4(x +15)cm.
Hence 204=2(4x)+4(x +15)
204=8x +4x +60
20460=12x
i.e. 144=12x
and x =12cm
Hence the width of the box is 12 cm.
Volume of box =lengthwidthheight
=(x +15)(x)(x)=(27)(12)(12)
=3888 cm
3
Problem 19. Thetemperaturecoefcient of resistance
may becalculatedfromtheformulaR
t
=R
0
(1+t). Find
givenR
t
=0.928, R
0
=0.8andt =40
Since R
t
=R
0
(1+t) then 0.928=0.8[1+(40)]
0.928=0.8+(0.8)()(40)
0.9280.8=32
0.128=32
Hence =
0.128
32
=0.004
Problem 20. Thedistances metrestravelledintimet sec-
onds is givenby theformulas =ut +
1
2
at
2
, whereu is the
initial velocityinm/sanda istheaccelerationinm/s
2
. Find
theaccelerationof thebody if it travels 168min6s, with
aninitial velocityof 10m/s.
s =ut +
1
2
at
2
, ands =168, u =10andt =6
Hence 168=(10)(6)+
1
2
a(6)
2
168=60+18a
16860=18a
108=18a
a =
108
18
= 6
Hence the acceleration of the body is 6 m/s
2
.
Problem 21. Whenthreeresistors inanelectrical circuit
areconnectedinparallel thetotal resistanceR
T
isgivenby:
1
RT
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
+
1
R
3
Find the total resistance when R
1
=5, R
2
= 10 and
R
3
=30.
1
R
T
=
1
5
+
1
10
+
1
30
=
6+3+1
30
=
10
30
=
1
3
Takingthereciprocal of bothsidesgives: R
T
=3
Alternatively, if
1
R
T
=
1
5
+
1
10
+
1
30
theLCM of thedenomin-
atorsis30R
T
Hence
30R
T
_
1
R
T
_
= 30R
T
_
1
5
_
+30R
T
_
1
10
_
+30R
T
_
1
30
_
Cancellinggives:
30 = 6R
T
+3R
T
+R
T
30 = 10R
T
R
T
=
30
10
= 3 , asabove
Exercise 28 Practical problems involving simple
equations (Answers on page 273)
1. A formulausedfor calculatingresistanceof acableis
R=(l)/a. GivenR=1.25, l =2500anda =210
4
ndthevalueof .
2. Force F newtons is given by F =ma, where m is the
mass in kilograms and a is theacceleration in metres
per secondsquared. Findtheaccelerationwhenaforce
of 4kNisappliedtoamassof 500kg.
3. PV =mRT is thecharacteristic gas equation. Findthe
valueof m whenP =10010
3
, V =3.00, R=288and
T =300
4. When three resistors R
1
, R
2
and R
3
are connected
in parallel the total resistance R
T
is determined from
1
R
T
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
+
1
R
3
(a) Find the total resistance when R
1
=3, R
2
=6
andR
3
=18.
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(b) Findthevalueof R
3
giventhat R
T
=3, R
1
=5
andR
2
= 10.
5. Fivepens and two rulers cost 94p. If aruler costs 5p
morethanapen, ndthecost of each.
6. Ohmslawmay berepresentedby I =V/R, whereI is
thecurrentinamperes, V isthevoltageinvoltsandR is
theresistanceinohms. A solderingirontakesacurrent
of 0.30A froma240V supply. Findtheresistanceof the
element.
7.5 Further practical problems involving
simple equations
Problem 22. Theextension x mof an aluminiumtiebar
of length l mand cross-sectional area Am
2
when carry-
ing a load of F newtons is given by the modulus of
elasticity E =Fl/Ax. Find theextension of thetiebar (in
mm) if E =7010
9
N/m
2
, F =2010
6
N, A=0.1m
2
andl =1.4m.
E =Fl/Ax, hence 7010
9
N
m
2
=
(2010
6
N)(1.4m)
(0.1m
2
)(x)
(theunit of x isthusmetres)
7010
9
0.1x = 2010
6
1.4
x =
2010
6
1.4
7010
9
0.1
Cancellinggives:
x =
21.4
7100
m=
21.4
7100
1000mm
Hence the extension of the tie bar, x =4 mm.
Problem 23. Power in a d.c. circuit is given by
P =
V
2
R
where V is the supply voltage and R is the
circuit resistance. Find the supply voltage if the circuit
resistanceis1.25 andthepower measuredis320W.
Since P =
V
2
R
then 320=
V
2
1.25
(320)(1.25)=V
2
i.e. V
2
=400
Supply voltage, V =
400=20 V
Problem 24. A painter is paid4.20per hour for abasic
36hour week, andovertimeispaidatoneandathirdtimes
thisrate. Determinehowmanyhoursthepainterhastowork
inaweektoearn212.80
Basicrateper hour= 4.20;
overtimerateper hour=1
1
3
4.20=5.60
Let thenumber of overtimehoursworked=x
Then (36)(4.20)+(x)(5.60)=212.80
151.20+5.60x =212.80
5.60x =212.80151.20=61.60
x =
61.60
5.60
=11
Thus 11 hours overtime would have to be worked to earn
212.80per week.
Hence the total number of hours worked is 36+11, i.e.
47 hours.
Problem 25. A formularelatinginitial andnal statesof
pressures, P
1
andP
2
, volumesV
1
andV
2
, andabsolutetem-
peratures, T
1
andT
2
, of anideal gasis
P
1
V
1
T
1
=
P
2
V
2
T
2
. Find
thevalueof P
2
givenP
1
=10010
3
, V
1
=1.0, V
2
=0.266,
T
1
=423andT
2
=293
Since
P
1
V
1
T
1
=
P
2
V
2
T
2
then
(10010
3
)(1.0)
423
=
P
2
(0.266)
293
Cross-multiplying gives:
(10010
3
)(1.0)(293)= P
2
(0.266)(423)
P
2
=
(10010
3
)(1.0)(293)
(0.266)(423)
HenceP
2
=260 10
3
or 2.6 10
5
Problem 26. Thestressf inamaterial of athickcylinder
canbeobtainedfrom
D
d
=
_
_
f +p
f p
_
.Calculatethestress,
giventhat D=21.5, d =10.75andp =1800
Since
D
d
=
_
_
f +p
f p
_
then
21.5
10.75
=
_
_
f +1800
f 1800
_
i.e. 2=
_
_
f +1800
f 1800
_
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Simple equations 53
Squaringbothsidesgives:
4=
f +1800
f 1800
4(f 1800)=f +1800
4f 7200=f +1800
4f f =1800+7200
3f =9000
f =
9000
3
=3000
Hence stress, f =3000
Problem 27. 12 workmen employed on a building site
earn between thematotal of 2415 per week. Labourers
arepaid 175 per week and craftsmen arepaid 220 per
week. How many craftsmen and how many labourers are
employed?
Let thenumber of craftsmen bec. Thenumber of labourers is
therefore(12c) Thewagebill equationis:
220c +175(12c)=2415
220c +2100175c =2415
220c 175c =24152100
45c =315
c =
315
45
=7
Hence there are 7 craftsmen and (12 7), i.e. 5 labourers on
the site.
Exercise 29 Practical problems involving simple
equation (Answers on page 273)
1. Arectanglehasalengthof 20cmandawidthb cm.When
its widthis reducedby 4cmits areabecomes 160cm
2
.
Findtheoriginal widthandareaof therectangle.
2. GivenR
2
=R
1
(1+t), nd givenR
1
=5.0, R
2
=6.03
andt =51.5
3. If v
2
=u
2
+2as, nd u given v =24, a =40 and
s =4.05
4. TherelationshipbetweenthetemperatureonaFahrenheit
scaleandthatonaCelsiusscaleisgivenbyF =
9
5
C +32.
Express113
F indegreesCelsius.
5. If t =2
_
(w/Sg), ndthevalueof S givenw=1.219,
g =9.81andt =0.3132
6. Twojoinersandvematesearn1216betweenthemfor
aparticular job. If ajoiner earns48morethanamate,
calculatetheearningsfor ajoiner andfor amate.
7. Analloycontains60%byweight of copper, theremain-
der beingzinc. Howmuchcopper must bemixedwith
50kg of this alloy to give an alloy containing 75%
copper?
8. A rectangular laboratory has alengthequal to oneand
ahalf times its widthandaperimeter of 40m. Findits
lengthandwidth.
9. Applyingtheprincipleof momentstoabeamresultsin
thefollowingequation:
F 3= (5F) 7
where F is the force in newtons. Determine the
valueof F.
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8
Transposition of formulae
8.1 Introduction to transposition of
formulae
When asymbol other than thesubject is required to becalcu-
latedit isusual torearrangetheformulatomakeanewsubject.
This rearrangingprocess is calledtransposing the formula or
transposition.
Therules usedfor transpositionof formulaearethesameas
thoseusedforthesolutionof simpleequations(seeChapter7)
basically, that the equality of anequationmust be maintained.
8.2 Worked problems on transposition
of formulae
Problem 1. Transposep =q +r +s tomaker thesubject.
Theaimistoobtainr onitsownontheleft-handside(LHS) of
theequation. Changingtheequationaroundso that r is onthe
LHSgives:
q +r +s = p (1)
Subtracting(q +s) frombothsidesof theequationgives:
q +r +s (q +s)= p (q +s)
Thus q +r +s q s = p q s
i.e. r = p q s (2)
It isshownwithsimpleequations, that aquantitycanbemoved
fromonesideof an equation to theother with an appropriate
change of sign. Thus equation (2) follows immediately from
equation(1) above.
Problem 2. If a +b =wx +y, expressx asthesubject.
Rearranginggives:
w x +y = a +b and x = a +b w y
Multiplyingbothsidesby1gives:
(1)(x) = (1)(a +b wy)
i.e. x = a b +w+y
Theresult of multiplyingeachsideof theequationby 1is to
changeall thesignsintheequation.
It is conventional to express answers with positive
quantities rst. Hence rather than x =a b +w+y,
x =w+y a b, since the order of terms connected by
+ and signsisimmaterial.
Problem 3. Transposev =f tomake thesubject.
Rearranginggives: f =v
Dividingbothsidesbyf gives:
f
f
=
v
f
, i.e. =
v
f
Problem 4. Whenabody falls freely throughaheight h,
thevelocity v is given by v
2
=2gh. Express this formula
withh asthesubject.
Rearranginggives: 2gh =v
2
Dividingbothsidesby2g gives:
2gh
2g
=
v
2
2g
, i.e. h =
v
2
2g
Problem 5. If I =
V
R
, rearrangetomakeV thesubject.
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Transposition of formulae 55
Rearranginggives:
V
R
=I
MultiplyingbothsidesbyR gives:
R
_
V
R
_
= R(I )
Hence V =IR
Problem 6. Transposea =
F
m
for m
Rearranginggives:
F
m
=a
Multiplyingbothsidesbym gives:
m
_
F
m
_
= m(a) i.e. F = ma
Rearranginggives: ma =F
Dividingbothsidesbya gives:
ma
a
=
F
a
i.e. m=
F
a
Problem 7. Rearrange the formula R=
l
a
to make
(i) a thesubject, and(ii) l thesubject.
(i) Rearranginggives:
l
a
=R
Multiplyingbothsidesbya gives:
a
_
l
a
_
= a(R) i.e. l = aR
Rearranginggives: aR=l
DividingbothsidesbyR gives:
aR
R
=
l
R
i.e. a =
l
R
(ii)
l
a
=R
Multiplyingbothsidesbya gives:
l =aR
Dividingbothsidesby gives:
l
=
aR
i.e. l =
aR

Exercise 30 Further problems on transposition of
Make the symbol indicated the subject of each of the
formulaeshownandexpresseachinitssimplest form.
1. a +b =c d e (d)
2. x +3y =t (y)
3. c =2r (r)
4. y =mx +c (x)
5. I =PRT (T)
6. I =
E
R
(R)
7. S =
a
1r
(r)
8. F =
9
5
C +32 (C)
transposition of formulae
Problem 8. Transposetheformulav =u +
ft
m
, tomakef
thesubject.
Rearranginggives: u +
ft
m
=v and
ft
m
=v u
Multiplyingeachsidebym gives:
m
_
ft
m
_
= m(v u) i.e. ft = m(v u)
Dividingbothsidesbyt gives:
ft
t
=
m
t
(v u) i.e. f =
m
t
(v u)
Problem 9. Thenal length, l
2
of apieceof wireheated
through
C isgivenbytheformulal
2
=l
1
(1+). Make
thecoefcient of expansion, , thesubject.
Rearranginggives: l
1
(1+)=l
2
Removingthebracket gives: l
1
+l
1
=l
2
Rearranginggives: l
1
=l
2
l
1
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Dividingbothsidesbyl
1
gives:
l
1
l
1
=
l
2
l
1
l
1
i.e. =
l
2
l
1
l
1
Problem 10. A formulafor thedistancemovedbyabody

isgivenbys =
1
2
(v +u)t. Rearrangetheformulatomakeu
thesubject.
Rearranginggives:
1
2
(v +u)t =s
Multiplyingbothsidesby2gives: (v +u)t =2s
Dividingbothsidesbyt gives:
(v +u)t
t
=
2s
t
i.e. v +u =
2s
t
Hence u =
2s
t
or u =
2s t
t
Problem 11. A formula for kinetic energy is k =
1
2
mv
2
.
Transposetheformulatomakev thesubject.
Rearranginggives:
1
2
mv
2
=k
Whenever theprospectivenewsubject isasquaredterm, that
termis isolated on theLHS, and then thesquareroot of both
sidesof theequationistaken.
Multiplyingbothsidesby2gives: mv
2
=2k
Dividingbothsidesbym gives:
mv
2
m
=
2k
m
i.e. v
2
=
2k
m
Takingthesquareroot of bothsidesgives:
v
2
=
_
_
2k
m
_
i.e. v =
_
_
2k
m
_
Problem 12. In aright angled trianglehaving sides x, y
andhypotenusez, Pythagoras theoremstatesz
2
=x
2
+y
2
.
Transposetheformulatondx.
Rearranginggives: x
2
+y
2
=z
2
and x
2
=z
2
y
2
x =
_
z
2
y
2
Problem13. Givent =2
_
l
g
,ndg intermsof t,l and.
Whenever the prospective new subject is within a square root
sign, it isbest toisolatethat termontheLHSandthentosquare
bothsidesof theequation.
Rearranginggives: 2
_
l
g
=t
Dividingbothsidesby2 gives:
_
l
g
=
t
2
l
g
=
_
t
2
_
2
=
t
2
4
2
Cross-multiplying, i.e. multiplyingeachtermby4
2
g, gives:
4
2
l = gt
2
or gt
2
= 4
2
l
Dividingbothsidesbyt
2
gives:
gt
2
t
2
=
4
2
l
t
2
i.e. g =
4
2
l
t
2
Problem 14. Theimpedanceof ana.c. circuit isgivenby
Z =
R
2
+X
2
. Makethereactance, X, thesubject.
Rearranginggives:

R
2
+X
2
= Z
Squaringbothsidesgives: R
2
+X
2
= Z
2
Rearranginggives: X
2
= Z
2
R
2
X =
Z
2
R
2
Problem 15. ThevolumeV of ahemisphereis givenby
V =
2
3
r
3
. Findr intermsof V.
Rearranginggives:
2
3
r
3
=V
Multiplyingbothsidesby3gives: 2r
3
=3V
Dividingbothsidesby2 gives:
2r
3
2
=
3V
2
i.e. r
3
=
3V
2
Takingthecuberoot of bothsidesgives:
3
r
3
=
3
_
_
3V
2
_
i.e. r =
3
_
_
3V
2
_
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Make the symbol indicated the subject of each of the
formulaeshownandexpresseachinitssimplest form.
1. y =
(x d)
d
(x)
2. A=
3(F f )
L
(f)
3. y =
Ml
2
8EI
(E)
4. R=R
0
(1+t) (t)
5.
1
R
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
(R
2
)
6. I =
E e
R+r
(R)
7. y =4ab
2
c
2
(b)
8.
a
2
x
2
+
b
2
y
2
=1 (x)
9. t =2
_
l
g
(l)
10. v
2
=u
2
+2as (u)
11. A=
R
2
360
(R)
12. N =
_
_
a +x
y
_
(a)
13. Z =
_
R
2
+(2 f L)
2
(L)
8.4 Harder worked problems on
transposition of formulae
Problem 16. Transpose the formula p =
a
2
x +a
2
y
r
to
makea thesubject.
Rearranginggives:
a
2
x +a
2
y
r
= p
Multiplyingbothsidesbyr gives: a
2
x +a
2
y = rp
FactorizingtheLHSgives: a
2
(x +y) = rp
Dividingbothsidesby(x +y) gives:
a
2
(x +y)
(x +y)
=
rp
(x +y)
i.e. a
2
=
rp
(x +y)
a =
_
_
rp
x +y
_
Problem 17. Make b the subject of the formula
a =
x y
bd +be
Rearranginggives:
x y
bd +be
=a
Multiplyingbothsidesby
bd +be gives:
x y = a
bd +be
or a
bd +be =x y
Dividingbothsidesbya gives:

bd +be =
x y
a
Squaringbothsidesgives: bd +be =
_
x y
a
_
2
FactorizingtheLHSgives: b(d +e)=
_
x y
a
_
2
Dividingbothsidesby(d +e) gives: b =
_
x y
a
_
2
(d +e)
i.e. b =
(x y)
2
a
2
(d +e)
Problem 18. If cd =3d +e ad, express d in terms
of a, c ande
Rearrangingtoobtainthetermsind ontheLHSgives:
cd 3d +ad = e
FactorizingtheLHSgives:
d(c 3+a) = e
Dividingbothsidesby(c 3+a) gives:
d =
e
c 3 +a
Problem 19. If a =
b
1+b
, make b the subject of the
formula.
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Rearranginggives:
b
1+b
= a
Multiplyingbothsidesby(1+b) gives: b = a(1+b)
Removingthebracket gives: b = a +ab
Rearrangingtoobtaintermsinb ontheLHSgives:
b ab = a
FactorizingtheLHSgives: b(1a)= a
Dividingbothsidesby(1a) gives: b =
a
1 a
Problem 20. TransposetheformulaV =
Er
R+r
tomaker
thesubject.
Rearranginggives:
Er
R+r
= V
Multiplyingbothsidesby(R+r) gives: Er = V(R +r)
Removingthebracket gives: Er = VR+Vr
Rearrangingtoobtaintermsinr ontheLHSgives:
Er Vr = VR
Factorizinggives: r(E V)= VR
Dividingbothsidesby(E V) gives: r =
VR
E V
Problem 21. Transpose the formula y =
pq
2
r +q
2
t
tomakeq thesubject
Rearranginggives:
pq
2
r +q
2
t = y
and
pq
2
r +q
2
= y +t
Multiplyingbothsidesby(r +q
2
) gives:
pq
2
= (r +q
2
)(y +t)
Removingbracketsgives: pq
2
= ry +rt +q
2
y +q
2
t
Rearrangingtoobtaintermsinq ontheLHSgives:
pq
2
q
2
y q
2
t = ry +rt
Factorizinggives: q
2
(p y t)= r(y +t)
Dividingbothsidesby(p y t) gives:
q
2
=
r(y +t)
(p y t)
q =
_
_
r(y +t)
p y t
_
Problem 22. Given that
D
d
=
_
_
f +p
f p
_
, express p in
termsof D, d andf .
Rearranginggives:
_
_
f +p
f p
_
=
D
d
_
f +p
f p
_
=
D
2
d
2
Cross-multiplying, i.e. multiplyingeachtermbyd
2
( f p),
gives: d
2
( f +p)= D
2
( f p)
Removingbracketsgives: d
2
f +d
2
p = D
2
f D
2
p
Rearranging, toobtaintermsinp ontheLHSgives:
d
2
p +D
2
p = D
2
f d
2
f
Factorizinggives: p(d
2
+D
2
)= f (D
2
d
2
)
Dividingbothsidesby(d
2
+D
2
) gives: p =
f (D
2
d
2
)
(d
2
D
2
)
Makethesymbol indicatedthesubject of eachof thefor-
mulae shown in Problems 1 to 7, and express each in its
simplest form.
1. y =
a
2
ma
2
n
x
(a)
2. M =(R
4
r
4
) (R)
3. x +y =
r
3+r
(r)
4. m=
L
L +rCR
(L)
5. a
2
=
b
2
c
2
b
2
(b)
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6.
x
y
=
1+r
2
1r
2
(r)
7.
p
q
=
_
_
a +2b
a 2b
_
(b)
8. A formula for the focal length, f , of a convex lens is
1
f
=
1
u
+
1
v
.Transposetheformulatomakev thesubject
andevaluatev whenf =5andu =6.
9. The quantity of heat, Q, is given by the formula
Q=mc(t
2
t
1
). Maket
2
thesubject of theformulaand
evaluatet
2
whenm=10, t
1
=15, c =4andQ=1600.
10. Thevelocity, v, of water inapipeappearsintheformula
h =
0.03Lv
2
2dg
. Express v as the subject of the formula
and evaluatev when h =0.712, L =150, d =0.30 and
g =9.81.
11. ThesagS atthecentreof awireisgivenbytheformula:
S =
_
_
3d(l d)
8
_
. Makel thesubject of theformula
andevaluatel whend =1.75andS =0.80.
12. Inanelectrical alternatingcurrentcircuittheimpedance
Z isgivenby: Z =
_
_
R
2
+
_
L
1
C
_
2_
.
Transpose the formula to make C the subject and
henceevaluateC whenZ =130, R=120, =314and
L =0.32
13. An approximate relationship between the number of
teeth, T, onamillingcutter, thediameter of cutter, D,
andthedepthof cut, d, isgivenby: T =
12.5D
D+4d
Determinethevalueof D whenT =10andd =4mm.
14. Make , the wavelength of X-rays, the subject of the
followingformula:
=
CZ
4
5
n
a
Assignment 4
ters7and8. Themarksfor eachquestionareshownin
1. Solvethefollowingequations:
(a) 3t 2=5t 4
(b) 4(k 1)2(3k +2)+14=0
(c)
a
2
2a
5
=1
(d) 3
y =2
(e)
_
_
s +1
s 1
_
=2 (20)
2. Distances =ut +
1
2
at
2
. Findthevalueof accelerationa
whens =17.5, timet =2.5andu =10 (4)
3. A rectangular football pitchhasitslengthequal totwice
itswidthandaperimeter of 360m. Finditslengthand
width. (4)
4. Transposethefollowingequations:
(a) y =mx +c for m
(b) x =
2(y z)
t
for z
(c)
1
R
T
=
1
R
A
+
1
R
B
for R
A
(d) x
2
y
2
=3ab for y
(e) K =
p q
1+pq
for q (18)
5. Thepassageof soundwavesthroughwallsisgoverned
bytheequation:
v =
_
K +
4
3
G
Make the shear modulus G the subject of the

formula. (4)
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9
Simultaneous equations
9.1 Introduction to simultaneous
equations
Only one equation is necessary when nding the value of
a single unknown quantity (as with simple equations in
Chapter 7). However, whenanequationcontainstwo unknown
quantities ithasaninnitenumberof solutions.Whentwoequa-
tions are available connecting the same two unknown values
thenauniquesolutionispossible. Similarly, for threeunknown
quantities it is necessary to have three equations in order to
solvefor aparticular valueof eachof theunknownquantities,
andsoon.
Equationswhichhavetobesolvedtogether tondtheunique
valuesof theunknownquantities, whicharetruefor eachof the
equations, arecalledsimultaneous equations.
Two methods of solvingsimultaneous equations analytically
are:
(a) bysubstitution, and(b) byelimination.
(A graphical solution of simultaneous equations is shown in
Chapter 13.)
9.2 Worked problems on simultaneous
equations in two unknowns
Problem 1. Solve the following equations for x and y,
(a) bysubstitution, and(b) byelimination:
x +2y = 1 (1)
4x 3y = 18 (2)
(a) By substitution
Fromequation(1): x =12y
Substitutingthisexpressionfor x intoequation(2) gives:
4(12y) 3y = 18
Thisisnowasimpleequationiny.
Removingthebracket gives:
48y 3y = 18
11y = 18+4= 22
y =
22
11
= 2
Substitutingy = 2intoequation(1) gives:
x +2( 2) = 1
x 4 = 1
x = 1+4= 3
Thus x =3 and y =2 is the solution to the simultaneous
equations.
(Check: In equation (2), since x =3 and y =2,
LHS=4(3)3( 2)=12+6=18=RHS.)
(b) By elimination
x +2y = 1 (1)
4x 3y = 18 (2)
If equation(1) ismultipliedthroughout by 4thecoefcient
of x will bethesameasinequation(2), giving:
4x +8y = 4 (3)
Subtractingequation(3) fromequation(2) gives:
4x 3y = 18 (2)
4x +8y = 4 (3)
011y = 22

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Simultaneous equations 61
Hencey =
22
11
=2
(Note, intheabovesubtraction, 184=18+4=22)
Substitutingy =2intoeither equation(1) or equation(2)
will givex =3asinmethod(a). Thesolutionx =3, y =2
is theonly pair of values that satises both of theoriginal
equations.
Problem 2. Solve, by asubstitutionmethod, thesimulta-
neousequations
3x 2y = 12 (1)
x +3y = 7 (2)
Fromequation(2), x =73y
Substitutingfor x inequation(1) gives:
3(73y)2y =12
i.e. 219y 2y =12
11y =12+21=33
Hence y =
33
11
=3
Substitutingy =3inequation(2) gives:
x +3(3)=7
i.e. x 9=7
Hence x =7+9=2
Thusx =2, y =3 isthesolutionof thesimultaneousequations.
(Suchsolutionsshouldalwaysbecheckedbysubstitutingvalues
intoeachof theoriginal twoequations.)
Problem 3. Useaneliminationmethodtosolvethesimul-
taneousequations
3x +4y = 5 (1)
2x 5y = 12 (2)
If equation(1) ismultipliedthroughoutby2andequation(2) by
3, thenthecoefcient of x will bethesameinthenewlyformed
equations. Thus
2equation(1) gives: 6x +8y =10 (3)
3equation(2) gives: 6x 15y =36 (4)
Equation(3)equation(4) gives: 0+23y =46
i.e. y =
46
23
=2
(Note +8y 15y =8y +15y =23y and 1036=10+
36=46. Alternatively, changethesignsof thebottomlineand
add.)
Substitutingy =2inequation(1) gives:
3x +4(2)=5
fromwhich 3x =58=3
and x =1
Checking in equation (2), left-hand side=2(1)5(2)=
210=12=right-handside.
Hence x =1 and y =2 is the solution of the simultaneous
equations.
The elimination method is the most common method of
solvingsimultaneousequations.
Problem 4. Solve
7x 2y = 26 (1)
6x +5y = 29 (2)
Whenequation(1) is multipliedby 5andequation(2) by 2the
coefcientsof y ineachequationarenumerically thesame, i.e.
10, but areof oppositesign.
5equation(1) gives: 35x 10y = 130 (3)
2equation(2) gives: 12x +10y = 58 (4)
Addingequation(3) and(4) gives: 47x + 0 = 188
Hencex =
188
47
=4
[Notethat whenthesignsof commoncoefcientsaredifferent
the two equations are added, and when the signs of common
coefcients arethesame thetwo equations aresubtracted (as
inProblems1and3)]
Substitutingx =4inequation(1) gives:
7(4) 2y = 26
282y = 26
2826 = 2y
2 = 72y
Hencey =1
Checking, bysubstitutingx =4andy =1inequation(2), gives:
LHS = 6(4) +5(1) = 24+5= 29= RHS
Thus the solution is x =4, y =1, sincethesevalues maintain
theequalitywhensubstitutedinbothequations.
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Exercise 33 Further problems on simultaneous
Solvethefollowingsimultaneousequationsandverify the
results.
1. a +b =7 2. 2x +5y =7
a b =3 x +3y =4
3. 3s +2t =12 4. 3x 2y =13
4s t =5 2x +5y =4
5. 5m3n =11 6. 8a 3b =51
3m+n =8 3a +4b =14
7. 5x =2y 8. 5c =13d
3x +7y =41 2d +c +4=0
simultaneous equations
Problem 5. Solve
3p = 2q (1)
4p + q +11= 0 (2)
Rearranginggives:
3p 2q = 0 (3)
4p +q = 11 (4)
Multiplyingequation(4) by2gives:
8p +2q = 22 (5)
Addingequations(3) and(5) gives:
11p +0 = 22
p =
22
11
= 2
Substitutingp =2intoequation(1) gives:
3(2) = 2q
6 = 2q
q =
6
2
= 3
Checking, by substitutingp =2andq =3intoequation(2)
gives:
LHS = 4(2) +(3) +11= 83+11= 0= RHS
Hence the solution is p =2, q =3
Problem 6. Solve
x
8
+
5
2
= y (1)
13
y
3
= 3x (2)
Whenever fractionsareinvolvedinsimultaneousequationsit is
usual torstly removethem. Thus, multiplyingequation(1) by
8gives:
8
_
x
8
_
+8
_
5
2
_
= 8y
i.e. x +20= 8y (3)
39y = 9x (4)
Rearrangingequations(3) and(4) gives:
x 8y = 20 (5)
9x +y = 39 (6)
72x +8y = 312 (7)
73x +0 = 292
x =
292
73
= 4
Substitutingx =4intoequation(5) gives:
48y = 20
4+20 = 8y
24 = 8y
y =
24
8
= 3
Checking: substituting x =4, y =3 in the original equations,
gives:
Equation (1) : LHS =
4
8
+
5
2
=
1
2
+2
1
2
= 3= y = RHS
Equation (2) : LHS = 13
3
3
= 131= 12
RHS = 3x = 3(4) = 12
Hence the solution is x =4, y =3
Problem 7. Solve
2.5x +0.753y =0
1.6x =1.081.2y
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It isofteneasier toremovedecimal fractions. Thusmultiplying
equations(1) and(2) by100gives:
250x + 75300y = 0 (1)
160x = 108120y (2)
Rearranginggives:
250x 300y = 75 (3)
160x +120y = 108 (4)
500x 600y = 150 (5)
800x +600y = 540 (6)
1300x +0 = 390
x =
390
1300
=
39
130
=
3
10
= 0.3
Substitutingx =0.3intoequation(1) gives:
250(0.3) +75300y = 0
75+75 = 300y
150 = 300y
y =
150
300
= 0.5
Checkingx =0.3, y =0.5inequation(2) gives:
LHS = 160(0.3) = 48
RHS = 108120(0.5) = 10860= 48
Hence the solution is x =0.3, y =0.5
Exercise 34 Further problems on simultaneous
Solvethefollowingsimultaneous equations andverify the
theresults.
1. 7p +11+2q =0 2.
x
2
+
y
3
=4
1=3q 5p
x
6
y
9
=0
3.
a
2
7=2b 4.
3
2
s 2t =8
12=5a +
2
3
b
s
4
+3y =2
5.
x
5
+
2y
3
=
49
15
6. v 1=
u
12
3x
7

y
2
+
5
7
=0 u +
v
4
25
2
=0
7. 1.5x 2.2y =18 8. 3b 2.5a =0.45
2.4x +0.6y =33 1.6a +0.8b =0.8
9.4 More difcult worked problems on
Problem 8. Solve
2
x
+
3
y
= 7 (1)
1
x

4
y
= 2 (2)
Inthistypeof equationthesolutioniseasier if asubstitutionis
initiallymade.
Let
1
x
=a and
1
y
=b
Thusequation(1) becomes: 2a +3b =7 (3)
andequation(2) becomes: a 4b =2 (4)
Multiplyingequation(4) by2gives: 2a 8b =4 (5)
0+11b = 11
i.e. b = 1
Substitutingb =1inequation(3) gives:
2a +3= 7
2a = 73= 4
i.e. a = 2
Checking, substitutinga =2andb =1inequation(4) gives:
LHS = 24(1) = 24= 2= RHS
Hencea =2andb =1
However, since
1
x
=a then x =
1
a
=
1
2
andsince
1
y
=b then y =
1
b
=
1
1
=1
Hence the solution is x =
1
2
, y =1, whichmaybecheckedinthe
original equations.
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Problem 9. Solve
1
2a
+
3
5b
= 4 (1)
4
a
+
1
2b
= 10.5 (2)
Let
1
a
=x and
1
b
=y
then
x
2
+
3
5
y = 4 (3)
4x +
1
2
y = 10.5 (4)
Toremovefractions, equation(3) ismultipliedby10giving:
10
_
x
2
_
+10
_
3
5
y
_
= 10(4)
i.e. 5x +6y = 40 (5)
8x +y = 21 (6)
48x +6y = 126 (7)
43x +0 = 86
x =
86
43
= 2
2
2
+
3
5
y = 4
3
5
y = 41= 3
y =
5
3
(3) = 5
Since
1
a
=x then a =
1
x
=
1
2
andsince
1
b
=y then b =
1
y
=
1
5
Hence the solution is a =
1
2
, b =
1
5
, whichmaybecheckedinthe
original equations.
Problem 10. Solve
1
x +y
=
4
27
(1)
1
2x y
=
4
33
(2)
Toeliminatefractions, bothsidesof equation(1) aremultiplied
by27(x +y) giving:
27(x +y)
_
1
x +y
_
= 27(x +y)
_
4
27
_
i.e. 27(1) = 4(x +y)
27= 4x +4y (3)
Similarly, inequation(2): 33 = 4(2x y)
i.e. 33 = 8x 4y (4)
Equation(3)+equation(4) gives:
60= 12x, i.e. x =
60
12
= 5
Substitutingx =5inequation(3) gives:
27= 4(5) +4y
fromwhich 4y = 2720= 7
and y =
7
4
= 1
3
4
Hence x =5, y =1
3
4
is the required solution, which may be
checkedintheoriginal equations.
Problem 11. Solve
x 1
3
+
y +2
5
=
2
15
(1)
1x
6
+
5+y
2
=
5
6
(2)
Beforeequations (1) and(2) canbesimultaneously solved, the
fractionsneedtoberemovedandtheequationsrearranged.
15
_
x 1
3
_
+15
_
y +2
5
_
= 15
_
2
15
_
i.e. 5(x 1) +3(y +2) = 2
5x 5+3y +6= 2
5x +3y = 2+56
Hence 5x +3y = 1 (3)
6
_
1x
6
_
+6
_
5+y
2
_
= 6
_
5
6
_
i.e. (1x) +3(5+y) = 5
1x +15+3y = 5
x +3y = 5115
Hence x +3y = 11
(4)
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Thus the initial problem containing fractions can be
expressedas:
5x +3y = 1 (3)
x +3y = 11 (4)
6x +0 = 12
x =
12
6
= 2
5(2) +3y = 1
10+3y = 1
3y = 110= 9
y =
9
3
= 3
Checking, substitutingx =2, y =3inequation(4) gives:
LHS = 2+3( 3) = 29= 11= RHS
Hence the solution is x =2, y =3, whichmaybecheckedin
theoriginal equations.
Exercise 35 Further more difcult problems on
simultaneous equations (Answers on
page 274)
In problems 1 to 7, solvethesimultaneous equations and
verifytheresults
1.
3
x
+
2
y
=14 2.
4
a
3
b
=18
5
x

3
y
=2
2
a
+
5
b
=4
3.
1
2p
+
3
5q
=5 4.
5
x
+
3
y
=1.1
5
p
1
2p
=
35
2
3
x

7
y
=1.1
5.
c +1
4

d +2
3
+1=0
1c
5
+
3d
4
+
13
20
=0
6.
3r +2
5

2s 1
4
=
11
5
3+2r
4
+
5s
3
=
15
4
7.
5
x +y
=
20
27
4
2x y
=
16
33
8. If 5x
3
y
=1andx +
4
y
=
5
2
ndthevalueof
xy +1
y
9.5 Practical problems involving
Thereareanumberof situationsinengineeringandsciencewhere
the solution of simultaneous equations is required. Some are
demonstratedinthefollowingworkedproblems.
Problem 12. ThelawconnectingfrictionF andloadL for
an experiment is of the formF =aL +b, where a and b
are constants. When F =5.6, L =8.0 and when F =4.4,
L =2.0. Findthevaluesof a andb andthevalueof F when
L =6.5
SubstitutingF =5.6, L =8.0intoF =aL +b gives:
5.6= 8.0a +b (1)
SubstitutingF =4.4, L =2.0intoF =aL +b gives:
4.4= 2.0a +b (2)
1.2 = 6.0a
a =
1.2
6.0
=
1
5
Substitutinga =
1
5
intoequation(1) gives:
5.6 = 8.0
_
1
5
_
+b
5.6 = 1.6+b
5.61.6 = b
i.e. b = 4
Checking, substitutinga =
1
5
andb =4inequation(2), gives:
RHS = 2.0
_
1
5
_
+4= 0.4+4= 4.4= LHS
Hence a =
1
5
andb =4
When L=6.5, F =aL +b =
1
5
(6.5)+4=1.3+4, i.e. F =5.30
Problem 13. Theequationof astraightline, of gradientm
andinterceptonthey-axisc, isy =mx +c. If astraightline
passesthroughthepoint wherex =1andy =2, andalso
throughthepointwherex =3
1
2
andy =10
1
2
, ndthevalues
of thegradient andthey-axisintercept.
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Substitutingx =1andy =2intoy =mx +c gives:
2= m +c (1)
Substitutingx =3
1
2
andy =10
1
2
intoy =mx +c gives:
10
1
2
= 3
1
2
m +c (2)
12
1
2
= 2
1
2
m fromwhich, m =
12
1
2
2
1
2
= 5
Substitutingm=5intoequation(1) gives:
2 = 5+c
c = 25= 7
Checking, substitutingm=5andc =7inequation(2), gives:
RHS =
_
3
1
2
_
(5) +(7) = 17
1
2
7= 10
1
2
= LHS
Hence the gradient, m=5 and the y-axis intercept, c = 7
Problem 14. When Kirchhoffs laws are applied to the
electrical circuit shown in Figure 9.1 the currents I
1
and
I
2
areconnectedbytheequations:
27 = 1.5I
1
+8(I
1
I
2
) (1)
26 = 2I
2
8(I
1
I
2
) (2)
Solvetheequationstondthevaluesof currentsI
1
andI
2
27V 26V
1.5
8
2
(I
1
I
2
)
I
2
I
1
Fig. 9.1
Removingthebracketsfromequation(1) gives:
27= 1.5I
1
+8I
1
8I
2
Rearranginggives:
9.5I
1
8I
2
= 27 (3)
Removingthebracketsfromequation(2) gives:
26= 2I
2
8I
1
+8I
2
Rearranginggives:
8I
1
+10I
2
= 26 (4)
47.5I
1
40I
2
= 135 (5)
32I
1
+40I
2
= 104 (6)
15.5I
1
+0 = 31
I
2
=
31
15.5
= 2
SubstitutingI
1
= 2intoequation(3) gives:
9.5(2) 8I
1
= 27
198I
2
= 27
1927 = 8I
2
8 = 8I
2
I
2
= 1
HencethesolutionisI
1
=2 and I
2
=1 (whichmaybechecked
intheoriginal equations.)
Problem 15. Thedistances metresfromaxedpoint of a
vehicletravellinginastraight linewithconstant accelera-
tion, a m/s
2
, isgivenbys =ut +
1
2
at
2
, whereu istheinitial
velocityinm/sandt thetimeinseconds. Determinetheini-
tial velocityandtheaccelerationgiventhat s =42mwhen
t =2s and s =144mwhen t =4s. Find also thedistance
travelledafter 3s.
Substitutings =42, t =2intos =ut +
1
2
at
2
gives:
42= 2u +
1
2
a(2)
2
i.e. 42= 2u +2a (1)
Substitutings =144, t =4intos =ut +
1
2
at
2
gives:
144= 4u +
1
2
a(4)
2
i.e. 144= 4u +8a (2)
84= 4u +4a (3)
60 = 0+4a
a =
60
4
= 15
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Substitutinga =15intoequation(1) gives:
42 = 2u +2(15)
4230 = 2u
u =
12
2
= 6
Substitutinga =15, u =6inequation(2) gives:
RHS = 4(6) +8(15) = 24+120= 144= LHS
Hence the initial velocity, u =6 m/s and the acceleration,
a =15 m/s
2
Distancetravelledafter3sisgivenbys =ut +
1
2
at
2
wheret =3,
u =6anda =15
Hence s =(6)(3)+
1
2
(15)(3)
2
=18+67
1
2
i.e. distance travelled after 3 s =85
1
2
m
Problem 16. A craftsman and 4 labourers together earn
865 per week, whilst 4 craftsmen and 9 labourers earn
2340basicper week. Determinethebasicweeklywageof
acraftsmanandalabourer.
LetC representthewageof acraftsmanandL thatof alabourer.
Thus
C +4L = 865 (1)
4C +9L = 2340 (2)
4C +16L = 3460 (3)
7L = 1120
L =
1120
7
= 160
SubstitutingL =138intoequation(1) gives:
C +4(160) = 865
C +640 = 865
C = 865640= 225
Checking, substituting C =225 and L =160 into equation (2),
gives:
LHS = 4(225) +9(160) = 900+1440
= 2340= RHS
Thus the basic weekly wage of a craftsman is 225 and that
of a labourer is 160
Problem 17. TheresistanceR of alengthof wireat t
C
is givenby R = R
0
(1+ t), whereR
0
is theresistanceat
0
Cand isthetemperaturecoefcientof resistancein/
C.
Findthevalues of andR
0
if R = 30 at 50
C andR =
35 at 100
C.
SubstitutingR=30, t =50intoR=R
0
(1+t) gives:
30= R
0
(1+50) (1)
SubstitutingR=35, t =100intoR=R
0
(1+t) gives:
35= R
0
(1+100) (2)
Althoughtheseequationsmaybesolvedbytheconventional sub-
stitution method, an easier way is to eliminateR
0
by division.
Thus, dividingequation(1) byequation(2) gives:
30
35
=
R
0
(1+50)
R
0
(1+100)
=
1+50
1+100
Cross-multiplying gives:
30(1+100) = 35(1+50)
30+3000 = 35+1750
3000 1750 = 3530
1250 = 5
i.e. =
5
1250
=
1
250
or 0.004
Substituting =
1
250
intoequation(1) gives:
30 = R
0
_
1+(50)
_
1
250
__
30 = R
0
(1.2)
R
0
=
30
1.2
= 25
Checking, substituting =
1
250
and R
0
=25 in equation (2)
gives:
RHS = 25
_
1+(100)
_
1
250
__
= 25(1.4) = 35= LHS
Thus the solution is =0.004/
C and R
0
=25
Problem18. Themolarheatcapacityof asolidcompound
isgivenbytheequationc =a +bT, wherea andb arecon-
stants. Whenc =52, T =100andwhenc =172, T =400.
Determinethevaluesof a andb.
Whenc =52, T =100, hence
52= a +100b (1)
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Whenc = 172, T = 400, hence
172= a +400b (2)
Equation(2) equation(1) gives:
120= 300b
fromwhich, b =
120
300
=0.4
Substitutingb =0.4inequation(1) gives:
52 = a +100(0.4)
a = 5240= 12
Hence a =12 and b =0.4
Exercise 36 Further practical problems involving
simultaneous equations (Answers on
page 274)
1. Inasystemof pulleys,theeffortP requiredtoraiseaload
W isgivenbyP =aW +b, wherea andb areconstants.
If W =40whenP =12andW =90whenP =22, nd
thevaluesof a andb.
2. Applying Kirchhoffs laws to an electrical circuit
producesthefollowingequations:
5 = 0.2I
1
+2(I
1
I
2
)
12 = 3I
2
+0.4I
2
2(I
1
I
2
)
Determinethevaluesof currentsI
1
andI
2
3. Velocity v isgivenby theformulav =u +at. If v =20
when t =2and v =40when t =7nd thevalues of u
anda. Hencendthevelocitywhent =3.5
4. Three new cars and 4 new vans supplied to a dealer
together cost 97700 and 5 new cars and 2 new vans
of thesamemodelscost103100. Findthecostof acar
andavan.
5. y =mx +c is theequationof astraight lineof slopem
andy-axisinterceptc. If thelinepassesthroughthepoint
wherex =2andy =2, andalsothroughthepointwhere
x =5andy =
1
2
, ndtheslopeandy-axisinterceptof the
straight line.
6. TheresistanceRohmsof copper wireat t
C isgivenby
R=R
0
(1+t), whereR
0
istheresistanceat0
Cand is
thetemperaturecoefcientof resistance. If R=25.44
at 30
C andR=32.17 at 100
C, nd andR
0
7. Themolar heat capacity of asolid compound is given
by theequationc =a +bT. Whenc =52, T =100and
whenc =172, T =400. Findthevaluesof a andb
8. In an engineering process two variables p and q are
related by: q =ap +b/p, wherea and b areconstants.
Evaluatea andb if q =13whenp =2andq =22when
p =5
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10
Quadratic equations
10.1 Introduction to quadratic
equations
AsstatedinChapter 7, anequation isastatementthattwoquan-
tities are equal and to solve an equation means to nd the
valueof theunknown. Thevalueof theunknownis calledthe
root of theequation.
A quadratic equation is one in which the highest power of
the unknown quantity is 2. For example, x
2
3x +1=0 is a
quadraticequation.
Therearefour methodsof solving quadratic equations.
Theseare: (i) byfactorization(wherepossible)
(ii) bycompletingthesquare
(iii) byusingthequadraticformula
or (iv) graphically(seeChapter 13).
10.2 Solution of quadratic equations by
factorization
Multiplying out (2x +1)(x 3) gives 2x
2
6x +x 3, i.e.
2x
2
5x 3. Thereverseprocessof movingfrom2x
2
5x 3
to(2x +1)(x 3) iscalledfactorizing.
If thequadraticexpressioncanbefactorizedthisprovidesthe
simplest methodof solvingaquadraticequation.
For example, if 2x
2
5x 3=0, then, byfactorizing:
(2x +1)(x 3)=0
Henceeither (2x +1)=0 i.e. x =
1
2
or (x 3)=0 i.e. x =3
Thetechniqueof factorizingisoftenoneof trial anderror.
Problem 1. Solve the equations (a) x
2
+2x 8=0
(b) 3x
2
11x 4=0byfactorization.
(a) x
2
+2x 8=0. The factors of x
2
are x and x. These are
placedinbracketsthus: (x )(x )
The factors of 8 are +8 and 1, or 8 and +1, or +4
and2, or 4and+2. Theonlycombinationtogiveamid-
dletermof +2x is+4and2, i.e.
x
2
+2x 8= (x +4)(x 2)
(Notethat theproduct of thetwo inner terms addedto the
product of thetwoouter termsmust equal themiddleterm,
+2x inthiscase.)
The quadratic equation x
2
+2x 8=0 thus becomes
(x +4)(x 2)=0.
Sincetheonlywaythat thiscanbetrueisfor either therst
or thesecond, or bothfactorstobezero, then
either (x +4)=0 i.e. x =4
or (x 2)=0 i.e. x =2
Hence the roots of x
2
+2x 8 =0 are x =4 and 2
(b) 3x
2
11x 4=0
Thefactorsof 3x
2
are3x andx. Theseareplacedinbrackets
thus: (3x )(x )
The factors of 4 are 4 and +1, or +4 and 1, or 2
and2.
Rememberingthat theproduct of thetwoinner termsadded
totheproduct of thetwoouter termsmust equal 11x, the
onlycombinationtogivethisis+1and4, i.e.
3x
2
11x 4= (3x +1)(x 4)
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The quadratic equation 3x
2
11x 4=0 thus becomes
(3x +1)(x 4)=0
Hence, either (3x +1)=0 i.e. x =
1
3
or (x 4)=0 i.e. x =4
andbothsolutionsmaybecheckedintheoriginal equation.
Problem 2. Determine the roots of (a) x
2
6x +9=0,
and(b) 4x
2
25=0, byfactorization.
(a) x
2
6x +9=0. Hence(x 3)(x 3)=0, i.e. (x 3)
2
=0
(the left-hand side is known as a perfect square). Hence
x =3 istheonlyroot of theequationx
2
6x +9=0.
(b) 4x
2
25=0 (the left-hand side is the difference of two
squares, (2x)
2
and(5)
2
). Thus(2x +5)(2x 5)=0
Henceeither (2x +5)=0 i.e. x =
5
2
or (2x 5)=0 i.e. x =
5
2
Problem 3. Solve the following quadratic equations by
factorizing: (a) 4x
2
+8x +3=0(b) 15x
2
+2x 8=0.
(a) 4x
2
+8x +3=0. Thefactorsof 4x
2
are4x andx or 2x and
2x.Thefactorsof 3are3and1, or3and1. Remembering
that theproduct of theinner terms addedto theproduct of
thetwo outer terms must equal +8x, theonly combination
that istrue(bytrial anderror) is
(4x
2
+8x +3) = (2x +3)(2x +1)
Hence(2x +3)(2x +1)=0fromwhich, either
(2x +3) = 0or (2x +1) = 0
Thus 2x =3, fromwhich x =
3
2
or 2x =1, fromwhich x =
1
2
whichmaybecheckedintheoriginal equation.
(b) 15x
2
+2x 8=0. Thefactors of 15x
2
are15x andx or 5x
and3x.Thefactorsof 8are4and+2, or4and2, or8
and+1, or8and1. Bytrial anderrortheonlycombination
that worksis
15x
2
+2x 8= (5x +4)(3x 2)
Hence(5x +4)(3x 2)=0fromwhich
either 5x +4=0
or 3x 2=0
Hencex =
4
5
or x =
2
3
whichmaybecheckedintheoriginal equation.
Problem 4. Theroots of aquadratic equation are
1
3
and
2. Determinetheequation.
If the roots of a quadratic equation are and then
(x )(x )=0
Henceif =
1
3
and =2, then
_
x
1
3
_
(x ( 2)) = 0
_
x
1
3
_
(x +2) = 0
x
2
1
3
x +2x
2
3
= 0
x
2
+
5
3
x
2
3
= 0
Hence 3x
2
+5x 2 =0
Problem 5. Find the equations in x whose roots are
(a) 5and5(b) 1.2and0.4.
(a) If 5and5aretherootsof aquadraticequationthen
(x 5)(x +5)=0
i.e. x
2
5x +5x 25=0
i.e. x
2
25 =0
(b) If 1.2and0.4aretherootsof aquadraticequationthen
(x 1.2)(x +0.4)=0
i.e. x
2
1.2x +0.4x 0.48=0
i.e. x
2
0.8x 0.48 =0
Exercise 37 Further problems on solving quadratic
equations by factorization (Answers
on page 274)
In Problems 1 to 12, solve the given equations by
factorization.
1. x
2
+4x 32=0 2. x
2
16=0
3. (x +2)
2
=16 4. 2x
2
x 3=0
5. 6x
2
5x +1=0 6. 10x
2
+3x 4=0
7. x
2
4x +4=0 8. 21x
2
25x =4
9. 8x
2
+13x 6=0 10. 5x
2
+13x 6=0
11. 6x
2
5x 4=0 12. 8x
2
+2x 15=0
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Quadratic equations 71
InProblems13to18, determinethequadraticequationsin
x whoserootsare
13. 3and1 14. 2and5 15. 1and4
16. 2
1
2
and
1
2
17. 6and6 18. 2.4and0.7
completing the square
Anexpressionsuchasx
2
or(x +2)
2
or(x 3)
2
iscalledaperfect
square.
If x
2
=3thenx =
3
If (x +2)
2
=5thenx +2=
5andx =2
5
If (x 3)
2
=8thenx 3=
8andx =3
8
Henceif aquadraticequationcanberearrangedsothatonesideof
theequationisaperfectsquareandtheother sideof theequation
isanumber, thenthesolutionof theequationisreadilyobtained
bytakingthesquarerootsof eachsideasintheaboveexamples.
Theprocessof rearrangingonesideof aquadraticequationintoa
perfectsquarebeforesolvingiscalledcompleting the square.
(x +a)
2
= x
2
+2ax +a
2
Thus inorder to makethequadratic expressionx
2
+2ax into a
perfect squareit is necessary to add(half thecoefcient of x)
2
i.e.
_
2a
2
_
2
or a
2
For example, x
2
+3x becomes a perfect square by adding
_
3
2
_
2
, i.e.
x
2
+3x +
_
3
2
_
2
=
_
x +
3
2
_
2
Themethodisdemonstratedinthefollowingworkedproblems.
Problem 6. Solve 2x
2
+5x =3 by completing the
square.
Theprocedureisasfollows:
1. Rearrangetheequationsothatall termsareonthesamesideof
theequalssign(andthecoefcientof thex
2
termispositive).
Hence2x
2
+5x 3=0
2. Makethecoefcient of thex
2
termunity. Inthiscasethisis
achievedbydividingthroughout by2. Hence
2x
2
2
+
5x
2

3
2
=0
i.e. x
2
+
5
2
x
3
2
=0
3. Rearrangetheequationssothatthex
2
andx termsareonone
sideof theequalssignandtheconstant isontheother side.
Hence
x
2
+
5
2
x =
3
2
4. Addtobothsidesof theequation(half thecoefcientof x)
2
.In
thiscasethecoefcientof x is
5
2
. Half thecoefcientsquared
istherefore
_
5
4
_
2
. Thus
x
2
+
5
2
x +
_
5
4
_
2
=
3
2
+
_
5
4
_
2
TheLHSisnowaperfect square, i.e.
_
x +
5
4
_
2
=
3
2
+
_
5
4
_
2
5. EvaluatetheRHS. Thus
_
x +
5
4
_
2
=
3
2
+
25
16
=
24+25
16
=
49
16
6. Taking the square root of both sides of the equation
(remembering that the square root of a number gives a
answer). Thus
_
_
x +
5
4
_
2
=
_
_
49
16
_
i.e. x +
5
4
=
7
4
7. Solvethesimpleequation. Thus
x =
5
4
7
4
i.e. x =
5
4
+
7
4
=
2
4
=
1
2
and x =
5
4
7
4
=
12
4
=3
Hence x =
1
2
or 3 are the roots of the equation
2x
2
+5x =3
Problem 7. Solve 2x
2
+9x +8=0, correct to 3 signi-
cant gures, bycompletingthesquare.
Makingthecoefcient of x
2
unitygives:
x
2
+
9
2
x +4= 0
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andrearranginggives: x
2
+
9
2
x =4
Addingtobothsides(half thecoefcient of x)
2
gives:
x
2
+
9
2
x +
_
9
4
_
2
=
_
9
4
_
2
4
TheLHSisnowaperfect square, thus
_
x +
9
4
_
2
=
81
16
4=
17
16
x +
9
4
=
_
_
17
16
_
=1.031
Hence x =
9
4
1.031
i.e. x =1.22 or 3.28, correct to3signicant gures.
Problem 8. By completing the square, solve the
quadratic equation 4.6y
2
+3.5y 1.75=0, correct to
3decimal places.
4.6y
2
+3.5y 1.75= 0
Makingthecoefcient of y
2
unitygives:
y
2
+
3.5
4.6
y
1.75
4.6
= 0
andrearranginggives:
y
2
+
3.5
4.6
y =
1.75
4.6
Addingtobothsides(half thecoefcient of y)
2
gives:
y
2
+
3.5
4.6
y +
_
3.5
9.2
_
2
=
1.75
4.6
+
_
3.5
9.2
_
2
TheLHSisnowaperfect square, thus
_
y +
3.5
9.2
_
2
= 0.5251654
y +
3.5
9.2
=
0.5251654=0.7246830
Hence y =
3.5
9.2
0.7246830
i.e. y =0.344 or 1.105
equations by completing the square
InProblems1to6, solvethegivenequationsbycompleting
thesquare, eachcorrect to3decimal places.
1. x
2
+4x +1=0 2. 2x
2
+5x 4=0
3. 3x
2
x 5=0 4. 5x
2
8x +2=0
5. 4x
2
11x +3=0 6. 2x
2
+5x =2
formula
Let thegeneral formof aquadraticequationbegivenby:
ax
2
+bx +c = 0 wherea, b andc areconstants.
Dividingax
2
+bx +c =0bya gives:
x
2
+
b
a
x +
c
a
= 0
Rearranginggives:
x
2
+
b
a
x =
c
a
Adding to each side of the equation the square of half the
coefcient of thetermin x to maketheLHS aperfect square
gives:
x
2
+
b
a
x +
_
b
2a
_
2
=
_
b
2a
_
2
c
a
Rearranginggives:
_
x +
b
a
_
2
=
b
2
4a
2

c
a
=
b
2
4ac
4a
2
x +
b
2a
=
_
_
b
2
4ac
4a
2
_
=
b
2
4ac
2a
Hence x =
b
2a
b
2
4ac
2a
i.e. thequadraticformulaisx =
b
b
2
4ac
2a
(Thismethodof solutioniscompletingthesquare asshown
inSection10.3.)
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Summarizing:
if ax
2
+bx +c = 0 then x =
b
b
2
4ac
2a
Thisisknownasthequadratic formula.
Problem 9. Solve (a) x
2
+2x 8=0and
(b) 3x
2
11x 4=0byusingthequadraticformula.
(a) Comparing x
2
+2x 8=0 with ax
2
+bx +c =0 gives
a =1, b =2andc =8
Substitutingthesevaluesintothequadraticformula
x =
b
b
2
4ac
2a
gives:
x =
2
_
2
2
4(1)(8)
2(1)
=
2
4+32
2
=
2
36
2
=
26
2
=
2+6
2
or
26
2
Hence x =
4
2
=2 or
8
2
=4 (asinProblem1(a)).
(b) Comparing 3x
2
11x 4=0 with ax
2
+bx +c =0 gives
a =3, b =11andc =4. Hence
x =
(11)
_
(11)
2
4(3)(4)
2(3)
=
+11
121+48
6
=
11
169
6
=
1113
6
=
11+13
6
or
1113
6
Hence x =
24
6
=4 or
2
6
=
1
3
(asinProblem1(b)).
Problem 10. Solve 4x
2
+7x +2=0 giving the roots
Comparing 4x
2
+7x +2=0 with ax
2
+bx +c gives a =4,
b =7andc =2.
Hence
x =
7
_
[(7)
2
4(4)(2)]
2(4)
=
7
17
8
=
74.123
8
=
7+4.123
8
or
74.123
8
Hence x =0.36 or 1.39, correct to 2 decimal places.
Problem 11. Usethequadraticformulatosolve
x +2
4
+
3
x 1
=7correct to4signicant gures.
Multiplyingthroughout by4(x 1) gives:
4(x 1)
(x +2)
4
+4(x 1)
3
(x 1)
=4(x 1)(7)
i.e. (x 1)(x +2)+(4)(3)=28(x 1)
x
2
+x 2+12=28x 28
Hence x
2
27x +38=0
Usingthequadraticformula:
x =
(27)
_
(27)
2
4(1)(38)
2
=
27
577
2
=
2724.0208
2
Hence x =
27+24.0208
2
=25.5104
or x =
2724.0208
2
=1.4896
Hencex =25.51 or 1.490, correct to4signicant gures.
equations by formula (Answers on
page 274)
InProblems 1to 6solvethegivenequations by usingthe
quadraticformula, correct to3decimal places.
1. 2x
2
+5x 4=0 2. 5.76x
2
+2.86x 1.35=0
3. 2x
2
7x +4=0 4. 4x +5=
3
x
5. (2x +1)=
5
x 3
6.
x +1
x 1
=x 3
quadratic equations
There are many practical problems where a quadratic equa-
tionhasrst tobeobtained, fromgiveninformation, beforeit is
solved.
Problem 12. Theareaof arectangleis 23.6cm
2
and its
width is 3.10cm shorter than its length. Determine the
dimensionsof therectangle, correctto3signicantgures.
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Let the length of the rectangle be x cm. Then the width is
(x 3.10)cm.
Area=lengthwidth=x(x 3.10)=23.6
i.e. x
2
3.10x 23.6=0
Usingthequadraticformula,
x =
(3.10)
_
(3.10)
2
4(1)(23.6)
2(1)
=
3.10
9.61+94.4
2
=
3.1010.20
2
=
13.30
2
or
7.10
2
Hencex =6.65cmor 3.55cm. Thelatter solutionisneglected
sincelengthcannot benegative.
Thuslength x =6.65cmand
width= x 3.10=6.653.10=3.55cm.
Hence the dimensions of the rectangle are 6.65 cmby 3.55 cm.
(Check: Area=6.653.55=23.6cm
2
, correct to3signicant
gures.)
Problem 13. Calculate the diameter of a solid cylinder
which has aheight of 82.0cmand atotal surfaceareaof
2.0m
2
.
Total surfaceareaof acylinder
= curvedsurfacearea+2circular ends
= 2rh +2r
2
(wherer = radiusandh = height)
Sincethetotal surfacearea=2.0m
2
andtheheighth =82cmor
0.82m, then
2.0=2r(0.82)+2r
2
i.e. 2r
2
+2r(0.82)2.0= 0
Dividingthroughout by2 gives: r
2
+0.82r
1
= 0
r =
0.82
_
(0.82)
2
4(1)
_
_
2(1)
=
0.82
1.9456
2
=
0.821.3948
2
= 0.2874or 1.1074
Thustheradiusr of thecylinder is0.2874m(thenegativesolu-
tionbeingneglected).
Hencethediameter of thecylinder =20.2874
=0.5748 m or
57.5 cm correct to3signicant gures
Problem14. Theheights metresof amassprojectedverti-
callyupwardsattimet secondsiss =ut
1
2
gt
2
. Determine
howlongthemasswill takeafter beingprojectedtoreach
aheight of 16m(a) ontheascent and(b) onthedescent,
whenu =30m/sandg =9.81m/s
2
.
Whenheight s =16m, 16=30t
1
2
(9.81)t
2
i.e. 4.905t
2
30t +16=0
t =
(30)
_
(30)
2
4(4.905)(16)
2(4.905)
=
30
586.1
9.81
=
3024.21
9.81
= 5.53 or 0.59
Hence the mass will reach a height of 16 m after 0.59 s on the
ascent and after 5.53 s on the descent.
Problem 15. A shed is 4.0m long and 2.0m wide. A
concretepathof constant widthis laidall theway around
theshed. If theareaof thepathis9.50m
2
calculateitswidth
tothenearest centimetre.
Figure10.1showsaplanviewof theshedwithitssurrounding
pathof widtht metres.
t
2.0 m
4.0 m
(4.0 2t)
SHED
t
Fig. 10.1
Areaof path=2(2.0t)+2t(4.0+2t)
i.e. 9.50=4.0t +8.0t +4t
2
or 4t
2
+12.0t 9.50=0
Hence t =
(12.0)
_
(12.0)
2
4(4)(9.50)
2(4)
=
12.0
296.0
8
=
12.017.20465
8
Hencet =0.6506mor 3.65058m
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Neglectingthenegativeresultwhichismeaningless, thewidthof
thepath, t =0.651 mor 65 cm, correcttothenearestcentimetre.
Problem 16. If the total surface area of a solid cone is
486.2cm
2
anditsslantheightis15.3cm, determineitsbase
diameter.
FromChapter 24, page180, thetotal surfaceareaA of asolid
coneisgivenby: A=rl +r
2
wherel istheslant height andr
thebaseradius.
If A=482.2andl =15.3, then482.2=r(15.3)+r
2
i.e. r
2
+15.3r 482.2=0
or r
2
+15.3r
482.2
=0
Usingthequadraticformula,
r =
15.3
_
_
(15.3)
2
4
_
482.2
__
2
=
15.3
848.0461
2
=
15.329.12123
2
Henceradiusr =6.9106cm(or 22.21cm, whichismeaning-
less, andisthusignored).
Thusthe diameter of the base =2r =2(6.9106)
=13.82 cm
quadratic equations (Answers on
page 274)
1. Theangleof arotatingshaft turnsthroughint seconds
isgivenby =t +
1
2
t
2
. Determinethetimetakento
complete4radiansif is3.0rad/sand is0.60rad/s
2
.
2. Thepower P developedinanelectrical circuit isgiven
by P =10I 8I
2
, where I is the current in amperes.
Determinethecurrent necessarytoproduceapower of
2.5wattsinthecircuit.
3. Theareaof atriangleis47.6cm
2
anditsperpendicular
height is 4.3cmmorethanits baselength. Determine
thelengthof thebasecorrect to3signicant gures.
4. The sag l metres in a cable stretched between two
supports, distance x mapart is given by: l =
12
x
+x.
Determinethedistancebetweensupportswhenthesag
is20m.
5. The acid dissociation constant K
a
of ethanoic acid is
1.810
5
mol dm
3
for a particular solution. Using
theOstwalddilutionlawK
a
=
x
2
v(l x)
determinex, the
degreeof ionization, giventhat v =10dm
3
.
6. A rectangular building is 15mlong by 11mwide. A
concretepathof constantwidthislaidall thewayaround
thebuilding. If theareaof thepathis60.0m
2
, calculate
itswidthcorrect tothenearest millimetre.
7. Thetotal surfaceareaof aclosedcylindrical containeris
20.0m
3
. Calculatetheradiusof thecylinderif itsheight
is2.80m
2
.
8. Thebendingmoment M at apoint inabeamis given
byM =
3x(20x)
2
wherex metresisthedistancefrom
thepointof support. Determinethevalueof x whenthe
bendingmoment is50Nm.
9. A tenniscourt measures24mby11m. Inthelayout of
anumber of courtsanareaof groundmust beallowed
for attheendsandatthesidesof eachcourt. If aborder
of constant widthisallowedaroundeachcourt andthe
total areaof thecourt anditsborder is950m
2
, ndthe
widthof theborders.
10. Two resistors, when connected in series, have a total
resistanceof 40ohms. Whenconnectedinparallel their
total resistanceis8.4ohms. If oneof theresistorshasa
resistanceR
x
ohms:
(a) showthat R
2
x
40R
x
+336=0and
(b) calculatetheresistanceof each
10.6 The solution of linear and quadratic
equations simultaneously
Sometimes alinear equation and aquadratic equation need to
be solved simultaneously. An algebraic method of solution is
showninProblem17;agraphical solutionisshowninChapter13,
page99.
Problem17. Determinethevaluesof x andy whichsimul-
taneouslysatisfytheequations:
y =5x 42x
2
andy =6x 7
For asimultaneoussolutionthevaluesof y mustbeequal, hence
theRHSof eachequationisequated. Thus
5x 42x
2
=6x 7
Rearranginggives: 5x 42x
2
6x +7=0
i.e. x +32x
2
=0
or 2x
2
+x 3=0
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Factorizinggives: (2x +3)(x 1)=0
i.e. x =
3
2
or x =1
Intheequationy =6x 7,
whenx =
3
2
, y =6
_
3
2
_
7=16
and whenx =1, y =67=1
[Checkingtheresult iny =5x 42x
2
:
whenx =
3
2
, y =5
_
3
2
_
42
_
3
2
_
2
=
15
2
4
9
2
=16
asabove; andwhenx =1, y =542=1asabove]
Hencethesimultaneoussolutionsoccur whenx =
3
2
, y =16
andwhenx =1, y =1
Exercise 41 Further problems on solving linear
and quadratic equations simultaneously
InProblems1to3determinethesolutionsof thesimultan-
eousequations.
1. y =x
2
+x +1
y =4x
2. y =15x
2
+21x 11
y =2x 1
3. 2x
2
+y =4+5x
x +y =4
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11
Inequalities
11.1 Introduction to inequalities
Aninequality isanyexpressioninvolvingoneof thesymbols<,
>, or
p <q meansp islessthanq
p >q meansp isgreater thanq
p q meansp islessthanor equal toq
p q meansp isgreater thanor equal toq
Some simple rules
(i) Whenaquantityisadded or subtracted tobothsidesof an
inequality, theinequalitystill remains.
For example, if p <3
then p +2<3+2(adding2tobothsides)
and p 2<32(subtracting2frombothsides)
(ii) Whenmultiplying or dividing bothsidesof aninequality
by a positive quantity, say 5, the inequality remains the
same. For example,
if p > 4 then 5p > 20 and
p
5
>
4
5
(iii) Whenmultiplying or dividing bothsidesof aninequality
byanegative quantity, say3, the inequality is reversed.
For example,
if p > 1 then 3p < 3 and
p
3
<
1
3
(Note> haschangedto< ineachexample.)
Tosolve aninequality meansndingall thevaluesof thevariable
for whichtheinequalityistrue.
Knowledge of simple equations (Chapter 7) and quadratic
equations(Chapter 10) areneededinthischapter.
11.2 Simple inequalities
Thesolution of somesimpleinequalities, using only therules
giveninSection11.1, is demonstratedinthefollowingworked
problems.
Problem 1. Solvethefollowinginequalities:
(a) 3+x >7 (b) 3t <6 (c) z 25 (d)
p
3
2
(a) Subtracting 3 fromboth sides of the inequality: 3+x >7
gives:
3+x 3> 73, i.e. x >4
Hence, all valuesof x greater than4satisfytheinequality.
(b) Dividingbothsidesof theinequality: 3t <6by3gives:
3t
3
<
6
3
, i.e. t <2
Hence, all valuesof t lessthan2satisfytheinequality.
(c) Adding2tobothsidesof theinequalityz 25gives:
z 2+2 5+2, i.e. z 7
Hence, all values of z greater thanor equal to7satisfy the
inequality.
(d) Multiplyingbothsidesof theinequality
p
3
2by3gives:
(3)
p
3
(3)2, i.e. p 6
Hence, all values of p less than or equal to 6 satisfy the
inequality.
Problem 2. Solvetheinequality: 4x +1>x +5
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Subtracting1frombothsides of theinequality: 4x +1>x +5
gives:
4x > x +4
Subtractingx frombothsidesof theinequality: 4x >x +4gives:
3x > 4
Dividingbothsidesof theinequality: 3x >4by3gives:
x >
4
3
Henceall valuesof x greater than
4
3
satisfytheinequality:
4x +1> x +5
Problem 3. Solvetheinequality: 34t 8+t
Subtracting 3 fromboth sides of theinequality: 34t 8+t
gives:
4t 5+t
Subtractingt frombothsidesof theinequality: 4t 5+t gives:
5t 5
Dividingbothsidesof theinequality: 5t 5by5gives:
t 1 (rememberingtoreversetheinequality)
Hence, all values of t greater than or equal to 1 satisfy the
inequality.
Exercise 42 Further problems on simple inequalities
Solvethefollowinginequalities:
1. (a) 3t >6 (b) 2x <10
2. (a)
x
2
>1.5 (b) x +25
3. (a) 4t 13 (b) 5x 1
4. (a)
72k
4
1 (b) 3z +2>z +3
5. (a) 52y 9+y (b) 16x 5+2x
11.3 Inequalities involving a modulus
Themodulus of anumber isthesizeof thenumber, regardless
of sign. Vertical linesenclosingthenumber denoteamodulus.
For example, | 4| =4 and | 4| =4(themodulusof anumber
isnever negative),
The inequality: | t | <1 means that all numbers whose actual
size, regardlessof sign, islessthan1, i.e. anyvaluebetween1
and+1.
Thus| t | <1 means 1 <t <1.
Similarly, | x | >3meansall numberswhoseactual size, regard-
less of sign, is greater than3, i.e. any valuegreater than3and
anyvaluelessthan3.
Thus| x | >3 means x >3 and x <3.
Inequalitiesinvolvingamodulusaredemonstratedinthefollow-
ingworkedproblems.
Problem 4. Solvethefollowinginequality: | 3x +1| <4
Since| 3x +1| <4 then 4<3x +1<4
Now4<3x +1becomes5<3x,
i.e.
5
3
<x and 3x +1<4becomes3x <3, i.e. x <1
Hence, thesetworesultstogether become
5
3
<x <1 andmean
that theinequality | 3x +1| <4 is satised for any valueof x
greater than
5
3
but lessthan1.
Problem 5. Solvetheinequality: |1+2t| 5
Since|1+2t| 5 then 51+2t 5
Now51+2t becomes62t, i.e. 3 t
and 1+2t 5becomes2t 4, i.e. t 2
Hence, thesetworesultstogether become: 3 t 2
Problem 6. Solvetheinequality: |3z 4| >2
|3z 4| >2means3z 4>2 and 3z 4<2,
i.e. 3z >6 and 3z <2,
i.e. theinequality: |3z 4| >2issatisedwhenz >2 and z <
2
3
Exercise 43 Further problems on inequalities involving
a modulus (Answers on page 275)
1. | t +1| <4 2. | y +3| 2 3. |2x 1| <4
4. |3t 5| >4 5. |1k| 3
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Inequalities 79
11.4 Inequalities involving quotients
If
p
q
>0then
p
q
must beapositive value.
For
p
q
tobepositive, either p ispositiveand q ispositiveor p is
negativeand q isnegative.
i.e.
+
+
=+ and

=+
If
p
q
<0 then
p
q
must beanegative value.
For
p
q
tobenegative, either p ispositiveand q isnegativeor p
isnegativeand q ispositive.
i.e.
+
= and

+
=
This reasoning is used when solving inequalities involving
quotients, asdemonstratedinthefollowingworkedproblems.
Problem 7. Solvetheinequality:
t +1
3t 6
>0
Since
t +1
3t 6
>0 then
t +1
3t 6
must bepositive.
For
t +1
3t 6
tobepositive, either (i) t +1>0and 3t 6>0or
(ii) t +1<0and 3t 6<0
(i) If t +1>0 then t >1 and if 3t 6>0 then 3t >6 and
t >2
Both of theinequalitiest >1and t >2areonlytruewhen
t >2,
i.e. thefraction
t +1
3t 6
ispositivewhent >2
(ii) If t +1<0 then t <1 and if 3t 6<0 then 3t <6 and
t <2
Both of theinequalitiest <1and t <2areonlytruewhen
t <1,
i.e. thefraction
t +1
3t 6
ispositivewhent <1
Summarizing,
t +1
3t 6
>0 when t >2 or t <1
Problem 8. Solvetheinequality:
2x +3
x +2
1
Since
2x +3
x +2
1 then
2x +3
x +2
10
i.e.
2x +3
x +2

x +2
x +2
0,
i.e.
2x +3(x +2)
x +2
0 or
x +1
x +2
0
For
x +1
x +2
tobenegativeor zero,
either (i) x +10 and x +2>0
or (ii) x +10 and x +2<0
(i) If x +10thenx 1andif x +2>0thenx >2
(Note that > is used for the denominator, not ; a zero
denominator gives avaluefor thefractionwhichis impos-
sibletoevaluate.)
Hence, theinequality
x +1
x +2
0istruewhenx isgreaterthan
2andless thanor equal to 1, whichmay bewrittenas
2 <x 1
(ii) If x +10thenx 1andif x +2<0thenx <2
It isnot possibletosatisfybothx 1andx <2thusno
valuesof x satises(ii).
Summarizing,
2x +3
x +2
1 when 2 <x 1
quotients (Answers on page 275)
1.
x +4
62x
0 2.
2t +4
t 5
>1
3.
3z 4
z +5
2 4.
2x
x +3
4
11.5 Inequalities involving square
functions
Thefollowingtwogeneral rulesapplywheninequalitiesinvolve
squarefunctions:
(i) if x
2
>k then x >
k or x <
k (1)
(ii) if x
2
<k then
k <x <
k (2)
Theserulesaredemonstratedinthefollowingworkedproblems.
Problem 9. Solvetheinequality: t
2
>9
Sincet
2
>9thent
2
9>0, i.e. (t +3)(t 3)>0byfactorizing
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For (t +3)(t 3) tobepositive,
either (i) (t +3)>0 and (t 3)>0
or (ii) (t +3)<0 and (t 3)<0
(i) If (t +3)>0thent >3andif (t 3)>0thent >3
Bothof thesearetrueonlywhent >3
(ii) If (t +3)<0thent <3andif (t 3)<0thent <3
Bothof thesearetrueonlywhent <3
Summarizing, t
2
>9 when t >3 or t <3
This demonstrates the general rule:
if x
2
>k then x >
k or x <
k (1)
Problem 10. Solvetheinequality: x
2
>4
Fromthegeneral rulestatedaboveinequation(1):
if x
2
> 4 then x >
4 or x <
4
i.e. theinequality: x
2
>4issatisedwhenx >2 or x <2
Problem 11. Solvetheinequality: (2z +1)
2
>9
Fromequation(1), if (2z +1)
2
>9then
2z +1>
9 or 2z +1<
9
i.e. 2z +1>3 or 2z +1<3
i.e. 2z >2 or 2z <4,
i.e. z >1 or z <2
2
<9
Sincet
2
<9thent
2
9<0, i.e. (t +3)(t 3)<0byfactorizing.
For (t +3)(t 3) tobenegative,
either (i) (t +3)>0 and (t 3)<0
or (ii) (t +3)<0 and (t 3)>0
(i) If (t +3)>0thent >3andif (t 3)<0thent <3
Hence(i) is satisedwhent >3andt <3whichmay be
writtenas: 3 <t <3
(ii) If (t +3)<0thent <3andif (t 3)>0thent >3
It is not possibleto satisfy both t <3 and t >3, thus no
valuesof t satises(ii).
Summarizing, t
2
<9 when 3 <t <3 which means that all
valuesof t between3and+3will satisfytheinequality.
This demonstrates the general rule:
if x
2
<k then
k <x <
k (2)
2
<4
Fromthegeneral rulestatedaboveinequation(2):
if x
2
< 4 then
4< x <
4
i.e. theinequality: x
2
<4issatisedwhen: 2 <x <2
Problem 14. Solvetheinequality: (y 3)
2
16
Fromequation(2),
16(y 3)
16
i.e. 4(y 3)4
fromwhich, 34y 4+3,
i.e. 1 y 7
square functions (Answers on page 275)
1. z
2
>16 2. z
2
<16 3. 2x
2
6
4. 3k
2
210 5. (t 1)
2
36 6. (t 1)
2
36
7. 73y
2
5 8. (4k +5)
2
>9
11.6 Quadratic inequalities
Inequalities involving quadratic expressions are solved using
either factorization or completing the square. For example,
x
2
2x 3isfactorizedas(x +1)(x 3)
and 6x
2
+7x 5isfactorizedas(2x 1)(3x +5)
If aquadratic expressiondoes not factorize, thenthetechnique
of completingthesquare isused. Ingeneral, theprocedurefor
x
2
+bx +c is:
x
2
+bx +c
_
x +
b
2
_
2
+c
_
b
2
_
2
For example, x
2
+4x 7 does not factorize; completing the
squaregives:
x
2
+4x 7(x +2)
2
72
2
(x +2)
2
11
Similarly, x
2
6x 5(x 3)
2
53
2
(x 3)
2
14
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Inequalities 81
Solvingquadratic inequalities is demonstratedinthefollowing
workedproblems.
2
+2x 3>0
Sincex
2
+2x 3>0then(x 1)(x +3)>0byfactorizing.
For theproduct (x 1)(x +3) tobepositive,
either (i) (x 1)>0 and (x +3)>0
or (ii) (x 1)<0 and (x +3)<0
(i) Since (x 1)>0 then x >1 and since (x +3)>0 then
x >3
Bothof theseinequalitiesaresatisedonlywhenx >1
(ii) Since (x 1)<0 then x <1 and since (x +3)<0 then
x <3
Bothof theseinequalitiesaresatisedonlywhenx <3
Summarizing, x
2
+2x 3>0is satisedwheneither x >1 or
x <3
2
2t 8<0
Sincet
2
2t 8<0then(t 4)(t +2)<0byfactorizing.
For theproduct (t 4)(t +2) tobenegative,
either (i) (t 4)>0 and (t +2)<0
or (ii) (t 4)<0 and (t +2)>0
(i) Since(t 4)>0thent >4andsince(t +2)<0thent <2
It is not possibleto satisfy botht >4andt <2, thus no
valuesof t satisestheinequality(i)
(ii) Since(t 4)<0thent <4andsince(t +2)>0thent >2
Hence, (ii) issatisedwhen2<t <4
Summarizing, t
2
2t 8<0issatisedwhen2 <t <4
2
+6x +3<0
x
2
+6x +3doesnot factorize; completingthesquaregives:
x
2
+6x +3 (x +3)
2
+33
2
(x +3)
2
6
Theinequalitythusbecomes: (x +3)
2
6<0 or (x +3)
2
<6
Fromequation(2),
6<(x +3)<
6
fromwhich,
_
63
_
<x <
_
63
_
Hence, x
2
+6x +3<0 is satised when 5.45 <x <0.55
Problem 18. Solvetheinequality: y
2
8y 100
y
2
8y 10doesnot factorize; completingthesquaregives:
y
2
8y 10 (y 4)
2
104
2
(y 4)
2
26
Theinequalitythusbecomes: (y 4)
2
260or (y 4)
2
26
Fromequation(1), (y 4)
26 or (y 4)
26
fromwhich, y 4 +
26 or y 4
26
Hence, y
2
8y 100 is satised when y 9.10 or
y 1.10 correct to2decimal places.
Exercise 46 Further problems on quadratic
inequalities (Answers on page 275)
1. x
2
x 6>0 2. t
2
+2t 80
3. 2x
2
+3x 2<0 4. y
2
y 200
5. z
2
+4z +44 6. x
2
+6x +60
7. t
2
4t 70 8. k
2
+k 30
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Assignment 5
ters9to11. Themarksfor eachquestionareshownin
1. Solvethefollowingpairsof simultaneousequations:
(a) 7x 3y =23
2x +4y =8
(b) 3a 8+
b
8
=0
b +
a
2
=
21
4
(c)
2p +1
5

14q
2
=
5
2
13p
7
+
2q 3
5
+
32
35
=0 (20)
2. In an engineering process two variables x and y are
related by theequation y =ax +
b
x
wherea and b are
constants. Evaluate a and b if y =15 when x =1 and
y =13whenx =3 (5)
3. Solvethefollowingequationsbyfactorization:
(a) x
2
9=0 (b) 2x
2
5x 3=0 (6)
4. Determinethequadratic equationinx whoseroots are
1and3 (4)
5. Solve the equation 3x
2
x 4=0 by completing the
square. (6)
6. Solvetheequation4x
2
9x +3=0correctto3decimal
places. (5)
7. The current i owing through an electronic device is
givenby:
i = 0.005v
2
+0.014v
wherev is thevoltage. Calculatethevalues of v when
i =310
3
(6)
8. Solvethefollowinginequalities:
(a) 25x 9+2x (b) |3+2t| 6 (c)
x 1
3x +5
>0
(d) (3t +2)
2
>16 (e) 2x
2
x 3<0 (18)
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12
Straight line graphs
12.1 Introduction to graphs
A graph is a pictorial representation of information showing
howonequantityvarieswithanother relatedquantity.
Themostcommonmethodof showingarelationshipbetween
twosetsof dataistouseCartesian orrectangular axes asshown
inFig. 12.1.
B (4, 3)
A (3, 2)
4
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
Origin
Abscissa
Ordinate
C (3, 2)
y
x
A
Fig. 12.1
The points on a graph are called co-ordinates. Point A in
Fig. 12.1 has the co-ordinates (3, 2), i.e. 3 units in the x
directionand2unitsinthey direction. Similarly, pointB hasco-
ordinates (4, 3) andC has co-ordinates (3, 2). Theorigin
hasco-ordinates(0, 0).
The horizontal distance of a point fromthe vertical axis is
calledtheabscissa andthevertical distancefromthehorizontal
axisiscalledtheordinate.
12.2 The straight line graph
Let arelationshipbetweentwovariablesx andy bey =3x +2.
Whenx =0, y =3(0)+2=2.
Whenx =1, y =3(1)+2=5.
Whenx =2, y =3(2)+2=8, andsoon.
Thus co-ordinates (0, 2), (1, 5) and (2, 8) havebeen produced
fromthe equation by selecting arbitrary values of x, and are
shownplottedinFig. 12.2. Whenthepointsarejoinedtogether
astraight-line graph results.
1
1 2
y 3x 2
x
0
2
4
6
8
y
Fig. 12.2
The gradient or slope of a straight line is the ratio of the
changeinthevalueof y tothechangeinthevalueof x between
anytwopointsontheline. If, asx increases, (), y alsoincreases
(), thenthegradient ispositive.
InFig. 12.3(a), thegradient of AC
=
changeiny
changeinx
=
CB
BA
=
73
31
=
4
2
= 2
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y
y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
2
1
0 1 2 3
3
1
0 1 1 2
(a)
(c)
3 4 x
C
B A
x
y 3x 2
y 3
y
11
10
8
6
4
D
2
4 3 2
(b)
1 0 x
E
F
y 2x 1
Fig. 12.3
If as x increases (), y decreases (), then the gradient is
negative.
InFig. 12.3(b), thegradient of DF
=
changeiny
changeinx
=
FE
ED
=
112
30
=
9
3
= 3
Figure 12.3(c) shows a straight line graph y =3. Since the
straight lineishorizontal thegradient iszero.
The value of y when x =0 is called the y-axis intercept.
InFig. 12.3(a) they-axisintercept is1andinFig. 12.3(b) is2.
If theequation of agraph is of theformy =mx +c, where
m and c are constants, the graph will always be a straight
line, m representingthegradientandc they-axisintercept. Thus
y =5x +2 represents a straight line of gradient 5 and y-axis
intercept 2. Similarly, y =3x 4represents astraight lineof
gradient 3andy-axisintercept 4
Summary of general rules to be applied when drawing
graphs
(i) Give the graph a title clearly explaining what is being
illustrated.
(ii) Choosescalessuchthat thegraphoccupiesasmuchspace
aspossibleonthegraphpaper beingused.
(iii) Choosescalessothatinterpolationismadeaseasyaspossi-
ble. Usuallyscalessuchas1cm=1unit, or 1cm=2units,
or 1cm=10 units are used. Awkward scales such as
1cm=3unitsor 1cm=7unitsshouldnot beused.
(iv) Thescalesneednot start at zero, particularlywhenstarting
at zero produces anaccumulationof points withinasmall
areaof thegraphpaper.
(v) Theco-ordinates, or points, shouldbeclearlymarked. This
maybedoneeither byacross, or adot andcircle, or just by
adot (seeFig. 12.1).
(vi) A statementshouldbemadenexttoeachaxisexplainingthe
numbersrepresentedwiththeir appropriateunits.
(vii) Sufcient numbers should be written next to each axis
without cramping.
Problem 1. Plot thegraphy =4x +3intherangex =3
to x =+4. Fromthe graph, nd (a) the value of y when
x =2.2, and(b) thevalueof x wheny =3.
Whenever anequationis givenandagraphis required, atable
giving corresponding values of the variable is necessary. The
tableisachievedasfollows:
Whenx =3, y =4x +3=4(3)+3=12+3=9.
Whenx =2, y =4(2)+3=8+3=5, andsoon.
Suchatableisshownbelow:
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
y 9 5 1 3 7 11 15 19
Theco-ordinates(3, 9), (2, 5), (1, 1), andsoon, are
plottedandjoinedtogether toproducethestraight lineshownin
Fig. 12.4. (Notethat thescalesusedonthex andy axesdonot
havetobethesame) Fromthegraph:
(a) whenx =2.2, y =11.8, and
(b) wheny =3, x =1.5
20
y
15
10
11.8
5
5
3
10
0 2 1
1.5
3 1
2.2
2 3 4 x
Fig. 12.4
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Straight line graphs 85
Problem 2. Plot the following graphs on the same axes
between the range x =4 to x =+4, and determine the
gradient of each.
(a) y =x (b) y=x +2
(c) y =x +5 (d) y =x 3
A tableof co-ordinatesisproducedfor eachgraph.
(a) y =x
x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
y 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
(b) y =x +2
x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
y 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(c) y =x +5
x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
y 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9
y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 x
D
A
E
B
C
F
2
3
4
5
6
7
y
5
y
2
y
3
y
x
Fig. 12.5
(d) y =x 3
x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
y 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1
The co-ordinates are plotted and joined for each graph. The
results are shown in Fig. 12.5. Each of the straight lines pro-
ducedareparallel toeachother, i.e. theslopeor gradient isthe
samefor each.
To nd the gradient of any straight line, say, y =x 3 a
horizontal and vertical component needs to be constructed.
In Fig. 12.5, AB is constructed vertically at x =4 and BC
constructedhorizontallyat y =3. Thegradient of AC
=
AB
BC
=
1(3)
40
=
4
4
= 1
i.e. the gradient of the straight line y =x 3 is 1. The actual
positioningof AB andBC isunimportant for thegradient isalso
givenby
DE
EF
=
1(2)
21
=
1
1
= 1
The slope or gradient of each of the straight lines in Fig. 12.5
is thus 1 since they are all parallel to each other.
Problem 3. Plot the following graphs on the same axes
between the values x =3 to x =+3 and determine the
gradient andy-axisintercept of each.
(a) y =3x (b) y =3x +7
(c) y =4x +4 (d) y =4x 5
A tableof co-ordinatesisdrawnupfor eachequation.
(a) y =3x
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y 9 6 3 0 3 6 9
(b) y =3x +7
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y 2 1 4 7 10 13 16
(c) y =4x +4
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y 16 12 8 4 0 4 8
(d) y =4x 5
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y 7 3 1 5 9 13 17
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Eachof thegraphsisplottedasshowninFig. 12.6, andeachisa
straightline. y =3x andy =3x +7areparallel toeachother and
thushavethesamegradient. Thegradient of AC isgivenby
CB
BA
=
167
30
=
9
3
= 3
16
y
12
8
4
3 2 1 1 2 3 x 0
F
8
4
12
16
E D
A
B
C
y
3
x
7
y
3
x
y
4
x
5
y
4
x
4
Fig. 12.6
Hence the gradient of both y =3x and y =3x +7 is 3.
y =4x +4 and y =4x 5 areparallel to each other and
thushavethesamegradient. Thegradient of DF isgivenby
FE
ED
=
5( 17)
03
=
12
3
= 4
Hence the gradient of both y =4x +4 and y =4x 5
is 4.
They-axis intercept means thevalueof y wherethestraight
linecutsthey-axis. FromFig. 12.6,
y = 3x cutsthey-axisat y = 0
y = 3x +7cutsthey-axisat y = +7
y = 4x +4cutsthey-axisat y = +4
and y = 4x 5cutsthey-axisat y = 5
Somegeneral conclusionscanbedrawnfromthegraphsshown
inFigs12.4, 12.5and12.6.
Whenanequationis of theformy =mx +c, wherem andc
areconstants, then
(i) agraphof y against x producesastraight line,
(ii) m representstheslopeor gradient of theline, and
(iii) c representsthey-axisintercept.
Thus, givenanequationsuchas y =3x +7, it may bededuced
on sight that its gradient is +3 and its y-axis intercept is
+7, as shown in Fig. 12.6. Similarly, if y =4x 5, then the
gradient is 4 and the y-axis intercept is 5, as shown in
Fig. 12.6.
When plotting a graph of the form y =mx +c, only two
co-ordinates need be determined. When the co-ordinates are
plotted a straight line is drawn between the two points. Nor-
mally, threeco-ordinatesaredetermined, thethirdoneactingasa
check.
Problem 4. The following equations represent straight
lines. Determine, without plottinggraphs, thegradient and
y-axisintercept for each.
(a) y =3 (b) y =2x
(c) y =5x 1 (d) 2x +3y =3
(a) y =3(whichisof theformy =0x +3)representsahorizontal
straight line intercepting the y-axis at 3. Since the line is
horizontal itsgradient is zero.
(b) y =2x is of the formy =mx +c, where c is zero. Hence
gradient =2 andy-axis intercept =0 (i.e. theorigin).
(c) y =5x 1 is of the formy =mx +c. Hence gradient =5
andy-axis intercept =1
(d) 2x +3y =3 is not in the form y =mx +c as it stands.
Transposingtomakey thesubject gives3y =32x, i.e.
y =
32x
3
=
3
3
2x
3
i.e. y =
2x
3
+1
whichisof theformy =mx +c.
Hencegradient =
2
3
andy-axis intercept =+1
Problem 5. Withoutplottinggraphs, determinethegradi-
ent andy-axisintercept valuesof thefollowingequations:
(a) y =7x 3 (b) 3y =6x +2
(c) y 2=4x +9 (d)
y
3
=
x
3
1
5
(e) 2x +9y +1=0
(a) y =7x 3isof theformy =mx +c, hencegradient, m=7
andy-axis intercept, c =3.
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(b) Rearranging3y =6x +2gives
y =
6x
3
+
2
3
i.e. y = 2x +
2
3
which is of theformy =mx +c. Hencegradient m=2
andy-axis intercept, c =
2
3
(c) Rearranging y 2=4x +9 gives y =4x +11, hence
gradient =4 andy-axis intercept =11
(d) Rearranging
y
3
=
x
2
1
5
gives
y = 3
_
x
2
1
5
_
=
3
2
x
3
5
Hencegradient =
3
2
andy-axis intercept =
3
5
(e) Rearranging2x +9y +1=0gives
9y = 2x 1,
i.e. y =
2
9
x
1
9
Hencegradient =
2
9
andy-axis intercept =
1
9
Problem 6. Determine the gradient of the straight line
graph passing through the co-ordinates (a) (2, 5) and
(3, 4), and(b) (2, 3) and(1, 3)
A straight linegraphpassingthroughco-ordinates (x
1
, y
1
) and
(x
2
, y
2
) hasagradient givenby:
m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
(seeFig. 12.7)
y
2
y
y
1
0 x
1
x
2
x
(x
1
, y
1
)
(x
2
, y
2
)
(x
2
x
1
)
(y
2
y
1
)
Fig. 12.7
(a) A straight line passes through (2, 5) and (3, 4), hence
x
1
=2, y
1
=5, x
2
=3andy
2
=4,
hencegradient m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
45
3( 2)
=
1
5
(b) A straight linepassesthrough(2, 3) and(1, 3), hence
x
1
=2, y
1
=3, x
2
=1andy
2
=3,
hencegradient, m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
3(3)
1(2)
=
3+3
1+2
=
6
1
= 6
Problem 7. Plot thegraph3x +y +1=0and2y 5=x
onthesameaxesandndtheir point of intersection.
Rearranging3x +y +1=0givesy =3x 1
Rearranging2y 5=x gives2y =x +5andy =
1
2
x +2
1
2
Since both equations are of the formy =mx +c both are
straight lines. Knowinganequationisastraight linemeansthat
onlytwoco-ordinatesneedtobeplottedandastraightlinedrawn
throughthem.A thirdco-ordinateisusuallydeterminedtoactas
acheck.A tableof valuesisproducedforeachequationasshown
below.
x 1 0 1
3x 1 4 1 2
x 2 0 3
1
2
x +2
1
2
3
1
2
2
1
2
1
ThegraphsareplottedasshowninFig. 12.8
y
y 3x 1
4
3
2
1
1
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
2
3
4
y x
1
2
5
2
Fig. 12.8
The two straight lines are seen to intersect at (1, 2)
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Exercise 47 Further problems on straight line graphs
1. Corresponding values obtained experimentally for two
quantitiesare:
x 2.0 0.5 0 1.0 2.5 3.0 5.0
y 13.0 5.5 3.0 2.0 9.5 12.0 22.0
Useahorizontal scalefor x of 1cm=
1
2
unit andaver-
tical scalefor y of 1cm=2units anddrawagraphof
x against y. Label the graph and each of its axes. By
interpolation, nd fromthegraph thevalueof y when
x is3.5
2. The equation of a line is 4y =2x +5. A table of cor-
responding values is produced and is shown below.
Completethetableandplot agraphof y against x. Find
thegradient of thegraph.
x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
y 0.25 1.25 3.25
3. Determinethegradient and intercept on they-axis for
eachof thefollowingequations:
(a) y =4x 2 (b) y =x
(c) y =3x 4 (d) y =4
4. Findthegradient andintercept onthey-axisfor eachof
thefollowingequations:
(a) 2y 1=4x (b) 6x 2y =5
(c) 3(2y 1)=
x
4
Determine the gradient and y-axis intercept for each
of the equations in Problems 5 and 6 and sketch the
graphs.
5. (a) y =6x 3 (b) y =2x +4
(c) y =3x (d) y =7
6. (a) 2y +1=4x (b) 2x +3y +5=0
(c) 3(2y 4)=
x
3
(d) 5x
y
2
7
3
=0
7. Determinethegradientof thestraightlinegraphspassing
throughtheco-ordinates:
(a) (2, 7) and(3, 4)
(b) (4, 1) and(5, 3)
(c)
_
1
4
,
3
4
_
and
_
1
2
,
5
8
_
8. State which of the following equations will produce
graphswhichareparallel tooneanother:
(a) y 4=2x (b) 4x =(y +1)
(c) x =
1
2
(y +5) (d) 1+
1
2
y =
3
2
x
(e) 2x =
1
2
(7y)
9. Drawagraphof y 3x +5=0overarangeof x =3to
x =4. Hencedetermine(a) thevalueof y whenx =1.3
and(b) thevalueof x wheny =9.2
10. Draw on the same axes the graphs of y =3x 5 and
3y +2x =7. Findtheco-ordinatesof thepoint of inter-
section. Check the result obtained by solving the two
simultaneousequationsalgebraically.
11. Plotthegraphsy =2x +3and2y =152x onthesame
axesanddeterminetheir point of intersection.
straight line graphs
Whenasetof co-ordinatevaluesaregivenorareobtainedexperi-
mentally and it is believed that they follow a law of the form
y =mx +c, thenif astraight linecanbedrawnreasonablyclose
tomost of theco-ordinatevalueswhenplotted, thisveriesthat
alawof theformy =mx +c exists. Fromthegraph, constants
m (i.e. gradient) andc (i.e. y-axisintercept) canbedetermined.
Thistechniqueiscalleddetermination of law (seeChapter 16).
Problem 8. The temperature in degrees Celsius and the
correspondingvaluesindegreesFahrenheitareshowninthe
tablebelow. Construct rectangular axes, chooseasuitable
scaleandplotagraphof degreesCelsius(onthehorizontal
axis) against degreesFahrenheit (onthevertical scale).
C 10 20 40 60 80 100
F 50 68 104 140 176 212

Fromthegraphnd(a) thetemperatureindegreesFahren-
heit at 55
C, (b) the temperature in degrees Celsius at

167
F, (c) theFahrenheit temperatureat 0
C, and(d) the
Celsiustemperatureat 230
F.
The co-ordinates (10, 50), (20, 68), (40, 104), and so on are
plottedasshowninFig. 12.9. Whentheco-ordinatesarejoined,
a straight line is produced. Since a straight line results there
is a linear relationship between degrees Celsius and degrees
Fahrenheit.
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240
230
y
200
E
D
B
F
A G
D
e
g
r
e
e
s

F
a
h
r
e
n
h
e
i
t

(
F
)
160
167
120
80
40
32
0 20 40 55 60
Degrees Celsius (C)
7580 100 110 120 x
131
Fig. 12.9
(a) To nd the Fahrenheit temperature at 55
C a vertical line
AB is constructed from the horizontal axis to meet the
straight line at B. The point where the horizontal line BD
meets the vertical axis indicates the equivalent Fahrenheit
temperature.
Hence 55
C is equivalent to 131
F.
This process of nding an equivalent valuein between the
giveninformationintheabovetableiscalledinterpolation.
(b) To nd the Celsius temperature at 167
F, a horizontal line
EF is constructed as shown in Fig. 12.9. The point where
the vertical line FG cuts the horizontal axis indicates the
equivalent Celsiustemperature.
Hence 167
F is equivalent to 75
C.
(c) If thegraphisassumedtobelinear evenoutsideof thegiven
data, thenthegraphmaybeextendedatbothends(shownby
brokenlineinFig. 12.9).
FromFig. 12.9, 0
C corresponds to 32
F.
(d) 230
F is seen to correspond to 110
C.
Theprocessof ndingequivalent valuesoutsideof thegiven
rangeiscalledextrapolation.
Problem 9. In an experiment on Charless law, thevalue
of the volume of gas, V m
3
, was measured for various
temperaturesT
C. Resultsareshownbelow.
V m
3
25.0 25.8 26.6 27.4 28.2 29.0
T
C 60 65 70 75 80 85
Plotagraphof volume(vertical) againsttemperature(hori-
zontal)andfromitnd(a) thetemperaturewhenthevolume
is 28.6m
3
, and (b) the volume when the temperature
is67
C.
If a graph is plotted with both thescales starting at zero then
theresult is as showninFig. 12.10. All of thepoints lieinthe
top right-hand corner of thegraph, making interpolation dif-
cult. A moreaccurategraphis obtainedif thetemperatureaxis
starts at 55
C and thevolumeaxis starts at 24.5m

3
. Theaxes
corresponding to thesevalues is shown by thebroken lines in
Fig. 12.10andarecalledfalse axes, sincetheoriginisnot now
at zero. A magniedversionof thisrelevant part of thegraphis
showninFig. 12.11. Fromthegraph:
30
25
20
15
V
o
l
u
m
e

(
m
3
)
10
5
0 20 40 60
Temperature (C)
80 100
y
x
Fig. 12.10
(a) when the volume is 28.6m
3
, the equivalent temperature is
82.5
C, and
(b) when the temperature is 67
C, the equivalent volume is

26.1 m
3
Problem10. InanexperimentdemonstratingHookeslaw,
thestraininanaluminiumwirewas measuredfor various
stresses. Theresultswere:
StressN/mm
2
4.9 8.7 15.0
Strain 0.00007 0.00013 0.00021
StressN/mm
2
18.4 24.2 27.3
Strain 0.00027 0.00034 0.00039
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Plot a graph of stress (vertically) against strain (horizon-
tally). Find:
(a) Youngs Modulus of Elasticity for aluminiumwhichis
givenbythegradient of thegraph,
(b) thevalueof thestrainat astressof 20N/mm
2
, and
(c) thevalueof thestresswhenthestrainis0.00020
29
28.6
28
27
V
o
l
u
m
e

(
m
3
)
26.1
26
25
55 60 65 67 70
Temperature (C)
75 80 85 x 82.5
y
Fig. 12.11
Theco-ordinates (0.00007, 4.9), (0.00013, 8.7), andso on, are
plottedas showninFig. 12.12. Thegraphproducedis thebest
straight linewhichcanbedrawncorrespondingtothesepoints.
(Withexperimental results it is unlikely that all thepoints will
lieexactly on astraight line.) Thegraph, and each of its axes,
are labelled. Since the straight line passes through the origin,
thenstress is directly proportional to strainfor thegivenrange
of values.
(a) Thegradient of thestraight lineAC isgivenby
AB
BC
=
287
0.000400.00010
=
21
0.00030
=
21
310
4
=
7
10
4
= 710
4
= 70000N/mm
2
28
y
24
20
16
14
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
N
/
m
m
2
)
12
C
B
A
8
4
0
0.00005 0.00015
Strain
0.00025
0.000285
0.00035 x
Fig. 12.12
Thus Youngs Modulus of Elasticity for aluminium is
70 000 N/mm
2
Since1m
2
=10
6
mm
2
, 70000N/mm
2
isequivalent to70000
10
6
N/m
2
, i.e. 70 10
9
N/m
2
(or Pascals) FromFig. 12.12:
(b) thevalueof thestrainatastressof 20N/mm
2
is0.000285,and
(c) thevalueof thestresswhenthestrainis0.00020is14 N/mm
2
Problem 11. Thefollowing values of resistanceR ohms
andcorrespondingvoltageV voltsareobtainedfromatest
onalament lamp.
R ohms 30 48.5 73 107 128
V volts 16 29 52 76 94
Choosesuitablescales andplot agraphwithR represent-
ingthevertical axis andV thehorizontal axis. Determine
(a) thegradientof thegraph, (b) theR axisinterceptvalue,
(c) theequation of thegraph, (d) thevalueof resistance
whenthevoltageis 60V, and(e) thevalueof thevoltage
whentheresistanceis40ohms, (f) If thegraphweretocon-
tinueinthesamemanner, what valueof resistancewould
beobtainedat 110V?
Theco-ordinates(16,30),(29,48.5),andsoon,areshownplotted
in Fig. 12.13 wherethebest straight lineis drawn through the
points.
(a) Theslopeor gradient of thestraight lineAC isgivenby
AB
BC
=
13510
1000
=
125
100
= 1.25
(Notethatthevertical lineABandthehorizontal lineBC may
beconstructedanywherealongthelengthof thestraightline.
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147
140
y
120
100
85
80
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

R

o
h
m
s
60
40
20
10
C
B
A
0 20 24 40 60
Voltage V volts
80 100110 120 x
Fig. 12.13
However, calculationsaremadeeasier if thehorizontal line
BC iscarefullychosen, inthiscase, 100).
(b) TheR-axisintercept isat R=10 ohms (byextrapolation).
(c) Theequationof astraightlineisy =mx +c,wheny isplotted
onthevertical axisandx onthehorizontal axis. mrepresents
thegradientandc they-axisintercept. Inthiscase, R corres-
pondstoy, V correspondstox, m=1.25andc =10. Hence
theequationof thegraphisR=(1.25 V +10).
FromFig. 12.13,
(d) whenthevoltageis60V, theresistanceis85
(e) whentheresistanceis40ohms, thevoltageis24V, and
(f ) byextrapolation, whenthevoltageis110V, theresistanceis
147 .
Problem 12. Experimental teststodeterminethebreaking
stress of rolledcopper at varioustemperaturest gavethe
followingresults
Stress N/cm
2
8.46 8.04 7.78
Temperaturet
C 70 200 280
Stress N/cm
2
7.37 7.08 6.63
Temperaturet
C 410 500 640

Showthat thevaluesobeythelaw =at +b, wherea and
b areconstantsanddetermineapproximatevaluesfor a and
b. Use the law to determine the stress at 250
C and the
temperaturewhenthestressis7.54N/cm
2
.
Theco-ordinates (70, 8.46), (200, 8.04), andso on, areplotted
asshowninFig. 12.14. Sincethegraphisastraightlinethenthe
valuesobey thelaw =at +b, andthegradient of thestraight
lineis
a =
AB
BC
=
8.366.76
100600
=
1.60
500
= 0.0032
8.68
y
8.50
8.36
8.00
S
t
r
e
s
s

s

N
/
c
m
2
7.50
7.00
6.76
6.50
0 100
B
A
C
200 300 400
Temperature t C
500 600 700 x
Fig. 12.14
Vertical axisintercept, b =8.68
Hencethelawof thegraphis =0.0032t +8.68
Whenthetemperatureis250
C, stress isgivenby
= 0.0032(250) +8.68= 7.88 N/cm
2
Rearranging =0.0032t +8.68gives
0.0032t = 8.68,
i.e. t =
8.68
0.0032
Hencewhenthestress =7.54N/cm
2
, temperature
t =
8.687.54
0.0032
= 356.3
C
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straight line graphs (Answers onpage 275)
1. TheresistanceR ohmsof acopper windingismeasured
atvarioustemperaturest
Candtheresultsareasfollows:
Rohms 112 120 126 131 134
t
C 20 36 48 58 64
Plotagraphof R (vertically) againstt (horizontally) and
nd fromit (a) the temperature when the resistance
is 122 and(b) theresistancewhenthetemperature
is52
C.
2. The speed of a motor varies with armature voltage as
shownbythefollowingexperimental results:
n (rev/min) 285 517 615 750 917 1050
V volts 60 95 110 130 155 175
Plotagraphof speed(horizontally) againstvoltage(ver-
tically) anddrawthebeststraightlinethroughthepoints.
Findfromthegraph(a) thespeedat avoltageof 145V,
and(b) thevoltageat aspeedof 400rev/min.
3. The following table gives the force F newtons which,
whenappliedtoaliftingmachine, overcomesacorres-
pondingloadof L newtons.
ForceF
newtons 25 47 64 120 149 187
LoadL
newtons 50 140 210 430 550 700
Choose suitable scales and plot a graph of F (verti-
cally) against L (horizontally). Draw the best straight
linethrough thepoints. Determinefromthegraph (a)
thegradient, (b) theF-axis intercept, (c) theequation
of the graph, (d) the force applied when the load is
310N, and(e) theloadthat aforceof 160N will over-
come. (f) If the graph were to continue in the same
manner,whatvalueof forcewill beneededtoovercomea
800Nload?
4. Thefollowingtablegivestheresultsof testscarriedout
to determinethebreaking stress of rolled copper at
varioustemperatures, t:
Stress (N/cm
2
) 8.51 8.07 7.80
Temperaturet(
C) 75 220 310
Stress (N/cm
2
) 7.47 7.23 6.78
Temperaturet(
C) 420 500 650

Plot a graph of stress (vertically) against temperature
(horizontally). Draw the best straight line through the
plottedco-ordinates. Determinetheslopeof thegraph
andthevertical axisintercept.
5. The velocity v of a body after varying time intervals
t wasmeasuredasfollows:
t (seconds) 2 5 8 11 15 18
v (m/s) 16.9 19.0 21.1 23.2 26.0 28.1
Plot v vertically andt horizontally anddrawagraphof
velocityagainsttime. Determinefromthegraph(a) the
velocity after 10s, (b) the time at 20m/s and (c) the
equationof thegraph.
6. Themassmof asteel jointvarieswithlengthLasfollows:
mass, m (kg) 80 100 120 140 160
length, L (m) 3.00 3.74 4.48 5.23 5.97
Plotagraphof mass(vertically) againstlength(horizon-
tally). Determinetheequationof thegraph.
7. The crushing strength of mortar varies with the per-
centage of water used in its preparation, as shown
below.
Crushing
strength, F
(tonnes) 1.64 1.36 1.07 0.78 0.50 0.22
%of water
used, w% 6 9 12 15 18 21
Plot agraphof F (vertically) against w (horizontally).
(a) Interpolateanddeterminethecrushingstrengthwhen
10%of water isused.
(b) Assuming thegraph continues in thesamemanner
extrapolate and determine the percentage of water
usedwhenthecrushingstrengthis0.15tonnes.
(c) What istheequationof thegraph?
8. Inanexperiment demonstratingHookeslaw, thestrain
inacopper wirewasmeasuredfor variousstresses. The
resultswere:
Stress
(pascals) 10.610
6
18.210
6
24.010
6
Strain 0.00011 0.00019 0.00025
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Stress(pascals) 30.710
6
39.410
6
Strain 0.00032 0.00041
Plot a graph of stress (vertically) against strain (hori-
zontally). Determine(a) YoungsModulusof Elasticity
for copper, whichisgivenby thegradient of thegraph,
(b) thevalueof strainat astressof 2110
6
Pa, (c) the
valueof stresswhenthestrainis0.00030
9. An experiment with a set of pulley blocks gave the
followingresults:
Effort,
E (newtons) 9.0 11.0 13.6 17.4 20.8 23.6
Load,
L (newtons) 15 25 38 57 74 88
Plot agraphof effort (vertically) against load(horizon-
tally) and determine (a) the gradient, (b) the vertical
axis intercept, (c) the law of the graph, (d) the effort
whentheloadis 30N and(e) theloadwhentheeffort
is19N
10. Thevariationof pressurep inavessel withtemperature
T is believedto followalawof theformp = aT + b,
wherea andb areconstants.Verifythislawfortheresults
givenbelowanddeterminetheapproximatevaluesof a
andb. Hencedeterminethepressuresattemperaturesof
285K and 310K and thetemperatureat a pressureof
250kPa.
Pressure, p
kPa 244 247 252 258 262 267
Temperature,
T K 273 277 282 289 294 300
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13
Graphical solution of equations
13.1 Graphical solution of simultaneous
equations
Linear simultaneous equations intwounknownsmaybesolved
graphicallyby:
(i) plottingthetwostraight linesonthesameaxes, and
(ii) notingtheir point of intersection.
Theco-ordinates of thepoint of intersection givetherequired
solution.
Problem 1. Solvegraphicallythesimultaneousequations
2x y = 4
x +y = 5
Rearrangingeachequationintoy =mx +c formgives:
y = 2x 4 (1)
y =x +5 (2)
Onlythreeco-ordinatesneedbecalculatedfor eachgraphsince
botharestraight lines.
x 0 1 2
y =2x 4 4 2 0
x 0 1 2
y =x +5 5 4 3
Each of thegraphs is plotted as shown in Fig. 13.1. Thepoint
of intersectionisat (3, 2) andsincethisistheonly point which
liessimultaneouslyonbothlinesthenx =3, y =2 isthesolution
of thesimultaneousequations.
4 3 2 1 1 0
1
1
3
2
4
5
y
y x 5
y 2x 4
2
3
4
2 3 4 x
Fig. 13.1
Problem 2. Solvegraphicallytheequations
1.20x +y =1.80
x 5.0y =8.50
Rearrangingeachequationintoy =mx +c formgives:
y =1.20x +1.80 (1)
y =
x
5.0
8.5
5.0
i.e. y =0.20x 1.70 (2)
Three co-ordinates are calculated for each equation as shown
below.
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Graphical solution of equations 95
x 0 1 2
y =1.20x +1.80 1.80 0.60 0.60
x 0 1 2
y =0.20x 1.70 1.70 1.50 1.30
ThetwolinesareplottedasshowninFig. 13.2.Thepointof inter-
sectionis(2.50, 1.20). Hencethesolutionof thesimultaneous
equationisx =2.50, y =1.20. (It issometimesuseful initially
to sketch the two straight lines to determine the region where
thepoint of intersectionis. Then, for greater accuracy, agraph
havingasmaller rangeof valuescanbedrawntomagnify the
point of intersection).
3 2 1 1 2
2.50
3 4 x 0
1
1
2
3
y
y 1.20x 1.80
y 0.20x 1.70 1.20
2
3
Fig. 13.2
Exercise 49 Further problems on the graphical
solution of simultaneous equations
In Problems 1 to 5, solve the simultaneous equations
graphically.
1. x +y =2 2. y =5x
3y 2x =1 x y =2
3. 3x +4y =5 4. 1.4x 7.06=3.2y
2x 5y +12=0 2.1x 6.7y =12.87
5. 3x 2y =0
4x +y +11=0
6. The friction force F newtons and load L newtons are
connected by a law of the form F =aL +b, where
a and b are constants. When F =4newtons, L =6
newtons and when F =2.4newtons, L =2newtons.
Determinegraphicallythevaluesof a andb.
13.2 Graphical solutions of quadratic
equations
A general quadratic equation isof theform
y = ax
2
+bx +c,
wherea, b andc areconstantsanda isnot equal tozero.
Agraphof aquadraticequationalwaysproducesashapecalled
aparabola.
Thegradient of thecurvebetween0andA andbetweenB and
C inFig. 13.3is positive, whilst thegradient betweenA andB
is negative. Points such as A and B arecalled turning points.
At A thegradient iszeroand, asx increases, thegradient of the
curvechangesfrompositivejust beforeA tonegativejust after.
Such apoint is calledamaximum value. At B thegradient is
alsozero, and, asx increases, thegradient of thecurvechanges
fromnegativejust beforeB topositivejust after. Suchapoint is
calledaminimum value.
y
0
x
B
A
C
Fig. 13.3
Quadratic graphs
(i) y =ax
2
Graphsof y =x
2
, y =3x
2
andy =
1
2
x
2
areshowninFig. 13.4.
y
y x
2
2
1
0 1 1 x
y
y 3x
2
2
1
0 1 1 x
y
2
1
0 1 1 x
y x
2
1
2
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 13.4
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All haveminimumvaluesat theorigin(0, 0).
Graphs of y =x
2
, y =3x
2
and y =
1
2
x
2
are shown in
Fig. 13.5.
1 1 1 1
1 1
0 x x
x
1
2
y
y x
2
(a)
0
1
2
y
y 3x
2
(b)
0
1
2
y
(c)
y x
2
1
2
Fig. 13.5
All havemaximumvaluesat theorigin(0, 0).
Wheny =ax
2
:
(a) curvesaresymmetrical about they-axis,
(b) the magnitude of a affects the gradient of the
curve,
and (c) thesignof a determineswhetherithasamaximum
or minimumvalue.
(ii) y =ax
2
+c
Graphs of y =x
2
+3, y =x
2
2, y =x
2
+2 and
y = 2x
2
1areshowninFig. 13.6.
y
y x
2
3
3
1 1 x
(a)
0
y
y x
2
2
1 1 x
(b)
0
2
2
y
y x
2
2
1 1
2
x
(c)
0
y
y 2x
2
1
1 1 x
(d)
1
4
0
Fig. 13.6
Wheny =ax
2
+c:
(a) curvesaresymmetrical about they-axis,
(b) the magnitude of a affects the gradient of the
curve,
and (c) theconstant c isthey-axisintercept.
(iii) y =ax
2
+bx +c
Whenever b has avalueother thanzerothecurveis dis-
placedtotherightorleftof they-axis. Whenb/a ispositive,
thecurveisdisplacedb/2a totheleftof they-axis, asshown
inFig. 13.7(a). Whenb/a isnegativethecurveisdisplaced
b/2a totheright of they-axis, asshowninFig. 13.7(b).
y
12
8
10
y
y x
2
5x 4
2
2
0
6
4
2
0
(a) (b)
5 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 x x
4
6
y x
2
6x 11
Fig. 13.7
Quadratic equations of the form ax
2
+bx +c =0 may be
solvedgraphicallyby:
(i) plottingthegraphy =ax
2
+bx +c, and
(ii) noting the points of intersection on the x-axis (i.e. where
y =0).
The x values of the points of intersection give the required
solutionssinceat thesepointsbothy =0and
ax
2
+bx +c = 0
The number of solutions, or roots of a quadratic equation,
dependsonhowmany timesthecurvecutsthex-axisandthere
canbenoreal roots(asinFig. 13.7(a)) oroneroot(asinFigs13.4
and13.5) or tworoots(asinFig. 13.7(b)).
Problem 3. Solvethequadraticequation
4x
2
+4x 15= 0
graphicallygiventhat thesolutionslieintherangex =3
tox =2. Determinealsotheco-ordinatesandnatureof the
turningpoint of thecurve.
Let y =4x
2
+4x 15. A tableof values is drawnupas shown
below.
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x 3 2 1 0 1 2
4x
2
36 16 4 0 4 16
4x 12 8 4 0 4 8
15 15 15 15 15 15 15
y =4x
2
+4x 15 9 7 15 15 7 9
A graph of y =4x
2
+4x 15 is shown in Fig. 13.8. The only
pointswherey =4x
2
+4x 15andy =0arethepointsmarked
A and B. This occurs at x =2.5 and x =1.5 and these are
thesolutions of thequadratic equation 4x
2
+4x 15=0. (By
substitutingx =2.5andx =1.5intotheoriginal equationthe
solutions may be checked.) The curve has a turning point at
(0.5, 16) andthenatureof thepoint isaminimum.
y
y 4x
2
4x 15
12
8
4
3 2
2.5
A B
1
1
2 x 0
0.5
4
8
12
16
1.5
Fig. 13.8
Analternativegraphical methodof solving
4x
2
+4x 15= 0
istorearrangetheequationas4x
2
=4x +15andthenplottwo
separategraphs inthis casey =4x
2
andy =4x +15. Their
pointsof intersectiongivetherootsof equation
4x
2
= 4x +15,
i.e. 4x
2
+4x 15=0.ThisisshowninFig. 13.9, wheretheroots
arex =2.5andx =1.5asbefore.
Problem 4. Solve graphically the quadratic equation
5x
2
+9x +7.2=0 given that the solutions lie between
x =1 and x =3. Determinealso theco-ordinates of the
turningpoint andstateitsnature.
y
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
3 2 1 1 2
1.5
3
y 4x 5
x
y 4x
2
2.5
Fig. 13.9
12
y
y 5x
2
9x 7.2
11.25
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
1 1
0.9
2 3 x
4
6
8
10
0.6
2.4
Fig. 13.10
Lety =5x
2
+9x +7.2.A tableof valuesisdrawnupasshown
on page 98. A graph of y =5x
2
+9x +7.2 is shown plotted
inFig. 13.10. Thegraphcrossesthex-axis(i.e. wherey =0) at
x =0.6 and x =2.4 andthesearethesolutionsof thequadratic
equation
5x
2
+9x +7.2= 0
Theturningpointisamaximumhavingco-ordinates(0.9, 11.25)
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x 1 0.5 0 1
5x
2
5 1.25 0 5
+9x 9 4.5 0 9
+7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2
y =5x
2
+9x +7.2 6.8 1.45 7.2 11.2
x 2 2.5 3
5x
2
20 31.25 45
+9x 18 22.5 27
+7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2
y =5x
2
+9x +7.2 5.2 1.55 10.8
Problem 5. Plot agraph of y =2x
2
and hencesolvethe
equations:
(a) 2x
2
8=0and(b) 2x
2
x 3=0
A graphof y =2x
2
isshowninFig. 13.11.
y
10
8
6
4
2
0 1 1 1.5 2 x
D
C
A B
y 8
y
3
y 2x
2
2
Fig. 13.11
(a) Rearranging 2x
2
8=0 gives 2x
2
=8 and thesolution of
this equationis obtainedfromthepoints of intersectionof
y =2x
2
and y =8, i.e. at co-ordinates (2, 8) and (2, 8),
shown as A and B, respectively, in Fig. 13.11. Hence the
solutionsof 2x
2
8= 0arex =2 and x =+2
(b) Rearranging2x
2
x 3=0gives2x
2
=x +3andthesolu-
tionof thisequationisobtainedfromthepointsof intersec-
tionof y =2x
2
andy =x +3, i.e. at C andD inFig. 13.11.
Hence the solutions of 2x
2
x 3=0 are x =1 and
x =1.5
Problem 6. Plot the graph of y = 2x
2
+ 3x + 6 for
valuesof x fromx = 2tox = 4. Usethegraphtondthe
rootsof thefollowingequations:
(a) 2x
2
+3x +6=0 (b) 2x
2
+3x +2=0
(c) 2x
2
+3x +9=0 (d) 2x
2
+x +5=0
A tableof valuesisdrawnupasshownbelow.
x 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
2x
2
8 2 0 2 8 18 32
+3x 6 3 0 3 6 9 12
+6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
y 8 1 6 7 4 3 14
A graphof 2x
2
+3x +6isshowninFig. 13.12.
8
y
y 2x 1
y 2x
2
3x 6
y 3
y 4
6
4 C
A
G
E
D
H
2
1.35 1.13
2 1 0.5
1.5
0 1 2 3
x
B
F
2
4
6
8
1.85 2.63
Fig. 13.12
(a) Theparabolay =2x
2
+3x +6andthestraight liney =0
intersectatAandB, wherex =1.13 and x =2.63 andthese
aretherootsof theequation2x
2
+3x +6=0
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(b) Comparingy = 2x
2
+3x +6 (1)
with 0= 2x
2
+3x +2 (2)
shows that if 4 is added to both sides of equation (2),
the right-hand side of both equations will be the same.
Hence 4=2x
2
+3x +6. The solution of this equation
is found fromthe points of intersection of the line y =4
and the parabola y =2x
2
+3x +6, i.e. points C and D
in Fig. 13.12. Hence the roots of 2x
2
+3x +2=0 are
x =0.5 and x =2
(c) 2x
2
+3x +9=0mayberearrangedas
2x
2
+3x +6= 3
and the solution of this equation is obtained from the
points of intersection of the line y =3 and the parabola
y =2x
2
+3x +6x, i.e. at points E and F in Fig. 13.12.
Hence the roots of 2x
2
+3x +9=0 are x =1.5 and
x =3
(d) Comparingy = 2x
2
+3x +6 (3)
with 0= 2x
2
+x +5 (4)
showsthatif 2x +1isaddedtobothsidesof equation(4) the
right-hand sideof both equations will bethesame. Hence
equation(4) maybewrittenas
2x +1= 2x
2
+3x +6
The solution of this equation is found from the points
of intersection of the line y =2x +1 and the parabola
y =2x
2
+3x +6, i.e. pointsG andH inFig. 13.12. Hence
therootsof 2x
2
+x +5=0arex =1.35 and x =1.85
equations graphically (Answers on
page 276)
1. Sketch the following graphs and state the nature and
co-ordinatesof their turningpoints
(a) y =4x
2
(b) y =2x
2
1
(c) y = x
2
+3 (d) y =
1
2
x
2
1
SolvegraphicallythequadraticequationsinProblems2
to5byplottingthecurvesbetweenthegivenlimits. Give
answerscorrect to1decimal place.
2. 4x
2
x 1=0; x =1tox =1
3. x
2
3x =27; x =5tox =8
4. 2x
2
6x 9=0; x =2tox =5
5. 2x(5x 2)=39.6; x =2tox =3
6. Solve the quadratic equation 2x
2
+7x +6=0 graph-
ically, given that the solutions lie in the range x =3
tox =1. Determinealsothenatureandco-ordinatesof
itsturningpoint.
7. Solvegraphicallythequadraticequation
10x
2
9x 11.2= 0
giventhat therootsliebetweenx =1andx =2
8. Plot agraphof y =3x
2
andhencesolvetheequations.
(a) 3x
2
8= 0and(b) 3x
2
2x 1= 0
9. Plot the graphs y =2x
2
and y =34x on the same
axes and nd the co-ordinates of the points of inter-
section. Hence determine the roots of the equation
2x
2
+4x 3=0
10. Plot a graph of y =10x
2
13x 30 for values of x
betweenx =2andx =3.
Solve the equation 10x
2
13x 30=0 and fromthe
graphdetermine(a) thevalueof ywhenx is1.3, (b) the
valueof x wheny is10and(c) therootsof theequation
10x
2
15x 18=0
13.3 Graphical solution of linear and
quadratic equations simultaneously
Thesolutionof linear andquadratic equations simultaneously
maybeachievedgraphicallyby: (i) plottingthestraight lineand
parabolaon thesameaxes, and (ii) noting thepoints of inter-
section. Theco-ordinates of thepoints of intersection givethe
requiredsolutions.
Problem 7. Determinegraphically thevalues of x andy
whichsimultaneouslysatisfytheequations
y = 2x
2
3x 4andy = 24x
y =2x
2
3x 4isaparabolaandatableof valuesisdrawnup
asshownbelow:
x 2 1 0 1 2 3
2x
2
8 2 0 2 8 18
3x 6 3 0 3 6 9
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
y 10 1 4 5 2 5
y =24x isastraight lineandonly threeco-ordinatesneedbe
calculated:
x 0 1 2
y 2 2 6
ThetwographsareplottedinFig.13.13andthepointsof intersec-
tion, shownasAandB, areatco-ordinates(2,10)and(1
1
2
, 4).
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y 2x
2
3x 4
y 24x
y
A
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
2 1 1 2 3 x
B
4
Fig. 13.13
Hencethesimultaneoussolutionsoccurwhenx =2,y =10 and
whenx =1
1
2
, y =4
(Thesesolutionsmaybecheckedbysubstitutingintoeachof the
original equations)
Exercise 51 Further problems on solving linear
and quadratic equations simultaneously
1. Determinegraphicallythevaluesof x andy whichsimul-
taneously satisfy the equations y =2(x
2
2x 4) and
y +4=3x
2. Plot thegraphof y =4x
2
8x 21for valuesof x from
2to+4. Usethegraphtondtherootsof thefollowing
equations:
(a) 4x
2
8x 21=0 (b) 4x
2
8x 16=0
(c) 4x
2
6x 18=0
13.4 Graphical solution of cubic
equations
A cubic equation of the formax
3
+bx
2
+cx +d =0 may be
solvedgraphicallyby: (i) plottingthegraph
y = ax
3
+bx
2
+cx +d
and (ii) noting the points of intersection on the x-axis (i.e.
where y =0). The x-values of the points of intersection give
the required solution since at these points both y =0 and
ax
3
+bx
2
+cx +d =0.
Thenumber of solutions, or rootsof acubicequationdepends
on howmany times thecurvecuts thex-axis and therecan be
one, twoor threepossibleroots, asshowninFig. 13.14.
x
y
(a)
y
(b)
y
(c)
x x
Fig. 13.14
Problem 8. Solvegraphicallythecubicequation
4x
3
8x
2
15x +9= 0
giventhattherootsliebetweenx =2andx =3.Determine
also theco-ordinates of theturningpoints anddistinguish
betweenthem.
Let y =4x
3
8x
2
15x +9. A table of values is drawn up as
shownbelow.
x 2 1 0 1 2 3
4x
3
32 4 0 4 32 108
8x
2
32 8 0 8 32 72
15x 30 15 0 15 30 45
+9 9 9 9 9 9 9
y 25 12 9 10 21 0
A graphof y =4x
3
8x
2
15x +9isshowninFig. 13.15.
The graph crosses the x-axis (where y =0) at x =1
1
2
,
x =
1
2
and x =3 and these are the solutions to the cubic
equation 4x
3
8x
2
15x +9=0. The turning points occur at
(0.6, 14.2), which is a maximum, and (2, 21), which is a
minimum.
Problem 9. Plot thegraph of y =2x
3
7x
2
+4x +4 for
valuesof x betweenx =1andx =3. Hencedeterminethe
rootsof theequation2x
3
7x
2
+4x +4=0
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x 1 0 1 2 3
2x
3
2 0 2 16 54
7x
2
7 0 7 28 63
+4x 4 0 4 8 12
+4 4 4 4 4 4
y 9 4 3 0 7
2 10.6 1 2 3 x 0
y
16
14.2
y 4x
3
8x
2
15x 9
12
8
4
4
8
12
16
20
21
24
Fig. 13.15
y
y 2x
3
7x
2
4x 4
8
6
4
2
0
2
1 1 2 3 x
4
6
8
Fig. 13.16
A graphof y = 2x
3
7x
2
+4x +4isshowninFig. 13.16. The
graphcrosses thex-axis at x = 0.5andtouches thex-axis at
x = 2.
Hencethesolutionsof theequation2x
3
7x
2
+4x +4=0are
x =0.5 and x =2
Exercise 52 Further problems on solving cubic
1. Plot thegraphy =4x
3
+4x
2
11x 6betweenx =3
andx =2andusethegraphtosolvethecubicequation
4x
3
+4x
2
11x 6=0
2. By plotting a graph of y =x
3
2x
2
5x +6
between x =3 and x =4 solve the equation
x
3
2x
2
5x +6=0. Determinealso theco-ordinates
of theturningpointsanddistinguishbetweenthem.
In Problems 3 to 6, solvegraphically thecubic equations
given, eachcorrect to2signicant gures.
3. x
3
1=0
4. x
3
x
2
5x +2=0
5. x
3
2x
2
=2x 2
6. 2x
3
x
2
9.08x +8.28=0
7. Showthat thecubicequation
8x
3
+36x
2
+54x +27= 0
hasonlyonereal root anddetermineitsvalue.
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Assignment 6
Chapters 12and13. Themarks for eachquestionare
1. Determinethegradient andintercept onthey-axis for
thefollowingequations:
a) y =5x +2 (b) 3x +2y +1=0 (5)
2. The equation of a line is 2y =4x +7. A table of cor-
respondingvalues is producedandis as shownbelow.
Complete the table and plot a graph of y against x.
Determinethegradient of thegraph. (6)
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y 2.5 7.5
3. Plot thegraphs y =3x +2 and
y
2
+x =6 on thesame
axes and determine the co-ordinates of their point of
intersection. (7)
4. Thevelocity v of abody over varyingtimeintervals t
wasmeasuredasfollows:
t seconds 2 5 7 10 14 17
v m/s 15.5 17.3 18.5 20.3 22.7 24.5
Plot agraphwithvelocityvertical andtimehorizontal.
Determinefromthegraph(a) thegradient, (b) thever-
tical axisintercept, (c) theequationof thegraph, (d) the
velocityafter 12.5s, and(e) thetimewhenthevelocity
is18m/s. (9)
5. Solve, correctto1decimal place, thequadraticequation
2x
2
6x 9=0byplottingvaluesof x fromx =2to
x =5 (7)
6. Plot the graph of y =x
3
+4x
2
+x 6 for values of x
between x =4and x =2. Hencedeterminetheroots
of theequationx
3
+4x
2
+x 6=0 (7)
7. Plotagraphof y =2x
2
fromx =3tox =+3andhence
solvetheequations:
(a) 2x
2
8=0 (b) 2x
2
4x 6=0 (9)
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14
Logarithms
14.1 Introduction to logarithms
Withtheuseof calculatorsrmlyestablished, logarithmictables
are now rarely used for calculation. However, the theory of
logarithms is important, for there are several scientic and
engineeringlawsthat involvetherulesof logarithms.
If anumber y canbewrittenintheforma
x
, thentheindex x
iscalledthelogarithmof y tothebaseof a,
i.e. if y =a
x
then x =log
a
y
Thus, since1000=10
3
, then3=log
10
1000
Checkthisusingthelog buttononyour calculator.
(a) Logarithms having abaseof 10 arecalled common loga-
rithms andlog
10
isusuallyabbreviatedtolg. Thefollowing
valuesmaybecheckedbyusingacalculator:
lg17.9= 1.2528. . . , lg462.7= 2.6652. . .
and lg0.0173=1.7619
(b) Logarithmshavingabaseof e(wheree isamathematical
constant approximately equal to 2.7183) arecalled hyper-
bolic, Napierian or natural logarithms, andlog
e
isusually
abbreviatedtoln. Thefollowingvalues may becheckedby
usingacalculator:
ln3.15= 1.1474. . . , ln362.7= 5.8935. . .
and ln0.156=1.8578
For moreonNapierianlogarithmsseeChapter 15.
14.2 Laws of logarithms
There are three laws of logarithms, which apply to any
base:
(i) Tomultiplytwonumbers:
log(AB)=log A + log B
Thefollowingmaybecheckedbyusingacalculator:
lg10=1,
also lg5+lg2=0.69897. . . +0.301029. . . =1
Hence lg(52)=lg10=lg5+lg2
(ii) Todividetwonumbers:
log
_
A
B
_
=log Alog B
Thefollowingmaybecheckedusingacalculator:
ln
_
5
2
_
=ln2.5=0.91629. . .
Also ln5ln2=1.60943. . . 0.69314. . .
=0.91629. . .
Hence ln
_
5
2
_
=ln5ln2
(iii) Toraiseanumber toapower:
log A
n
=n log A
Thefollowingmaybecheckedusingacalculator:
lg5
2
=lg25=1.39794. . .
Also 2lg5=20.69897. . . =1.39794. . .
Hence lg5
2
=2lg5
Problem1. Evaluate(a)log
3
9 (b)log
10
10 (c)log
16
8
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(a) Letx =log
3
9then3
x
=9fromthedenitionof alogarithm,
i.e. 3
x
=3
2
, fromwhichx =2.
Hencelog
3
9 =2
(b) Let x =log
10
10 then 10
x
=10 from the denition of a
logarithm, i.e. 10
x
=10
1
, fromwhichx =1.
Hencelog
10
10 =1 (whichmaybecheckedbyacalculator).
(c) Let x =log
16
8then 16
x
=8, fromthedenition of aloga-
rithm, i.e. (2
4
)
x
=2
3
, i.e. 2
4x
=2
3
fromthelaws of indices,
fromwhich, 4x =3andx =
3
4
Hencelog
16
8 =
3
4
Problem 2. Evaluate(a) lg0.001 (b) lne (c) log
3
1
81
(a) Let x =lg0.001=log
10
0.001 then 10
x
=0.001, i.e.
10
x
= 10
3
, fromwhichx =3
Hence lg 0.001 =3 (which may be checked by a
calculator).
(b) Letx =lne=log
e
ethene
x
=e, i.e. e
x
=e
1
fromwhichx =1
Henceln e =1 (whichmaybecheckedbyacalculator).
(c) Let x =log
3
1
81
then 3
x
=
1
81
=
1
3
4
=3
4
, from which
x =4
Hencelog
3
1
81
=4
Problem 3. Solvethefollowingequations:
(a) lgx =3 (b) log
2
x =3 (c) log
5
x =2
(a) If lgx =3thenlog
10
x =3andx =10
3
, i.e. x =1000
(b) If log
2
x =3thenx =2
3
=8
(c) If log
5
x =2thenx =5
2
=
1
5
2
=
1
25
Problem4. Write(a)log30 (b)log450intermsof log2,
log3andlog5toanybase.
(a) log30=log(215)=log(235)
=log 2 +log 3 +log 5
bytherst lawof logarithms
(b) log450=log(2225)=log(2375)
=log(23325)
=log(23
2
5
2
)
=log2+ log3
2
+log5
2
bytherst lawof logarithms
i.e log450=log 2 +2 log 3 +2 log 5
bythethirdlawof logarithms
Problem 5. Writelog
_
8
4
5
81
_
intermsof log2, log3
andlog5toanybase.
log
_
8
4
5
81
_
=log8+log
4
5log81, bytherst
andsecondlawsof logarithms
=log2
3
+log5
(1/4)
log3
4
bythelawsof indices
i.e log
_
8
4
5
81
_
=3 log 2 +
1
4
log 5 4 log 3
Problem 6. Simplifylog64log128+log32
64=2
6
, 128=2
7
and32=2
5
Hencelog64log128+ log32=log2
6
log2
7
+log2
5
=6log27log2+5log2
=4 log 2
Problem 7. Evaluate
log25log125+
1
2
log625
3log5
log25log125+
1
2
log625
3log5
=
log5
2
log5
3
+
1
2
log5
4
3log5
=
2log53log5+
4
2
log5
3log5
=
1log5
3log5
=
1
3
Problem 8. Solvetheequation:
log(x 1)+log(x +1)=2log(x +2)
log(x 1) +log(x +1) =log(x 1)(x +1) fromtherst
lawof logarithms
=log(x
2
1)
2log(x +2) =log(x +2)
2
= log(x
2
+4x +4)
Henceif log(x
2
1)=log(x
2
+4x +4)
then (x
2
1)=x
2
+4x +4
i.e. 1=4x +4
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Logarithms 105
i.e. 5=4x
i.e. x =
5
4
or 1
1
4
Exercise 53 Further problems on the laws of
logarithms (Answers on page 276)
InProblems1to11, evaluatethegivenexpression:
1. log
10
10000 2. log
2
16 3. log
5
125
4. log
2
1
8
5. log
8
2 6. log
7
343
7. lg100 8. lg0.01 9. log
4
8
10. log
27
3 11. lne
2
InProblems12to18solvetheequations:
12. log
10
x =4 13. logx =5
14. log
3
x =2 15. log
4
x =2
1
2
16. lgx =2 17. log
8
x =
4
3
18. lnx =3
InProblems 19to 22writethegivenexpressions interms
of log2, log3andlog5toanybase:
19. log60 20. log300
21. log
_
16
4
5
27
_
22. log
_
125
4
16
4
81
3
_
SimplifytheexpressionsgiveninProblems23to25:
23. log27log9+log81
24. log64+log32log128
25. log8log4+log32
EvaluatetheexpressionsgiveninProblems26and27:
26.
1
2
log16
1
3
log8
log4
27.
log9log3+
1
2
log81
2log3
SolvetheequationsgiveninProblems28to30:
28. logx
4
logx
3
=log5x log2x
29. log2t
3
logt =log16+logt
30. 2logb
2
3logb =log8b log4b
14.3 Indicial equations
Thelaws of logarithms may beusedto solvecertainequations
involving powers called indicial equations. For example, to
solve, say, 3
x
=27, logarithms to a base of 10 are taken of
bothsides,
i.e. log
10
3
x
=log
10
27
and x log
10
3=log
10
27 bythethirdlawof logarithms.
Rearranging gives x =
log
10
27
log
10
3
=
1.43136. . .
0.4771. . .
=3 which may
bereadilychecked.
(Note, (log8/ log2) isnot equal tolg(8/2))
Problem 9. Solvetheequation2
x
=3, correctto4signi-
cant gures.
Takinglogarithmstobase10of bothsidesof 2
x
=3gives:
log
10
2
x
=log
10
3
i.e. x log
10
2=log
10
3
Rearranginggives:
x =
log
10
3
log
10
2
=
0.47712125. . .
0.30102999. . .
=1.585
Problem 10. Solvetheequation2
x +1
=3
2x 5
correct to
2decimal places.
Takinglogarithmstobase10of bothsidesgives:
log
10
2
x +1
=log
10
3
2x 5
i.e. (x +1)log
10
2=(2x 5)log
10
3
x log
10
2+log
10
2=2x log
10
35log
10
3
x(0.3010)+(0.3010)=2x(0.4771)5(0.4771)
i.e. 0.3010x +0.3010=0.9542x 2.3855
Hence 2.3855+0.3010=0.9542x 0.3010x
2.6865=0.6532x
fromwhich x =
2.6865
0.6532
=4.11
Problem 11. Solvetheequationx
3.2
=41.15, correct to4
signicant gures.
log
10
x
3.2
=log
10
41.15
3.2log
10
x =log
10
41.15
Hence log
10
x =
log
10
41.15
3.2
=0.50449
Thusx =antilog0.50449=10
0.50449
=3.195 correctto4signi-
cant gures.
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Exercise 54 Indicial equations (Answers on
page 276)
Solvethefollowingindicial equationsfor x, eachcorrect to
4signicant gures:
1. 3
x
=6.4 2. 2
x
=9 3. 2
x 1
=3
2x 1
4. x
1.5
=14.91 5. 25.28=4.2
x
6. 4
2x 1
=5
x +2
7. x
0.25
=0.792 8. 0.027
x
=3.26
14.4 Graphs of logarithmic functions
A graph of y =log
10
x is shown in Fig. 14.1 and a graph of
y =log
e
x is shown in Fig. 14.2. Both are seen to be of simi-
lar shape; infact, thesamegeneral shapeoccursfor alogarithm
toanybase.
Ingeneral, withalogarithmtoanybasea, it isnotedthat:
(i) log
a
1 =0
Letlog
a
=x,thena
x
=1fromthedenitionof thelogarithm.
If a
x
=1thenx =0fromthelawsof logarithms.
Hence log
a
1=0. In the above graphs it is seen that
log
10
1=0andlog
e
1=0
y
0.5
0
2 3 x 1
0.5
1.0
x 3
0.48
2
0.30
1
0
0.5
0.30
0.2
0.70
0.1
1.0
y log
10
x
Fig. 14.1
y
2
1
0
2 1 3 4 5 6 x
x
y log
e
x
6
1.79
5
1.61
4
1.39
3
1.10
2
0.69
1
0
0.5
0.69
0.2
1.61
0.1
2.30
1
2
Fig. 14.2
(ii) log
a
a =1
Letlog
a
a =x thena
x
=a fromthedenitionof alogarithm.
If a
x
=a thenx =1
Hencelog
a
a =1. (Checkwithacalculator thatlog
10
10=1
andlog
e
e=1)
(iii) log
a
0
Letlog
a
0=x thena
x
=0fromthedenitionof alogarithm.
If a
x
=0, and a is a positive real number, then x must
approachminusinnity. (Forexample, checkwithacalcula-
tor, 2
2
=0.25, 2
20
=9.5410
7
, 2
200
=6.2210
61
,
andsoon.)
Hencelog
a
0
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15
Exponential functions
15.1 The exponential function
An exponential function is one which contains e
x
, e being a
constantcalledtheexponentandhavinganapproximatevalueof
2.7183. Theexponentarisesfromthenatural lawsof growthand
decayandisusedasabasefor natural or Napierianlogarithms.
15.2 Evaluating exponential functions
Thevalueof e
x
maybedeterminedbyusing:
(a) acalculator, or
(b) thepower seriesfor e
x
(seeSection15.3), or
(c) tablesof exponential functions.
The most common method of evaluating an exponential func-
tionisbyusingascienticnotationcalculator, thisnowhaving
replaced theuseof tables. Most scientic notation calculators
contain an e
x
function which enables all practical values of e
x
and e
x
to bedetermined, correct to 8 or 9 signicant gures.
For example:
e
1
= 2.7182818
e
2.4
= 11.023176
e
1.618
= 0.19829489
Inpractical situations thedegreeof accuracy givenby acal-
culator is often far greater than is appropriate. The accepted
conventionisthat thenal result isstatedtoonesignicant g-
uregreater thantheleast signicant measuredvalue. Useyour
calculator tocheckthefollowingvalues:
e
0.12
= 1.1275, correct to5signicant gures
e
1.47
= 0.22993, correct to5decimal places
e
0.431
e
9.32
= 11159, correct to5signicant gures
e
2.785
Problem 1. Using a calculator, evaluate, correct to 5
signicant gures:
(a) e
2.731
(b) e
3.162
(c)
5
3
e
5.253
(a) e
2.731
=15.348227. . . =15.348, correct to 5 signicant
gures.
(b) e
3.162
=0.04234097. . . =0.042341,correctto5signicant
gures.
(c)
5
3
e
5.253
=
5
3
(191.138825. . .)=318.56, correct to 5signi-
cant gures.
Problem 2. Useacalculator to determinethefollowing,
eachcorrect to4signicant gures:
(a) 3.72e
0.18
(b) 53.2e
1.4
(c)
5
122
e
7
(a) 3.72e
0.18
=(3.72)(1.197217. . .)=4.454,correctto4signi-
cant gures.
(b) 53.2e
1.4
=(53.2)(0.246596. . .)=13.12, correct to 4 sig-
nicant gures.
(c)
5
122
e
7
=
5
122
(1096.6331. . .)=44.94, correct to 4 signi-
cant gures.
Problem 3. Evaluatethefollowing correct to 4 decimal
places, usingacalculator:
(a) 0.0256(e
5.21
e
2.49
) (b) 5
_
e
0.25
e
0.25
e
0.25
+e
0.25
_
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(a) 0.0256(e
5.21
e
2.49
)
=0.0256(183.094058. . . 12.0612761. . .)
=4.3784, correct to4decimal places
(b) 5
_
e
0.25
e
0.25
e
0.25
+e
0.25
_
=5
_
1.28402541. . . 0.77880078. . .
1.28402541. . . +0.77880078. . .
_
=5
_
0.5052246. . .
2.0628261. . .
_
Problem 4. The instantaneous voltage v in a capacitive
circuit is related to time t by the equation v =Ve
t/CR
where V, C and R are constants. Determine v, correct
to 4 signicant gures, when t =3010
3
seconds, C =
1010
6
farads, R=4710
3
ohmsandV =200volts.
v = Ve
t/CR
= 200e
(3010
3
)/(1010
6
4710
3
)
Usingacalculator, v =200e
0.0638297...
=200(0.9381646)
=187.6 volts
Exercise 55 Further problems on evaluating expon-
ential functions (Answers on page 276)
InProblems 1and2useacalculator to evaluatethegiven
functionscorrect to4signicant gures:
1. (a) e
4.4
(b) e
0.25
(c) e
0.92
2. (a) e
1.8
(b) e
0.78
(c) e
10
3. Evaluate, correct to5signicant gures:
(a) 3.5e
2.8
(b)
6
5
e
1.5
(c) 2.16e
5.7
4. Useacalculator to evaluatethefollowing, correct to 5
signicant gures:
(a) e
1.629
(b) e
2.7483
(c) 0.62e
4.178
InProblems5and6, evaluatecorrect to5decimal places.
5. (a)
1
7
e
3.4629
(b) 8.52e
1.2651
(c)
5e
2.6921
3e
1.1171
6. (a)
5.6823
e
2.1347
(b)
e
2.1127
e
2.1127
2
(c)
4(e
1.7295
1)
e
3.6817
7. The length of a bar, l, at a temperature is given by
l =l
0
e
,wherel
0
and areconstants.Evaluatel,correct
to4signicant gures, whenl
0
=2.587, =321.7and
=1.77110
4
8. Whenachainof length2L issuspendedfromtwopoints,
2D metresapart, onthesamehorizontal level:
D = k
_
ln
_
L +
L
2
+k
2
k
__
EvaluateD whenk =75mandL =180m.
15.3 The power series for e
x
Thevalueof e
x
canbecalculatedtoanyrequireddegreeof accu-
racysinceit isdenedintermsof thefollowingpower series:
e
x
= 1+x +
x
2
2!
+
x
3
3!
+
x
4
4!
+ (1)
(where3! =321andiscalledfactorial 3)
Theseriesisvalidfor all valuesof x.
Theseries is saidtoconverge, i.e. if all theterms areadded,
anactual valuefor e
x
(wherex isareal number) isobtained. The
moreterms that aretaken, thecloser will bethevalueof e
x
to
its actual value. The value of the exponent e, correct to say 4
decimal places, may bedeterminedby substitutingx =1inthe
power seriesof equation(1). Thus
e
1
=1+1+
(1)
2
2!
+
(1)
3
3!
+
(1)
4
4!
+
(1)
5
5!
+
(1)
6
6!
+
(1)
7
7!
+
(1)
8
8!
+
=1+1+0.5+0.16667+0.04167+0.00833
+0.00139+0.00020+0.00002+
=2.71828
i.e. e=2.7183correct to4decimal places
Thevalueof e
0.05
, correcttosay8signicantgures, isfoundby
substitutingx =0.05inthepower seriesfor e
x
. Thus
e
0.05
= 1+0.05+
(0.05)
2
2!
+
(0.05)
3
3!
+
(0.05)
4
4!
+
(0.05)
5
5!
+
= 1+0.05+0.00125+0.000020833
+0.000000260+0.000000003
andbyadding,
e
0.05
Inthisexample, successivetermsintheseriesgrowsmaller very
rapidlyandit isrelativelyeasytodeterminethevalueof e
0.05
to
ahighdegreeof accuracy. However, whenx isnearer tounityor
larger thanunity, avery largenumber of termsarerequiredfor
anaccurateresult.
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Exponential functions 109
If intheseriesof equation(1), x isreplacedbyx, then
e
x
= 1+(x) +
(x)
2
2!
+
(x)
3
3!
+
e
x
= 1x +
x
2
2!

x
3
3!
+
Inasimilar manner thepower seriesfor e
x
maybeusedtoeval-
uateany exponential function of theformae
kx
, wherea and k
are constants. In the series of equation (1), let x be replaced
bykx. Then
ae
kx
=a
_
1+(kx)+
(kx)
2
2!
+
(kx)
3
3!
+
_
Thus 5e
2x
=5
_
1+(2x)+
(2x)
2
2!
+
(2x)
3
3!
+
_
=5
_
1+2x +
4x
2
2
+
8x
3
6
+
_
i.e. 5e
2x
=5
_
1+2x +2x
2
+
4
3
x
3
+
_
Problem 5. Determine the value of 5e
0.5
, correct to 5
signicant guresbyusingthepower seriesfor e
x
.
e
x
=1+x +
x
2
2!
+
x
3
3!
+
x
4
4!
+
Hence e
0.5
=1+0.5+
(0.5)
2
(2)(1)
+
(0.5)
3
(3)(2)(1)
+
(0.5)
4
(4)(3)(2)(1)
+
(0.5)
5
(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
+
(0.5)
6
(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
=1+0.5+0.125+0.020833
+0.0026042+0.0002604+0.0000217
i.e. e
0.5
=1.64872correct to6signicant gures
Hence 5e
0.5
=5(1.64872)=8.2436, correct to 5 signicant
gures.
Problem 6. Determine the value of 3e
1
, correct to 4
decimal places, usingthepower seriesfor e
x
.
Substitutingx =1inthepower series
e
x
= 1+x +
x
2
2!
+
x
3
3!
+
x
4
4!
+
gives e
1
= 1+(1) +
(1)
2
2!
+
(1)
3
3!
+
(1)
4
4!
+
= 11+0.50.166667+0.041667
0.008333+0.0013890.000198+
= 0.367858correct to6decimal places
Hence 3e
1
=(3)(0.367858)=1.1036 correct to 4 decimal
places.
Problem 7. Expande
x
(x
2
1) asfar astheterminx
5
Thepower seriesfor e
x
is
e
x
= 1+x +
x
2
2!
+
x
3
3!
+
x
4
4!
+
x
5
5!
+
Hence
e
x
(x
2
1) =
_
1+x +
x
2
2!
+
x
3
3!
+
x
4
4!
+
x
5
5!
+
_
(x
2
1)
=
_
x
2
+x
3
+
x
4
2!
+
x
5
3!
+
_
_
1+x +
x
2
2!
+
x
3
3!
+
x
4
4!
+
x
5
5!
+
_
Groupingliketermsgives:
e
x
(x
2
1) = 1x +
_
x
2
x
2
2!
_
+
_
x
3
x
3
3!
_
+
_
x
4
2!

x
4
4!
_
+
_
x
5
3!

x
5
5!
_
+
= 1 x +
1
2
x
2
+
5
6
x
3
+
11
24
x
4
+
19
120
x
5
whenexpandedasfar astheterminx
5
Exercise 56 Further problems on the power series
for e
x
1. Evaluate5.6e
1
, correct to 4decimal places, usingthe
power seriesfor e
x
.
2. Use the power series for e
x
to determine, correct to 4
signicant gures, (a) e
2
(b) e
0.3
andcheckyour result
byusingacalculator.
3. Expand(12x)e
2x
asfar astheterminx
4
.
4. Expand(2e
x
2
)(x
1/2
) tosixterms.
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15.4 Graphs of exponential functions
Values of e
x
and e
x
obtained froma calculator, correct to 2
decimal places, over arangex =3to x =3, areshowninthe
followingtable.
x 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0
e
x
0.05 0.08 0.14 0.22 0.37 0.61 1.00
e
x
20.09 12.18 7.9 4.48 2.72 1.65 1.00
x 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
e
x
1.65 2.72 4.48 7.39 12.18 20.09
e
x
0.61 0.37 0.22 0.14 0.08 0.05
Figure15.1showsgraphsof y =e
x
andy =e
x
y e
x
y e
x
y
20
16
12
8
4
0 1 1 2 3 x 2 3
Fig. 15.1
Problem 8. Plot a graph of y =2e
0.3x
over a range of
x =2 to x =3. Hence determine the value of y when
x =2.2andthevalueof x wheny =1.6
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
0.3x 0.9 0.6 0.3 0 0.3 0.6 0.9
e
0.3x
0.407 0.549 0.741 1.000 1.350 1.822 2.460
2e
0.3x
0.81 1.10 1.48 2.00 2.70 3.64 4.92
A graphof y =2e
0.3x
isshownplottedinFig. 15.2.
From the graph, when x =2.2, y =3.87 and when y =1.6,
x =0.74
y
y 2e
0.3x
5
4
3
2
1.6
3.87
1
0 1
0.74
1 2
2.2
3 x 2 3
Fig. 15.2
Problem 9. Plot a graph of y =
1
3
e
2x
over the range
x =1.5 to x =1.5. Determinefromthegraph thevalue
of y whenx =1.2andthevalueof x wheny =1.4
x 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
2x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
e
2x
20.086 7.389 2.718 1.00 0.368 0.135 0.050
1
3
e
2x
6.70 2.46 0.91 0.33 0.12 0.05 0.02
A graphof
1
3
e
2x
isshowninFig. 15.3.
Fromthe graph, when x =1.2, y =3.67 and when y =1.4,
x =0.72
y
7
6
5
4
2
3
3.67
1.4
1
0.5
1.2 0.72
0.5 1.0 1.5 x 1.0 1.5
y e
2x
1
3
Fig. 15.3
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Problem10. Thedecayof voltage,v volts,acrossacapaci-
torattimet secondsisgivenbyv =250e
t/3
. Drawagraph
showing the natural decay curve over the rst 6seconds.
Fromthegraph, nd(a) thevoltageafter 3.4s, and(b) the
timewhenthevoltageis150V.
t 0 1 2 3
e
t/3
1.00 0.7165 0.5134 0.3679
v =250e
t/3
250.0 179.1 128.4 91.97
t 4 5 6
e
t/3
0.2636 0.1889 0.1353
v =250e
t/3
65.90 47.22 33.83
Thenatural decaycurveof v =250e
t/3
isshowninFig. 15.4.
250
200
150
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

v

(
v
o
l
t
s
)
100
80
50
0 1 1.5 2
Time t (seconds)
3 3.4 4 5 6
v 250e
t /3
Fig. 15.4
Fromthegraph:
(a) when time t =3.4 s, voltage =80 volts
and (b) when voltage =150 volts, time t =1.5 seconds.
Exercise 57 Further problems on exponential graphs
1. Plotagraphof y =3e
0.2x
over therangex =3tox =3.
Hence determine the value of y when x =1.4 and the
valueof x wheny =4.5
2. Plot a graph of y =
1
2
e
1.5x
over a range x =1.5
to x =1.5 and hence determine the value of y when
x =0.8andthevalueof x wheny =3.5
3. In achemical reaction theamount of starting material
C cm
3
left after t minutes is given by C =40e
0.006t
.
Plot agraphof C against t anddetermine(a) thecon-
centrationC after 1hour, and(b) thetimetakenfor the
concentrationtodecreasebyhalf.
4. Therateatwhichabodycoolsisgivenby =250e
0.05t
wheretheexcessof temperatureof abodyaboveitssur-
roundingsattimet minutesis
C. Plotagraphshowing
the natural decay curve for the rst hour of cooling.
Hencedetermine(a) thetemperatureafter 25minutes,
and(b) thetimewhenthetemperatureis195
C.
15.5 Napierian logarithms
Logarithmshavingabaseof earecalledhyperbolic, Napierian
ornatural logarithms andtheNapierianlogarithmof x iswritten
aslog
e
x, or morecommonly, lnx.
15.6 Evaluating Napierian logarithms
Thevalueof aNapierianlogarithmmaybedeterminedbyusing:
(a) acalculator, or
(b) arelationshipbetweencommonandNapierianlogarithms, or
(c) Napierianlogarithmtables.
Themost commonmethodof evaluatingaNapierianlogarithm
is by ascientic notationcalculator, this nowhavingreplaced
theuseof four-guretables, andalso therelationshipbetween
commonandNapierianlogarithms,
log
e
y = 2.3026log
10
y
Most scientic notation calculators contain a lnx function
whichdisplaysthevalueof theNapierianlogarithmof anumber
whentheappropriatekeyispressed.
Usingacalculator,
ln4.692=1.5458589 =1.5459,
correct to4decimal places
and ln35.78=3.57738907=3.5774,
Useyour calculator tocheckthefollowingvalues:
ln1.732=0.54928, correct to5signicant gures
ln1=0
ln0.52=0.6539, correct to4decimal places
ln593=6.3852, correct to5signicant gures
ln1750=7.4674, correct to4decimal places
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lne
3
=3
lne
1
=1
Fromthelast twoexampleswecanconcludethat
log
e
e
x
= x
This is useful when solving equations involving exponential
functions.
For example, tosolvee
3x
=8, takeNapierianlogarithmsof both
sides, whichgives
lne
3x
=ln8
i.e. 3x =ln8
fromwhich x =
1
3
ln8=0.6931,
Problem 11. Using a calculator evaluate correct to 5
signicant gures:
(a) ln47.291 (b) ln0.06213 (c) 3.2ln762.923
(a) ln47.291=3.8563200. . . =3.8563, correct to5signicant
gures.
(b) ln0.06213=2.7785263. . . =2.7785, correct to 5 sig-
nicant gures.
(c) 3.2ln762.923=3.2(6.6371571. . .)=21.239, correct to 5
signicant gures.
Problem 12. Useacalculator to evaluatethefollowing,
eachcorrect to5signicant gures:
(a)
1
4
ln4.7291 (b)
ln7.8693
7.8693
(c)
5.29ln24.07
e
0.1762
(a)
1
4
ln4.7291=
1
4
(1.5537349. . .)=0.38843, correctto5sig-
nicant gures.
(b)
ln7.8693
7.8693
=
2.06296911. . .
7.8693
=0.26215, correctto5signi-
cant gures.
(c)
5.29ln24.07
e
0.1762
=
5.29(3.18096625. . .)
0.83845027. . .
=20.070, correct to
5signicant gures.
Problem 13. Evaluatethefollowing:
(a)
lne
2.5
lg10
0.5
(b)
4e
2.23
lg2.23
ln2.23
(correct to3decimal
places)
(a)
lne
2.5
lg10
0.5
=
2.5
0.5
=5
(b)
4e
2.23
lg2.23
ln2.23
=
4(9.29986607. . .)(0.34830486. . .)
0.80200158. . .
Problem14. Solvetheequation7=4e
3x
tondx,correct
to4signicant gures.
Rearranging7=4e
3x
gives:
7
4
= e
3x
Takingthereciprocal of bothsidesgives:
4
7
=
1
e
3x
= e
3x
TakingNapierianlogarithmsof bothsidesgives:
ln
_
4
7
_
= ln(e
3x
)
Sincelog
e
e
=, thenln
_
4
7
_
=3x
Hence x =
1
3
ln
_
4
7
_
=
1
3
(0.55962)=0.1865, correct to 4
signicant gures.
Problem 15. Given 20=60(1e
t/2
) determine the
valueof t, correct to3signicant gures.
Rearranging20=60(1e
t/2
) gives:
20
60
= 1e
1/2
and
e
t/2
= 1
20
60
=
2
3
e
t/2
=
3
2
lne
t/2
=ln
3
2
i.e.
t
2
=ln
3
2
fromwhich, t =2ln
3
2
=0.881, correct to3signicant gures.
Problem 16. Solve the equation 3.72= ln
_
5.14
x
_
to
ndx.
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Fromthedenition of alogarithm, since3.72=
_
5.14
x
_
then
e
3.72
=
5.14
x
Rearranginggives: x=
5.14
e
3.72
=5.14e
3.72
i.e. x =0.1246,
correct to4signicant gures
Exercise 58 Further problems on evaluating Napierian
logarithms (Answers on page 277)
In Problems 1 to 3 use a calculator to evaluate the given
functions, correct to4decimal places.
1. (a) ln1.73 (b) ln5.413 (c) ln9.412
2. (a) ln17.3 (b) ln541.3 (c) ln9412
3. (a) ln0.173 (b) ln0.005413 (c) ln0.09412
InProblems4and5, evaluatecorrectto5signicantgures.
4. (a)
1
6
ln5.2932 (b)
ln82.473
4.829
(c)
5.62ln321.62
e
1.2942
5. (a)
2.946lne
1.76
lg10
1.41
(b)
5e
0.1629
2ln0.00165
(c)
ln4.8629ln2.4711
5.173
InProblems6to10solvethegivenequations, eachcorrect
to4signicant gures.
6. 1.5=4e
2t
7. 7.83=2.91e
1.7x
8. 16=24(1e
t/2
) 9. 5.17= ln
_
x
4.64
_
10. 3.72ln
_
1.59
x
_
=2.43
15.7 Laws of growth and decay
The laws of exponential growth and decay are of the form
y =Ae
kx
and y =A(1e
kx
), where A and k are constants.
Whenplotted, theformof eachof theseequationsisasshownin
Fig. 15.5. Thelawsoccur frequentlyinengineeringandscience
andexamplesof quantitiesrelatedbyanatural lawinclude:
(i) Linear expansion l =l
0
e
(ii) Changeinelectrical resistancewith R
=R
0
e
temperature
(iii) Tensioninbelts T
1
=T
0
e
(iv) Newtonslawof cooling =

0
e
kt
(v) Biological growth y =y
0
e
kt
(vi) Dischargeof acapacitor q =Qe
t/CR
(vii) Atmosphericpressure p =p
0
e
h/c
(viii) Radioactivedecay N =N
0
e
t
(ix) Decayof current inaninductivecircuit i =I e
Rt/L
(x) Growthof current inacapacitivecircuit i =I (1e
t/CR
)
y
y
y Ae
kx
A
0
x
y A (1e
kx
)
A
0 x
Fig. 15.5
Problem 17. TheresistanceR of an electrical conductor
at temperature
C is given by R=R
0
e
, where is a
constant and R
0
=510
3
ohms. Determine the value of
, correct to 4signicant gures, whenR=610
3
ohms
and =1500
C. Also, ndthetemperature, correct tothe

nearest degree, whentheresistanceR is5.410
3
ohms.
TransposingR=R
0
e
gives
R
R
0
=e
ln
R
R
0
= lne
=
Hence
=
1
ln
R
R
0
=
1
1500
ln
_
610
3
510
3
_
=
1
1500
(0.1823215. . . ) = 1.215477. . . 10
4
Hence =1.215 10
4
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Fromabove, ln
R
R
0
= hence =
1
ln
R
R
0
WhenR=5.410
3
, =1.215477. . . 10
4
andR
0
=510
3
=
1
1.215477. . . 10
4
ln
_
5.410
3
510
3
_
=
10
4
1.215477. . .
(7.696104. . . 10
2
)
= 633
Ccorrect tothenearest degree.

Problem 18. In an experiment involving Newtons
law of cooling, the temperature (
C) is given by
=
0
e
kt
. Findthevalueof constant k when
0
=56.6
C,
=16.5
C andt =83.0seconds.
Transposing =
0
e
kt
gives

0
=e
kt
fromwhich
=
1
e
kt
= e
kt
ln
= kt
fromwhich,
k =
1
t
ln
=
1
83.0
ln
_
56.6
16.5
_
=
1
83.0
(1.2326486. . . )
Hence k =1.485 10
2
Problem 19. Thecurrent i amperes owing in acapaci-
tor at timet secondsisgivenby i =8.0(1e
t/CR
), where
thecircuit resistanceR is 2510
3
ohms and capacitance
C is 1610
6
farads. Determine (a) the current i after
0.5seconds and (b) the time, to the nearest millisecond,
for thecurrent toreach6.0A. Sketchthegraphof current
against time.
(a) Current i =8.0(1e
t/CR
)
=8.0[1e
0.5/(1610
6
)(2510
3
)
]
=8.0(1e
1.25
)
=8.0(10.2865047. . .)
=8.0(0.7134952. . .)
=5.71 amperes
(b) Transposingi =8.0(1e
t/CR
) gives
i
8.0
=1e
t/CR
fromwhich, e
t/CR
=1
i
8.0
=
8.0i
8.0
e
t/CR
=
8.0
8.0i
t
CR
= ln
_
8.0
8.0i
_
Hence t =CRln
_
8.0
8.0i
_
=(1610
6
)(2510
3
)ln
_
8.0
8.06.0
_
wheni =6.0amperes,
i.e. t =
400
10
3
ln
_
8.0
2.0
_
=0.4ln4.0
=0.4(1.3862943. . .)=0.5545s
=555 ms, tothenearest millisecond
A graphof current against timeisshowninFig. 15.6.
8
6
5.71
0.555
i 8.0 (1e
t /CR
)
4
2
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
t (s)
i (A)
Fig. 15.6
Problem 20. The temperature
2
of a winding which
is being heated electrically at time t is given by:
2
=
1
(1e
t/
) where
1
is thetemperature(indegrees
Celsius) at timet =0and isaconstant. Calculate.
(a)
1
, correct to thenearest degree, when
2
is 50
C, t is
30sand is60s
(b) thetimet, correct to1decimal place, for
2
tobehalf
thevalueof
1
(a) Transposingtheformulatomake
1
thesubject gives:
1
=

2
(1e
t/
)
=
50
1e
30/60
=
50
1e
0.5
=
50
0.393469. . .
i.e.
1
=127
C, correct tothenearest degree.

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(b) Transposingtomaket thesubject of theformulagives:
1
=1e
t/
fromwhich, e
t/
=1
1
Hence
t
=ln
_
1

2
1
_
i.e. t = ln
_
1

2
1
_
Since
2
=
1
2
1
t =60ln
_
1
1
2
_
=60ln0.5=41.59s
Hence the time for the temperature
2
to be one half of the
value of
1
is 41.6 s, correct to 1 decimal place.
Exercise 59 Further problems on the laws of growth
and decay (Answers on page 277)
1. Thetemperature, T
C, of acooling object varies with

time, t minutes, accordingtotheequation:
T = 150e
0.04t
Determine the temperature when (a) t =0,
(b) t =10minutes.
2. Thepressurep pascalsat height h metresaboveground
level is given by p =p
0
e
h/C
, where p
0
is the pres-
sureat groundlevel andC is aconstant. Findpressure
p when p
0
=1.01210
5
Pa, height h =1420m and
C =71500.
3. Thevoltagedrop, v volts, across an inductor L henrys
at time t seconds is given by v =200e
Rt/L
, where
R=150 and L =12.510
3
H. Determine (a) the
voltagewhent =16010
6
s, and(b) thetimefor the
voltagetoreach85V.
4. The length l metres of a metal bar at temperature
t
C is given by l =l
0
e
t
, where l
0
and are con-
stants. Determine (a) the value of l when l
0
=1.894,
=2.03810
4
and t =250
C, and (b) the value of

l
0
whenl =2.416, t =310
C and =1.68210
4
5. Thetemperature
2
C of anelectrical conductor at time
t secondsisgivenby
2
=
1
(1e
t/T
), where
1
isthe
initial temperatureandT seconds is aconstant. Deter-
mine(a)
2
when
1
=159.9
C, t =30s and T =80s,

and(b) thetimet for
2
tofall tohalf thevalueof
1
if
T remainsat 80s.
6. A beltisincontactwithapulleyfor asector of =1.12
radiansandthecoefcientof frictionbetweenthesetwo
surfaces is =0.26. Determinethetensiononthetaut
sideof thebelt,T newtons,whentensionontheslackside
isgivenbyT
0
=22.7newtons, giventhatthesequantities
arerelatedbythelawT =T
0
e
7. Theinstantaneouscurrent i at timet isgivenby:

i = 10e
t/CR
whenacapacitor isbeingcharged. ThecapacitanceC is
710
6
faradsandtheresistanceR is0.310
6
ohms.
Determine:
(a) theinstantaneouscurrent whent is2.5seconds, and
(b) the time for the instantaneous current to fall to
5amperes.
Sketch a curve of current against time fromt =0 to
t =6seconds.
8. Theamountof productx (inmol/cm
3
) foundinachemi-
cal reactionstartingwith2.5mol/cm
3
of reactantisgiven
by x =2.5(1e
4t
) wheret is thetime, inminutes, to
formproductx. Plotagraphat30secondintervalsupto
2.5minutesanddeterminex after 1minute.
9. Thecurrenti owinginacapacitor attimet isgivenby:
i = 12.5(1e
t/CR
)
whereresistanceR is30kilohmsandthecapacitanceC
is20microfarads. Determine
(a) thecurrent owingafter 0.5seconds, and
(b) thetimefor thecurrent toreach10amperes.
10. Theamount A after n yearsof asuminvestedP isgiven
by thecompound interest law: A=Pe
rn/100
when the
perunitinterestrater isaddedcontinuously. Determine,
correcttothenearestpound, theamountafter 8yearsfor
a sumof 1500 invested if theinterest rateis 6%per
annum.
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Assignment 7
1. Evaluatelog
16
8 (3)
2. Solve (a) log
3
x =2
(b) log2x
2
+ logx = log32 logx (6)
3. Solvethefollowingequations, eachcorrectto3signi-
cant gures:
(a) 2
x
=5.5
(b) 3
2t1
=7
t+2
(c) 3e
2x
=4.2 (11)
4. Evaluate the following, each correct to 4 signicant
gures:
(a) e
0.683
(b) 1.34e
2.16
(c)
5(e
2.73
1)
e
1.68
(6)
5. Usethepower series for e
x
to evaluatee
1.5
, correct to
4signicant gures. (4)
6. Expandxe
3x
tosixterms. (5)
7. Plot a graph of y =
1
2
e
1.2x
over the range x =2 to
x =+1andhencedetermine, correctto1decimal place,
(a) thevalueof y whenx =0.75, and(b) thevalueof
x wheny =4.0 (6)
8. Evaluatethefollowing, eachcorrectto3decimal places:
(a) ln462.9 (b) ln0.0753 (c)
ln3.68 ln2.91
4.63
(6)
9. Two quantities x and y are related by the equation
y =ae
kx
, wherea andk areconstants. Determine, cor-
rect to1decimal place, thevalueof y whena =2.114,
k =3.20andx =1.429 (3)
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16
Reduction of non-linear laws to linear form
16.1 Determination of law
Frequently, therelationshipbetweentwovariables, say x andy,
isnotalinear one, i.e. whenx isplottedagainsty acurveresults.
In such cases the non-linear equation may be modied to the
linear form, y =mx +c, so that theconstants, andthus thelaw
relatingthevariablescanbedetermined.Thistechniqueiscalled
determination of law.
Someexamples of thereductionof equations to linear form
include:
(i) y =ax
2
+b compareswithY =mX +c, wherem=a, c =b
andX =x
2
.
Hence y is plotted vertically against x
2
horizontally to
produce a straight line graph of gradient a and y-axis
intercept b
(ii) y =
a
x
+b
y is plotted vertically against
1
x
horizontally to producea
straight linegraphof gradient a andy-axisintercept b
(iii) y =ax
2
+bx
Dividingbothsidesbyx gives
y
x
=ax +b.
ComparingwithY =mX +c showsthat
y
x
isplottedverti-
callyagainst x horizontallytoproduceastraight linegraph
of gradient a and
y
x
axisintercept b
Problem 1. Experimental values of x and y, shown
below, are believed to be related by the law
y =ax
2
+b. By plotting a suitable graph verify this
lawanddetermineapproximatevaluesof a andb.
x 1 2 3 4 5
y 9.8 15.2 24.2 36.5 53.0
If y is plotted against x a curve results and it is not possible
to determine the values of constants a and b fromthe curve.
Comparingy =ax
2
+b with Y =mX +c shows that y is to be
plotted vertically against x
2
horizontally. A table of values is
drawnupasshownbelow.
x 1 2 3 4 5
x
2
1 4 9 16 25
y 9.8 15.2 24.2 36.5 53.0
Agraphof y againstx
2
isshowninFig. 16.1, withthebeststraight
linedrawnthroughthepoints. Sinceastraightlinegraphresults,
thelawisveried.
y
50
53
40
30
20
C
B
A
10
8
0 5 10 15 20 25 x
2
17
Fig. 16.1
Fromthegraph, gradient a =
AB
BC
=
5317
255
=
36
20
=1.8
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andthey-axisintercept, b =8.0
Hencethelawof thegraphisy =1.8x
2
+8.0
Problem2. Valuesof loadLnewtonsanddistanced metres
obtainedexperimentallyareshowninthefollowingtable.
Load, L N 32.3 29.6 27.0 23.2
distance, d m 0.75 0.37 0.24 0.17
Load, L N 18.3 12.8 10.0 6.4
distance, d m 0.12 0.09 0.08 0.07
Verify that load and distance are related by a law of the
formL =
a
d
+b anddetermineapproximatevaluesof a and
b. Hencecalculatetheloadwhenthedistanceis0.20mand
thedistancewhentheloadis20N.
Comparing L =
a
d
+b i.e. L =a
_
1
d
_
+b with Y =mX +c
showsthat L istobeplottedverticallyagainst
1
d
horizontally.
Another tableof valuesisdrawnupasshownbelow.
L 32.3 29.6 27.0 23.2 18.3 12.8 10.0 6.4
d 0.75 0.37 0.24 0.17 0.12 0.09 0.08 0.07
1
d
1.33 2.70 4.17 5.88 8.33 11.11 12.50 14.29
A graphof L against
1
d
isshowninFig. 16.2. A straight linecan
bedrawnthroughthepoints, whichveriesthatloadanddistance
arerelatedbyalawof theformL =
a
d
+b.
Gradient of straight line, a =
AB
BC
=
3111
212
=
20
10
=2
L-axisintercept, b =35
Hencethelawof thegraphisL=
2
d
+35
Whenthedistanced =0.20m,
loadL =
2
0.20
+35= 25.0 N
RearrangingL =
2
d
+35gives
2
d
= 35L and d =
2
35L
HencewhentheloadL =20N,
distanced =
2
3520
=
2
15
= 0.13 m
30
31
35
25
20 L
15
B C
A
5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
10
11
1
d
Fig. 16.2
Problem3. Thesolubilitys of potassiumchlorateisshown
bythefollowingtable:
t
C 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100
s 4.9 7.6 11.1 15.4 20.4 26.4 40.6 58.0
Therelationshipbetweens andt isthoughttobeof theform
s =3+at +bt
2
. Plot a graph to test the supposition and
usethegraphtondapproximatevaluesof a andb. Hence
calculatethesolubilityof potassiumchlorateat 70
C.
Rearrangings =3+at +bt
2
givess 3=at +bt
2
and
s 3
t
= a +bt or
s 3
t
= bt +a
which is of theformY =mX +c, showing that
s 3
t
is to be
plotted vertically and t horizontally. Another tableof values is
drawnupasshownbelow.
t 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100
s 4.9 7.6 11.1 15.4 20.4 26.4 40.6 58.0
s 3
t
0.19 0.23 0.27 0.31 0.35 0.39 0.47 0.55
A graphof
s 3
t
against t isshownplottedinFig. 16.3.
A straight line ts the points which shows that s and t are
relatedbys =3+at +bt
2
.
Gradient of straight line,
b =
AB
BC
=
0.390.19
6010
=
0.20
50
= 0.004
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Reduction of non-linear laws to linear form 119
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.39
0.3
0.2
0.19
C
B
A
0.15
0.1
0 20 40 60
t C
80 100
s 3
t
Fig. 16.3
Vertical axisintercept, a =0.15
Hencethelawof thegraphiss =3 +0.15t +0.004t
2
Thesolubilityof potassiumchlorateat 70
C isgivenby
s = 3+0.15(70) +0.004(70)
2
= 3+10.5+19.6= 33.1
Exercise 60 Further problems on reducing
non-linear laws to linear form
In Problems 1 to 5, x and y aretwo related variables and
all other letters denoteconstants. For thestatedlaws to be
veriedit is necessary to plot graphs of thevariables ina
modiedform. Statefor each(a) what shouldbeplottedon
thevertical axis, (b)whatshouldbeplottedonthehorizontal
axis, (c) thegradient and(d) thevertical axisintercept.
1. y =d +cx
2
2. y a =b
x
3. y e =
f
x
4. y cx =bx
2
5. y =
a
x
+bx
6. Inanexperiment theresistanceof wireismeasuredfor
wiresof different diameterswiththefollowingresults.
Rohms 1.64 1.14 0.89 0.76 0.63
d mm 1.10 1.42 1.75 2.04 2.56
It is thought that R is related to d by the law
R=(a/d
2
)+b, wherea andb areconstants. Verifythis
andndtheapproximatevaluesfor a andb. Determine
thecross-sectional areaneededfor aresistancereading
of 0.50ohms.
7. Correspondingexperimental values of two quantities x
andy aregivenbelow.
x 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 9.0
y 11.5 25.0 47.5 79.0 119.5 169.0
Byplottingasuitablegraphverifythat y andx arecon-
nectedby alawof theformy =kx
2
+c, wherek andc
areconstants. Determinethelawof thegraphandhence
ndthevalueof x wheny is60.0
8. Experimental results of thesafeload L kN, applied to
girdersof varyingspans, d m, areshownbelow.
Span, d m 2.0 2.8 3.6 4.2 4.8
Load, L kN 475 339 264 226 198
Itisbelievedthattherelationshipbetweenloadandspan
isL =c/d, wherec isaconstant. Determine(a) thevalue
of constant c and(b) thesafeloadfor aspanof 3.0m.
9. Thefollowingresultsgivecorrespondingvaluesof two
quantitiesx andy whicharebelievedtoberelatedby a
lawof theformy =ax
2
+bx wherea andb areconstants.
y 33.86 55.54 72.80 84.10 111.4 168.1
x 3.4 5.2 6.5 7.3 9.1 12.4
Verify thelaw and determineapproximatevalues of a
andb.
Hence determine (i) the value of y when x is 8.0 and
(ii) thevalueof x wheny is146.5.
16.2 Determination of law involving
logarithms
Examples of reduction of equations to linear forminvolving
logarithmsinclude:
(i) y =ax
n
Takinglogarithmstoabaseof 10of bothsidesgives:
lg y = lg(ax
n
) = lg a +lg x
n
i.e. lg y =n lg x + lg a bythelawsof logarithms
whichcompareswithY =mX +c
and shows that lgy is plotted vertically against lgx hori-
zontally to produceastraight linegraphof gradient n and
lgy-axisintercept lga
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(ii) y =ab
x
Takinglogarithmstoabaseof 10of thebothsidesgives:
lgy =lg(ab
x
)
i.e. lgy =lga +lgb
x
i.e. lgy =x lgb +lga bythelawsof logarithms
or lgy =(lgb)x +lga
andshowsthatlgy isplottedverticallyagainstx horizontally
toproduceastraightlinegraphof gradientlgb andlgy-axis
intercept lga
(iii) y = ae
bx
Takinglogarithmstoabaseof eof bothsidesgives:
lny =ln(ae
bx
)
i.e. lny =lna +lne
bx
i.e. lny =lna +bx lne
i.e. lny =bx +lna since lne=1
andshowsthatlny isplottedverticallyagainstx horizontally
toproduceastraight linegraphof gradient b andlny-axis
intercept lna
Problem 4. Thecurrent owingin, andthepower dissi-
patedby, aresistoraremeasuredexperimentallyforvarious
valuesandtheresultsareasshownbelow.
Current, I amperes 2.2 3.6 4.1 5.6 6.8
Power, P watts 116 311 403 753 1110
Show that the law relating current and power is of the
formP =RI
n
, whereR andn areconstants, anddetermine
thelaw.
Takinglogarithmstoabaseof 10of bothsidesof P =RI
n
gives:
lgP = lg(RI
n
) = lgR +lgI
n
= lgR +n lgI
bythelawsof logarithms,
i.e. lgP =n lgI + lgR, whichisof theformY =mX +c, show-
ingthat lgP istobeplottedverticallyagainst lgI horizontally.
A tableof valuesfor lgI andlgP isdrawnupasshownbelow.
I 2.2 3.6 4.1 5.6 6.8
lgI 0.342 0.556 0.613 0.748 0.833
P 116 311 403 753 1110
lgP 2.064 2.493 2.605 2.877 3.045
A graph of lgP against lgI is shown in Fig. 16.4 and sincea
straight lineresultsthelawP =RI
n
isveried.
3.0
2.98
2.78
2.5
lg P
2.18
2.0
0.30 0.40
C
B
D
A
0.50 0.60
lg l
0.80 0.70 0.90
Fig. 16.4
n =
AB
BC
=
2.982.18
0.80.4
=
0.80
0.4
= 2
It isnot possibletodeterminethevertical axisintercept onsight
since the horizontal axis scale does not start at zero. Select-
ing any point fromthe graph, say point D, where lgI =0.70
andlgP =2.78, andsubstitutingvaluesintolgP =n lgI + lgR
gives
2.78= (2)(0.70) +lgR
fromwhichlgR=2.781.40=1.38
Hence R=antilog1.38(=10
1.38
)=24.0
Hence the law of the graph is P =24.0 I
2
Problem 5. Theperiodic time, T, of oscillationof apen-
dulumisbelievedtoberelatedtoitslength, l, by alawof
theformT =kl
n
, wherek andn areconstants. Valuesof T
weremeasuredfor variouslengthsof thependulumandthe
resultsareasshownbelow.
Periodictime, T s 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.3
Length, l m 0.25 0.42 0.56 0.81 1.0 1.32
Show that thelaw is trueand determinetheapproximate
values of k andn. Hencendtheperiodic timewhenthe
lengthof thependulumis0.75m.
Frompara(i), if T =kl
n
then
lgT = n lgl +lgk
andcomparingwith
Y = mX +c
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showsthat lgT isplottedverticallyagainst lgl horizontally.
A tableof valuesfor lgT andlgl isdrawnupasshownbelow.
T 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.3
lgT 0 0.114 0.176 0.255 0.301 0.362
l 0.25 0.42 0.56 0.81 1.0 1.32
lgl 0.602 0.377 0.252 0.092 0 0.121
A graph of lgT against lgl is shown in Fig. 16.5 and thelaw
T =kl
n
istruesinceastraight lineresults.
0.40
lg T
lg I
0.30
0.20
0.10
0 0.10 0.10 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
0.25
0.05
A
B C
Fig. 16.5
Fromthegraph, gradient of straight line,
n =
AB
BC
=
0.250.05
0.10(0.50)
=
0.20
0.40
=
1
2
Vertical axisintercept, lgk =0.30
Hencek =antilog0.30(=10
0.30
)=2.0
Hence the law of the graph is T =2.0 l
1/2
or T =2.0
l
Whenlengthl =0.75mthenT =2.0
0.75=1.73 s
Problem 6. Quantities x andy arebelievedto berelated
byalawof theformy = ab
x
, wherea andb areconstants.
Valuesof x andcorrespondingvaluesof y are:
x 0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0
y 5.0 9.67 18.7 36.1 69.8 135.0
Verify the law and determine the approximate values of
a andb. Hencedetermine(a) thevalueof y whenx is 2.1
and(b) thevalueof x wheny is100
Frompara(ii), if y =ab
x
then
lgy = (lgb)x +lga
andcomparingwith
Y = mX +c
showsthat lgy isplottedverticallyandx horizontally.
Another tableisdrawnupasshownbelow.
x 0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0
y 5.0 9.67 18.7 36.1 69.8 135.0
lgy 0.70 0.99 1.27 1.56 1.84 2.13
A graph of lgy against x is shown in Fig. 16.6 and since a
straight lineresults, thelawy =ab
x
isveried.
2.50
2.13
2.00
1.50
l
g
y
1.17
1.00
0.70
0.50
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 x
A
B
C
Fig. 16.6
lgb =
AB
BC
=
2.131.17
3.01.0
=
0.96
2.0
= 0.48
Henceb =antilog0.48(=10
0.48
)=3.0, correct to 2signicant
gures.
Vertical axisintercept, lga =0.70,
fromwhicha =antilog0.70(=10
0.70
)
=5.0, correct to2signicant gures
Hence the law of the graph is y =5.0(3.0)
x
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(a) Whenx =2.1, y =5.0(3.0)
2.1
= 50.2
(b) Wheny =100, 100=5.0(3.0)
x
,
fromwhich100/5.0=(3.0)
x
,
i.e. 20=(3.0)
x
Takinglogarithmsof bothsidesgives
lg20= lg(3.0)
x
= x lg3.0
Hence x =
lg 20
lg 3.0
=
1.3010
0.4771
=2.73
Problem7. Thecurrenti mA owinginacapacitorwhich
isbeingdischargedvarieswithtimet msasshownbelow.
i mA 203 61.14 22.49 6.13 2.49 0.615
t ms 100 160 210 275 320 390
Show that these results are related by a law of the form
i =I e
t/T
, where I and T are constants. Determine the
approximatevaluesof I andT.
TakingNapierianlogarithmsof bothsidesof i =I e
t/T
gives
lni =ln(I e
t/T
)= lnI + lne
t/T
i.e. lni =lnI +
t
T
(since lne=1)
or lni =
_
1
T
_
t + lnI
which compares with y =mx +c, showing that lni is plotted
vertically against t horizontally. (For methods of evaluating
Napierian logarithms seeChapter 15.) Another tableof values
isdrawnupasshownbelow.
t 100 160 210 275 320 390
i 203 61.14 22.49 6.13 2.49 0.615
lni 5.31 4.11 3.11 1.81 0.91 0.49
A graphof lni againstt isshowninFig. 16.7andsinceastraight
lineresultsthelawi =I e
t/T
isveried.
1
T
=
AB
BC
=
5.301.30
100300
=
4.0
200
= 0.02
HenceT =
1
0.02
=50
Selectinganypointonthegraph, saypointD, wheret =200and
lni =3.31, andsubstitutingintolni =
_
1
T
_
t + lnI gives
3.31=
1
50
(200)+ lnI
fromwhich lnI =3.31+4.0=7.31
5.0
A
D(200, 3.31)
B
C
4.0
3.31
l
n
i
3.0
2.0
1.30
1.0
0
1.0
100 200 300 400 t (ms)
Fig. 16.7
andI =antilog 7.31(=e
7.31
)=1495or1500 correctto3signi-
cant gures.
Hence the law of the graph is i =1500e
t/50
Exercise 61 Further problems on reducing non-linear
laws to linear form (Answers on page 277)
In Problems 1 to 3, x and y aretwo related variables and
all other letters denoteconstants. For thestatedlaws to be
veried it is necessary to plot graphs of the variables in
a modied form. State for each (a) what should be plot-
tedonthevertical axis, (b) what shouldbeplottedonthe
horizontal axis, (c) the gradient and (d) the vertical axis
intercept.
1. y =ba
x
2. y =kx
l
3.
y
m
=e
nx
4. TheluminosityI of alampvarieswiththeappliedvoltage
V andtherelationshipbetweenI andV isthought tobe
I =kV
n
. Experimental resultsobtainedare:
I candelas 1.92 4.32 9.72 15.87 23.52 30.72
V volts 40 60 90 115 140 160
Verify that the law is true and determine the law of
thegraph. Determinealso theluminosity when75V is
appliedacrossthelamp.
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5. The head of pressure h and the ow velocity v are
measured and arebelieved to beconnected by thelaw
v =ah
b
, wherea andb areconstants. Theresultsareas
shownbelow.
h 10.6 13.4 17.2 24.6 29.3
v 9.77 11.0 12.44 14.88 16.24
Verifythatthelawistrueanddeterminevaluesof a andb
6. Experimental valuesof x andy aremeasuredasfollows.
x 0.4 0.9 1.2 2.3 3.8
y 8.35 13.47 17.94 51.32 215.20
The law relating x and y is believed to be of the
formy =ab
x
, wherea and b areconstants. Determine
the approximate values of a and b. Hence nd the
value of y when x is 2.0 and the value of x when
y is100
7. The activity of a mixture of radioactive isotope is
believedtovary accordingtothelawR=R
0
t
c
, where
R
0
andc areconstants.
Experimental resultsareshownbelow.
R 9.72 2.65 1.15 0.47 0.32 0.23
t 2 5 9 17 22 28
Verify that the law is true and determine approximate
valuesof R
0
andc.
8. Determinethelawof theformy =ae
kx
whichrelatesthe
followingvalues.
y 0.0306 0.285 0.841 5.21 173.2 1181
x 4.0 5.3 9.8 17.4 32.0 40.0
9. The tension T in a belt passing round a pulley wheel
andincontactwiththepulleyover anangleof radians
is given by T =T
0
e
, where T
0
and are constants.
Experimental resultsobtainedare:
T newtons 47.9 52.8 60.3 70.1 80.9
radians 1.12 1.48 1.97 2.53 3.06
Determineapproximatevaluesof T
0
and. Hencend
thetension when is 2.25 radians and thevalueof
whenthetensionis50.0newtons.
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17
Graphs with logarithmic scales
17.1 Logarithmic scales
Graphpaperisavailablewherethescalemarkingsalongthehori-
zontal andvertical axesareproportional tothelogarithmsof the
numbers. Suchgraphpaper iscalledloglog graph paper.
1 2 3 4 5 9 8 7 6 10
Fig. 17.1
100
10
y
1.0
0.1 1.0
x
10
A
C
y ax
b
B
Fig. 17.2
A logarithmic scale is shown in Fig. 17.1 where the dis-
tancebetween, say 1 and 2, is proportional to lg 2lg 1, i.e.
0.3010of thetotal distancefrom1to10. Similarly, thedistance
between7and8isproportional tolg8lg7, i.e. 0.05799of the
total distancefrom1to10. Thusthedistancebetweenmarkings
progressivelydecreasesasthenumbersincreasefrom1to10.
With loglog graph paper thescalemarkings arefrom1 to
9, and this pattern can berepeated several times. Thenumber
of timesthepatternof markingsisrepeatedonanaxissignies
thenumber of cycles. Whenthevertical axishas, say, 3setsof
values from1 to 9, and the horizontal axis has, say, 2 sets of
valuesfrom1to9, thenthislogloggraphpaper iscalledlog3
cycle2cycle (seeFig. 17.2). Manydifferentarrangementsare
availablerangingfromlog1cycle1cycle throughto log5
cycle5cycle.
To depict aset of values, say, from0.4to 161, onanaxis of
logloggraphpaper, 4cyclesarerequired, from0.1to1, 1to10,
10to100and100to1000.
17.2 Graphs of the form y =ax
n
Taking logarithms to a base of 10 of both sides of y =ax
n
gives:
lgy =lg(ax
n
)
=lga +lgx
n
i.e. lgy =n lgx +lga
whichcompareswith Y =mX +c
Thus,byplottinglgy verticallyagainstlgx horizontally,astraight
lineresults, i.e. theequationy =ax
n
is reducedto linear form.
With loglog graph paper available x and y may be plotted
directly, without having rst to determine their logarithms,
asshowninChapter 16.
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Graphs with logarithmic scales 125
Problem 1. Experimental valuesof tworelatedquantities
x andy areshownbelow:
x 0.41 0.63 0.92 1.36 2.17 3.95
y 0.45 1.21 2.89 7.10 20.79 82.46
Thelawrelatingx andy isbelievedtobey =ax
b
, wherea
andb areconstants.Verifythatthislawistrueanddetermine
theapproximatevaluesof a andb.
If y =ax
b
thenlgy =b lgx +lg a, fromabove, whichis of the
formY =mX +c, showingthat toproduceastraight linegraph
lgy isplottedverticallyagainstlgx horizontally. x andy maybe
plotteddirectlyontologloggraphpaper asshowninFig. 17.2.
The values of y range from 0.45 to 82.46 and 3 cycles are
needed (i.e. 0.1 to 1, 1 to 10 and 10 to 100). The values of x
rangefrom0.41 to 3.95 and 2 cycles areneeded (i.e. 0.1 to 1
and 1 to 10). Hence log3 cycle2 cycle is used as shown
in Fig. 17.2 where the axes are marked and the points plot-
ted. Since the points lie on a straight line the law y =ax
b
is
veried.
To evaluate constants a and b:
Method 1. Any two points on the straight line, say points A
and C, are selected, and AB and BC are measured (say in
centimetres).
Then, gradient, b =
AB
BC
=
11.5units
5units
=2.3
Sincelgy =b lgx +lga, whenx =1, lgx =0andlgy =lga.
Thestraight linecrossestheordinatex =1.0at y =3.5.
Hencelga =lg3.5, i.e. a =3.5
Method 2. Any two points on the straight line, say points A
and C, are selected. A has coordinates (2, 17.25) and C has
coordinates(0.5, 0.7).
Since y =ax
b
then 17.25=a(2)
b
(1)
and 0.7=a(0.5)
b
(2)
i.e. twosimultaneousequationsareproducedandmaybesolved
for a andb.
Dividingequation(1) byequation(2) toeliminatea gives:
17.25
0.7
=
(2)
b
(0.5)
b
=
_
2
0.5
_
b
i.e. 24.643= (4)
b
Takinglogarithmsof bothsidesgives
lg24.643=b lg4, i.e.
b =
lg24.643
lg4
= 2.3, correct to2signicant gures.
Substitutingb =2.3inequation(1) gives:
17.25=a(2)
2.3
, i.e.
a =
17.25
(2)
2.3
=
17.25
4.925
Hence the law of the graph is: y =3.5x
2.3
Problem 2. The power dissipated by a resistor was
measured for varying values of current owing in the
resistor andtheresultsareasshown:
Current, I amperes 1.4 4.7 6.8 9.1 11.2 13.1
Power, P watts 49 552 1156 2070 3136 4290
Provethatthelawrelatingcurrentandpower isof theform
P =RI
n
,whereRandnareconstants,anddeterminethelaw.
Hencecalculatethepower whenthecurrent is12amperes
andthecurrent whenthepower is1000watts.
Since P =RI
n
then lg P = nlgl +lgR, which is of the form
Y =mX +c, showingthattoproduceastraightlinegraphlgP is
plotted vertically against lg I horizontally. Power values range
from49 to 4290, hence 3 cycles of loglog graph paper are
needed (10 to 100, 100 to 1000 and 1000 to 10000). Current
values range from 1.4 to 11.2, hence 2 cycles of loglog
graph paper are needed (1 to 10 and 10 to 100). Thus
log 3 cycles2 cycles is used as shown in Fig. 17.3 (or, if
not available, graph paper having a larger number of cycles
per axis can be used). The co-ordinates are plotted and a
straight line results which proves that the law relating cur-
rent and power is of the form P =RI
n
. Gradient of straight
line,
n =
AB
BC
=
14units
7units
= 2
At point C, I =2 and P =100. Substituting these values into
P =RI
n
gives: 100=R(2)
2
. Hence R=100/(2)
2
=25 which
may havebeen found fromtheintercept on theI =1.0axis in
Fig. 17.3.
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10000
1000
100
10
1.0 10 100
Current, l amperes
P
o
w
e
r
,

P

w
a
t
t
s
A
B
C
PRl
n
Fig. 17.3
Hence the law of the graph is P =25I
2
Whencurrent I =12, power P =25(12)
2
= 3600 watts (which
maybereadfromthegraph).
Whenpower P =1000, 1000=25I
2
.
Hence I
2
=
1000
25
=40,
fromwhich, I =
40=6.32 A
Problem 3. The pressure p and volume v of a gas are
believed to be related by a law of the form p =cv
n
,
wherec andn areconstants. Experimental valuesof p and
correspondingvaluesof v obtainedinalaboratoryare:
p pascals 2.2810
5
8.0410
5
2.0310
6
v m
3
3.210
2
1.310
2
6.710
3
p pascals 5.0510
6
1.8210
7
v m
3
3.510
3
1.410
3
Verifythatthelawistrueanddetermineapproximatevalues
of c andn.
Since p =cv
n
, then lg p =n lgv +lgc, which is of the form
Y =mX +c, showing that to produce a straight line graph lg
p isplottedverticallyagainst lgv horizontally. Theco-ordinates
areplotted on log3 cycle2 cycle graph paper as shown in
Fig. 17.4. Withthedataexpressedinstandardform, theaxesare
markedinstandardformalso. Sinceastraightlineresultsthelaw
p =cv
n
isveried.
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p

P
a
s
c
a
l
s
A
p cv
n
B C
1 10
8
1 10
7
1 10
6
1 10
5
1 10
2
1 10
1
1 10
3
Volume, v m
3
Fig. 17.4
The straight line has a negative gradient and the value of the
gradient isgivenby:
AB
BC
=
14units
10units
= 1.4,
hencen =1.4
Selecting any point on the straight line, say point C, having
co-ordinates (2.6310
2
, 310
5
), and substituting these
valuesinp =cv
n
gives:
310
5
= c(2.6310
2
)
1.4
Hence c =
310
5
(2.6310
2
)
1.4
=
310
5
(0.0263)
1.4
=
310
5
1.6310
2
=1840, correct to3signicant gures.
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Hence the law of the graph is:
p =1840
1.4
or p
1.4
=1840
Exercise 62 Further problems on graphs of the form
y =ax
n
1. Quantities x and y are believed to be related by a
law of theformy =ax
n
, wherea and n areconstants.
Experimental values of x and corresponding values
of y are:
x 0.8 2.3 5.4 11.5 21.6 42.9
y 8 54 250 974 3028 10410
Showthat thelawistrueanddeterminethevaluesof a
andn. Hencedeterminethevalueof y whenx is7.5and
thevalueof x wheny is5000.
2. Showfromthefollowingresultsof voltageV andadmit-
tanceY of anelectrical circuit that thelawconnecting
thequantitiesisof theformV =kY
n
, anddeterminethe
valuesof k andn.
Voltage,
V volts 2.88 2.05 1.60 1.22 0.96
Admittance
Y siemens 0.52 0.73 0.94 1.23 1.57
3. Quantities x and y arebelieved to berelated by alaw
of theformy =mn
x
. Thevaluesof x andcorresponding
valuesof y are:
x 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
y 1.0 3.2 10 31.6 100 316 1000
Verifythelawandndthevaluesof m andn.
17.3 Graphs of the form y =ab
x
Takinglogarithmstoabaseof 10of bothsidesof y =ab
x
gives:
lgy =lg(ab
x
)=lga +lgb
x
=lga +xlgb
i.e. lgy =(lgb)x +lga
whichcompareswith Y =mX +c
Thus, byplottinglgy verticallyagainst x horizontallyastraight
lineresults, i.e. thegraphy =ab
x
is reducedto linear form. In
thiscase, graphpaper havingalinear horizontal scaleandalog-
arithmicvertical scalemaybeused. Thistypeof graphpaper is
calledloglinear graph paper, andisspeciedbythenumberof
cyclesonthelogarithmicscale. Forexample, graphpaperhaving
3cyclesonthelogarithmic scaleiscalledlog3cyclelinear
graphpaper.
Problem 4. Experimental valuesof quantitiesx andy are
believedtoberelatedby alawof theformy =ab
x
, where
a andb areconstants. Thevalues of x andcorresponding
valuesof y are:
x 0.7 1.4 2.1 2.9 3.7 4.3
y 18.4 45.1 111 308 858 1850
Verify thelawanddeterminetheapproximatevalues of a
andb. Henceevaluate(i) thevalueof y whenx is2.5, and
(ii) thevalueof x wheny is1200.
Sincey =ab
x
then lgy =(lgb) x +lga (fromabove), which is
of theformY =mX +c, showingthat toproduceastraight line
graphlgy isplottedverticallyagainstx horizontally. Usinglog
lineargraphpaper, valuesof x aremarkedonthehorizontal scale
tocover therange0.7to4.3.Valuesof y rangefrom18.4to1850
and3cyclesareneeded(i.e. 10to100, 100to1000and1000to
10000).Thuslog3cycleslinear graphpaperisusedasshown
in Fig. 17.5. A straight lineis drawn through theco-ordinates,
hencethelawy =ab
x
isveried.
10000
1000
100
10
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
x
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
A
B
C
y ab
x

Fig. 17.5
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ch017 9/2/2005 10: 49 page128
Gradient of straight line, lgb =AB/BC. Direct measurement
(sayincentimetres) isnotmadewithlog-lineargraphpapersince
thevertical scaleislogarithmicandthehorizontal scaleislinear.
Hence
AB
BC
=
lg1000lg100
3.822.02
=
32
1.80
=
1
1.80
= 0.5556
Henceb =antilog0.5556(=10
0.5556
)=3.6, correct to 2signi-
cant gures.
Point A hascoordinates(3.82, 1000).
Substitutingthesevaluesintoy =ab
x
gives:
1000=a(3.6)
3.82
, i.e.
a =
1000
(3.6)
3.82
Hence the law of the graph is: y =7.5(3.6)
x
(i) Whenx =2.5, y =7.5(3.6)
2.5
=184
(ii) Wheny =1200, 1200=7.5(3.6)
x
, hence
(3.6)
x
=
1200
7.5
= 160
Takinglogarithmsgives: xlg3.6=lg160
i.e. x =
lg160
lg3.6
=
2.2041
0.5563
=3.96
Exercise 63 Further problem on graphs of the form
y =ab
x
1. Experimental valuesof p andcorrespondingvaluesof q
areshownbelow.
p 13.2 27.9 62.2 383.2 1581 2931
q 0.30 0.75 1.23 2.32 3.17 3.54
Show that the law relating p and q is p =ab
q
, where
a andb areconstants. Determine(i) values of a andb,
andstatethelaw, (ii) thevalueof p whenq is 2.0, and
(iii) thevalueof q whenp is2000.
17.4 Graphs of the form y =ae
kx
Taking logarithms to a base of e of both sides of y =ae
kx
gives:
lny = ln(ae
kx
) = lna +lne
kx
= lna +kx lne
i.e. lny = kx +lna (sincelne=1)
Thus, byplottinglny verticallyagainst x horizontally, astraight
lineresults, i.e. theequationy =ae
kx
isreducedtolinear form.
Inthiscase,. graphpaper havingalinear horizontal scaleanda
logarithmicvertical scalemaybeused.
Problem 5. Thedatagivenbelowisbelievedtoberealted
byalawof theformy =ae
kx
, wherea andb areconstants.
Verifythatthelawistrueanddetermineapproximatevalues
of a andb. Alsodeterminethevalueof y whenx is3.8and
thevalueof x wheny is85.
x 1.2 0.38 1.2 2.5 3.4 4.2 5.3
y 9.3 22.2 34.8 71.2 117 181 332
Sincey =ae
kx
thenlny =kx +lna (fromabove), whichisof the
formY =mX +c, showingthat toproduceastraight linegraph
ln y is plotted vertically against x horizontally. Thevalueof y
rangesfrom9.3to332hencelog3cyclelinear graphpaper
isused.Theplotedco-ordinatesareshowninFig.17.6andsincea
straightlinepassesthroughthepointsthelawy =ae
kx
isveried.
k =
AB
BC
=
ln100ln10
3.12(1.08)
=
2.3026
4.20
Sincelny =kx +lna, whenx =0, lny =lna, i.e. y =a.
Thevertical axisintercept valueat x =0is18, hencea =18.
The law of the graph is thus: y =18e
0.55x
Whenx is3.8,
y =18e
0.55(3.8)
=18e
2.09
=18(8.0849)=146
Wheny is85, 85=18e
0.55x
Hence, e
0.55x
=
85
18
=4.7222
and0.55x =ln4.7222=1.5523.
Hencex =
1.5523
0.55
=2.82
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1000
y
100
10
0
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
A
y ae
kx
B
C
Fig. 17.6
Problem 6. The voltage, v volts, across an inductor is
believedto berelatedto time, t ms, by thelawv =Ve
t/T
,
whereV andT areconstants. Experimental resultsobtained
are:
v volts 883 347 90 55.5 18.6 5.2
t ms 10.4 21.6 37.8 43.6 56.7 72.0
Showthat thelawrelatingvoltageandtimeisasstatedand
determinetheapproximatevaluesof V andT. Findalsothe
valueof voltageafter 25msandthetimewhenthevoltage
is30.0V
Sincev =Ve
t/T
thenlnv =
1
T
t +lnV
whichisof theformY = mX +c.
Usinglog3cyclelinear graphpaper, thepointsareplottedas
showninFig. 17.7.
Sincethepointsarejoinedbyastraight linethelawv =Ve
t/T
is
veried.
1
T
=
AB
BC
=
ln100ln10
36.564.2
=
2.3026
27.7
HenceT =
27.7
2.3026
=12.0, correct to3signicant gures.
1000
100
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
,

v

v
o
l
t
s
10
1
0 10 60 70 80 90
(36.5, 100)
A
B C
Time, t ms
20 30 40 50
v Ve
T
t
Fig. 17.7
Sincethestraight linedoesnot crossthevertical axisat t =0
inFig. 17.7, thevalueof V isdeterminedbyselectinganypoint,
say A, having co-ordinates (36.5, 100) and substituting these
valuesintov =Ve
t/T
. Thus
100=Ve
36.5/12.0
i.e V =
100
e
36.5/12.0
=2090 volts.
Hence the law of graph is: =2090e
t/12.0
Whentimet =25ms, voltage =2090e
25/12.0
= 260 V.
Whenthevoltageis30.0volts, 30.0=2090e
t/12.0
, hence
e
t/12.0
=
30.0
2090
and e
t/12.0
=
2090
30.0
= 69.67
TakingNapierianlogarithmsgives:
t
12.0
= ln69.67= 4.2438
fromwhich, timet =(12.0)(4.2438)=50.9 ms.
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Exercise 64 Further problems on reducing exponential
laws to linear form (Answers on page 277)
1. Atmosphericpressurep ismeasuredatvaryingaltitudes
h andtheresultsareasshownbelow:
Altitude, h m 500 1500 3000 5000 8000
pressure, p cm 73.39 68.42 61.60 53.56 43.41
Showthat thequantitiesarerelatedbythelawp =ae
kh
,
where a and k are constants. Determine the values of
a and k and state the law. Find also the atmospheric
pressureat 10000m.
2. At particular times, t minutes, measurements aremade
of the temperature,
C, of a cooling liquid and the

followingresultsareobtained:
Temperature
C 92.2 55.9 33.9 20.6 12.5

Time
t minutes 10 20 30 40 50
Prove that the quantities follow a law of the form
=
0
e
kt
, where
0
andk areconstants, anddetermine
theapproximatevalueof
0
andk.
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18
Geometry and triangles
18.1 Angular measurement
Geometry is apart of mathematics in which theproperties of
points, lines, surfacesandsolidsareinvestigated.
Anangle istheamount of rotationbetweentwostraight lines.
Angles may be measured in either degrees or radians (see
Section23.3).
1revolution=360degrees, thus1degree=
1
360
thof onerevo-
lution. Also1minute=
1
60
thof adegreeand1second =
1
60
th
of aminute. 1minuteiswrittenas1
and1secondiswrittenas1
Thus1
=60
and 1
=60
Problem 1. Add14
53
and37
19
14
53
37
19
52
12
53
+19
=72
. Since 60
=1
, 72
=1
12
. Thus the 12
is
placed in theminutes column and 1
is carried in thedegrees
column.
Then14
+37
+1
(carried)=52
Thus 14
53
+37
19
=52
12
Problem 2. Subtract 15
47
from28
13
27
28
13
15
47
12
26
13
47
cannot bedone. Hence1
or 60
is borrowed from
the degrees column, which leaves 27
in that column. Now

(60
+13
)47
=26
, whichis placedintheminutes column.

27
15
=12
, whichisplacedinthedegreescolumn.
Thus28
13
15
47
=12
26
Problem 3. Determine(a) 13
42
51
+48
22
17
(b) 37
12
21
17
25
(a) 13
42
51
48
22
17
Adding: 62
(b) 36
11
37
12
21
17
25
Subtracting: 15
54
43
Problem 4. Convert (a) 24
42
(b) 78
15
26
to degrees
anddecimalsof adegree.
(a) Since1minute=
1
60
thof adegree,
42
=
_
42
60
_
= 0.70
Hence24
42
=24.70

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(b) Since1second=
1
60
thof aminute,
26
=
_
26
60
_
= 0.4333
Hence78
15
26
=78
15.4
15.4333
=
_
15.4
3
60
_
= 0.2572
,
Hence78
15
26
=78.26
, correct to4signicant places.

into degrees, minutes and

seconds.
Since1
=60
, 0.371
=(0.37160)
=22.26
Since: 1
=60
, 0.26
=(0.2660)
=15.6
=16
tothenearest
second.
Hence 45.371
=45
22
16

Exercise 65 Further problems on angular
measurement (Answers on page 277)
1. Addtogether thefollowingangles:
(a) 32
19
and49
52
(b) 29
42
, 56
37
and63
54
(c) 21
33
27
and78
42
36
(d) 48
11
19
, 31
41
27
and9
37
2. Determine:
(a) 17
49
(b) 43
37
15
49
(c) 78
29
41
59
41
52
(d) 114
47
52
37
3. Convertthefollowinganglestodegreesanddecimalsof
adegree, correct to3decimal places:
(a)15
11
(b)29
53
(c)49
42
17
(d)135
19
4. Convert thefollowinganglesintodegrees, minutesand

seconds:
(a) 25.4
(b) 36.48
(c) 55.724
(d) 231.025
18.2 Types and properties of angles

(a) (i) Anyanglebetween0
and90
iscalledanacute angle.
(ii) Anangleequal to90
iscalledaright angle.
(iii) Any angle between 90
and 180
is called an obtuse
angle.
(iv) Anyanglegreater than180
andlessthan360
iscalled
areex angle.
(b) (i) Anangleof 180
liesonastraight line.
(ii) If twoanglesaddupto90
theyarecalledcomplemen-
tary angles.
(iii) If twoanglesaddupto180
theyarecalledsupplemen-
tary angles.
(iv) Parallel lines arestraight lines which arein thesame
planeandnevermeet. (Suchlinesaredenotedbyarrows,
asinFig. 18.1).
(v) A straight linewhichcrossestwoparallel linesiscalled
atransversal (seeMNinFig. 18.1).
P
R
Q
S
h e
g
M
N
f
d a
c
b
Fig. 18.1
(c) WithreferencetoFig. 18.1:
(i) a =c, b =d, e =g and f =h. Such pairs of angles are
calledvertically opposite angles.
(ii) a =e, b =f , c =g and d =h. Such pairs of angles are
calledcorresponding angles.
(iii) c =e andb =h. Suchpairsof anglesarecalledalternate
angles.
(iv) b +e =180
andc +h =180
. Suchpairsof anglesare
calledinterior angles.
Problem 6. Statethegeneral namegiventothefollowing
angles:
(a) 159
(b) 63
(c) 90
(d) 227
(a) 159
lies between 90
and 180
and is therefore called an

obtuse angle.
(b) 63
liesbetween0
and90
andisthereforecalledanacute
angle.
(c) 90
iscalledaright angle.
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Geometry and triangles 133
(d) 227
isgreater than180
andlessthan360
andistherefore
calledareex angle.
Problem 7. Findtheanglescomplementaryto
(a) 41
(b) 58
39
(a) Thecomplement of 41
is(90
41
), i.e. 49
(b) Thecomplement of 58
39
is(90
58
39
), i.e. 31
21
Problem 8. Findtheanglessupplementaryto
(a) 27
(b) 111
11
(a) Thesupplement of 27
is(180
27
), i.e. 153
(b) Thesupplement of 111
11
is(180
111
11
), i.e. 68
49
Problem 9. TwostraightlinesAB andCD intersectat0. If

AOC is43
, ndAOD, DOB andBOC.

From Fig. 18.2, AOD is supplementary to AOC. Hence
AOD=180
43
=137
. When two straight lines intersect

theverticallyoppositeanglesareequal. HenceDOB=43
and
BOC =137
A
D
B
C
0
43
Fig. 18.2
Problem 10. Determineangle inFig. 18.3.
b
133
a
Fig. 18.3
=180
133
=47
(i.e. supplementaryangles).
= =47
(correspondinganglesbetweenparallel lines).
Problem 11. Determinethevalueof angle inFig. 18.4.
A B
2337
u
F G
E
C D
3549
Fig. 18.4
LetastraightlineFGbedrawnthroughE suchthatFGisparallel
toAB andCD. BAE =AEF (alternateanglesbetweenparal-
lel lines AB and FG), henceAEF =23
37
. ECD=FEC
(alternate angles between parallel lines FG and CD), hence
FEC =35
49
Angle =AEF +FEC =23
37
+35
49
=59
26
Problem 12. Determineanglesc andd inFig. 18.5.

d
46
b a
c
Fig. 18.5
b =46
(correspondinganglesbetweenparallel lines).
Alsob +c +90
=180
(anglesonastraight line).
Hence46
+c +90
=180
, fromwhichc =44
.
b andd aresupplementary, henced =180
46
=134
.
Alternatively, 90
+c =d (verticallyoppositeangles).
Exercise 66 Further problems on types and properties
of angles (Answers on page 277)
1. Statethegeneral namegiventothe
(a) 63
(b) 147
(c) 250
2. Determinetheanglescomplementarytothefollowing:
(a) 69
(b) 27
37
(c) 41
43
3. Determinetheanglessupplementaryto
(a) 78
(b) 15
(c) 169
41
11

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4. With referenceto Fig. 18.6, what is thenamegiven to
thelineXY. Giveexamplesof eachof thefollowing:
(a) verticallyoppositeangles.
(b) supplementaryangles.
(c) correspondingangles.
(d) alternateangles.
1
2
3
4
x
y
5
6
7
8
Fig. 18.6
5. InFig. 18.7, ndangle.
a
13729
1649
Fig. 18.7
6. InFig. 18.8, ndanglesa, b andc.
c
b
29
69
a
Fig. 18.8
7. Findangle inFig. 18.9.
133
98
b
Fig. 18.9
18.3 Properties of triangles
A triangleisagureenclosedbythreestraightlines. Thesumof
thethreeanglesof atriangleisequal to180
. Typesof triangles:
(i) Anacute-angled triangle isoneinwhichall theanglesare
acute, i.e. all theanglesarelessthan90
.
(ii) A right-angled triangle isonewhichcontainsarightangle.
(iii) Anobtuse-angled triangle isonewhichcontainsanobtuse
angle, i.e. oneanglewhichliesbetween90
and180
.
(iv) Anequilateral triangle isoneinwhichall thesidesandall
theanglesareequal (i.e. each60
).
(v) Anisosceles triangle is oneinwhichtwo angles andtwo
sidesareequal.
(vi) A scalene triangle isonewithunequal anglesandtherefore
unequal sides.
WithreferencetoFig. 18.10:
A
C B
u
b
c
a
Fig. 18.10
(i) AnglesA, B andC arecalledinterior angles of thetriangle.
(ii) Angle iscalledanexterior angle of thetriangleandisequal
tothesumof thetwooppositeinterior angles, i.e. =A+C
(iii) a +b +c iscalledtheperimeter of thetriangle.
Problem 13. Name the types of triangles shown in
Fig. 18.11.
2
(a) (b)
2
2.6
2.1
2.8
107
39
51
2.5
2.5
2.1
2
(d) (e)
(c)
Fig. 18.11
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(a) Equilateral triangle.
(b) Acute-angledscalenetriangle.
(c) Right-angledtriangle.
(d) Obtuse-angledscalenetriangle.
(e) Isoscelestriangle.
Problem14. Determinethevalueof and inFig. 18.12.
A
B
C
D
E
u
a
62
15
Fig. 18.12
In triangle ABC, A+B+C =180
(angles in a trian-
gleaddupto180
), henceC =180
90
62
=28
. Thus
DCE =28
(verticallyoppositeangles).
=DCE +DEC (exterior angle of a triangle is equal
to the sum of the two opposite interior angles). Hence
=28
+15
=43
andDEC aresupplementary, thus

= 180
15
= 165
Problem 15. ABC is an isosceles triangle in which the

unequal angleBAC is56
. AB isextendedtoD asshownin
Fig. 18.13. DeterminetheangleDBC.
56
A
B
D
C
Fig. 18.13
Sincethethreeinterior anglesof atriangleaddupto180
then
56
+B+C =180
, i.e. B+C =180
56
=124
.
TriangleABC isisosceleshenceB=C =
124
2
=62
.
DBC =A+C (exterior angle equals sumof two interior
oppositeangles), i.e. DBC=56
+62
=118
[Alternatively,
DBC +ABC =180
(i.e. supplementaryangles)].
Problem 16. Findanglesa, b, c, d ande inFig. 18.14.
e
55
62
d
c
b
a
Fig. 18.14
a =62
and c =55
(alternate angles between parallel lines)

55
+b +62
=180
(anglesinatriangleaddupto180
), hence
b =180
55
62
=63
b =d =63
(alternateanglesbetweenparallel lines).
e +55
+63
=180
(anglesinatriangleaddupto180
), hence
e =180
55
63
=62
[Check: e =a =62
(corresponding angles between parallel

lines)].
Exercise 67 Further problems on properties of
triangles (Answers on page 278)
1. In Fig. 18.15, (i) and (ii), nd angles w, x, y and z.
Whatisthenamegiventothetypesof triangleshownin
(i) and(ii)?
2 cm
2 cm
70
110
110 x
(i) (ii)
y
v
z
Fig. 18.15
2. Findthevaluesof anglesa tog inFig. 18.16(i) and(ii).
5629
1441
b
(i) (ii)
a
131
68
f
g
e
d
c
Fig. 18.16
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3. Findtheunknownanglesa tok inFig. 18.17.
22
125
99
b
a
c
k
d
e
g
f
h
i
j
Fig. 18.17
4. TriangleABC hasarightangleatBandBAC is34
. BC
is producedtoD. If thebisectors of ABC andACD
meet at E, determineBEC.
5. If in Fig. 18.18, triangle BCD is equilateral, nd the
interior anglesof triangleABE.
E
D
C
B
A
97
Fig. 18.18
18.4 Congruent triangles
Two triangles aresaid to becongruent if they areequal in all
respects, i.e. threeanglesandthreesidesinonetriangleareequal
tothreeanglesandthreesidesintheother triangle.Twotriangles
arecongruent if:
(i) thethreesidesof oneareequal tothethreesidesof theother
(SSS),
(ii) they have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the
other, and if theangles included by thesesides areequal
(SAS),
(iii) two angles of theoneareequal to two angles of theother
andany sideof therst is equal tothecorrespondingside
of theother (ASA), or
(iv) their hypotenuses are equal and if one other side of
one is equal to the corresponding side of the other
(RHS).
Problem 17. Statewhichof thepairsof trianglesshownin
Fig. 18.19arecongruent andnametheir sequence.
B
C
E
D
F
(a)
(d)
(c)
(e)
(b)
H
K
J
L
F
E
D
B
C
A
W
X
V
S
M
N
O
Q
R
P
U
T
G
I
A
Fig. 18.19
(a) Congruent ABC, FDE (Angle, side, angle, i.e. ASA).
(b) Congruent GIH, JLK (Side, angle, side, i.e. SAS).
(c) Congruent MNO, RQP (Right-angle, hypotenuse, side, i.e.
RHS).
(d) Not necessarily congruent. It is not indicatedthat any side
coincides.
(e) Congruent ABC, FED (Side, side, side, i.e. SSS).
Problem 18. InFig. 18.20, trianglePQR isisosceleswith
Z themid-pointof PQ. ProvethattrianglePXZ andQYZ are
congruent, andthat trianglesRXZ andRYZ arecongruent.
Determinethevaluesof anglesRPZ andRXZ.
P Q
X Y
R
Z
67
28 28
Fig. 18.20
SincetrianglePQR isisoscelesPR=RQ andthus
QPR = RQP
RXZ =QPR+28
and RYZ =RQP +28
(exterior
angles of atriangleequal thesumof thetwo interior opposite
angles). HenceRXZ =RYZ.
PXZ =180
RXZ and QYZ =180
RYZ. Thus
PXZ =QYZ.
TrianglesPXZ andQYZ arecongruent since
XPZ = YQZ, PZ = ZQ andXZP = YZQ
(ASA)
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HenceXZ =YZ
Triangles PRZ and QRZ are congruent since PR=RQ,
RPZ =RQZ andPZ =ZQ (SAS). HenceRZX =RZY
Triangles RXZ and RYZ are congruent since RXZ =RYZ,
XZ =YZ and RZX =RZY (ASA). QRZ =67
and thus
PRQ=67
+67
=134
. Hence
RPZ=RQZ =
180
134
2
=23
RXZ=23
+28
=51
(external angleof atriangleequalsthe

sumof thetwointerior oppositeangles).
Exercise 68 Further problems on congruent triangles
1. State which of the pairs of triangles in Fig. 18.21 are
congruent andnametheir sequence.
A
E
G
F
L
K
M
O
P
N
V
W
U
Q S
X
Y
Z
R
T
H
I
J
C
B D
(a) (b) (c)
(e)
(d)
Fig. 18.21
2. InatriangleABC, AB=BC andD andE arepointson
AB andBC, respectively, suchthat AD=CE. Showthat
trianglesAEB andCDB arecongruent.
18.5 Similar triangles
Twotrianglesaresaidtobesimilar if theanglesof onetriangle
are equal to the angles of the other triangle. With reference
to Fig. 18.22: Triangles ABC and PQR are similar and the
correspondingsidesareinproportiontoeachother, i.e.
p
a
=
q
b
=
r
c
A
B C a
c
r
p Q R
P
q
65 65 58 58
57
57
b
Fig. 18.22
Problem 19. InFig. 18.23, ndthelengthof sidea.
A
a
B
70
50
50
60
C
D
E F
c 12.0 cm
f 5.0 cm
d 4.42 cm
Fig. 18.23
IntriangleABC, 50
+70
+C =180
, fromwhichC =60
IntriangleDEF, E =180
50
60
=70
. Hencetriangles
ABC andDEF aresimilar, sincetheir anglesarethesame. Since
correspondingsidesareinproportiontoeachother then:
a
d
=
c
f
i.e.
a
4.42
=
12.0
5.0
Hence a =
12.0
5.0
(4.42)=10.61 cm
Problem 20. In Fig. 18.24, nd the dimensions marked
r andp.
P
R
q 6.82 cm
r
p
35
55
Q
x 7.44 cm
Y
Z
X
z
1
2
.
9
7
c
m
y

1
0
.6
3
c
m
Fig. 18.24
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IntrianglePQR, Q=180
90
35
=55
IntriangleXYZ, X =180
90
55
=35
Hence triangles PQR and ZYX are similar since their angles
are the same. The triangles may be redrawn as shown in
Fig. 18.25.
Q
Y
Z X
P
r
55
35
55
35
p
q 6.82 cm y 10.63 cm
x
7
.
4
4
c
m
z
1
2
.
9
7
c
m
R
Fig. 18.25
Byproportion:
p
z
=
r
x
=
q
y
Hence
p
z
=
r
7.44
=
6.82
10.63
fromwhich, r =7.44
_
6.82
10.63
_
=4.77 cm
Byproportion:
p
z
=
q
y
i.e.
p
12.97
=
6.82
10.63
Hence p =12.97
_
6.82
10.63
_
=8.32 cm
Problem 21. InFig. 18.26, showthat triangles CBD and
CAE aresimilar andhencendthelengthof CD andBD.
A
B
E C
D
12
6
9
10
Fig. 18.26
Since BD is parallel to AE then CBD=CAE and
CDB=CEA (correspondingangles betweenparallel lines).
AlsoC iscommontotrianglesCBDandCAE. Sincetheangles
intriangleCBD arethesameasintriangleCAE thetrianglesare
similar. Hence, byproportion:
CB
CA
=
CD
CE
_
=
BD
AE
_
i.e.
9
6+9
=
CD
12
, fromwhichCD=12
_
9
15
_
=7.2 cm
Also,
9
15
=
BD
10
, fromwhichBD =10
_
9
15
_
=6 cm
Problem 22. A rectangular shed 2mwideand 3mhigh
stands against aperpendicular buildingof height 5.5m. A
ladder is used to gain access to the roof of the building.
Determine the minimumdistance between the bottomof
theladder andtheshed.
A sideviewis showninFig. 18.27, whereAF is theminimum
lengthof ladder. SinceBD andCF areparallel, ADB=DFE
(corresponding angles between parallel lines). Hencetriangles
BAD andEDF aresimilar sincetheir anglesarethesame.
AB = AC BC = AC DE = 5.53= 2.5m.
Byproportion:
AB
DE
=
BD
EF
i.e.
2.5
3
=
2
EF
Hence EF =2
_
3
2.5
_
=2.4 m=minimum
distance from bottom of ladder to the shed
A
B
C
5.5 m
D
E F
2 m
3 m
Shed
Fig. 18.27
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Exercise 69 Further problems on similar triangles
1. InFig. 18.28, ndthelengthsx andy.
14.58 mm
25.69 mm
4.74 mm
7.36 mm
111
32
32
37
x
y
Fig. 18.28
2. PQRisanequilateral triangleof side4cm.WhenPQand
PR areproducedto S andT, respectively, ST is found
to be parallel with QR. If PS is 9cm, nd the length
of ST. X is apoint on ST between S and T such that
the line PX is the bisector of SPT. Find the length
of PX.
3. In Fig. 18.29, nd (a) the length of BC when
AB=6cm, DE =8cm and DC =3cm, (b) the
length of DE when EC =2cm, AC =5cm and
AB=10cm.
B
C
A
D E
Fig. 18.29
4. InFig. 18.30, AF =8m, AB=5mandBC =3m. Find
thelengthof BD.
C
B
A F
E
D
Fig. 18.30
18.6 Construction of triangles
Toconstruct anytrianglethefollowingdrawinginstrumentsare
needed:
(i) ruler and/or straight edge, (ii) compass, (iii) protractor,
(iv) pencil. For actual constructions, see Problems 23 to 26
whichfollow.
Problem 23. Construct a trianglewhosesides are6cm,
5cmand3cm.
F
E
B A 6 cm
C
G
D
Fig. 18.31
(i) Draw a straight line of any length, and with a pair of
compasses, markout 6cmlengthandlabel it AB.
(ii) Set compassto5cmandwithcentreat A describearcDE.
(iii) Set compassto3cmandwithcentreat B describearcFG.
(iv) Theintersectionof thetwocurves at C is thevertex of the
requiredtriangle. J oinAC andBC bystraight lines.
Itmaybeprovedbymeasurementthattheratioof theanglesof a
triangleisnot equal totheratioof thesides(i.e. inthisproblem,
theangleoppositethe3cmsideis not equal to half theangle
oppositethe6cmside).
Problem 24. ConstructatriangleABC suchthata =6cm,
b =3cmandC =60
.
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A
C B a 6 cm
b 3 cm
60
Fig. 18.32
(i) DrawalineBC, 6cmlong.
(ii) UsingaprotractorcentredatC makeanangleof 60
toBC.
(iii) FromC measurealengthof 3cmandlabel A.
(iv) J oinB toA byastraight line.
Problem 25. Construct a triangle PQR given that
QR=5cm, Q=70
andR=44
.
Q
P
R
Q
5 cm
70
44
R
Fig. 18.33
(i) Drawastraight line5cmlongandlabel it QR.
(ii) Useaprotractor centred at Q and makean angleof 70
.
DrawQQ
.
(iii) Use a protractor centred at R and make an angle of 44
.
DrawRR
.
(iv) Theintersectionof QQ
andRR
formsthevertex P of the
triangle.
Problem 26. Construct a triangle XYZ given that
XY =5cm, thehypotenuseYZ =6.5cmandX =90
.
V
S
Y X A A B
U
Z
P
C
R
Q
Fig. 18.34
(i) Drawastraight line5cmlongandlabel it XY.
(ii) ProduceXY anydistancetoB. Withcompasscentredat X
makeanarcatAandA
.(ThelengthXAandXA
isarbitrary.)
WithcompasscentredatA drawthearcPQ. Withthesame
compasssettingandcentredatA
, drawthearcRS. J ointhe
intersectionof thearcs, C, toX, andaright angletoXY is
producedat X. (Alternatively, aprotractor canbeusedto
construct a90
angle).
(iii) Thehypotenuseisalwaysoppositetherightangle. ThusYZ
is oppositeX. Using acompass centred at Y and set to
6.5cm, describethearcUV.
(iv) Theintersectionof thearcUV withXC produced, formsthe
vertexZ of therequiredtriangle. J oinYZ byastraightline.
Exercise 70 Further problems on the construction of
triangles (Answers on page 278)
Inproblems1to5, constructthetrianglesABCforthegiven
sides/angles.
1. a =8cm, b =6cmandc =5cm
2. a =40mm, b =60mmandC =60
3. a =6cm, C =45
andB=75
4. c =4cm, A=130
andC =15
5. a =90mm, B=90
, hypotenuse=105mm
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Assignment 8
Thisassignmentcoversthematerial containedinchap-
ters 16to18. Themarks for eachquestionareshown
inbracketsat theendof eachquestion.
1. In the following equations, x and y are two related
variablesandk andt areconstants. For thestatedequa-
tions to be veried it is necessary to plot graphs of
thevariablesinmodiedform. Statefor each(a) what
shouldbeplottedonthehorizontal axis,(b)whatshould
be plotted on the vertical axis, (c) the gradient, and
(d) thevertical axisintercept.
(i) y
k
x
=t (ii)
y
k
=x
t
(8)
2. The following experimental values of x and y are
believed to be related by the law y =ax
2
+b, where
a and b are constants. By plotting a suitable graph
verify this law and nd the approximate values of
a andb.
x 2.5 4.2 6.0 8.4 9.8 11.4
y 15.4 32.5 60.2 111.8 150.1 200.9
(8)
3. State the minimumnumber of cycles on logarithmic
graphpaper neededtoplotasetof valuesrangingfrom
0.065to480. (2)
4. Determinethelawof theformy =ae
kx
whichrelates
thefollowingvalues:
y 0.0306 0.285 0.841 5.21 173.2 1181
x 4.0 5.3 9.8 17.4 32.0 40.0
(8)
5. Evaluate: 29
17
+75
51
47
49
(3)
6. Convert 47.319
to degrees, minutes and seconds

(2)
7. Statetheangle (a) supplementaryto49
(b) complementaryto49
(2)
8. InFig. A8.1, determineanglesx, y andz (3)
59
37
y
z
x
Fig. A8.1
9. InFig. A8.2, determineanglesa toe (5)
c
b
d a
60
125
e
Fig. A8.2
10. InFig. A8.3, determinethelengthof AC (4)
10 m
3 m
8 m
A
C
D
B
Fig. A8.3
11. Construct atrianglePQR givenPQ=5cm,
QPR=120
andPRQ=35
(5)
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19
Introduction to trigonometry
19.1 Trigonometry
Trigonometry isthebranchof mathematicswhichdealswiththe
measurement of sidesandanglesof triangles, andtheir relation-
shipwitheachother.Therearemanyapplicationsinengineering
whereaknowledgeof trigonometryisneeded.
19.2 The theorem of Pythagoras
WithreferencetoFig. 19.1, thesideoppositetherightangle(i.e.
sideb) is called thehypotenuse. Thetheorem of Pythagoras
states:
In any right-angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is
equal tothesumof thesquaresontheother twosides.
Hence b
2
=a
2
+c
2
A
c
a
b
B C
Fig. 19.1
Problem 1. InFig. 19.2, ndthelengthof BC
C
A
a
b 4 cm
c 3 cm
B
Fig. 19.2
ByPythagoras theorem, a
2
=b
2
+c
2
i.e. a
2
=4
2
+3
2
=16+9=25
Hence a =
25=5(5hasno
meaninginthiscontext andisthusignored)
Thus bc =5 cm
Problem 2. InFig. 19.3, ndthelengthof EF
D
E
d
f 5 cm
e 13 cm
F
Fig. 19.3
ByPythagoras theorem: e
2
=d
2
+f
2
Hence 13
2
=d
2
+5
2
169=d
2
+25
d
2
=16925=144
Thus d =
144=12cm
i.e. EF =12 cm
Problem 3. Twoaircraftleaveanaireldatthesametime.
One travels due north at an average speed of 300km/h
and the other due west at an average speed of 220km/h.
Calculatetheir distanceapart after 4hours.
After 4hours, therst aircraft hastravelled4300=1200km,
duenorth, andthesecondaircrafthastravelled4220=880km
duewest,asshowninFig.19.4.Distanceapartafter4hours=BC
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Introduction to trigonometry 143
FromPythagoras theorem:
BC
2
=1200
2
+880
2
=1440000+774400
and BC=
_
(2214400)
N
S
W E
B
C A
1200 km
880 km
Fig. 19.4
Hence distance apart after 4 hours =1488 km.
Exercise 71 Further problems on the theorem of
Pythagoras (Answers on page 278)
1. InatriangleABC, B is aright angle, AB=6.92 and
BC =8.78cm. Findthelengthof thehypotenuse.
2. In a triangle CDE, D=90
, CD=14.83mm and
CE =28.31mm. Determinethelengthof DE.
3. Showthat if atrianglehassidesof 8, 15and17cmit is
right angled.
4. TrianglePQR isisosceles, Q beingaright angle. If the
hypotenuseis38.47cmnd(a) thelengthsof sidesPQ
andQR, and(b) thevalueof QPR.
5. A mancycles24kmduesouthandthen20kmdueeast.
Another man, startingat thesametimeastherst man,
cycles32kmdueeastandthen7kmduesouth. Findthe
distancebetweenthetwomen.
6. A ladder 3.5mlong is placed against a perpendicular
wall with its foot 1.0mfromthewall. Howfar up the
wall (to thenearest centimetre) does theladder reach?
If the foot of the ladder is now moved 30cmfurther
away fromthewall, howfar does thetopof theladder
fall?
7. Two ships leave a port at the same time. One trav-
els due west at 18.4km/h and the other due south at
27.6km/h. Calculatehowfarapartthetwoshipsareafter
4hours.
8. Figure 19.5 shows a bolt rounded off at one end.
Determinethedimensionh.
R45 mm
h
r
1
6
m
m
Fig. 19.5
9. Figure19.6showsacross-sectionof acomponentthatis
tobemadefromaroundbar. If thediameter of thebar
is74mm, calculatethedimensionx.
72 mm
f

7
4
m
m
x
Fig. 19.6
19.3 Trigonometric ratios of acute angles
(a) With reference to the right-angled triangle shown in
Fig. 19.7:
(i) sine =
oppositeside
hypotenuse
, i.e. sin =
b
c
(ii) cosine =
adjacent side
hypotenuse
, i.e. cos =
a
c
(iii) tangent =
oppositeside
adjacent side
, i.e. tan =
b
a
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u
c
a
b
Fig. 19.7
Problem 4. FromFig. 19.8, ndsinD, cosD andtanF
F
D E
8
17
Fig. 19.8
ByPythagoras theorem, 17
2
=8
2
+EF
2
fromwhich, EF =
17
2
8
2
=15
sinD =
EF
DF
=
15
17
or 0.8824
cosD=
DE
DF
=
8
17
or 0.4706
tanF =
DE
EF
=
8
15
or 0.5333
Problem 5. Determinethevaluesof sin, cos andtan
for theright-angledtriangleABC showninFig. 19.9.
A
13
u
12
5
C
B
Fig. 19.9
Bydenition: sin =
oppositeside
hypotenuse
=
5
13
=0.3846
cos =
adjacent side
hypotenuse
=
12
13
=0.9231
tan =
oppositeside
adjacent side
=
5
12
=0.4167
Problem 6. If cosX =
9
41
determinethevalueof sin X
andtanX.
Figure19.10showsaright-angledtriangleXYZ.
X
Z
41
9
Y
Fig. 19.10
SincecosX =
9
41
, thenXY =9unitsandXZ =41units.
Using Pythagoras theorem: 41
2
=9
2
+YZ
2
from which
YZ =
41
2
9
2
=40units.
Thus
sin X =
40
41
and tan X =
40
9
=4
4
9
Problem 7. Point A lies at co-ordinate(2,3) andpoint B
at (8,7). Determine(a) thedistanceAB, (b) thegradient of
thestraight lineAB, and(c) theangleAB makes withthe
horizontal.
(a) PointsA andB areshowninFig. 19.11(a).
InFig. 19.11(b), thehorizontal andvertical linesAC andBC
areconstructed.
8
f (x)
(a)
7
6
4
3
A
B
A
C
B
u
2
0 2 4 6 8
8
f (x)
(b)
6
4
2
0 2 4 6 8
Fig. 19.11
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SinceABC isaright-angledtriangle, andAC =(82)=6
andBC =(73)=4, thenbyPythagoras theorem
AB
2
= AC
2
+BC
2
= 6
2
+4
2
and AB=
6
2
+4
2
=
52=7.211, correct to 3 decimal

places.
(b) Thegradient of AB isgivenbytan,
i.e. gradient =tan =
BC
AC
=
4
6
=
2
3
(c) The angle AB makes with the horizontal is given by
tan
1
2
3
=33.69

Exercise 72 Further problems on trigonometric ratios
of actue angles (Answers on page 278)
1. Sketch atriangleXYZ such that Y =90
, XY =9cm
andYZ =40cm.DeterminesinZ,cosZ,tanX andcosX.
2. IntriangleABC showninFig. 19.12, ndsinA, cosA,
tanA, sinB, cosB andtanB.
A
B
C
5
3
Fig. 19.12
3. If cosA=
15
17
ndsinA andtanA, infractionform.
4. If tanX =
15
112
, ndsinX andcosX, infractionform.
5. For theright-angledtriangleshowninFig. 19.13, nd:
(a) sin (b) cos (c) tan
8
a
u
15
17
Fig. 19.13
6. If tan =
7
24
, ndsin andcos infractionform.
7. PointP liesatco-ordinate(3,1) andpointQ at(5,4).
Determine
(a) thedistancePQ,
(b) thegradient of thestraight linePQ and,
(c) theanglePQ makeswiththehorizontal.
19.4 Solution of right-angled triangles
To solve a right-angled triangle means to nd the unknown
sides andangles. This is achievedby using(i) thetheoremof
Pythagoras, and/or(ii) trigonometricratios.Thisisdemonstrated
inthefollowingproblems.
Problem 8. Sketcharight-angledtriangleABC suchthat
B=90
, AB=5cmandBC =12cm. Determinethelength

of AC andhenceevaluatesinA, cosC andtanA.
TriangleABC isshowninFig. 19.14.
ByPythagoras theorem, AC =
5
2
+12
2
=13
Bydenition: sinA =
oppositeside
hypotenuse
=
12
13
or 0.9231
cosC =
adjacent side
hypotenuse
=
12
13
or 0.9231
and tanA =
oppositeside
adjacent side
=
12
5
or 2.400
A
B
5 cm
12 cm
C
Fig. 19.14
Problem 9. IntrianglePQR showninFig. 19.15, ndthe
lengthsof PQ andPR.
P
Q R
38
7.5 cm
Fig. 19.15
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tan38
=
PQ
QR
=
PQ
7.5
hence PQ=7.5tan38
=7.5(0.7813)=5.860 cm
cos38
=
QR
PR
=
7.5
PR
hence PR=
7.5
cos38
=
7.5
0.7880
=9.518 cm
[Check: UsingPythagoras theorem
(7.5)
2
+(5.860)
2
= 90.59= (9.518)
2
]
Problem 10. SolvethetriangleABC showninFig. 19.16.
A
C
B
35 mm
37 mm
Fig. 19.16
TosolvetriangleABC meanstondthelengthAC andangles
B andC
sinC =
35
37
= 0.94595
henceC =sin
1
0.94595=71.08
or 71
B=180
90
71
=18
55
(sinceanglesinatriangleadd
upto180
)
sinB =
AC
37
hence AC =37sin18
55
=37(0.3242)=12.0 mm
or, usingPythagoras theorem, 37
2
=35
2
+AC
2
,
fromwhich, AC =
_
(37
2
35
2
)=12.0 mm.
Problem 11. Solve triangle XYZ given X=90
,
Y =23
17
andYZ =20.0mm. Determinealsoitsarea.

It is always advisableto makeareasonably accuratesketch so
as to visualizetheexpected magnitudes of unknown sides and
angles. SuchasketchisshowninFig. 19.17.
Z = 180
90
23
17
= 66
43
sin23
17
=
XZ
20.0
hence XZ =20.0sin23
17
=20.0(0.3953)=7.906 mm
cos23
17
=
XY
20.0
hence XY =20.0cos23
17
=20.0(0.9186)=18.37 mm
Z
X Y
20.0 mm
2317
Fig. 19.17
(Check: UsingPythagoras theorem
(18.37)
2
+(7.906)
2
= 400.0= (20.0)
2
)
Areaof triangleXYZ =
1
2
(base)(perpendicular height)
=
1
2
(XY)(XZ) =
1
2
(18.37)(7.906)
= 72.62 mm
2
Exercise 73 Further problems on the solution of right-
angled triangles (Answers on page 278)
1. SolvetriangleABC inFig. 19.18(i).
2. SolvetriangleDEF inFig. 19.18(ii).
A
B
35
5.0 cm
(i)
C
G
I
41
15.0 mm
(iii)
H
F
D
4 cm
3 cm
(ii)
E
Fig. 19.18
3. SolvetriangleGHI inFig. 19.18(iii).
4. SolvethetriangleJKL inFig. 19.19(i) andnditsarea.
6.7 mm
32.0 mm
3.69 m
8.75 m
51
2535
J
M
P
Q
R
K
(i) (ii) (iii)
L
O
N
Fig. 19.19
5. SolvethetriangleMNOinFig. 19.19(ii)andnditsarea.
6. SolvethetrianglePQRinFig. 19.19(iii)andnditsarea.
7. A ladderrestsagainstthetopof theperpendicularwall of
abuildingandmakesanangleof 73
with theground.
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If thefoot of theladder is 2mfromthewall, calculate
theheight of thebuilding.
8. Determinethelengthx inFigure19.20.
56
10 mm
x
Fig. 19.20
19.5 Angles of elevation and depression
(a) If, in Fig. 19.21, BC represents horizontal ground and AB
a vertical agpole, then the angle of elevation of the top
of the agpole, A, fromthe point C is the angle that the
imaginarystraightlineAC mustberaised(or elevated) from
thehorizontal CB, i.e. angle.
C B
A
u
Fig. 19.21
P
Q R
f
Fig. 19.22
(b) If, inFig. 19.22, PQ representsavertical cliff andR aship
at sea, thentheangle of depression of theshipfrompoint
P istheanglethroughwhichtheimaginarystraight linePR
must belowered (or depressed) fromthehorizontal to the
ship, i.e. angle.
(Note, PRQ isalso alternate angles betweenparallel
lines.)
Problem 12. An electricity pylon stands on horizontal
ground. At a point 80mfromthe base of the pylon, the
angleof elevationof thetopof thepylonis23
. Calculate
theheight of thepylontothenearest metre.
Figure19.23showsthepylonAB andtheangleof elevationof A
frompoint C is23
tan23
=
AB
BC
=
AB
80
Henceheight of pylonAB=80tan23
=80(0.4245)
=33.96m
=34 m to the nearest metre
C B
80 m
23
A
Fig. 19.23
Problem 13. A surveyor measures theangleof elevation
of the top of a perpendicular building as 19
. He moves
120mnearer thebuildingandnds theangleof elevation
isnow47
. Determinetheheight of thebuilding.
The building PQ and the angles of elevation are shown in
Fig. 19.24.
IntrianglePQS, tan19
=
h
x +120
henceh =tan19
(x +120), i.e. h =0.3443(x +120) (1)

P
Q
h
x
R
S
120
47
19
Fig. 19.24
IntrianglePQR, tan47
=
h
x
henceh =tan47
(x), i.e. h =1.0724x (2)

Equatingequations(1) and(2) gives:
0.3443(x +120)=1.0724x
0.3443x +(0.3443)(120)=1.0724x
(0.3443)(120)=(1.07240.3443)x
41.316=0.7281x
x =
41.316
0.7281
=56.74m
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Fromequation(2), height of building,
h =1.0724x = 1.0724(56.74) = 60.85 m
Problem 14. Theangleof depressionof ashipviewedata
particular instantfromthetopof a75mvertical cliff is30
.
Findthedistanceof theshipfromthebaseof thecliff atthis
instant. Theshipis sailingaway fromthecliff at constant
speedand1minutelateritsangleof depressionfromthetop
of thecliff is20
. Determinethespeedof theshipinkm/h.
Figure19.25shows thecliff AB, theinitial positionof theship
at C andthenal positionat D. Sincetheangleof depressionis
initially30
thenACB=30
(alternateanglesbetweenparallel
lines).
tan30
=
AB
BC
=
75
BC
hence BC =
75
tan30
=
75
0.5774
=129.9 m=initial position of ship from base of cliff
A
B C x D
75 m
30
20
30
20
Fig. 19.25
IntriangleABD, tan20
=
AB
BD
=
75
BC +CD
=
75
129.9+x
Hence 129.9+x =
75
tan20
=
75
0.3640
=206.0m
fromwhich x =206.0129.9=76.1m
Thus the ship sails 76.1min 1minute, i.e. 60s, hence speed
of ship
=
distance
time
=
76.1
60
m/s
=
76.16060
601000
km/h=4.57 km/h
Exercise 74 Further problems on angles of elevation
and depression (Answers on page 278)
1. A vertical towerstandsonlevel ground.Atapoint105m
fromthefoot of thetower theangleof elevationof the
topis19
. Findtheheight of thetower.
2. If theangleof elevationof thetopof avertical 30mhigh
aerial is32
, howfar isit totheaerial?

3. Fromthetopof avertical cliff 90.0mhightheangleof
depressionof aboat is 19
50
. Determinethedistance
of theboat fromthecliff.
4. Fromthetopof avertical cliff 80.0mhightheanglesof
depressionof two buoys lyingduewest of thecliff are
23
and15
, respectively. Howfar arethebuoysapart?

5. Fromapoint onhorizontal groundasurveyor measures
theangleof elevationof thetopof aagpoleas18
40
.
Hemoves50mnearer totheagpoleandmeasuresthe
angleof elevationas26
22
. Determinetheheightof the
agpole.
6. A agpolestands ontheedgeof thetopof abuilding.
At apoint 200mfromthebuildingtheanglesof eleva-
tionof thetopandbottomof thepoleare32
and30
respectively. Calculatetheheight of theagpole.

7. Froma ship at sea, the angles of elevation of the top
and bottom of a vertical lighthouse standing on the
edge of a vertical cliff are 31
and 26
, respectively.
If thelighthouseis 25.0mhigh, calculatetheheight of
thecliff.
8. Fromawindow4.2mabovehorizontal groundtheangle
of depression of thefoot of abuilding across theroad
is 24
and the angle of elevation of the top of the

building is 34
. Determine, correct to thenearest cen-

timetre, the width of the road and the height of the
building.
9. Theelevationof atower fromtwo points, onedueeast
of the tower and the other due west of it are 20
and
24
, respectively, andthetwopointsof observationare

300mapart. Findtheheight of thetower tothenearest
metre.
19.6 Evaluating trigonometric ratios of
any angles
Four-guretables areavailablewhichgives sines, cosines, and
tangents, for angles between 0
and 90
. However, theeasiest
methodof evaluatingtrigonometricfunctionsof anyangleisby
usingacalculator.
The following values, correct to 4 decimal places, may be
checked:
sine18
=0.3090 cosine56
=0.5592
tangent 29
=0.5543
sine172
=0.1392 cosine115
=0.4226
tangent 178
=0.0349
sine241.63
=0.8799 cosine331.78
=0.8811
tangent 296.42
=2.0127
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To evaluate, say, sine42
23
using a calculator means nding

sine42
23
60
sincethereare60minutesin1degree.
23
60
= 0.383
3, thus42
23
=42.383
Thussine42
23
=sine42.3833
=0.6741, correctto4decimal
places.
Similarly, cosine72
38
=cosine72
38
60
=0.2985, correct to 4
decimal places.
Problem 15. Evaluate correct to 4 decimal places:
(a) sine11
(b) sine121.68
(c) sine259
10
(a) sine11
=0.1908
(b) sine121.68
=0.8510
(c) sine259
10
=sine259
10
60
=0.9822
Problem 16. Evaluate, correct to 4 decimal places:
(a) cosine23
(b) cosine159.32
(c) cosine321
41
(a) cosine23
=0.9205
(b) cosine159.32
=0.9356
(c) cosine321
41
=cosine321
41
60
=0.7846
Problem 17. Evaluate, correct to 4 signicant gures:
(a) tangent276
(b) tangent131.29
(c) tangent76
58
(a) tangent276
=9.514
(b) tangent131.29
=1.139
(c) tangent76
58
=tan76
58
60
=4.320
Problem 18. Evaluate, correct to 4 signicant gures:
(a) sin1.481 (b)cos(3/5) (c) tan2.93
(a) sin1.481meansthesineof 1.481radians. Henceacalculator
needstobeontheradianfunction.
Hencesin1.481=0.9960
(b) cos(3/5)=cos1.884955. . . =0.3090
(c) tan2.93=0.2148
Problem 19. Determinetheacuteangles:
(a) sin
1
0.7321 (b) cos
1
0.4174 (c) tan
1
1.4695
(a) sin
1
is an abbreviation for the angle whose sine is
equal to . 0.7321 is entered into a calculator and
then the inverse sine (or sin
1
) key is pressed. Hence
sin
1
0.7321=47.06273. . .
.
Subtracting47leaves0.06273. . .
andmultiplyingthisby
60gives4
tothenearest minute.
Hencesin
1
0.7321=47.06
or 47
Alternatively, inradians, sin

1
0.7321=0.821 radians.
(b) cos
1
0.4174=65.33
or 65
20
or 1.140 radians.
(c) tan
1
1.4695=55.76
or 55
46
or 0.973 radians.
Problem20. Evaluatethefollowingexpression, correctto
4signicant gures:
4.2tan49
26
3.7sin66
7.1cos29
34
Bycalculator:
tan49
26
=tan
_
49
26
60
_
=1.1681,
sin66
=0.9137 and cos29
34
=0.8698
Hence=
4.2tan49
26
3.7sin66
7.1cos29
34
=
(4.21.1681)(3.70.9137)
(7.10.8698)
=
4.90603.3807
6.1756
=
1.5253
6.1756
=0.2470=0.247, correct to3signicant gures.
Problem 21. Evaluatecorrect to4decimal places:
(a) sin(112
) (b) cosine(93
16
)
(c) tangent (217.29
)
(a) Positive angles are considered by convention to be
anticlockwise and negative angles as clockwise. From
Fig. 19.26, 112
is actually the same as +248
(i.e.
360
112
).
Hence, bycalculator, sin(112
)=sin248
=0.9272
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180
0
360
112
90
270
Fig. 19.26
(b) cosine(93
16
)=cosine
_
93
16
60
_
=0.0570
(c) tangent(217.29
)=0.7615 (which is the same as

tan(360
217.29
), i.e. tan141.71
)
Exercise 75 Further problems on evaluating
trigonometric ratios of any angle
InProblems1to4, evaluatecorrect to4decimal places:
1. (a) sine27
(b) sine172.41
(c) sine302
52
2. (a) cosine124
(b) cosine21.46
(c) cosine284
10
3. (a) tangent145
(b) tangent310.59
(c) tangent49
16
4. (a) sine
2
3
(b) cos1.681 (c) tan3.672
In Problems 5 to 7, determine the acute angle in degrees
(correct to 2decimal places), degrees andminutes, andin
radians(correct to3decimal places).
5. sin
1
0.2341 6. cos
1
0.8271 7. tan
1
0.8106
InProblems8to10, evaluatecorrectto4signicantgures.
8. 4cos56
19
3sin21
57
9.
11.5tan49
11
sin90
3cos45
10.
5sin86
3tan14
29
2cos31
11. Determine the acute angle, in degrees and minutes,

correct tothenearest minute, givenby
sin
1
_
4.32sin42
16
7.86
_
12. Evaluate
(sin34
27
)(cos69
)
(2tan53
39
)
correct to4signicant gures
13. Evaluatecorrect to4decimal places:
(a) sine(125
) (b) tan(241
)
(c) cos(49
15
)
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20
Trigonometric waveforms
20.1 Graphs of trigonometric functions
By drawing up tables of values from 0
to 360
, graphs
of y = sinA, y = cosA and y = tanA may be plotted. Values
obtainedwithacalculator (correct to3decimal places which
ismorethansufcient for plottinggraphs), using30
intervals,
areshownbelow, withtherespectivegraphsshowninFig. 20.1.
(a) y =sin A
A 0 30
60
90
120
150
180
sinA 0 0.500 0.866 1.000 0.866 0.500 0

A 210
240
270
300
330
360
sinA 0.500 0.866 1.000 0.866 0.500 0

(b) y =cosA
A 0 30
60
90
120
150
180
cosA 1.000 0.866 0.500 0 0.500 0.866 1.000

A 210
240
270
300
330
360
cosA 0.866 0.500 0 0.500 0.866 1.000

(c) y =tanA
A 0 30
60
90
120
150
180
tanA 0 0.577 1.732 1.732 0.577 0

A 210
240
270
300
330
360
tanA 0.577 1.732 1.732 0.577 0

(a)
y sin A
y cos A
y tan A
A
A
A
y
y
y
(b)
(c)
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.0
0.5
1.0
2
4
1.0
4
2
0
0.5
0 30 60 90 120 150 210 240 270 300 330 360
0
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
30 60 90 120
150
180 210 240 270 300
330
360
180
Fig. 20.1
FromFig. 20.1it isseenthat:
(i) Sineandcosinegraphsoscillatebetweenpeakvaluesof 1
(ii) Thecosinecurveis thesameshapeas thesinecurvebut
displacedby90
.
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(iii) Thesineandcosinecurvesarecontinuousandthey repeat
at intervals of 360
; the tangent curve appears to be

discontinuousandrepeatsat intervalsof 180
.
20.2 Angles of any magnitude
Figure 20.2 shows rectangular axes XX
and YY
intersecting
at origin 0. As with graphical work, measurements made to
the right and above 0 are positive, while those to the left and
downwards are negative. Let 0A be free to rotate about 0. By
convention, when0A movesanticlockwiseangularmeasurement
isconsideredpositive, andviceversa.
Y
Y
X X A 0
Quadrant 1
Quadrant 2
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
360
270
0
180
90
Fig. 20.2
Let 0A berotatedanticlockwisesothat
1
isany angleinthe
rst quadrant andlet perpendicular AB beconstructedto form
theright-angledtriangle0AB inFig. 20.3. Sinceall threesides
of thetrianglearepositive, thetrigonometric ratiossine, cosine
andtangent will all bepositiveintherst quadrant. (Note: 0A is
alwayspositivesinceit istheradiusof acircle).
Let 0A befurther rotatedsothat
2
isanyangleinthesecond
quadrant and let AC be constructed to formthe right-angled
A A
A
A
E
D
C B
Quadrant 1
u
4
u
3
u
2 u
1
Quadrant 2
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
360
270
0
0
180
90
Fig. 20.3
triangle0AC. Then
sin
2
=
+
+
= + cos
2
=

+
=
tan
2
=
+
=
Let0A befurther rotatedsothat
3
isanyangleinthethirdquad-
rant andlet AD beconstructedtoformtheright-angledtriangle
0AD. Then
sin
3
=

+
= cos
3
=

+
=
tan
3
=

= +
Let0Abefurtherrotatedsothat
4
isanyangleinthefourthquad-
rant andlet AE beconstructedtoformtheright-angledtriangle
0AE. Then
sin
4
=

+
= cos
4
=
+
+
= +
tan
4
=

+
=
TheaboveresultsaresummarizedinFig. 20.4.Thelettersunder-
linedspell thewordCAST whenstartinginthefourthquadrant
andmovinginananticlockwisedirection.
270
180
90
All positive
Cosine Tangent
Sine
360
0
Fig. 20.4
Intherstquadrantof Fig. 20.1all of thecurveshavepositive
values; inthesecondonlysineispositive; inthethirdonlytan-
gent ispositive; inthefourthonlycosineispositive exactlyas
summarizedinFig. 20.4. A knowledgeof anglesof any magni-
tudeisneededwhennding, for example, all theanglesbetween
0
and360
whosesineis, say, 0.3261. If 0.3261isenteredinto

acalculator and then theinversesinekey pressed (or sin-key)
the answer 19.03
appears. However, there is a second angle

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Trigonometric waveforms 153
between0
and360
whichthecalculator doesnot give. Sineis

alsopositiveinthesecondquadrant [either fromCAST or from
Fig. 20.1(a)]. Theother angleis showninFig. 20.5as angle
where =180
19.03
=160.97
. Thus 19.03
and 160.97
aretheanglesbetween0
and360
whosesineis0.3261(check
that sin160.97
=0.3261onyour calculator).
360
u
270
0
19.03 19.03
180
90
C T
S A
Fig. 20.5
Be careful! Your calculator only gives you one of these
answers. The second answer needs to be deduced from a
knowledgeof anglesof anymagnitude, asshowninthefollowing
workedproblems.
Problem 1. Determineall theanglesbetween0
and360
whosesineis0.4638
The angles whose sine is 0.4638 occurs in the third and
fourthquadrants sincesineis negativeinthesequadrants see
Fig. 20.6.
y sin x
x
y
360
332.37 207.63
1.0
0.4638
1.0
270 180 90 0
Fig. 20.6
FromFig. 20.7, = sin
1
0.4638=27.63
. Measured from
0
, thetwoanglesbetween0
and360
whosesineis0.4638
are180
+27.63
, i.e. 207.63
and360
27.63
, i.e. 332.37
(Notethatacalculator onlygivesoneanswer, i.e. 27.632588
)
360 u u
270
0
180
90
C
T
S A
Fig. 20.7
Problem 2. Determineall theanglesbetween0
and360
whosetangent is1.7629
AtangentispositiveintherstandthirdquadrantsseeFig.20.8.
FromFig. 20.9, = tan
1
1.7629=60.44
360 270 0
1.7629
240.44 60.44
90
y
x
y tan x
180
Fig. 20.8
360
u
u
270
0
180
90
C T
S A
Fig. 20.9
Measuredfrom0
, thetwo angles between0
and360
whose
tangent is1.7629are60.44
and180
+60.44
, i.e. 240.44
Problem 3. Solvetheequation cos

1
(0.2348)= for
anglesof between0
and360
.
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Cosineispositiveintherst andfourthquadrantsandthusneg-
ativeinthesecondandthirdquadrants fromFig. 20.5or from
Fig. 20.1(b).
InFig. 20.10, angle = cos
1
(0.2348)=76.42
S
180
90
270
0
360
u
u
T
A
C
Fig. 20.10
Measured from0
, the two angles whose cosine is 0.2348

are =180
76.42
i.e. 103.58
and =180
+76.42
, i.e.
256.42

Exercise 76 Further problems on angles of any
magnitude (Answers on page 279)
1. Determineall of theanglesbetween0
and360
whose
sineis:
(a) 0.6792 (b) 0.1483
y sin x
y
T
S
S
T
R
1.0
0.5
90
60
60
120
120
150
180
210
210
240
270
270
300
330
330
Angle x
30
1.0
0.5
0
360
Fig. 20.11
2. Solvethefollowing equations for values of x between
0
and360
:
(a) x = cos
1
0.8739 (b) x = cos
1
(0.5572)
3. Findtheanglesbetween0
to360
whosetangent is:
(a) 0.9728 (b) 2.3418
20.3 The production of a sine and
cosine wave
InFig. 20.11, let OR beavector 1unit longandfreeto rotate
anticlockwise about O. In one revolution a circle is produced
and is shown with 15
sectors. Each radius armhas avertical

and a horizontal component. For example, at 30
, the vertical
component isTS andthehorizontal component isOS.
Fromtrigonometricratios,
sin30
=
TS
TO
=
TS
1
, i.e. TS = sin30
and cos30
=
OS
TO
=
OS
1
, i.e. OS = cos30
The vertical component TS may be projected across to T
,
whichisthecorrespondingvalueof 30
onthegraphof y against
angle x
. If all such vertical components as TS are projected

on to the graph, then a sine wave is produced as shown in
Fig. 20.11.
If all horizontal components suchas OS areprojectedonto
agraphof y against anglex
, thenacosine wave is produced.

It iseasier tovisualizetheseprojectionsbyredrawingthecircle
withtheradiusarmOR initially inavertical positionasshown
inFig. 20.12.
FromFigs. 20.11 and 20.12 it is seen that acosinecurveis
of thesameformas thesinecurvebut is displacedby 90
(or
/2radians).
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y cos x
O
S
y
T
S
R
0.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
90
60
45
15
0
0 60
120
120 180
150
180
210
225
255
285
315
240
330
360 300
Angle x
30 0
Fig. 20.12
20.4 Sine and cosine curves
Graphs of sine and cosine waveforms
(i) A graph of y = sinA is shown by the broken line in
Fig. 20.13andis obtainedby drawingupatableof values
as in Section 20.1. A similar table may be produced for
y = sin2A.
A
0 30 45 60 90 120
2A 0 60 90 120 180 240
sin2A 0 0.866 1.0 0.866 0 0.866
A
135 150 180 210 225 240

2A 270 300 360 420 450 480
sin2A 1.0 0.866 0 0.866 1.0 0.866
A
270 300 315 330 360

2A 540 600 630 660 720
sin2A 0 0.866 1.0 0.866 0
A graphof y = sin2A isshowninFig. 20.13.
y sin A
y sin 2A
360 A
1.0
1.0
270 180 90 0
y
Fig. 20.13
(ii) A graph of y = sin
1
2
A is shown in Fig. 20.14 using the
followingtableof values.
A
0 30 60 90 120 150 180

1
2
A 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
sin
1
2
A 0 0.259 0.500 0.707 0.866 0.966 1.00
A
210 240 270 300 330 360

1
2
A 105 120 135 150 165 180
sin
1
2
A 0.966 0.866 0.707 0.500 0.259 0
y sin A
360 A
1.0
1.0
270 180 90 0
y
y sin A
2
1
Fig. 20.14
(iii) A graph of y = cosA is shown by the broken line in
Fig. 20.15 and is obtained by drawing up a table of val-
ues. A similar tablemay beproduced for y = cos2A with
theresult asshown.
(iv) A graphof y = cos
1
2
A isshowninFig. 20.16whichmaybe
producedbydrawingupatableof values, similar toabove.
Periodic time and period
(i) Eachof thegraphsshowninFigs. 20.13to20.16will repeat
themselvesasangleA increasesandarethuscalledperiodic
functions.
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y cos A
y cos 2A
360 A
1.0
1.0
270 180 90 0
y
Fig. 20.15
y cos A
360 A
1.0
1.0
270 180 90 0
y
y cos
A
2
1
Fig. 20.16
(ii) y = sinA and y = cosA repeat themselves every 360
(or 2 radians); thus 360
is called the period of these

waveforms. y = sin2A and y = cos2A repeat themselves
every 180
(or radians); thus 180
is theperiodof these
waveforms.
(iii) Ingeneral,if y = sinpAory = cospA(wherepisaconstant)
then theperiod of thewaveformis 360
/p (or 2/p rad).

Henceif y = sin3A thentheperiodis360/3, i.e. 120
, and
if y = cos4A thentheperiodis360/4, i.e. 90
Amplitude
Amplitudeis thenamegiventothemaximumor peak valueof
asinewave. Eachof thegraphs showninFigs. 20.13to 20.16
hasanamplitudeof +1(i.e. theyoscillatebetween+1and1).
However, if y =4sinA, eachof thevaluesinthetableismulti-
plied by 4 and the maximumvalue, and thus amplitude, is 4.
Similarly, if y =5cos2A, the amplitude is 5 and the period is
360
/2, i.e. 180
Problem 4. Sketch y = sin3A between A=0
and
A=360
Amplitude=1andperiod=360
/3=120
.
A sketchof y = sin3A isshowninFig. 20.17.
y sin 3A
360 A
1.0
1.0
270 180 90 0
y
Fig. 20.17
Problem 5. Sketch y =3sin2A from A=0 to A=2
radians
Amplitude=3andperiod=2/2= rads(or 180
)
A sketchof y =3sin2A isshowninFig. 20.18.
y 3 sin 2A
A
3
3
360 270 180 90 0
y
Fig. 20.18
Problem 6. Sketchy =4cos2x fromx =0
tox =360
/2=180
.
A sketchof y =4cos2x isshowninFig. 20.19.
Problem 7. Sketchy =2sin
3
5
A over onecycle.
Amplitude=2; period=
360
3
5
=
360
5
3
=600
.
A sketchof y =2sin
3
5
A isshowninFig. 20.20.
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y 4 cos 2x
360 x
4
4
270 180 90 0
y
Fig. 20.19
360 A
2
2
540 600 180
0
y
y 2 sin
A
3
5
Fig. 20.20
Lagging and leading angles
(i) A sineor cosinecurvemay not alwaysstart at 0
. Toshow
thisaperiodicfunctionisrepresentedbyy =sin(A ) or
y =cos(A ) where isaphasedisplacement compared
withy = sinA or y = cosA.
(ii) Bydrawingupatableof values, agraphof y =sin(A60
)
may be plotted as shown in Fig. 20.21. If y = sinA is
assumedtostart at 0
theny =sin(A60
) starts60
later
(i.e. hasazerovalue60
later).Thusy =sin(A60
) issaid
tolag y = sinA by60
360 270 A
1.0
1.0
180 90 0
y
y sin (A60)
y sin A
60
60
Fig. 20.21
(iii) Bydrawingupatableof values, agraphof y =cos(A+45
)
may be plotted as shown in Fig. 20.22. If y = cosA is
assumed to start at 0
then y =cos(A+45
) starts 45
earlier (i.e. has a maximum value 45
earlier). Thus
y =cos(A+45
) issaidtolead y = cosA by45
360 270 A
1.0
180 90 0
y
y cos (A45)
y cos A
45
45
Fig. 20.22
(iv) Generally, a graph of y =sin(A) lags y = sinA by
angle, and agraph of y =sin(A+) leads y = sinA by
angle
(v) A cosinecurveisthesameshapeasasinecurvebut starts
90
earlier, i.e. leadsby90
. Hence
cosA = sin(A +90
)
Problem 8. Sketch y =5sin(A+30
) from A=0
to
A=360
/1=360
.
5sin(A+30
) leads5sinA by30
(i.e. starts30
earlier).
A sketchof y =5sin(A+30
) isshowninFig. 20.23.
360 270 A
5
5
180 90 0
y
y 5 sin (A30)
y 5 sin A
30
30
Fig. 20.23
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Problem 9. Sketchy =7sin(2A/3) over onecycle.
Amplitude=7andperiod=2/2= radians.
In general, y =sin(pt ) lags y =sin pt by /p, hence
7sin(2A/3) lags 7sin2A by (/3)/2, i.e. /6rad or 30
.
A sketchof y =7sin(2A/3) isshowninFig. 20.24.
360 270 A
7
7
180 90 0
y
y 7sin (2A/3)
/6
/6
/2 3/2 2
y 7sin 2A
Fig. 20.24
Problem 10. Sketch y =2cos(t 3/10) over one
cycle.
Amplitude=2andperiod=2/rad.
2cos(t 3/10) lags2cost by3/10seconds.
A sketchof y =2cos(t 3/10) isshowninFig. 20.25.
t
2
2
0
y
/v /2v 3/2v 2/v
3/10v rads
y 2cos vt
y 2cos(vt3/10)
Fig. 20.25
Exercise 77 Further problems on sine and cosine
curves (Answers on page 279)
In Problems 1 to 7 state the amplitude and period of the
waveformandsketchthecurvebetween0
and360
.
1. y = cos3A 2. y =2sin
5x
2
3. y =3sin4t 4. y =3cos
2
5. y =
7
2
sin
3x
8
6. y =6sin(t 45
)
7. y =4cos(2 +30
)
20.5 Sinusoidal formA sin(t )
InFig. 20.26, let OR represent avector that isfreetorotateanti-
clockwiseabout O at avelocity of rad/s. A rotatingvector is
called a phasor. After a time t seconds OR will have turned
throughananglet radians(shownasangleTOR inFig. 20.26).
If ST isconstructedperpendicular toOR, thensint =ST/OT,
i.e. ST =OT sint.
If all suchvertical componentsareprojectedontoagraphof
y against t, asinewaveresults of amplitudeOR (as shownin
Section20.3).
If phasor OR makes one revolution (i.e. 2 radians) in T
seconds, thentheangular velocity, =2/T rad/s,
fromwhich, T =2/ seconds
T isknownastheperiodic time.
Thenumber of completecycles occurring per second is called
thefrequency, f
Frequency =
number of cycles
second
=
1
T
=

2
Hz
i.e. f =

2
Hz
Henceangular velocity, =2f rad/s
Amplitude isthenamegiventothemaximumor peak valueof
asinewave, asexplainedinSection20.4. Theamplitudeof the
sinewaveshowninFig. 20.26hasanamplitudeof 1.
A sine or cosine wave may not always start at 0
. To show
this a periodic function is represented by y = sin(t ) or
y = cos(t ), where is a phase displacement compared
with y = sinA or y = cosA. A graph of y = sin(t ) lags
y = sint by angle , and a graph of y = sin(t +) leads
y = sint byangle.
Theanglet ismeasuredinradians
i.e.
_
rad
s
_
(t s) = t radians
henceangle shouldalsobeinradians.
Therelationshipbetweendegreesandradiansis:
360
= 2 radians or 180
= radians
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1.0
1.0
0 0
y
S
T
R /2 3/2 2
v rads/s
90 180 270 360
vt
vt vt
y sin vt
Fig. 20.26
Hence1rad=
180
=57.30
and, for example,

71
= 71

180
= 1.239rad
Givenageneral sinusoidal functiony =A sin(t ), then
(i) A=amplitude
(ii) =angular velocity=2f rad/s
(iii)
2
=periodictimeT seconds
(iv)

2
=frequency, f hertz
(v) =angleof leador lag(comparedwithy =Asint)
Problem 11. An alternating current is given by
i =30sin(100t +0.27) amperes. Find the amplitude,
periodic time, frequency and phaseangle(in degrees and
minutes).
i =30sin(100t +0.27)A, henceamplitude =30 A
Angular velocity=100, hence
periodic time, T =
2
=
2
100
=
1
50
=0.02 s or 20 ms
Frequency, f =
1
T
=
1
0.02
=50 Hz
Phase angle, =0.27rad=
_
0.27
180
=15.47
or 15
28
leading
i =30 sin(100t)
Problem 12. An oscillating mechanismhas amaximum
displacement of 2.5mand afrequency of 60Hz. At time
t =0thedisplacement is90cm. Expressthedisplacement
inthegeneral formAsin(t ).
Amplitude= maximumdisplacement=2.5m
Angular velocity, =2f =2(60)=120 rad/s
Hencedisplacement=2.5sin(120t +)m
Whent =0, displacement=90cm=0.90m
Hence0.90=2.5sin(0+) i.e. sin =
0.90
2.5
=0.36
Hence = sin
1
0.36=21.10
=21
=0.368rad
Thusdisplacement =2.5 sin(120t +0.368) m
Problem 13. The instantaneous value of voltage in
an a.c. circuit at any time t seconds is given by
v =340sin(50t 0.541) volts. Determine:
(a) theamplitude,periodictime,frequencyandphaseangle
(indegrees)
(b) thevalueof thevoltagewhent =0
(c) thevalueof thevoltagewhent =10ms
(d) thetimewhenthevoltagerst reaches200V, and
(e) thetimewhenthevoltageisamaximum
Sketchonecycleof thewaveform.
(a) Amplitude =340V
Angular velocity, =50
Hence periodic time, T =
2
=
2
50
=
1
25
=0.04 s or 40 ms
Frequency f =
1
T
=
1
0.04
=25 Hz
Phaseangle=0.541rad=
_
0.541
180
_
=31
lagging v =340sin(50t)
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(b) When t =0, v =340sin(00.541)
=340sin(31
)=175.1 V
(c) When t =10 ms thenv =340sin
_
50
10
10
3
0.541
_
= 340sin(1.0298)
= 340sin59
=291.4 volts
(d) Whenv =200 voltsthen200= 340sin(50t 0.541)
200
340
= sin(50t 0.541)
Hence(50t 0.541)= sin
1
200
340
= 36.03
or
0.6288rad
50t =0.6288+0.541
= 1.1698
Hencewhenv =200V,
time, t =
1.1698
50
=7.447 ms
(e) Whenthevoltageisamaximum, v =340V
Hence340=340sin(50t 0.541)
1= sin(50t 0.541)
50t 0.541= sin
1
1=90
or 1.5708rad
50t =1.5708+0.541=2.1118
Hencetime, t =
2.1118
50
=13.44 m
A sketch of v =340sin(50t 0.541)volts is shown in
Fig. 20.27
175.1
340
340
200
291.4
7.447 13.44
t (ms) 40 30 20 10 0
Voltage v
v 340 sin(50t0.541)
v 340 sin 50t
Fig. 20.27
Exercise 78 Further problems on the sinusoidal form
Asin(t ) (Answers on page 279)
In Problems 1 to 3 nd theamplitude, periodic time, fre-
quency and phase angle (stating whether it is leading or
laggingsint) of thealternatingquantitiesgiven.
1. i =40sin(50t +0.29)mA
2. y =75sin(40t 0.54)cm
3. v =300sin(200t 0.412)V
4. Asinusoidal voltagehasamaximumvalueof 120Vanda
frequencyof 50Hz.Attimet =0, thevoltageis(a) zero,
and(b) 50V.
Express the instantaneous voltage v in the form
v =Asin(t )
5. An alternating current has a periodic time of 25ms
and a maximumvalue of 20A. When time t =0, cur-
rent i =10amperes. Expressthecurrent i intheform
i =Asin(t )
6. Anoscillatingmechanismhasamaximumdisplacement
of 3.2mand a frequency of 50Hz. At time t =0 the
displacementis150cm. Expressthedisplacementinthe
general formAsin(t )
7. The current in an a.c. circuit at any time t seconds is
givenby:
i = 5sin(100t 0.432)amperes
Determine(a) theamplitude, periodic time, frequency
andphaseangle(indegrees) (b) thevalueof current at
t =0(c)thevalueof currentatt =8ms(d)thetimewhen
thecurrentisrstamaximum(e) thetimewhenthecur-
rent rst reaches3A. Sketchonecycleof thewaveform
showingrelevant points.
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Assignment 9
Thisassignmentcoversthematerial inChapters19and
20. Themarksfor eachquestionareshowninbrackets
at theendof eachquestion.
1. FigureA9.1showsaplanviewof akitedesign.Calculate
thelengthsof thedimensionsshownasaandb (4)
2. InFig. A9.1, evaluate(a) angle (b) angle (6)
3. Determinetheareaof theplanviewof akiteshownin
Fig. A9.1. (4)
20.0 cm
42.0 cm
60.0 cm
b
a
a
u
Fig. A9.1
4. If theangleof elevationof thetopof a25mperpendicu-
lar buildingfrompointA ismeasuredas27
, determine
thedistancetothebuilding. Calculatealsotheangleof
elevationat apoint B, 20mcloser tothebuildingthan
point A. (5)
5. Evaluate, eachcorrect to4signicant gures:
(a) sin231.78
(b) cos151
16
(c) tan
3
8
(3)
6. (a) Determine the acute angle cos
1
0.4117 (i) in
degreesandminutesand(ii) inradians(correctto2
decimal places).
(b) Calculatetheother angle(in degrees) between 0
and360
whichsatisescos
1
0.4117 (4)
7. Sketchthefollowingcurveslabellingrelevant points:
(a) y =4cos( +45
) (b) y =5sin(2t 60
) (8)
8. Thecurrent inanalternatingcurrent circuit at anytime
t secondsisgivenby:
i = 120sin(100t +0.274) amperes
Determine
(a) theamplitude, periodic time, frequency andphase
angle(withreferenceto120sin100t)
(b) thevalueof current whent =0
(c) thevalueof current whent =6 ms
Sketchonecycleof theoscillation. (16)
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21
Cartesian and polar co-ordinates
21.1 Introduction
Therearetwo ways inwhichthepositionof apoint inaplane
canberepresented. Theseare
(a) byCartesian co-ordinates, i.e. (x, y), and
(b) bypolar co-ordinates, i.e. (r, ), wherer isaradius from
axedpoint and isananglefromaxedpoint.
21.2 Changing from Cartesian into polar
co-ordinates
InFig. 21.1, if lengths x andy areknown, thenthelengthof r
canbeobtainedfromPythagoras theorem(seeChapter19) since
OPQ isaright-angledtriangle.
Hence r
2
=(x
2
+y
2
)
fromwhich, r =
_
x
2
+y
2
y
y
P
Q
x
x
O
u
r
Fig. 21.1
Fromtrigonometricratios(seeChapter 19),
tan =
y
x
fromwhich = tan
1
y
x
r =
_
x
2
+y
2
and = tan
1
y
x
are the two formulae we need
to change fromCartesian to polar co-ordinates. The angle ,
whichmay beexpressedindegrees or radians, must always be
measuredfromthepositivex-axis,i.e.measuredfromthelineOQ
inFig. 21.1. It issuggestedthat whenchangingfromCartesian
topolar co-ordinatesadiagramshouldalwaysbesketched.
Problem 1. ChangetheCartesianco-ordinates(3, 4) into
polar co-ordinates.
A diagramrepresentingthepoint (3, 4) isshowninFig. 21.2.
P
y
r
4
3
O x
u
Fig. 21.2
FromPythagoras theorem, r =
3
2
+4
2
=5(notethat 5has
nomeaninginthiscontext).
Bytrigonometricratios, = tan
1 4
3
=53.13
or0.927rad.[note
that 53.13
=53.13(/180)rad=0.927rad.]
Hence (3, 4) in Cartesian co-ordinates corresponds to
(5, 53.13
) or (5, 0.927 rad) in polar co-ordinates.

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Cartesian and polar co-ordinates 163
Problem 2. Express in polar co-ordinates the posi-
tion(4, 3)
AdiagramrepresentingthepointusingtheCartesianco-ordinates
(4, 3) isshowninFig. 21.3.
P
y
r
x
O
4
3
a
u
Fig. 21.3
FromPythagoras theorem, r =
4
2
+3
2
=5
Bytrigonometricratios, =tan
1 3
4
=36.87
or 0.644rad.
Hence =180
36.87
= 143.13
or = 0.644=2.498rad
Hence the position of point P in polar co-ordinate form is
(5, 143.13
) or (5, 2.498 rad)

Problem 3. Express(5, 12) inpolar co-ordinates.
A sketchshowingtheposition(5, 12) isshowninFig. 21.4.
r =
_
5
2
+12
2
= 13
and = tan
1 12
5
= 67.38
or 1.176rad
Hence = 180
+67.38
= 247.38
or = +1.176= 4.318rad
Thus (5, 12) in Cartesian co-ordinates corresponds to
(13, 247.38
) or (13, 4.318 rad) in polar co-ordinates.

Problem 4. Express(2, 5) inpolar co-ordinates.
A sketchshowingtheposition(2, 5) isshowninFig. 21.5.
r =
_
2
2
+5
2
=
29= 5.385
= tan
1 5
2
= 68.20
or 1.190rad
Hence = 360
68.20
= 291.80
or = 2 1.190= 5.093rad
Thus (2, 5) in Cartesian co-ordinates corresponds to
(5.385, 291.80
) or (5.385, 5.093 rad) in polar co-ordinates.

y
x
O
r
P
5
12
a
u
Fig. 21.4
y
x
r
P
O
5
2
u
a
Fig. 21.5
Exercise 79 Further problems on changing from
Cartesian into polar co-ordinates
InProblems1to8, expressthegivenCartesianco-ordinates
as polar co-ordinates, correct to 2decimal places, inboth
degreesandinradians.
1. (3, 5) 2. (6.18, 2.35)
3. (2, 4) 4. (5.4, 3.7)
5. (7, 3) 6. (2.4, 3.6)
7. (5, 3) 8. (9.6, 12.4)
21.3 Changing from polar into Cartesian
co-ordinates
Fromtheright-angledtriangleOPQ inFig. 21.6.
cos =
x
r
and sin =
y
r
, fromtrigonometricratios
Hence x =r cos and y =r sin
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u
P
y
Q
x
O
y
x
r
Fig. 21.6
If lengthsr andangle areknownthenx =r cos andy =r sin
arethetwoformulaeweneedtochangefrompolar toCartesian
co-ordinates.
Problem 5. Change(4, 32
) intoCartesianco-ordinates.
A sketchshowingtheposition(4, 32
Now x =r cos =4cos32
=3.39
and y =r sin =4sin32
=2.12
y
O
x
y
x
r 4
u 32
Fig. 21.7
Hence (4, 32
) in polar co-ordinates corresponds to

(3.39, 2.12) in Cartesian co-ordinates.
Problem 6. Express(6, 137
) inCartesianco-ordinates.
A sketchshowingtheposition(6, 137
x = r cos = 6cos137
= 4.388
u 137
B
A O
y
x
r 6
Fig. 21.8
whichcorrespondstolengthOA inFig. 21.8.
y = r sin = 6sin137
= 4.092
whichcorrespondstolengthAB inFig. 21.8.
Thus (6, 137
) in polar co-ordinates corresponds to

(4.388, 4.092) in Cartesian co-ordinates.
(NotethatwhenchangingfrompolartoCartesianco-ordinatesit
isnot quitesoessential todrawasketch. Useof x =r cos and
y =r sin automaticallyproducesthecorrect signs.)
Problem 7. Express(4.5, 5.16rad) inCartesian
co-ordinates
A sketch showing the position (4.5, 5.16rad) is shown in
Fig. 21.9.
x = r cos = 4.5cos5.16= 1.948
whichcorrespondstolengthOA inFig. 21.9.
y
x
r 4.5
B
O
A
u 5.16 rad
Fig. 21.9
y = r sin = 4.5sin5.16= 4.057
whichcorrespondstolengthAB inFig. 21.9.
Thus (1.948, 4.057) in Cartesian co-ordinates corresponds
to (4.5, 5.16 rad) in polar co-ordinates.
21.4 Use of RP and PR functions
on calculators
Another name for Cartesian co-ordinates is rectangular
co-ordinates. ManyscienticnotationcalculatorspossessRP
andP R functions. TheR is therst letter of thewordrect-
angular andtheP istherst letter of thewordpolar. Check the
operationmanual foryourparticularcalculatortodeterminehow
tousethesetwofunctions. TheymakechangingfromCartesian
topolarco-ordinates, andvice-versa, somuchquickerandeasier.
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Cartesian and polar co-ordinates 165
Exercise 80 Further problems on changing polar into
Cartesian co-ordinates (Answers on
page 279)
InProblems1to8, expressthegivenpolar co-ordinatesas
Cartesianco-ordinates, correct to3decimal places.
1. (5, 75
) 2. (4.4, 1.12rad)
3. (7, 140
) 4. (3.6, 2.5rad)
5. (10.8, 210
) 6. (4, 4rad)
7. (1.5, 300
) 8. (6, 5.5rad)
9. Figure21.10shows5equallyspacedholesonan80mm
pitchcirclediameter. Calculatetheir co-ordinatesrela-
tiveto axes 0x and0y in(a) polar form, (b) Cartesian
form.
x
O
y
Fig. 21.10
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22
Areas of plane gures
22.1 Mensuration
Mensuration is a branch of mathematics concerned with the
determinationof lengths, areasandvolumes.
22.2 Properties of quadrilaterals
Polygon
A polygon isaclosedplanegureboundedby straight lines. A
polygonwhichhas:
(i) 3sidesiscalledatriangle
(ii) 4sidesiscalledaquadrilateral
(iii) 5sidesiscalledapentagon
(iv) 6sidesiscalledahexagon
(v) 7sidesiscalledaheptagon
(vi) 8sidesiscalledanoctagon
Therearevetypesof quadrilateral, thesebeing:
(i) rectangle
(ii) square
(iii) parallelogram
(iv) rhombus
(v) trapezium
(Thepropertiesof thesearegivenbelow).
If the opposite corners of any quadrilateral are joined by a
straight line, two triangles areproduced. Sincethesumof the
anglesof atriangleis180
,thesumof theanglesof aquadrilateral

is360
.
Inarectangle, showninFig. 22.1:
(i) all four anglesareright angles,
(ii) oppositesidesareparallel andequal inlength, and
(iii) diagonals AC and BD are equal in length and bisect one
another.
A
D
B
C
Fig. 22.1
P Q
S R
Fig. 22.2
Inasquare, showninFig. 22.2:
(i) all four anglesareright angles,
(ii) oppositesidesareparallel,
(iii) all four sidesareequal inlength, and
(iv) diagonals PR and QS are equal in length and bisect one
another at right angles.
Inaparallelogram, showninFig. 22.3:
(i) oppositeanglesareequal,
(ii) oppositesidesareparallel andequal inlength, and
(iii) diagonalsWY andXZ bisect oneanother.
Inarhombus, showninFig. 22.4:
(i) oppositeanglesareequal,
(ii) oppositeanglesarebisectedbyadiagonal,
(iii) oppositesidesareparallel,
(iv) all four sidesareequal inlength, and
(v) diagonalsAC andBD bisect oneanother at right angles.
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Areas of plane gures 167
Z Y
X W
Fig. 22.3
A
B
D C
b
a
a
b
Fig. 22.4
E F
H G
Fig. 22.5
Inatrapezium, showninFig. 22.5:
(i) onlyonepair of sidesisparallel
22.3 Worked problems on areas of plane
gures
Table 22.1
(i) Square
Area x
2
Area l b
Area b h
(ii) Rectangle
(iii) Parallelogram
(iv) Triangle
(v) Trapezium
a
h
h
h
b
b
b
b
l
x
x
Area
1
2
b h
(a b)h Area
1
2
Table 22.1 (Continued)
(vi) Circle
(vii) Semicircle
u
(viii) Sector of a circle
r
r
r
r
l
d
d
Area r
2
or
d
2
4
(u in rads)
Area
d
2
8
r
2
or
1
2
Area (r
2
) or r
2
u
u
360
1
2
Problem 1. State the types of quadrilateral shown in
Fig. 22.6anddeterminetheanglesmarkeda tol.
A
x
x
c
b
B
E
H G
F
J
x
x
f
e
K
M
R
S
U
l
g
N
O
P
Q
h
j
i
k
T
L
d
40
35
75
115
52
65
C D
a
(i)
(iv) (v)
(ii) (iii)
30
Fig. 22.6
(i) ABCD is a square
Thediagonals of asquarebisect each of theright angles,
hence
a =
90
2
= 45
(ii) EFGH is a rectangle

IntriangleFGH, 40
+90
+b =180
(anglesinatriangle
addupto180
)fromwhich, b =50
. Alsoc =40
(alternate
anglesbetweenparallel linesEF andHG).
(Alternatively,b andc arecomplementary,i.e.addupto90
)
d =90
+c (external angleof atriangleequalsthesumof

theinterior oppositeangles), hence
d = 90
+40
= 130

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(iii) JKLM is a rhombus
Thediagonals of arhombus bisect theinterior angles and
oppositeinternal anglesareequal.
ThusJKM =MKL =JMK =LMK =30
,
hencee =30
In triangle KLM, 30
+KLM +30
=180
(angles in a
triangleaddupto180
), henceKLM =120
.
Thediagonal JL bisectsKLM, hence
f =
120
2
= 60
(iv) NOPQ is a parallelogram

g =52
(sinceoppositeinterior angles of aparallelogram

areequal).
In triangleNOQ, g +h +65
=180
(angles in atriangle
addupto180
), fromwhich,
h =180
65
52
= 63
i =65
(alternateanglesbetweenparallel linesNQandOP).
j =52
+i =52
+65
=117
(external angleof atriangle

equalsthesumof theinterior oppositeangles).
(v) RSTU is a trapezium
35
+k =75
(external angleof atriangleequals thesum

of theinterior oppositeangles), hencek =40
STR=35
(alternateanglesbetweenparallel linesRU and

ST).
l +35
=115
(external angleof atriangleequalsthesum

of theinterior oppositeangles), hence
l = 115
35
= 80
Problem2. Arectangulartrayis820mmlongand400mm
wide. Finditsareain(a) mm
2
, (b) cm
2
, (c) m
2
.
(a) Area=lengthwidth=820400=328 000 mm
2
(b) 1cm
2
=100mm
2
. Hence
328000mm
2
=
328000
100
cm
2
= 3280 cm
2
(c) 1m
2
=10000cm
2
. Hence
3280cm
2
=
3280
10000
m
2
= 0.3280 m
2
Problem 3. Find(a) thecross-sectional areaof thegirder
showninFig. 22.7(a) and(b) theareaof thepathshownin
Fig. 22.7(b).
50 mm
5 mm
8 mm
6 mm
2 m
25 m
2
0
m
7
5
m
m
A
B
C
70 mm
(a) (b)
Fig. 22.7
(a) Thegirder may bedividedinto threeseparaterectangles as
shown.
Areaof rectangleA =505=250mm
2
Areaof rectangleB =(7585)6
=626=372mm
2
Areaof rectangleC =708=560mm
2
Total area of girder=250+372+560=1182 mm
2
or
11.82 cm
2
(b) Area of path=area of large rectangle area of small
rectangle
=(2520)(2116)=500336=164 m
2
Problem 4. Find theareaof theparallelogramshown in
Fig. 22.8(dimensionsareinmm).
A
D C E
B
h
15
25
34
Fig. 22.8
Area of parallelogram=baseperpendicular height. The per-
pendicular height h isfoundusingPythagoras theorem.
BC
2
= CE
2
+h
2
i.e. 15
2
= (3425)
2
+h
2
h
2
= 15
2
9
2
=22581=144
Hence, h =

144=12mm(12canbeneglected).
Hence, areaof ABCD=2512=300 mm
2
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Problem5. Figure22.9showsthegableendof abuilding.
Determinetheareaof brickworkinthegableend.
5 m 5 m
6 m
B
D
A
C
8 m
Fig. 22.9
Theshapeisthat of arectangleandatriangle.
Areaof rectangle=68=48m
2
Areaof triangle=
1
2
baseheight.
CD=4m, AD=5m, hence AC =3m (since it is a 3, 4, 5
triangle).
Hence, areaof triangleABD=
1
2
83=12m
2
Total areaof brickwork=48+12=60 m
2
Problem 6. Determine the area of the shape shown in
Fig. 22.10.
5.5 mm
27.4 mm
8.6 mm
Fig. 22.10
Theshapeshownisatrapezium.
Areaof trapezium=
1
2
(sumof parallel sides)(perpendicular
distancebetweenthem)
=
1
2
(27.4+8.6)(5.5)
=
1
2
365.5=99 mm
2
Problem7. Findtheareasof thecircleshaving(a) aradius
of 5cm, (b) adiameter of 15mm, (c) acircumferenceof
70mm.
Areaof acircle=r
2
or
d
2
4
(a) Area=r
2
=(5)
2
=25 =78.54 cm
2
(b) Area=
d
2
4
=
(15)
2
4
=
225
4
=176.7 mm
2
(c) Circumference, c =2r, hence
r =
c
2
=
70
2
=
35
mm
Areaof circle=r
2
=
_
35
_
2
=
35
2
=389.9 mm
2
or 3.899 cm
2
Problem 8. Calculatetheareasof thefollowingsectorsof
circles:
(a) havingradius6cmwithanglesubtendedat centre50
(b) havingdiameter 80mmwithanglesubtendedat centre

107
42
(c) having radius 8cm with angle subtended at centre

1.15radians.
Areaof sector of acircle=

2
360
(r
2
) or
1
2
r
2
( inradians).
(a) Areaof sector
=
50
360
(6
2
) =
50 36
360
= 5 = 15.71 cm
2
(b) If diameter=80mm, then radius, r =40mm, and area of
sector
=
107
42
360
(40
2
) =
107
42
60
360
(40
2
) =
107.7
360
(40
2
)
= 1504 mm
2
or 15.04 cm
2
(c) Areaof sector=
1
2
r
2
=
1
2
8
2
1.15=36.8 cm
2
Problem 9. A hollow shaft has an outside diameter of
5.45cmand an insidediameter of 2.25cm. Calculatethe
cross-sectional areaof theshaft.
Thecross-sectional areaof theshaft isshownbytheshadedpart
inFig. 22.11(oftencalledanannulus).
d
2.25 cm
d 5.45 cm
Fig. 22.11
Areaof shadedpart=areaof largecircle areaof small circle
=
D
2
4

d
2
4
=

4
(D
2
d
2
) =

4
(5.45
2
2.25
2
)
= 19.35 cm
2
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Exercise 81 Further problems on areas of plane
gures (Answers on page 279)
1. A rectangularplateis85mmlongand42mmwide. Find
itsareainsquarecentimetres.
2. A rectangular eld has an area of 1.2 hectares and a
lengthof 150m. Find(a) itswidthand(b) thelengthof
adiagonal (1hectare=10000m
2
).
3. Determine the area of each of the angle iron sections
showninFig. 22.12.
7 cm
2
5
m
m
30 mm
10 mm
50 mm
8 mm
6 mm
2 cm 1 cm
(a) (b)
2 cm
1cm
Fig. 22.12
4. A rectangular garden measures 40mby 15m. A 1m
ower border is maderound thetwo shorter sides and
onelongside.A circularswimmingpool of diameter8m
isconstructedinthemiddleof thegarden. Find, correct
tothenearest squaremetre, thearearemaining.
5. Theareaof atrapeziumis13.5cm
2
andtheperpendicular
distancebetweenitsparallel sidesis3cm. If thelength
of oneof theparallel sidesis5.6cm, ndthelengthof
theother parallel side.
6. Findtheanglesp, q, r, s andt inFig. 22.13(a) to(c).
40
p
(a) (b) (c)
q
75
47
38
125
62
95
57
s
r
t
Fig. 22.13
7. Namethetypes of quadrilateral showninFig. 22.14(i)
to(iv), anddetermine(a) thearea, and(b) theperimeter
of each.
4 cm
6 mm 30 mm
26 cm
12 cm
16 cm
10 cm
120 mm
5.94 cm
3
.
5
c
m
3
0
m
m
3
8
m
m
(i) (ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Fig. 22.14
8. Determinetheareaof circleshaving(a) aradiusof 4cm
(b) adiameter of 30mm(c) acircumferenceof 200mm.
9. An annulus has an outside diameter of 60mmand an
insidediameter of 20mm. Determineitsarea.
10. If theareaof acircleis 320mm
2
, nd(a) its diameter,
and(b) itscircumference.
11. Calculatetheareasof thefollowingsectorsof circles:
(a) radius9cm, anglesubtendedat centre75
,
(b) diameter 35mm, anglesubtendedat centre48
37
,
(c) diameter 5cm, angle subtended at centre 2.19
radians.
12. Determinetheareaof thetemplateshowninFig. 22.15.
120 mm
80 mm
radius
90 mm
Fig. 22.15
13. Anarchwayconsistsof arectangular openingtoppedby
asemi-circular archasshowninFig. 22.16. Determine
theareaof theopeningif thewidthis1mandthegreatest
height is2m.
1 m
2 m
Fig. 22.16
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14. Calculate the area of the steel plate shown in
Fig. 22.17.
25
60
140
100
25
25
Dimensions
in mm
Fig. 22.17
22.4 Further worked problems on areas
of plane gures
Problem 10. Calculate the area of a regular octagon, if
eachsideis5cmandthewidthacrosstheatsis12cm.
An octagon is an 8-sided polygon. If radii aredrawn fromthe
centreof thepolygonto thevertices then8equal triangles are
produced(seeFig. 22.18).
1
2
c
m
5 cm
Fig. 22.18
Areaof onetriangle=
1
2
baseheight
=
1
2
5
12
2
=15cm
2
Areaof octagon =815=120 cm
2
Problem 11. Determine the area of a regular hexagon
whichhassides8cmlong.
A hexagon is a 6-sided polygon which may be divided into 6
equal triangles as showninFig. 22.19. Theanglesubtendedat
thecentreof eachtriangleis360
/6=60
. Theother twoangles
inthetriangleaddupto120
andareequal toeachother. Hence

eachof thetrianglesisequilateral witheachangle60
andeach
side8cm.
4 cm
8 cm
8 cm
60
h
Fig. 22.19
Areaof onetriangle=
1
2
baseheight=
1
2
8h.
h iscalculatedusingPythagoras theorem:
8
2
=h
2
+4
2
fromwhich h =
8
2
4
2
=6.928cm
Henceareaof onetriangle=
1
2
86.928=27.71cm
2
Areaof hexagon=627.71=166.3 cm
2
Problem 12. Figure 22.20 shows a plan of a oor of a
buildingwhichistobecarpeted. Calculatetheareaof the
oor in square metres. Calculate the cost, correct to the
nearest pound, of carpeting the oor with carpet costing
16.80per m
2
, assuming30%extracarpet isrequireddue
towastageintting.
L
2 m
2 m
3
m
2
.
5
m
3
m
2 m 3 m
0.8 m
0.8 m
F
G
C
D
B
A
M
B
30
E
K
J
l
H
0.6 m
4 m
0.6 m
60
Fig. 22.20
Areaof oor plan
=areaof triangleABC +areaof semicircle
+areaof rectangleCGLM +areaof rectangleCDEF
areaof trapeziumHIJK
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Triangle ABC is equilateral since AB=BC =3m and hence
angleB
CB=60
sinB
CB=BB
/3, i.e. BB
=3sin60
=2.598m
Areaof triangle ABC =
1
2
(AC)(BB
)=
1
2
(3)(2.598)
=3.897m
2
Areaof semicircle=
1
2
r
2
=
1
2
(2.5)
2
=9.817m
2
Areaof CGLM =57=35m
2
Areaof CDEF =0.83=2.4m
2
Areaof HIJK =
1
2
(KH +IJ)(0.8)
SinceMC =7mthenLG=7m, hence
JI = 75.2= 1.8m
Henceareaof HIJK =
1
2
(3+1.8)(0.8)=1.92m
2
Total oorarea=3.897+9.817+35+2.41.92=49.194m
2
To allow for 30% wastage, amount of carpet required=
1.349.194=63.95m
2
Cost of carpet at 16.80 per m
2
=63.9516.80=1074,
correct tothenearest pound.
Exercise 82 Further problems on areas of plane
1. Calculatethearea of a regular octagon if each sideis
20mmandthewidthacrosstheatsis48.3mm.
2. Determinetheareaof aregular hexagonwhichhassides
25mm.
3. A plotof landisintheshapeshowninFig. 22.21. Deter-
mine (a) its area in hectares (1ha=10
4
m
2
), and (b)
thelength of fencing required, to thenearest metre, to
completelyenclosetheplot of land.
20 m
20 m
20 m
1
5
m
15 m
40 m
20 m
3
0
m
30 m 2 m
10 m
20 m
Fig. 22.21
4. If paving slabs are produced in 250mm250mm
squares, determinethenumberof slabsrequiredtocover
anareaof 2m
2
.
22.5 Areas of similar shapes
The areas of similar shapes are proportional to the squares
of corresponding linear dimensions. For example, Fig. 22.22
showstwosquares, oneof whichhassidesthreetimesaslongas
theother.
Areaof Figure22.22(a) = (x)(x) = x
2
Areaof Figure22.22(b) = (3x)(3x) = 9x
2
HenceFigure22.22(b) has anarea(3)
2
, i.e. 9times theareaof
Figure22.22(a).
3x
x
(a) (b)
x 3x
Fig. 22.22
Problem 13. A rectangular garageisshownonabuilding
plan having dimensions 10mmby 20mm. If the plan is
drawntoascaleof 1to250, determinethetrueareaof the
garageinsquaremetres.
Areaof garageontheplan=10mm20mm=200mm
2
.
Sincetheareasof similarshapesareproportional tothesquares
of correspondingdimensionsthen:
Trueareaof garage= 200(250)
2
= 12.510
6
mm
2
=
12.510
6
10
6
m
2
= 12.5 m
2
Exercise 83 Further problems on areas of similar
shapes (Answers on page 279)
1. Theareaof apark onamapis500mm
2
. If thescaleof
themapis1to40000determinethetrueareaof thepark
inhectares(1hectare=10
4
m
2
).
2. A model of aboiler ismadehavinganoverall height of
75mmcorrespondingtoanoverall height of theactual
boiler of 6m. If theareaof metal requiredfor themodel
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is 12500mm
2
determine, insquaremetres, theareaof
metal requiredfor theactual boiler.
3. Thescaleof anOrdinanceSurveymapis1:2500. A cir-
cular sports eld has a diameter of 8cmon the map.
Calculateitsareainhectares, givingyouranswercorrect
to3signicant gures. (1hectare=10
4
m
2
)
Assignment 10
ters21and22. Themarksfor eachquestionareshown
1. ChangethefollowingCartesianco-ordinatesintopolar
co-ordinates,correctto2decimal places,inbothdegrees
andinradians:
(a) (2.3, 5.4) (b) (7.6, 9.2) (10)
2. Changethefollowingpolar co-ordinatesintoCartesian
co-ordinates, correct to3decimal places:
(a) (6.5, 132
) (b) (3, 3rad) (6)

3. A rectangular park measures 150m by 70m. A 2m
ower border isconstructedroundthetwolonger sides
andoneshortside.A circularshpondof diameter15m
isinthecentreof theparkandtheremainder of thepark
isgrass. Calculate, correct tothenearest squaremetre,
theareaof (a)theshpond,(b)theowerborders,(c)the
grass. (10)
4. A swimmingpool is55mlongand10mwide. Theper-
pendiculardepthatthedeependis5mandattheshallow
endis1.5m, theslopefromoneendtotheother being
uniform. The inside of the pool needs two coats of a
protectivepaintbeforeitislledwithwater. Determine
howmanylitresof paint will beneededif 1litrecovers
10m
2
. (7)
5. Find the area of an equilateral triangle of side
20.0cm. (4)
6. A steel templateis of theshapeshown in Fig. A10.1,
thecircular areabeingremoved. Determinetheareaof
thetemplate, insquarecentimetres, correctto1decimal
place. (7)
30 mm
45 mm
130 mm
70 mm
70 mm 150 mm
60 mm
50 mm
dia.
30 mm
Fig. A10.1
7. Theareaof aplot of landonamapis 400mm
2
. If the
scaleof themapis1to50000, determinethetruearea
of thelandinhectares(1hectare=10
4
m
2
). (3)
8. DeterminetheshadedareainFig. A10.2, correct tothe
nearest squarecentimetre. (3)
2
0
c
m
2 cm
Fig. A10.2
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23
The circle
23.1 Introduction
A circle isaplaingureenclosedby acurvedline, every point
onwhichisequidistant fromapoint within, calledthecentre.
23.2 Properties of circles
(i) The distance fromthe centre to the curve is called the
radius, r, of thecircle(seeOP inFig. 23.1).
P
R
C
B
A
O
Q
Fig. 23.1
(ii) Theboundaryof acircleiscalledthecircumference, c.
(iii) Anystraight linepassingthroughthecentreandtouching
thecircumferenceat each end is called thediameter, d
(seeQR inFig. 23.1). Thusd =2r
(iv) Theratio
circumference
diameter
=aconstant for anycircle.
ThisconstantisdenotedbytheGreekletter (pronounced
pie), where =3.14159, correct to5decimal places.
Hencec/d = or c =d or c =2r
(v) A semicircle isonehalf of thewholecircle.
(vi) A quadrant isonequarter of awholecircle.
(vii) A tangent to a circle is a straight line which meets the
circleinonepoint only anddoes not cut thecirclewhen
produced. AC inFig. 23.1is atangent tothecirclesince
ittouchesthecurveatpointB only. If radiusOB isdrawn,
thenangleABO isaright angle.
(viii) A sector of acircleisthepartof acirclebetweenradii (for
example, theportion OXY of Fig. 23.2 is asector). If a
sector islessthanasemicircleit iscalledaminor sector,
if greater thanasemicircleit iscalledamajor sector.
S
R
T
Y
O
X
Fig. 23.2
(ix) A chord of acircleisany straight linewhichdividesthe
circleintotwopartsandisterminatedat eachendby the
circumference. ST, inFig. 23.2isachord.
(x) A segment is the name given to the parts into which a
circleis dividedby achord. If thesegment is less thana
semicircleit iscalledaminor segment (seeshadedarea
in Fig. 23.2). If thesegment is greater than asemicircle
it is called a major segment (see the unshaded area in
Fig. 23.2).
(xi) Anarc is aportionof thecircumferenceof acircle. The
distanceSRT in Fig. 23.2 is called aminor arc and the
distanceSXYT iscalledamajor arc.
(xii) The angle at the centre of a circle, subtended by an
arc, is double the angle at the circumference sub-
tended by the same arc. With reference to Fig. 23.3,
Angle AOC =2 angle ABC.
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The circle 175
A
P
C
O
Q
B
Fig. 23.3
(xiii) Theangleinasemicircleisaright angle(seeangleBQP
inFig. 23.3).
Problem 1. Find the circumference of a circle of radius
12.0cm.
Circumference,
c = 2 radius= 2r = 2(12.0) = 75.40 cm
Problem 2. If thediameter of acircleis 75mm, nd its
circumference.
Circumference,
c = diameter = d = (75) = 235.6 mm
Problem3. Determinetheradiusof acircleif itsperimeter
is112cm.
Perimeter=circumference, c =2r
Henceradius r =
c
2
=
112
2
=17.83 cm
Problem 4. InFig. 23.4, AB isatangent tothecircleat B.
If thecircleradius is 40mmand AB=150mm, calculate
thelengthAO.
A
B
O
r
Fig. 23.4
A tangent to acircleis at right angles to aradius drawn from
thepoint of contact, i.e. ABO=90
. Hence, usingPythagoras
theorem:
AO
2
= AB
2
+OB
2
fromwhich, AO =
_
AB
2
+OB
2
=
_
150
2
+40
2
= 155.2 mm
Exercise 84 Further problems on properties of a
circle (Answers on page 279)
1. Calculatethelengthof thecircumferenceof acircleof
radius7.2cm.
2. If the diameter of a circle is 82.6mm, calculate the
circumferenceof thecircle.
3. Determinetheradiusof acirclewhosecircumferenceis
16.52cm.
4. If the circumference of the earth is 40000kmat the
equator, calculateitsdiameter.
5. Calculatethelengthof wireinthepaper clipshownin
Fig. 23.5. Thedimensionsareinmillimetres.
2.5 rad
2.5 rad
12
32
6
3 rad
Fig. 23.5
23.3 Arc length and area of a sector
Oneradian isdenedastheanglesubtendedat thecentreof a
circleby anarc equal inlengthtotheradius. Withreferenceto
Fig. 23.6, for arclengths,
radians= s/r or arc length, s =r (1)
where isinradians.
o
s
r
r
u
Fig. 23.6
Whens =wholecircumference(=2r) then
= s/r = 2r/r = 2
i.e. 2 radians= 360
or radians =180

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Thus1rad=180
/ =57.30

Since rad=180
, then/2=90
, /3=60
, /4=45
, and
soon.
Area of a sector =

360
(r
2
)
when isindegrees
=

2
(r
2
) =
1
2
r
2
(2)
when isinradians
Problem 5. Convert toradians: (a) 125
(b) 69
47
(a) Since180
= radthen1
=/180rad, therefore
125
=125
_

180
_
c
=2.182 radians
(Notethat
c
means circular measure and indicates radian
measure.)
(b) 69
47
=69
47
60
=69.783
69.783
=69.783
_

180
_
c
=1.218 radians
Problem 6. Convert todegreesandminutes:
(a) 0.749radians (b) 3/4radians
(a) Since rad=180
then1rad=180
/, therefore
0.749= 0.749
_
180
= 42.915
0.915
=(0.91560)
=55
, correct to thenearest minute,

hence
0.749 radians =42
55
(b) Since1rad=
_
180
then
3
4
rad=
3
4
_
180
=
3
4
(180)
=135
Problem 7. Express in radians, in terms of (a) 150
(b) 270
(c) 37.5
Since180
= radthen1
=180/, hence
(a) 150
=150
_

180
_
rad=
5
6
rad
(b) 270
=270
_

180
_
rad=
3
2
rad
(c) 37.5
=37.5
_

180
_
rad=
75
360
rad=
5
24
rad
Problem 8. Find the length of arc of a circle of
radius 5.5cmwhen the angle subtended at the centre is
1.20radians.
Fromequation(1), lengthof arc, s =r, where is inradians,
hence
s = (5.5)(1.20) = 6.60 cm
Problem 9. Determinethediameter andcircumferenceof
a circle if an arc of length 4.75cmsubtends an angle of
0.91radians.
Sinces =r thenr =
s
=
4.75
0.91
=5.22cm.
Diameter=2radius=25.22=10.44 cm.
Circumference, c =d =(10.44)=32.80 cm.
Problem 10. If anangleof 125
issubtendedbyanarcof
acircleof radius8.4cm, ndthelengthof (a) theminorarc,
and(b) themajor arc, correct to3signicant gures.
Since180
= rad then 1
=
_

180
_
rad
and125
=125
_

180
_
rad
Lengthof minor arc,
s = r = (8.4)(125)
_

180
_
= 18.3 cm
Length of major arc=(circumference minor arc)=
2(8.4)18.3=34.5 cm, correct to3signicant gures.
(Alternatively, major arc=r =8.4(360125)(/180)
=34.5 cm.)
Problem11. Determinetheangle, indegreesandminutes,
subtendedatthecentreof acircleof diameter 42mmbyan
arc of length36mm. Calculatealso theareaof theminor
sector formed.
Sincelengthof arc, s =r then =s/r
Radius, r =
diameter
2
=
42
2
=21mm
hence =
s
r
=
36
21
=1.7143radians
1.7143rad=1.7143(180/)
=98.22
=98
13
=anglesub-
tendedat centreof circle.
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ch023 9/2/2005 16: 22 page177
The circle 177
Fromequation(2),
area of sector =
1
2
r
2
=
1
2
(21)
2
(1.7143) = 378 mm
2
Problem 12. A football stadiumoodlight canspreadits
illumination over an angle of 45
to a distance of 55m.
Determinethemaximumareathat isoodlit.
Floodlit area =areaof sector=
1
2
r
2
=
1
2
(55)
2
_
45

180
_
fromequation(2)
=1188 m
2
Problem 13. Anautomaticgardensprayproducesaspray
toadistanceof 1.8mandrevolvesthroughanangle which
may bevaried. If thedesiredspray catchment areaistobe
2.5m
2
, towhatshouldangle beset, correcttothenearest
degree.
Areaof sector =
1
2
r
2
, hence2.5=
1
2
(1.8)
2
fromwhich, =
2.52
1.8
2
= 1.5432radians
1.5432rad=
_
1.5432
180
= 88.42
Henceangle =88
, correct tothenearest degree.

Problem 14. The angle of a tapered groove is checked
usinga20mmdiameter roller asshowninFig. 23.7. If the
roller lies2.12mmbelowthetopof thegroove, determine
thevalueof angle.
2.12 mm
20 mm
30 mm
u
Fig. 23.7
In Fig. 23.8, triangle ABC is right-angled at C (see Sec-
tion23.2(vii), page174).
2.12 mm
30 mm
1
0
m
m
B
C
A
2
u
Fig. 23.8
Length BC =10mm (i.e. the radius of the circle), and
AB=30102.12=17.88mmfromFig. 23.7.
Hence sin
2
=
10
17.88
and
2
= sin
1
_
10
17.88
_
=34
and angle =68

Exercise 85 Further problems on arc length and area
of a sector (Answers on page 279)
1. Convert toradiansintermsof :
(a) 30
(b) 75
(c) 225
2. Convert toradians:
(a) 48
(b) 84
51
(c) 232
15
3. Convert todegrees:
(a)
5
6
rad (b)
4
9
rad (c)
7
12
rad
4. Convert todegreesandminutes:
(a) 0.0125rad (b) 2.69rad (c) 7.241rad
5. Findthelengthof anarc of acircleof radius 8.32cm
whentheanglesubtendedat thecentreis2.14radians.
Calculatealsotheareaof theminor sector formed.
6. If theanglesubtendedat thecentreof acircleof diam-
eter 82mmis1.46rad, ndthelengthsof the(a) minor
arc(b) major arc.
7. A pendulumof length1.5mswingsthroughanangleof
10
inasingleswing. Find, incentimetres, thelength

of thearctracedbythependulumbob.
8. Determinethelengthof theradius andcircumference
of acircleif anarclengthof 32.6cmsubtendsanangle
of 3.76radians.
9. Determinetheangleof lap, indegreesandminutes, if
180mmof abelt driveareincontact withapulley of
diameter 250mm.
10. Determinethenumberof completerevolutionsamotor-
cyclewheel will makeintravelling2km, if thewheels
diameter is85.1cm.
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11. Theoodlightsatasportsgroundspreaditsillumination
over anangleof 40
to adistanceof 48m. Determine

(a) theangleinradians, and(b) themaximumareathat
isoodlit.
12. Find the area swept out in 50 minutes by the minute
handof alargeoral clock, if thehandis2mlong.
13. Determine (a) the shaded area in Fig. 23.9 (b) the
percentage of the whole sector that the shaded area
represents.
12 mm
50 mm
0.75 rad
Fig. 23.9
14. Determinethelengthof steel striprequiredtomakethe
clipshowninFig. 23.10.
100 mm
100 mm
125 mm
rad
130
Fig. 23.10
15. A 50
tapered hole is checked with a 40mmdiame-

ter ball as shown in Fig. 23.11. Determinethelength
shownasx.
70 mm
x
50
4
0
m
m
Fig. 23.11
23.4 The equation of a circle
Thesimplestequationof acircle, centreattheorigin, radiusr, is
givenby:
x
2
+y
2
= r
2
For example, Fig. 23.12showsacirclex
2
+y
2
=9.
y
2
1
2 1 2
x
2
y
2
9
x 1 0
1
2
3
3
3 3
Fig. 23.12
Moregenerally, theequationof acircle, centre(a, b), radiusr, is
givenby:
(x a)
2
+(y b)
2
= r
2
(1)
Figure23.13showsacircle(x 2)
2
+(y 3)
2
=4
0 2 4
x
y
5
4
2
a 2
b 3
r
2
Fig. 23.13
Thegeneral equationof acircleis:
x
2
+y
2
+2ex +2fy +c = 0 (2)
Multiplyingout thebracketedtermsinequation(1) gives:
x
2
2ax +a
2
+y
2
2by +b
2
= r
2
Comparingthiswithequation(2) gives:
2e= 2a, i.e. a =
2e
2
and 2f =2b, i.e. b =
2f
2
and c =a
2
+b
2
r
2
, i.e.

a
2
+b
2
c
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The circle 179
Thus, for example, theequation
x
2
+y
2
4x 6y +9= 0
representsacirclewithcentre
a =
_
4
2
_
, b =
_
6
2
_
i.e., at (2, 3) andradiusr =
2
2
+3
2
9=2
Hencex
2
+y
2
4x 6y +9=0isthecircleshowninFig. 23.13
which may be checked by multiplying out the brackets in the
equation
(x 2)
2
+(y 3)
2
= 4
Problem 15. Determine (a) the radius, and (b) the
co-ordinatesof thecentreof thecirclegivenbytheequation:
x
2
+y
2
+8x 2y +8= 0
x
2
+y
2
+8x 2y +8=0isof theformshowninequation(2),
where a =
_
8
2
_
=4, b =
_
2
2
_
=1
and r =
_
( 4)
2
+1
2
8=
9=3
Hence x
2
+y
2
+8x 2y +80 represents a circle centre
(4, 1) andradius 3, asshowninFig. 23.14.
b 1
a 4
r
3
8 6 4 2 0
x
y
2
4
Fig. 23.14
Problem 16. Sketchthecirclegivenbytheequation:
x
2
+y
2
4x +6y 3= 0
Theequationof acircle, centre(a, b), radiusr isgivenby:
(x a)
2
+(y b)
2
= r
2
Thegeneral equationof acircleis
x
2
+y
2
+2ex +2fy +c = 0
Fromabovea =
2e
2
, b =
2f
2
and r =
a
2
+b
2
c
Henceif x
2
+y
2
4x +6y 3=0.
then a =
_
4
2
_
=2, b =
_
6
2
_
=3
and r =
_
2
2
+(3)
2
(3)=
16=4
Thus the circle has centre (2, 3) and radius 4, as shownin
Fig. 23.15.
4
8
4
3
2
2
4
r

4
2 0 2 4 6 x
y
Fig. 23.15
Exercise 86 Further problems on the equation of a
circle (Answers on page 280)
1. Determine(a) theradius, and(b) theco-ordinatesof the
centreof thecirclegivenbytheequation
x
2
+y
2
+8x 2y +8= 0
2. Sketchthecirclegivenbytheequation
x
2
+y
2
6x +4y 3= 0
3. Sketchthecurve
x
2
+(y 1)
2
25= 0
4. Sketchthecurve
x = 6
_
_
1
_
y
6
_
2
_
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24
Volumes of common solids
24.1 Volumes and surface areas of
regular solids
A summary of volumes and surface areas of regular solids is
showninTable24.1.
Table 24.1
(i) Rectangular prism
(or cuboid)
(ii) Cylinder
(iii) Pyramid
(iv) Cone
(v) Sphere
Volume l b h
Surface area 2(bh hl lb)
Volume r
2
h
Total surface area 2rh 2r
2
Total surface area (sum of areas of
triangles forming sides) (area of base)
Curved surface area rl
Total surface area rl r
2
h
b
h
h
l
h
r
r
r
l
Volume A h
where Aarea of base
and h perpendicular height
1
3
Volume r
2
h
1
3
Volume r
3
Surface area 4r
2
4
3
24.2 Worked problems on volumes and
surface areas of regular solids
Problem 1. A water tank is the shape of a rectangular
prismhavinglength2m, breadth75cmandheight 50cm.
Determine the capacity of the tank in (a) m
3
(b) cm
3
(c) litres.
Volumeof rectangular prism=l b h (seeTable24.1)
(a) Volumeof tank=20.750.5=0.75 m
3
(b) 1m
3
=10
6
cm
3
, hence0.75m
3
=0.7510
6
cm
3
=750 000 cm
3
(c) 1litre=1000cm
3
, hence
750000cm
3
=
750000
1000
litres=750 litres
Problem 2. Find thevolumeand total surfacearea of a
cylinder of length15cmanddiameter 8cm.
Volumeof cylinder=r
2
h (seeTable24.1)
Sincediameter=8cm, thenradiusr =4cm
Hencevolume= 4
2
15=754 cm
3
Total surfacearea(i.e. includingthetwoends)
= 2rh +2r
2
= (2 415) +(2 4
2
)
= 477.5 cm
2
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Volumes of common solids 181
Problem 3. Determinethevolume(incm
3
) of theshape
showninFig. 24.1.
16 mm
12 mm
40 mm
Fig. 24.1
ThesolidshowninFig. 24.1isatriangular prism. ThevolumeV
of anyprismisgivenby: V =Ah, whereA isthecross-sectional
areaandh istheperpendicular height.
Hencevolume=
1
2
161240
=3840mm
3
=3.840 cm
3
(since1cm
3
=1000mm
3
)
Problem 4. Calculatethevolumeandtotal surfaceareaof
thesolidprismshowninFig. 24.2.
11 cm
4 cm
15 cm
5 cm
5 cm
5 cm
Fig. 24.2
ThesolidshowninFig. 24.2isatrapezoidal prism.
Volume=cross-sectional areaheight
=
1
2
(11+5)415=3215=480 cm
3
Surfacearea=sumof twotrapeziums+4rectangles
=(232)+(515)+(1115)+2(515)
=64+75+165+150=454 cm
2
Problem 5. Determine the volume and the total surface
area of the square pyramid shown in Fig. 24.3 if its
perpendicular height is12cm.
5 cm
5 cm
C
D
B
E
A
Fig. 24.3
Volumeof pyramid=
1
3
(areaof base)(perpendicular height)
=
1
3
(55)12=100 cm
3
The total surface area consists of a square base and 4 equal
triangles.
Areaof triangleADE =
1
2
baseperpendicular height
=
1
2
5AC
ThelengthAC maybecalculatedusingPythagoras theoremon
triangleABC, whereAB=12cm, BC =
1
2
5=2.5cm
AC =
_
AB
2
+BC
2
=
_
12
2
+2.5
2
= 12.26cm
Henceareaof triangleADE =
1
2
512.26=30.65cm
2
Total surfaceareaof pyramid=(55)+4(30.65)
=147.6 cm
2
Problem 6. Determinethevolumeandtotal surfacearea
of aconeof radius5cmandperpendicular height 12cm.
TheconeisshowninFig. 24.4.
Volumeof cone=
1
3
r
2
h =
1
3
5
2
12=314.2 cm
3
Total surfacearea=curvedsurfacearea+areaof base
=rl +r
2
FromFig.24.4,slantheightl maybecalculatedusingPythagoras
theorem
l =
_
12
2
+5
2
= 13cm
Hencetotal surfacearea=( 513)+( 5
2
)
=282.7 cm
2
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h
12 cm
r 5 cm
l
Fig. 24.4
Problem 7. Findthevolumeandsurfaceareaof asphere
of diameter 8cm.
Sincediameter=8cm, thenradius, r =4cm.
Volumeof sphere=
4
3
r
3
=
4
3
4
3
=268.1 cm
3
Surfaceareaof sphere=4r
2
=4 4
2
=201.1 cm
2
Exercise 87 Further problems on volumes and surface
areas of regular solids (Answers on
page 280)
1. A rectangular block of metal hasdimensionsof 40mm
by25mmby15mm. Determineitsvolume. Findalsoits
massif themetal hasadensityof 9g/cm
3
.
2. Determinethemaximumcapacity, inlitres, of ashtank
measuring50cmby40cmby2.5m(1litre=1000cm
3
).
3. Determine how many cubic metres of concrete are
required for a 120m long path, 150mm wide and
80mmdeep.
4. Calculate the volume of a metal tube whose outside
diameter is 8cmandwhoseinsidediameter is 6cm, if
thelengthof thetubeis4m.
5. The volume of a cylinder is 400cm
3
. If its radius
is 5.20cm, nd its height. Determine also its curved
surfacearea.
6. If aconehas adiameter of 80mmandaperpendicular
height of 120mmcalculate its volume in cm
3
and its
curvedsurfacearea.
7. A cylinder iscast fromarectangular pieceof alloy5cm
by 7cmby 12cm. If thelengthof thecylinder is to be
60cm, nditsdiameter.
8. Findthevolumeandthetotal surfaceareaof aregular
hexagonal bar of metal of length3mif eachsideof the
hexagonis6cm.
9. A squarepyramidhasaperpendicular height of 4cm. If
asideof thebaseis2.4cmlongndthevolumeandtotal
surfaceareaof thepyramid.
10. A spherehasadiameter of 6cm. Determineitsvolume
andsurfacearea.
11. Findthetotal surfaceareaof ahemisphereof diameter
50mm.
12. Howlongwill ittakeatapdrippingatarateof 800mm
3
/s
toll a3-litrecan?
volumes and surface areas of
regular solids
Problem 8. A woodensectionisshowninFig. 24.5. Find
(a) itsvolume(inm
3
), and(b) itstotal surfacearea.
3 m
12 cm
r
8
m
m
r
Fig. 24.5
(a) Thesectionof woodisaprismwhoseendcomprisesarect-
angleandasemicircle. Sincetheradiusof thesemicircleis
8cm, thediameter is16cm.
Hencetherectanglehasdimensions12cmby16cm.
Areaof end=(1216)+
1
2
8
2
=292.5cm
2
Volumeof woodensection
=areaof endperpendicular height
=292.5300=87750cm
3
=
87750m
3
10
6
=0.08775 m
3
(b) Thetotal surfaceareacomprisesthetwoends(eachof area
292.5cm
2
), threerectanglesandacurvedsurface(whichis
half acylinder), hencetotal surfacearea
=(2292.5)+2(12300)+(16300)
+
1
2
(2 8300)
=585+7200+4800+2400
=20125 cm
2
or 2.0125 m
2
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Problem 9. A pyramidhasarectangular base3.60cmby
5.40cm. Determinethevolumeandtotal surfaceareaof the
pyramidif eachof itsslopingedgesis15.0cm.
Thepyramidis showninFig. 24.6. To calculatethevolumeof
thepyramidtheperpendicular height EF is required. Diagonal
BD iscalculatedusingPythagoras theorem,
i.e. BD=
_
[3.60
2
+5.40
2
]=6.490cm
H
B
C
A
F
G
D
E
1
5
.
0
c
m
1
5
.
0
c
m
1
5
.
0
c
m
1
5
.
0
c
m
5
.4
0
cm
3
.
6
0
c
m
Fig. 24.6
HenceEB=
1
2
BD=
6.490
2
=3.245cm.
UsingPythagoras theoremontriangleBEF gives
BF
2
=EB
2
+EF
2
fromwhich, EF =
_
(BF
2
EB
2
)
=
15.0
2
3.245
2
=14.64cm.
Volumeof pyramid
=
1
3
=
1
3
(3.605.40)(14.64)=94.87 cm
3
Areaof triangleADF (whichequalstriangleBCF)=
1
2
(AD)(FG),
whereG is themidpoint of AD. UsingPythagoras theoremon
triangleFGA gives
FG =
_
[15.0
2
1.80
2
] = 14.89cm
Henceareaof triangleADF =
1
2
(3.60)(14.89)=26.80cm
2
Similarly, if H isthemid-point of AB, then
FH =
_
15.0
2
2.70
2
= 14.75cm,
henceareaof triangleABF (whichequalstriangleCDF)
=
1
2
(5.40)(14.75) = 39.83cm
2
Total surfaceareaof pyramid
=2(26.80)+2(39.83)+(3.60)(5.40)
=53.60+79.66+19.44
=152.7 cm
2
Problem 10. Calculatethevolumeandtotal surfacearea
of ahemisphereof diameter 5.0cm.
Volumeof hemisphere=
1
2
(volumeof sphere)
=
2
3
r
3
=
2
3
_
5.0
2
_
3
=32.7 cm
2
Total surfacearea
=curvedsurfacearea+areaof circle
=
1
2
(surfaceareaof sphere)+r
2
=
1
2
(4r
2
)+r
2
=2r
2
+r
2
=3r
2
=3
_
5.0
2
_
2
=58.9 cm
2
Problem 11. A rectangular pieceof metal havingdimen-
sions4cmby3cmby12cmismelteddownandrecastinto
apyramidhavingarectangular basemeasuring2.5cmby
5cm. Calculatetheperpendicular height of thepyramid.
Volumeof rectangular prismof metal =4312=144cm
3
Volumeof pyramid
=
1
3
Assumingnowasteof metal,
144=
1
3
(2.55)(height)
i.e. perpendicular height=
1443
2.55
=34.56 cm
Problem12. Arivetconsistsof acylindrical head,of diam-
eter1cmanddepth2mm, andashaftof diameter2mmand
length1.5cm. Determinethevolumeof metal in2000such
rivets.
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Radiusof cylindrical head=
1
2
cm=0.5cmand
height of cylindrical head=2mm=0.2cm
Hence, volumeof cylindrical head
= r
2
h = (0.5)
2
(0.2) = 0.1571cm
3
Volumeof cylindrical shaft
= r
2
h =
_
0.2
2
_
2
(1.5) = 0.0471cm
3
Total volumeof 1rivet=0.1571+0.0471=0.2042cm
3
Volumeof metal in2000suchrivets=20000.2042
=408.4 cm
3
Problem 13. A solid metal cylinder of radius 6cmand
height 15cmismelteddownandrecast intoashapecom-
prisingahemispheresurmountedbyacone. Assumingthat
8% of the metal is wasted in the process, determine the
height of theconical portion, if itsdiameter istobe12cm.
Volumeof cylinder=r
2
h = 6
2
15=540 cm
3
If 8%of metal islost then92%of 540 givesthevolumeof the
newshape(showninFig. 24.7).
12 cm
r
h
Fig. 24.7
Hencethevolumeof (hemisphere+cone)=0.92540 cm
3
,
i.e.
1
2
_
4
3
r
3
_
+
1
3
r
2
h =0.92540
Dividingthroughout by gives:
2
3
r
3
+
1
3
r
2
h = 0.92540
Sincethediameter of thenewshapeistobe12cm, thenradius
r =6cm,
hence
2
3
(6)
3
+
1
3
(6)
2
h =0.92540
144+12h =496.8
i.e. height of conical portion,
h =
496.8144
12
= 29.4 cm
Problem 14. A block of copper havingamassof 50kgis
drawnout tomake500mof wireof uniformcross-section.
Given that the density of copper is 8.91g/cm
3
, calculate
(a) thevolumeof copper, (b) thecross-sectional areaof the
wire, and(c) thediameter of thecross-sectionof thewire.
(a) A density of 8.91g/cm
3
means that 8.91g of copper has a
volumeof 1cm
3
,or1gof copperhasavolumeof (1/8.91)cm
3
Hence50kg, i.e. 50000g, hasavolume
50000
8.91
cm
3
= 5612 cm
3
(b) Volumeof wire
= areaof circular cross-sectionlengthof wire.
Hence5612cm
3
=area(500100cm),
fromwhich, area=
5612
500100
cm
2
=0.1122 cm
2
(c) Areaof circle=r
2
or
d
2
4
, hence0.1122=
d
2
4
fromwhich
d =
_
_
40.1122
_
= 0.3780cm
i.e. diameter of cross-section is 3.780 mm.
Problem 15. A boiler consists of acylindrical sectionof
length8manddiameter 6m, ononeendof whichis sur-
mountedahemispherical sectionof diameter 6m, andon
theotherendaconical sectionof height4mandbasediam-
eter 6m. Calculatethevolumeof theboiler and thetotal
surfacearea.
Theboiler isshowninFig. 24.8.
Volumeof hemisphere,
P =
2
3
r
3
=
2
3
3
3
= 18 m
3
Volumeof cylinder,
Q = r
2
h = 3
2
8= 72 m
3
Volumeof cone,
R =
1
3
r
2
h =
1
3
3
2
4= 12 m
3
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P
Q
B
A
R
C
4 m
I
6 m
3 m
8 m
Fig. 24.8
Total volume of boiler =18 +72 +12
=102 =320.4 m
3
Surfaceareaof hemisphere,
P =
1
2
(4r
2
) = 2 3
2
= 18 m
2
Curvedsurfaceareaof cylinder,
Q = 2rh = 2 38= 48 m
2
Theslantheightof thecone,l,isobtainedbyPythagoras theorem
ontriangleABC, i.e. l =
_
(4
2
+3
2
)=5
Curvedsurfaceareaof cone,
R = rl = 35= 15 m
2
Total surface area of boiler =18 +48 +15
=81 =254.5 m
2
areas of regular solids (Answers on
page 280)
1. Determinethemassof ahemispherical coppercontainer
whoseexternal andinternal radii are12cmand10cm.
Assumingthat 1cm
3
of copper weighs8.9g.
2. If thevolumeof asphereis566cm
3
, nditsradius.
3. Ametal plumbbobcomprisesahemispheresurmounted
by acone. If thediameter of thehemisphereandcone
areeach4cmandthetotal lengthis5cm, nditstotal
volume.
4. A marqueeisintheformof acylinder surmountedbya
cone. Thetotal heightis6mandthecylindrical portion
hasaheightof 3.5m, withadiameterof 15m. Calculate
thesurfaceareaof material neededtomakethemarquee
assuming12%of thematerial iswastedintheprocess.
5. Determine(a) thevolumeand(b) thetotal surfacearea
of thefollowingsolids:
(i) aconeof radius8.0cmandperpendicular height
10cm
(ii) asphereof diameter 7.0cm
(iii) ahemisphereof radius3.0cm
(iv) a2.5cmby2.5cmsquarepyramidof perpendic-
ular height 5.0cm
(v) a4.0cmby6.0cmrectangularpyramidof perpen-
dicular height 12.0cm
(vi) a4.2cmby4.2cmsquarepyramidwhosesloping
edgesareeach15.0cm
(vii) apyramidhavinganoctagonal baseof side5.0cm
andperpendicular height 20cm.
6. The volume of a sphere is 325cm
3
. Determine its
diameter.
7. A metal sphere weighing 24kg is melted down and
recast into a solid cone of base radius 8.0cm. If the
density of the metal is 8000kg/m
3
determine (a) the
diameter of themetal sphereand(b) theperpendicular
height of thecone, assumingthat 15%of themetal is
lost intheprocess.
8. Findthevolumeof aregular hexagonal pyramidif the
perpendicular height is16.0cmandthesideof baseis
3.0cm.
9. A buoyconsistsof ahemispheresurmountedbyacone.
Thediameter of theconeandhemisphereis2.5mand
the slant height of the cone is 4.0m. Determine the
volumeandsurfaceareaof thebuoy.
10. A petrol container isintheformof acentral cylindrical
portion 5.0mlong with a hemispherical section sur-
mountedoneachend.If thediametersof thehemisphere
andcylinder areboth1.2mdeterminethecapacity of
thetankinlitres(1litre=1000cm
3
).
11. Figure24.9 shows ametal rod section. Determineits
volumeandtotal surfacearea.
1.00 cm
radius
2.50 cm
1.00 m
Fig. 24.9
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12. Find thevolume(in cm
3
) of thedie-casting shown in
Fig. 24.10. Thedimensionsareinmillimetres.
5
0
1
0
0
2
5
30 rad
60
Fig. 24.10
13. The cross-section of part of a circular ventilation
shaft is shown in Fig. 24.11, ends AB and CD being
open. Calculate (a) the volume of the air, correct to
the nearest litre, contained in the part of the system
shown, neglecting thesheet metal thickness, (given 1
litre=1000cm
3
), (b) the cross-sectional area of the
sheet metal usedtomakethesystem, insquaremetres,
and(c) thecost of thesheet metal if thematerial costs
11.50persquaremetre, assumingthat25%extrametal
isrequiredduetowastage.
2 m
1.5 m
1.5 m
800 mm
500 mm
A
B
D C
Fig. 24.11
24.4 Volumes and surface areas of frusta
of pyramids and cones
The frustum of a pyramid or cone is the portion remaining
whenapartcontainingthevertexiscutoff byaplaneparallel to
thebase.
Thevolume of a frustum of a pyramid or cone isgivenby
thevolumeof thewholepyramidor coneminus thevolumeof
thesmall pyramidor conecut off.
Thesurface area of the sides of a frustum of a pyramid or
cone isgivenby thesurfaceareaof thewholepyramidor cone
minusthesurfaceareaof thesmall pyramidor conecutoff. This
givesthelateral surfaceareaof thefrustum. If thetotal surface
areaof thefrustumis requiredthenthesurfaceareaof thetwo
parallel endsareaddedtothelateral surfacearea.
There is an alternative method for nding the volume and
surfaceareaof afrustumof a cone.WithreferencetoFig. 24.12:
Volume =
1
3
h(R
2
+Rr +r
2
)
Curvedsurfacearea=l(R+r)
Total surfacearea=l(R+r) +r
2
+R
2
r
h
I
R
Fig. 24.12
Problem16. Determinethevolumeof afrustumof acone
if thediameter of theends are6.0cmand 4.0cmand its
perpendicular height is3.6cm.
Method 1
A section through the vertex of a complete cone is shown in
Fig. 24.13.
Usingsimilar triangles
AP
DP
=
DR
BR
Hence
AP
2.0
=
3.6
1.0
fromwhich AP =
(2.0)(3.6)
1.0
=7.2cm
Theheight of thelargecone=3.6+7.2=10.8cm.
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4.0 cm
2.0 cm
1.0 cm
3.0 cm
6.0 cm
3.6 cm
Q
P
A
E
C
D
R
B
Fig. 24.13
Volumeof frustumof cone
=volumeof largeconevolumeof small conecut off
=
1
3
(3.0)
2
(10.8)
1
3
(2.0)
2
(7.2)
=101.7930.16=71.6 cm
3
Method 2
Fromabove, volumeof thefrustumof acone
=
1
3
h(R
2
+Rr +r
2
), where R = 3.0cm,
r =2.0cm and h = 3.6cm
Hencevolumeof frustum
=
1
3
(3.6)
_
(3.0)
2
+(3.0)(2.0)+(2.0)
2
_
=
1
3
(3.6)(19.0)=71.6 cm
3
Problem 17. Findthetotal surfaceareaof thefrustumof
theconeinProblem16.
Method 1
Curved surfaceareaof frustum=curved surfaceareaof large
conecurvedsurfaceareaof small conecut off.
FromFig. 24.13, usingPythagoras theorem:
AB
2
=AQ
2
+BQ
2
, fromwhich
AB =
_
[10.8
2
+3.0
2
]=11.21cm
and
AD
2
=AP
2
+DP
2
, fromwhich
AD =
_
[7.2
2
+2.0
2
]=7.47cm
Curvedsurfaceareaof largecone
= rl = (BQ)(AB) = (3.0)(11.21) = 105.65cm
2
andcurvedsurfaceareaof small cone
= (DP)(AD) = (2.0)(7.47) = 46.94cm
2
Hence, curvedsurfaceareaof frustum=105.6546.94
=58.71cm
2
Total surfaceareaof frustum
=curvedsurfacearea+areaof twocircular ends
=58.71+(2.0)
2
+(3.0)
2
=58.71+12.57+28.27=99.6 cm
2
Method 2
Frompage186, total surfaceareaof frustum
= l(R +r) +r
2
+R
2
,
where l =BD=11.217.47=3.74cm, R=3.0cm and r =
2.0cm.
Hencetotal surfaceareaof frustum
= (3.74)(3.0+2.0) +(2.0)
2
+(3.0)
2
= 99.6 cm
2
Problem 18. A storagehopper isintheshapeof afrustum
of apyramid.Determineitsvolumeif theendsof thefrustum
aresquares of sides 8.0mand4.6m, respectively, andthe
perpendicular height betweenitsendsis3.6m.
ThefrustumisshownshadedinFig. 24.14(a) aspart of acom-
pletepyramid. A sectionperpendicular to thebasethroughthe
vertexisshowninFig. 24.14(b).
Bysimilar triangles:
CG
BG
=
BH
AH
Height CG=BG
_
BH
AH
_
=
(2.3)(3.6)
1.7
=4.87m
Height of completepyramid=3.6+4.87=8.47m
Volumeof largepyramid=
1
3
(8.0)
2
(8.47)=180.69m
3
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4.6 cm
4.6 cm
8.0 m
8
.
0
m
2.3 m 2.3 m 3.6 m
4.0 m 2.3 m 1.7 m
(a) (b)
C
G D
B
A
H
E
F
Fig. 24.14
Volumeof small pyramidcut off
=
1
3
(4.6)
2
(4.87) = 34.35m
3
Hencevolumeof storagehopper
= 180.6934.35= 146.3 m
3
Problem 19. Determine the lateral surface area of the
storagehopper inProblem18.
Thelateral surfaceareaof thestoragehopper consists of four
equal trapeziums.
4.6 m
4.6 m
8.0 m
0
8.0 m
Q
T
P
R
S
U
Fig. 24.15
FromFig. 24.15, areaof trapeziumPRSU
=
1
2
(PR +SU)(QT)
OT =1.7m(sameasAH inFig. 24.14(b) andOQ=3.6m.
ByPythagoras theorem,
QT =
_
(OQ
2
+OT
2
) =
_
[3.6
2
+1.7
2
] = 3.98m
Areaof trapeziumPRSU =
1
2
(4.6+8.0)(3.98)=25.07m
2
Lateral surfaceareaof hopper = 4(25.07) = 100.3 m
2
Problem 20. A lampshade is in the shape of a frustum
of acone. Thevertical height of theshadeis 25.0cmand
thediametersof theendsare20.0cmand10.0cm, respect-
ively. Determinetheareaof thematerial neededtoformthe
lampshade, correct to3signicant gures.
Thecurvedsurfaceareaof afrustumof acone
= l(R +r) frompage186.
Sincethediameters of theends of thefrustumare20.0cmand
10.0cm, thenfromFig. 24.16,
r =5.0cm, R=10.0cm
and l =
_
[25.0
2
+5.0
2
]=25.50cm,
fromPythagoras theorem.
5.0 cm
r 5.0 cm
h
2
5
.
0

c
m
R10.0 cm
I
Fig. 24.16
Hencecurvedsurfacearea=(25.50)(10.0+5.0)=1201.7cm
2
,
i.e. the area of material needed to form the lampshade is
1200 cm
2
Problem 21. A coolingtower isintheformof acylinder
surmountedbyafrustumof aconeasshowninFig. 24.17.
Determinethevolumeof air spaceinthetower if 40%of
thespaceisusedfor pipesandother structures.
12.0 m
25.0 m
1
2
.
0
m
3
0
.
0
m
Fig. 24.17
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Volumeof cylindrical portion
= r
2
h =
_
25.0
2
_
2
(12.0) = 5890m
3
Volumeof frustumof cone
=
1
3
h(R
2
+Rr +r
2
)
where h =30.012.0=18.0m, R=25.0/2=12.5m and
r = 12.0/2=6.0m.
Hencevolumeof frustumof cone
=
1
3
(18.0)
_
(12.5)
2
+(12.5)(6.0) +(6.0)
2
_
= 5038m
3
Total volumeof coolingtower=5890+5038=10928m
3
.
If 40%of spaceisoccupiedthenvolumeof air space
= 0.610928= 6557 m
3
areas of frustra of pyramids and cones
1. Theradii of thefacesof afrustumof aconeare2.0cm
and 4.0cmand thethickness of thefrustumis 5.0cm.
Determineitsvolumeandtotal surfacearea.
2. A frustumof a pyramid has square ends, the squares
havingsides 9.0cmand5.0cm, respectively. Calculate
thevolumeandtotal surfaceareaof thefrustumif the
perpendicular distancebetweenitsendsis8.0cm.
3. A coolingtower is intheformof afrustumof acone.
Thebasehasadiameterof 32.0m, thetophasadiameter
of 14.0mandthevertical heightis24.0m. Calculatethe
volumeof thetower andthecurvedsurfacearea.
4. A loudspeaker diaphragmisintheformof afrustumof
acone. If theenddiametersare28.0cmand6.00cmand
thevertical distancebetween theends is 30.0cm, nd
theareaof material neededtocover thecurvedsurface
of thespeaker.
5. A rectangular prismof metal havingdimensions4.3cm
by 7.2cmby 12.4cmis melteddownandrecast into a
frustumof asquarepyramid, 10%of themetal beinglost
intheprocess. If theendsof thefrustumaresquaresof
side3cmand8cmrespectively, ndthethicknessof the
frustum.
6. Determinethevolumeandtotal surfaceareaof abucket
consisting of an inverted frustumof a cone, of slant
height 36.0cmandenddiameters55.0cmand35.0cm.
7. A cylindrical tank of diameter 2.0mandperpendicular
height 3.0mis to be replaced by a tank of the same
capacity but intheformof afrustumof acone. If the
diametersof theendsof thefrustumare1.0mand2.0m,
respectively, determinethevertical height required.
24.5 Volumes of similar shapes
The volumes of similar bodies are proportional to the cubes
of corresponding linear dimensions. For example, Fig. 24.18
showstwocubes, oneof whichhassidesthreetimesaslongas
thoseof theother.
x
x
x
3x
3x
3x
(a) (b)
Fig. 24.18
Volumeof Fig. 24.18(a) = (x)(x)(x) = x
3
Volumeof Fig. 24.18(b) = (3x)(3x)(3x) = 27x
3
HenceFig. 24.18(b) hasavolume(3)
3
, i.e. 27timesthevolume
of Fig. 24.18(a).
Problem 22. A car hasamassof 1000kg. A model of the
car is madeto ascaleof 1 to 50. Determinethemass of
themodel if thecar and its model aremadeof thesame
material.
Volumeof model
Volumeof car
=
_
1
50
_
3
sincethevolumeof similar bodies areproportional tothecube
of correspondingdimensions.
Mass=densityvolume,andsincebothcarandmodel aremade
of thesamematerial then:
Massof model
Massof car
=
_
1
50
_
3
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Hencemassof mode=(massof car)
_
1
50
_
3
=
1000
50
3
=0.008 kg or 8 g
Exercise 90 Further problems on volumes of similar
shapes (Answers on page 280)
1. Thediameter of two spherical bearings areintheratio
2:5. What istheratioof their volumes?
2. Anengineeringcomponent hasamassof 400g. If each
of its dimensions are reduced by 30% determine its
newmass.
Assignment 11
ters23and24. Themarksfor eachquestionareshown
1. Determinethediameterof acirclewhosecircumference
is178.4cm. (2)
2. Convert (a) 125
47
toradians
(b) 1.724radianstodegreesandminutes (4)
3. Calculatethelengthof metal stripneededtomakethe
clipshowninFig. A11.1. (6)
15 mm rad
15 mm rad
70 mm
70 mm
75 mm
30 mm rad
Fig. A11.1
4. A lorryhaswheelsof radius50cm. Calculatethenum-
ber of completerevolutionsawheel makes(correct to
thenearestrevolution) whentravelling3miles(assume
1mile=1.6km). (5)
5. Theequationof acircleis:
x
2
+y
2
+12x 4y +4= 0
Determine (a) the diameter of the circle, and (b) the
co-ordinatesof thecentreof thecircle. (5)
6. Determinethevolume(in cubic metres) and thetotal
surfacearea(in squaremetres) of asolid metal cone
of baseradius 0.5mandperpendicular height 1.20m.
Giveanswerscorrect to2decimal places. (5)
7. A rectangular storagecontainer has dimensions 3.2m
by90cmby60cm.
Determineitsvolumein(a) m
3
(b) cm
3
(4)
8. Calculate
(a) thevolume, and
(b) thetotal surfaceareaof a10cmby15cmrectangular
pyramidof height 20cm. (7)
9. A water container is of the formof a central cylin-
drical part 3.0m long and diameter 1.0m, with a
hemispherical section surmounted at each end as
showninFig. A11.2. Determinethemaximumcapac-
ity of the container, correct to the nearest litre. (1
litre=1000cm
3
) (5)
3.0 m
1.0 m
Fig. A11.2
10. Findthetotal surfaceareaof abucket consistingof an
invertedfrustumof acone, of slant height 35.0cmand
enddiameters60.0cmand40.0cm. (4)
11. A boat hasamassof 20000kg. A model of theboat is
madetoascaleof 1to80. If themodel ismadeof the
samematerial as theboat, determinethemass of the
model (ingrams). (3)
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25
Irregular areas and volumes and
mean values of waveforms
25.1 Areas of irregular gures
Areas of irregular planesurfaces may beapproximately deter-
minedbyusing(a) aplanimeter, (b) thetrapezoidal rule, (c) the
mid-ordinate rule, and (d) Simpsons rule. Such methods may
beused, for example, byengineersestimatingareasof indicator
diagrams of steamengines, surveyors estimatingareas of plots
of land or naval architects estimating areas of water planes or
transversesectionsof ships.
(a) A planimeter isaninstrument for directlymeasuringsmall
areasboundedbyanirregular curve.
(b) Trapezoidal rule
TodeterminetheareasPQRS inFig. 25.1:
Q
R
S P
d d d d d d
y
1
y
2
y
3
y
4
y
5
y
6
y
7
Fig. 25.1
(i) DividebasePS intoanynumberof equal intervals, each
of width d (the greater the number of intervals, the
greater theaccuracy).
(ii) Accuratelymeasureordinatesy
1
, y
2
, y
3
, etc.
(iii) AreaPQRS
= d
_
y
1
+y
7
2
+y
2
+y
3
+y
4
+y
5
+y
6
_
Ingeneral, thetrapezoidal rulestates:
Area =
_
width of
interval
_
_
_
1
2
_
rst +last
ordinate
_
+
_
_
sum of
remaining
ordinates
_
_
_
_
(c) Mid-ordinate rule
TodeterminetheareaABCD of Fig. 25.2:
A
B
d d d d d d
y
1
y
2
y
3
y
4
y
5
y
6
C
D
Fig. 25.2
(i) Divide base AD into any number of equal intervals,
each of width d (thegreater thenumber of intervals,
thegreater theaccuracy).
(ii) Erect ordinates inthemiddleof eachinterval (shown
bybrokenlinesinFig. 25.2).
(iii) Accuratelymeasureordinatesy
1
, y
2
, y
3
, etc.
(iv) AreaABCD=d(y
1
+y
2
+y
3
+y
4
+y
5
+y
6
).
Ingeneral, themid-ordinaterulestates:
Area =(width of interval)(sum of mid-ordinates)
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(d) Simpsons rule
TodeterminetheareaPQRS of Fig. 25.1:
(i) DividebasePS intoanevennumberof intervals, eachof
widthd (thegreater thenumber of intervals, thegreater
theaccuracy).
(ii) Accuratelymeasureordinatesy
1
, y
2
, y
3
, etc.
(iii) AreaPQRS
=
d
3
[(y
1
+y
7
) +4(y
2
+y
4
+y
6
) +2(y
3
+y
5
)]
Ingeneral, Simpsonsrulestates:
Area =
1
3
(width of interval) [(rst +last ordinate)
+4(sum of even ordinates)
+2(sum of remaining odd ordinates)]
Problem1. A carstartsfromrestanditsspeedismeasured
everysecondfor 6s:
Timet (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Speedv (m/s) 0 2.5 5.5 8.75 12.5 17.5 24.0
Determinethedistancetravelledin6seconds(i.e. thearea
under the v/t graph), by (a) the trapezoidal rule, (b) the
mid-ordinaterule, and(c) Simpsonsrule.
A graphof speed/timeisshowninFig. 25.3.
(a) Trapezoidal rule (seepara. (b) above).
30
25
Graph of speed/time
20
15
S
p
e
e
d

(
m
/
s
)
10
5
0 1 2 3
Time (seconds)
4 5 6
1
.
2
5
2
.
5
4
.
0
7
.
0
1
5
.
0
5
.
5
8
.
7
5
1
0
.
7
5
1
2
.
5
1
7
.
5
2
0
.
2
5
2
4
.
0
Fig. 25.3
Thetimebaseisdividedinto6stripseachof width1s, and
thelengthof theordinatesmeasured. Thus
area = (1)
__
0+24.0
2
_
+2.5+5.5+8.75
+12.5+17.5
_
= 58.75 m
(b) Mid-ordinate rule (seepara. (c) above).
Thetimebaseisdividedinto6stripseachof width1second.
Mid-ordinatesareerectedasshowninFig. 25.3bythebroken
lines. Thelengthof eachmid-ordinateismeasured. Thus
area = (1)[1.25+4.0+7.0+10.75+15.0+20.25]
= 58.25 m
(c) Simpsons rule (seepara. (d) above).
Thetimebaseisdividedinto6stripseachof width1s, and
thelengthof theordinatesmeasured. Thus
area =
1
3
(1)[(0+24.0) +4(2.5+8.75+17.5)
+2(5.5+12.5)] = 58.33 m
Problem 2. A river is15mwide. Soundingsof thedepth
aremadeat equal intervalsof 3macrosstheriver andare
asshownbelow.
Depth(m) 0 2.2 3.3 4.5 4.2 2.4 0
Calculatethecross-sectional areaof theowof wateratthis
point usingSimpsonsrule.
Frompara. (d) above,
Area=
1
3
(3)[(0+0) +4(2.2+4.5+2.4) +2(3.3+4.2)]
= (1)[0+36.4+15] = 51.4 m
2
Exercise 91 Further problems on areas of irregular
1. Plot a graph of y =3x x
2
by completing a table of
values of y from x =0 to x =3. Determine the area
enclosedbythecurve, thex-axisandordinatex =0and
x =3 by (a) the trapezoidal rule, (b) the mid-ordinate
ruleand(c) bySimpsonsrule.
2. Plot thegraphof y =2x
2
+3betweenx =0andx =4.
Estimatetheareaenclosed by thecurve, theordinates
x =0 and x =4, and the x-axis by an approximate
method.
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Irregular areas and volumes and mean values of waveforms 193
3. Thevelocityof acar at onesecondintervalsisgivenin
thefollowingtable:
timet (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
velocityv (m/s) 0 2.0 4.5 8.0 14.0 21.0 29.0
Determine the distance travelled in 6 seconds (i.e.
the area under the v/t graph) using an approximate
method.
4. Theshapeof apieceof landis shown in Fig. 25.4. To
estimatetheareaof theland, asurveyor takesmeasure-
mentsat intervalsof 50m, perpendicular tothestraight
portion with the results shown (the dimensions being
in metres). Estimate the area of the land in hectares
(1ha=10
4
m
2
).
140
50 50 50 50 50 50
160 200 190 180 130
Fig. 25.4
5. Thedeckof ashipis35mlong.Atequal intervalsof 5m
thewidthisgivenbythefollowingtable:
Width(m) 0 2.8 5.2 6.5 5.8 4.1 3.0 2.3
Estimatetheareaof thedeck.
25.2 Volumes of irregular solids
If thecross-sectional areas A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, . . . of an irregular solid
boundedby twoparallel planes areknownat equal intervals of
widthd (asshowninFig. 25.5), thenbySimpsonsrule:
Volume, V=
d
3
[(A
1
+A
7
) +4(A
2
+A
4
+A
6
)
+2(A
3
+A
5
)]
d
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
A
5
A
6
A
7
d d d d d
Fig. 25.5
Problem3. Atreetrunkis12minlengthandhasavarying
cross-section. Thecross-sectional areasat intervalsof 2m
measuredfromoneendare:
0.52, 0.55, 0.59, 0.63, 0.72, 0.84, 0.97m
2
Estimatethevolumeof thetreetrunk.
A sketchof thetreetrunk is similar to that showninFig. 25.5,
whered =2m, A
1
=0.52m
2
, A
2
=0.55m
2
, andsoon.
UsingSimpsonsrulefor volumesgives:
Volume=
2
3
[(0.52+0.97) +4(0.55+0.63+0.84)
+2(0.59+0.72)]
=
2
3
[1.49+8.08+2.62] = 8.13 m
3
Problem 4. Theareas of seven horizontal cross sections
of awater reservoir at intervalsof 10mare:
210, 250, 320, 350, 290, 230, 170m
2
Calculatethecapacityof thereservoir inlitres.
UsingSimpsonsrulefor volumesgives:
Volume=
10
3
[(210+170) +4(250+350+230)
+2(320+290)]
=
10
3
[380+3320+1220] = 16400 m
3
16400m= 1640010
6
cm
3
Since1litre= 1000cm
3
, capacityof reservoir
=
1640010
6
1000
litres
= 16400000= 1.64 10
7
litres
Exercise 92 Further problems on volumes of
irregular solids (Answers on page 280)
1. Theareasof equidistantlyspacedsectionsof theunder-
water formof asmall boat areasfollows:
1.76, 2.78, 3.10, 3.12, 2.61, 1.24, 0.85m
2
Determine the underwater volume if the sections are
3mapart.
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2. To estimate the amount of earth to be removed when
constructingacuttingthecross-sectional areaatintervals
of 8mwereestimatedasfollows:
0, 2.8, 3.7, 4.5, 4.1, 2.6, 0m
3
Estimatethevolumeof earthtobeexcavated.
3. Thecircumferenceof a12mlonglogof timber of vary-
ingcircular cross-sectionismeasuredatintervalsof 2m
alongitslengthandtheresultsare:
Distancefrom
oneend(m) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Circumference(m) 2.80 3.25 3.94 4.32 5.16 5.82 6.36
Estimatethevolumeof thetimber incubicmetres.
25.3 The mean or average value of a
waveform
Themeanoraveragevalue, y, of thewaveformshowninFig. 25.6
isgivenby:
y =
area under curve
length of base, b
y
y
1
d d d d d d d
b
y
2
y
3
y
4
y
5
y
6
y
7
Fig. 25.6
If the mid-ordinate rule is used to nd the area under the
curve, then:
y =
sumof mid-ordinates
number of mid-ordinates
_
=
y
1
+y
2
+y
3
+y
4
+y
5
+y
6
+y
7
7
_
for Fig. 25.6
For asine wave, themeanor averagevalue:
(i) over onecompletecycleiszero(seeFig. 25.7(a)),
(ii) over half a cycle is 0.637 maximum value, or
2/ maximum value,
(iii) of a full-wave rectied waveform (see Fig. 25.7(b)) is
0.637 maximum value,
(iv) of a half-wave rectied waveform (see Fig. 25.7(c)) is
0.318 maximum value, or 1/ maximum value.
V
0 t
V
m
(a)
V
0 t
V
m
(b)
V
0 t
V
m
(c)
Fig. 25.7
Problem5. Determinetheaveragevaluesoverhalf acycle
of theperiodicwaveformsshowninFig. 25.8.
3
2
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t (s)
1
2
3
(b)
20
0 1 2 3 4 t (ms)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
20
(a)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
10
10
0 2 4 6 8 t (ms)
(c)
Fig. 25.8
(a) Area under triangular waveform (a) for a half cycle is
givenby:
Area =
1
2
(base)(perpendicular height)
=
1
2
(210
3
)(20) = 2010
3
Vs
Averagevalueof waveform=
areaunder curve
lengthof base
=
2010
3
Vs
210
3
s
= 10 V
(b) Areaunder waveform(b) for ahalf cycle
=(11)+(32)=7As
areaunder curve
lengthof base
=
7As
3s
= 2.33A
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(c) A half cycle of the voltage waveform (c) is completed
in4ms.
Areaunder curve=
1
2
{(31)10
3
}(10)=1010
3
Vs
areaunder curve
lengthof base
=
1010
3
Vs
410
3
s
= 2.5V
Problem 6. Determine the mean value of current over
one complete cycle of the periodic waveforms shown in
Fig. 25.9.
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 t (ms)
5
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
m
A
)
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28t (ms)
Fig. 25.9
(a) Onecycleof thetrapezoidal waveform(a) is completedin
10ms(i.e. theperiodictimeis10ms).
Areaunder curve=areaof trapezium
=
1
2
(sumof parallel sides)(perpendicular distance
betweenparallel sides)
=
1
2
{(4+8) 10
3
}(510
3
) = 3010
6
As
Meanvalueover onecycle=
areaunder curve
lengthof base
=
3010
6
As
1010
3
s
= 3 mA
(b) Onecycleof thesawtoothwaveform(b)iscompletedin5ms.
Areaunder curve=
1
2
(310
3
)(2)=310
3
As
Meanvalueover onecycle=
areaunder curve
lengthof base
=
310
3
As
510
3
s
= 0.6 A
Problem 7. Thepower used in amanufacturing process
duringa6hour periodisrecordedat intervalsof 1hour as
shownbelow.
Time(h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Power (kW) 0 14 29 51 45 23 0
Plot agraphof power against timeand, by usingthemid-
ordinaterule, determine(a) theareaunder thecurveand
(b) theaveragevalueof thepower.
Thegraphof power/timeisshowninFig. 25.10.
50
40
30
P
o
w
e
r

(
k
W
)
20
10
0 1 2 3
Time (hours)
Graph of power/time
4 5 6
7.0 21.5 37.0 49.5 42.0 10.0
Fig. 25.10
(a) Thetimebaseisdividedinto6equal intervals, eachof width
1hour.
Mid-ordinates are erected (shown by broken lines in
Fig.25.10)andmeasured.ThevaluesareshowninFig.25.10.
Areaunder curve
= (widthof interval) (sumof mid-ordinates)
= (1)[7.0+21.5+42.0+49.5+37.0+10.0]
= 167 kWh (i.e. ameasureof electrical energy)
(b) Averagevalueof waveform
=
areaunder curve
lengthof base
=
167kWh
6h
= 27.83 kW
Alternatively, averagevalue
=
Sumof mid-ordinates
number of mid-ordinate
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Problem8. Figure25.11showsasinusoidal outputvoltage
of afull-waverectier. Determine, usingthemid-ordinate
rulewith6intervals, themeanoutput voltage.
10
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
0 306090 180 270 360
2
3
2
2
Fig. 25.11
One cycle of the output voltage is completed in radians or
180
.Thebaseisdividedinto6intervals, eachof width30
.The
mid-ordinateof eachinterval will lieat 15
, 45
, 75
, etc.
At 15
theheight of themid-ordinateis10sin15
=2.588V.
At 45
the height of the mid-ordinate is 10sin45
=7.071V,
andsoon.
Theresultsaretabulatedbelow:
Mid-ordinate Height of mid-ordinate
15
10sin15
= 2.588V
45
10sin45
= 7.071V
75
10sin75
= 9.659V
105
10sin105
= 9.659V
135
10sin135
= 7.071V
165
10sin165
= 2.588V
Sumof mid-ordinates=38.636V
Meanor averagevalueof output voltage
=
Sumof mid-ordinates
number of mid-ordinate
=
38.636
6
= 6.439V
(Withalarger number of intervalsamoreaccurateanswer may
beobtained.)
Forasinewavetheactual meanvalueis0.637maximumvalue,
whichinthisproblemgives6.37V.
Problem 9. An indicator diagramfor a steamengine is
showninFig. 25.12. Thebaselinehasbeendividedinto6
equally spacedintervals andthelengths of the7ordinates
measuredwiththeresultsshownincentimetres. Determine
(a) theareaof theindicator diagramusingSimpsonsrule,
and (b) themean pressurein thecylinder given that 1cm
represents100kPa.
3.6 3.5 2.9
12.0 cm
2.2 1.7 1.6 4.0
Fig. 25.12
(a) Thewidthof eachinterval is
12.0
6
cm. UsingSimpsonsrule,
area =
1
3
(2.0)[(3.6+1.6) +4(4.0+2.9+1.7)
+2(3.5+2.2)]
=
2
3
[5.2+34.4+11.4] = 34 cm
2
(b) Meanheight of ordinates =
areaof diagram
lengthof base
=
34
12
= 2.83cm
Since 1cmrepresents 100kPa, the mean pressure in the
cylinder
= 2.83cm100kPa/cm= 283 kPa
Exercise 93 Further problems on mean or average
values of waveforms (Answers onpage 280)
1. Determine the mean value of the periodic waveforms
showninFig. 25.13over ahalf cycle.
2
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
0 10 20 t (ms)
2
(a)
100
0 5 10
100
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
t (ms)
(b)
5
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
0 15 30 t (ms)
5
(c)
Fig. 25.13
2. Findtheaveragevalueof theperiodicwaveformsshown
inFig. 25.14over onecompletecycle.
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3. Analternatingcurrent hasthefollowingvaluesat equal
intervalsof 5ms.
Time(ms) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Current (A) 0 0.9 2.6 4.9 5.8 3.5 0
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
5
0 2 4 6 8 10 t (ms)
10
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
m
V
)
0 2 4 6 8 10 t (ms)
Fig. 25.14
Plot a graph of current against time and estimate the
area under the curve over the 30ms period using the
mid-ordinateruleanddetermineitsmeanvalue.
4. Determine, using an approximatemethod, theaverage
valueof asinewaveof maximumvalue50V for (a) a
half cycleand(b) acompletecycle.
5. Anindicator diagramof asteamengineis 12cmlong.
Sevenevenlyspacedordinates, includingtheendordin-
ates, aremeasuredasfollows:
5.90, 5.52, 4.22, 3.63, 3.32, 3.24, 3.16cm
Determinetheareaof thediagramandthemeanpressure
inthecylinder if 1cmrepresents90kPa.
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26
Triangles and some practical applications
26.1 Sine and cosine rules
Tosolve a triangle meanstondthevaluesof unknownsides
and angles. If a triangleis right angled, trigonometric ratios
and the theoremof Pythagoras may be used for its solution,
as showninChapter 19. However, for anon-right-angled tri-
angle, trigonometric ratiosandPythagoras theoremcannot be
used. Instead, tworules, calledthesine rule andthecosine rule,
areused.
Sine rule
With reference to triangle ABC of Fig. 26.1, the sine rule
states:
a
sinA
=
b
sin B
=
c
sin C
A
B C a
c b
Fig. 26.1
Therulemaybeusedonlywhen:
(i) 1sideandany2anglesareinitiallygiven, or
(ii) 2 sides and an angle (not the included angle) are initially
given.
Cosine rule
WithreferencetotriangleABC of Fig.26.1,thecosine rule states:
a
2
=b
2
+c
2
2bc cos A
or b
2
=a
2
+c
2
2ac cos B
or c
2
=a
2
+b
2
2ab cos C
Therulemaybeusedonlywhen:
(i) 2sidesandtheincludedangleareinitiallygiven, or
(ii) 3sidesareinitiallygiven.
26.2 Area of any triangle
Thearea of any triangle suchasABC of Fig. 26.1isgivenby:
(i)
1
2
base perpendicular height, or
(ii)
1
2
ab sin C or
1
2
ac sin B or
1
2
bc sin A, or
(iii)
_
[s(s a)(s b)(s c)], where
s =
a +b +c
2
26.3 Worked problems on the solution
of triangles and their areas
Problem 1. InatriangleXYZ, X =51
, Y =67
and
YZ =15.2cm. Solvethetriangleandnditsarea.
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Triangles and some practical applications 199
X
Y
z y
x 15.2 cm
Z
51
67
Fig. 26.2
The triangle XYZ is shown in Fig. 26.2. Since the angles in a
triangleaddupto180
, thenz =180
51
67
=62
.
Applyingthesinerule:
15.2
sin51
=
y
sin67
=
z
sin62
Using
15.2
sin51
=
y
sin67
andtransposinggives:
y=
15.2sin67
sin51
=18.00 cm=XZ
Using
15.2
sin51
=
z
sin62
andtransposinggives:
z =
15.2sin62
sin51
=17.27 cm=XY
Area of triangle XYZ
=
1
2
xy sin Z =
1
2
(15.2)(18.00)sin62
= 120.8 cm
2
(or area=
1
2
xz sinY =
1
2
(15.2)(17.27)sin67
= 120.8 cm
2
)
Itisalwaysworthcheckingwithtriangleproblemsthatthelongest
sideis oppositethelargest angle, and vice-versa. In this prob-
lem, Y is the largest angle and XZ is the longest of the three
sides.
Problem 2. Solve the triangle ABC given B=78
51
,
AC =22.31mmandAB=17.92mm. Findalsoitsarea.
TriangleABC isshowninFig. 26.3.
A
B
C
a
b 22.31 mm
c
1
7
.
9
2
m
m
7851
Fig. 26.3
22.31
sin78
51
=
17.92
sinC
fromwhich, sinC =
17.92sin78
51
22.31
=0.7881
Hence C = sin
1
0.7881=52
or 128
(see Chapters 19
and20).
SinceB=78
51
, C cannot be128
, since128
+78
51
isgreater than180
.
ThusonlyC =52
isvalid.
AngleA=180
78
51
52
=49
a
sin49
=
22.31
sin78
51
fromwhich, a =
22.31sin49
sin78
51
=17.20mm
HenceA=49
, C =52
andBC =17.20 mm.

Areaof triangleABC
=
1
2
ac sinB =
1
2
(17.20)(17.92)sin78
51
= 151.2 mm
2
Problem 3. SolvethetrianglePQR andnditsareagiven
that QR=36.5mm, PR=29.6mmandQ=36
TrianglePQR isshowninFig. 26.4.

P
R Q
r
p 36.5 mm
q 29.6 mm
36
Fig. 26.4
29.6
sin36
=
36.5
sinP
fromwhich, sinP =
36.5sin36
29.6
=0.7248
Hence P =sin
1
0.7248= 46
27
or 133
33
When P =46
27
and Q=36
then R =180
46
27
36
=97
33
When P =133
33
and Q=36
then R =180
133
33
36
=10
27

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Thus, in this problem, there are two separate sets of results
and both are feasible solutions. Such a situation is called the
ambiguous case.
Case 1. P =46
27
, Q=36
, R=97
33
, p =36.5mm and
q =29.6mm.
Fromthesinerule:
r
sin97
33
=
29.6
sin36
fromwhich, r =
29.6sin97
33
sin36
=49.92 mm
Area =
1
2
pq sinR=
1
2
(36.5)(29.6)sin97
33
=535.5 mm
2
.
Case 2. P =133
33
, Q=36
, R=10
27
, p =36.5mm and
q =29.6mm.
Fromthesinerule:
r
sin10
27
=
29.6
sin36
fromwhich, r =
29.6sin10
27
sin36
=9.134 mm
Area=
1
2
pq sinR=
1
2
(36.5)(29.6)sin10
27
=97.98 mm
2
.
TrianglePQR for case2isshowninFig. 26.5.
13333
1027 36
9.134 mm
36.5 mm
29.6 mm
P
Q R
Fig. 26.5
Exercise 94 Further problems on the solution of
triangles and their areas (Answers on
page 280)
InProblems1and2, usethesineruletosolvethetriangles
ABC andndtheir areas.
1. A=29
, B=68
, b =27mm.
2. B=71
26
, C =56
32
, b =8.60cm.
DEF andndtheir areas.
3. d =17cm, f =22cm, F =26
4. d =32.6mm, e =25.4mm, D=104
22
JKL andndtheir areas.
5. j =3.85cm, k =3.23cm, K =36
6. k =46mm, l =36mm, L =35
26.4 Further worked problems on the

solution of triangles and their areas
Problem4. SolvetriangleDEF andnditsareagiventhat
EF =35.0mm, DE =25.0mmandE =64
TriangleDEF isshowninFig. 26.6.

D
e f 25.0
mm
d 35.0 mm
64
F E
Fig. 26.6
Applyingthecosinerule:
e
2
=d
2
+f
2
2df cosE
i.e. e
2
=(35.0)
2
+(25.0)
2
[2(35.0)(25.0)cos64
]
=1225+625767.1=1083
fromwhich, e =
1083=32.91 mm
32.91
sin64
=
25.0
sinF
fromwhich, sinF =
25.0sin64
32.91
= 0.6828
Thus F =sin
1
0.6828=43
or 136
56
F =136
56
is not possiblein this casesince136
56
+64
is
greater than180
. ThusonlyF =43
isvalid.
D = 180
64
43
= 72
56
Areaof triangleDEF =
1
2
df sinE
=
1
2
(35.0)(25.0)sin64
= 393.2 mm
2
Problem 5. A triangle ABC has sides a =9.0cm,
b =7.5cmandc =6.5cm. Determineitsthreeanglesand
itsarea.
Triangle ABC is shown in Fig. 26.7. It is usual rst to calcu-
latethelargest angletodeterminewhether thetriangleis acute
or obtuse. In this case the largest angle is A (i.e. opposite the
longest side).
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A
B C a 9.0 cm
b 7.5 cm c 6.5 cm
Fig. 26.7
a
2
=b
2
+c
2
2bc cosA
fromwhich, 2bc cosA=b
2
+c
2
a
2
and cosA=
b
2
+c
2
a
2
2bc
=
7.5
2
+6.5
2
9.0
2
2(7.5)(6.5)
=0.1795
Hence A= cos
1
0.1795=79
40
(or 280
20
, which is obvi-
ously impossible). ThetriangleisthusacuteangledsincecosA
ispositive. (If cosA hadbeennegative, angleA wouldbeobtuse,
i.e. liebetween90
and180
).
9.0
sin79
40
=
7.5
sinB
fromwhich, sinB =
7.5sin79
40
9.0
=0.8198
HenceB= sin
1
0.8198=55
and C =180
79
40
55
=45
16
Area=
_
[s(s a)(s b)(s c)], where
s =
a +b +c
2
=
9.0+7.5+6.5
2
= 11.5cm
Hence area =
_
[11.5(11.59.0)(11.57.5)(11.56.5)]
=
_
[11.5(2.5)(4.0)(5.0)]=23.98 cm
2
Alternatively, area=
1
2
ab sinC =
1
2
(9.0)(7.5)sin45
16
=23.98 cm
2
Problem 6. Solve triangle XYZ, shown in Fig. 26.8,
and nd its area given that Y =128
, XY =7.2cm and
YZ =4.5cm.
X
Z
Y
y
z 7.2 cm
128
x 4.5 cm
Fig. 26.8
y
2
= x
2
+z
2
2xz cosY
= 4.5
2
+7.2
2
[2(4.5)(7.2)cos128
]
= 20.25+51.84[39.89]
= 20.25+51.84+39.89= 112.0
y =
112.0= 10.58 cm
10.58
sin128
=
7.2
sinZ
fromwhich, sinZ =
7.2sin128
10.58
= 0.5363
Hence Z = sin
1
0.5363=32
26
(or 147
34
which, here, is
impossible).
X =180
128
32
26
=19
34
Area =
1
2
xz sinY =
1
2
(4.5)(7.2)sin128
=12.77 cm
2
Exercise 95 Further problems on the solution of
triangles and their areas (Answers on
page 280)
InProblems1and2, usethecosineandsinerulestosolve
thetrianglesPQR andndtheir areas.
1. q =12cm, r =16cm, P =54
2. q =3.25m, r =4.42m, P =105
InProblems3and4, usethecosineandsinerulestosolve
thetrianglesXYZ andndtheir areas.
3. x =10.0cm, y =8.0cm, z =7.0cm.
4. x =21mm, y =34mm, z =42mm.
26.5 Practical situations involving
trigonometry
There are a number of practical situations where the use of
trigonometry is needed to nd unknown sides and angles of
triangles.Thisisdemonstratedinthefollowingworkedproblems.
Problem 7. A room8.0mwide has a span roof which
slopes at 33
on one side and 40
on the other. Find the

lengthof theroof slopes, correct tothenearest centimetre.
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A
B
C
33 40
8.0 m
Fig. 26.9
A sectionof theroof isshowninFig. 26.9.
Angleat ridge, B=180
33
40
=107
Fromthesinerule:
8.0
sin107
=
a
sin33
fromwhich, a =
8.0sin33
sin107
=4.556m
Alsofromthesinerule:
8.0
sin107
=
c
sin40
fromwhich, c =
8.0sin40
sin107
=5.377m
Hence the roof slopes are 4.56 m and 5.38 m, correct to the
nearest centimetre.
Problem 8. A manleaves apoint walkingat 6.5km/hin
adirectionE 20
N (i.e. abearingof 70
). A cyclist leaves
thesamepoint at thesametimeinadirectionE 40
S(i.e.
abearingof 130
) travellingat aconstant speed. Findthe

average speed of the cyclist if the walker and cyclist are
80kmapart after 5hours.
After 5hoursthewalker hastravelled56.5=32.5km(shown
as AB inFig. 26.10). If AC is thedistancethecyclist travels in
5hoursthenBC =80km.
20
3
2
.5
k
m
80 km
40
N
W
B
b
S
A
C
E
Fig. 26.10
80
sin60
=
32.5
sinC
fromwhich, sinC =
32.5sin60
80
=0.3518
HenceC = sin
1
0.3518=20
36
(or 159
24
, whichisimpos-
sibleinthiscase). B=180
60
20
36
=99
24
.
Applyingthesineruleagain:
80
sin60
=
b
sin99
24
fromwhich, b =
80sin99
24
sin60
=91.14km
Sincethecyclist travels91.14kmin5hoursthen
average speed =
distance
time
=
91.14
5
= 18.23 km/h
Problem 9. TwovoltagephasorsareshowninFig. 26.11.
If V
1
=40V and V
2
=100V determinethevalueof their
resultant (i.e. lengthOA) andtheangletheresultant makes
withV
1
A
C
B
V
2
100 V
V
1
40 V
45
Fig. 26.11
AngleOBA=180
45
=135
OA
2
=V
2
1
+V
2
2
2V
1
V
2
cosOBA
=40
2
+100
2
{2(40)(100)cos135
}
=1600+10000{5657}
=1600+10000+5657=17257
Theresultant OA =
17257=131.4V
131.4
sin135
=
100
sinAOB
fromwhich, sinAOB =
100sin135
131.4
=0.5381
HenceangleAOB= sin
1
0.5381=32
33
(or 147
27
, which
isimpossibleinthiscase).
Hence the resultant voltage is 131.4 volts at 32
33
to V
1
.
Problem 10. InFig. 26.12, PR representstheinclinedjib
of acraneandis10.0mlong. PQ is4.0mlong. Determine
the inclination of the jib to the vertical and the length of
tieQR.
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R
Q
10.0 m
4.0 m
120
P
Fig. 26.12
PR
sin120
=
PQ
sinR
fromwhich, sinR =
PQsin120
PR
=
(4.0)sin120
10.0
=0.3464
HenceR= sin
1
0.3464=20
16
(or159
44
,whichisimpos-
sibleinthiscase).
P =180
120
20
16
=39
44
, which is the inclination

of the jib to the vertical.
10.0
sin120
=
QR
sin39
44
fromwhich, length of tie, QR=

10.0sin39
44
sin120
=7.38 m
Exercise 96 Further problems on practical situations
involving trigonometry (Answers on
page 281)
1. A shipP sails at asteady speedof 45km/hinadirec-
tion of W 32
N (i.e. a bearing of 302
) froma port.
At the same time another ship Q leaves the port at a
steady speed of 35km/h in a direction N 15
E (i.e. a
bearing of 015
). Determine their distance apart after

4hours.
2. Two sides of a triangular plot of land are 52.0mand
34.0m, respectively. If theareaof theplotis620m
2
nd
(a) thelengthof fencingrequiredtoenclosetheplotand
(b) theanglesof thetriangular plot.
3. A jibcraneisshowninFig. 26.13. If thetierodPR is8.0
longandPQ is4.5mlongdetermine(a) thelengthof jib
RQ and(b) theanglebetweenthejibandthetierod.
R
130
P
Q
Fig. 26.13
4. A buildingsiteisintheformof aquadrilateral asshown
in Fig. 26.14, and its area is 1510m
2
. Determine the
lengthof theperimeter of thesite.
28.5 m
52.4 m
34.6 m
72
75
Fig. 26.14
5. Determinethelengthof membersBF andEB intheroof
trussshowninFig. 26.15.
E
F
50 50
5 m 5 m
4 m
2.5 m 2.5 m
4 m
D
A B C
Fig. 26.15
6. A laboratory 9.0mwidehas aspan roof which slopes
at 36
ononesideand44
ontheother. Determinethe
lengthsof theroof slopes.
7. PQ andQR arethephasorsrepresentingthealternating
currentsintwobranchesof acircuit. PhasorPQis20.0A
andishorizontal. Phasor QR (whichisjoinedtotheend
of PQ toformtrianglePQR) is14.0A andisatanangle
of 35
tothehorizontal. Determinetheresultant phasor

PR andtheangleit makeswithphasor PQ.
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26.6 Further practical situations
involving trigonometry
Problem 11. vertical aerial stands onhorizontal ground.
A surveyor positioneddueeast of theaerial measures the
elevationof thetopas48
. Hemovesduesouth30.0mand
measurestheelevationas44
. Determinetheheight of the
aerial.
In Fig. 26.16, DC represents the aerial, A is the initial posi-
tionof thesurveyor andB isnal position. FromtriangleACD,
tan48
=
DC
AC
, fromwhichAC =
DC
tan48
D
C A
B
48
30.0 m
44
Fig. 26.16
Similarly, fromtriangleBCD, BC =
DC
tan44
For triangleABC, usingPythagoras theorem:

BC
2
= AB
2
+AC
2
_
DC
tan44
_
2
= (30.0)
2
+
_
DC
tan48
_
2
DC
2
_
1
tan
2
44

1
tan
2
48
_
= 30.0
2
DC
2
(1.0723230.810727) = 30.0
2
DC
2
=
30.0
2
0.261596
= 3440.4
Hence, height of aerial, DC =
3340.4 =58.65 m.
Problem 12. A crank mechanismof a petrol engine is
shown in Fig. 26.17. ArmOA is 10.0cmlong and rotates
clockwiseabout 0. TheconnectingrodAB is30.0cmlong
andendB isconstrainedtomovehorizontally.
B
A
O
10.0 cm
50
3
0
.0
c
m
Fig. 26.17
(a) ForthepositionshowninFig. 26.17determinetheangle
betweentheconnectingrodAB andthehorizontal and
thelengthof OB.
(b) Howfar does B movewhen angleAOB changes from
50
to120
?
(a) Applyingthesinerule:
AB
sin50
=
AQ
sinB
fromwhich, sinB =
AOsin50
AB
=
10.0sin50
30.0
=0.2553
Hence B= sin
1
0.2553=14
47
(or 165
13
, which is
impossibleinthiscase).
Hence the connecting rod AB makes an angle of 14
47
with the horizontal.

AngleOAB=180
50
14
47
=115
13
30.0
sin50
=
OB
sin115
13
fromwhich, OB =
30.0sin115
13
sin50
=35.43 cm
(b) Figure26.18showstheinitial andnal positionsof thecrank
mechanism. IntriangleOA
, applyingthesinerule:
30.0
sin120
=
10.0
sinA
O
fromwhich, sinA
O =
10.0sin120
30.0
=0.2887
120
50
O
B
A
B
A
10.0 cm
30.0 cm
Fig. 26.18
HenceA
O= sin
1
0.2887=16
47
(or 163
13
whichis
impossibleinthiscase).
AngleOA
=180
120
16
47
= 43
13

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30.0
sin120
=
OB
sin43
13
fromwhich, OB
=
30.0sin43
13
sin120
=23.72cm
Since OB=35.43cmandOB
=23.72cmthen
BB
= 35.4323.72= 11.71cm
Hence B moves 11.71 cm when angle AOB changes from
50
to 120
.
Problem 13. Theareaof aeldisintheformof aquadri-
lateral ABCD asshowninFig. 26.19. Determineitsarea.
B
C
D
A
56
62.3 m
39.8 m
21.4 m
42.5 m
114
Fig. 26.19
A diagonal drawnfromB toD dividesthequadrilateral intotwo
triangles.
Areaof quadrilateral ABCD
= areaof triangleABD +areaof triangleBCD
=
1
2
(39.8)(21.4)sin114
+
1
2
(42.5)(62.3)sin56
= 389.04+1097.5= 1487 m
2
Exercise 97 Further problems on practical situations
involving trigonometry (Answers on
page 281)
1. Threeforces actingonaxedpoint arerepresentedby
the sides of a triangle of dimensions 7.2cm, 9.6cm
and11.0cm. Determinetheanglesbetweenthelinesof
actionandthethreeforces.
2. Avertical aerial AB,9.60mhigh,standsongroundwhich
isinclined12
tothehorizontal. A stayconnectsthetop
of theaerial AtoapointC ontheground10.0mdownhill
fromB, thefootof theaerial. Determine(a) thelengthof
thestay,and(b)theanglethestaymakeswiththeground.
3. A reciprocating engine mechanism is shown in
Fig. 26.20. Thecrank AB is 12.0cmlongandthecon-
nectingrodBC is32.0cmlong. For thepositionshown
A
40
B
C
Fig. 26.20
determinethelength of AC and theanglebetween the
crankandtheconnectingrod.
4. FromFig. 26.20, determinehow far C moves, correct
tothenearestmillimetrewhenangleCAB changesfrom
40
to160
, B movinginananticlockwisedirection.
5. A surveyor, standingW 25
S of atower measures the

angle of elevation of the top of the tower as 46
30
.
FromapositionE 23
Sfromthetower theelevationof
thetop is 37
15
. Determinetheheight of thetower if
thedistancebetweenthetwoobservationsis75m.
6. Calculate, correct to 3 signicant gures, the co-ord-
inates x and y to locatetheholecentreat P shown in
Fig. 26.21.
P
x
116
140
100 mm
y
Fig. 26.21
7. An idler gear, 30mm in diameter, has to be tted
between a 70mmdiameter driving gear and a 90mm
diameter drivengear asshowninFig. 26.22. Determine
thevalueof angle betweenthecentrelines.
90 mm
dia
30 mm
dia
99.78 mm
u
70 mm
dia
Fig. 26.22
8. 16holesareequallyspacedopnapitchcircleof 70mm
diameter. Determinethelengthof thechordjoiningthe
centresof twoadjacent holes.
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Assignment 12
Thisassignmentcoversthematerial inChapters25and
1. Plot a graph of y =3x
2
+5 from x =1 to x =4.
Estimate, correct to2decimal places, using6intervals,
theareaenclosedby thecurve, theordinatesx =1and
x =4, andthex-axisby(a) thetrapezoidal rule, (b) the
mid-ordinaterule, and(c) Simpsonsrule. (12)
2. A circular coolingtower is20mhigh. Theinsidediam-
eter of the tower at different heights is given in the
followingtable:
Height (m) 0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
Diameter (m) 16.0 13.3 10.7 8.6 8.0
Determine the area corresponding to each diameter
and henceestimatethecapacity of thetower in cubic
metres. (7)
3. A vehiclestarts fromrest andits velocity is measured
everysecondfor 6seconds, withthefollowingresults:
Timet (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Velocityv (m/s) 0 1.2 2.4 3.7 5.2 6.0 9.2
Using Simpsons rule, calculate (a) the distance trav-
elledin6s(i.e. theareaunder thev/t graph) and(b) the
averagespeedover thisperiod. (6)
4. A triangular plot of landABC is showninFig. A12.1.
Solvethetriangleanddetermineitsarea. (10)
B
A
C
15.4 m
15 m
71
Fig. A12.1
5. A car is travelling20mabovesealevel. It thentravels
500mupasteady slopeof 17
. Determine, correct to
the nearest metre, how high the car is now above see
level. (3)
6. Figure A12.2 shows a roof truss PQR with rafter
PQ=3m. Calculatethelengthof (a) theroof risePP
,
(b) rafter PR, and(c) theroof spanQR. Findalso(d) the
cross-sectional areaof theroof truss. (12)
Q
R
P
P
3 m
40 32
Fig. A12.2
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27
Vectors
27.1 Introduction
Some physical quantities are entirely dened by a numerical
value and are called scalar quantities or scalars. Examples
of scalarsincludetime, mass, temperature, energy andvolume.
Other physical quantitiesaredenedby bothanumerical value
andadirectioninspaceandthesearecalledvector quantities
or vectors. Examplesof vectorsincludeforce, velocity, moment
anddisplacement.
27.2 Vector addition
A vector mayberepresentedbyastraight line, thelengthof line
beingdirectlyproportional tothemagnitudeof thequantityand
thedirectionof thelinebeinginthesamedirectionas theline
of actionof thequantity. Anarrowis usedto denotethesense
of thevector, that is, for ahorizontal vector, say, whether it acts
fromleft to right or vice-versa. Thearrowis positioned at the
end of the vector and this position is called the nose of the
vector. Figure27.1showsavelocityof 20m/sat anangleof 45
to thehorizontal andmay bedepictedby oa =20m/s at 45
to
thehorizontal.
20 m/s
45
o
a
Fig. 27.1
To distinguish between vector and scalar quantities, various
waysareused. Theseinclude:
(i) bold print,
(ii) twocapital letters withanarrowabovethemtodenotethe
senseof direction, e.g.
AB, whereA isthestartingpointand

B theendpoint of thevector,
(iii) alineover thetopof letters, e.g. AB or a,
(iv) letterswithanarrowabove, e.g. a,

A,
(v) underlinedletters, e.g. a,
(vi) xi +jy, wherei andj areaxesat right-anglestoeachother;
for example, 3i + 4j means 3 units in thei direction and
4unitsinthej direction, asshowninFig. 27.2.
j
i
A(3, 4)
4
3
2
1
1 O 2 3
Fig. 27.2
(vii) acolumnmatrix
_
a
b
_
; for example, thevector OA shown
inFig. 27.2couldberepresentedby
_
3
4
_
Thus, inFig. 27.2, OA
OAOA3i +4j
_
3
4
_
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Theoneadoptedinthis text is to denotevector quantities in
bold print. Thus, oa represents avector quantity, but oa is the
magnitudeof thevector oa. Also, positiveangles aremeasured
inananticlockwisedirectionfromahorizontal, rightfacingline
andnegativeanglesinaclockwisedirectionfromthisline as
withgraphical work. Thus 90
is alinevertically upwards and

90
isalineverticallydownwards.
The resultant of adding two vectors together, say V
1
at an
angle
1
and V
2
at angle(
2
), as shown in Fig. 27.3(a), can
be obtained by drawing oa to represent V
1
and then draw-
ing ar to represent V
2
. The resultant of V
1
+V
2
is given by
or. This is shown in Fig. 27.3(b), the vector equation being
oa +ar =or. Thisiscalledthenose-to-tail method of vector
addition.
V
1
u
1
u
2
V
2
(a)
r
a
o
(b)
R
O
V
1
u
1
u
2
V
2
(c)
Fig. 27.3
Alternatively, bydrawinglinesparallel toV
1
andV
2
fromthe
noses of V
2
andV
1
, respectively, andlettingthepoint of inter-
sectionof theseparallel lines beR, gives OR as themagnitude
anddirectionof theresultant of addingV
1
andV
2
, asshownin
Fig. 27.3(c).Thisiscalledtheparallelogram method of vector
addition.
Problem 1. A force of 4N is inclined at an angle of
45
to a second force of 7N, both forces acting at a

point. Find the magnitude of the resultant of these two
forces and the direction of the resultant with respect to
the7N forcebyboththetriangle andtheparallelogram
methods.
The forces are shown in Fig. 27.4(a). Although the 7N force
is shown as ahorizontal line, it could havebeen drawn in any
direction.
Usingthenose-to-tail method, aline7unitslongisdrawn
horizontally to give vector oa in Fig. 27.4(b). To the nose of
this vector ar is drawn 4 units long at an angle of 45
to oa.
The resultant of vector addition is or and by measurement is
10.2 units long and at an angle of 16
to the 7 N force.
Figure 27.4(c) uses the parallelogram method in which
lines are drawn parallel to the 7N and 4N forces from the
nosesof the4N and7N forces, respectively. Theseintersect at
R. Vector OR gives the magnitude and direction of the resul-
tant of vector addition and as obtained by the nose-to-tail
method is 10.2 units long at an angle of 16
to the 7 N
force.
0 2 4 6
4 N
4 N 4 N
45
45
45
O
o O
7 N
7 N 7 N
r
R
a
Scale in Newtons
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 27.4
Problem2. Useagraphical methodtodeterminethemag-
nitudeanddirectionof theresultant of thethreevelocities
showninFig. 27.5.
v
2
v
1
v
3
10
20
7 m/s
15 m/s
10 m/s
Fig. 27.5
Oftenitiseasiertousethenose-to-tail methodwhenmorethan
twovectorsarebeingadded. Theorder inwhichthevectorsare
addedis immaterial. Inthis casetheorder takenis v
1
, thenv
2
,
thenv
3
but just thesameresult wouldhavebeenobtainedif the
orderhadbeen, say, v
1
, v
3
andnallyv
2
. v
1
isdrawn10unitslong
at anangleof 20
tothehorizontal, shownbyoa inFig. 27.6. v

2
isaddedtov
1
bydrawingaline15unitslongverticallyupwards
froma, shownasab.
Finally, v
3
isaddedtov
1
+v
2
by drawingaline7unitslong
at anangleat 190
fromb, shownasbr. Theresultant of vector

additionisor andbymeasurement is17.5unitslongat anangle
of 82
tothehorizontal.
Thusv
1
+v
2
+v
3
=17.5 m/s at 82
to the horizontal.
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Vectors 209
o
2 0 4 6 8 10
10
82
20
12
Scale in m/s
a
r
b
Fig. 27.6
27.3 Resolution of vectors
A vector canberesolvedintotwocomponent partssuchthat the
vector addition of thecomponent parts is equal to theoriginal
vector. Thetwocomponentsusuallytakenareahorizontal com-
ponent andavertical component. For thevector shownas F in
Fig. 27.7, thehorizontal component is F cos andthevertical
component isF sin.
F sin u
F cos u
u
F
Fig. 27.7
For the vectors F
1
and F
2
shown in Fig. 27.8, the horizontal
component of vector additionis:
H = F
1
cos
1
+F
2
cos
2
andthevertical component of vector additionis:
V = F
1
sin
1
+F
2
sin
2
V
H
F
1

s
i
n

u
1
F
1
F
2
F
2

s
i
n

u
2
u
1
u
2
F
2
cos u
2
F
1
cos u
1
Fig. 27.8
HavingobtainedH andV, themagnitudeof theresultant vector
R isgivenby
H
2
+V
2
anditsangletothehorizontal isgiven
bytan
1
(V/H)
Problem 3. Resolvetheaccelerationvector of 17m/s
2
at
anangleof 120
to thehorizontal into ahorizontal anda

vertical component.
For avector A at angle tothehorizontal, thehorizontal com-
ponentisgivenbyAcos andthevertical componentbyAsin.
Anyconventionof signsmaybeadopted, inthiscasehorizontally
fromleft to right is takenas positiveandvertically upwards is
takenaspositive.
Horizontal component H =17cos120
=8.50 m/s
2
, acting
fromleft toright.
Vertical component V =17sin120
=14.72 m/s
2
, actingverti-
callyupwards.
Thesecomponent vectorsareshowninFig. 27.9.
V
+H
V
H
17 m/s
2
14.72 m/s
2
8.50 m/s
2
120
Fig. 27.9
Problem 4. Calculatetheresultantforceof thetwoforces
giveninProblem1.
WithreferencetoFig. 27.4(a):
Horizontal component of force, H = 7cos0
+4cos45
= 7+2.828=9.828 N
Vertical component of force, V = 7sin0
+4sin45
= 0+2.828=2.828 N
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Themagnitudeof theresultant of vector addition
=
_
H
2
+V
2
=
_
9.828
2
+2.828
2
=
104.59= 10.23 N
Thedirectionof theresultant of vector addition
= tan
1
_
V
H
_
= tan
1
_
2.828
9.828
_
= 16.05
Thus, the resultant of the two forces is a single vector of

10.23 N at 16.05
to the 7 N vector.
Problem 5. Calculate the resultant velocity of the three
velocitiesgiveninProblem2.
Horizontal component of thevelocity,
H = 10cos20
+15cos90
+7cos190
= 9.397+0+(6.894) = 2.503 m/s

Vertical component of thevelocity,
V = 10sin20
+15sin90
+7sin190
= 3.420+15+(1.216) = 17.204 m/s

Magnitudeof theresultant of vector addition
=
_
H
2
+V
2
=
_
2.503
2
+17.204
2
=
302.24= 17.39 m/s

Directionof theresultant of vector addition
= tan
1
_
V
H
_
= tan
1
_
17.204
2.503
_
= tan
1
6.8734= 81.72
Thus, the resultant of the three velocities is a single vector of

17.39 m/s at 81.72
to the horizontal
Exercise 98 Further problems on vectors (Answers on
page 281)
1. Forcesof 23Nand41Nactatapointandareinclinedat
90
to eachother. Find, by drawing, theresultant force

anditsdirectionrelativetothe41Nforce.
2. ForcesA, B andC arecoplanar andact at apoint. Force
A is 12kN at 90
, B is 5kN at 180
andC is 13kN at
293
. Determinegraphicallytheresultant force.
3. Calculatethemagnitudeand direction of velocities of
3m/s at 18
and 7m/s at 115
when acting simultan-

eouslyonapoint.
4. Three forces of 2N, 3N and 4N act as shown in
Fig. 27.10. Calculatethemagnitudeof theresultantforce
anditsdirectionrelativetothe2Nforce.
4 N
2 N
3 N
60
60
Fig. 27.10
5. A loadof 5.89N isliftedbytwostrings, makingangles
of 20
and35
withthevertical. Calculatethetensions
in the strings. [For a systemsuch as this, the vectors
representingtheforcesformaclosedtrianglewhenthe
systemisinequilibrium].
6. The acceleration of a body is due to four compon-
ent, coplanar accelerations. Theseare2m/s
2
duenorth,
3m/s
2
dueeast, 4m/s
2
to thesouth-west and5m/s
2
to
thesouth-east. Calculatetheresultant accelerationand
itsdirection.
7. Acurrentphasori
1
is5Aandhorizontal.Asecondphasor
i
2
is 8A andis at 50
to thehorizontal. Determinethe
resultant of thetwo phasors, i
1
+i
2
, and theanglethe
resultant makeswithcurrent i
1
.
8. Anobjectisacteduponbytwoforcesof magnitude10N
and8N at anangleof 60
toeachother. Determinethe
resultant forceontheobject.
9. A ship heads on a course due south at 12km/h. It is
movedoff coursebyacurrentowinginanorth-easterly
directionat 8km/h. Determinetheresultant velocity.
27.4 Vector subtraction
InFig. 27.11, aforcevector F isrepresentedby oa. Thevector
(oa) canbeobtainedby drawingavector fromo intheoppo-
sitesensetooa but havingthesamemagnitude, shownasob in
Fig. 27.11, i.e. ob =(oa).
Fortwovectorsactingatapoint, asshowninFig. 27.12(a), the
resultant of vector additionisos =oa +ob. Fig. 27.12(b) shows
vectors ob +(oa), that is, ob oa and thevector equation is
ob oa =od. Comparing od in Fig. 27.12(b) with thebroken
lineab in Fig. 27.12(a) shows that thesecond diagonal of the
parallelogram methodof vector additiongives themagnitude
anddirectionof vector subtractionof oa fromob.
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Vectors 211
b
F
o
F
a
Fig. 27.11
b
s
a
o
(a) (b)
b
d
a a o
Fig. 27.12
Problem 6. Accelerations of a
1
=1.5m/s
2
at 90
and
a
2
=2.6m/s
2
at 145
act at a point. Find a

1
+a
2
and
a
1
a
2
by (i) drawingascalevector diagramand(ii) by
calculation.
(i) The scale vector diagram is shown in Fig. 27.13. By
measurement,
a
1
+a
2
= 3.7 m/s
2
at 126
a
1
a
2
= 2.1 m/s
2
at 0
a
2
a
2
a
1
a
2
a
1
a
2
a
1
Scale in m/s
2
2.6 m/s
2
1.5 m/s
2
145
126
0 1 2 3
Fig. 27.13
(ii) Resolvinghorizontallyandverticallygives:
Horizontal component of a
1
+a
2
,
H = 1.5cos90
+2.6cos145
= 2.13
Vertical component of a
1
+a
2
,
V = 1.5sin90
+2.6sin145
= 2.99
Magnitudeof
a
1
+a
2
=
_
(2.13)
2
+2.99
2
= 3.67 m/s
2
Directionof a
1
+a
2
= tan
1
_
2.99
2.13
_
andmust lieinthe
secondquadrant sinceH isnegativeandV ispositive.
tan
1
_
2.99
2.13
_
=54.53
, andforthistobeinthesecond
quadrant, thetrueangleis180
displaced, i.e. 180
54.53
or 125.47
Thusa
1
+a
2
=3.67 m/s
2
at 125.47
.
Horizontal component of a
1
a
2
, that is, a
1
+(a
2
)
= 1.5cos90
+2.6cos(145
180
)
= 2.6cos(35
) = 2.13
Vertical component of a
1
a
2
, that is, a
1
+(a
2
)
= 1.5sin90
+2.6sin(35
) = 0
Magnitudeof a
1
a
2
=
2.13
2
+0
2
=2.13 m/s
2
Directionof a
1
a
2
= tan
1
_
0
2.13
_
=0
Thusa
1
a
2
=2.13 m/s
2
at 0
Problem 7. Calculatetheresultantof (i) v

1
v
2
+v
3
and
(ii) v
2
v
1
v
3
whenv
1
=22unitsat 140
, v
2
=40units
at 190
andv
3
=15unitsat 290
(i) ThevectorsareshowninFig. 27.14.

15
22
40
H H
V
V
190
290
140
Fig. 27.14
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Thehorizontal component of v
1
v
2
+v
3
= (22cos140
) (40cos190
) +(15cos290
)
= (16.85) (39.39) +(5.13) = 27.67 units
Thevertical component of v
1
v
2
+v
3
= (22sin140
) (40sin190
) +(15sin290
)
= (14.14) (6.95) +(14.10) = 6.99 units
The magnitude of the resultant, R, which can be repre-
sentedby themathematical symbol for themodulus of as
|v
1
v
2
+v
3
| isgivenby:
|R| =
_
27.67
2
+6.99
2
= 28.54 units
Thedirection of theresultant, R, which can berepresented
by the mathematical symbol for the argument of as arg
(v
1
v
2
+v
3
) isgivenby:
arg R = tan
1
_
6.99
27.67
_
= 14.18
Thusv
1
v
2
+v
3
=28.54 units at 14.18
(ii) Thehorizontal component of v

2
v
1
v
3
= (40cos190
) (22cos140
) (15cos290
)
= (39.39) (16.85) (5.13) = 27.67 units
2
v
1
v
3
= (40sin190
) (22sin140
) (15sin290
)
= (6.95) (14.14) (14.10) = 6.99 units
Let R=v
2
v
1
v
3
then |R| =
_
(27.67)
2
+(6.99)
2
=
28.54unitsandarg R= tan
1
_
6.99
27.67
_
andmustlieinthe
thirdquadrant sincebothH andV arenegativequantities.
Tan
1
_
6.99
27.67
_
=14.18
, hence the required angle is

180
+14.18
=194.18
Thusv
2
v
1
v
3
=28.54 units at 194.18
This result is as expected, since v

2
v
1
v
3
=(v
1
v
2
+v
3
) andthevector 28.54unitsat194.18
isminustimes
thevector 28.54unitsat 14.18

Exercise 99 Further problems on vectors (Answers
on page 281)
1. Forces of F
1
=40N at 45
and F
2
=30N at 125
act
at a point. Determine by drawing and by calculation
(a) F
1
+F
2
(b) F
1
F
2
2. Calculate the resultant of (a) v
1
+v
2
v
3
(b) v
3
v
2
+v
1
whenv
1
=15m/sat85
, v
2
=25m/sat
175
andv
3
=12m/sat 235
27.5 Relative velocity

For relativevelocityproblems, somexeddatumpoint needsto
beselected. Thisisoftenaxedpoint ontheearthssurface. In
any vector equation, only thestart and nish points affect the
resultant vector of asystem. Twodifferent systemsareshownin
Fig. 27.15, but ineachof thesystems, theresultant vector isad.
Thevector equationof thesystemshowninFig. 27.15(a) is:
ad = ab +bd
andthat for thesystemshowninFig. 27.15(b) is:
ad = ab +bc +cd
a a
d
d
c
b
b
(a) (b)
Fig. 27.15
Thusinvector equationsof thisform, onlytherst andlast let-
ters, a and d, respectively, x the magnitude and direction of
the resultant vector. This principle is used in relative velocity
problems.
Problem 8. Two cars, P and Q, are travelling towards
thejunctionof two roads whichareat right angles to one
another. Car P hasavelocityof 45km/hdueeastandcar Q
avelocityof 55km/hduesouth. Calculate(i) thevelocityof
car P relativetocar Q, and(ii) thevelocityof car Q relative
tocar P.
(i) The directions of the cars are shown in Fig. 27.16 (a),
called a space diagram. The velocity diagramis shown
in Fig. 27.16 (b), in which pe is taken as the velocity of
car P relativetopoint e ontheearthssurface. Thevelocity
of P relativeto Q is vector pq and thevector equation is
pq =pe +eq. Hencethevector directionsareasshown, eq
beingintheoppositedirectiontoqe. Fromthegeometryof
thevector triangle,
|pq| =
_
45
2
+55
2
= 71.06km/h and
argpq = tan
1
_
55
45
_
= 50.71
i.e., the velocity of car P relative to car Q is 71.06 km/h

at 50.71
(ii) Thevelocityof car Q relativetocar P isgivenbythevector

equationqp =qe +ep andthevector diagramis as shown
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Vectors 213
N
W E
S
55 km/h
P
Q
45 km/h
(a) (b) (c)
p
e
q
p
e
q
Fig. 27.16
inFig. 27.16(c), havingep oppositeindirectiontope. From
thegeometryof thisvector triangle:
| qp | =
_
45
2
+55
2
= 71.06km/hand
argqp = tan
1
_
55
45
_
= 50.71
but must lieinthethirdquadrant, i.e., therequiredangleis

180
+50.71
=230.71
Thus the velocity of car Q relative to car P is 71.06 km/h

at 230.71

Exercise 100 Further problems on relative velocity
1. A car is moving along a straight horizontal road at
79.2km/h and rain is falling vertically downwards at
26.4km/h. Find thevelocity of therain relativeto the
driver of thecar.
2. Calculatethetimeneededtoswimacrossariver 142m
widewhentheswimmercanswimat2km/hinstill water
andtheriver isowingat 1km/h.
3. Object P is moving at 10m/s in a westerly direc-
tion. Object Q is movingat 15m/s in asouth-westerly
direction. Determinethevelocityof QrelativetoP.
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28
Adding of waveforms
28.1 Combination of two periodic
functions
Thereareanumberof instancesinengineeringandsciencewhere
waveforms combineand whereit is required to determinethe
singlephasor(calledtheresultant)thatcouldreplacetwoormore
separatephasors. (A phasor isarotatingvector). Usesarefound
inelectrical alternatingcurrenttheory, inmechanical vibrations,
intheadditionof forcesandwithsoundwaves.Thereareseveral
methods of determining theresultant and two such methods
plotting/measuring, and resolution of phasors by calculation
areexplainedinthischapter.Knowledgeof chapters19,20and26
involvingtrigonometryandwaveformsisneededforthischapter.
28.2 Plotting periodic functions
Thismaybeachievedbysketchingtheseparatefunctionsonthe
sameaxes andthenadding(or subtracting) ordinates at regular
intervals. Thisisdemonstratedinworkedproblems1to3.
Problem 1. Plot thegraphof y
1
=3sinA fromA=0
to
A=360
. On thesameaxes plot y
2
=2cosA. By adding
ordinatesploty
R
=3sinA+2cosA andobtainasinusoidal
expressionfor thisresultant waveform
y
1
=3sinA and y
2
=2cosA are shown plotted in Fig. 28.1.
Ordinatesmaybeaddedat, say, 15
intervals. For example,

at 0
, y
1
+y
2
=0+2=2
at 15
, y
1
+y
2
=0.78+1.93=2.71
at 120
, y
1
+y
2
=2.60+(1)=1.6
at 210
, y
1
+y
2
=1.501.73
=3.23, andsoon
0
1
2
3
1
2
3
3.6
y
34
90
A
y
1
3 sin A
y
2
2 cos A
y
R
3.6 sin(A34)
180 270 360
Fig. 28.1
Theresultant waveform, shownbythebrokenline, hasthesame
period, i.e. 360
, andthusthesamefrequencyasthesinglepha-
sors. Themaximumvalue, or amplitude, of theresultant is 3.6.
Theresultant waveformleads y
1
=3sinA by 34
or 0.593rad.
Thesinusoidal expressionfor theresultant waveformis:
y
R
= 3.6 sin(A +34
) or y
R
= 3.6 sin( A +0.593)
Problem 2. Plot the graphs of y
1
=4sint and
y
2
=3sin(t /3) onthesameaxes, over onecycle. By
addingordinatesat intervalsplot y
R
=y
1
+y
2
andobtaina
sinusoidal expressionfor theresultant waveform
y
1
=4sint and y
2
=3sin(t /3) are shown plotted in
Fig. 28.2. Ordinates are added at 15
intervals and the result-

ant is shownby thebrokenline. Theamplitudeof theresultant
is 6.1andit lags y
1
by 25
or 0.436rad. Hencethesinusoidal
expressionfor theresultant waveformis:
y
R
= 6.1 sin(t 0.436)
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Adding of waveforms 215
0
2
4
6
2
4
6
6.1
y
25
90 180 270 360
y
1
4 sin vt
y
R
y
1
y
2
y
2
3 sin(t/3)
t
/2 3/2 2
25
Fig. 28.2
Problem3. Determineasinusoidal expressionfory
1
y
2
wheny
1
=4sint andy
2
=3sin(t /3)
0
2
4
2
4
3.6
y
90 180 270 360 t
/2 3/2 2
y
1
y
2
y
1
y
2
45
Fig. 28.3
y
1
andy
2
areshownplottedinFig. 28.3. At 15
intervals y
2
is
subtractedfromy
1
. For example:
at 0
, y
1
y
2
=0(2.6)=+2.6
at 30
, y
1
y
2
=2(1.5)=+3.5
at 150
, y
1
y
2
=23=1, andsoon.
The amplitude, or peak value of the resultant (shown by the
brokenline), is3.6andit leadsy
1
by45
or 0.79rad. Hence
y
1
y
2
=3.6 sin(t +0.79)
Exercise 101 Further problems on plotting periodic
functions (Answers on page 281)
1. Plot thegraph of y =2sinA fromA=0
to A=360
.
On the same axes plot y =4cosA. By adding ordin-
ates at intervals plot y =2sinA+4cosA and obtain a
sinusoidal expressionfor thewaveform.
2. Twoalternatingvoltagesaregivenbyv
1
=10sint volts
andv
2
=14sin(t +/3)volts. By plottingv
1
andv
2
on the same axes over one cycle obtain a sinusoidal
expressionfor (a) v
1
+v
2
(b) v
1
v
2
3. Express 12sint +5cost in theformAsin(t )
bydrawingandmeasurement.
28.3 Determining resultant phasors by
calculation
The resultant of two periodic functions may be found from
their relative positions when the time is zero. For example, if
y
1
=4sint andy
2
=3sin(t /3) theneachmay berepre-
sented as phasors as shown in Fig. 28.4, y
1
being 4 units long
anddrawnhorizontallyandy
2
being3unitslong, laggingy
1
by
/3radians or 60
. To determinetheresultant of y
1
+y
2
, y
1
is
drawnhorizontallyasshowninFig. 28.5andy
2
isjoinedtothe
endof y
1
at 60
to thehorizontal. Theresultant is givenby y

R
.
Thisisthesameasthediagonal of aparallelogramthatisshown
completedinFig. 28.6.
Resultant y
R
, inFigs. 28.5and28.6, isdeterminedeither by:
y
1
4
y
2
3
60 or /3 rads
Fig. 28.4
y
1
4
y
2
3
a
b
f
y
R
60
0
Fig. 28.5
y
1
4
f
y
2
3
y
R
Fig. 28.6
(a) use of the cosine rule (and then sine rule to calculate
angle), or
(b) determininghorizontal andvertical components of lengths
oa andab inFig. 28.5, andthenusingPythagoras theorem
tocalculateob.
In the above example, by calculation, y
R
=6.083 and angle
=25.28
or 0.441rad. Thus the resultant may be expressed

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in sinusoidal formas y
R
=6.083sin(t 0.441). If theresult-
ant phasor, y
R
=y
1
y
2
is required, theny
2
is still 3units long
butisdrawnintheoppositedirection, asshowninFig. 28.7, and
y
R
isdeterminedbycalculation.
y
1
4
f
y
2
3
y
R
y
2
60
60
Fig. 28.7
Resolutionof phasorsbycalculationisdemonstratedinworked
problems4to6.
Problem 4. Giveny
1
=2sint andy
2
=3sin(t +/4),
obtain an expression for theresultant y
R
=y
1
+y
2
, (a) by
drawing, and(b) bycalculation
(a) When time t =0 the position of phasors y
1
and y
2
are as
shown in Fig. 28.8(a). To obtain theresultant, y
1
is drawn
horizontally, 2unitslong, y
2
isdrawn3unitslongatanangle
of /4rads or 45
andjoinedtotheendof y
1
as shownin
Fig. 28.8(b). y
R
ismeasuredas4.6unitslongandangle is
measuredas27
or0.47rad.Alternatively, y
R
isthediagonal
of theparallelogramformedasshowninFig. 28.8(c).
Hence, bydrawing, y
R
=4.6 sin(t +0.47)
(b) FromFig. 28.8(b), andusingthecosinerule:
y
2
R
= 2
2
+3
2
[2(2)(3)cos135
]
= 4+9[8.485] = 21.49
Hence y
R
=
21.49=4.64
Usingthesinerule:
3
sin
=
4.64
sin135
from
whichsin =
3sin135
4.64
=0.4572
Hence = sin
1
0.4572=27.21
or 0.475rad.
Bycalculation. y
R
=4.64 sin(t +0.475)
y
1
2
(a)
(b)
y
1
2
y
1
2
f
f
y
2
3
y
2
3
y
2
3
y
R
y
R
135
45
/4 or 45
(c)
Fig. 28.8
Problem 5. Two alternating voltages are given by
v
1
=15sint voltsandv
2
=25sin(t /6)volts. Deter-
mineasinusoidal expressionfor theresultant v
R
=v
1
+v
2
byndinghorizontal andvertical components.
The relative positions of v
1
and v
2
at time t =0 are shown in
Fig. 28.9(a) andthephasor diagramisshowninFig. 28.9(b).
v
1
15 V
v
2
25 V
(a)
(b)
0
f
v
2
v
1
v
R
c
a
b
150
30
/6 or 30
Fig. 28.9
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Adding of waveforms 217
Thehorizontal component of v
R
,
H = 15cos0
+25cos(30
)
= oa +ab = 36.65V
R
,
V = 15sin0
+25sin(30
)
= bc = 12.50V
Hence v
R
(=oc)=
_
36.65
2
+(12.50)
2
byPythagoras theorem
= 38.72 volts
tan =
V
H
_
=
bc
ob
_
=
12.50
36.65
= 0.3411
fromwhich, = tan
1
(0.3411)
= 18.83
or 0.329radians.
Hence
R
=
1
+
2
= 38.72 sin(t 0.329) V
Problem 6. For thevoltagesinProblem5, determinethe
resultant v
R
=v
1
v
2
Tondtheresultant v
R
=v
1
v
2
, thephasor v
2
of Fig. 28.9(b)
isreservedindirectionasshowninFig. 28.10. Usingthecosine
rule:
v
2
R
= 15
2
+25
2
2(15)(25)cos30
= 225+625649.5= 200.5
v
R
=
200.5= 14.16 volts

Usingthesinerule:
25
sin
=
14.16
sin30
fromwhich
sin =
25sin30
14.16
= 0.8828
Hence = sin
1
0.8828=61.98
or 118.02
. FromFig. 28.10,
isobtuse,
f
v
2
25 V
v
1
15 V
v
2
25 V
v
R
30
30
Fig. 28.10
hence =118.02
or 2.06radians.
Hencev
R
=v
1
v
2
=14.16 sin(t +2.06) V
Exercise 102 Further problems on the determination
of resultant phasors by calculation
In Problems 1 to 5, express the combination of periodic
functionsintheformAsin(t ) bycalculation.
1. 7sint +5sin
_
t +
4
_
2. 6sint +3sin
_
t
6
_
3. i =25sint 15sin
_
t +
3
_
A
4. v =8sint 5sin
_
t
4
_
V
5. x =9sin
_
t +
3
_
7sin
_
t
3
8
_
cm
6. The currents in two parallel branches of an electrical
circuit are:
i
1
= 5sint mA and i
2
= 12sin
_
t +

2
_
mA.
Determinethetotal current, i
T
, giventhat i
T
=i
1
+i
2
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29
Number sequences
29.1 Simple sequences
A set of numberswhichareconnectedbyadenitelawiscalled
aseries or asequence of numbers. Eachof thenumbersinthe
seriesiscalledaterm of theseries.
For example, 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . isaseriesobtainedbyadding2tothe
previous term, and2, 8, 32, 128, . . . is asequenceobtainedby
multiplyingtheprevioustermby4.
Problem 1. Determinethenext two terms in theseries:
3, 6, 9, 12, . . . .
Wenoticethatthesequence3,6,9,12,. . . progressivelyincreases
by3, thusthenext twotermswill be15 and 18.
Problem 2. Findthenext threetermsintheseries:
9, 5, 1, . . . .
Wenoticethat eachtermintheseries 9, 5, 1, . . . progressively
decreasesby4, thusthenexttwotermswill be14, i.e. 3 and
34, i.e. 7.
Problem 3. Determinethenext twotermsintheseries:
2, 6, 18, 54, . . . .
We notice that the second term, 6, is three times the rst
term, the third term, 18, is three times the second term, and
that the fourth term, 54, is three times the third term. Hence
the fth termwill be 354=162 and the sixth termwill be
3162=486
Exercise 103 Further problems on simple sequences
Determinethenexttwotermsineachof thefollowingseries:
1. 5, 9, 13, 17, . . . 2. 3, 6, 12, 24, . . .
3. 112, 56, 28, . . . 4. 12, 7, 2, . . .
5. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, 37, . . . 6. 1, 0.1, 0.01, . . .
7. 4, 9, 19, 34, . . .
29.2 The n
th term of a series
If a series is represented by a general expression, say, 2n +1,
wheren isaninteger (i.e. awholenumber), thenbysubstituting
n =1, 2, 3, . . . thetermsof theseriescanbedetermined; inthis
example, therst threetermswill be:
2(1) +1, 2(2) +1, 2(3) +1, . . . , i.e. 3, 5, 7, . . .
What isthen
thtermof thesequence1, 3, 5, 7, . . . ? Firstly, we

noticethatthegapbetweeneachtermis2, hencethelawrelating
thenumbersis:
2n +something
Thesecondterm, 3=2n +something,
hence when n =2 (i.e. the second term of the series), then
3=4+something and the something must be 1. Thus the
n
th term of 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . is 2n1. Hence the fth termis

givenby2(5)1=9, andthetwentiethtermis2(20)1=39,
andsoon.
Problem4. Then
thtermof asequenceisgivenby3n +1.

Writedowntherst four terms.
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Number sequences 219
Therst four termsof theseries3n +1will be:
3(1) +1, 3(2) +1, 3(3) +1 and 3(4) +1
i.e. 4, 7, 10 and 13
Problem 5. Then
thtermof aseries is givenby 4n 1.

Writedowntherst four terms.
Therst four termsontheseries4n 1will be:
4(1) 1, 4(2) 1, 4(3) 1 and 4(4) 1
i.e. 3, 7, 11 and 15
Problem 6. Findthen
thtermof theseries:
1, 4, 7, . . . .
Wenoticethat thegapbetweeneachof thegiventhreetermsis
3, hencethelawrelatingthenumbersis:
3n +something
sowhenn =2, then 4=6+something,
sothesomething must be2(fromsimpleequations).
Thusthe n
th term of the series 1, 4, 7, . . . is: 3n 2

Problem 7. Findthen
thtermof thesequence: 3, 9, 15,

21, . . . . Hencedeterminethe15thtermof theseries.
Wenoticethatthegapbetweeneachof thegivenfour termsis6,
hencethelawrelatingthenumbersis:
6n +something
sowhenn =2, then 9=12+something,
sothesomething must be3
Thusthe n
th term of the series 3, 9, 15, 21, . . . is: 6n 3

The15thtermof theseriesisgivenby6n 3whenn =15.
Hence the 15th term of the series 3, 9, 15, 21, . . . is:
6(15)3=87
Problem 8. Find the n
th term of the series: 1, 4, 9,

16, 25, . . . .
This is a special series and does not follow the pattern of the
previous examples. Each of the terms in the given series are
square numbers,
i.e. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . . 1
2
, 2
2
, 3
2
, 4
2
, 5
2
, . . .
Hence the n
th term is: n
2
Exercise 104 Further problems on the n
the term of
a series (Answers on page 281)
1. Then
th termof asequenceis given by 2n 1. Write

downtherst four terms.
2. Then
th termof asequenceis given by 3n +4. Write

downtherst veterms.
3. Writedowntherstfour termsof thesequencegivenby
5n +1
Findthen
thterminthefollowingseries:
4. 5, 10, 15, 20, . . . 5. 4, 10, 16, 22, . . .
6. 3, 5, 7, 9, . . . 7. 2, 6, 10, 14, . . .
8. 9, 12, 15, 18, . . . 9. 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, . . .
29.3 Arithmetic progressions
Whenasequencehas aconstant differencebetweensuccessive
termsit iscalledanarithmetic progression (oftenabbreviated
toAP).
Examplesinclude:
(i) 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, . . . wherethecommon difference is3,
and (ii) a, a +d, a +2d, a +3d, . . . wherethecommon
differenceisd.
If therst termof an AP is a and thecommon differenceis
d then
then
thtermis: a +(n 1)d

Inexample(i) above, the7thtermisgivenby1+(71)3=19,
whichmaybereadilychecked.
ThesumS of anAP canbeobtainedbymultiplyingtheaverage
of all thetermsbythenumber of terms.
Theaverageof all theterms=
a +1
2
, wherea istherst term
andl isthelast term, i.e. l =a +(n 1)d, for n terms.
Hencethesumof n terms,
S
n
= n
_
a +1
2
_
=
n
2
{a +[a +(n 1)d]}
i.e. S
n
=
n
2
[2a +(n 1)d]
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For example, thesumof therst 7 terms of theseries 1, 4, 7,
10, 13, . . . isgivenby
S
7
=
7
2
[2(1)+(71)3], sincea =1 and d =3
=
7
2
[2+18]=
7
2
[20]=70
29.4 Worked problems on arithmetic
progression
Problem 9. Determine(a) theninth, and(b) thesixteenth
termof theseries2, 7, 12, 17, . . . .
2, 7, 12, 17, . . . is an arithmetic progression with a common
difference, d, of 5
(a) Then
thtermof anAP isgivenbya +(n 1)d

Sincetherst terma =2, d =5andn =9
thenthe9thtermis:
2+(91)5= 2+(8)(5) = 2+40= 42
(b) The16thtermis:
2+(161)5= 2+(15)(5) = 2+75= 77
Problem10. The6thtermof anAP is17andthe13thterm
is38. Determinethe19thterm.
Then
thtermof anAP isa +(n 1)d

The6thtermis: a +5d =17 (1)
The13thtermis: a +12d =38 (2)
Equation (2) equation (1) gives: 7d =21, from which,
d =
21
7
=3
Substitutinginequation(1)gives:a +15=17,fromwhich,a =2
Hencethe19thtermis:
a +(n 1)d =2+(191)3=2+(18)(3)
=2+54=56
Problem 11. Determine the number of the termwhose
valueis22intheseries2
1
2
, 4, 5
1
2
, 7, . . .
2
1
2
, 4, 5
1
2
, 7, . . . isanAP wherea =2
1
2
andd =1
1
2
Henceif then
thtermis22then: a +(n 1)d =22

i.e. 2
1
2
+(n 1)
_
1
1
2
_
=22
(n 1)
_
1
1
2
_
=222
1
2
=19
1
2
n 1=
19
1
2
1
1
2
=13 andn =13+1=14
i.e. the 14th term of the AP is 22
Problem12. Findthesumof therst12termsof theseries
5, 9, 13, 17, . . . .
5, 9, 13, 17, . . . isanAP wherea =5andd =4
Thesumof n termsof anAP,
S
n
=
n
2
[2a +(n 1)d]
Hencethesumof therst 12terms,
S
12
=
12
2
[2(5) +(121)4]
= 6[10+44] = 6(54) = 324
Problem13. Findthesumof therst21termsof theseries
3.5, 4.1, 4.7, 5.3, . . . .
3.5, 4.1, 4.7, 5.3, . . . isanAP wherea =3.5andd =0.6
Thesumof therst 21terms,
S
21
=
21
2
[2a +(n 1)d]
=
21
2
[2(3.5)+(211)0.6]=
21
2
[7+12]
=
21
2
(19)=
399
2
=199.5
Exercise 105 Further problems on arithmetic
progressions (Answers on page 281)
1. Findthe11thtermof theseries8, 14, 20, 26, . . . .
2. Findthe17thtermof theseries11, 10.7, 10.4, 10.1, . . . .
3. Theseventhtermof aseriesis29andtheeleventhterm
is54. Determinethesixteenthterm.
4. Findthe15thtermof anarithmeticprogressionof which
therst termis2
1
2
andthetenthtermis16.
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5. Determine the number of the termwhich is 29 in the
series7, 9.2, 11.4, 13.6, . . . .
6. Find the sumof the rst 11 terms of the series 4, 7,
10, 13, . . . .
7. Determinethesumof theseries6.5, 8.0, 9.5, 11.0,. . ., 32
arithmetic progressions
Problem 14. Thesumof 7terms of anAP is 35andthe
commondifferenceis 1.2. Determinetherst termof the
series.
n =7, d =1.2andS
7
=35
Sincethesumof n termsof anAP isgivenby
S
n
=
n
2
[2a +(n 1)d], then
35=
7
2
[2a +(71)1.2]=
7
2
[2a +7.2]
Hence
352
7
=2a +7.2
10=2a +7.2
Thus2a =107.2=2.8, fromwhicha =
2.8
2
=1.4
i.e. the rst term, a =1.4
Problem15. Threenumbersareinarithmeticprogression.
Their sumis15andtheir productis80. Determinethethree
numbers.
Let thethreenumbersbe(a d), a and(a +d)
Then(a d)+a +(a +d)=15, i.e. 3a =15, fromwhich, a =5
Also, a(a d)(a +d)=80, i.e. a(a
2
d
2
)=80
Since a =5, 5(5
2
d
2
)=80
1255d
2
=80
12580=5d
2
45=5d
2
fromwhich, d
2
=
45
5
=9. Henced =
9=3
Thethreenumbersarethus(53), 5and(5+3), i.e. 2, 5 and 8
Problem 16. Findthesumof all thenumbers between0
and207whichareexactlydivisibleby3.
Theseries3, 6, 9, 12, . . . 207isanAP whoserstterma =3and
commondifferenced =3
Thelast termisa +(n 1)d =207
i.e. 3+(n 1)3=207, fromwhich
(n 1)=
2073
3
=68
Hencen =68+1=69
Thesumof all 69termsisgivenby
S
69
=
n
2
[2a +(n 1)d]
=
69
2
[2(3)+(691)3]
=
69
2
[6+204]=
69
2
(210)=7245
Problem 17. Therst, twelfthandlast termof anarith-
meticprogressionare4, 31
1
2
, and376
1
2
respectively. Deter-
mine(a) thenumber of terms intheseries, (b) thesumof
all thetermsand(c) the80thterm.
(a) LettheAP bea, a +d, a +2d, . . . , a +(n 1)d, wherea =4
The12thtermis: a +(121)d =31
1
2
i.e. 4+11d =31
1
2
, fromwhich,
11d =31
1
2
4=27
1
2
Henced =
27
1
2
11
=2
1
2
Thelast termisa +(n 1)d
i.e. 4+(n 1)
_
2
1
2
_
=376
1
2
(n 1)=
376
1
2
4
2
1
2
=
372
1
2
2
1
2
=149
Hence the number of terms in the series,
n =149 +1 =150
(b) Sumof all theterms,
S
150
=
n
2
[2a +(n 1)d]
=
150
2
_
2(4)+(1501)
_
2
1
2
__
=75
_
8+(149)
_
2
1
2
__
=75[8+372.5]
=75(380.5)=28537.5
(c) The80thtermis:
a +(n 1)d =4+(801)
_
2
1
2
_
=4+(79)
_
2
1
2
_
=4+197.5=201
1
2
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Exercise 106 Further problems on arithmetic
1. Thesumof 15termsof anarithmeticprogressionis202.5
and thecommon differenceis 2. Find therst termof
theseries.
2. Threenumbersareinarithmeticprogression. Their sum
is 9 and their product is 20
1
4
. Determine the three
numbers.
3. Findthesumof all thenumbersbetween5and250which
areexactlydivisibleby4.
4. Find thenumber of terms of theseries 5, 8, 11, . . . of
whichthesumis1025.
5. Insert four terms between 5and 22
1
2
to forman arith-
meticprogression.
6. Therst,tenthandlasttermsof anarithmeticprogression
are 9, 40.5, and 425.5 respectively. Find (a) the num-
ber of terms, (b) the sumof all the terms and (c) the
70thterm.
7. On commencing employment a man is paid a salary
of 7200per annumandreceivesannual incrementsof
350. Determinehissalaryinthe9thyear andcalculate
thetotal hewill havereceivedintherst 12years.
8. Anoil companyboresahole80mdeep.Estimatethecost
of boringif thecostis30fordrillingtherstmetrewith
anincreaseincost of 2per metrefor eachsucceeding
metre.
29.6 Geometric progressions
Whenasequencehasaconstant ratiobetweensuccessiveterms
it iscalledageometric progression (oftenabbreviatedtoGP).
Theconstant iscalledthecommon ratio, r
Examplesinclude
(i) 1, 2, 4, 8, . . . wherethecommonratiois2,
and (ii) a, ar, ar
2
, ar
3
, . . . wherethecommonratioisr
If therst termof aGP isa andthecommonratioisr, then
then
thtermis: ar
n1
whichcanbereadilycheckedfromtheaboveexamples.
Forexample,the8thtermof theGP 1,2,4,8, . . . is(1)(2)
7
=128,
sincea =1andr =2
Let aGP bea, ar, ar
2
, ar
3
, . . . ar
n1
thenthesumof n terms,
S
n
= a +ar +ar
2
+ar
3
+ +ar
n1
(1)
Multiplyingthroughout byr gives:
rS
n
= ar +ar
2
+ar
3
+ar
4
+ ar
n1
+ar
n
(2)
S
n
rS
n
=a ar
n
i.e. S
n
(1r)=a(1r
n
)
Thusthesumof n terms, S
n
=
a(1 r
n
)
(1 r)
whichisvalid
whenr <1
Subtractingequation(1) fromequation(2) gives
S
n
=
a(r
n
1)
(r 1)
whichisvalidwhenr >1
For example, thesumof therst 8termsof theGP 1, 2, 4,
8, 16, . . . isgivenby
S
8
=
1(2
8
1)
(21)
, sincea =1andr =2
i.e. S
8
=
1(2561)
1
=255
Whenthecommonratior of aGP islessthanunity, thesumof
n terms,
S
n
=
a(1r
n
)
(1r)
, whichmaybewrittenas
S
n
=
a
(1r)
ar
n
(1r)
Sincer <1, r
n
becomeslessasn increases,
i.e. r
n
0 as n
Hence
ar
n
(1r)
0 as n
Thus S
n
a
(1r)
as n
Thequantity
a
(1r)
iscalledthesum to innity, S
, andisthe
limitingvalueof thesumof aninnitenumber of terms,
i.e. S
=
a
(1r)
whichisvalidwhen1<r <1
For example, thesumtoinnityof theGP 1,
1
2
,
1
4
, . . . is
S
=
1
1
1
2
, sincea =1andr =
1
2
, i.e. S
=2
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29.7 Worked problems on geometric
progressions
Problem 18. Determinethetenthtermof theseries 3, 6,
12, 24, . . . .
3, 6, 12, 24, . . . isageometricprogressionwithacommonratio
r of 2
Then
thtermof aGP isar

n1
, wherea istherst term. Hence
the10thtermis:
(3)(2)
101
=(3)(2)
9
=3(512)=1536
Problem19. Findthesumof therst7termsof theseries,
1
2
, 1
1
2
, 4
1
2
, 13
1
2
, . . . .
1
2
, 1
1
2
, 4
1
2
, 13
1
2
, . . . isaGP withacommonratior =3
Thesumof n terms, S
n
=
a(r
n
1)
(r 1)
HenceS
7
=
1
2
(3
7
1)
(31)
=
1
2
(21871)
2
=546
1
2
Problem 20. Therst termof ageometric progressionis
12andthefthtermis55. Determinethe8thtermandthe
11thterm.
The5thtermisgivenbyar
4
=55, wheretherst terma =12
Hencer
4
=
55
a
=
55
12
andr =
4
_
_
55
12
_
=1.4631719. . . .
The8thtermis
ar
7
=(12)(1.4631719. . . )
7
=172.3
The11thtermis
ar
10
=(12)(1.4631719. . . )
10
=539.7
Problem 21. Whichtermof theseries2187, 729, 243, . . .
is
1
9
?
2187, 729, 243, . . . isaGP withacommonratior =
1
3
andrst
terma =2187
Then
thtermof aGP isgivenby: ar

n1
Hence
1
9
=(2187)
_
1
3
_
n1
fromwhich
_
1
3
_
n1
=
1
(9)(2187)
=
1
3
2
3
7
=
1
3
9
=
_
1
3
_
9
Thus(n 1)=9, fromwhich, n =9+1=10
i.e.
1
9
is the 10th term of the GP
Problem 22. Findthesumof therst9termsof theseries
72.0, 57.6, 46.08, . . . .
Thecommonratio,
r =
ar
a
=
57.6
72.0
= 0.8
_
also
ar
2
ar
=
46.08
57.6
= 0.8
_
Thesumof 9terms,
S
9
=
a(1r
n
)
(1r)
=
72.0(10.8
9
)
(10.8)
=
72.0(10.1342)
0.2
=311.7
Problem 23. Find the sumto innity of the series 3,
1,
1
3
, . . . .
3, 1,
1
3
, . . . isaGP of commonratio, r =
1
3
Thesumtoinnity,
S
=
a
1r
=
3
1
1
3
=
3
2
3
=
9
2
= 4
1
2
Exercise 107 Further problems on geometric
1. Findthe10thtermof theseries5, 10, 20, 40, . . . .
2. Determine the sumof the rst 7 terms of the series
1
4
,
3
4
, 2
1
4
, 6
3
4
, . . . .
3. Thersttermof ageometricprogressionis4andthe6th
termis128. Determinethe8thand11thterms.
4. Whichtermof theseries3, 9, 27, . . . is59049?
5. Find the sumof the rst 7 terms of the series 2, 5,
12
1
2
, . . . (correct to4signicant gures).
6. Determinethesumtoinnityof theseries4, 2, 1, . . . .
7. Findthesumtoinnityof theseries2
1
2
, 1
1
4
,
5
8
, . . . .
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geometric progressions
Problem 24. Inageometricprogressionthesixthtermis
8timesthethirdtermandthesumof theseventhandeighth
termsis192. Determine(a) thecommonratio, (b) therst
term,and(c)thesumof thefthtoeleventhterms,inclusive.
(a) Let theGP bea, ar, ar
2
, ar
3
, . . . , ar
n1
The3rdterm=ar
2
andthesixthterm=ar
5
The6thtermis8timesthe3rd
Hencear
5
=8ar
2
fromwhich, r
3
=8, r =
3
8
i.e. the common ratio r =2
(b) Thesumof the7thand8thtermsis192. Hence
ar
6
+ar
7
=192
Sincer =2, then
64a +128a =192
192a = 192
fromwhich, a, the rst term=1
(c) Thesumof the5thto11thterms(inclusive) isgivenby:
S
11
S
4
=
a(r
11
1)
(r 1)

a(r
4
1)
(r 1)
=
1(2
11
1)
(21)

1(2
4
1)
(21)
=(2
11
1)(2
4
1)
=2
11
2
4
=240816=2032
Problem 25. A hire tool rmnds that their net return
fromhiringtoolsisdecreasingby10%per annum. If their
netgainonacertaintool thisyear is400, ndthepossible
total of all futureprots fromthis tool (assumingthetool
lastsfor ever).
Thenet gainformsaseries:
400+4000.9+4000.9
2
+ ,
whichisaGP witha =400andr =0.9
Thesumtoinnity,
S
=
a
(1r)
=
400
(10.9)
=4000 =total future prots
Problem 26. If 100 is invested at compound interest
of 8%per annum, determine(a) thevalueafter 10 years,
(b) the time, correct to the nearest year, it takes to reach
morethan300.
(a) Let theGP bea, ar, ar
2
, . . . ar
n
Therst terma =100
Thecommonratior =1.08
Hencethesecondtermisar =(100)(1.08)=108, whichis
thevalueafter 1year, thethirdtermisar
2
=(100)(1.08)
2
=
116.64, whichisthevalueafter 2years, andsoon.
Thusthevalueafter 10years =ar
10
=(100)(1.08)
10
=215.89
(b) When300hasbeenreached, 300=ar
n
i.e. 300=100(1.08)
n
and 3=(1.08)
n
lg3= lg(1.08)
n
=n lg(1.08),
bythelawsof logarithmsfromwhich,
n =
lg3
lg1.08
=14.3
Hence it will take 15 years to reach more than 300
Problem 27. A drillingmachineistohave6speedsrang-
ing from50rev/min to 750rev/min. If thespeeds forma
geometricprogressiondeterminetheir values, eachcorrect
tothenearest wholenumber.
Let theGP of ntermsbegivenbya, ar, ar
2
, . . . ar
n1
Therst terma =50rev/min.
The 6th term is given by ar
61
, which is 750rev/min, i.e.,
ar
5
=750
fromwhichr
5
=
750
a
=
750
50
=15
Thusthecommonratio, r =
5
15=1.7188
Therst termisa =50rev/min
thesecondtermisar =(50)(1.7188)=85.94,
thethirdtermisar
2
=(50)(1.7188)
2
=147.71,
thefourthtermisar
3
=(50)(1.7188)
3
=253.89,
thefthtermisar
4
=(50)(1.7188)
4
=436.39,
thesixthtermisar
5
=(50)(1.7188)
5
=750.06
Hence, correct tothenearest wholenumber, the6speedsof the
drillingmachineare50, 86, 148, 254, 436 and 750 rev/min.
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Exercise 108 Further problems on geometric
1. In ageometric progression the5th termis 9 times the
3rdtermandthesumof the6thand7thtermsis1944.
Determine(a) thecommonratio, (b) therst termand
(c) thesumof the4thto10thtermsinclusive.
2. Thevalueof alatheoriginallyvaluedat 3000depreci-
ates 15%per annum. Calculateits valueafter 4 years.
The machine is sold when its value is less than 550.
After howmanyyearsisthelathesold?
3. If the population of Great Britain is 55 million and
is decreasing at 2.4% per annum, what will be the
populationin5yearstime?
4. 100gof aradioactivesubstancedisintegratesatarateof
3%per annum. Howmuchof thesubstanceisleft after
11years?
5. If 250 is invested at compound interest of 6% per
annumdetermine (a) the value after 15 years, (b) the
time, correct tothenearest year, it takestoreach750
6. A drilling machine is to have 8 speeds ranging from
100rev/minto 1000rev/min. If thespeeds formageo-
metric progressiondeterminetheir values, eachcorrect
tothenearest wholenumber.
Assignment 13
This assignment covers the material in chapters 27
to29.
Themarksfor eachquestionareshowninbracketsat
theendof eachquestion.
1. Forces of 10N, 16N and 20N act as shown in Figure
A13.1. Determinethemagnitudeof theresultant force
anditsdirectionrelativetothe16N force(a) byscaled
drawing, and(b) bycalculation. (9)
2. For thethreeforces shown in FigureA13.1, calculate
theresultant of F
1
F
2
F
3
andits directionrelative
toforceF
2
(6)
3. Two cars, A and B, are travelling towards cross-
roads. A has avelocity of 60km/h duesouth and B a
velocity of 75km/hduewest. Calculatethevelocity of
A relativetoB. (6)
4. Theinstantaneousvaluesof twoalternatingvoltagesare
givenby:
v
1
= 150sin
_
t +

3
_
volts
and v
2
= 90sin
_
t

6
_
volts
F
1
10 N
F
2
16 N
F
3
20 N
60
45
Fig. A13.1
Plot the two voltages on the same axes to scales of
1cm=50 volts and 1cm=/6. Obtain a sinusoidal
expression for the resultant of v
1
and v
2
in the form
Rsin(t +): (a) byaddingordinatesat intervals, and
(b) bycalculation. (15)
5. Determine the 20th termof the series 15.6, 15, 14.4,
13.8, . . . . (3)
6. Thesumof 13termsof anarithmeticprogressionis286
andthecommondifferenceis3. Determinetherstterm
of theseries. (4)
7. An engineer earns 21000 per annum and receives
annual incrementsof 600. Determinethesalaryinthe
9thyear andcalculatethetotal earnings intherst 11
years. (5)
8. Determinethe11thtermof theseries1.5, 3, 6, 12, . . . .
(2)
9. Find the sumof the rst eight terms of the series 1,
2
1
2
, 6
1
4
, . . . , correct to1decimal place. (4)
10. Determinethesumtoinnityof theseries5, 1,
1
5
, . . . .
(3)
11. A machine is to have seven speeds ranging from
25rev/min to 500rev/min. If the speeds forma geo-
metric progression, determinetheir value, eachcorrect
tothenearest wholenumber. (8)
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30
Presentation of statistical data
30.1 Some statistical terminology
Dataareobtainedlargelybytwomethods:
(a) by counting for example, thenumber of stampssoldby a
post ofceinequal periodsof time, and
(b) by measurement for example, the heights of a group of
people.
Whendataareobtainedbycountingandonlywholenumbersare
possible, thedataarecalled discrete. Measured datacan have
any valuewithin certain limits and arecalled continuous (see
Problem1).
A set is a group of data and an individual valuewithin the
set is called a member of the set. Thus, if the masses of ve
people are measured correct to the nearest 0.1kilogram and
arefound to be53.1kg, 59.4kg, 62.1kg, 77.8kg and 64.4kg,
then the set of masses in kilograms for these ve people is:
{53.1, 59.4, 62.1, 77.8, 64.4} andoneof themembers of the
set is59.4.
A setcontainingall themembersiscalledapopulation. Some
membersselectedatrandomfromapopulationarecalledasam-
ple. Thusall car registrationnumbersformapopulation, but the
registrationnumbersof, say, 20carstakenatrandomthroughout
thecountryareasampledrawnfromthat population.
The number of times that the value of a member occurs in
aset is called thefrequency of that member. Thus in theset:
{2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 2, 4, 7, 9}, member 4hasafrequencyof three,
member 2has afrequency of 2and theother members havea
frequencyof one.
Therelative frequency withwhichanymemberof asetoccurs
isgivenbytheratio:
frequency of member
total frequency of all members
For theset: {2, 3, 5, 4, 7, 5, 6, 2, 8}, therelativefrequencyof
member 5is
2
9
Often, relativefrequency is expressed as apercentageand the
percentage relative frequency is:
(relativefrequency100)%
Problem 1. Dataareobtainedonthetopics givenbelow.
Statewhether theyarediscreteor continuousdata.
(a) Thenumber of daysonwhichrainfallsinamonthfor
eachmonthof theyear.
(b) Themileagetravelledbyeachof anumberof salesmen.
(c) Thetimethat eachof abatchof similar batterieslasts.
(d) Theamountof moneyspentbyeachof several families
onfood.
(a) Thenumber of days on which rain falls in agiven month
must bean integer valueand is obtained by counting the
number of days. Hence, thesedataarediscrete.
(b) A salesmancantravel any number of miles (andparts of a
mile) betweencertainlimits andthesedataaremeasured.
Hencethedataarecontinuous.
(c) The time that a battery lasts is measured and can have
any value between certain limits. Hence these data are
continuous.
(d) Theamount of money spent onfoodcanonly beexpressed
correct to the nearest pence, the amount being counted.
Hence, thesedataarediscrete.
Exercise 109 Further problems on discrete and
continuous data (Answers on page 281)
InProblems1and2, statewhetherdatarelatingtothetopics
givenarediscreteor continuous.
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Presentation of statistical data 227
1. (a) Theamount of petrol produceddaily, for eachof 31
days, byarenery.
(b) The amount of coal produced daily by each of 15
miners.
(c) Thenumberof bottlesof milkdelivereddailybyeach
of 20milkmen.
(d) The size of 10 samples of rivets produced by a
machine.
2. (a) Thenumber of peoplevisitinganexhibitiononeach
of 5days.
(b) The time taken by each of 12 athletes to run 100
metres.
(c) Thevalueof stampssoldinadaybyeachof 20post
ofces.
(d) Thenumber of defectiveitems producedineachof
10one-hour periodsbyamachine.
30.2 Presentation of ungrouped data
Ungrouped data can be presented diagrammatically in several
waysandtheseinclude:
(a) pictograms, inwhichpictorial symbolsareusedtorepresent
quantities(seeProblem2),
(b) horizontal bar charts, havingdatarepresentedby equally
spacedhorizontal rectangles(seeProblem3), and
(c) vertical bar charts, inwhichdataarerepresentedbyequally
spacedvertical rectangles(seeProblem4).
Trendsinungroupeddataover equal periodsof timecanbepre-
senteddiagrammaticallybyapercentage component bar chart.
Insuchachart,equallyspacedrectanglesof anywidth,butwhose
height corresponds to 100%, are constructed. The rectangles
arethensubdividedintovaluescorrespondingtothepercentage
relativefrequenciesof themembers(seeProblem5).
A pie diagram is used to show diagrammatically the parts
makingupthewhole. Inapiediagram, theareaof acirclerep-
resents thewhole, andtheareas of thesectors of thecircleare
madeproportional to theparts which makeup thewhole(see
Problem6).
Problem 2. The number of television sets repaired in a
workshop by atechnician in six, one-month periods is as
shownbelow. Present thesedataasapictogram.
Month J anuary February March April May J une
Number
repaired 11 6 15 9 13 8
Each symbol shown in Fig. 30.1 represents two television sets
repaired. Thus, inJ anuary, 5
1
2
symbolsareusedtorepresent the
Month Number of TV sets repaired 2 sets
January
February
March
April
May
June
Fig. 30.1
11setsrepaired, inFebruary, 3symbolsareusedtorepresentthe
6setsrepaired, andsoon.
Problem 3. Thedistanceinmilestravelledby four sales-
meninaweekareasshownbelow.
Salesmen P Q R S
Distancetraveled(miles) 413 264 597 143
Useahorizontal bar chart torepresent thesedatadiagram-
matically.
Equally spaced horizontal rectangles of any width, but whose
lengthis proportional to thedistancetravelled, areused. Thus,
thelengthof therectanglefor salesmanP isproportional to413
miles, andsoon. Thehorizontal bar chartdepictingthesedatais
showninFig. 30.2.
0 100 200 300
Distance travelled, miles
400 500 600
S
a
l
e
s
m
e
n
R
S
P
Q
Fig. 30.2
Problem 4. The number of issues of tools or materials
fromastorein afactory is observed for seven, one-hour
periodsinaday, andtheresultsof thesurveyareasfollows:
Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of issues 34 17 9 5 27 13 6
Present thesedataonavertical bar chart.
Inavertical bar chart, equallyspacedvertical rectanglesof any
width, but whose height is proportional to the quantity being
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represented, areused. Thustheheightof therectanglefor period
1 is proportional to 34 units, and so on. Thevertical bar chart
depictingthesedataisshowninFig. 30.3.
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4
Periods
5 6 7
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

i
s
s
u
e
s
Fig. 30.3
Problem 5. The numbers of various types of dwellings
sold by a company annually over a three-year period are
asshownbelow. Drawpercentagecomponent bar chartsto
present thesedata.
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
4-roomedbungalows 24 17 7
5-roomedbungalows 38 71 118
4-roomedhouses 44 50 53
A tableof percentagerelativefrequency values, correct to the
nearest 1%, istherst requirement. Since,
percentagerelativefrequency
=
frequency of member 100
total frequency
thenfor 4-roomedbungalowsinyear 1:
percentagerelativefrequency =
24100
24+38+44+64+30
= 12%
The percentage relative frequencies of the other types of
dwellingsfor eachof thethreeyearsaresimilarlycalculatedand
theresultsareasshowninthetablebelow.
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
4-roomedbungalows 12% 7% 2%
5-roomedbungalows 19% 28% 34%
4-roomedhouses 22% 20% 15%
Thepercentagecomponentbarchartisproducedbyconstructing
threeequally spacedrectangles of any width, correspondingto
thethreeyears.Theheightsof therectanglescorrespondto100%
relativefrequency, andaresubdividedintothevaluesinthetable
of percentages shown above. A key is used (different types of
shadingor different colour schemes) to indicatecorresponding
percentagevalues in therows of thetableof percentages. The
percentagecomponent bar chart isshowninFig. 30.4.
100
Key
90
80
70
60
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
50
40
30
20
10
1 2
Year
3
6-roomed houses
5-roomed houses
4-roomed houses
5-roomed bungalows
4-roomed bungalows
Fig. 30.4
Problem6. Theretail priceof aproductcosting2ismade
upasfollows:materials10p,labour20p,researchanddevel-
opment 40p, overheads 70p, prot 60p. Present thesedata
onapiediagram.
Acircleof anyradiusisdrawn,andtheareaof thecirclerepresents
thewhole, whichinthiscaseis2. Thecircleissubdividedinto
sectors so that the areas of the sectors are proportional to the
parts, i.e. thepartswhichmakeupthetotal retail price. For the
areaof asectortobeproportional toapart, theangleatthecentre
of thecirclemust beproportional tothat part. Thewhole, 2or
200p, correspondsto360
. Therefore,
10pcorrespondsto360
10
200
degrees, i.e. 18
20pcorrespondsto360
20
200
degrees, i.e. 36
andsoon, givingtheanglesatthecentreof thecirclefortheparts

of theretail priceas: 18
, 36
, 72
, 126
and108
, respectively.
ThepiediagramisshowninFig. 30.5.
Problem 7. (a) Using the data given in Fig. 30.2 only,
calculate the amount of money paid to each salesman
for travelling expenses, if they are paid an allowance of
37pper mile.
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(b) UsingthedatapresentedinFig. 30.4, comment onthe
housingtrendsover thethree-year period.
(c) Determine the prot made by selling 700 units of the
product showninFig. 30.5
Research and
development
Overheads
Profit
Materials
Labour
36
72
126
108
8
lp 1.8
Fig. 30.5
(a) Bymeasuringthelengthof rectangleP themileagecovered
by salesmanP is equivalent to 413miles. Hencesalesman
P receivesatravellingallowanceof
41337
100
i.e. 152.81
Similarly, for salesman Q, themiles travelled are264 and
hisallowanceis
26437
100
i.e. 97.68
SalesmanR travels597milesandhereceives
59737
100
i.e. 220.89
Finally, salesmanS receives
14337
100
i.e. 52.91
(b) Ananalysisof Fig. 30.4showsthat5-roomedbungalowsand
5-roomed houses arebecoming morepopular, thegreatest
changeinthethreeyearsbeinga15%increaseinthesales
of 5-roomedbungalows.
(c) Since1.8
correspondsto1pandtheprotoccupies108
of
thepiediagram, thentheprot per unit is
1081
1.8
i.e. 60p
Theprot whenselling700unitsof theproduct is
70060
100
i.e. 420
Exercise 110 Further problems on presentation of
ungrouped data (Answers on page 282)
1. Thenumber of vehiclespassingastationaryobserver on
aroad in six ten-minuteintervals is as shown. Drawa
pictogramtorepresent thesedata.
Periodof Time 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of
Vehicles 35 44 62 68 49 41
2. Thenumber of components producedby afactory ina
weekisasshownbelow:
Day Mon Tues Wed Thur Fri
Number of
Components 1580 2190 1840 2385 1280
Showthesedataonapictogram.
3. For thedatagiveninProblem1above, drawahorizontal
bar chart.
4. PresentthedatagiveninProblem2aboveonahorizontal
bar chart.
5. ForthedatagiveninProblem1above,constructavertical
bar chart.
6. Depict thedatagiveninProblem2aboveonavertical
bar chart.
7. A factoryproducesthreedifferenttypesof components.
Thepercentagesof eachof thesecomponentsproduced
for three, one-monthperiodsareasshownbelow. Show
thisinformationonpercentagecomponentbarchartsand
commentonthechangingtrendinthepercentagesof the
typesof component produced.
Month 1 2 3
Component P 20 35 40
Component Q 45 40 35
Component R 35 25 25
8. A companyhasvedistributioncentresandthemassof
goodsintonnessenttoeachcentreduringfour,one-week
periods, isasshown.
Week 1 2 3 4
CentreA 147 160 174 158
CentreB 54 63 77 69
CentreC 283 251 237 211
CentreD 97 104 117 144
CentreE 224 218 203 194
Useapercentagecomponent bar chart to present these
dataandcomment onanytrends.
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9. Theemployeesinacompanycanbesplitintothefollow-
ing categories: managerial 3, supervisory 9, craftsmen
21, semi-skilled67, others44. Showthesedataonapie
diagram.
10. Theway in which an apprenticespent his timeover a
one-monthperiodisasfollows:
drawingofce44hours, production64hours,
training12hours, at college28hours.
Useapiediagramtodepict thisinformation.
11. (a) With reference to Fig. 30.5, determine the amount
spent onlabour andmaterialstoproduce1650units
of theproduct.
(b) If in year 2 of Fig. 30.4, 1% corresponds to 2.5
dwellings, howmanybungalowsaresoldinthatyear.
12. (a) If thecompany sell 23 500 units per annumof the
product depictedinFig. 30.5, determinethecost of
their overheadsper annum.
(b) If 1% of the dwellings represented in year 1 of
Fig. 30.4 corresponds to 2 dwellings, nd thetotal
number of housessoldinthat year.
30.3 Presentation of grouped data
Whenthenumberof membersinasetissmall, saytenorless, the
datacanberepresenteddiagrammaticallywithoutfurther analy-
sis, bymeansof pictograms, bar charts, percentagecomponents
bar chartsor piediagrams(asshowninSection30.2).
Forsetshavingmorethantenmembers, thosemembershaving
similar values are grouped together in classes to forma fre-
quency distribution. Toassist inaccurately countingmembers
inthevarious classes, atally diagram is used(seeProblems 8
and12).
A frequencydistributionismerelyatableshowingclassesand
their correspondingfrequencies(seeProblems8and12).
The new set of values obtained by forming a frequency
distributioniscalledgrouped data.
Thetermsusedinconnectionwithgroupeddataareshownin
Fig. 30.6(a). Thesizeor rangeof aclass is givenby theupper
class boundary value minus thelower class boundary value,
andinFig.30.6is7.657.35,i.e.0.30.Theclass interval forthe
classshowninFig. 30.6(b) is7.4to7.6andtheclassmid-point
valueisgivenby
(upper classboundary value)
+(lower classboundary value)
2
andinFig. 30.6is
7.65+7.35
2
, i.e. 7.5
One of the principal ways of presenting grouped data dia-
grammatically is by using a histogram, in which the areas
Class interval
7.4 to 7.6
7.35 7.5 7.65
7.7 to to 7.3
Lower
class
boundary
Class
mid-point
Upper
class
boundary
(a)
(b)
Fig. 30.6
of vertical, adjacent rectangles are made proportional to fre-
quencies of the classes (see Problem9). When class intervals
are equal, the heights of the rectangles of a histogram are
equal to the frequencies of the classes. For histograms hav-
ing unequal class intervals, the area must be proportional to
the frequency. Hence, if the class interval of class A is twice
the class interval of class B, then for equal frequencies, the
height of the rectangle representing A is half that of B (see
Problem11).
Another methodof presentinggroupeddatadiagrammatically
is by usingafrequency polygon, whichis thegraphproduced
byplottingfrequencyagainst classmid-point valuesandjoining
theco-ordinateswithstraight lines(seeProblem12).
A cumulative frequency distribution isatableshowingthe
cumulative frequency for each value of upper class boundary.
Thecumulativefrequency for aparticular valueof upper class
boundary is obtained by adding the frequency of the class to
the sumof the previous frequencies. A cumulative frequency
distributionisformedinProblem13.
Thecurveobtainedbyjoiningtheco-ordinatesof cumulative
frequency (vertically) against upper class boundary (horizon-
tally) iscalledanogive or acumulative frequency distribution
curve (seeProblem13).
Problem 8. Thedatagivenbelowrefer tothegainof each
of abatchof 40transistors, expressedcorrecttothenearest
wholenumber. Formafrequencydistributionfor thesedata
havingsevenclasses.
81 83 87 74 76 89 82 84
86 76 77 71 86 85 87 88
84 81 80 81 73 89 82 79
81 79 78 80 85 77 84 78
83 79 80 83 82 79 80 77
Therange of thedataisthevalueobtainedbytakingthevalueof
thesmallest member fromthat of thelargest member. Inspec-
tion of the set of data shows that, range=8971=18. The
size of each class is given approximately by range divided
by the number of classes. Since 7 classes are required, the
sizeof each class is 18/7, that is, approximately 3. To achieve
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seven equal classes spanning a range of values from 71 to
89, the class intervals are selected as: 7072, 7375, and
soon.
Toassistwithaccuratelydeterminingthenumberineachclass,
atally diagram isproduced, asshowninTable30.1(a). Thisis
obtainedbylistingtheclassesintheleft-handcolumn, andthen
inspectingeachof the40membersof thesetinturnandallocating
themtotheappropriateclassesbyputting1s intheappropriate
rows. Everyfth1 allocatedtoaparticular rowisshownasan
obliquelinecrossing thefour previous 1s, to help with nal
counting.
A frequency distribution for the data is shown in
Table30.1(b) andlistsclassesandtheir correspondingfrequen-
cies, obtained fromthetally diagram. (Class mid-point values
arealsoshowninthetable, sincetheyareusedfor constructing
thehistogramfor thesedata(seeProblem9)).
Table 30.1(a)
Class Tally
7072 1
7375 11
7678
1111 11
7981
1111
1111 11
8284
1111 1111
8587
1111 1
8890 111
Table 30.1(b)
Class Classmid-point Frequency
7072 71 1
7375 74 2
7678 77 7
7981 80 12
8284 83 9
8587 86 6
8890 89 3
Problem 9. Construct a histogramfor the data given in
Table30.1(b).
The histogramis shown in Fig. 30.7. The width of the rect-
angles correspond to the upper class boundary values minus
the lower class boundary values and the heights of the rect-
angles correspond to the class frequencies. The easiest way
to draw a histogram is to mark the class mid-point values
on thehorizontal scaleand draw therectangles symmetrically
about theappropriateclass mid-point values and touching one
another.
16
14
12
10
8
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
6
4
2
71 74 77 80
Class mid-point values
83 86 89
Fig. 30.7
Problem 10. Theamount of money earnedweekly by 40
peopleworkingpart-timeinafactory, correcttothenearest
10, isshownbelow. Formafrequencydistributionhaving
6classesfor thesedata.
80 90 70 110 90 160 110 80
140 30 90 50 100 110 60 100
80 90 110 80 100 90 120 70
130 170 80 120 100 110 40 110
50 100 110 90 100 70 110 80
Inspectionof theset givenshowsthat themajority of themem-
bers of the set lie between 80 and 110 and that there are a
much smaller number of extreme values ranging from30 to
170. If equal class intervals are selected, the frequency dis-
tribution obtained does not give as much information as one
with unequal class intervals. Since the majority of members
arebetween80and100, theclass intervals inthis rangeare
selected to be smaller than those outside of this range. There
is no unique solution and one possible solution is shown in
Table30.2.
Table 30.2
Class Frequency
2040 2
5070 6
8090 12
100110 14
120140 4
150170 2
Problem 11. Draw a histogram for the data given in
Table30.2.
Whendealingwithunequal class intervals, thehistogrammust
bedrawnsothattheareas, (andnottheheights), of therectangles
areproportional tothefrequenciesof theclasses. Thedatagiven
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areshownincolumns 1and2of Table30.3. Columns 3and4
givetheupper andlower class boundaries, respectively. Incol-
umn5, theclass ranges (i.e. upper class boundary minus lower
class boundary values) arelisted. Theheights of therectangles
areproportional totheratio
frequency
classrange
, asshownincolumn6.
ThehistogramisshowninFig. 30.8.
Table 30.3
1 2 3 4 5 6
Class Frequency Upper Lower Class Height
class class range of
boundary boundary rectangle
2040 2 45 15 30
2
30
=
1
15
5070 6 75 45 30
6
30
=
3
15
8090 12 95 75 20
12
20
=
9
15
100110 14 115 95 20
14
20
=
10
1
2
15
120140 4 145 115 30
4
30
=
2
15
150170 2 175 145 30
2
30
=
1
15
30
12/15
10/15
8/15
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

p
e
r

u
n
i
t
c
l
a
s
s

r
a
n
g
e
6/15
4/15
2/15
60 85
105 130 160
Fig. 30.8
Problem 12. The masses of 50 ingots in kilograms are
measured correct to thenearest 0.1kg and theresults are
as shown below. Produceafrequency distribution having
about 7classesfor thesedataandthenpresent thegrouped
dataas(a) afrequencypolygonand(b) ahistogram.
8.0 8.6 8.2 7.5 8.0 9.1 8.5 7.6 8.2 7.8
8.3 7.1 8.1 8.3 8.7 7.8 8.7 8.5 8.4 8.5
7.7 8.4 7.9 8.8 7.2 8.1 7.8 8.2 7.7 7.5
8.1 7.4 8.8 8.0 8.4 8.5 8.1 7.3 9.0 8.6
7.4 8.2 8.4 7.7 8.3 8.2 7.9 8.5 7.9 8.0
The range of the data is the member having the largest value
minus themember havingthesmallest value. Inspectionof the
set of datashowsthat:
range= 9.17.1= 2.0
Thesizeof eachclassisgivenapproximatelyby
range
number of classes
Sinceabout sevenclasses arerequired, thesizeof eachclass is
2.0/7, that is approximately 0.3, and thus the class limits are
selectedas7.1to7.3, 7.4to7.6, 7.7to7.9, andsoon.
The class mid-point for the7.1to7.3classis
7.35+7.05
2
, i.e.
7.2, for the7.4to7.6classis
7.65+7.35
2
, i.e. 7.5, andsoon.
To assist with accurately determining the number in each
class, a tally diagram is produced as shown in Table 30.4.
This is obtained by listing theclasses in theleft-hand column
and then inspecting each of the50 members of theset of data
in turn and allocating it to the appropriate class by putting
a 1 in the appropriate row. Each fth 1 allocated to a par-
ticular row is marked as an oblique line to help with nal
counting.
Table 30.4
Class Tally
7.1to7.3 111
7.4to7.6
1111
7.7to7.9
1111 1111
8.0to8.2
1111
1111 1111
8.3to8.5
1111
1111 1
8.6to8.8
1111 1
8.9to9.1 11
A frequency distribution for the data is shown in
Table 30.5 and lists classes and their corresponding frequen-
cies. Class mid-points are also shown in this table, since
they are used when constructing the frequency polygon and
histogram.
Table 30.5
Class Classmid-point Frequency
7.1to7.3 7.2 3
7.4to7.6 7.5 5
7.7to7.9 7.8 9
8.0to8.2 8.1 14
8.3to8.5 8.4 11
8.6to8.8 8.7 6
8.9to9.1 9.0 2
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A frequency polygon isshowninFig. 30.9, theco-ordinates
correspondingtotheclassmid-point/frequencyvalues, givenin
Table30.5. Theco-ordinatesarejoinedbystraight linesandthe
polygon is anchored-down at each endby joiningto thenext
classmid-point valueandzerofrequency.
14
12
10
8
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
6
4
2
0
7.2 7.5 7.8 8.1
Frequency polygon
8.4 8.7 9.0
Fig. 30.9
A histogram is shown in Fig. 30.10, the width of a rec-
tanglecorrespondingto(upperclassboundaryvaluelowerclass
boundaryvalue)andheightcorrespondingtotheclassfrequency.
Theeasiest way todrawahistogramistomark classmid-point
valuesonthehorizontal scaleandtodrawtherectanglessymmet-
ricallyabouttheappropriateclassmid-pointvaluesandtouching
oneanother.A histogramforthedatagiveninTable30.5isshown
inFig. 30.10.
14
12
10
8
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Histogram
6
4
2
0
7.2 7.5 7.8 8.1 8.4 8.7 9.0
9
.
1
5
8
.
2
5
8
.
5
5
8
.
8
5
7
.
3
5
7
.
6
5
7
.
9
5
Fig. 30.10
Problem 13. Thefrequencydistributionfor themassesin
kilogramsof 50ingotsis:
7.1to7.3 3 7.4to7.6 5 7.7to7.9 9
8.0to8.2 14 8.3to8.5 11 8.6to8.8 6
8.9to9.1 2
Formacumulativefrequencydistributionforthesedataand
drawthecorrespondingogive.
A cumulative frequency distribution isatablegivingvalues
of cumulative frequency for the values of upper class bound-
aries, and is shown inTable 30.6. Columns 1 and 2 show the
classes and their frequencies. Column 3 lists the upper class
boundary values for theclasses given in column 1. Column 4
gives the cumulative frequency values for all frequencies less
thantheupper class boundary values givenincolumn3. Thus,
for example, for the7.7to7.9classshowninrow3, thecumula-
tivefrequencyvalueisthesumof all frequencieshavingvalues
of lessthan7.95, i.e. 3+5+9=17, andsoon.Theogive for the
cumulativefrequencydistributiongiveninTable30.6isshownin
Fig. 30.11. Theco-ordinates correspondingtoeachupper class
boundary/cumulative frequency value are plotted and the co-
ordinatesarejoinedbystraight lines( not thebest curvedrawn
throughtheco-ordinatesasinexperimental work.) Theogiveis
anchored at itsstart byaddingtheco-ordinate(7.05, 0).
Table 30.6
1 2 3 4
Class Frequency Upper class Cumulative
boundary frequency
Lessthan
7.17.3 3 7.35 3
7.47.6 5 7.65 8
7.77.9 9 7.95 17
8.08.2 14 8.25 31
8.38.5 11 8.55 42
8.68.8 6 8.85 48
8.99.1 2 9.15 50
50
40
30
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
20
10
7.05 7.35 7.65 7.95
Upper class boundary values in kilograms
8.25 8.55 8.85 9.15
Fig. 30.11
Exercise 111 Further problems on presentation of
grouped data (Answers on page 282)
1. Themassinkilograms, correct tothenearest one-tenth
of a kilogram, of 60barsof metal areasshown. Form
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a frequency distribution of about 8 classes for these
data.
39.8 40.1 40.3 40.0 40.6 39.7 40.0 40.4 39.6 39.3
39.6 40.7 40.2 39.9 40.3 40.2 40.4 39.9 39.8 40.0
40.2 40.1 40.3 39.7 39.9 40.5 39.9 40.5 40.0 39.9
40.1 40.8 40.0 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.1 40.0 40.2 39.9
39.7 39.8 40.4 39.7 39.9 39.5 40.1 40.1 39.9 40.2
39.5 40.6 40.0 40.1 39.8 39.7 39.5 40.2 39.9 40.3
2. Drawahistogramforthefrequencydistributiongivenin
thesolutionof Problem1.
3. Theinformationgivenbelowreferstothevalueof resist-
anceinohmsof abatchof 48resistorsof similar value.
Formafrequencydistributionfor thedata, havingabout
6classes anddrawafrequency polygonandhistogram
torepresent thesedatadiagramatically.
21.0 22.4 22.8 21.5 22.6 21.1 21.6 22.3
22.9 20.5 21.8 22.2 21.0 21.7 22.5 20.7
23.2 22.9 21.7 21.4 22.1 22.2 22.3 21.3
22.1 21.8 22.0 22.7 21.7 21.9 21.1 22.6
21.4 22.4 22.3 20.9 22.8 21.2 22.7 21.6
22.2 21.6 21.3 22.1 21.5 22.0 23.4 21.2
4. Thetimetakeninhours to thefailureof 50specimens
of ametal subjectedtofatiguefailuretestsareasshown.
Forma frequency distribution, having about 8 classes
andunequal classintervals, for thesedata.
28 22 23 20 12 24 37 28 21 25
21 14 30 23 27 13 23 7 26 19
24 22 26 3 21 24 28 40 27 24
20 25 23 26 47 21 29 26 22 33
27 9 13 35 20 16 20 25 18 22
5. Form a cumulative frequency distribution and hence
draw the ogive for the frequency distribution given in
thesolutiontoProblem3.
6. Drawahistogramforthefrequencydistributiongivenin
thesolutiontoProblem4.
7. Thefrequencydistributionfor abatchof 48resistorsof
similar value, measuredinohms, is:
20.520.9 3 21.021.4 10 21.521.9 11
22.022.4 13 22.522.9 9 23.023.4 2
Formacumulativefrequencydistributionfor thesedata.
8. Draw an ogive for the data given in the solution of
Problem7.
9. Thediameterinmillimetresof areel of wireismeasured
in48placesandtheresultsareasshown.
2.10 2.29 2.32 2.21 2.14 2.22
2.28 2.18 2.17 2.20 2.23 2.13
2.26 2.10 2.21 2.17 2.28 2.15
2.16 2.25 2.23 2.11 2.27 2.34
2.24 2.05 2.29 2.18 2.24 2.16
2.15 2.22 2.14 2.27 2.09 2.21
2.11 2.17 2.22 2.19 2.12 2.20
2.23 2.07 2.13 2.26 2.16 2.12
(a) Formafrequency distributionof diameters having
about 6classes.
(b) Drawahistogramdepictingthedata.
(c) Formacumulativefrequencydistribution.
(d) Drawanogivefor thedata.
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31
Measures of central tendency and dispersion
31.1 Measures of central tendency
A singlevalue, whichisrepresentativeof asetof values, maybe
usedtogiveanindicationof thegeneral sizeof themembersin
aset, thewordaverage oftenbeingusedtoindicatethesingle
value.
Thestatistical termusedfor average isthearithmetic mean
or just themean.
Other measures of central tendency may be used and these
includethemedian andthemodal values.
31.2 Mean, median and mode for
discrete data
Mean
The arithmetic mean value is found by adding together the
values of the members of a set and dividing by the number
of members in the set. Thus, the mean of the set of numbers:
{4, 5, 6, 9}is:
4+5+6+9
4
, i.e. 6
Ingeneral, themeanof theset: {x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . x
n
} is
x =
x
1
+x
2
+x
3
+ +x
n
n
, writtenas
x
n
where
istheGreekletter sigma andmeansthesumof, and

x (calledx-bar) isusedtosignifyameanvalue.
Median
Themedian value oftengivesabetter indicationof thegeneral
sizeof aset containingextremevalues. Theset: {7, 5, 74, 10}
hasameanvalueof 24, whichisnot reallyrepresentativeof any
of the values of the members of the set. The median value is
obtainedby:
(a) ranking theset inascendingorder of magnitude, and
(b) selectingthevalueof themiddle member for setscontain-
inganoddnumber of members, or ndingthevalueof the
meanof thetwomiddlemembersforsetscontaininganeven
number of members.
For example, the set: {7, 5, 74, 10} is ranked as {5, 7, 10, 74},
and since it contains an even number of members (four in
this case), the mean of 7 and 10 is taken, giving a median
value of 8.5. Similarly, the set: {3, 81, 15, 7, 14} is ranked as
{3, 7, 14, 15, 81} andthemedianvalueisthevalueof themiddle
member, i.e. 14.
Mode
The modal value, or mode, is the most commonly occurring
value in a set. If two values occur with the same frequency,
theset isbi-modal. Theset: {5, 6, 8, 2, 5, 4, 6, 5, 3} hasamodal
valueof 5, sincethemember having avalueof 5 occurs three
times.
Problem 1. Determine the mean, median and mode for
theset:
{2, 3, 7, 5, 5, 13, 1, 7, 4, 8, 3, 4, 3}
Themeanvalueisobtainedbyaddingtogether thevaluesof the
members of theset anddividingby thenumber of members in
theset.
Thus, mean value,
x =
2+3+7+5+5+13+1
+7+4+8+3+4+3
13
=
65
13
= 5
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To obtain themedian valuetheset is ranked, that is, placed in
ascendingorder of magnitude, andsincetheset containsanodd
numberof membersthevalueof themiddlememberisthemedian
value. Rankingtheset gives:
{1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 7, 7, 8, 13}
Themiddletermistheseventhmember, i.e. 4, thusthemedian
value is 4. Themodal value isthevalueof themost commonly
occurringmember andis 3, whichoccurs threetimes, all other
membersonlyoccurringonceor twice.
Problem 2. Thefollowingsetof datareferstotheamount
of moneyinstakenbyanewsvendorfor6days.Determine
themean, medianandmodal valuesof theset:
{27.90, 34.70, 54.40, 18.92, 47.60, 39.68}
Mean value
=
27.90+34.70+54.40+18.92+47.60+39.68
6
= 37.20
Therankedset is:
{18.92, 27.90, 34.70, 39.68, 47.60, 54.40}
Sincetheset has anevennumber of members, themeanof the
middletwomembersistakentogivethemedianvalue, i.e.
median value =
34.70+39.68
2
= 37.19
Sincenotwomembershavethesamevalue, thissethasno mode.
Exercise 112 Further problems on mean, median and
mode for discrete data (Answers on
page 282)
InProblems1to4, determinethemean, medianandmodal
valuesfor thesetsgiven.
1. {3, 8, 10, 7, 5, 14, 2, 9, 8}
2. {26, 31, 21, 29, 32, 26, 25, 28}
3. {4.72, 4.71, 4.74, 4.73, 4.72, 4.71, 4.73, 4.72}
4. {73.8, 126.4, 40.7, 141.7, 28.5, 237.4, 157.9}
31.3 Mean, median and mode for
grouped data
Themeanvalueforasetof groupeddataisfoundbydetermining
thesumof the(frequencyclassmid-pointvalues) anddividing
bythesumof thefrequencies,
i.e. meanvalue x =
f
1
x
1
+f
2
x
2
+ f
n
x
n
f
1
+f
2
+ +f
n
=
(fx)
f
wheref isthefrequencyof theclasshavingamid-pointvalueof
x, andsoon.
Problem 3. The frequency distribution for the value of
resistanceinohms of 48resistors is as shown. Determine
themeanvalueof resistance.
20.520.9 3, 21.021.4 10, 21.521.9 11,
22.022.4 13, 22.522.9 9, 23.023.4 2
Theclassmid-point/frequencyvaluesare:
20.7 3, 21.2 10, 21.7 11, 22.2 13, 22.7 9 and 23.2 2
For groupeddata, themeanvalueisgivenby:
x =
(fx)
f
wheref istheclassfrequencyandx istheclassmid-pointvalue.
Hencemeanvalue,
x =
(320.7) +(1021.2) +(1121.7)
+(1322.2) +(922.7) +(223.2)
48
=
1052.1
48
= 21.919. . .
i.e. the mean value is 21.9 ohms, correct to 3 signicant
gures.
Histogram
Themean, median and modal values for grouped datamay be
determinedfromahistogram. Inahistogram, frequencyvalues
arerepresentedvertically andvariablevalues horizontally. The
meanvalueisgivenbythevalueof thevariablecorrespondingto
avertical linedrawnthroughthecentroidof thehistogram. The
medianvalueisobtainedbyselectingavariablevaluesuchthat
theareaof thehistogramtotheleftof avertical linedrawnthrough
theselectedvariablevalueisequal totheareaof thehistogram
on theright of theline. Themodal valueis thevariablevalue
obtained by dividing the width of the highest rectangle in the
histograminproportiontotheheightsof theadjacentrectangles.
Themethodof determiningthemean, medianandmodal values
fromahistogramisshowninProblem4.
Problem4. Thetimetakeninminutestoassembleadevice
ismeasured50timesandtheresultsareasshown. Draw a
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Measures of central tendency and dispersion 237
histogramdepictingthisdataandhencedeterminethemean,
medianandmodal valuesof thedistribution.
14.515.5 5, 16.517.5 8, 18.519.5 16,
20.521.5 12, 22.523.5 6, 24.525.5 3
ThehistogramisshowninFig. 31.1. Themeanvalueliesat the
centroidof thehistogram. Withreferenceto any arbitrary axis,
say YY shownat atimeof 14minutes, thepositionof thehori-
zontal valueof thecentroidcanbeobtainedfromtherelationship
AM =

(am), whereA is theareaof thehistogram, M is the
horizontal distance of the centroid fromthe axis YY, a is the
area of a rectangle of the histogramand m is the distance of
thecentroidof therectanglefromYY. Theareasof theindivid-
ual rectanglesareshowncircledonthehistogramgivingatotal
areaof 100squareunits.Thepositions, m, of thecentroidsof the
individual rectanglesare1, 3, 5, . . . unitsfromYY. Thus
100M =(101)+(163)+(325)+(247)
+(129)+(611)
i.e. M =
560
100
=5.6unitsfromYY
16
5.6
Y
Y
Mean
Median
Mode
14
12
10
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
8
6
4
2
10
16
32
24
A
D
E
B
C
F
12
6
15 16 17 18 19 20
Time in minutes
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 14
Fig. 31.1
Thusthepositionof themean withreferencetothetimescaleis
14+5.6, i.e. 19.6 minutes.
The median is the value of time corresponding to a verti-
cal linedividingthetotal areaof thehistograminto two equal
parts. The total area is 100 square units, hence the vertical
line must be drawn to give 50 units of area on each side. To
achievethis with referenceto Fig. 31.1, rectangleABFE must
besplit so that 50(10+16) units of arealieononesideand
50(24+12+6) unitsof arealieontheother. Thisshowsthat
theareaof ABFE issplit sothat 24unitsof arealietotheleft of
thelineand8units of arealieto theright, i.e. thevertical line
must passthrough19.5minutes. Thusthemedian value of the
distributionis19.5 minutes.
Themodeis obtained by dividing thelineAB, which is the
height of thehighest rectangle, proportionally totheheights of
theadjacent rectangles. WithreferencetoFig. 31.1, thisisdone
by joining AC and BD and drawing avertical linethrough the
point of intersectionof thesetwolines. This gives themode of
thedistributionandis19.3 minutes.
Exercise 113 Further problems on mean, median and
mode for grouped data (Answers on
page 282)
1. 21bricks haveameanmass of 24.2kg, and29similar
brickshaveamassof 23.6kg. Determinethemeanmass
of the50bricks.
2. The frequency distribution given below refers to the
heights in centimetres of 100 people. Determine the
mean value of the distribution, correct to the nearest
millimetre.
150156 5, 157163 18, 164170 20
171177 27, 178184 22, 185191 8
3. Thegain of 90 similar transistors is measured and the
resultsareasshown.
83.585.5 6, 86.588.5 39, 89.591.5 27,
92.594.5 15, 95.597.5 3
By drawingahistogramof this frequency distribution,
determine the mean, median and modal values of the
distribution.
4. The diameters, in centimetres, of 60 holes bored in
engine castings are measured and the results are as
shown. Draw a histogramdepicting these results and
hence determine the mean, median and modal values
of thedistribution.
2.0112.014 7, 2.0162.019 16,
2.0212.024 23, 2.0262.029 9,
2.0312.034 5
31.4 Standard deviation
(a) Discrete data
Thestandarddeviationof aset of datagivesanindicationof the
amount of dispersion, or thescatter, of membersof theset from
themeasureof central tendency. Itsvalueistheroot-mean-square
valueof themembersof theset andfor discretedataisobtained
asfollows:
(a) determine the measure of central tendency, usually the
mean value, (occasionally themedian or modal values are
specied),
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(b) calculatethedeviationof eachmember of theset fromthe
mean, giving
(x
1
x), (x
2
x), (x
3
x), . . . ,
(c) determinethesquaresof thesedeviations, i.e.
(x
1
x)
2
, (x
2
x)
2
, (x
3
x)
2
, . . . ,
(d) ndthesumof thesquaresof thedeviations, that is
(x
1
x)
2
+(x
2
x)
2
+(x
3
x)
2
, . . . ,
(e) dividebythenumber of membersintheset, n, giving
(x
1
x)
2
+(x
2
x)
2
+(x
3
x)
2
+
n
(f) determinethesquareroot of (e).
Thestandarddeviationisindicatedby (theGreek letter small
sigma) andiswrittenmathematicallyas:
standard deviation, =
_
_
(x x)
2
n
_
wherex is amember of theset, x is themean valueof theset
andn isthenumber of membersintheset. Thevalueof standard
deviationgivesanindicationof thedistanceof themembersof a
setfromthemeanvalue.Theset:{1, 4, 7, 10, 13} hasameanvalue
of 7andastandarddeviationof about 4.2. Theset {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
also has ameanvalueof 7, but thestandarddeviationis about
1.4. This shows that themembers of thesecondset aremainly
muchcloser tothemeanvaluethanthemembersof therst set.
Themethod of determining thestandard deviation for aset of
discretedataisshowninProblem5.
Problem 5. Determine the standard deviation fromthe
mean of the set of numbers: {5, 6, 8, 4, 10, 3}, correct to
4signicant gures.
Thearithmeticmean, x =
x
n
=
5+6+8+4+10+3
6
=6
Standarddeviation, =
_
_
(x x)
2
n
_
The (x x)
2
values are: (56)
2
, (66)
2
, (86)
2
, (46)
2
,
(106)
2
and(36)
2
.
Thesumof the(x x)
2
values,
i.e.

(x x)
2
=1+0+4+4+16+9=34
and

(x x)
2
n
=
34
6
=5.
6
sincethereare6membersintheset.
Hence, standard deviation,
=
_
_
(x x
2
n
_
=
_
5.
6= 2.380
(b) Grouped data
For grouped data, standard deviation
=
_
_
{ f (x x)
2
}
f
_
where f is the class frequency value, x is the class mid-point
valueand x isthemeanvalueof thegroupeddata. Themethod
of determiningthestandarddeviationfor aset of groupeddata
isshowninProblem6.
Problem 6. Thefrequency distribution for thevalues of
resistanceinohmsof 48resistorsisasshown. Calculatethe
standarddeviationfromthemeanof theresistors, correct
to3signicant gures.
20.520.9 3, 21.021.4 10, 21.521.9 11,
22.022.4 13, 22.522.9 9, 23.023.4 2
Thestandarddeviationfor groupeddataisgivenby:
=
_
_
{ f (x x)
2
}
f
_
FromProblem3, thedistributionmeanvalue, x =21.92, correct
to4signicant gures.
The x-values are the class mid-point values, i.e. 20.7, 21.2,
21.7, . . ..
Thus the (x x)
2
values are (20.721.92)
2
, (21.221.92)
2
,
(21.721.92)
2
, . . .,
andthef (x x)
2
valuesare3(20.721.92)
2
,
10(21.221.92)
2
, 11(21.721.92)
2
, . . ..
The
f (x x)
2
valuesare
4.4652+5.1840+0.5324+1.0192
+5.4756+3.2768= 19.9532
{ f (x x)
2
}
f
=
19.9532
48
= 0.41569
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Measures of central tendency and dispersion 239
andstandard deviation,
=
_
_
{f (x x)
2
}
f
_
=
0.41569
Exercise 114 Further problems on standard deviation
1. Determinethestandarddeviationfromthemeanof the
set of numbers:
{35, 22, 25, 23, 28, 33, 30}
2. Thevalues of capacitances, inmicrofarads, of tencap-
acitorsselectedat randomfromalargebatchof similar
capacitorsare:
34.3, 25.0, 30.4, 34.6, 29.6, 28.7,
33.4, 32.7, 29.0and31.3
Determine the standard deviation fromthe mean for
thesecapacitors, correct to3signicant gures.
3. Thetensilestrengthinmegapascalsfor15samplesof tin
weredeterminedandfoundtobe:
34.61, 34.57, 34.40, 34.63, 34.63, 34.51, 34.49, 34.61,
34.52, 34.55, 34.58, 34.53, 34.44, 34.48and34.40
Calculatethemeanandstandarddeviationfromthemean
for these15values, correct to4signicant gures.
4. Calculatethestandarddeviationfromthemeanfor the
mass of the 50 bricks given in Problem1 of Exercise
113, page237, correct to3signicant gures.
5. Determinethestandarddeviationfromthemean, correct
to4signicantgures, for theheightsof the100people
giveninProblem2of Exercise113, page237.
6. Calculatethestandarddeviationfromthemeanfor the
data given in Problem3 of Exercise 113, page 237,
31.5 Quartiles, deciles and percentiles
Other measuresof dispersionwhicharesometimesusedarethe
quartile, decile and percentile values. The quartile values of
a set of discrete data are obtained by selecting the values of
memberswhichdividetheset intofour equal parts. Thusfor the
set:{2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 17} thereare11membersandthe
valuesof themembersdividingtheset intofour equal partsare
4, 7, and13. Thesevalues aresigniedby Q
1
, Q
2
andQ
3
and
calledtherst, secondandthirdquartilevalues, respectively. It
canbeseenthatthesecondquartilevalue, Q
2
, isthevalueof the
middlemember andhenceisthemedianvalueof theset.
For grouped data the ogive may be used to determine the
quartilevalues. Inthis case, points areselectedonthevertical
cumulativefrequency valuesof theogive, suchthat they divide
the total value of cumulative frequency into four equal parts.
Horizontal lines aredrawn fromthesevalues to cut theogive.
Thevaluesof thevariablecorrespondingtothesecuttingpoints
ontheogivegivethequartilevalues(seeProblem7).
Whenasetcontainsalargenumberof members, thesetcanbe
splitintotenparts, eachcontaininganequal numberof members.
Thesetenpartsarethencalleddeciles. For setscontainingavery
largenumber of members, theset maybesplit intoonehundred
parts, eachcontaininganequal numberof members. Oneof these
partsiscalledapercentile.
Problem 7. Thefrequencydistributiongivenbelowrefers
totheovertimeworkedbyagroupof craftsmenduringeach
of 48workingweeksinayear.
2529 5, 3034 4, 3539 7, 4044 11,
4549 12, 5054 8, 5559 1
Drawanogiveforthisdataandhencedeterminethequartile
values.
Thecumulativefrequencydistribution(i.e.upperclassboundary/
cumulativefrequencyvalues) is:
29.5 5, 34.5 9, 39.5 16, 44.5 27,
49.5 39, 54.5 47, 59.5 48
Theogiveisformedbyplottingthesevaluesonagraph, asshown
inFig. 29.2. Thetotal frequencyisdividedintofour equal parts,
eachhavingarangeof 48/4, i.e. 12. This gives cumulativefre-
quencyvaluesof 0to12correspondingtotherstquartile, 12to
24correspondingtothesecondquartile, 24to36corresponding
to the third quartile and 36 to 48 corresponding to the fourth
quartileof thedistribution, i.e. thedistribution is divided into
four equal parts. The quartile values are those of the variable
correspondingtocumulativefrequencyvaluesof 12, 24and36,
markedQ
1
, Q
2
andQ
3
inFig. 31.2. Thesevalues, correct tothe
nearesthour, are37 hours, 43 hours and 48 hours, respectively.
TheQ
2
valueis also equal to themedianvalueof thedistribu-
tion. Onemeasureof thedispersionof adistributioniscalledthe
semi-interquartile range and is given by (Q
3
Q
1
)/2, and is
(4837)/2inthiscase, i.e. 5
1
2
hours.
Problem 8. Determine the numbers contained in the
(a) 41st to50thpercentilegroup, and(b) 8thdecilegroup
of theset of numbersshownbelow:
14 22 17 21 30 28 37 7 23 32
24 17 20 22 27 19 26 21 15 29
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50
40
30
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
20
10
25 30 35 40
Upper class boundary values, hours
Q
1
Q
2
Q
3
45 50 55 60
Fig. 31.2
Theset isranked, giving:
7 14 15 17 17 19 20 21 21 22
22 23 24 26 27 28 29 30 32 37
(a) Thereare20numbersintheset, hencetherst 10%will be
thetwo numbers 7and14, thesecond10%will be15and
17, andsoon. Thusthe41stto50thpercentilegroupwill be
thenumbers21 and 22.
(b) Therst decilegroupisobtainedbysplittingtherankedset
into 10 equal groups and selecting therst group, i.e. the
numbers7and14. Theseconddecilegrouparethenumbers
15and17, andsoon. Thusthe8thdecilegroupcontainsthe
numbers27 and 28.
Exercise 115 Further problems on quartiles, deciles
and percentiles (Answers on page 283)
1. Thenumber of working days lost dueto accidents for
eachof 12one-monthlyperiodsareasshown. Determine
themedianandrstandthirdquartilevaluesforthisdata.
27 37 40 28 23 30 35 24 30 32 31 28
2. Thenumber of faults occurringonaproductionlinein
anine-week periodareas shownbelow. Determinethe
medianandquartilevaluesfor thedata.
30 27 25 24 27 37 31 27 35
3. Determine the quartile values and semi-interquartile
rangefor thefrequencydistributiongiveninProblem2
of Exercise113, page236.
4. Determinethenumberscontainedinthe5thdecilegroup
andinthe61st to 70thpercentilegroups for theset of
numbers:
40 46 28 32 37 42 50 31 48 45
32 38 27 33 40 35 25 42 38 41
5. Determinethenumbers in the6th decilegroup and in
the81st to90thpercentilegroupfor theset of numbers:
43 47 30 25 15 51 17 21 37 33 44 56 40 49 22
36 44 33 17 35 58 51 35 44 40 31 41 55 50 16
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32
Probability
32.1 Introduction to probability
Probability
The probability of something happening is the likelihood or
chanceof it happening. Valuesof probability liebetween0and
1, where0representsanabsoluteimpossibilityand1represents
an absolute certainty. The probability of an event happening
usually lies somewherebetween thesetwo extremevalues and
isexpressedeither asaproper or decimal fraction. Examplesof
probabilityare:
that alengthof copper wirehaszero 0
resistanceat 100
C
that afair, six-sideddicewill stop
1
6
or 0.1667
witha3upwards
that afair coinwill landwithahead
1
2
or 0.5
upwards
that alengthof copper wirehassome 1
resistanceat 100
C
If p is the probability of an event happening and q is the
probability of the same event not happening, then the total
probability is p +q and is equal to unity, since it is an abso-
lutecertainty that theevent either does or does not occur, i.e.
p +q =1
Expectation
Theexpectation, E, of anevent happeningisdenedingeneral
termsastheproduct of theprobability p of anevent happening
andthenumber of attemptsmade, n, i.e. E =pn.
Thus, since the probability of obtaining a 3 upwards when
rollingafair diceis
1
6
, theexpectationof gettinga3upwardson
four throwsof thediceis
1
6
4, i.e.
2
3
Thusexpectationistheaverageoccurrenceof anevent.
Dependent event
A dependent event is oneinwhichtheprobability of anevent
happeningaffectstheprobabilityof another ever happening. Let
5transistorsbetakenat randomfromabatchof 100transistors
for test purposes, andtheprobability of therebeingadefective
transistor, p
1
, bedetermined. At somelater time, let another 5
transistorsbetakenat randomfromthe95remainingtransistors
inthebatchandtheprobabilityof therebeingadefectivetransis-
tor, p
2
, bedetermined. Thevalueof p
2
isdifferent fromp
1
since
batchsizehaseffectivelyalteredfrom100to95, i.e. probability
p
2
is dependent on probability p
1
. Sincetransistors aredrawn,
andthenanother5transistorsdrawnwithoutreplacingtherst5,
thesecondrandomselectionissaidtobewithout replacement.
Independent event
Anindependenteventisoneinwhichtheprobabilityof anevent
happeningdoesnot affect theprobability of another event hap-
pening. If 5 transistors are taken at randomfroma batch of
transistorsandtheprobabilityof adefectivetransistorp
1
isdeter-
minedandtheprocessisrepeatedafter theoriginal 5havebeen
replacedinthebatchtogivep
2
, thenp
1
isequal top
2
. Sincethe
5transistorsarereplacedbetweendraws, thesecondselectionis
saidtobewith replacement.
32.2 Laws of probability
The addition law of probability
Theaddition lawof probability is recognised by thewordor
joining the probabilities. If p
A
is the probability of event A
happening and p
B
is the probability of event B happening,
the probability of event A or event B happening is given by
p
A
+p
B
. Similarly, theprobabilityof eventsA or B or C or . . . N
happeningisgivenby
p
A
+ p
B
+ p
C
+ + p
N
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The multiplication law of probability
Themultiplicationlawof probability isrecognisedby theword
and joiningtheprobabilities. If p
A
is theprobability of event
A happeningandp
B
istheprobabilityof event B happening, the
probabilityof eventAandevent Bhappeningisgivenbyp
A
p
B
.
Similarly, theprobability of eventsA and B and C and . . . N
happeningisgivenby
p
A
p
B
p
C
p
N
32.3 Worked problems on probability
Problem1. Determinetheprobabilitiesof selectingatran-
dom(a) aman, and(b) awomanfromacrowdcontaining
20menand33women.
(a) Theprobabilityof selectingat randomaman, p, isgivenby
theratio
number of men
number incrowd
i.e. p =
20
20+33
=
20
53
or 0.3774
(b) Theprobabilityof selectingat randomawomen, q, isgiven
bytheratio
number of women
number incrowd
i.e. q =
33
20+33
=
33
53
or 0.6226
(Check: thetotal probabilityshouldbeequal to1;
p =
20
53
andq =
33
53
thusthetotal probability,
p +q =
20
53
+
33
53
= 1
hencenoobviouserror hasbeenmade).
Problem 2. Findtheexpectationof obtaininga4upwards
with3throwsof afair dice.
Expectationistheaverageoccurrenceof anevent andisdened
astheprobabilitytimesthenumber of attempts. Theprobability,
p, of obtaininga4upwardsfor onethrowof thediceis
1
6
.
Also, 3attempts aremade, hencen =3andtheexpectation,
E, ispn, i.e. E =
1
6
3=
1
2
or 0.50.
Problem 3. Calculate the probabilities of selecting at
random:
(a) the winning horse in a race in which 10 horses are
running,
(b) thewinninghorsesinboththerst andsecondracesif
thereare10horsesineachrace.
(a) Sinceonlyoneof thetenhorsescanwin, theprobabilityof
selectingatrandomthewinninghorseis
number of winners
number of horses
,
i.e.
1
10
or 0.10
(b) The probability of selecting the winning horse in the rst
raceis
1
10
. Theprobability of selecting thewinning horse
in the second race is
1
10
. The probability of selecting the
winninghorses intherst and secondraceis givenby the
multiplicationlawof probability,
i.e. probability =
1
10
1
10
=
1
100
or 0.01
Problem 4. Theprobabilityof acomponent failinginone
year due to excessive temperature is
1
20
, due to exces-
sivevibrationis
1
25
anddueto excessivehumidity is
1
50
.
Determinetheprobabilities that during aone-year period
a component: (a) fails due to excessive temperature and
excessivevibration, (b) fails dueto excessivevibrationor
excessive humidity, and (c) will not fail because of both
excessivetemperatureandexcessivehumidity.
Let p
A
be the probability of failure due to excessive tempera-
ture, then
p
A
=
1
20
and p
A
=
19
20
(wherep
A
istheprobabilityof not failing.)
Let p
B
be the probability of failure due to excessive vibra-
tion, then
p
B
=
1
25
and p
B
=
24
25
Let p
C
betheprobability of failuredueto excessivehumidity,
then
p
C
=
1
50
and p
C
=
49
50
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Probability 243
(a) The probability of a component failing due to excessive
temperatureand excessivevibrationisgivenby:
p
A
p
B
=
1
20
1
25
=
1
500
or 0.002
(b) The probability of a component failing due to excessive
vibrationor excessivehumidityis:
p
B
+p
C
=
1
25
+
1
50
=
3
50
or 0.06
(c) Theprobabilitythatacomponentwill notfail dueexcessive
temperatureand will not fail duetoexcesshumidityis:
p
A
p
C
=
19
20
49
50
=
931
1000
or 0.931
Problem 5. A batchof 100capacitors contains 73which
arewithintherequiredtolerancevalues, 17whicharebelow
therequiredtolerancevalues, andtheremainder areabove
therequiredtolerancevalues. Determinetheprobabilities
thatwhenrandomlyselectingacapacitor andthenasecond
capacitor: (a) botharewithintherequiredtolerancevalues
whenselectingwithreplacement, and(b)therstonedrawn
is below and thesecond onedrawn is abovetherequired
tolerancevalue, whenselectioniswithout replacement.
(a) Theprobability of selectingacapacitor withintherequired
tolerance values is
73
100
. The rst capacitor drawn is now
replacedandasecondoneis drawnfromthebatchof 100.
Theprobability of this capacitor beingwithintherequired
tolerancevaluesisalso
73
100
.
Thus, the probability of selecting a capacitor within the
requiredtolerancevalues for boththerst and thesecond
drawis
73
100
73
100
=
5329
10 000
or 0.5329
(b) Theprobabilityof obtainingacapacitor belowtherequired
tolerance values on the rst draw is
17
100
. There are now
only 99 capacitors left in thebatch, sincetherst capaci-
tor is not replaced. Theprobability of drawing acapacitor
abovetherequired tolerancevalues on thesecond drawis
10
99
, sincethereare(1007317), i.e. 10capacitorsabove
the required tolerance value. Thus, the probability of ran-
domly selecting a capacitor below the required tolerance
valuesandfollowedbyrandomlyselectingacapacitorabove
thetolerancevaluesis
17
100
10
99
=
170
9900
=
17
990
or 0.0172
Exercise 116 Further problems on probability
1. Inabatchof 45lampsthereare10faultylamps. If one
lampisdrawnatrandom, ndtheprobabilityof itbeing
(a) faultyand(b) satisfactory.
2. A box of fuses areall of thesameshapeand sizeand
comprises232A fuses, 475A fusesand6913A fuses.
Determinetheprobability of selectingat random(a) a
2A fuse, (b) a5A fuseand(c) a13A fuse.
3. (a) Find the probability of having a 2 upwards when
throwingafair 6-sideddice. (b) Findtheprobability of
havinga5upwards whenthrowingafair 6-sideddice.
(c) Determinetheprobabilityof havinga2andthena5
ontwosuccessivethrowsof afair 6-sideddice.
4. The probability of event A happening is
3
5
and the
probabilityof eventBhappeningis
2
3
.Calculatetheprob-
abilitiesof (a) bothA andB happening, (b) onlyeventA
happening, i.e. event A happeningandevent B not hap-
pening, (c) onlyevent B happening, and(d) either A, or
B, or A andB happening.
5. When testing 1000 soldered joints, 4 failed during a
vibration test and 5 failed dueto having ahigh resist-
ance. Determinetheprobabilityof ajoint failingdueto
(a) vibration, (b) high resistance, (c) vibration or high
resistanceand(d) vibrationandhighresistance.
probability
Problem 6. A batch of 40 components contains 5 which
aredefective. A component is drawn at randomfromthe
batch and tested and then a second component is drawn.
Determinetheprobabilitythatneither of thecomponentsis
defectivewhendrawn(a) withreplacement, and(b) without
replacement.
(a) With replacement
The probability that the component selected on the rst draw
is satisfactory is
35
40
, i.e.
7
8
. The component is now replaced
andaseconddrawismade. Theprobabilitythat thiscomponent
is also satisfactory is
7
8
. Hence, the probability that both the
rst component drawn and the second component drawn are
satisfactoryis:
7
8
7
8
=
49
64
or 0.7656
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(b) Without replacement
The probability that the rst component drawn is satisfactory
is
7
8
. Therearenowonly 34satisfactory componentsleft inthe
batchandthebatchnumberis39. Hence, theprobabilityof draw-
ing a satisfactory component on thesecond draw is
34
39
. Thus
theprobability that therst component drawn and thesecond
component drawnaresatisfactory, i.e. neither isdefective, is:
7
8
34
39
=
238
312
or 0.7628
Problem 7. A batch of 40 components contains 5 which
aredefective. If acomponent isdrawnat randomfromthe
batchandtestedandthenasecondcomponent isdrawnat
random, calculatetheprobability of having onedefective
component, bothwithandwithout replacement.
The probability of having one defective component can be
achievedintwoways. If p istheprobabilityof drawingadefect-
ivecomponent andq istheprobabilityof drawingasatisfactory
component, then theprobability of having onedefectivecom-
ponent isgivenbydrawingasatisfactorycomponent andthena
defectivecomponent or by drawingadefectivecomponent and
thenasatisfactoryone, i.e. byq p +p q
With replacement:
p =
5
40
=
1
8
and q =
35
40
=
7
8
Hence, probabilityof havingonedefectivecomponent is:
1
8
7
8
+
7
8
1
8
i.e.
7
64
+
7
64
=
7
32
or 0.2188
Without replacement:
p
1
=
1
8
andq
1
=
7
8
ontherstof thetwodraws.Thebatchnumber
isnow39for theseconddraw, thus,
p
2
=
5
39
and q
2
=
35
39
p
1
q
2
+q
1
p
2
=
1
8
35
39
+
7
8
5
39
=
35+35
312
=
70
312
or 0.2244
Problem 8. A box contains 74 brass washers, 86 steel
washers and 40 aluminium washers. Three washers are
drawnatrandomfromtheboxwithoutreplacement. Deter-
minetheprobabilitythat all threearesteel washers.
Assume, for clarity of explanation, that a washer is drawn at
random, then asecond, then athird (although this assumption
doesnotaffecttheresultsobtained).Thetotal numberof washers
is74+86+40, i.e. 200.
Theprobability of randomly selecting asteel washer on the
rst drawis
86
200
. Therearenow85steel washers inabatchof
199. Theprobabilityof randomlyselectingasteel washer onthe
seconddrawis
85
199
. Therearenow84steel washersinabatch
of 198. The probability of randomly selecting a steel washer
on thethird drawis
84
198
. Hencetheprobability of selecting a
steel washer ontherst drawand theseconddrawand thethird
drawis:
86
200
85
199
84
198
=
614040
7880400
= 0.0779
Problem 9. For the box of washers given in Problem8
above,determinetheprobabilitythattherearenoaluminium
washers drawn, when threewashers aredrawn at random
fromtheboxwithout replacement.
Theprobabilityof not drawinganaluminiumwasher ontherst
drawis1
_
40
200
_
, i.e.
160
200
. Therearenow199washersinthe
batchof which159arenotaluminiumwashers. Hence, theprob-
abilityof not drawinganaluminiumwasher ontheseconddraw
is
159
199
. Similarly, theprobability of not drawinganaluminium
washer on thethird drawis
158
198
. Hencetheprobability of not
drawinganaluminiumwasher ontherst and secondand third
drawsis
160
200
159
199
158
198
=
4019520
7880400
= 0.5101
Problem 10. For thebox of washersinProblem8above,
nd the probability that there are two brass washers and
either asteel or analuminiumwasher whenthreearedrawn
at random, without replacement.
Twobrasswashers(A) andonesteel washer (B) canbeobtained
inanyof thefollowingways:
1st draw 2nddraw 3rddraw
A A B
A B A
B A A
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Probability 245
Two brass washers andonealuminiumwasher (C) canalso be
obtainedinanyof thefollowingways:
1st draw 2nddraw 3rddraw
A A C
A C A
C A A
Thustherearesix possiblewaysof achievingthecombinations
specied.If Arepresentsabrasswasher,Basteel washerandC an
aluminiumwasher, thenthecombinationsandtheir probabilities
areasshown:
DRAW PROBABILITY
First Second Third
A A B
74
200
73
199
86
198
=0.0590
A B A
74
200
86
199
73
198
=0.0590
B A A
86
200
74
199
73
198
=0.0590
A A C
74
200
73
199
40
198
=0.0274
A C A
74
200
40
199
73
198
=0.0274
C A A
40
200
74
199
73
198
=0.0274
Theprobabilityof havingtherstcombinationor thesecond, or
thethird, andsoon, isgivenbythesumof theprobabilities,
i.e. by30.0590+30.0274, that is, 0.2592
Exercise 117 Further problems on probability
1. The probability that component A will operate satis-
factorily for 5 years is 0.8 and that B will operate
satisfactorilyoverthatsameperiodof timeis0.75. Find
theprobabilitiesthat ina5year period: (a) bothcomp-
onentsoperatesatisfactorily, (b) onlycomponentA will
operate satisfactorily, and (c) only component B will
operatesatisfactorily.
2. Inaparticularstreet,80%of thehouseshavetelephones.
If twohouses selectedat randomarevisited, calculate
theprobabilitiesthat(a) theybothhaveatelephoneand
(b) one has a telephone but the other does not have
telephone.
3. Veroboard pins are packed in packets of 20 by a
machine. In a thousand packets, 40 have less than
20pins. Findtheprobability that if 2packets arecho-
senat random, onewill containless than20pins and
theother will contain20pinsor more.
4. A batch of 1kW reelements contains 16 which are
withinapowertoleranceand4whicharenot. If 3elem-
ents are selected at randomfromthe batch, calculate
theprobabilitiesthat (a) all threearewithinthepower
toleranceand(b) two arewithinbut oneis not within
thepower tolerance.
5. Anamplierismadeupof threetransistors, A, B andC.
Theprobabilitiesof A, B or C beingdefectiveare
1
20
,
1
25
and
1
50
, respectively. Calculate the percentage of
ampliers produced (a) which work satisfactorily and
(b) whichhavejust onedefectivetransistor.
6. A box contains 14 40W lamps, 28 60W lamps and
5825W lamps, all thelamps beingof thesameshape
and size. Three lamps are drawn at randomfromthe
box, rst one, then a second, then a third. Determine
theprobabilitiesof: (a) gettingone25W, one40Wand
one60Wlamp, withreplacement, (b) gettingone25W,
one40Wandone60Wlampwithoutreplacement, and
(c) gettingeither one25Wandtwo40Wor one60W
andtwo40Wlampswithreplacement.
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Assignment 14
Thisassignment coversthematerial inChapters30to
1. A company produces ve products in the following
proportions:
Product A 24 Product B 6 Product C 15
Product D 9 Product E 18
Draw(a) ahorizontal bar chart, and(b) apiediagramto
represent thesedatavisually. (7)
2. Statewhether thedataobtainedonthefollowingtopics
arelikelytobediscreteor continuous:
(a) thenumber of booksinalibrary
(b) thespeedof acar
(c) thetimetofailureof alight bulb (3)
3. Drawahistogram, frequencypolygonandogivefor the
data given below which refers to the diameter of 50
componentsproducedbyamachine.
Classintervals Frequency
1.301.32mm 4
1.331.35mm 7
1.361.38mm 10
1.391.41mm 12
1.421.44mm 8
1.451.47mm 5
1.481.50mm 4
(10)
4. Determinethemean, medianandmodal values for the
lengthsgiveninmetres:
28, 20, 44, 30, 32, 30, 28, 34, 26, 28 (3)
5. Thelengthinmillimetresof 100boltsisasshownbelow:
5056 6 5763 16 6470 22
7177 30 7884 19 8591 7
Determineforthesample(a) themeanvalue, and(b) the
standarddeviation, correct to4signicant gures. (9)
6. The number of faulty components in a factory in a
12weekperiodis:
14 12 16 15 10 13 15 11 16 19 17 19
Determine the median and the rst and third quartile
values. (3)
7. Determinetheprobabilityof winningaprizeinalottery
bybuying10ticketswhenthereare10prizesandatotal
of 5000ticketssold. (2)
8. A sampleof 50resistors contains 44whicharewithin
the required tolerance value, 4 which are below and
the remainder which are above. Determine the prob-
ability of selecting fromthe sample a resistor which
is (a) below therequired tolerance, and (b) abovethe
required tolerance. Now two resistors are selected at
randomfromthe sample. Determine the probability,
correctto3decimal places,thatneitherresistorisdefect-
ivewhendrawn(c) withreplacement, and(d) without
replacement. (e) If aresistor is drawnat randomfrom
the batch and tested, and then a second resistor is
drawnfromthoseleft, calculatetheprobability of hav-
ingonedefectivecomponent whenselectioniswithout
replacement. (13)
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33
Introduction to differentiation
33.1 Introduction to calculus
Calculus is a branch of mathematics involving or leading to
calculationsdealingwithcontinuouslyvaryingfunctions.
Calculusisasubject that fallsintotwoparts:
(i) differential calculus (or differentiation) and
(ii) integral calculus (or integration).
Differentiationisusedincalculationsinvolvingratesof change
(seesection33.10), velocityandacceleration, andmaximumand
minimumvaluesof curves(seeEngineeringMathematics).
33.2 Functional notation
Inanequationsuchasy =3x
2
+2x 5, y issaidtobeafunction
of x andmaybewrittenasy =f (x).
Anequationwrittenintheformf (x)=3x
2
+2x 5istermed
functional notation.
Thevalueof f (x) whenx =0isdenotedbyf (0), andthevalue
of f (x) whenx =2isdenotedbyf (2) andsoon.
Thuswhen f (x)=3x
2
+2x 5, then
f (0)=3(0)
2
+2(0)5=5
and f (2)=3(2)
2
+2(2)5=11andsoon.
Problem 1. If f (x)=4x
2
3x +2nd: f (0), f (3), f (1)
andf (3)f (1)
f (x)=4x
2
3x +2
f (0)=4(0)
2
3(0)+2=2
f (3)=4(3)
2
3(3)+2=369+2=29
f (1)=4(1)
2
3(1)+2=4+3+2=9
f (3)f (1)=299=20
Problem 2. Giventhat f (x)=5x
2
+x 7determine:
(i) f (2)f (1) (ii) f (3+a)
(iii) f (3+a)f (3) (iv)
f (3+a)f (3)
a
f (x)=5x
2
+x 7
(i) f (2)=5(2)
2
+27=15
f (1)=5(1)
2
+17=1
f (2)f (1)=
15
1
=15
(ii) f (3+a)=5(3+a)
2
+(3+a)7
=5(9+6a +a
2
)+(3+a)7
=45+30a +5a
2
+3+a 7=41 +31a +5a
2
(iii) f (3)=5(3)
2
+37=41
f (3+a)f (3)=(41+31a +5a
2
)(41)=31a +5a
2
(iv)
f (3+a)f (3)
a
=
31a +5a
2
a
=31 +5a
Exercise 118 Further problems on functional notation
1. If f (x)=6x
2
2x +1 nd f (0), f (1), f (2), f (1)
andf (3)
2. If f (x)=2x
2
+5x 7 nd f (1), f (2), f (1),
f (2)f (1)
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3. Givenf (x)=3x
3
+2x
2
3x +2provethat
f (1)=
1
7
f (2)
4. If f (x)=x
2
+3x +6ndf (2), f (2+a),
f (2+a)f (2) and
f (2+a)f (2)
a
33.3 The gradient of a curve
(a) If atangentisdrawnatapointP onacurve, thenthegradient
of this tangent is saidto bethegradient of the curve at P.
InFigure33.1, thegradient of thecurveat P isequal tothe
gradient of thetangent PQ.
f (x)
0 x
P
Q
Fig. 33.1
(b) For the curve shown in Figure 33.2, let the points A and
B have co-ordinates (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
), respectively. In
functional notation, y
1
= f (x
1
) andy
2
=f (x
2
) asshown.
f (x)
f (x
1
)
f (x
2
)
0 x x
1
x
2
A
B
C
D E
Fig. 33.2
Thegradient of thechordAB
=
BC
AC
=
BD CD
ED
=
f (x
2
) f (x
1
)
(x
2
x
1
)
(c) For thecurvef (x)=x
2
showninFigure33.3:
(i) thegradient of chordAB
=
f (3) f (1)
31
=
91
2
= 4
f (x)
f (x) x
2
0 1 1.5 2 3
2
4
6
8
10
x
A
D
C
B
Fig. 33.3
(ii) thegradient of chordAC
=
f (2) f (1)
21
=
41
1
= 3
(iii) thegradient of chordAD
=
f (1.5) f (1)
1.51
=
2.251
0.5
= 2.5
(iv) if E isthepointonthecurve(1.1, f (1.1))thenthegradient
of chordAE
=
f (1.1) f (1)
1.11
=
1.211
0.1
= 2.1
(v) if F is the point on the curve (1.01, f (1.01)) then the
gradient of chordAF
=
f (1.01) f (1)
1.011
=
1.02011
0.01
= 2.01
Thusaspoint B movescloser andcloser topoint A thegradient
of thechordapproaches nearer andnearer to thevalue2. This
iscalledthelimiting value of thegradient of thechordAB and
whenB coincides withA thechordbecomes thetangent to the
curve.
Exercise 119 A further problem on the gradient of a
curve (Answers on page 283)
1. Plotthecurvef (x)=4x
2
1forvaluesof x fromx =1
tox =+4. Label theco-ordinates(3, f (3)) and(1, f (1))
as J and K, respectively. J oin points J and K to form
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Introduction to differentiation 249
thechordJK. Determinethegradient of chordJK. By
movingJ nearer andnearer toK determinethegradient
of thetangent of thecurveat K.
33.4 Differentiation from rst principles
(i) InFigure33.4, A andB aretwopoints very closetogether
onacurve, x (deltax) andy (deltay) representingsmall
incrementsinthex andy directions, respectively.
y
f (x)
f (x dx)
0 x
A(x, y)
B(x dx, y dy)
dx
dy
Fig. 33.4
Gradient of chord AB=
y
x
however, y =f (x +x)f (x)
Hence
y
x
=
f (x +x)f (x)
x
Asx approacheszero,
y
x
approachesalimitingvalueand
the gradient of the chord approaches the gradient of the
tangent at A.
(ii) Whendeterminingthegradientof atangenttoacurvethere
aretwo notations used. Thegradient of thecurveat A in
Figure33.4caneither bewrittenas:
limit
x0
y
x
or limit
x0
_
f (x +x) f (x)
x
_
InLeibniz notation,
dy
dx
=limit
x0
y
x
Infunctional notation,
f
(x)=limit
x0
_
f (x+x) f (x)
x
_
(iii)
dy
dx
is the same as f

(x) and is called the differential
coefcient or the derivative. The process of nding the
differential coefcient iscalleddifferentiation.
Summarising, thedifferential coefcient,
dy
dx
= f

(x) = limit
x0
y
x
= limit
x0
_
f (x +x) f (x)
x
_
Problem 3. Differentiate fromrst principles f (x)=x
2
anddeterminethevalueof thegradientof thecurveatx =2
To differentiate fromrst principles means to nd f

(x) by
usingtheexpression
f

(x) = limit
x0
_
f (x +x) f (x)
x
_
f (x) = x
2
Substituting(x +x) for x gives
f (x +x)=(x +x)
2
=x
2
+2xx +x
2
, hence
f

(x) = limit
x0
_
(x
2
+2xx +x
2
) (x
2
)
x
_
= limit
x0
_
2xx +x
2
x
_
= limit
x0
{2x +x}
As x 0, {2x +x} {2x +0}. Thus f
(x)=2x, i.e. the

differential coefcient of x
2
is 2x.
At x =2, thegradient of thecurve, f

(x)=2(2)=4
Problem 4. Findthedifferential coefcient of y =5x
Bydenition,
dy
dx
=f

(x)= limit
x 0
_
f (x +x)f (x)
x
_
Thefunction being differentiated is y =f (x)=5x. Substituting
(x +x) for x gives: f (x +x)=5(x +x)=5x +5x. Hence
dy
dx
= f

(x) = limit
x0
_
(5x +5x) (5x)
x
_
= limit
x0
_
5x
x
_
= limit
x0
{5}
Sincethetermx does not appear in {5} thelimiting valueas
x 0of {5} is5.
Thus
dy
dx
= 5, i.e. the differential coefcient of 5x is 5.
Theequationy =5x representsastraight lineof gradient 5(see
Chapter 12).
Thedifferential coefcient (i.e.
dy
dx
orf

(x))meansthegradient
of thecurve, andsincethegradient of theliney =5x is 5this
resultcanbeobtainedbyinspection. Hence, ingeneral, if y =kx
(wherek isaconstant), thenthegradient of thelineisk and
dy
dx
or f
(x) =k.
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Problem 5. Findthederivativeof y =8
y =f (x)=8. Sincetherearenox-valuesintheoriginal equation,
substituting(x +x) for x still givesf (x +x)=8. Hence
dy
dx
= f

(x) = limit
x0
_
f (x +x) f (x)
x
_
= limit
x0
_
88
x
_
= 0
Thus, wheny =8,
dy
dx
=0.
Theequationy =8represents astraight horizontal lineandthe
gradient of ahorizontal lineiszero, hencetheresult couldhave
been determined by inspection. Finding thederivative means
ndingthegradient, hence, ingeneral, for any horizontal line
if y =k (wherek isaconstant) then
dy
dx
=0.
Problem 6. Differentiatefromrst principlesf (x)=2x
3
Substituting(x +x) for x gives
f (x +x)=2(x +x)
3
=2(x +x)(x
2
+2xx +x
2
)
=2(x
3
+3x
2
x +3xx
2
+x
3
)
=2x
3
+6x
2
x +6xx
2
+2x
3
dy
dx
=f

(x)= limit
x0
_
f (x +x)f (x)
x
_
= limit
x 0
_
(2x
3
+6x
2
x +6xx
2
+2x
3
)(2x
3
)
x
_
= limit
x 0
_
6x
2
x +6xx
2
+2x
3
x
_
= limit
x 0
_
6x
2
+6xx +2x
2
_
Hencef
(x)=6x
2
, i.e. the differential coefcient of 2x
3
is 6x
2
.
Problem 7. Find the differential coefcient of y =
4x
2
+5x 3 and determine the gradient of the curve at
x =3
y = f (x)=4x
2
+5x 3
f (x +x)=4(x +x)
2
+5(x +x)3
=4(x
2
+2xx +x
2
)+5x +5x 3
=4x
2
+8xx +4x
2
+5x +5x 3
dy
dx
= f

(x)= limit
x 0
_
f (x +x)f (x)
x
_
= limit
x 0
_
_
(4x
2
+8xx +4x
2
+5x +5x 3)
(4x
2
+5x 3)
x
_
_
= limit
x 0
_
8xx +4x
2
+5x
x
_
= limit
x 0
{8x +4x +5}
i.e.
dy
dx
= f
(x) =8x +5
At x =3, thegradient of thecurve
=
dy
dx
= f
(x) = 8(3) +5= 19

Exercise 120 Further problems on differentiation from
rst principles (Answers on page 283)
InProblems1to12, differentiatefromrst principles.
1. y =x 2. y =7x
3. y =4x
2
4. y =5x
3
5. y =2x
2
+3x 12 6. y =23
7. f (x)=9x 8. f (x)=
2x
3
9. f (x)=9x
2
10. f (x)=7x
3
11. f (x)=x
2
+15x 4 12. f (x)=4
13. Determine
d
dx
(4x
3
1) fromrst principles
14. Find
d
dx
(3x
2
+5) fromrst principles
33.5 Differentiation of y=ax
n
by
the general rule
Fromdifferentiation by rst principles, a general rule for dif-
ferentiating ax
n
emerges where a and n are any constants.
Thisruleis:
if
or, if
y =ax
n
then
dy
dx
=anx
n1
f (x) =ax
n
then f
(x) =anx
n1
(Eachof theresultsobtainedinworkedproblems3and7maybe
deducedbyusingthisgeneral rule).
When differentiating, results can be expressed in a number
of ways.
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For example: (i) if y =3x
2
then
dy
dx
=6x,
(ii) if f (x)=3x
2
thenf

(x)=6x,
(iii) thedifferential coefcient of 3x
2
is6x,
(iv) thederivativeof 3x
2
is6x, and
(v)
d
dx
(3x
2
)=6x
Problem 8. Using the general rule, differentiate the
followingwithrespect tox:
(a) y =5x
7
(b) y =3
x (c) y =
4
x
2
(a) Comparingy =5x
7
withy =ax
n
showsthat a =5andn =7.
Usingthegeneral rule,
dy
dx
=anx
n1
= (5)(7)x
71
= 35x
6
(b) y =3
x =3x
1
2
. Hencea =3andn =
1
2
dy
dx
= anx
n1
= (3)
1
2
x
1
2
1
=
3
2
x
1
2
=
3
2x
1
2
=
3
2
x
(c) y =
4
x
2
=4x
2
. Hencea =4andn =2
dy
dx
= anx
n1
= (4)(2)x
21
= 8x
3
=
8
x
3
Problem 9. Find the differential coefcient of
y =
2
5
x
3
4
x
3
+4
x
5
+7
y =
2
5
x
3
4
x
3
+4
x
5
+7
i.e. y =
2
5
x
3
4x
3
+4x
5/2
+7fromthelawsof
indices(seeChapter 3)
dy
dx
=
_
2
5
_
(3)x
31
(4)(3)x
31
+(4)
_
5
2
_
x
(5/2)1
+0
=
6
5
x
2
+12x
4
+10x
3/2
i.e.
dy
dx
=
6
5
x
2
+
12
x
4
+10
x
3
Problem 10. If f (t)=5t +
1
t
3
ndf

(t)
f (t)=5t +
1
t
3
=5t +
1
t
3
2
=5t
1
+t
3
2
Hence f

(t)=(5)(1)t
11
+
_
3
2
_
t
3
2
1
=5t
0
3
2
t
5
2
i.e. f
(t) =5
3
2t
5
2
=5
3
2
t
5
(sincet
0
=1)
Problem 11. Differentiatey =
(x +2)
2
x
withrespect tox
y=
(x +2)
2
x
=
x
2
+4x +4
x
=
x
2
x
+
4x
x
+
4
x
i.e. y =x
1
+4+4x
1
Hence
dy
dx
=1x
11
+0+(4)(1)x
11
=x
0
4x
2
=1
4
x
2
(sincex
0
=1)
Exercise 121 Further problems on differentiation of
y =ax
n
by the general rule (Answers on
page 283)
In Problems 1 to 8, determinethedifferential coefcients
withrespect tothevariable.
1. y =7x
4
2. y =
x
3. y =
t
3
4. y =6+
1
x
3
5. y =3x
1
x
+
1
x
6. y =
5
x
2
x
7
+2
7. y =3(t 2)
2
8. y =(x +1)
3
9. Using the general rule for ax
n
check the results of
Problems1to12of Exercise120, page250.
10. Differentiatef (x)=6x
2
3x +5 and nd thegradient
of thecurveat (a) x =1, and(b) x =2.
11. Find the differential coefcient of y =2x
3
+3x
2
4x 1anddeterminethegradient. of thecurveatx =2.

12. Determine the derivative of y =2x
3
+4x +7 and
determinethegradient of thecurveat x =1.5.
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33.6 Differentiation of sine and cosine
functions
Figure33.5(a) showsagraphof y = sin. Thegradient iscon-
tinually changingas thecurvemoves from0to A to B to C to
D.Thegradient, givenby
dy
d
, maybeplottedinacorresponding
positionbelowy = sin, asshowninFigure33.5(b).
3
y sin u
(sin u) cos u
u radians 2

2
D B
A
0
0
(a)
(b)
y
C
D
A
B
C
d
du
u radians 2
2
dy
dx
3
2
2
Fig. 33.5
(i) At 0, thegradient ispositiveandisat itssteepest. Hence0
isamaximumpositivevalue.
(ii) Between0andA thegradient ispositivebut isdecreasing
invalueuntil atA thegradient iszero, shownasA
.
(iii) BetweenA andB thegradient isnegativebut isincreasing
invalueuntil atBthegradientisatitssteepest. HenceB
is
amaximumnegativevalue.
(iv) If thegradient of y = sin isfurther investigatedbetween
BandCandCandDthentheresultinggraphof
dy
d
isseen
tobeacosinewave.
Hencetherateof changeof sin iscos, i.e.
if y =sin then
dy
d
=cos
It mayalsobeshownthat:
if y =sin a,
dy
d
=a cos a (1)
(wherea isaconstant)
and if y =sin (a +),
dy
d
=(a cos a +) (2)
(wherea and areconstants)
y cos u
2 0
(a)
(b)
y
2
3
2
u radians 2 0
2
3
2
(cos u) sin u
d
du
dy
du
u radians
Fig. 33.6
If asimilar exerciseisfollowedfor y = cos thenthegraphs
of Figure 33.6 result, showing
dy
d
to be a graph of sin, but
displacedby radians.
If eachpointonthecurvey = sin (asshowninFigure33.5(a))
weretobemadenegative, (i.e. +
2
ismade
2
,
3
2
ismade
+
3
2
, andsoon) thenthegraphshowninFigure33.6(b) would
result. Thislatter graphthereforerepresentsthecurveof sin.
Thus, if y =cos ,
dy
d
= sin
It mayalsobeshownthat:
if y =cos a,
dy
d
=a sin a (3)
(wherea isaconstant)
and if y =cos(a +),
dy
d
=a sin(a +) (4)
(wherea and areconstants)
Problem 12. Differentiate the following with respect to
thevariable:
(a) y =2sin5 (b) f (t)=3cos2t
(a) y =2sin 5
dy
d
= (2)(5cos5) = 10 cos 5 fromequation(1)
(b) f (t)=3cos2t
f

(t)=(3)(2sin 2t) = 6 sin 2t fromequation(3)
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Problem 13. Find the differential coefcient of
y =7sin2x 3cos4x
y =7sin2x 3cos4x
dy
dx
=(7)(2cos2x)(3)(4sin4x) from
equations(1) and(3)
=14 cos 2x +12 sin 4x
thevariable:
(a) f ()=5sin(100 0.40)
(b) f (t)=2cos(5t +0.20)
(a) If f ()=5sin(100 0.40)
f
() = 5[100 cos(100 0.40)] fromequation(2),

wherea =100
=500cos(100 0.40)
(b) If f (t)=2cos(5t +0.20)
f
(t) = 2[5sin(5t +0.20)] fromequation(4),

wherea =5
= 10 sin(5t +0.20)
Problem 15. An alternating voltage is given by:
v =100sin200t volts, where t is the time in seconds.
Calculatetherateof changeof voltagewhen(a) t =0.005s
and(b) t =0.01s
v =100sin200t volts. Therateof changeof v isgivenby
dv
dt
.
dv
dt
=(100)(200cos200t)=20000cos200t
(a) Whent =0.005s,
dv
dt
=20000cos(200)(0.005)=20000cos1
cos1 means the cosine of 1 radian (make sure your
calculator isonradians not degrees).
Hence
dv
dt
=10 806 volts per second
(b) Whent =0.01s,
dv
dt
=20000cos(200)(0.01)=20000cos2
Hence
dv
dt
=8323 volts per second
Exercise 122 Further problems on the differentiation
of sine and cosine functions (Answers on
page 283)
1. Differentiatewithrespect tox:
(a) y =4sin3x (b) y =2cos6x
2. Givenf ()=2sin3 5cos2, ndf

()
3. Analternatingcurrentisgivenbyi =5sin 100t amperes,
where t is the time in seconds. Determine the rate of
changeof current (i.e.
di
dt
) whent =0.01seconds.
4. v =50sin40t voltsrepresentsanalternatingvoltage, v,
wheret isthetimeinseconds.Atatimeof 2010
3
sec-
onds, ndtherateof changeof voltage(i.e.
dv
dt
).
5. If f (t)=3sin(4t +0.12)2cos(3t 0.72) determine
f

(t).
33.7 Differentiation of e
ax
and lnax
A graphof y =e
x
isshowninFigure33.7(a). Thegradientof the
curveat any point is givenby
dy
dx
andis continually changing.
By drawing tangents to thecurveat many points on thecurve
and measuring the gradient of the tangents, values of
dy
dx
for
corresponding values of x may be obtained. These values are
showngraphicallyinFigure33.7(b). Thegraphof
dy
dx
against x
isidentical totheoriginal graphof y =e
x
. It followsthat:
if y =e
x
, then
dy
dx
=e
x
It mayalsobeshownthat
if y =e
ax
, then
dy
dx
=ae
ax
Thereforeif y =2e
6x
, then
dy
dx
=(2)(6e
6x
)=12e
6x
Agraphof y = lnx isshowninFigure33.8(a).Thegradientof the
curveat any point is givenby
dy
dx
andis continually changing.
By drawing tangents to thecurveat many points on thecurve
and measuring the gradient of the tangents, values of
dy
dx
for
corresponding values of x may be obtained. These values are
showngraphicallyinFigure33.8(b). Thegraphof
dy
dx
against x
isthegraphof
dy
dx
=
1
x
. It followsthat:
if y =ln x, then
dy
dx
=
1
x
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0
5
10
15
20
1 2 3 3 2 1 x
dy
dx
e
x
dy
dx
(b)
0
(a)
5
10
15
20
1 2 3 3 2 1 x
y
y e
x
Fig. 33.7
0
2
1
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 x
2
0
0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 x
1.0
1.5
2
(a)
(b)
dy
dx
y
y ln x
dy
dx
1
x
Fig. 33.8
It mayalsobeshownthat
if y =ln ax, then
dy
dx
=
1
x
(Notethatinthelatterexpression,theconstantadoesnotappear
inthe
dy
dx
term).
Thusif y = ln 4x, then
dy
dx
=
1
x
thevariable:
(a) y =3e
2x
(b) f (t)=
4
3e
5t
(a) If y =3e
2x
then
dy
dx
=(3)(2e
2x
) = 6e
2x
(b) If f (t)=
4
3e
5t
=
4
3
e
5t
, then
f
(t)=
4
3
(5e
5t
)=
20
3
e
5t
=
20
3e
5t
Problem 17. Differentiatey =5ln 3x
If y =5ln 3x, then
dy
dx
=(5)
_
1
x
_
=
5
x
Exercise 123 Further problems on the differentiation
of e
ax
and ln ax (Answers on page 283)
1. Differentiatewithrespect tox:
(a) y =5e
3x
(b) y =
2
7e
2x
2. Givenf ()=5ln2 4ln 3, determinef

()
3. If f (t)=4ln t +2, evaluatef

(t) whent =0.25
4. Evaluate
dy
dx
when x =1, given y =3e
4x
5
2e
3x
+
8ln5x. Givetheanswer correct to3signicant gures.
33.8 Summary of standard derivatives
The ve main differential coefcients used in this chapter are
summarisedinTable33.1.
Table 33.1
y or f (x)
dy
dx
or f
(x)
ax
n
anx
n1
sinax a cosax
cosax a sinax
e
ax
ae
ax
lnax
1
x
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Problem 18. Find the gradient of the curve
y =3x
2
7x +2at thepoint (1, 2)
If y =3x
2
7x +2, thengradient =
dy
dx
=6x 7
At thepoint (1, 2), x =1, hencegradient =6(1)7=1
Problem 19. If y =
3
x
2
2sin4x +
2
e
x
+ ln 5x, deter-
mine
dy
dx
y =
3
x
2
2sin4x +
2
e
x
+ln5x
= 3x
2
2sin4x +2e
x
+ln5x
dy
dx
= 3(2x
3
) 2(4cos 4x) +2
_
e
x
_
+
1
x
=
6
x
3
8 cos 4x
2
e
x
+
1
x
Exercise 124 Further problems on standard deriva-
tives (Answers on page 283)
1. Findthegradient of thecurvey =2x
4
+3x
3
x +4at
thepoints(a) (0, 4) and(b) (1, 8)
2. Differentiate:
y =
2
x
2
+2ln 2x 2(cos5x +3sin2x)
2
e
3x
33.9 Successive differentiation
Whenafunctiony =f (x) is differentiatedwithrespect to x the
differential coefcient is written as
dy
dx
or f

(x). If theexpres-
sionisdifferentiatedagain, theseconddifferential coefcient is
obtainedandiswrittenas
d
2
y
dx
2
(pronounceddeetwoy by deex
squared) or f

(x) (pronounced f double-dashx).
By successivedifferentiationfurther higher derivatives suchas
d
3
y
dx
3
and
d
4
y
dx
4
maybeobtained.
Thusif y =5x
4
,
dy
dx
=20x
3
,
d
2
y
dx
2
=60x
2
,
d
3
y
dx
3
=120x,
d
4
y
dx
4
=120
and
d
5
y
dx
5
=0
Problem 20. If f (x)=4x
5
2x
3
+x 3, ndf

(x)
f (x) = 4x
5
2x
3
+x 3
f

(x) = 20x
4
6x
2
+1
f
(x) = 80x
3
12x or 4x(20x
2
3)
Problem 21. Giveny =
2
3
x
3
4
x
2
+
1
2x

x, determine
d
2
y
dx
2
y =
2
3
x
3
4
x
2
+
1
2x

x
=
2
3
x
3
4x
2
+
1
2
x
1
x
1
2
dy
dx
=
_
2
3
_
_
3x
2
_
4(2x
3
)+
_
1
2
_
_
1x
2
_

1
2
x
1
2
i.e.
dy
dx
=2x
2
+8x
3
1
2
x
2
1
2
x
1
2
d
2
y
dx
2
=4x +(8)(3x
4
)
_
1
2
_
_
2x
3
_
_
1
2
__
1
2
x
3
2
_
=4x 24x
4
+1x
3
+
1
4
x
3
2
i.e.
d
2
y
dx
2
=4x
24
x
4
+
1
x
3
+
1
4
x
3
Exercise 125 Further problems on successive
differentiation (Answers on page 283)
1. If y =3x
4
+2x
3
3x +2, nd (a)
d
2
y
dx
2
(b)
d
3
y
dx
3
2. (a) Given f (t)=
2
5
t
2
1
t
3
+
3
t

t +1, determine
f

(t)
(b) Evaluatef

(t) inpart (a) whent =1
3. If y =3sin2t + cost, nd
d
2
y
dt
2
4. If f ()=2ln4, showthat f

()=
2
2
33.10 Rates of change
If aquantity y dependsonandvarieswithaquantity x thenthe
rateof changeof y withrespect to x is
dy
dx
. Thus, for example,
therateof changeof pressurep withheight h is
dp
dh
.
A rateof changewithrespecttotimeisusuallyjustcalledthe
rateof change, thewithrespect totime beingassumed. Thus,
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for example, arateof changeof current, i, is
di
dt
andarateof
changeof temperature, , is
d
dt
, andsoon.
Problem 22. The length L metres of a certain
metal rod at temperature t
C is given by: L =1+

0.00003t +0.0000004t
2
. Determinetherateof changeof
length, inmm/
C, whenthetemperatureis (a) 100
C and
(b) 250
C
Therateof changeof lengthmeans
dL
dt
SincelengthL =1+0.00003t +0.0000004t
2
, then
dl
dt
=0.00003+0.0000008t
(a) Whent =100
C,
dL
dt
=0.00003+(0.0000008)(100)
=0.00011m/
C=0.11 mm/
C
(b) Whent =250
C,
dL
dt
=0.00003+(0.0000008)(250)
=0.00023m/
C=0.23 mm/
C
Problem 23. TheluminousintensityI candelasof alamp
at varying voltageV is given by: I =510
4
V
2
. Deter-
minethevoltageatwhichthelightisincreasingatarateof
0.4candelasper volt.
Therateof changeof lightwithrespecttovoltageisgivenby
dI
dV
.
SinceI =510
4
V
2
,
dI
dV
=(510
4
)(2V)=1010
4
V=10
3
V
When the light is increasing at 0.4 candelas per volt then
+0.4=10
3
V, fromwhich, voltage
V =
0.4
10
3
=0.410
+3
=400 volts
Problem 24. Newtons law of cooling is given by:
=
0
e
kt
, where the excess of temperature at zero time
is
0
C andat timet secondsis
C. Determinetherateof
changeof temperatureafter 50s, giventhat
0
=15
C and
k =0.02
Therateof changeof temperatureis
d
dt
.
Since =
0
e
kt
then
d
dt
=(
0
)(ke
kt
)=k
0
e
kt
When
0
=15, k =0.02andt =50, then
d
dt
= (0.02)(15)e
(0.02)(50)
= 0.30e
1
= 0.815
C/s
Problem 25. Thepressurep of theatmosphereat height
h abovegroundlevel is givenby p =p
0
e
h/c
, wherep
0
is
thepressureat groundlevel andc isaconstant. Determine
therateof changeof pressurewith height when p
0
=10
5
Pascalsandc =6.210
4
at 1550metres.
Therateof changeof pressurewithheight is
dp
dh
.
Sincep =p
0
e
h/c
then
dp
dh
= (p
0
)
_
1
c
e
h/c
_
=
p
0
c
e
h/c
Whenp
0
=10
5
, c =6.210
4
andh =1550, then
rate of change of pressure,
dp
dh
=
10
5
6.210
4
e
(1550/6.210
4
)
=
10
6.2
e
0.025
= 1.573 Pa/m
Exercise 126 Further problems on rates of change
1. An alternating current, i amperes, is given by
i =10sin2ft, where f is the frequency in hertz and
t thetimeinseconds. Determinetherateof changeof
current whent =12ms, giventhat f =50Hz.
2. Theluminous intensity, I candelas, of alamp is given
byI =810
4
V
2
, whereV isthevoltage. Find(a) the
rateof changeof luminousintensity withvoltagewhen
V =100volts, and(b) thevoltageat whichthelight is
increasingat arateof 0.5candelasper volt.
3. Thevoltageacrosstheplatesof acapacitor at any time
t seconds is given by v =V e
t/CR
, where V, C and
R areconstants. GivenV =200volts, C =0.1010
6
farads andR=210
6
ohms, nd(a) theinitial rateof
changeof voltage, and(b) therateof changeof voltage
after 0.2s.
4. The pressure p of the atmosphere at height h above
ground level is given by p =p
0
e
h/c
, where p
0
is
the pressure at ground level and c is a constant.
Determine the rate of change of pressure with height
when p
0
=1.01310
5
Pascals and c =6.0510
4
at
1450metres.
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34
Introduction to integration
34.1 The process of integration
Theprocessof integrationreversestheprocessof differentiation.
Indifferentiation, if f (x)=2x
2
thenf

(x)=4x.Thus, theintegral
of 4x is2x
2
, i.e. integrationistheprocessof movingfromf

(x)
tof (x). Bysimilar reasoning, theintegral of 2t ist
2
.
Integrationisaprocessof summationor addingpartstogether
andanelongatedS, shownas
_
, isusedtoreplacethewordsthe
integral of. Hence, fromabove,
_
4x =2x
2
and
_
2t ist
2
.
Indifferentiation, thedifferential coefcient
dy
dx
indicatesthat
afunctionof x is beingdifferentiatedwithrespect to x, thedx
indicating that it is with respect to x. In integration thevari-
ableof integrationisshownby addingd(thevariable) after the
functiontobeintegrated.
Thus
_
4x dx means theintegral of 4x with respect to x, and
_
2t dt meanstheintegral of 2t withrespect tot
As statedabove, thedifferential coefcient of 2x
2
is 4x, hence
_
4x dx =2x
2
. However, thedifferential coefcientof 2x
2
+7is
also4x. Hence
_
4x dx couldalsobeequal to2x
2
+7. Toallow
for thepossiblepresenceof aconstant, whenever theprocessof
integrationisperformed, aconstant c isaddedtotheresult.
Thus
_
4x dx =2x
2
+c and
_
2t dt =t
2
+c
c iscalledthearbitrary constant of integration.
34.2 The general solution of integrals of
the form ax
n
Thegeneral solutionof integralsof theform
_
ax
n
dx, wherea
andn areconstantsandn =1, isgivenby:
ax
n
dx =
ax
n+1
n +1
+c
Usingthisrulegives:
(i)
_
3x
4
dx =
3x
4+1
4+1
+c =
3
5
x
5
+c
(ii)
_
4
9
t
3
dt dx =
4
9
_
t
3+1
3+1
_
+c
=
4
9
_
t
4
4
_
+c =
1
9
t
4
+c
Bothof theseresultsmaybecheckedbydifferentiation.
34.3 Standard integrals
FromChapter 33,
d
dx
(sinax)=a cosax
Since integration is the reverse process of differentiation it
followsthat:
_
a cosax dx =sinax +c
or
_
cos ax dx =
1
a
sin ax +c
Bysimilar reasoning
_
sin ax dx =
1
a
cos ax +c
_
e
ax
dx =
1
a
e
ax
+c
and
_
1
x
dx =ln x +c
Fromabove,
_
ax
n
dx =
ax
n+1
n +1
+c except when n =1
Whenn =1, then
_
x
1
dx =
_
1
x
dx =lnx +c
A list of standard integrals issummarisedinTable34.1.
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Table 34.1 Standardintegrals
(i)
_
ax
n
dx =
ax
n+1
n +1
+c
(except whenn =1)
(ii)
_
cosax dx =
1
a
sinax +c
(iii)
_
sinax dx =
1
a
cosax +c
(iv)
_
e
ax
dx =
1
a
e
ax
+c
(v)
_
1
x
dx = lnx +c
Problem 1. Determine: (a)
_
3x
2
dx (b)
_
2t
3
dt
Thegeneral ruleis
_
ax
n
dx =
ax
n+1
n +1
+c
(a) Whena =3andn =2then
_
3x
2
dx =
3x
2+1
2+1
+c = x
3
+c
(b) Whena =2andn =3then
_
2t
3
dt =
2t
3+1
3+1
+c =
2t
4
4
+c =
1
2
t
4
+c
Eachof theseresultsmaybecheckedbydifferentiatingthem.
Problem 2. Determine(a)
_
8dx (b)
_
2x dx
(a)
_
8dx is thesameas
_
8x
0
dx and, using thegeneral rule
whena =8andn =0gives:
_
8x
0
dx =
8x
0+1
0+1
+c = 8x +c
Ingeneral, if k isaconstant then
_
k dx =kx +c
(b) Whena =2andn =1, then
_
2x dx =
_
2x
1
dx =
2x
1+1
1+1
+c =
2x
2
2
+c
= x
2
+c
Problem 3. Determine:
_ _
2+
5
7
x 6x
2
_
dx
_
_
2+
5
7
x 6x
2
_
dx maybewrittenas:
_
2dx +
_
5
7
x dx
_
6x
2
dx
i.e. eachtermisintegratedseparately.
(This splitting up of terms only applies for addition and
subtraction).
Hence
_ _
2+
5
7
x 6x
2
_
dx
=2x +
_
5
7
_
x
1+1
1+1
(6)
x
2+1
2+1
+c
=2x +
_
5
7
_
x
2
2
(6)
x
3
3
+c
=2x +
5
14
x
2
2x
3
+c
Notethat when an integral contains morethan onetermthere
is no need to havean arbitrary constant for each; just asingle
constant at theendissufcient.
_
3
x
2
dx
_
3
x
2
dx =
_
3x
2
dx. Usingthestandardintegral,
_
ax
n
dx when
a =3andn =2gives:
_
3x
2
dx =
3x
2+1
2+1
+c
=
3x
1
1
+c = 3x
1
+c =
3
x
+c
_
3
x dx
Forfractional powersitisnecessarytoappreciatethat
n
a
m
=a
m
n
,
fromwhich,
x =x
1
2
. Hence,
_
3
x dx =
_
3x
1
2
dx =
3x
1
2
+1
1
2
+1
+c =
3x
3
2
3
2
+c
= (3)
_
2
3
_
x
3
2
= 2x
3
2
+c = 2
x
3
+c
_
5
x
dx
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Introduction to integration 259
_
5
x
dx =
_
5x
1
2
dx =
5x
1
2
+1
1
2
+1
+c =
5x
1
2
1
2
+c
= (5)
_
2
1
_
x
1
2
+c = 10
x +c
Problem7. Determine:
(a)
_ _
x
3
2x
3x
_
dx (b)
_
(1x)
2
dx
(a) Rearranging into standard integral form gives:
_ _
x
3
2x
3x
_
dx =
_ _
x
3
3x

2x
3x
_
dx
=
_ _
x
2
3

2
3
_
dx
=
_
1
3
_
x
2+1
2+1
2
3
x +c
=
_
1
3
_
x
3
3

2
3
x +c
=
1
9
x
3
2
3
x +c
(b) Rearranging
_
(1x)
2
dx gives:
_
(12x +x
2
) dx = x
2x
1+1
1+1
+
x
2+1
2+1
+c
= x
2x
2
2
+
x
3
3
+c
= x x
2
+
1
3
x
3
+c
This problemshows that functions oftenhaveto berearranged
intothestandardformof
_
ax
n
dx beforeitispossibletointegrate
them.
(a)
_
5cos3x dx (b)
_
3sin2x dx
(a) FromTable34.1(ii),
_
5cos 3x dx = 5
_
cos3x dx
= (5)
_
1
3
sin 3x
_
+c
=
5
3
sin 3x +c
(b) FromTable34.1(iii),
_
3sin2x dx = 3
_
sin2x dx = (3)
_
1
2
cos2x
_
+c
=
3
2
cos 2x + c
Problem 9. Determine: (a)
_
5e
3x
dx (b)
_
6
e
2x
dx
(a) FromTable34.1(iv),
_
5e
3x
dx = 5
_
e
3x
dx = (5)
_
1
3
e
3x
_
+c
=
5
3
e
3x
+ c
(b)
_
6
e
2x
dx =
_
6e
2x
dx = 6
_
e
2x
dx
=(6)
_
1
2
e
2x
_
+c = 3e
2x
+c
=
3
e
2x
+ c
(a)
_
3
5x
dx (b)
_ _
3x
2
1
x
_
dx
(a)
_
3
5x
dx =
_ _
3
5
__
1
x
_
dx =
3
5
_ _
1
x
_
dx
=
3
5
ln x +c (fromTable34.1(v))
(b)
_ _
3x
2
1
x
_
dx =
_ _
3x
2
x

1
x
_
dx
=
_ _
3x
1
x
_
dx =
3x
2
2
+lnx +c
=
3
2
x
2
+ln x +c
Exercise 127 Further problems on standard integrals
Determinethefollowingintegrals:
1. (a)
_
4dx (b)
_
7x dx
2. (a)
_
2
5
x
2
dx (b)
_
5
6
x
3
dx
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3. (a)
_
(3+2x 4x
2
)dx (b) 3
_
(x +5x
2
)dx
4. (a)
_ _
3x
2
5x
x
_
dx (b)
_
(2+x)
2
dx
5. (a)
_
4
3x
2
dx (b)
_
3
4x
4
dx
6. (a)
_

x dx (b)
_
2
x
dx
7. (a)
_
3cos2x dx (b)
_
7sin3x dx
8. (a)
_
3
4
e
2x
dx (b)
2
3
_
dx
e
5x
9. (a)
_
2
3x
dx (b)
_ _
x
2
1
x
_
dx
34.4 Denite integrals
Integrals containing an arbitrary constant c in their results are
called indenite integrals since their precise value cannot be
determinedwithout further information. Denite integrals are
thoseinwhichlimitsareapplied.
If anexpressioniswrittenas[x]
b
a
b iscalledtheupper limit
anda thelower limit.
The operation of applying the limits is dened as:
[x]
b
a
=(b)(a)
Theincreaseinthevalueof theintegral x
2
asx increasesfrom
1to3iswrittenas
_
3
1
x
2
dx
Applyingthelimitsgives:
_
3
1
x
2
dx =
_
x
3
3
+c
_
3
1
=
_
3
3
3
+c
_
_
1
3
3
+c
_
= (9+c)
_
1
3
+c
_
= 8
2
3
Notethatthec termalwayscancelsoutwhenlimitsareapplied
andit neednot beshownwithdeniteintegrals.
(a)
_
2
1
3x dx (b)
_
3
2
(4x
2
)dx
(a)
_
2
1
3x dx =
_
3x
2
2
_
2
1
=
_
3
2
(2)
2
_

_
3
2
(1)
2
_
=61
1
2
= 4
1
2
or 4.5
(b)
_
3
2
(4x
2
)dx =
_
4x
x
3
3
_
3
2
=
_
4(3)
(3)
3
3
_

_
4(2)
(2)
3
3
_
= {129}
_
8
8
3
_
= {3}
_
5
1
3
_
=8
1
3
or 8.33
(a)
_
2
0
x(3+2x)dx (b)
_
1
1
_
x
4
5x
2
+x
x
_
dx
(a)
_
2
0
x(3+2x)dx =
_
2
0
(3x +2x
2
)dx =
_
3x
2
2
+
2x
3
3
_
2
0
=
_
3(2)
2
2
+
2(2)
3
3
_
{0+0}
=6+
16
3
=11
1
3
or 11.33
(b)
_
1
1
_
x
4
5x
2
+x
x
_
dx =
_
1
1
_
x
4
x

5x
2
x
+
x
x
_
dx
=
_
1
1
(x
3
5x +1)dx
=
_
x
4
4

5x
2
2
+x
_
1
1
=
_
1
4
5
2
+1
_

_
(1)
4
4

5(1)
2
2
+(1)
_
=
_
1
4
5
2
+1
_

_
1
4
5
2
1
_
=2
_
/2
0
3 sin2x dx
_
/2
0
3sin2x dx =
_
(3)
_
1
2
cos2x
__
/2
0
=
_
3
2
cos2x
_
/2
0
=
3
2
[cos2x]
/2
0
=
3
2
__
cos2
_
2
__
{cos2(0)}
_
=
3
2
[(cos) (cos0)]
=
3
2
[( 1) (1)] =
3
2
(2) = 3
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_
2
1
4cos 3t dt
_
2
1
4cos 3t dt =
_
(4)
_
1
3
sin 3t
__
2
1
=
4
3
[sin 3t]
2
1
=
4
3
[sin 6sin 3]
Notethat limitsof trigonometricfunctionsarealwaysexpressed
in radians thus, for example, sin 6 means the sine of 6
radians=0.279415..
Hence
_
2
1
4cos 3t dt =
4
3
[(0.279415..) (0.141120..)]
=
4
3
[0.420535] = 0.5607
Problem 15. Evaluate: (a)
_
2
1
4e
2x
dx (b)
_
4
1
3
4x
du,
eachcorrect to4signicant gures.
(a)
_
2
1
4e
2x
dx =
_
4
2
e
2x
_
2
1
= 2[e
2x
]
2
1
= 2[e
4
e
2
]
= 2[54.59827.3891] = 94.42
(b)
_
4
1
3
4x
du =
_
3
4
lnx
_
4
1
=
3
4
[ln4ln1]
=
3
4
[1.38630] = 1.040
Exercise 128 Further problems on denite integrals
Evaluatethefollowingdeniteintegrals (wherenecessary,
correct to4signicant gures):
1. (a)
_
4
1
5x dx (b)
_
1
1
3
4
t
2
dt
2. (a)
_
2
1
(3x
2
) dx (b)
_
3
1
(x
2
4x +3) dx
3. (a)
_
2
1
x(1+4x) dx (b)
_
2
1
_
x
3
+2x
2
3x
x
_
dx
4. (a)
_

0
3
2
cos d (b)
_
/2
0
4cosx dx
5. (a)
_
/3
/6
2sin2x dx (b)
_
2
0
3sint dt
6. (a)
_
1
0
5cos3x dx (b)
_
/2
/4
(3sin2x 2cos3x)dx
7. (a)
_
1
0
3e
3t
dt (b)
_
2
1
2
3e
2x
dx
8. (a)
_
3
2
2
3x
dx (b)
_
3
1
_
2x
2
+1
x
_
dx
34.5 Area under a curve
The area shown shaded in Figure 34.1 may be determined
using approximate methods such as the trapezoidal rule, the
mid-ordinateruleor Simpsons rule(seeChapter 25) or, more
precisely, byusingintegration.
y
x x b x a 0
y f (x)
Fig. 34.1
TheshadedareainFigure34.1isgivenby:
shaded area =
_
b
a
y dx =
_
b
a
f (x) dx
Thus, determiningtheareaunder acurveby integrationmerely
involvesevaluatingadeniteintegral, asshowninSection34.4.
There are several instances in engineering and science where
theareabeneathacurveneedstobeaccuratelydetermined. For
example, theareasbetweenlimitsof a:
velocity/timegraphgivesdistancetravelled,
force/distancegraphgivesworkdone,
voltage/current graphgivespower, andsoon.
Shouldacurvedropbelowthex-axis, theny (= f (x)) becomes
negativeand
_
f (x) dx isnegative. Whendeterminingsuchareas
by integration, anegativesignisplacedbeforetheintegral. For
thecurveshowninFigure34.2, thetotal shadedareaisgivenby
(areaE+areaF+areaG).
Byintegration,
total shaded area =
_
b
a
f (x) dx
_
c
b
f (x) dx
+
_
d
c
f (x) dx
(Notethat thisisnot thesameas
_
d
a
f (x) dx).
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0
y
E
F
G
d x
y f (x)
c a b
Fig. 34.2
Ititusuallynecessarytosketchacurveinordertocheckwhether
it crossesthex-axis.
Problem 16. Determinetheareaenclosedby y =2x +3,
thex-axisandordinatesx =1andx =4.
y =2x +3isastraightlinegraphasshowninFigure34.3, where
therequiredareaisshownshaded.
y
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
y 2x 3
Fig. 34.3
Byintegration, shadedarea=
_
4
1
y dx
=
_
4
1
(2x +3) dx
=
_
2x
2
2
+3x
_
4
1
= [(16+12) (1+3)]
= 24 square units
[This answer may be checked since the shaded area is a
trapezium.
Areaof trapezium=
1
2
(sumof parallel sides)
(perpendicular distance
betweenparallel sides)
=
1
2
(5+11)(3) = 24 square units]
Problem 17. Thevelocity v of abody t seconds after a
certaininstant is: (2t
2
+5)m/s. Findbyintegrationhowfar
it movesintheinterval fromt =0tot =4s.
Since2t
2
+5isaquadraticexpression, thecurvev =2t
2
+5is
aparabolacuttingthev-axisat v =5, asshowninFigure34.4.
40
30
20
10
5
1 0 2 3 4 t (s)
v 2t
2
5
v (m/s)
Fig. 34.4
Thedistancetravelledis givenby theareaunder thev/t curve
(shownshadedinFigure34.4).
Byintegration, shadedarea=
_
4
0
v dt =
_
4
0
(2t
2
+5) dt
=
_
2t
3
3
+5t
_
4
0
=
_
2(4
3
)
3
+5(4)
_
(0)
i.e. distance travelled =62.67 m
Problem 18. Sketch the graph y =x
3
+2x
2
5x 6
betweenx =3andx =2anddeterminetheareaenclosed
bythecurveandthex-axis.
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A tableof valuesisproducedandthegraphsketchedasshownin
Figure34.5wheretheareaenclosedbythecurveandthex-axis
isshownshaded.
x 3 2 1 0 1 2
x
3
27 8 1 0 1 8
2x
2
18 8 2 0 2 8
5x 15 10 5 0 5 10
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
y 0 4 0 6 8 0
x
y
y x
3
2x
2
5x 6
3 2 1 1 2 0
6
Fig. 34.5
Shaded area=
_
1
3
y dx
_
2
1
y dx, the minus sign before the
secondintegral beingnecessarysincetheenclosedareaisbelow
thex-axis. Hence,
shaded area
=
_
1
3
(x
3
+2x
2
5x 6) dx
_
2
1
(x
3
+2x
2
5x 6) dx
=
_
x
4
4
+
2x
3
3

5x
2
2
6x
_
1
3
_
x
4
4
+
2x
3
3

5x
2
2
6x
_
2
1
=
__
1
4
2
3
5
2
+6
_
_
81
4
18
45
2
+18
__
__
4+
16
3
1012
_
_
1
4
2
3
5
2
+6
__
=
__
3
1
12
_
_
2
1
4
__
__
12
2
3
_
_
3
1
12
__
=
_
5
1
3
_
_
15
3
4
_
= 21
1
12
or 21.08 square units
Problem 19. Determinetheareaenclosed by thecurve
y =3x
2
+4, thex-axisandordinatesx =1andx =4by
(a) thetrapezoidal rule, (b) themid-ordinaterule,
(c) Simpsonsrule, and (d) integration.
Thecurvey =3x
2
+4isshownplottedinFigure34.6.
x
y
y
y 3x
2
4
0
4
1 2 3 4 x
0
4
50
40
30
20
10
1.0
7
1.5
10.75
2.0
16
2.5
22.75
3.0
31
3.5
40.75
4.0
52
Fig. 34.6
Thetrapezoidal rule, themid-ordinateruleand Simpsons rule
arediscussedinChapter 25, page191.
(a) By the trapezoidal rule,
area= (widthof interval)
_
1
2
_
rst+last
ordinate
_
+sumof
remainingordinates
_
Selecting6intervalseachof width0.5gives:
area= (0.5)
_
1
2
(7+52) +10.75+16
+22.75+31+40.75
_
= 75.375 square units
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(b) By the mid-ordinate rule,
area= (widthof interval)(sumof mid-ordinates).
Selecting 6 intervals, each of width 0.5 gives the mid-
ordinatesasshownbythebrokenlinesinFigure34.6.
Thus, area= (0.5)(8.7+13.2+19.2+26.7
+35.7+46.2)
= 74.85 square units
(c) By Simpsons rule,
area=
1
3
_
widthof
interval
_
_
_
_
rst +last
ordinates
_
+4
_
sumof even
ordinates
_
+2
_
_
sumof
remainingodd
ordinates
_
_
_
_
Selecting6intervals, eachof width0.5gives:
area=
1
3
(0.5)[(7+52) +4(10.75+22.75
+40.75) +2(16+31)]
= 75 square units
(d) By integration, shadedarea
=
_
4
1
y dx =
_
4
1
(3x
2
+4) dx = [x
3
+4x]
4
1
= (64+16) (1+4) = 75 square units
Integrationgivestheprecisevaluefor theareaunder acurve. In
this caseSimpsons ruleis seen to bethemost accurateof the
threeapproximatemethods.
Problem 20. Find the area enclosed by the curve
y = sin2x, thex-axisandtheordinatesx =0andx =
3
A sketchof y =sin2x isshowninFigure34.7.
y
y sin 2x
1
0 /2 /3
x
Fig. 34.7
(Notethat y = sin2x hasaperiodof
2
2
, i.e. radians).
Shadedarea=
_
/3
0
y dx =
_
/3
0
sin2x dx
=
_
1
2
cos2x
_
/3
0
=
_
1
2
cos
2
3
_
1
2
cos0
_
=
_
1
2
_
1
2
__
1
2
(1)
_
=
1
4
+
1
2
=
3
4
or 0.75 square units
Exercise 129 Further problems on area under curves
1. Showbyintegrationthat theareaof arectangleformed
by theliney =4, theordinatesx =1andx =6andthe
x-axisis20squareunits.
2. Showbyintegrationthattheareaof thetriangleformed
bytheliney =2x, theordinatesx =0andx =4andthe
x-axisis16squareunits.
3. Sketchthecurvey =3x
2
Determinebyintegrationtheareaenclosedbythecurve,
the x-axis and ordinates x =1 and x =3. Use an
approximatemethodtondtheareaandcompareyour
result withthat obtainedbyintegration.
4. TheforceF newtons acting on abody at adistancex
metresfromaxedpoint isgivenby: F =3x +2x
2
. If
work done=
_
x
2
x
1
F dx, determinethework donewhen
thebodymovesfromthepositionwherex
1
=1mtothat
whenx
2
=3m.
In Problems 5 to 9, sketch graphs of thegiven equations,
and then nd the area enclosed between the curves, the
horizontal axisandthegivenordinates.
5. y =5x; x =1, x =4
6. y =2x
2
x +1; x =1, x =2
7. y =2sin2x; x =0, x =
4
8. y =5cos3t; t =0, t =
6
9. y =(x 1)(x 3); x =0, x =3
10. The velocity v of a vehicle t seconds after a certain
instant is given by: v =(3t
2
+4) m/s. Determinehow
far it movesintheinterval fromt =1stot =5s.
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Assignment 15
showninbracketsat theendof eachquestion
1. Differentiatefromrst principles f (x)=2x
2
+x 1
(5)
2. If y =4x
5
2
x determine
dy
dx
(4)
3. Givenf (x)=
3
x
2
1
x
nd f

(x) (4)
4. Differentiate the following with respect to the
variable:
(a) y =4sin2x 5cos3x
(b) y =2e
3t
3ln7t (4)
5. Findthegradient of thecurvey =5x
2
+2x 3at the
point (1, 4) (4)
6. Giveny =3x
2
2
x
3
+
x nd
d
2
y
dx
2
(6)
7. Newtonslawof coolingisgivenby: =
0
e
kt
, where
the excess of temperature at zero time is
0
C and at
time t seconds is
C. Determine the rate of change

of temperatureafter 40s, correct to 3decimal places,
giventhat
0
=16
C andk =0.01 (4)

8. Determinethefollowing:
(a)
_
(23x +5x
2
)dx
(b)
_
(4cos2x 2
x)dx (4)
9. Evaluatethefollowing deniteintegrals, correct to 4
signicant gures:
(a)
_
2
1
_
2x
2
1
x
_
dx
(b)
_
/3
0
3sin2xdx
(c)
_
1
0
_
3e
2x
x
_
dx (10)
10. Sketchthecurvey =2x
2
Determine, by integration, the area enclosed by the
curve, thex-axisandordinatesx =1andx =3. (5)
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List of formulae
Laws of indices:
a
m
a
n
= a
m+n
a
m
a
n
= a
mn
(a
m
)
n
= a
mn
a
m/n
=
n
a
m
a
n
=
1
a
n
a
0
= 1
Quadratic formula:
If ax
2
+bx +c =0 then x =
b
b
2
4ac
2a
Equation of a straight line:
y = mx +c
Denition of a logarithm:
If y =a
x
then x = log
a
y
Laws of logarithms:
log(A B) = logA +logB
log
_
A
B
_
= logA logB
logA
n
= n logA
Exponential series:
e
x
=1+x +
x
2
2!
+
x
3
3!
+ (validfor all valuesof x)
Theorem of Pythagoras:
b
2
= a
2
+c
2
A
B C a
c
b
Areas of plane gures:
(i) Rectangle Area=l b
b
l
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(ii) Parallelogram Area=b h
b
h
(iii) Trapezium Area=
1
2
(a +b)h
a
h
b
(iv) Triangle Area=
1
2
b h
h
b
(v) Circle Area=r
2
Circumference=2r
r
r
s
u
Radianmeasure: 2 radians =360degrees
For asector of circle:
arclength, s =

360
(2r)=r ( inrad)
shadedarea =

360
(r
2
)=
1
2
r
2
( inrad)
Equationof acircle, centreat origin, radiusr:
x
2
+y
2
= r
2
Equationof acircle, centreat (a, b), radiusr:
(x a)
2
+(y b)
2
= r
2
Volumes and surface areas of regular
solids:
(i) Rectangular prism (or cuboid)
Volume= l b h
Surfacearea = 2(bh +hl +lb)
h
b
l
(ii) Cylinder
Volume= r
2
h
Total surfacearea = 2rh +2r
2
r
h
(iii) Pyramid
If areaof base= A and
perpendicular height = h then:
Volume=
1
3
A h
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268 List of formulae
h
Total surfacearea=sumof areas of triangles forming sides+
areaof base
(iv) Cone
Volume=
1
3
r
2
h
Curvedsurfacearea= rl
Total surfacearea= rl +r
2
l
h
r
(v) Sphere
Volume=
4
3
r
3
Surfacearea= 4r
2
r
Areas of irregular gures by approximate
methods:
Trapezoidal rule
Area
_
widthof
interval
__
1
2
_
rst+last
ordinate
_
+sumof remainingordinates
_
Mid-ordinate rule
Area (widthof interval)(sumof mid-ordinates)
Simpsons rule
Area
1
3
_
widthof
interval
___
rst+last
ordinate
_
+4
_
sumof even
ordinates
_
+2
_
sumof remaining
oddordinates
__
Mean or average value of a waveform:
meanvalue, y =
areaunder curve
lengthof base
=
sumof mid-ordinates
number of mid-ordinates
Triangle formulae:
Sincerule:
a
sinA
=
b
sinB
=
c
sinC
Cosinerule: a
2
= b
2
+c
2
2bc cosA
A
C
B a
c b
Areaof anytriangle=
1
2
base perpendicular height
=
1
2
ab sin C or
1
2
ac sin B or
1
2
bc sin A
=
_
[s(s a)(s b)(s c)] where s =
a +b +c
2
For ageneral sinusoidal function y =A sin(t ), then
A = amplitude
= angular velocity = 2f rad/s
2
= periodictimeT seconds
2
= frequency, f hertz
= angleof leador lag(comparedwithy = A sint)
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Cartesian and polar co-ordinates:
If co-ordinate(x, y)=(r, ) then
r =
_
x
2
+y
2
and = tan
1
y
x
If co-ordinate(r, )=(x, y) then
x = r cos and y =r sin
Arithmetic progression:
If a =rst termandd =commondifference, thenthearithmetic
progressionis: a, a +d, a +2d, . . .
Thenthtermis: a +(n 1)d
Sumof n terms, S =
n
2
[2a +(n 1)d]
Geometric progression:
If a =rst term and r =common ratio, then the geometric
progressionis: a, ar, ar
2
, . . .
Thenthtermis: ar
n1
Sumof n terms, S
n
=
a(1r
n
)
(1r)
or
a(r
n
1)
(r 1)
If 1<r <1, S
=
a
(1r)
Statistics:
Discretedata:
mean, x =
x
n
standarddeviation, =
_
_
(x x)
2
n
_
Groupeddata:
mean, x =
fx
f
standarddeviation, =
_
_
_
f (x x)
2
_
f
_
Standard derivatives
y or f(x)
dy
dx
or f
(x)
ax
n
anx
n1
sinax a cosax
cosax a sinax
e
ax
ae
ax
lnax
1
x
Standard integrals
y

y dx
ax
n
a
x
n+1
n +1
+c (except whenn =1)
cosax
1
a
sinax +c
sinax
1
a
cosax +c
e
ax
1
a
e
ax
+c
1
x
lnx +c
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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page270
Answers to exercises
Exercise 1 (Page 2)
1. 19 2. 66 3. 565
4. 2136 5. 36121 6. 107701
7. 16 8. 1487 9. 225
10. 5914 11. 189 12. 70872
13. 15333 14. (a) 1827 (b) 4158
15. (a) 8613 (b) 1752 16. (a) 1026 (b) 2233
17. (a) 10304 (b) 4433 18. (a) 48 (b) 89
19. (a) 259 (b) 56 20. (a) 456 (b) 284
21. (a) 474
100
187
(b) 593
10
79
22. 18kg
23. 89.25cm 24. d =64mm, A=136mm, B=10mm
Exercise 2 (Page 4)
1. (a) 2 (b) 210 2. (a) 3 (b) 180
3. (a) 5 (b) 210 4. (a) 15 (b) 6300
5. (a) 14 (b) 420420 6. (a) 14 (b) 53900
Exercise 3 (Page 5)
1. 59 2. 14 3. 88 4. 5 5. 107 6. 57 7. 68
Exercise 4 (Page 8)
1. (a)
9
10
(b)
3
16
2. (a)
43
77
(b)
47
63
3. (a) 8
51
52
(b) 1
9
40
4. (a) 1
16
21
(b)
17
60
5. (a)
5
12
(b)
3
49
6. (a)
3
5
(b) 11
7. (a)
1
13
(b)
5
12
8. (a)
8
15
(b)
12
23
9.
1
9
10. 1
1
6
11. 5
4
5
12.
13
126
13. 2
28
55
14. 400litre
15. (a) 60 (b) 36, 16
Exercise 5 (Page 9)
1. 91mmto221mm 2. 81cmto189cmto351cm
3. 1.71and3.23 4. 17g
5. 72kg: 27kg 6. 5
7. (a) 2h10min (b) 4h20min
Exercise 6 (Page 11)
1. 11.989 2. 31.265 3. 24.066
4. 10.906 5. 2.2446
6. (a) 24.81 (b) 24.812
7. (a) 0.00639 (b) 0.0064
8. (a)
13
20
(b)
21
25
(c)
1
80
(d)
141
500
(e)
3
125
9. (a) 1
41
50
(b) 4
11
40
(c) 14
1
8
(d) 15
7
20
(e) 16
17
80
10. 0.44444 11. 0.62963 12. 1.563
13. 53.455 14. 13.84 15. 8.69
16. 12.52mm 17. 2400
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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page271
1. (a) 5.7% (b) 37.4% (c) 128.5%
2. (a) 21.2% (b) 79.2% (c) 169%
3. (a) 496.4t (b) 8.657g (c) 20.73s
4. 2.25% 5. (a) 14% (b) 15.67% (c) 5.36%
6. 37.8g 7. 7.2% 8. A 0.6kg, B 0.9kg, C 0.5kg
9. 54%, 31%, 15%, 0.3t 10. 20000kg
11. 13.5mm, 11.5mm 12. 600kW
1. (a) 3
7
(b) 4
9
2. (a) 2
6
(b) 7
10
3. (a) 2 (b) 3
5
4. (a) 5
3
(b) 7
3
5. (a) 7
6
(b) 3
6
6. (a) 15
15
(b) 17
8
7. (a) 2 (b) 3
6
8. (a) 5
2
(b) 13
2
9. (a) 3
4
(b) 1 10. (a) 5
2
(b)
1
3
5
11. (a) 7
2
(b)
1
2
12. (a) 1 (b) 1
1. (a)
1
35
2
(b)
1
7
3
3
7
2. (a)
3
2
2
5
(b)
1
2
10
5
2
3. (a) 9 (b) 3 (c)
1
2
(d)
2
3
4.
147
148
5. 1
19
56
6. 3
13
45
7.
1
9
8. 5
65
72
9. 64 10. 4
1
2
1. (a) 7.3910 (b) 2.8410 (c) 1.976210
2
2. (a) 2.74810
3
(b) 3.31710
4
(c) 2.7421810
5
3. (a) 2.40110
1
(b) 1.7410
2
(c) 9.2310
3
4. (a) 1.702310
3
(b) 1.00410 (c) 1.0910
2
5. (a) 510
1
(b) 1.187510
(c) 1.30610
2
(d) 3.12510
2
6. (a) 1010 (b) 932.7 (c) 54100 (d) 7
7. (a) 0.0389 (b) 0.6741 (c) 0.008
1. (a) 1.35110
3
(b) 8.73110
1
(c) 5.73410
2
2. (a) 1.723110
3
(b) 3.12910
3
(c) 1.119910
3
3. (a) 1.3510
2
(b) 1.110
5
4. (a) 210
2
(b) 1.510
3
5. (a) 2.7110
3
kgm
3
(b) 4.410
1
(c) 3.767310
2
(d) 5.1110
1
MeV
(e) 9.5789710
7
Ckg
1
(f ) 2.24110
2
m
3
mol
1
1. (a) 10010
3
W=100kW
(b) 0.5410
3
A or 54010
6
A=0.54mA or 540A
(c) 1.510
6
=1.5M (d) 22.510
3
V=22.5mV
(e) 3510
9
Hz=35GHz (f ) 1510
12
F=15pF
(g) 1710
6
A=17A (h) 46.210
3
=46.2k
2. (a) 25A (b) 1nF (c) 620kV (d) 1.25M
3. (a) 13.510
3
(b) 410
3
1. order of magnitudeerror
2. Rounding-off error should add correct to 4 signicant
gures or correct to1decimal place
3. Blunder
4. Measuredvalues, hencec =55800Pam
3
5. Order of magnitudeerror androunding-off error shouldbe
0.0225, correct to3signicant guresor 0.0225, correct to
4decimal places
6. 30(29.61, bycalculator)
7. 2(1.988, correct to4s.f., bycalculator)
8. 10(9.481, correct to4s.f., bycalculator)
1. (a) 10.56 (b) 5443 (c) 96970 (d) 0.004083
2. (a) 2.176 (b) 5.955 (c) 270.7 (d) 0.1600
3. (a) 0.1287 (b) 0.02064 (c) 12.25 (d) 0.8945
4. (a) 558.6 (b) 31.09 5. (a) 109.1 (b) 3.641
6. (a) 0.2489 (b) 500.5
7. (a) 0.05777 (b) 28.90 (c) 0.006761
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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page272
8. (a) 2515 (b) 146.0 (c) 0.00002932
9. (a) 18.63 (b) 87.36 (c) 0.1643 (d) 0.06456
10. (a) 0.005559 (b) 1.900
11. (a) 6.248 (b) 0.9630
12. (a) 1.165 (b) 2.680
13. (a) 1.605 (b) 11.74
14. (a) 6.87410
3
(b) 8.73110
2
1. (a) 49.40euro (b) $175.78 (c) 78 (d) 126 (e) $132
2. (a) 381mm (b) 56.35km/h (c) 378.35km
(d) 52lb13oz (e) 6.82kg (f) 54.55litres
(g) 5.5gallons
3. (a) 7.09a.m. (b) 51minutes, 32m.p.h. (c) 7.04a.m.
1. A=66.59cm
2
2. C =52.78mm
3. R=37.5 4. 159m/s
5. 0.407A 6. 0.00502mor 5.02mm
7. 0.144J 8. 628.8m
2
9. 224.5 10. 14230kg/m
3
11. 281.1m/s 12. 2.526
13. 589.27 14. 508.1W
15. V =2.61V 16. F =854.5
17. I =3.81A 18. T =14.79s
19. E =3.96J 20. I =12.77A
21. S =17.25m 22. A=7.184cm
2
23. v =7.327
1. (a) 6
10
(b) 11
10
(c) 14
10
(d) 9
10
2. (a) 21
10
(b) 25
10
(c) 45
10
(d) 51
10
3. (a) 0.8125
10
(b) 0.78125
10
(c) 0.21875
10
(d) 0.34375
10
4. (a) 26.75
10
(b) 23.375
10
(c) 53.4375
10
(d) 213.71875
10
1. (a) 101
2
(b) 1111
2
(c) 10011
2
(d) 11101
2
2. (a) 11111
2
(b) 101010
2
(c) 111001
2
(d) 111111
2
3. (a) 0.01
2
(b) 0.00111
2
(c) 0.01001
2
(d) 0.10011
2
4. (a) 101111.01101
2
(b) 11110.1101
2
(c) 110101.11101
2
(d) 111101.10101
2
1. (a) 101010111
2
(b) 1000111100
2
(c) 10011110001
2
2. (a) 0.01111
2
(b) 0.1011
2
(c) 0.10111
2
3. (a) 11110111.00011
2
(b) 1000000010.0111
2
(c) 11010110100.11001
2
4. (a) 7.4375
10
(b) 41.25
10
(c) 7386.1875
10
1. 231
10
2. 44
10
3. 152
10
4. 753
10
5. 36
16
6. C8
16
7. 5B
16
8. EE
16
9. D7
16
10. EA
16
11. 8B
16
12. A5
16
13. 110111
2
14. 11101101
2
15. 10011111
2
16. 101000100001
2
1. 16 2. 8 3. 4a
4. 2
1
6
c 5. 2
1
4
x +1
1
2
y +2z
6. a 4b c 7. 9d 2e 8. 3x 5y +5z
9. 5
1
2
a +
5
6
b 4c 10. 3x
2
xy 2y
2
11. 6a
2
13ab +3ac 5b
2
+bc
12. (i)
1
3b
(ii) 2ab 13. 2x y 14. 3p +2q
1. x
5
y
4
z
3
, 13
1
2
2. a
2
b
1/2
c
2
, 4
1
2
3. a
3
b
2
c, 9
4. x
7/10
y
1/6
z
1/2
5.
1+a
b
6.
p
2
q
q p
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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page273
7. ab
6
c
3/2
8. a
4
b
5
c
11
9. xy
3
6
z
13
10.
1
ef
2
11. a
11/6
b
1/3
c
3/2
or
6
a
11
3
c
3
1. 3x +y 2. 3a +5y 3. 5(x y)
4. x(3x 3+y) 5. 5p +10q 6r
6. a
2
+3ab +2b
2
7. 3p
2
+pq 2q
2
8. (i) x
2
4xy +4y
2
(ii) 9a
2
6ab +b
2
9. 3ab +7ac 4bc 10. 0 11. 4a
12. 2+5b
2
13. 11q 2p
14. (i) p(b +2c) (ii) 2q(q +4n)
15. (i) 7ab(3ab 4) (ii) 2xy(y +3x +4x
2
)
16. (i) (a +b)(y +1) (ii) (p +q)(x +y)
17. (i) (x y)(a +b) (ii) (a 2b)(2x +3y)
1.
1
2
+6x 2.
1
5
3. 4a(12a) 4. a(4a +1)
5. a(310a) 6.
2
3y
3y +12
7.
2
3y
+12
1
3
5y 8.
2
3y
+1213y
9.
5
y
+1 10. pq
11.
1
2
(x 4) 12. y
_
1
2
+3y
_
1. (a) 15 (b) 78
2. (a) 0.0075 (b) 3.15litres (c) 350K
3. (a) 0.00008 (b) 4.1610
3
A (c) 45V
4. (a) 9.18 (b) 6.12 (c) 0.3375
5. (a) 30010
3
(b) 0.375m
2
(c) 2410
3
6. 1.5kW
1. 1 2. 2 3. 6 4. 4 5. 1
2
3
6. 1 7. 2 8.
1
2
9. 0 10. 3
11. 2 12. 10 13. 6 14. 2 15. 2
1
2
16. 2 17. 6
1
4
18. 3
1. 5 2. 2 3. 4
1
2
4. 2
5. 12 6. 15 7. 4 8. 5
1
3
9. 2 10. 13 11. 10 12. 2
13. 3 14. 11 15. 6 16. 9
17. 6
1
4
18. 3 19. 4 20. 10
21. 12 22. 3
1
3
23. 3 24. 4
1. 10
7
2. 8m/s
2
3. 3.472
4. (a) 1.8 (b) 30 5. 12p, 17p 6. 800
1. 12cm, 240cm
2
2. 0.004 3. 30
4. 45
C 5. 50 6. 208, 160
7. 30kg 8. 12m, 8m 9. 3.5kN
1. d =c a b 2. y =
1
3
(t x) 3. r =
c
2
4. x =
y c
m
5. T =
I
PR
6. R=
E
I
7. R=
S a
S
or 1
a
S
8. C =
5
9
(F 32)
1. x =
d
(y +) or d +
yd
2. f =
3F AL
3
or f =F
AL
3
3. E =
Ml
2
8yI
4. t =
RR
0
R
0
5. R
2
=
RR
1
R
1
R
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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page274
6. R=
E e IR
I
or R=
E e
I
r
7. b =
_
_
y
4ac
2
_
8. x =
ay
_
(y
2
b
2
)
9. l =
t
2
g
4
2
10. u =
v
2
2as 11. R=
_
_
360A
_
12. a =N
2
y x 13. L =
Z
2
R
2
2f
1. a =
_
_
xy
mn
_
2. R=
4
_
_
M
+r
4
_
3. r =
3(x +y)
(1x y)
4. L =
mrCR
m
5. b =
c
1a
2
6. r =
_
_
x y
x +y
_
7. b =
a(p
2
q
2
)
2(p
2
+q
2
)
8. v =
uf
u f
, 30
9. t
2
=t
1
+
Q
mc
, 55 10. v =
_
_
2dgh
0.03L
_
, 0.965
11. l =
8S
2
3d
+d, 2.725
12. C =
1
{L
Z
2
R
2
}
, 63.110
6
13. 64mm 14. =
5
_
_
a
CZ
4
n
_
2
1. a =5, b =2 2. x =1, y =1
3. s =2, t =3 4. x =3, y =2
5. m=2
1
2
, n =
1
2
6. a =6, b =1
7. x =2, y =5 8. c =2, d =3
1. p =1, q =2 2. x =4, y =6
3. a =2, b =3 4. s =4, t =1
5. x =3, y =4 6. u =12, v =2
7. x =10, y =15 8. a =0.30, b =0.40
1. x =
1
2
, y =
1
4
2.
1
3
, b =
1
2
3. p =
1
4
, q =
1
5
4. x =10, y =5
5. c =3, d =4 6. r =3, s =
1
2
7. x =5, y =1
3
4
8. 1
1. a =
1
5
, b =4 2. I
1
=6.47, I
2
=4.62
3. u =12, a =4, v =26 4. 15500, 12800
5. m=
1
2
, c =3 6. =0.00426, R
0
=22.56
7. a =12, b =0.40 8. a =4, b =10
1. 4, 8 2. 4, 4 3. 2, 6 4. 1, 1
1
2
5.
1
2
,
1
3
6.
1
2
,
4
5
7. 2
8. 1
1
3
,
1
7
9.
3
8
, 2 10.
2
5
, 3
11.
4
3
,
1
2
12.
5
4
,
3
2
13. x
2
4x +3=0
14. x
2
+3x 10=0 15. x
2
+5x +4=0
16. 4x
2
8x 5=0 17. x
2
36=0
18. x
2
1.7x 1.68=0
1. 3.732, 0.268 2. 3.137, 0.637
3. 1.468, 1.135 4. 1.290, 0.310
5. 2.443, 0.307 6. 2.851, 0.351
1. 0.637, 3.137 2. 0.296, 0.792
3. 2.781, 0.719 4. 0.443, 1.693
5. 3.608, 1.108 6. 4.562, 0.438
1. 1.191s 2. 0.345A or 0.905A
3. 7.84cm 4. 0.619mor 19.38m
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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page275
5. 0.0133 6. 1.066m
7. 86.78cm 8. 1.835mor 18.165m
9. 7m 10. 12ohms, 28ohms
1. x =1, y =3 and x =3, y =7
2. x =
2
5
, y =
1
5
and 1
2
3
, y =4
1
3
3. x =0, y =4 and x =3, y =1
1. (a) t >2 (b) x <5 2. (a) x >3 (b) x 3
3. (a) t 1 (b) x 6 4. (a) k
3
2
(b) z >
1
2
5. (a) y
4
3
(b) x
1
2
1. 5<t <3 2. 5y 1 3.
3
2
<x <
5
2
4. t >3andt <
1
3
5. k 4andk 2
1. 4x <3 2. t >5or t <9
3. 5<z 14 4. 3<x 2
1. z >4or z <4 2. 4<z <4
3. x
3or x
3 4. 2k 2
5. 5t 7 6. t 7or t 5
7. y 2or y 2 8. k >
1
2
or k <2
1. x >3or x <2 2. 4t 2 3. 2<x <
1
2
4. y 5or y 4 5. 4z 0
6.
_
33
_
x
_
33
_
7. t
_
11+2
_
or t
_
2
11
_
8. k
_
_
13
4

1
2
_
or k
_
_
13
4

1
2
_
1. 14.5 2.
1
2
3. (a) 4, 2 (b) 1, 0 (c) 3, 4 (d) 0, 4
4. (a) 2,
1
2
(b) 3, 2
1
2
(c)
1
24
,
1
2
5. (a) 6, 3 (b) 2, 4 (c) 3, 0 (d) 0, 7
6. (a) 2,
1
2
(b)
2
3
, 1
2
3
(c)
1
18
, 2 (d) 10, 4
2
3
7. (a)
3
5
(b) 4 (c) 1
5
6
8. (a) and(c), (b) and(e) 9. (a) 1.1 (b) 1.4
10. (2, 1) 11. 1
1
2
, 6
1. (a) 40
C (b) 128
2. (a) 850rev/min (b) 77.5V
3. (a) 0.25 (b) 12 (c) F =0.25L +12
(d) 89.5N (e) 592N (f) 212N
4. 0.003, 8.73
5. (a) 22.5m/s (b) 6.43s (c) v =0.7t+15.5
6. m=26.9L 0.63
7. (a) 1.26t (b) 21.68% (c) F =0.09w+2.21
8. (a) 9610
9
Pa (b) 0.00022 (c) 28.810
6
Pa
9. (a)
1
5
(b) 6 (c) E =
1
5
L +6 (d) 12N (e) 65N
10. a =0.85, b =12, 254.3kPa, 275.5kPa, 280K
1. x =1, y =1 2. x =3
1
2
, y =1
1
2
3. x =1, y =2 4. x =2.3, y =1.2
5. x =2, y =3 6. a =0.4, b =1.6
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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page276
1. (a) Minimum(0, 0) (b) Minimum(0, 1)
(c) Maximum(0, 3) (d) Maximum(0, 1)
2. 0.4 or 0.6 3. 3.9 or 6.9
4. 1.1 or 4.1 5. 1.8 or 2.2
6. x =1
1
2
or 2, Minimumat (1
3
4
,
1
8
)
7. x =0.7 or 1.6
8. (a) 1.63 (b) 1 or
1
3
9. (2.58, 13.31), (0.58, 0.67); x =2.58 or 0.58
10. x =1.2 or 2.5 (a) 30
(b) 2.75and1.45 (c) 2.29or 0.79
1. x =4, y =8andx =
1
2
, y =5
1
2
2. (a) x =1.5or 3.5 (b) x =1.24or 3.24
(c) x =1.5 or 3.0
1. x =2.0, 0.5or 1.5
2. x =2, 1or 3, Minimumat (2.12, 4.10),
Maximumat (0.79, 8.21)
3. x =1 4. x =2.0, 0.38or 2.6
5. x =0.69or 2.5 6. x =2.3, 1.0or 1.8
7. x =1.5
1. 4 2. 4 3. 3 4. 3
5.
1
3
6. 3 7. 2 8. 2
9. 1
1
2
10.
1
3
11. 2 12. 10000
13. 100000 14. 9 15.
1
32
16. 0.01 17.
1
16
18. e
3
19. 2 log2+ log3+ log5
20. 2 log2+
1
4
log53 log3
21. 4 log23 log3+3 log5
22. log23 log3+3 log5
23. 5 log3 24. 4 log2
25. 6 log2 26.
1
2
27.
3
2
28. x =2
1
2
29. t =8 30. b =2
1. 1.691 2. 3.170 3. 0.2696
4. 6.058 5. 2.251 6. 3.959
7. 2.542 8. 0.3272
1. (a) 81.45 (b) 0.7788 (c) 2.509
2. (a) 0.1653 (b) 0.4584 (c) 22030
3. (a) 57.556 (b) 0.26776 (c) 645.55
4. (a) 5.0988 (b) 0.064037 (c) 40.446
5. (a) 4.55848 (b) 2.40444 (c) 8.05124
6. (a) 48.04106 (b) 4.07482 (c) 0.08286
7. 2.739 8. 120.7m
1. 2.0601 2. (a) 7.389 (b) 0.7408
3. 12x
2
8
3
x
3
2x
4
4. 2x
1/2
+2x
5/2
+x
9/2
+
1
3
x
13/2
+
1
12
x
17/2
+
1
60
x
21/2
1. 3.97, 2.03 2. 1.66, 1.30
3. (a) 27.9cm
3
(b) 115.5min
4. (a) 71.6
C (b) 5minutes
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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page277
1. (a) 0.5481 (b) 1.6888 (c) 2.2420
2. (a) 2.8507 (b) 6.2940 (c) 9.1497
3. (a) 1.7545 (b) 5.2190 (c) 2.3632
4. (a) 0.27774 (b) 0.91374 (c) 8.8941
5. (a) 3.6773 (b) 0.33154 (c) 0.13087
6. 0.4904 7. 0.5822 8. 2.197
9. 816.2 10. 0.8274
1. 150
C (b) 100.5
C 2. 9.92110
4
Pa
3. (a) 29.32volts (b) 71.3110
6
s
4. (a) 1.993m (b) 2.293m
5. (a) 50
C (b) 55.45s
6. 30.4N 7. (a) 3.04A (b) 1.46s
8. 2.45mol/cm
3
9. (a) 7.07A (b) 0.966s
10. 2424
1. (a) y (b) x
2
(c) c (d) d
2. (a) y (b)
x (c) b (d) a
3. (a) y (b)
1
x
(c) f (d) e
4. (a)
y
x
(b) x (c) b (d) c
5. (a)
y
x
(b)
1
x
2
(c) a (d) b
6. a =1.5, b =0.4, 11.78mm
2
7. y =2x
2
+7, 5.15 8. (a) 950 (b) 317kN
9. a =0.4, b =8.6 (i) 94.4 (ii) 11.2
1. (a) lg y (b) x (c) lg a (d) lg b
2. (a) lg y (b) lg x (c) l (d) lg k
3. (a) ln y (b) x (c) n (d) ln m
4. I =0.0012V
2
, 6.75candelas
5. a =3.0, b =0.5
6. a =5.7, b =2.6, 38.53, 3.0
7. R
0
=26.0, c =1.42
8. Y =0.08e
0.24x
9. T
0
=35.4N, =0.27, 65.0N, 1.28radians
1. a =12, n =1.8, 451, 28.5
2. k =1.5, n =1 3. m=1, n =10
1. (i) a =8, b =5.3, p =8(5.3)
q
(ii) 224.7 (iii) 3.31
1. a =76, k =710
5
, p =76e
710
5
h
, 37.74cm
2.
0
=152, k =0.05
1. (a) 82
11
(b) 150
13
(c) 100
16
(d) 89
23
2. (a) 7
11
(b) 27
48
(c) 18
47
49
(d) 66
23
3. (a) 15.183
(b) 29.883
(c) 49.705
(d) 135.122
4. (a) 25
24
(b) 36
28
48
(c) 55
43
26
(d) 231
30

1. (a) acute (b) obtuse (c) reex
2. (a) 21
(b) 62
23
(c) 48
56
17
3. (a) 102
(b) 165
(c) 10
18
49
4. (a) 1& 3, 2& 4, 5 & 7, 6 & 8

(b) 1 & 2, 2 & 3, 3 & 4, 4 & 1, 5 & 6, 6 & 7, 7 & 8,
8 & 5, 3 & 8, 1 & 6, 4 & 7or 2 & 5
(c) 1& 5, 2& 6, 4& 8, 3& 7
(d) 3 & 5 or 2 & 8
5. 59
20
6. a =69
, b =21
, c =82
7. 51

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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page278
1. 40
, 70
, 70
, 125
, isosceles
2. a =18
50
, b =71
10
, c =68
,
d =90
, e =22
, f =49
, g =41
3. a =103
, b =55
, c =77
, d =125
, e =55
, f =22
,
g =103
, h =77
, i =103
, j =77
, k =81
4. 17
5. A=37
, B=60
, E =83

1. (a) Congruent BAC, DAC (SAS)
(b) Congruent FGE, JHI (SSS)
(c) Not necessarilycongruent
(d) Congruent QRT, SRT (RHS)
(e) Congruent UVW, XZY (ASA)
2. Proof
1. x =16.54mm, y =4.18mm 2. 9cm, 7.79cm
3. (a) 2.25cm (b) 4cm 4. 3m
1.5. Constructions seesimilar constructionsinworkedprob-
lems23to26onpages139and140.
1. 11.18cm 2. 24.11mm 3. 8
2
+15
2
=17
2
4. (a) 27.20cmeach (b) 45
5. 20.81km
6. 3.35m, 10cm 7. 132.7km
8. 2.94mm 9. 24mm
1. sinZ =
9
41
, cosZ =
40
41
, tanX =
40
9
, cosX =
9
41
2. sinA=
3
5
, cosA=
4
5
, tanA=
3
4
, sinB=
4
5
, cosB=
3
5
,
tanB=
4
3
3. sinA=
8
17
, tanA=
8
15
4. sinX =
15
113
, cosX =
112
113
5. (a)
15
17
(b)
15
17
(c)
8
15
6. (a) sin =
7
25
(b) cos =
24
25
7. (a) 9.434 (b) 0.625 (c) 32

1. BC =3.50cm, AB=6.10cm, B=55
2. FE =5cm, E =53
, F =36
52
3. GH =9.841mm, GI =11.32mm, H =49
4. KL =5.43cm, JL =8.62cm, J =39
, area=18.19cm
2
5. MN =28.86mm, NO=13.82mm, O=64
25
, area=
199.4mm
2
6. PR=7.934m, Q=65
, R=24
57
, area=14.64m
2
7. 6.54m 8. 9.40mm
1. 36.15m 2. 48m 3. 249.5m
4. 110.1m 5. 53.0m 6. 9.50m
7. 107.8m 8. 9.43m, 10.56m 9. 60m
1. (a) 0.4540 (b) 0.1321 (c) 0.8399
2. (a) 0.5592 (b) 0.9307 (c) 0.2447
3. (a) 0.7002 (b) 1.1671 (c) 1.1612
4. (a) 0.8660 (b) 0.1010 (c) 0.5865
5. 13.54
, 13
32
, 0.236rad
6. 34.20
, 34
12
, 0.597rad
7. 39.03
, 39
, 0.681rad
8. 1.097 9. 5.805 10. 5.325
11. 21
42
12. 0.07448
13. (a) 0.8192 (b) 1.8040 (c) 0.6528
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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page279
1. (a) 42.78
and137.22
(b) 188.53
and351.47
2. (a) 29.08
and330.92
(b) 123.86
and236.14
3. (a) 44.21
and224.21
(b) 113.12
and293.12

1. 1, 120
2. 2, 144
3. 3, 90
4. 3, 720
5.
7
2
, 960
6. 6, 360
7. 4, 180

1. 40, 0.04s, 25Hz, 0.29rad(or 16
37
) leading40sin50t
2. 75cm, 0.157s, 6.37Hz, 0.54rad(or 30
56
) lagging
75sin40t
3. 300V, 0.01s, 100Hz, 0.412rad(or 23
36
) lagging
300sin200t
4. (a) v =120sin100t volts
(b) v =120sin(100t +0.43) volts
5. i =20sin
_
80t
6
_
amperes
6. 3.2sin(100t +0.488)m
7. (a) 5A, 20ms, 50Hz, 24
45
lagging (b) 2.093A

(c) 4.363A (d) 6.375ms (e) 3.423ms
1. (5.83, 59.04
) or (5.83, 1.03rad)
2. (6.61, 20.82
) or (6.61, 0.36rad)
3. (4.47, 116.57
) or (4.47, 2.03rad)
4. (6.55, 145.58
) or (6.55, 2.54rad)
5. (7.62, 203.20
) or (7.62, 3.55rad)
6. (4.33, 236.31
) or (4.33, 4.12rad)
7. (5.83, 329.04
) or (5.83, 5.74rad)
8. (15.68, 307.75
) or (15.68, 5.37rad)
1. (1.294, 4.830) 2. (1.917, 3.960)
3. (5.362, 4.500) 4. (2.884, 2.154)
5. (9.353, 5.400) 6. (2.615, 3.207)
7. (0.750, 1.299) 8. (4.252, 4.233)
9. (a) 4018
, 4090
, 40162
, 40234
, 40306
(b) (38.04+j12.36), (0+j40), (38.04+j12.36),

(23.51j32.36), (23.51j32.36)
1. 35.7cm
2
2. (a) 80m (b) 170m
3. (a) 29cm
2
(b) 650mm
2
4. 482m
2
5. 3.4cm
6. p =105
, q =35
, r =142
, s =95
, t =146
7. (i) rhombus (a) 14cm

2
(b) 16cm
(ii) parallelogram (a) 180mm
2
(b) 80mm
(iii) rectangle (a) 3600mm
2
(b) 300mm
(iv) trapezium (a) 190cm
2
(b) 62.91cm
8. (a) 50.27cm
2
(b) 706.9mm
2
(c) 3183mm
2
9. 2513mm
2
10. (a) 20.19mm (b) 63.41mm
11. (a) 53.01cm
2
(b) 129.9mm
2
(c) 6.84cm
2
12. 5773mm
2
13. 1.89m
2
14. 6750mm
2
1. 1932mm
2
2. 1624mm
2
3. (a) 0.918ha (b) 456m
4. 32
1. 80ha 2. 80m
2
3. 3.14ha
1. 45.24cm 2. 259.5mm 3. 2.629cm
4. 12730km 5. 97.13mm
1. (a)

6
(b)
5
12
(c)
5
4
2. (a) 0.838 (b) 1.481 (c) 4.054
3. (a) 150
(b) 80
(c) 105
4. (a) 0
43
(b) 154
(c) 414
53

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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page280
5. 17.80cm, 74.07cm
2
6. (a) 59.86mm (b) 197.8mm
7. 26.2cm 8. 8.67cm, 54.48cm
9. 82
30
10. 748
11. (a) 0.698rad (b) 804.2m
2
12. 10.47m
2
13. (a) 396mm
2
(b) 42.24%
14. 483.6mm 15. 7.74mm
1. (a) 3 (b) (4, 1)
2. Centreat (3, 2), radius4
3. Circle, centre(0, 1), radius5
4. Circle, centre(0, 0), radius6
1. 15cm
3
, 135g 2. 500litres
3. 1.44m
3
4. 8796cm
3
5. 4.709cm, 153.9cm
2
6. 201.1cm
3
, 159.0cm
2
7. 2.99cm 8. 28060cm
3
, 1.099m
2
9. 7.68cm
3
, 25.81cm
2
10. 113.1cm
3
, 113.1cm
2
11. 5890mm
2
or 58.90cm
2
12. 62.5minutes
1. 13.57kg 2. 5.131cm
3. 29.32cm
3
4. 393.4m
2
5. (i) (a) 670cm
3
(b) 523cm
2
(ii) (a) 180cm
3
(b) 154cm
2
(iii) (a) 56.5cm
3
(b) 84.8cm
2
(iv) (a) 10.4cm
3
(b) 32.0cm
2
(v) (a) 96.0cm
3
(b) 146cm
2
(vi) (a) 86.5cm
3
(b) 142cm
2
(vii) (a) 805cm
3
(b) 539cm
2
6. 8.53cm 7. (a) 17.9cm (b) 38.0cm
8. 125cm
3
9. 10.3m
3
, 25.5m
2
10. 6560litres 11. 657.1cm
3
, 1027cm
2
12. 220.7cm
2
13. (a) 1458litre (b) 9.77m
2
(c) 140.45
1. 147cm
3
, 164cm
2
2. 403cm
3
, 337cm
2
3. 10480m
3
, 1852m
2
4. 1707cm
2
5. 10.69cm 6. 55910cm
3
, 8427cm
2
7. 5.14m
1. 8: 125 2. 137.2g
1. 4.5squareunits 2. 54.7squareunits 3. 63m
4. 4.70ha 5. 143m
2
1. 42.59m
3
2. 147m
3
3. 20.42m
3
1. (a) 2A (b) 50V (c) 2.5A
2. (a) 2.5V (b) 3A
3. 0.093As, 3.1A
4. (a) 31.83V (b) 0
5. 49.13cm
2
, 368.5kPa
1. C =83
, a =14.1mm, c =28.9mm, area=189mm

2
2. A=52
, c =7.568cm, a =7.152cm, area=25.65cm

2
3. D=19
48
, E =134
12
, e =36.0cm, area=134cm
2
4. E =49
, F =26
38
, f =15.08mm, area=185.6mm
2
5. J =44
29
, L =99
31
, l =5.420cm, area=6.132cm
2
OR J =135
31
, L =8
29
, l =0.810cm, area=0.916cm
2
6. K =47
, J =97
52
, j =62.2mm, area=820.2mm
2
ORK =132
52
,J =12
,j =13.19mm,area=174.0mm
2
1. p =13.2cm, Q=47
21
, R=78
39
, area=77.7cm
2
2. p =6.127m, Q=30
49
, R=44
11
, area=6.938m
2
3. X =83
20
, Y =52
37
, Z =44
, area=27.8cm
2
4. Z =29
46
, Y =53
31
, Z =96
43
, area=355mm
2
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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page281
1. 193km
2. (a) 122.6m (b) 94
49
, 40
39
, 44
32
3. (a) 11.4m (b) 17
33
4. 163.4m
5. BF =3.9m, EB=4.0m
6. 6.35m, 5.37m 7. 32.48A, 14
19

1. 80
25
, 59
23
, 40
12
2. (a) 15.23m (b) 38
3. 40.25cm, 126
4. 19.8cm
5. 36.2m 6. x =69.3mm, y =142mm
7. 130
8. 13.66mm
1. 47Nat 29
2. Zero
3. 7.27m/sat 90.8
4. 6.24Nat 76.10
5. 2.46N, 4.12N 6. 5.7m/s

2
at 310
7. 11.85A at 31.14
8. 15.62Nat 26.33
tothe10Nforce
9. 8.50km/hat 41.73
E of S
1. (a) 54.0Nat 78.16
(b) 45.64Nat 4.66
2. (a) 31.71m/sat 121.81
(b) 19.55m/sat 8.63

1. 83.5km/hat 71.6
tothevertical
2. 4minutes55seconds 3. 23.18m/sat 72.24
E of S
1. 4.5sin(A +63.5
)
2. (a) 20.9sin(t+0.62) volts (b) 12.5sin(t1.33) volts
3. 13sin(t+0.395)
1. 11.11sin(t+0.324)
2. 8.73sin(t0.173)
3. i =21.79sin(t0.639) A
4. v =5.695sin(t+0.670) V
5. x =14.38sin(t+1.444)cm
6. 13sin(t +1.176)mA
1. 21, 25 2. 48, 96 3. 14, 7 4. 3, 8
5. 50, 65 6. 0.001, 0.0001 7. 54, 79
1. 1, 3, 5, 7, 2. 7, 10, 13, 16, 19,
3. 6, 11, 16, 21, 4. 5n 5. 6n2
6. 2n +1 7. 4n2 8. 3n+6
9. 6
3
(=216), 7
3
(=343)
1. 68 2. 6.2 3. 85.25 4. 23
1
2
5. 11 6. 209 7. 346.5
1.
1
2
2. 1
1
2
, 3, 4
1
2
3. 7808 4. 25
5. 8
1
2
, 12, 15
1
2
, 19
6. (a) 120 (b) 26070 (c) 250.5
7. 10000, 109500 8. 8720
1. 2560 2. 273.25 3. 512, 4096 4. 10
th
5. 812.5 6. 8 7. 1
2
3
1. (a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 59022 2. 1566, 11years
3. 48.71M 4. 71.53g 5. (a) 599.14 (b) 19years
6. 100, 139, 193, 268, 373, 518, 720, 1000rev/min
1. (a) continuous (b) continuous (c) discrete
(d) continuous
2. (a) discrete (b) continuous (c) discrete
(d) discrete
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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page282
1. If onesymbol isusedtorepresent10vehicles,workingcorrect
tothenearest 5vehicles, gives3
1
2
, 4
1
2
, 6, 7, 5and4symbols
respectively
2. If onesymbol represents 200components, workingcorrect
tothenearest100componentsgives: Mon8,Tues11, Wed9,
Thurs12andFri 6
1
2
3. 6 equally spaced horizontal rectangles, whose lengths are
proportional to35, 44, 62, 68, 49and41, respectively
4. 5 equally spaced horizontal rectangles, whose lengths are
proportional to 1580, 2190, 1840, 2385 and 1280 units,
respectively
5. 6 equally spaced vertical rectangles, whose heights are
proportional to35, 44, 62, 68, 49and41units, respectively
6. 5 equally spaced vertical rectangles, whose heights are
proportional to 1580, 2190, 1840, 2385 and 1280 units,
respectively
7. Threerectangles of equal height, subdividedinthepercent-
ages shown in thecolumns of thequestion. P increases by
20%at theexpenseof Q andR
8. Four rectanglesof equal height, subdividedasfollows:
week1: 18%, 7%, 35%, 12%, 28%
week2: 20%, 8%, 32%, 13%, 27%
week3: 22%, 10%, 29%, 14%, 25%
week4: 20%, 9%, 27%, 19%, 25%
LittlechangeincentresA andB, areductionof about 5%in
C, an increaseof about 7%in D and a reduction of about
3%inE
9. A circleof anyradius, subdividedintosectorshavingangles
of 7
1
2
, 22
1
2
, 52
1
2
, 167
1
2
and110
, respectively
10. A circleof anyradius, subdividedintosectorshavingangles
of 107
, 156
, 29
and68
, respectively
11. (a) 495 (b) 88
12. (a) 16450 (b) 138
1. Thereisnouniquesolution, but onesolutionis:
39.339.4 1; 39.539.6 5; 39.739.8 9;
39.940.0 17; 40.140.2 15; 40.340.4 7;
40.540.6 4; 40.740.8 2
2. Rectangles, touching one another, having mid-points of
39.35, 39.55, 39.75, 39.95, . . . andheightsof 1, 5, 9, 17, . . .
20.520.9 3; 21.021.4 10; 21.521.9 11;
22.022.4 13; 22.522.9 9; 23.023.4 2
110 3; 1119 7; 2022 12; 2325 14;
2628 7; 2938 5; 3948 2
5. 20.953; 21.4513; 21.9524; 22.4537; 22.9546; 23.4548
6. Rectangles, touchingoneanother, havingmid-pointsof 5.5,
15, 21, 24, 27, 33.5and43.5. Theheights of therectangles
(frequency per unit class range) are0.3, 0.78, 4, 4.67, 2.33,
0.5and0.2
7. (20.95 3), (21.45 13), (21.95 24), (22.45 37), (22.95 46),
(23.4548)
8. A graphof cumulativefrequencyagainst upper classbound-
aryhavingco-ordinatesgivenintheanswer toquestion7
9. (a) Thereisnouniquesolution, but onesolutionis:
2.052.09 3; 2.102.14 10; 2.152.19 11;
2.202.24 13; 2.252.29 9; 2.302.34 2
(b) Rectangles, touching oneanother, having mid-points of
2.07, 2.12, . . . andheightsof 3, 10, . . .
(c) Usingthefrequency distributiongiveninthesolutionto
part (a) gives: 2.095 3; 2.145 13; 2.195 24; 2.245 37;
2.295 46; 2.345 48
(d) A graph of cumulative frequency against upper class
boundaryhavingtheco-ordinatesgiveninpart (c)
1. Mean7
1
3
, median8, mode8
2. Mean27.25, median27, mode26
3. Mean4.7225, median4.72, mode4.72
4. Mean115.2, median126.4, nomode
1. 23.85kg
2. 171.7cm
3. Mean89.5, median89, mode89.2
4. Mean2.02158cm, median2.02152cm, mode2.02167cm
Telephone:+254728801352
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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page283
1. 4.60 2. 2.83F
3. Mean34.53MPa, standarddeviation0.07474MPa
4. 0.296kg 5. 9.394cm 6. 2.828
1. 30, 27.5, 33.5days 2. 27, 26, 33faults
3. Q=164.5cm, Q=172.5cm, Q
3
=179cm, 7.25cm
4. 37and38; 40and41 5. 40, 40, 41; 50, 51, 51
1. (a)
2
9
or 0.2222 (b)
7
9
or 0.7778
2. (a)
23
139
or 0.1655 (b)
47
139
or 0.3381
(c)
69
139
or 0.4964
3. (a)
1
6
(b)
1
6
(c)
1
36
4. (a)
2
5
(b)
1
5
(c)
4
15
(d)
13
15
5. (a)
1
250
(b)
1
200
(c)
9
1000
(d)
1
50000
1. (a) 0.6 (b) 0.2 (c) 0.15
2. (a) 0.64 (b) 0.32
3. 0.0768
4. (a) 0.4912 (b) 0.4211
5. (a) 89.38% (b) 10.25%
6. (a) 0.0227 (b) 0.0234 (c) 0.0169
1. 1, 5, 21, 9, 61 2. 0, 11, 10, 21 3. proof
4. 8, a
2
a +8, a
2
a, a 1
1. 16, 8
1. 1 2. 7 3. 8x
4. 15x
2
5. 4x +3 6. 0
7. 9 8.
2
3
9. 18x
10. 21x
2
11. 2x +15 12. 0
13. 12x
2
14. 6x
1. 28x
3
2.
1
2
x
3.
3
2
t
4.
3
x
4
5. 3+
1
2
x
3
1
x
2
6.
10
x
3
+
7
2
x
9
7. 6t 12 8. 3x
2
+6x +3
9. Seeanswersfor Exercise120
10. 12x 3 (a) 15 (b) 21 11. 6x
2
+6x 4, 32
12. 6x
2
+4, 9.5
1. (a) 12cos3x (b) 12sin6x 2. 6cos3 +10sin2
3. 270.2A/s 4. 1393.4V/s
5. 12cos(4t +0.12)+6sin(3t 0.72)
1. (a) 15e
3x
(b)
4
7e
2x
2.
5
=
1
3. 16 4. 664
1. (a) 1 (b) 16
2.
4
x
3
+
2
x
+10sin5x 12cos2x +
6
e
3x
1. (a) 36x
2
+12x (b) 72x +12
2. (a)
4
5
12
t
5
+
6
t
3
+
1
4
t
3
(b) 4.95
3. 12sin2t cost
4. proof
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answer 9/2/2005 16: 26 page284
1. 2542A/s 2. (a) 0.16cd/V (b) 312.5V
3. (a) 1000V/s (b) 367.9V/s 4. 1.635Pa/m
1. (a) 4x +c (b)
7
2
x
2
+c
2. (a)
2
15
x
3
+c (b)
5
24
x
4
+c
3. (a) 3x +x
2
4
3
x
3
+c (b) 3
_
x
2
2
+
5x
3
3
_
+c or
3
2
x
2
+
5x
3
+c
4. (a)
3x
2
2
5x +c (b) 4x +2x
2
+
x
3
3
+c
5. (a)
4
3x
+c (b)
1
4x
3
+c
6. (a)
2
3
x
3
+c (b) 4
x +c
7. (a)
3
2
sin2x +c (b)
7
3
cos3x +c
8. (a)
3
8
e
2x
+c (b)
2
15e
5x
+c
9. (a)
2
3
lnx +c (b)
x
2
2
lnx +c
1. (a) 37.5 (b) 0.50 2. (a) 6 (b) 1.333
2. (a) 10.83 (b) 4 4. (a) 0 (b) 4
5. (a) 1 (b) 4.248 6. (a) 0.2352 (b) 2.638
7. (a) 19.09 (b) 2.457 8. (a) 0.2703 (b) 9.099
1. proof 2. proof 3. 32 4. 29.33Nm 5. 37.5
6. 7.5 7. 1 8. 1.67 9. 2.67 10. 140m
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index 9/2/2005 10: 51 page285
Index
Abscissa, 83
Acuteangle, 132, 143
Acuteangledtriangle, 134
Addingwaveforms, 214
Additionof twoperiodicfunctions, 214
Algebra, 37
Algebraicexpression, 37, 38, 41, 47
Alternateangles, 132, 147
Ambiguouscase, 200
Amplitude, 156, 158
Angle, 131
Angle:
laggingandleading, 157
typesandpropertiesof, 132
Anglesof:
anymagnitude, 152
depression, 147
elevation, 147
Angular measurement, 131
Angular velocity, 158
Annulus, 169
Approximatevalueof calculations, 21, 22
Arbitraryconstant of integration, 257
Arc, 174
Arclength, 175
Areaunder acurve, 261
Areas:
irregular gures, 191, 263
planegures, 166
sector, 167, 175
similar shapes, 172
triangles, 21, 167, 198
Arithmetic, basic, 14
Arithmeticprogressions, 219
Average, 235
Averagevalueof waveform, 194
Bar charts, 227
Bases, 14, 30
Binarynumbers, 3033
Blunder, 21, 22
BODMAS, 4, 7, 43
Boyleslaw, 45, 46
Brackets, 4, 4143
Calculationof resultant phasors, 215217
Calculations, 2124
Calculator, 2224, 103, 107, 111, 148, 164
Calculus, 247
Cancelling, 6, 7
Cartesianaxes, 83
Cartesianco-ordinates, 162
Charleslaw, 45, 46
Chord, 174
Circle, 174
equationof, 178
propertiesof, 174
Circumference, 174
Classes, 230
Class:
interval, 230
limits, 230
mid-point, 232
Coefcient of proportionality, 45
Commondifference, 219
Commonlogarithms, 103
Commonprexes, 19, 20
ratio, 222
Complementaryangles, 132
Completingthesquare, 71, 80
Computer numberingsystems, 30
Cone, 180, 186
frustumof, 186
Congruent triangles, 136
Constructionof triangles, 139, 140
Continuousdata, 226
Conversiontablesandcharts, 25
Co-ordinates, 83
Correspondingangles, 132
Cosine, 143, 145, 148
graphof, 151, 154, 155
Cosinerule, 198
Cosinewave, 154, 155
Cubicequation, 100
Cuboid, 180
Cumulativefrequencydistribution, 230, 233
curve, 230
Cylinder, 180
Deciles, 239
Decimal:
fraction, 9
places, 911
system, 9
Decimals, 9
Deniteintegrals, 260
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index 9/2/2005 10: 51 page286
286 Index
Degrees, 131
Denarysystem, 30, 33
Denominator, 6
Dependent event, 241
Dependent variable, 45
Depression, angleof, 147
Derivatives, 249
standardlist, 254
Determinationof law, 88, 117
involvinglogarithms, 119
Diameter, 174
Differenceof twosquares, 70
Differential calculus, 247
coefcient, 249
Differentiation, 247, 249
fromrst principles, 249
of ax
n
, 250
of e
ax
andlnax, 253
of sineandcosinefunctions, 252
successive, 255
Digits, 9, 30
Direct proportion, 8, 45
Discretedata, 226
standarddeviation, 237
Dividend, 38
Division, 1
Divisor, 38
Elevation, angleof, 147
Engineeringnotation, 19
Equation, 47
of circle, 178
Equations:
cubic, 100
linear andquadratic, simultaneously, 75, 99
quadratic, 69, 76, 95
simple, 47
simultaneous, 6068
Equilateral triangle, 134
Errors, 21
Evaluationof formulae, 21, 27
Expectation, 241
Exponent, 1719
Exponential functions, 107
graphsof, 110
Expression, 47
Exterior angleof triangle, 134
Extrapolation, 89
Factorization, 41, 69, 80
Factors, 3
Falseaxes, 89
Formula, 27, 72
Formulae:
evaluationof, 21, 27
list of, 266269
transpositionof, 5459
Fractions, 6
Frequency, 158, 226
Frequencydistribution, 230, 231, 232
Frequencypolygon, 230, 233
Frustum, 186
Full waverectiedwaveform, 194
Functional notation, 247, 249
Geometricprogressions, 222
Geometry, 131
Gradient, 83
of acurve, 248
Graphical solutionof equations, 94
cubic, 100, 101
linear andquadratic, simultaneously, 75, 99
quadratic, 9599
simultaneous, 94
Graphs, 83, 94
exponential functions, 110
logarithmicfunctions, 106
sineandcosine, 155
straight lines, 83
trigonometricfunctions, 151
withlogarithmicscales, 124
of theformy = ax
n
, 124
of theformy = ab
x
, 127
of theformy = ae
kx
, 128
Groupeddata, 230
mean, medianandmode, 236
standarddeviation, 238
Growthanddecay, lawsof, 113
Half-waverectiedwaveform, 194
Heptagon, 166
Hexadecimal number, 3336
Hexagon, 166
Highest commonfactor (HCF), 3
Histogram, 230, 231, 233, 236
Hookeslaw, 45
Horizontal bar chart, 227
Hyperboliclogarithms, 103, 111
Hypotenuse, 142
Identity, 47
Improper fraction, 6
Indeniteintegrals, 260
Independent event, 241
Independent variable, 45
Indices, 14
lawsof, 14, 39, 265
Indicial equations, 105
Inequalities, 77
involvingamodulus, 78
involvingquotients, 79
involvingsquarefunctions, 79
quadratic, 80
simple, 77, 78
Integers, 1
Integral calculus, 247
Integrals, 257
denite, 260
standard, 257
Integration, 247, 257
of ax
n
, 257
Intercept, y-axis, 84, 86
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index 9/2/2005 10: 51 page287
Index 287
Interior angles, 132, 134
Interpolation, 89
Inverseproportion, 8, 45
Irregular areas, 191
Irregular volumes, 191, 192
Isoscelestriangle, 134
Laggingangle, 157, 158
Lawsof:
algebra, 37
growthanddecay, 113
indices, 14, 39
logarithms, 103
precedence, 4, 43
probability, 241
Leadingangle, 157, 158
Leibniz notation, 249
Limitingvalue, 248
Linear andquadraticequationssimultaneously, 99
Logarithmicfunctions, graphsof, 106
Logarithmicscales, 124
Logarithms, 103
lawsof, 103
Loglinear graphpaper, 127129
Logloggraphpaper, 124
Longdivision, 2, 10
Lower classboundary, 230
Lowest commonmultiple(LCM), 3, 49
Major arc, 174
Major sector, 174
Major segment, 174
Mantissa, 17
Maximumvalue, 95
Mean, 235
valueof waveform, 191, 194
Measuresof central tendency, 235
Median, 235, 238
Member of set, 226
Mensuration, 166
Mid-ordinaterule, 191, 264
Minimumvalue, 95
Minor arc, 174
Minor sector, 174
Minor segment, 174
Mixednumber, 6
Mode, 235
Modulus, 78
Multiple, 3
Napierianlogarithms, 103, 111
Natural logarithms, 103, 111
Nose-to-tail method, 208
Number sequences, 218
Numerator, 6
Obtuseangle, 132, 134
Obtuseangledtriangle, 134
Octagon, 166, 171
Octal numbers, 3234
Ogive, 230, 233, 239
Ohmslaw, 45
Order of magnitudeerror, 21, 22
Order of precedence, 4, 7
Ordinate, 83
Parabola, 95
Parallel lines, 132
Parallelogram, 166
method, 208
Pentagon, 166
Percentagecomponent bar chart, 227
Percentagerelativefrequency, 226
Percentages, 6, 11
Percentile, 239
Perfect square, 7072
Perimeter, 134
Period, 156
Periodicfunction, 155
Periodictime, 158
Phasor, 158, 214
Pictograms, 227
Piediagram, 227, 229
Planimeter, 191
Plottingperiodicfunctions, 214
Polar co-ordinates, 162
Polygon, 166
frequency, 230, 233
Population, 226
Power, 14, 17
seriesfor e
x
, 108, 109
Practical problems:
quadraticequations, 7375
simpleequations, 5053
simultaneousequations, 6568
straight linegraphs, 8891
trigonometry, 201205
Precedence, 4, 43, 44
Prexes, 19, 20
Prism, 180
Probability, 241
lawsof, 241
Progression:
arithmetic, 219
geometric, 222
Propertiesof triangles, 134
Proper fraction, 6, 10
Proportion, 8, 45
Pyramid, 183
volumesandsurfaceareaof frustumof, 186
Pythagoras theorem, 56, 142, 143, 162, 198
Quadrant, 174
Quadraticequations, 69
bycompletingthesquare, 69, 71, 72
factorization, 69
formula, 69, 72
practical problems, 7375
Quadraticformula, 72
Quadraticgraphs, 95
Quadraticinequalities, 80
Quadrilaterals, 166
propertiesof, 166
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index 9/2/2005 10: 51 page288
288 Index
Quartiles, 239
Quotients, inequalitiesinvolving, 79
Radians, 131, 158, 175
Radius, 174
Radix, 30
Range, 230
Ranking, 235
Ratesof change, 254
Ratioandproportion, 8, 9
Reciprocal, 14
Rectangle, 166
Rectangular axes, 83, 152
co-ordinates, 164
Rectangular prism, 180
Reductionof non-linear lawstolinear form, 117
Reexangle, 132, 133
Relativefrequency, 226
Relativevelocity, 212
Resolutionof vectors, 209
Resultant phasors, bycalculation, 215
Rhombus, 166, 168
Right angle, 132
Right angledtriangle, 134
solutionof, 145
Rounding-off errors, 21
Sample, 226
Scalar quantities, 207
Scalenetriangle, 134
Sector, 167, 174, 227
areaof, 167, 175
Segment, 174
Semicircle, 167, 174
Semi-interquartilerange, 239
Sequences, 218
Series, nthtermof, 218
Squarenumbers, 219
Set, 226, 230
Sequenceof numbers, 218
Short division, 2
Signicant gures, 9
Similar shapes, 172, 189
Similar triangles, 137, 138, 186
Simpleequations, 4751
Simpleinequalities, 77, 78
Simpsonsrule, 192, 264
Simultaneousequations, 6068, 94
Sine, 143, 145, 148
graphof, 151, 155
Sinerule, 198
wave, 154, 155, 194
Sinusoidal formA sin(t ), 158, 216
Slope, 83
Spacediagram, 212
Sphere, 180
Square, 14, 166
root, 14, 49, 50, 56, 71
Squarefunctions, inequalitiesinvolving, 79
Standarddeviation, 237
Standarddifferentials, 254
integrals, 257
Standardform, 14, 1719
Statistical data, presentationof, 226
Straight linegraphs, 83
Subject of formulae, 27
Successivedifferentiation, 255
Sumtoinnityof series, 222
Supplementaryangles, 132
Surfaceareasof frustaof pyramidsandcones, 186189
of solids, 180185
Symbols, 27
Tallydiagram, 230232
Tangent, 143, 148, 151, 174, 249, 253
Terminatingdecimal, 9
Termof series, 218
Transpositionof formulae, 5459
Transversal, 132
Trapezium, 166, 188
Trapezoidal rule, 191, 263
Triangle, 131, 134, 166
Triangles:
areaof, 21, 198
congruent, 136
constructionof, 139, 140
propertiesof, 134
similar, 137, 138, 186
Trigonometricratios, 143, 144
evaluationof, 148
graphsof, 151
Trigonometry, 142
practical situations, 201205
Turningpoints, 95
Ungroupeddata, 227
Upper classboundary, 230
Useof calculator, 2224, 103, 107, 111, 148, 164
Vector addition, 207
Vector subtraction, 210
Vectors, 207
resolutionof, 209
Vertical bar chart, 227
Verticallyoppositeangles, 132
Volumesof:
commonsolids, 180
frustaof pyramidsandcones, 186
irregular solids, 193
similar shapes, 189
Waveformaddition, 214
y-axisintercept, 84
Youngsmodulusof elasticity, 45, 90
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Property of Mr.

Alphonce Kimutai Kirui

3, called one point-three

9=3. There are always two answers

31.76=1.63832491. . . =1.638, correct to

47.291=3.61625876. . . =3.62, correct to 3 signicant

x =2 is not a simple equation since the power of x is

5.625=2.372, correct to4signicant gures.

Now try the following exercise

Problem 10. A formulafor thedistancemovedbyabody

Make the shear modulus G the subject of the

Property of Mr. Alphonce Kimutai Kirui

Cand isthetemperaturecoefcientof resistancein/

F 50 68 104 140 176 212

C, (b) the temperature in degrees Celsius at

F, (c) theFahrenheit temperatureat 0

F is seen to correspond to 110

C and thevolumeaxis starts at 24.5m

C, the equivalent volume is

C 410 500 640

C) 420 500 650

(ii) Changeinelectrical resistancewith R

(iv) Newtonslawof cooling =

C. Also, ndthetemperature, correct tothe

Ccorrect tothenearest degree.

C, correct tothenearest degree.

C, of acooling object varies with

C, and (b) the value of

C, t =30s and T =80s,

7. Theinstantaneouscurrent i at timet isgivenby:

C, of a cooling liquid and the

C 92.2 55.9 33.9 20.6 12.5

cannot bedone. Hence1

in that column. Now

, whichis placedintheminutes column.

Problem 4. Convert (a) 24

Property of Mr. Alphonce Kimutai Kirui

, correct to4signicant places.

into degrees, minutes and

Now try the following exercise

4. Convert thefollowinganglesintodegrees, minutesand

18.2 Types and properties of angles

and is therefore called an

(b) Thesupplement of 111

Problem 9. TwostraightlinesAB andCD intersectat0. If

, ndAOD, DOB andBOC.

. When two straight lines intersect

Angle =AEF +FEC =23

Problem 12. Determineanglesc andd inFig. 18.5.

Property of Mr. Alphonce Kimutai Kirui

andDEC aresupplementary, thus

Problem 15. ABC is an isosceles triangle in which the

, i.e. B+C =180

(alternate angles between parallel lines)

(corresponding angles between parallel

and RYZ =RQP +28

RXZ and QYZ =180

(external angleof atriangleequalsthe

to degrees, minutes and seconds

52=7.211, correct to 3 decimal

Now try the following exercise

, AB=5cmandBC =12cm. Determinethelength

andYZ =20.0mm. Determinealsoitsarea.

(x +120), i.e. h =0.3443(x +120) (1)