MEC 2600 Lab Manual 1 (Thermo)

MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING
LAB 1
(MEC 2600)
LABORATORY
MANUAL
Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 1

Thermodynamics
Table of Contents
Page
Experiment 1: Thermal and Electrical Conductivity of Metals 1
Experiment 2: Heat Pump 8
Experiment 3: Heat Insulation/Heat Conduction 13
Experiment 4: Stirling Engine 17
Experiment 5: Solar Ray Collector 25
Tables for Data Collection & Calculation 29

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Experiment 1 – Thermal and Electrical Conductivity of Metals
A. BACKGROUND
If a temperature difference exists between different locations of a body, heat conduction occurs. In
this experiment there is a one-dimensional temperature gradient along a rod. The quantity of heat
dQ transported with time dt is a function of the cross-sectional area a and the temperature gradient
dT/dx perpendicular to the surface.
(1)
λ is the heat conductivity of the substance.
The temperature distribution in a body is generally a function of location and time and is in
accordance with the Boltzmann transport equation
(2)
Where r is the density and c is the specific heat capacity of the substance.
After a time, a steady state
(3)
is achieved if the two ends of the metal rod having a length l are maintained at constant
temperatures T1 and T2, respectively, by two heat reservoirs.
Substituting equation (3) in equation (2), the following equation is obtained:
(4)
B. OBJECTIVE
i) To determine the thermal conductivity of copper, this is determined in a constant temperature

gradient from the calorimetrically measured heat flow.
ii) The electrical conductivity of copper and aluminium is determined.

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C. EQUIPMENT
Calorimeter vessel, 500 ml

Calor. vessel w. heat conduct. conn.
Heat conductivity rod, Cu
Heat conductivity rod, Al
Magn. stirrer, mini, controlable
Heat conductive paste, 50 g
Gauze bag
Rheostat, 10 Ohm , 5.7 A
Immers.heater, 300 W, 220-250VDC/AC
Temperature meter digital
Temperature probe, immers. type
Surface temperature probe
Stopwatch, digital, 1/100 sec.
Tripod base -PASS-
Bench clamp -PASS-
Support rod -PASS-, square, l 630 mm
Universal clamp
Right angle clamp -PASS-
Supporting block 1053105357 mm
Glass beaker, short, 400 ml
Multitap transf., 14VAC/12VDC, 5A
Digital multimeter
Universal measuring amplifier
Connecting cord, 500 mm, red
Connecting cord, 500 mm, blue
D. PROCEDURE
Part A – Heat Capacity of the Calorimeter
1. Weigh the lower calorimeter at room temperature

2. Measure and record the room temperature.
3. Prepare hot water and record its temperature.
4. Pour the hot water into the lower calorimeter and immediately record the temperature
readings of the hot water in the calorimeter every 10 seconds for 5 minutes. *Note: There will
be an immediate increase then a decrease in temperature as illustrated in Figure 3.
5. Reweigh the calorimeter to determine the mass of water.
Part B – Ambient Heat
1. The calorimeter is then put under running tap water in order to get it back to room temperature.
2. The calorimeter is then filled with ice water. With the assistance of ice, obtain water with a
temperature of 0oC.
3. When a temperature of 0oC is obtained, remove all the pieces of ice and record the
temperature every minute for 30 minutes.
4. Weigh the calorimeter to determine the mass of water.

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Figure 1
Part C – Thermal Conductivity
1. The setup is as shown in Figure 1. In this experiment, the difference in temperature between
the upper and lower mediums is monitored, as well as the temperature of the water in the
lower calorimeter.
2. Fill the lower calorimeter with ice water. With the aid of ice, obtain a temperature of 0oC.
3. When a temperature of 0oC is obtained, pour hot water in the upper calorimeter. Ensure that
the upper calorimeter is well filled with hot water. Place its cover on.
4. Keep the temperature of water in lower calorimeter water at 0oC with the help of ice,
until the difference in temperature between two points on the rod, is steady.
5. When a constant temperature gradient is obtained, remove all the ice in the lower calorimeter
and begin taking readings of the difference in temperature between upper and lower mediums
and the temperature of the water in the lower calorimeter. Readings should be taken every 30
seconds for 5 minutes.
6. Weigh the lower calorimeter to determine the mass of water.

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Figure 2
Part D – Electrical Conductivity
1. The setup is as shown in Figure 2. The metal rod in the setup is copper.
2. Ensure that the voltage on the variable transformer is set to 6V.
3. The amplifier must be calibrated to 0 in a voltage-free state to avoid a collapse on the output
voltage. Select the following amplifier settings:
Input Low Drift
Amplification 104
Time Constant 0
4. Set the rheostat to its lowest value (labeled using a green marking on the rheostat) and slowly
decrease the value during the experiment.
5. Collect readings of current and voltage for six rheostat settings.
6. Repeat the experiment using the aluminium rod.
E. PRE-LAB
1. What is constant temperature gradient?

2. What is the expected graph for part A?
3. What are the literature value for electrical and thermal conductivity of aluminium and copper?
4. Which is a better conductor? Aluminium or copper?
5. Should the ambient heat increase or decrease with time?

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F. REPORT

1. From the results obtained, plot a graph of temperature vs. time.
2. The temperature of the mixture, ϑm , is determined from extrapolating the plotted curve, as
sketched in figure below. The straight line parallel to temperature axis was drawn such that the
shaded parts are equal in area. Illustrate how you obtained θm.
Figure 3
ϑu = Temperature of the surrounding atmosphere

ϑ1 = Initial temperature
ϑm = Temperature of mixture
3. Calculate the heat capacity of the calorimeter using the following equation:
ϑw − ϑM
C = c w ⋅ mw ⋅
ϑM − ϑR

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where
cW = Specific heat capacity of water
mW = Mass of water
ϑW = Temperature of the hot water
ϑ M = Mixing temperature
ϑ R = Room temperature
* Remember : ∆ T = 1K = 1oC
1. Calculate the addition of heat from the surroundings for each minute.
ΔQ = (cW ⋅ mW + C ) ⋅ ΔT
where
ΔT = T – T0
T0 = Temperature at time t = 0
cW = Specific heat capacity of water
mW = Mass of water
C = heat capacity of the calorimeter
2. Draw a graph of heat from surroundings vs time.

3. Calculate the slope for the graph which will give you dQ/dtambient.
1. Calculate Q and draw the graph of Q vs t. Find the slope of this graph, which will give you
dQ
ambient.+ metal.
dt
dQ
2. Calculate metal, given that:
dt
dQ dQ dQ
metal = ambient.+ metal - ambient
dt dt dt
3. Given the length of the rod as 31.5 cm and the area as 4.91x10-4 m2, calculate the heat
conductivity of the rod, λ.
dQ ∂T
= −λ A ⋅
dt ∂x
4. Calculate the average heat conductivity of the rod and compare to literature.

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Part C – Electrical Conductivity
1. Calculate the electrical conductivity using the following equation:
l
σ=
A⋅R
2. Calculate the error of your results when compared to literature.

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Experiment 2 - Heat Pump
A. BACKGROUND
Pressures and temperatures in the circulation of the electrical compression heat pump are
measured as a function of time when it is operated as a water-water heat pump. The energy taken
up and released is calculated from the heating and cooling of the two water baths. When it is
operated as an air-water heat pump, the coefficient of performance at different vaporizer
temperatures is determined.
The Mollier (h, log p) diagram, in which p is the pressure and h the specific enthalpy of the working
substance, is used to describe the cyclic process in heat technology. Fig. 1 shows an idealised
representation of the heat pump circuit. The curve running through the critical point K delineates the
wet vapour zone in which the liquid phase and gas phase coexist. In this zone the isotherms run
parallel to the h axis. Starting from point 1, the compressor compresses the working substance up
to point 2; in the ideal case this action proceeds without an exchange of heat with the environment,
i.e. isentropically (S = const.). On the way from point 3 useful heat is released and the working
substance condenses. Then the working substance flows through the restrictor valve and reaches
point 4. In an ideal restricting action the enthalpy remains constant. As it passes from point 4 to
point 1, the working substance takes up energy from the environment and vaporises. The specific
amounts of energy q0 and q taken up and released per kg and the specific compressor work w
required can be read off directly as line segments on the graph.
q0 = h1 – h3
q = h2 – h3
w = h2 – h1
For evaluation purposes the data for the working substance R 134a in the wet vapour zone are set
out in Table 1.
Figure 1: h, log p diagram of a heat pump, ideal curve.

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B. OBJECTIVE
a. Water heat pump: To measure pressure and temperature in the circuit and in the water
reservoirs on the condenser side and the vaporizer side alternately. To calculate energy taken
up and released, also the volume concentration in the circuit and the volumetric efficiency of
the compressor.
b. Air-water heat pump: To measure vaporizer temperature and water bath temperature on the
condenser side under different operating conditions on the vaporizer side, ie. Natural air, cold
blower and hot blower.
c. To determine the electric power consumed by the compressor and calculate the coefficient of
performance.
C. EQUIPMENT
Heat pump, compressor principle

Lab thermometer, -10…+100C
Lab thermometer, w. stem, -10…+110C
Heat conductive paste, 50 g
Hot-/Cold air blower, 1000 W
Stopwatch, digital, 1/100 sec
Tripod base -PASS-
Universal clamp with joint
Glass beaker
Glass rod
Figure 1

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D. PROCEDURE
Part A – Water-water Heat Pump
1. Pour 4.5L of water into the two water reservoirs.

2. Record all the initial pressures and temperatures before switching on the heat pump.
3. Start the stopwatch at the same time the heat pump is switched on. Record the power reading
and the pressure and temperatures on both the vaporizer and condenser side every minute for
20 minutes.
Part B – Air-water Heat Pump
i. Remove the water reservoir on the vaporizer side and dry the heat exchanger coils.
ii. Obtain a temperature of 20oC for the 4.5L water on the condenser side.
iii. Record all the initial pressures and temperatures before switching on the heat pump.
iv. Start the stopwatch at the same time the heat pump is switched on. Record the power
reading, and the temperatures at the vaporizer outlet and condenser water temperature,
every minute for approximately 20 minutes.
v. Repeat steps ii to iv but with a hot blower and a cold blower approximately 30cm away.
E. PRE-LAB
1. What is a heat pump? How does it work?

2. What everyday items around us use this system?
F. REPORT
i. Mass of water:
a. condenser = ____________
b. vaporizer = _____________
ii. Plot a graph of temperature vs time for all inlet and outlet. You can plot on the same graph
for all inlet and outlet.
iii. Calculations at t = 10mins
Δθ 2
a. Vaporizer heat flow, Q& o
= c ⋅ mw ⋅
Δt
Δθ1
b. Condenser heat flow, Q& = c ⋅ mw ⋅
Δt
c. Average compressor power, P
Q&
d. Performance at the condenser side, ε =
P

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Q& 0
e. Volume flow at the vaporizer side, V& = v ⋅
h1 − h3
(v = specific volume of the vapour)
The values of v, h1 and h3 are from Table 1.
f. Geometrical volume flow, V&g = V g ⋅ f
Given
Vg = 5.08 cm3
f = 1450 min-1
V&
g. Volumetric efficiency of the compressor, λ =
Vg
i. Plot a graph of temperature versus time for all the results.

ii. Calculations at t = 10mins:
a) Calculate the average vaporizer temperature.
b) Calculate the condenser heat flow.
c) Calculate the average compressor power.
d) Calculate the performance.
iii. Compare the results for all the conditions and discuss.

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Experiment 3 – Heat Insulation/Heat Conduction
A. BACKGROUND
The thermal energy flow P through a homogeneous, flat wall is determined in the steady state
(permanent state) by means of the air-wall heat transfer and the heat conduction in the wall. The
energy flow is governed by the surface area of the wall A and the particular temperature
differences:
Air-wall heat transfer, internal

(αi = internal heat transfer coefficient)
P = αi · A · (θLi – θWi) (1)
Wall-air heat transmission, external

(αa = external heat transfer coefficient)
P = αa · A · (θWa – θLa) (2)
Heat conduction in the wall

(d = thickness, λ = heat conductivity)
λ
P= ⋅ A ⋅ (θWi − θWa ) (3)
d
Rearrangement and summation of these three equations yields
P= k · A (θLi – θLa) (4)
in which k = heat transition coefficient or k value.
The following formula then applies
1 1 1 1
= + + (5)
k αi λ αa
The parameter
Δ = λ/d (6)
which is governed only by the material and thickness of the wall is known as the thermal
transmission coefficient.
The reciprocals a, k and A are thermal resistance values which are designated the heat transfer
resistance, the heat transition resistance and the heat transmission resistance. In a wall consisting
of successive layers, equation (3) applies as appropriate to all layers, so that the sum of the heat
transmission resistance has to be inserted in equation (5).
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... + (7)
k α i Λ1 Λ 2 Λn αa
The phenomena participating in the transfer of heat through a layer of air are the conduction,
convection and radiation. Equation (6) yields an approximate value for the heat transmission

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coefficient of a vertical air layer between non-metallic walls only in the case of small thicknesses (d
< 5 mm). With an increase in the thickness it is mainly determined by the radiation fraction which, in
the case of parallel surfaces, is independent of the distance between them. With layer thicknesses
in excess of 5 cm the convection process causes a reduction in the resistance.
Our consideration of the problem has up to now dealt with the steady state. The heating and
cooling of a wall accompanying a change of solar radiation is determined by the heat storage
capacity C of the wall:
C=c·m (8)
in which c = specific thermal capacity, m = mass of the wall.
B. OBJECTIVE
i) To determine the heat conductivities of wood and Styropor.

ii) To determine the k values of ordinary glass and insulating glass windows and of wooden walls
of different thicknesses, and of walls with wood, Styropor or cavity layers.
C. EQUIPMENT
High insulation house

Thermal regulator
Partitions
Lamp socket
Filament lamp, 220 V/120 W
Temperature meter
Thermocouple
Tripod base
Stopwatch
Figure 1

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D. PROCEDURE
***DO NOT SWITCH OF THE THERMAL REGULATOR UNTIL YOU HAVE COMPLETED THE
WHOLE EXPERIMENT!!!***
Part A – First 30 Minutes
1. Attach thermocouples to the center of the wooden wall with thickness of 2cm and the styropor
wall. Place the thermocouples on the inner and outer walls.
2. Turn on the heater and set it to the fourth graduated division and record inner and outer wall
temperatures of these two walls.
3. Record the temperature every 5 minutes for 30 minutes.
Part B – Next 30 Minutes
1. Illuminate the wooden wall (2cm) with the 150 W incandescent lamp from a distance of about
15cm.
2. Record the temperature of the inside wall, outside wall and the internal temperature every
minute for 5 minutes.
3. Give the setup a 5 minute rest between illumination.
4. Repeat the same procedures for the styropor wall and then the glass window.
Part C – After 70 minutes
1. With the aid of thermocouples record the inner and outer wall, and internal and external air
temperatures every minute for 5 minutes for the styropor wall.
2. Then record the temperatures every minute for 5 minutes for the wooden wall (2cm).
3. Give a heating time of 15 minutes, and with thermocouples, record the temperatures of the
inner and outer wall and air temperatures every minute for 5 minutes for the wooden wall (1cm)
and glass window, simultaneously.
Figure 2: Heat energy flow through a wall. internal and external air and wall
temperatures: θLi, θLa, θWi, θWa.
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E. PRE-LAB
1. What is heat conductivity?
2. What is the difference between a heater and a thermal regulator?
3. From literature, what are the thermal conductivities of wood, glass and styropor?
4. Which material is most conductive and which is the least?
F. REPORT
1. Discuss on the observations during the whole experiment.
2. Calculate for every material, after 70 minutes:

Given αa = external heat transfer coefficient = 8.1 W/Km2
i. P/A
ii. k
iii. λ

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Experiment 4 – Stirling Engine
A. BACKGROUND
In 1816, Robert Stirling was granted a patent for a hot air engine, which is known today as the
Stirling engine. In our times, the Stirling engine is used to study the principle of thermal engines
because in this case the conversion process of thermal energy to mechanical energy is particularly
clear and relatively easy to understand.
At present, the Stirling engine is undergoing a new phase of further development due to its many
advantages. Thus, for example, it constitutes a closed system, it runs very smoothly, and it can be
operated with many different heat sources, which allows to take environmental aspects into
consideration, too.
Theoretically, there are four phases during each engine cycle (see. Fig. 1 and 2):
1) An isothermal modification when heat is supplied and work produced

V1 →V2 p1 →p2 and T1 = const.
2) An isochoric modification when the gas is cooled:
T1 →T2 p2 →p3 and V2 = const.
3) An isothermal modification when heat is produced and work supplied:
V2 →V1 p3 →p4 and T2 = const.
4) An isochoric modification when heat is supplied to the system:
T2 →T1 p4 →p1 and V1 = const.
Figure 1: pV diagram for the ideal Stirling process.

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T2 T1
T2 T1
Figure 2: Functioning of the transparent Stirling engine.

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According to the first law of thermodynamics, when thermal energy is supplied to an isolated system, its
amount is equal to the sum of the internal energy increase of the system and the mechanical work
supplied by the latter:
dQ = dU + pdV
It is important for the Stirling cycle that the thermal energy produced during the isochoric cooling phase
be stored until it can be used again during the isochoric heating phase (regeneration principle).
Thus, during phase IV the amount of thermal energy released during phase II is regeneratively
absorbed. This means that only an exchange of thermal energy takes place within the engine.
Mechanical work is merely supplied during phases I and III. Due to the fact that internal energy is not
modified during isothermal processes, work performed during these phases is respectively equal to the
absorbed or released thermal energy.
Since p · V = v· R · T
where v is the number of moles contained in the system, and R the general gas constant, the amount of
work produced during phase I is:
W1 = – v · R · T1 · ln (V2/V1)
(it is negative, because this amount of work is supplied).

Consequently, the amount of work supplied during phase III is
W3 = + v · R · T2 · ln (V2/V1)
|W1| > W3 because T1 > T2
The total amount of work is thus given by the sum of W1 and W3. This is equal to the area of the pV
diagram:
Wt = W1 + W3
W1 = – v · R · T1 · ln (V2/V1) + v · R · T2.ln (V2/V1)
W1 = – v · R · (T1–T2) · ln (V2/V1)
Only part of this total effective energy Wt can be used as effective work Wm through exterior loads
applied to the engine. The rest contains losses within the Stirling engine.
The maximum thermal efficiency of a reversible process within a thermal engine is equal to the ratio
between the total amount of work │W1│ and the amount of supplied thermal energy Q1 = – W1
Wt
η th =
W1
ν ⋅ R ⋅ (T1 − T2 ) ⋅ ln (V2 / V1 )
η th =
ν ⋅ R ⋅ T1 ⋅ ln (V2 / V1 )
T1 − T2
η th =
T1
Carnot found this to be the maximum thermal efficiency for any thermal engine, which can only be
reached theoretically. One sees that efficiency increases with increasing temperature differences.

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B. OBJECTIVE
o To determine the burner’s thermal efficiency

o To calibrate the sensor unit
o To calculate the total energy produced by the engine through determination of the cycle area
on the oscilloscope screen
o To assess the mechanical work per revolution and calculate the mechanical power output as a
function of rotation frequency with the assistance of the torque meter
o To assess the electrical power output as a function of rotation frequency
o To assess efficiency
C. EQUIPMENT
Stirling engine
Motor/generator unit
Torque meter
Chimney for stirling engine
Meter f. stirling engine, pVnT
Sensor unit pVn for stirl.eng.
Syringe 20ml
Rheostat, 330 Ohm , 1.0 A
Digital multimeter
Connecting cord
Screened cable
Oscilloscope, 20 MHz
Thermocouple
Graduated cylinder, 50 ml, plastic
Raw alcohol for burning, 1000 ml
Figure 3

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D. PROCEDURE
*** THIS EXPERIMENT REQUIRES YOU TO FOLLOW THE PROCEDURE STEP BY STEP ***
Part A – Thermal Output of the Burner
1. Pour a measured amount of alcohol into the burner with the aid of a graduated cylinder.
2. Light up the burner when varying out Part C. When the burner is lit up, immediately start taking
time with the stopwatch.
3. Only blow out the burner when you have completed Part E. When blowing out the burner, stop
the stopwatch at the same time.
Part B – Calibration of Pressure Sensor
1. Before switching on the pVnT meter, ensure that the p and V exits are connected respectively
to the Y and X oscilloscope channels.
2. Switch on the pVnT meter. The display will show “cal”.
3. Place the thermocouples as close as possible and press “ΔT”. This is done to ensure that the
thermocouples are at the same temperature. (This will influence the temperature difference
display, not the absolute temperature display)
4. The upper display will show “OT”, which means upper dead centre point, where the engine is
at its minimum volume.
5. Bring the working piston down to its lowest position by turning the engine axle and press “V”.
(A wrong calibration would cause a phase shift in the volume output voltage, thus leading to a
distorted pV diagram)
6. Three displays would be showing now, that is 0 revs/min, and T1 and T2.
7. Take note of the atmospheric pressure using the provided barometer.
8. Begin the calibration by removing the flexible tube from the mounting plate, and the voltage for
atmospheric pressure po is observed on the oscilloscope. The oscilloscope should be operated
in DC and Yt mode, with calibrated Y scale.
9. Beginning with the compression calibration, set the gas syringe to 20ml and plug it into the
flexible tube.
10. Take note of the first reading at 20ml, and also p = po.
11. Compress the gas syringe 1ml at a time, and take the voltage reading on the oscilloscope.
Compress till you have reached 15ml.
12. After completing the compression calibration, carry out the expansion calibration.
13. Remove the gas syringe from the flexible tube.
14. Set the gas syringe to 15ml, and plug it into the flexible tube again.
15. This time, p = po at 15ml.
16. Increase the volume in the gas syringe 1ml at a time and take the voltage reading each 1ml till
20ml.
Part C – Total Energy Calculation
1. Set the oscilloscope to XY mode, with calibrated scales. Connect the flexible tube to the
mounting plate. Set the scale factor of X as 0.5V/div and Y as 0.2V/div.
2. Light up the burner (remember to take time with the stopwatch), and place it below the glass
cylinder.
3. Observe the temperature display. When a difference in temperature of 80K is seen, give the
flywheel a slight clockwise push to start the engine.
4. Allow the temperatures and rotational frequency to stabilize.
5. When the readings are constant, record the temperatures and rotational frequency. Draw the
pV diagram seen in the oscilloscope screen onto graph paper.

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Part D – Effective Mechanical Energy
1. Affix the torque meter on the large base plate, and the inner metallic piece of pointer on the
axis before the flywheel, while the engine is running.
2. Friction between the pointer and the metallic piece is varied by adjusting the screw on the
pointer.
3. Start carrying out measurements with a low torque. Record the temperatures, rotational
frequency and pV diagram when the values of the temperatures and rotational frequency
remain constant after each adjustment.
4. Take five random torque measurements, and record their accompanying temperatures,
rotational frequency and pV diagram for each torque setting.
Part E – Effective Electric Power
1. Replace the torque meter with the engine/generator unit. Connect the engine/generator unit to
the large strap wheel via means of the given rubber band.
2. Connect the circuit as seen in Figure 3, with the provided cables and adjust to the maximum
resistance setting on the rheostat that will stop the engine completely. The maximum
resistance is indicated by the green wire on the rheostat.
3. Record the voltage, current, rotational frequency and temperatures once the rotational
frequency and temperatures have steadied.
4. Decrease the resistance to obtain a total of five sets of readings.
5. Repeat the experiment but connecting the engine/generator unit to the small strap wheel.
6. Blow out the burner upon completion.
Figure 3: Wiring diagram for the connection of the rheostat

(slide resistor).
E. PRE-LAB
1. Bring tracing paper.

2. How many graphs should you have drawn from the oscilloscope by the end of the experiment?
3. What are the units of the graphs drawn from the oscilloscope?
4. What is the equation used to calculate Pe?

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F. REPORT
Given :
ρ = density = 0.83 g/ml
h = specific thermal power = 25 kJ/g
Δm
i) Calculate the mass of alcohol burnt per second,
Δt
⎛ Δm ⎞
ii) Calculate the thermal power of the burner, PH = ⎜ ⎟h
⎝ Δt ⎠
i) Fill in the missing information in the table using the following equation:
PV = Constant
ii) Plot the graph of U vs P. Calculate the slope of the graph.
i) Given that:
Vmin = 32 cm3 → Umin = __V
Vmax = 44 cm3 → Umax = __V
ΔV = 12 cm3 → ΔU = __V
Calculate the scale factor for the X axis.
ii) Redraw the pV diagram obtained using the new X and Y scale factors calculated.
iii) Calculate WpV from the drawn pV diagram.
i) Calculate the following information for each torque (M) using the following equations:
Wm = 2 · π· M
Pm = Wm · ƒ
WpV = pV curve area
Wfr = WpV – Wm

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ii) Draw a graph of W vs n, for Wm, Wfr and WpV.
iii) Calculate thermal energy, WH. Given:
WH = PH/f
iii) Calculate total efficiency, η = Wm/WH
i) Calculate Pe.
ii) Draw a graph of P vs n, for Pe and Pm.
*Note: Explain all the results.

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Experiment 5 – Solar Ray Collector
A. BACKGROUND
A solar ray collector is used to heat water by means of radiant energy. In order to be able to make
statements concerning the efficiency of a collector or a solar installation it is essential to be aware
not only of its construction but also of the weather situation, the mounting angle relative to the sun
and other operating conditions, such as the temperature of the absorber.
In the experiment a halogen lamp and a stream of cold air reproducibly simulate the weather. The
collector is optimally aligned with the halogen lamp in each series of measurements. The mean
absorber temperature can be approximately preset by means of the selected reservoir temperature.
The glass covering of the collector absorbs or reflects the incident radiant energy to a small extent.
The portion passing through impinges on the absorber and is to a very large extent absorbed by it.
qa = α· τ· qi (1)
qa = Radiant energy converted into heat in the absorber per unit time and area
qi = Light intensity at the position of the collector
α = Absorption factor of the absorber
τ = Transmission factor of the glass covering
The radiant energy converted into heat is not all available as useful energy. Some of it is lost
through heat radiation, heat conduction or heat flow. A further portion may lead to an increase in
temperature of the absorber, i.e. this portion is stored in the collector. The useful energy qN
produced per unit time and area is therefore
qN = qa – qv – qsp (2)
qv = Lost energy / s m2
qsp = Stored energy/s m2
Under the conditions in the experiment
qsp ≈ 0, (3)
as the temperature difference is measured in the stationary state with (almost) constant inlet
temperature.
The heat losses of the absorber are greater the higher its temperature. The rear insulation
determines the heat conduction losses; losses occur at the front due to radiation and convection.
All the losses can be described by the following formula:
(4)
k = Coefficient of heat transmission

θA = Absorber temperature
θU = Ambient temperature
The efficiency of a solar ray collector states the ratio of useful energy to irradiated energy.
(5)

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
The absorber temperature is not known, the inlet and outlet temperatures θe and θa of the water are
measured. Moreover, equation (5) does not take account of the heat transfer from the absorber to
the water, for which an absorber efficiency factor is introduced:
(6)
where θW is the mean water temperature.
(7)
The useful power PN can be determined in the stationary state from the volume flow of the water
m ·= l00 g/min
and the outlet and inlet temperature difference.
PN = c · m · (θa – θe) (8)
c = Specific thermal capacity of water.
The light intensity at the position of the collector is
qi = 1 kW/m2,
the area of the absorber
A = 0.12 m2.
B. OBJECTIVE
To determine the efficiency of the solar ray collector under various experimental conditions.
i) Illumination with halogen lamp. Water temperature θe ≈60°C.
a) Complete collector
b) Complete collector, cold jet of air impinges
c) Collector without glass plate
d) Collector without glass plate, cold jet of air impinges.
C. EQUIPMENT
Solar ray collector

Lab thermometer, -10..+100C
Lab thermometer, w. stem, -10..+110C
Circulating pump w. flowmeter
Power supply
Heat exchanger
Solar coll.stand
Immersion heater, 1000 W
Hot-/Cold air blower, 1000 W
Halogen lamp 1000 W
Tripod base

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
Support rod
Right angle clamp
Universal clamp
Glass beaker, tall, 2000 ml
Glass beaker, short, 5000 ml
Safety gas tubing
Measuring tape, l = 2 m
Stopwatch, digital, 1/100 sec
Connecting cord
Figure 1
D. PROCEDURE
Part A
1. Obtain water at a temperature of 60oC, by mixing hot and cold water, and pour 4.5 l into the 5 l
beaker.
2. Put the heat exchanger into the beaker of water.
3. Place a 1000W halogen lamp 70cm away from the solar ray collector.
4. Take the initial temperature of the water, the inlet and the outlet of the absorber, before
switching on the heat exchanger.
5. Switch on the heat exchanger and set the volume flow to 100cm3/min.
6. Record temperature of the water, inlet and outlet of the absorber every minute for 15 minutes.
7. Repeat steps i) to vi) but with a hot air blower (with cold setting) placed at the side at a
distance of approximately 30cm so that the air impinges the collector at an angle of

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
approximately 30o, with the glass plate removed without blower, and with the glass plate
removed and with blower.
E. PRE-LAB
1. What are the different conditions investigated on?

2. Logically, which condition would be the most and least efficient?
3. 1g/m = ? kg/s
F. REPORT
i. Calculate the useful power, PN and efficiency for each case.
ii. Discuss all observations and results.

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
TABLES
FOR
DATA COLLECTION
&
CALCULATIONS

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
Experiment 1 – Thermal and Electrical Conductivity of Metals
Mass of lower calorimeter at room temperature = _____________
Room temperature = ____________
Temperature of hot water before pouring = ____________
Mass of hot water = ________
Time (sec) Temperature (oC) Time (sec) Temperature (oC) Time (sec) Temperature (oC)
0 110 210
10 120 220
20 130 230
30 140 240
40 150 250
50 160 260
60 170 270
70 180 280
80 190 290
90 200 300
100

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
Mass of cold water = ____________
Time (mins) Temperature (oC) ∆Q

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
Mass of cold water = ____________
Length between two thermocouples = __________
Time (sec) Water Temperature (oC) ∆Q ΔT (oC) λ

0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
Average
Part D – Electrical Conductivity
Copper
Reading Current (A) Voltage (V) Resistance (Ω)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Average
Aluminium
Reading Current (A) Voltage (V) Resistance (Ω)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Average

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
Experiment 2 - Heat Pump
Mass of water:
1. condenser = ____________
2. vaporizer = _____________
Time Power Condenser Vaporiser

(min) (W) P1 θ1 θci θco P2 θ2 θvi θvo
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
Average
Natural Air Hot Blower Cold Blower

Time
(min) Power Power Power
θ1 θvo θ1 θvo θ1 θvo
(W) (W) (W)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Average

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
Experiment 3 – Heat Insulation/Heat Conduction
Part A – First 30 Minutes
Temperature (oC)
Time
(mins) Wood (2cm) Styropor
Inner Wall Outer Wall Inner Wall Outer Wall
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Part B – Next 30 Minutes
Wooden Wall (2cm) Styropor Wall (2cm)

Time Temperature (oC) Time Temperature (oC)
(mins) (mins)
Internal Temp. Inner Wall Outer Wall Internal Temp. Inner Wall Outer Wall
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
Time Glass Wall

(mins)
Temperature (oC)

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
Internal
Inner Wall Outer Wall
Temp.
0
1
2
3
4
5
Part C – After 70 minutes

Styropor Wall (2cm)
Time
(mins) Temperature (oC) Calculations
Internal Temp. Inner Wall Outer Wall Outer Temp. P/A (W/m2) k (W/Km2) λ (W/Km)
0
1
2
3
4
5
Wooden Wall (2cm)

Time
Temperature (oC) Calculations
(mins)
0
1
2
3
4
5
Wooden Wall (1cm)

Time
Temperature (oC) Calculations
(mins)
0
1
2
3
4
5

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
Glass Wall
Time Temperature (oC) Calculations
(mins)
0
1
2
3
4
5
Experiment 4 – Stirling Engine
Duration, Δt = ___
Initial volume of ethanol, V1 = _____
Final volume of ethanol, V2 = _____
Amount of ethanol used, ΔV = _____
Δm
Mass of alcohol burnt per second ( ) = __________
Δt
Thermal power of burner (PH) = __________
Compression Expansion
V (ml) P (hPa) P-Po (hPa) U (V) V (ml) P (hPa) P-Po (hPa) U (V)
20 15
19 16
18 17
17 18
16 19
15 20
T1 = ____
T2 = ____
n = ____
Vmin = 32 cm3 → Umin = __V

Vmax = 44 cm3 → Umax = __V
ΔV = 12 cm3 → ΔU = __V
Wpv = __________

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
M n T1 T2 Wm F Pm WpV Wfr WH
η
(10-3 Nm) (rev/min) (oC) (oC) (MJ) (Hz) (mW) (mJ) (mJ) (mJ)
Large Strap Wheel

n (rev/min) T1 (oC) T2 (oC) I (mA) U (V) Pe
Small Strap Wheel

n
T1 (oC) T2 (oC) I (mA) U (V) Pe
(rev/min)

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
Experiment 5 – Solar Ray Collector

Part A
Natural Air With Glass

Temperature (oC)
Time (min) PN η
Absorber Inlet (θe) Absorber Outlet (θa) Water (θa - θe)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Natural Air Without Glass

Temperature (oC)
Time (min) PN η
0
1
2
3
4

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Blower With Glass

Temperature (oC)
Time (min) PN η
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Blower Without Glass

Temperature (oC)
Time (min) PN η
0
1
2
3
4
5

Thermodynamics
MEC2600/SEM 2 0809
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Thermodynamics

MEC 2600 Lab Manual 1 (Thermo)

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MEC2600/SEM 2 0809

Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 1

Experiment 1: Thermal and Electrical Conductivity of Metals 1

Experiment 2: Heat Pump 8

Experiment 3: Heat Insulation/Heat Conduction 13

Experiment 4: Stirling Engine 17

Experiment 5: Solar Ray Collector 25

Tables for Data Collection & Calculation 29

Experiment 1 – Thermal and Electrical Conductivity of Metals

λ is the heat conductivity of the substance.

After a time, a steady state

Substituting equation (3) in equation (2), the following equation is obtained:

i) To determine the thermal conductivity of copper, this is determined in a constant temperature

Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 1

Calorimeter vessel, 500 ml

Part A – Heat Capacity of the Calorimeter

1. Weigh the lower calorimeter at room temperature

Part B – Ambient Heat

Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 2

Part C – Thermal Conductivity

Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 3

Part D – Electrical Conductivity

1. What is constant temperature gradient?

Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 4

Part A – Heat Capacity of the Calorimeter

ϑu = Temperature of the surrounding atmosphere

Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 5

Part B – Ambient Heat

2. Draw a graph of heat from surroundings vs time.

Part C – Thermal Conductivity

Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 6

Part C – Electrical Conductivity

1. Calculate the electrical conductivity using the following equation:

2. Calculate the error of your results when compared to literature.

Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 7

Experiment 2 - Heat Pump

Figure 1: h, log p diagram of a heat pump, ideal curve.

Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 8

Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 9

Heat pump, compressor principle

Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 10

Part A – Water-water Heat Pump

1. Pour 4.5L of water into the two water reservoirs.

Part B – Air-water Heat Pump

1. What is a heat pump? How does it work?

Part A – Water-water Heat Pump

iii. Calculations at t = 10mins

c. Average compressor power, P

Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 11

(v = specific volume of the vapour)

The values of v, h1 and h3 are from Table 1.

f. Geometrical volume flow, V&g = V g ⋅ f

Part B – Air-water Heat Pump

i. Plot a graph of temperature versus time for all the results.

Automotive Engineering Lab 1 (MEC 2600) 12

Experiment 3 – Heat Insulation/Heat Conduction

Air-wall heat transfer, internal

P = αi · A · (θLi – θWi) (1)

Wall-air heat transmission, external

P = αa · A · (θWa – θLa) (2)

Heat conduction in the wall

Rearrangement and summation of these three equations yields

P= k · A (θLi – θLa) (4)