Digital Image Processing

Digital image processing
Introduction
Hardware for image processing - Basics
Eye Human vision sensor
Mars Orbiter depicts Marineris canyon on Mars.
This image is obtained using several images with so called stereo
camera.
Course information
Lecturer: Dr Igor urovi
Number of lectures: 3+1
Type of examination: depending on number of students
Literature: book
Other resources:
www.obradaslike.cg.ac.yu
PPT presentations
examples
test images
English textbooks available
etc
Covered topics
Introduction and image acquisition
Human vision, color models and image formation
Color and point transforms - histogram
Geometrical transforms
Interpolation
Image in spectral domains
Filtering
Basics of image reconstruction
Edge detection
Basics of image recognition
Other topics
Compression
Digital image protection
Motion picture processing
Stereo images
Superresolution
Computer graphics
etc.
course Multimedia
systems
out of scope of the
basic digital image
processing course
History
Photography appeared in XIX century.
Ideas for developing fax machines and usage of telegraphic lines for
image submission was born during the World War I.
The idea about TV development was born around 1930.
The key event in digital image processing was development of the
first electronic computing machines. These machines enabled simple
and fast image processing.
The second important event was astronomical exploration and race
to space.
JPL from California had the first task related to the digital image
processing within NASA USA space program.
Image acquisition
Usually we will
assume that source of
radiation is within
visible light frequency
domain but it could be
other electromagnetic
frequency bands (X-
rays, gamma rays,
radio waves),
ultrasound, vibrations
etc.
sensors receive signals
reflected from the
surface.
source of radiation
normal line
surface
Image Acquisition
Image reflected from the
surface f(x,y) is input in
optical system.
This is non-electronic part that
consists of lenses and other
similar parts; it can be modeled
as 2D linear space invariant
system with impulse response
h(x,y) that can be approximately
known in advance.
senzor transforms optical
signal to electrical
continuous time
electrical signal
transformed to digital
Optical
system
Sensor Digitaizer
Image Acquisition
f(x,y) can be considered as a power of the light (or
some other signal that is subject of visualization).
h(x,y) is impulse response of the optical system.
Output of the optical system is optical signal.
For linear space invariant systems output is given as:
b x y f h x y d d ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) =
z z

2D convolution (very similar to
the 1D convolution for linear time
invariant systems)
since b(x,y) andf(x,y) represent
optical power they are non-negative
Image Acquisition
Optical system can deform image.
Companies producing systems can estimate distortion
caused by h(x,y) and they can develop techniques to
reduce effects of distortion.
The second important element in optical system is sensor
that transforms optical signal into electrical equivalent.
We will not study sensors since they are subject to quite
fast development and we will not consider it within this
course.
Some details related to sensors are given in our textbook
but development in this area is quite fast and some of
them can already be too old.
Digitizer
Analog electric equivalent i(x,y) is transformed to the
digital version within two procedures:
Sampling
Quantization
i(x,y)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Based on image context
in point or in area value
of the luminance for
image pixel i(1,1) is
determined
Pixel (picture element) is elementary point of the image. The fact
that eye considers numerous close dots as a continual image is used.
Digitizer
Sampling phase is followed with digitalization
(digitalization is performed by using quantization to
closest value of the quantization steps multiple).
This integer can easily be represented by binary
number.
Number of quantization levels is commonly 2
k
where k
is integer.
i(n
1
,for fixed n
2
)
n
1
Most important systems

Photography.
Discovered in XIX century.
Not producing electrical
equivalent.
Based on the chemical
process.
It has still the best
resolution among all
sensors.
It is little by little removed
from the market but
technological advance still
exists.
Quality improvement in the
last 5 years is larger than
in the last 50 years.
Fax.
Developed in some variant
at beginning of the XX
century.
Digitalization of black points
on the paper and coded
submission.
Standardized.
Image Digitizers
Parts
Sampling apparatus
Scanning mechanical parts
Source of light
Quantizier (commonly AD converter)
Memory medium
Important characteristics
Pixel size
Image size
What is transformed to image (for visible objects it is its transmittance)
Linearity
Scanning technologies:
SCAN-IN source of light is
moving through the image part
by part
SCAN-OUT entire image is
illuminated while sampling is
performed part by part
Check in the textbook and on the Internet
for more details on digitalization technology
Most important systems
TV.
Discovered around 1930.
Camera (previously vidicon
tube camera) in TV studio
records images (frames).
Images are transmitted
through communication
channel.
Images are presented on
the TV screen.
Eye can see only 24 images
in second and TV image
seems to looks as
continuous image.
In our country TV has 25 images per
second.
Reason: In the case of presenting 24 per
second due to non-synchronization
between eye and TV we would see
shaken images.
25 appropriate for Europe since it is
of frequency in power electrical network.
Standards for analog TV:
PAL (used in our country and numerous
other countries in the world 25
images/second)
SECAM (used in France and francophone
countries, Iran etc)
NTSC (US standard with 30 frames per
second; US power network has 60Hz)
TV
Digital TV (DVB) is in rapid progress presently.
Digital TV standard is called the HDTV.
Since there is rapid development it can happen that
other standards emerge.
High compression lower quality formats are
developed for video streaming over the Internet.
Development of new generations of digital video-
discs requires also new high quality video and image
formats.
Image in non-visible spectrum
Details related to image acquisition for non-visible spectrum are given in
textbook. The most important types of non-visible spectrum used in
digital image are:
Gamma rays (medicine, astronomy etc).
X-rays (medicine, electronic industry, astronomy)
Ultraviolet spectrum(lithography, industrial inspection, microscopy, lasers,
biological imaging, astronomy)
Infrared spectrum(the same application area as in visible spectrum plus
food industry, satellite observations, meteorology, seismology, industrial
inspection)
Radio waves (medicine, astronomy)
It is possible to visualize signals that are not produced with
electromagnetic rays such as for example vibrations in seismology.
Computers in image processing
Revolution in development and application of the digital
image processing algorithms begins with development of fast
and reliable image processing machines.
Development of new devices for image processing is very
rapid and data given in the textbook just couple of years old
can be assumed just as historical overview.
Commonly PCs used for general purpose have special
graphic card (its duty is to process graphical data and to
submit them to monitor).
This card can contain processor used for data processing as
well as the memory.
The main purpose of the processor is usually data
compression while memory commonly has special
construction to allow processing of huge amount of data.
Computers in image processing
The main problem in realization of these cards is access to
other computer resources (data bus and communication
with computer processor).
There are several methods for solving this problem.
In addition, there could be additional cards for video data
processing.
Also, there are rather expensive special purpose machines
graphical stations.
video data requires large amount of
memory for example each pixel of
monitor requires 3 bytes of memory
multiplied with number of pixels and
number of frames per second that is
larger than in the case of TV.
Printers
Printers are developed for giving images on paper.
There are numerous types of printers. Here, we will give some
data about the most important ones:
Matrix printers (inked ribbon pressed on the paper with needles
called pins).
Line printers (similar technology like in the matrix printers but with
ability to print entire line at once)
Laser andLED printers (electro photography based technology
described in 1938 but applied in 1980 by Canon). This technology as
one of the most important is described in details on next couple of
slides.
Inkjet andbubble jet printers (one or more boxes with ink is
positioned above the paper and appropriate amount of color is put on
the paper by adjusting piezoelectric device in inkjet printers and by
heater in the bubble jet printers).
Laser and LED printers
1. Laser printers have cylinder made of special glass
with uniform amount of electricity.
2. This cylinder is lightened selectively according to
the page that should be printed.
3. Illuminated parts of cylinder remain without
electricity.
4. Then we are putting toner on cylinder.
5. Toner is kept only on places with electricity.
6. At the image is formed on the paper creating
permanent copy (it remains on the paper due to
the electrostatic effect).
Laser and LED printers
Laser beam source
Lens system
Photoconductive material
For illuminating photoconductive
material in the LEDT printers LED
diodes are used. The LED
technology has ability to print
entire line at once.
Printing
Laser printers print material in single color and due to
the imperfection of human visual system we see
different amounts of the same color as different
colors.
There are numerous alternative printing schemes and
apparatus.
Two the most important characteristics of printers
are dpi=dots per inch (determines printer resolutions
and how fine is our printed page; 600dpi is today
assumed as reasonable minimum) and ppm=page
per minute.
Displays
Displays are devices for displaying images.
We will not consider here so called
permanent displays that produce permanent
images (for example Xerox machines).
Under displays we assume:
Computer monitors,
Medical devices for displaying images,
Projectors,
etc.
Monitors
Three basic technologies:
CRT cathode ray tube technology based on physical properties
of illuminated phosphorous
LCD liquide crystal displays
PDP plasma display panel (with special purpose gas on high
voltage).
CRT monitors have numerous disadvantages (they are
large, energy demanding, different problems with
image presentation (shaking etc); not usable in
military applications etc.)
However, they still have important advantages: cheap;
produced by numerous companies; allow looking
under large angles; etc.
How CRT monitor works?
Image in the CRT monitors are results of the phosphorous
coating inside of the cathode ray tube.
Phosphorous hit by electrons produce illumination.
For each pixel we have phosphorous dots: red, green and
blue (RGB).
Their combination produces corresponding colors.
On the other end of the cathode ray tube (it is narrower
part) we have electronic cannon that is sending electrons
toward the phosphorous. This cannon consists of cathode,
device for heating and elements for focusing.
Focusing and directing electron rays toward the
phosphorous coating is performed using the strong
electromagnetic field produced using the VN cascade.
Properties of the CRT monitors?
Three the most important properties of the CRTs are:
Diagonal length
Resolution
Refreshing rate
Usually we are giving diagonal in
inches 1=2.54cm
for CRT monitors ratio
width/height=4/3
Parts of monitor close to limits are
not usable in the CRT monitors
4
3
Resolution is
number of pixels
in image
typical 1600x1200
How many images
is presented in the
screen in 1sec
Refreshing and resolution
Today we can adjust number of pixels that will be turned on
(resolution adjustment) up to some maximal value.
We can adjust refreshing (number of semi-frames per second,
70Hz means 35 frames/s, i.e., 70 semi-images).
For 1 pixel we need data about three colors (each color
represented with k bits).
Let amount of memory that is available for on-screen
presentation is W per second.
If resolution is MxN pixels maximal refreshing rate is
v=2W/(3kMN). Why?
Lowpass pattern
Numerous close pixels on small distance are
recognized as continuous shade and we are unable to
recognize separate pixels.
One pixel can be seen in the following manner.
Pixel region
Due to the numerous reasons
(imprefection of the monitor,
imperfection of eyes and other
reasons) we cannot see pixel in
ideal manner.
pixel enlarged
more than 100
times
Lowpass pattern
Luminance of singe pixel is modeled as:
Aexp(-(x
2
+y
2
)/R
2
) , A is maximal luminance, R depends on
monitor quality.
What happens when pixels with the same luminance are in
neighborhood?
d
d 2
d is distance
between pixels
x
y
x
d d
resulting luminance is
not flat
luminance of
single pixel
y-axis is
neglected for
brevity
Lowpass pattern
Monitors have good lowpass pattern when
oscillations in luminance are as small as possible.
Details related to the lowpass pattern optimization
are given in textbook.
Highpass pattern
Highpass pattern is formed with alternating lines in
different colors.
Due to the previously described
imperfections changes between colors
are not abrupt and in the case of bad
monitors it is smooth or blurred.
Details related to highpqss pattern can
be found in the textbook.
Why this pattern is called highpass?
With the same purpose checkboard pattern formed as the
chess board is introduced.
Cameras
Analogous (vidicon camera based on the
photomultiplicative tube)
Svjetlost
Primarni
elektroni
Sekundarni
elektroni
0V
Polutransparentna
fotokatoda
+100V
+200V
+300V
+400V
+500V
+600V
R
+700V
I
Light photons hit
the
photocathode
that release
primary
electrons. These
electrons
accelerated by
electric field hit
next cathodes
causing
avalanche effect
with amplified
number of
electrons.
Output of the system is video signal, i.e., electrical equivalent
(significantly amplified) of light signal.
Semitransparent
photocathode
Primary
electrons
Secondary
electrons
light
Digital cameras
Analogous cameras have several advantages but
cheaper and cheaper digital video cameras are in
use.
There are two types of digital cameras:
CCD (Charged Coupled Device) sensors
CID (Charge Injection Device) sensors
CCD sensors are dominant (due to price reasons) and
only they will be analyzed here.
Details related to the CID sensors can be found in the
textbook.
Digital cameras
The main part of this camera is photodiode field:
Photodiode field is made on the single chip. Diodes works
as condensators in light integrating regime. Opening of
MOS switches causes flow of electricity that is proportional
to the charge integrated on diodes.
Photodiodes
MOS switches
Digital cameras
This electricity is proportional to luminance within
given period of integration.
This is similar (with little bit higher inertia) to the
vidicon.
There are problems with reading data from this
sensors.
There are three reading strategy.
Pomjeraj
linije
Pomjeraj
linije
Pomjeraj
linije
Pomjeraj piksela Pomjeraj piksela Pomjeraj piksela
Serijski registar Serijski registar Serijski registar
Full frame CCD I nterline Transfer CCD Frame Transfer CCD
Full frame
oblast
Oblast slike
Oblast za
smije{tanje
line shift
line shift line shift
pixel shift pixel shift pixel shift
Image region
Storage region
Reading strategies for CCD
Full frame transfer
Assume that photodiode filed is matrix with single row
masked. This is row not used for light integration. Formed
image is moved row by row to the masked row and from
masked row is read using shift register.
Advantages: Simple hardware and large percentage of the
photodiode field used for image acquisition.
Drawbacks: Slowness.
Reading strategies for CCD
Interline transfer
Each even row is masked. After integration interval
integrated pixels are moved to masked row and information
is read from these rows while new acquisition can begin
from non-masked rows.
Advantage: Fastness.
Drawback: Low percentage of used diode field for acquisition.
Check textbook for details on the third strategy.
In the case of color images acquisition there are color
filters that allow only single basic color for one pixel
and combination of images from diodes with various
filters form the color image.
Basic colors will be discussed later.
Human eye
Eye is one of five human senses.
5/6 of all information we are getting using the eyes.
Work of eyes is similar to other sensors.
1. posterior compartment
2. ora serrata
3. ciliary muscle
4. ciliary zonules
5. canal of Schlemm
6. pupil
7. anterior chamber
8. cornea
9. iris
10. lens cortex
11. lens nucleus
12. ciliary process
13. conjunctiva
14. inferior oblique muscule
15. inferior rectus muscule
16. medial rectus muscle
17. retinal arteries and veins
18. optic disc
19. dura mater
20. central retinal artery
21. central retinal vein
22. optical nerve
23. vorticose vein
24. bulbar sheath
25. macula
26. fovea
27. sclera
28. choroid
29. superior rectus muscule
30. retina
Steps in human vision
Light is coming to iris.
Photosensitive muscles adjust size of iris and in this
way it is regulated amount of light allowed in eye.
Light is coming to the lens.
Other group of muscles adjust lens in order to give
appropriate focusing of image.
Light passes through the posterior compartment
(glass tissue).
Light is coming to the retina.
Light should come to the exact position on the
retina called yellow spot that has size about 1mm
2
.
Steps in human vision
On retina we have human visual cells:
rods (about 125 million used for night vision)
cones (about 5.5 million used for color daylight vision what do
you think why they have prismatic shape?)
Light is transformed in visual cells to electric impulses.
Number of visual cells decreases with moving away from
the yellow spot
On relatively small distance from the yellow spot is so
called blind spot. It is position where optical nerve exits.
This nerve is connected with the brain.
Optical nerve is connected with visual cells with ganglions.
This nerve integrate outputs of visual cells.
Steps in vision
Optical nerve is rather long (about 6m) and it connects
eye with the very sensitive part of the brain called
(visual) cortex.
Our brains reconstruct object images.
We are looking with eyes but we see with brain!!!
Human visual system is inertial. We are unable to
create image immediately after abrupt luminance
change.
Transport of optical information through the optical
nerve is relatively slow (comparing to wired
connections in machines).
This leads to eye persistence we are able to see 24
images in second.
Problems in eye
Problems in focusing light in the eye leads to missing
yellow spot then we have two known drawbacks
short-sightedness and long-sightedness.
Due to slower reaction of the muscles that manage the
size of eye lenses special type of long-sightedness
common for older people can develop.
Problem with development of one of types of cone cells
can follow to daltonism.
There are other very danger deceases trachoma,
conjunctivitis, cataract.
Different other problems within eyes including physical
damage can cause problems in vision.
Color model for eye
There are 3 types of cone cells sensitive to 3 different
colors.
[nm] wavelength
650nm 580nm 460nm
response of cones that react to:
blue green red color
There are smaller number of
cells sensitive to blue than to
other two basic colors. It
follows to smaller sensitivity
to this color (this is probably
caused by human evolution).
Combination of response from these three groups of cone cells
gives our color vision.
Color model for eye
During the night our cells for black-white vision are more active
but they are not loosing entirely information related to colors.
Humans are able to distinguish about 1 million of colors
(sensitivity to colors and colors that can be distinguished
varying between humans) but levels of gray are able to see only
about 40-80.
Within the next week we will consider different color models for
digital images
Within next lecture we will consider color models for digital
image but we will also review some additional important
features of eyes.
Exercise No 1
Sensitivity to grayscale
The procedure will be performed as follows
We will create image with 16x16 pixels with 256 shades of gray
Then this image will be shown
Try to detect different shades
MATLAB program
cl ear
k=0;
f or m=1: 16
f or n=1: 16
A( m, n) =k;
k=k+1;
end
end
pcol or ( A) , col or map( gr ay( 256) ) , shadi ng i nt er p
Exercise No 1
Obtained image
Question:
How many different
grayscale you can
observe?
Exercise No 2
Create binary image with chess-board pattern.
MATLAB code:
[ m, n] =meshgr i d( 1: 100, 1: 100) ;
r =r em( m+n, 2) ;
i mshow( r )
Adjust image to 100x100
monitor pixels
What can you conclude
about quality of your monitor
for highpass images?
For self-exercise
Inform yourselves about recent development in the
CCD sensors.
Consider work of some scanner. Detect basic parts.
Consider construction of own scanner. Try to find
data about required parts.
Inform yourselves about work of the LCD and plasma
displays.
Analyze prices and performance of video-projectors.
For self-exercise
Find data about various types of printing machines,
especially about construction and parts.
Find data about modern computer cards form
graphics and video processing, performance and
construction.
Find data about devices for medical imaging.
Digital Image Processing
EYE Human Vision Sensor
Color Models
Eye sensitivity
Eye is more sensitive to lower frequencies with red
colors than to higher frequencies with blue colors.
During the daylight the eye is the most sensitive to
wavelength 555m (close to green).
With decrease of the luminance the frequency of the
most sensitive point decreases and it is approaching
toward the dark red colors (wavelength increases).
Eye has ability to adopt itself to the luminance level.
In order to have an impression of looking to the
same object it is just required to keep constant ratio
between object luminance and total luminance.
Eye sensitivity
Eye ability to detect luminance variations depend on
total luminance of the object.
For bright objects we need larger variation in
luminance in order to be able to detect it while for
dark object it is smaller.
Ratio between detectable variation of luminance with
total luminance is constant for a particular eye.
There is a threshold in detection of noise
(disturbances) in image.
Threshold level increases with luminance and it is
more difficult to detect noise in bright than in dark
images.
Eye sensitivity
Sensitivity to contrast assumes ability of eye to
distinguish certain number of different luminance
levels.
This sensitivity decreases with increasing of noise
level.
Noise is more difficult for detection in images with
large number of details than in image without details.
Noise correlated with image can be detected in easier
manner than non-correlated noise.
Noise in motion (video) sequences causes fatigue of
spectators.
History of color models
History of color models is very long.
Aristotel thought that colors are rays coming from
havens.
Aguilonius and Sigfrid Forsius considered color model
during renaissance. The former tried to construct the
color model based on colors appearing in nature from
day-break to the dusk.
Newton discovered using the prism that white color
consists of all other colors.
Gothe defined color model based on equal-sided
triangle (philosophical considerations).
History of color models
Runge constructed revolutionary color model based
on sphere and three coordinates colorness,
whiteness and darkness.
Maxwell considered color models and he came to the
Gothe triangle with red, green and blue colors at the
corners.
In 1931. the International Comity for Light CIE
(Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage)
standardized RGB color model.
Color model and image
All colors that can be seen by humans can be described
with combination of three images coming from our cone
cells in our eyes sensitive to blue, green and red color.
Then all colors can be represented as a vector with three
components color=[r,g,b].
Note that T. Young has found in 1802. that combination of
three independent colors (!?) can produce all visible colors.
This model is called three channel model where channels
are shades of particular colors in the model.
RGB cube
The simplest method for representing colors is RGB cube in
Cartesian coordinates.
Coordinates correspond to three basic colors: red, green and
blue.
Maximal luminance is 1 in any of colors while minimal is 0.
R
G
B
(1,0,0)
(0,1,0)
(0,0,1)
(0,1,1) Cian lack of red
(1,0,1) Magenta
lack of green
(1,1,0) Yellow
lack of blue
RGB cube
Black=(0,0,0)
White=(1,1,1)
On the main diagonal r=g=b are grayscale (achromatic)
colors.
Achromatic colors can be described by single coordinate only
(luminance).
Example: Section of the color
cube with the plane
0.5r+0.3g+0.2b=1.
RGB model
RGB model is used in computer and TV monitors.
For example classical cathode ray tube monitors have
phosphorous grains that bombarded with electrons produce
red, green and blue colors.
RGB model is called additive model since resulting color is
obtained as a sum of three basic colors.
Based on the Newton experiment the white color (the
highest luminance) is obtained with full luminance in all
basic colors.
Memory representation of the RGB model data requires
MxN (pixels) x 3 (colors) x k (bits for representing each
color).
Commonly k=8 but there are alternative models.
Color table
The RGB model is memory demanding.
There are several techniques for reducing memory
requirements. The simplest is to reduce number of
bits used for representing blue color since humans
have the smallest sensitivity to this color.
Other, more sophisticated, methods are based on
the colormap or CLUT color look-up table.
Any pixel is coded with r bits.
Numbers from 0 to 2
r
-1 represent one of colors
from the RGB model.
Color table
Information about color coding are given in the
special table (CLUT) that can be recorded together
with image.
The most common type of the CLUT is:
b
2
r
-1
b
2
r
-2
... b
3
b
2
b
1
b
0
g
2
r
-1
g
2
r
-2
... g
3
g
2
g
1
g
0
r
2
r
-1
r
2
r
-2
... r
3
r
2
r
1
r
0
2
r
-1 2
r
-2 ... 3 2 1 0
color code
amounts of
red, green and
blue colors for
a coded color
Color table
What to do with colors from the RGB model that exist in
image but are not given within the CLUT?
The most commonly these colors are replaced with some color
from the CLUT that is based on some criterion the closest to
desired color.
Memory requirements of the CLUT-based representation are:
MxNxr bits for image representation + (r+3x8)2
r
bits for the
CLUT.
There are alternatives. For example, instead of the color table
we can record and submit information which table is selected
since decoder have the same set of the CLUTs.
There are several color tables commonly used in practice.
Printing color models
While monitor and projectors produce colors by adding
basis colors it is not the case with printing machines.
Everybody knows that combination of colors on the paper
produces very dark close to black color.
The reason is the fact that we are receiving from the paper
reflected part of luminance.
Paper is white until we do not add some color and on this
way we reduce some part of reflected luminance.
On this way by adding colors on the paper we are getting
darker and darker image.
Printing color models
To conclude if we are adding colors we will
obtain darker image while not adding color
produces brighter image.
From this reason color model for printing are
called subtractive.
Colors for printing can be formed in the CMY
(cian-magenta-yellow) model.
All basic colors represent lack of some of
colors from the RBG models.
check their position in the color cube
CMY model
Relationship between colors from the CMY and RGB models:
C=1-R M=1-G Y=1-B
Problem in the CMY model is inability to reproduce large
number of colors.
It is difficult to reproduce fluorescent and similar colors and
the most importantly the black!!!
Approximately just about 1 million of colors is possible to
reproduce with good quality.
The main problem is black since it is very important for
human (important for image recognition, edges of shapes,
etc).
Reason: mix cyan, magenta and yellow and you will get dark
but not black color (or you will use huge amount of color
what is not economical).
CMYK model
Printing machines usually print images in the CMYK model
(4-channel model). K means blacK since B is reserved for
Blue.
Relationship between CMY and CMYK models:
K=min(C,M,Y)
C=C-K
M=M-K
Y=Y-K
CMY i CMYK model comparison
CMYK image
CMY image
Other printing color models
The CMYK can produce significantly larger number of colors
than the CMY model.
This is very important especially for some important colors
such as for example black.
Unfortunately, numerous colors cannot be reproduced in such
manner. It motivated research in design newer and better
printing color models.
The most important group of models are so called HIFI
models.
These models use (it is still not subject to standardization) 6
or 7 printing colors (channels).
Additional channels are: green, orange i violet.
RGBGRAY
Sometimes it is required to transform RGB color space to
grayscale.
Since grayscale are on main diagonal of the color cube we
can simply use corresponding projection on this diagonal
consider as a grayscale variant of used color:
GRAY=(R
2
+G
2
+B
2
)
1/2
Square root is numerically demanding
operation.
Sometimes it is assumed that obtained
results are not realistic with respect to
image colors.
Result should be quantized
to proper number of color
levels.
RGBGRAY
The most common RGBGRAY converter is mean
value of channels:
GRAY=(R+G+B)/3
Even simpler techniques such as considering some of
channels (commonly red or green) as a grayscale are
sometimes used: GRAY=R GRAY=G.
Blue channel is rarely used since it is assumed to be
non-realistic.
There are also some alternative schemes some of
them presented latter within this lecture.
GRAYRGB will be taught at the end of course when
we present story about pseudo coloring.
Binary image
Binary image has only two colors.
Usually black and white are used.
White can be represented as 1 while black is 0.
Usually this image is obtained from the grayscale by
comparing the grayscale with threshold:
1 ( , )
( , )
0 ( , )
g m n T
b m n
g m n T
=

<
binary image
grayscale image
threshold
Binary image is used in industry application, edge detection etc. Threshold selection
will be discussed lately.
Three channel model
In Cartesian coordinates any color can be represented
using the vector with three coordinates (R,G,B).
However, T. Young (1802.) has concluded that color
can be determined using 3 independent information
(three independent coordinates). It is quite similar to
the RGB model.
However, instead of using Cartesian coordinates we can
also use polar or sphere coordinates and develop
corresponding color space.
Some other color models are also available in practice.
An overview of these color models that are different
from the RGB and CMYK follows.
Three channels models
Assume that we have three independent basic colors
(c
1
,c
2
,c
3
).
All other colors can be represented as a vector
(C
1
,C
2
,C
3
) where C
i
corresponds to the amount of the
basic color c
i
.
Chroma is defined as:
1 2 3
, ( 1, 2, 3)
i
i
C
h i
C C C
= =
+ +
An alternative for memorizing of colors is color space (h
1
,h
2
,Y)
where Y=C
1
+C
2
+C
3
is total luminance. This procedure is used in
development of numerous color models.
CIE color models
International Commission on Illumination CIE
developed in 1931 the RGB model (we call it the RGB
CIE since it is different from the computer model).
R
CIE
corresponds to wavelengths 700nm, G
CIE
=546.1nm and B
CIE
=435.8nm.
Referent white for this model is R
CIE
=G
CIE
=B
CIE
=1.
RGB CIE model does not contain all colors that can
be reproduced and from this reason it is defined via
linear transformation model called the XYZ model
that can represent all visible colors.
RGB CIE and XYZ CIE
relationships
XYZ are RGB linearly dependent and their transform
can be given as:
0.490 0.310 0.200
0.177 0.812 0.011
0.000 0.010 0.990
X R
Y G
Z B

=

X, Y, Z should be represent
wavelegth on which the cone and
rode cells are the most sensitive.
Y corresponds to the most
sensitive wavelength for rode cells.
Chrominent components can
be defined as:
x=X/(X+Y+Z)
y=Y/(X+Y+Z)
X=Y=Z=1 referent white
CIE chromatic diagram
Illuminance of numerous light
sources is still given with (x,y)
chromatic diagram. Then this
diagram is widely used for
illuminance system design.
Problem in this diagram is the
fact that there are color areas of
eliptic shape within diagram that
cannot be visible by humens.
Computer and CIE RGB models
Current monitor RGB model is developed as a
recommendation of the NTSC (National Television
Systems Commitee).
Relationship between RGB CIE and RGB NTSC is linear
and it can be given using the transformation matrix:
1.167 0.146 0.151
0.114 0.753 0.159
0.001 0.059 1.128
CIE
CIE
CIE
R R
G G
B B

=

Modification of the XYZ model
Three modifications are used for overcoming
drawbacks of the XYZ model:
UCS model (model with uniform chromatic scale)
UVW model
U=2X/3 V=Y W=(-X+3Y+Z)/2
4
15 3
X
u
X Y Z
=
+ +
6
15 3
X
v
X Y Z
=
+ +
luminance is the same as in the XYZ-model
Modification of the XYZ model
U
*
V
*
W
*
model is formed in such manner that referent
white be in origin
* 1/ 3
25(100 ) 17, 0.01 1 W Y Y =
* *
0
13 ( ) U W u u =
* *
0
13 ( ) V W v v =
(u
0
,v
0
) are coordinates of
referent white color
Colorimetry
Colorimetry is scientific area specialized for color
comparison.
For example in industry we can have some process that is
done when color of some object is the same or close to
some color known in advance.
Assume that current color in the RGB model is (R
1
,G
1
,B
1
)
while the target color is (R
2
,G
2
,B
2
). Distance between these
two colors can be described as:
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
( ) ( ) ( ) R R G G B B + +
Euclidian distance but some alternative
distances are also used.
Unfortunately, distance defined in this manner for RGB model does not produce
reliable results since similar colors could produce large distance and quite
different color relatively small distance.
Colorimetry
All models with linear dependency to the RGB suffers
from the same problem as the RGB.
Therefore, for colorimetry applications it is defined
the Lab color space.
Lab model can be defined in various manners but
here we adopted definition based on the XYZ model:
*
3
0
16 116 / L Y Y = +
*
3 3
0 0
500[ / / ] a X X Y Y =
*
3 3
0 0
200[ / / ] b Y Y Z Z =
luminance component
a
*
>0 means red while a
*
<0 means green
b
*
>0 means blue while b
*
<0 means yellow
Colorimetry
(X
0
,Y
0
,Z
0
) is referent white (almost always it is
(1,1,1)).
Euclidian distance in the Lab coordinates is assumed
good measure of color difference.
However, there are alternative approaches for
defining color difference measures.
HSL and related models
As we have already seen:
All colors can be represented using three independent colors;
Humans have two types of vision: night vision based on luminance
and daylight vision based on colors;
Colors can be represented using Cartesian coordinates (RGB cube)
but also they can be represented using spherical and polar
coordinates;
Before development of the color TV existed the black-white
(grayscale) TV. It was important to develop new system and that
people with old TV sets could follow new signal with the same
functionality as they did with the old one.
Numerous color models are developed for these purposes and
we will describe only probably the most popular the HSL.
HSL color model
H hue
S saturation
L - luminosity
H is represented with angle. In the HSL model angles
between 0 and 240 represent colors that can be seen by
humans while angles between 240-360 are UV colors.
Procedure for transformation of the RGB-model to the HSL
model is:
Step 1. Coordinate transform.
1
[2 ]
6
HS
x R G B =
1
[ ]
3
L R G B = + +
1
[ ]
2
HS
y G B =
RGBHSL
Step 2. From Cartesian coordinates (x
HS
,y
HS
) to polar
coordinates (radius is measure of saturation while angle is
measure of hue)
Obtained coordinate system (,,L) corresponds to the HSL
but commonly several additional operations are performed.
Step 3. Normalized saturation.
2 2
HS HS
x y = +
( , )
HS HS
x y =
max
3min( , , ) 3
1 1 min( , , )
R G B
S R G B
R G B L
= = =
+ +
RGBHSL
Step 4. Additional processing of angle (hue).
Step 5. Final relationship for H:
=
+
+
L
N
M
M
O
Q
P
P
arccos
. [( ) ( )]
( ) ( )( )
05
2
R G R B
R G R B G B
H
G B
G B
=

R
S
T
2
HSL model
Similarly it can
be performed
HSLRGB
transformation.
Determine this
transform for
self-exercise
and with usage
of the
textbook.
Popular
presentation of
the HSL color
model.
White
Red
Yellow
Blue
Black
Color models for video signal
They are similar to the HSL and similar relevant models.
Here, we have single component that corresponds to the
grayscale (so called black-white) image due to the
backward compatibility with older models for the TF
signal.
NTSC uses the YIQ color model where intensity is given
as:
Y=0.2999R+0.587G+0.114B with chrominent
components given as:
I R Y B Y R G B = = cos . ) sin . ( ) . . . 30 0877( 30 0493 0569 0271 0322

Q R Y B Y R G B = = sin . ) cos . ( ) . . . 30 0877( 30 0493 0211 0522 0311

Color models for video signals
PAL color model (YUV Y is the same as in the NTSC):
SECAM color model (YDrDb Y is the same as in the
NTSC):
U B R G B Y = = 0463 0147 0289 0493 . . . . ( )
V R R G R Y = = 0615 0515 0100 0877( . . . . )
D B R G B Y
b
= = 1333 0450 0883 1505 . . . . ( )
D B R G R Y
r
= + = 0217 0133 1116 1902( . . . . )
These models are quite similar to the HSL.
Exercise No.1
Realize relationship between RGB CIE and standard RGB model.
Here, we will realize several aspects of the problem:
We will create matrix that produces inverse transform from the RGB CIE to the RGB model.
We will determine limits in which we should perform discretization of the RGB CIE model.
Visualize channels of image for RGB and RGB CIE models.
A= [ 1. 167 - 0. 146 - 0. 151;
0. 114 0. 753 0. 159;
- 0. 001 0. 059 1. 128] ;
B=i nv( A)
B =
0. 8417 0. 1561 0. 0907
- 0. 1290 1. 3189 - 0. 2032
0. 0075 - 0. 0688 0. 8972
Exercise No.1
Limits of the RGB model are usually 0 and 1 along all coordinates but they are
different for the RGB CIE model.
Minimum of the R component in the CIE model is obtained for R=0, G=1, B=1 and it is
equal to 0.297 while the maximum is produced with R=1, G=0, B=0 and it exhibits
1.167.
Minimum of G in the CIE model follows for R=G=B=0 and it exhibits 0, while
maximum follows for R=G=B=1 and it exhibits 1.026.
B component achieves maximum for R=0, G=B=1 and it exhibits 1.186 while the
minimum is produced for R=1, G=B=0 and it exhibits -0.001.
For visualization of color channels we can use the following commands:
a=doubl e( i mr ead( ' spep. j pg' ) ) ;
b( : , : , 1) =1. 167*a( : , : , 1) - 0. 146*a( : , : , 2) - 0. 151*a( : , : , 3) ;
b( : , : , 2) =0. 114*a( : , : , 1) +0. 753*a( : , : , 2) +0. 159*a( : , : , 3) ;
b( : , : , 3) =- 0. 001*a( : , : , 1) +0. 059*a( : , : , 2) +1. 128*a( : , : , 3) ;
Channels can be represented with commands as the follows:
pcolor(flipud(b(:,:,1)),shading interp
For self-exercise
List of mini-projects and tasks for self-exercise:
1. Solve problems from the textbook.
2. Realize all color models given on these slides and in textbook
and create transformations between them. Visualize channels
for considered models.
3. Consider the following experiment. Assume that colors that
can not be printed in the CMYK model have any of channels
except black channel when it is represented with more than
90% of maximal value. Assume that in addition we have color
space with three alternative colors (for example rose, green
and orange). Colors can be printed in CMYK or in alternative
model with appropriate amount of black. Rules for printing in
the corresponding model are the same as for the CMY (it is
possible to print up to 90% of any color). How many colors
from the RGB model is possible to print the CMYK color and
how many in model with three additional alternative colors.
For self-exercised
List of miniprojects and tasks for self-exercise:
4. Create introduced color models and transformations between
these color models and RGB. Make images of cakes in process
of baking or some other similar kitchen experiment. The main
results of the first set of experiments should be: average
color of cake several minutes before we assume that it is
done and average color when cake is done. The second set of
experiments is performed after that. Try to determine
algorithm for automatic turning off the baking appliance
based on the first set of experiments and check if it is
performing well for the second set of experiments. Determine
number of correct and wrong results.
Histogram
Point operation
Interpolation
Histogram
Histogram is simple (but
very useful) image statistics.
H(X)=number of pixels with
luminance X
Sum histogram values of image for all luminances (here
grayscale image with bi bits/ pixel is considered) is
equal to number of pixels in image.
N M X H
X
=
=
255
0
) (
Example of histogram
Histogram has numerous applications. It is very useful in techniques that
use probabilistic model of image with probability density function of image
luminance (or at least estimation of the pdf). How to connect histogram
and probability density function?
Histogram Common shapes
L
P
H( ) P
L
P
H( ) P
L
P
H( ) P
unipolar histograms
for dark and bright
images
bipolar histogram can be used for
threshold determination and
obtaining of binary images (how?)
Histogram extension
Optical sensors very often concentrate image in very
narrow region of luminance.
Then software systems are usually employed to solve
this problem.
Problems are solved by using information obtained
using histogram.
Let image be contained into luminance domain of
[A,B] (estimation of A and B can be performed using
histogram).
Then assume that we want to extend the histogram
over entire 8-bit grayscale domain [0,255]:
255 255
( )
A
f X X
B A B A
=

Luminance of
original image
luminance of image
with extended
histogram
Histogram Extension - Example
original
after
histogram
extension
original
histogram
histogram
after
operation
Histogram equalization
Histogram equalization is also one of the
most common histogram operations.
In equalized image histogram is
approximately flat, i.e., the goal is to have
image with approximately the same number
of pixels for all luminances.
Then, we want to transform histogram to be
approximately uniform.
Images with equalized histogram have good
contrast and it is the main reason for
performing this operation.
Histogram Equalization
L
P
H( ) P
original histogram
L P
H(P)
goal - equalized histogram
This can be considered as the following problem: There is a random
variable with probability density function f
x
(x) (it can be estimated
using the histogram of original image). We are looking for transform
y=g(x) producing probability density function f
y
(y). In this case it is
proportional to the equalized histogram.
Histogram equalization
From probability theory follows:
where (x
1
,x
2
,...,x
N
) are real roots of equation y=g(x).
Assume that solution is unique (it is possible for
monotone functions g(x)).
1 2
1 2
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ...
| '( ) || | '( ) || | '( ) ||
N
x x x N
y
x x x x x x
f x f x f x
f y
g x g x g x
= = =
= + + +
1
1
( )
( )
| '( ) ||
x
y
x x
f x
f y
g x
=
=
Since f
y
(y) is constant it means that |g(x
1
)| is
proportional to f
x
(x
1
).
Assume that g(x) is monotone increasing function it
means g(x)=c f
x
(x).
Select c=1 (it means that output image would have
the same luminance domain as input one) :
constant value
1 1
( ) ( )
x
x
g x f x dx
=

I ntegral of probability density
function. This is monotone
function in its domain.
Since image is not continual but discrete function
here we have no continual probability density
function but its discrete version (histogram).
MATLAB realization is quite simple:
I=imread('pout.tif');
a=imhist(I);
g=cumsum(a)/sum(a);
J=uint8(255*g(I));
Reading original image
function g
output image
Histogram Equalization - Example
0 100 200
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
0 100 200
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
original image
equalized image
(significantly
improved contrast)
corresponding
histograms
Obtained
density is not
uniform due to
discrete nature
of images
Histogram matching
Histogram equalization is operation that produces
uniform probability density function.
Similarly histogram can be matched to any desired
probability density function.
The procedure is the same for any monotone
function g(x) (increasing and decreasing) that is
satisfied in the equalization case.
Otherwise we need more complicated operation
involving segmentation of g(x) in monotone regions.
Applications of Histogram
All methods that uses probability density function estimate
are histogram based.
Improvement of image contrast (equalization).
Histogram matching.
Modifications of colors.
Histogram can be applied locally to image parts. For
example we have very bright object on dark background.
We can perform histogram-based operations on selected
region: object of background depending on our task.
Also, histogram can be calculated for parts of image or for
channels in color images.
Image Negative
There numerous operations that can be applied to
the image luminance. Some of them are applied to
each pixel in independent manner of other pixels.
These operations are called point operations.
One of the simplest of them is determination of the
image negative (or positive if we have image
negative).
This operation can be performed in different manner
depending on the image format.
Image negative
Binary image:
Negativ(n,m)=~Original(n,m)
Grayscale
Negativ(n,m)=2
k
-1-Original(n,m)
RGB
Operation for grayscale images
is performed for each image channel.
logical operation negation
number of bits used for
memory representation of
image pixels
Color Clipping
Color clipping is operation performed on colors but it
is not related to geometrical clipping. We are keeping
some image colors as in original image but other
colors are limited to some selected limits:
max max
max min
min min
( , )
( , ) ( , ) ( , )
( , )
a i j
b i j a i j a i j
a
c c
c c
i c j c
>
<
Brightening (Darkening)
There are several methods to perform these
operations.
For example, f(n,m)=g(n,m)+r would increase
luminance for r>0 while for r<0 image will darker.
The second technique: f(n,m)=g(n,m)xr brightening for
r>1 darkening for 0<r<1.
These techniques are not of high quality since they
have several drawbacks. The most common is the
following procedure:
f(n,m)=[2
k
-1] {g(n,m)/ [2
k
-1]}
Number of bits per pixel

>1 darkening <1
brightening
Luminance correction
Histogram modification function:
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
brightening
darkening
This way of representing point
operation is accepted by almost all
image processing software (for
example photoshop).
Results of point operations
Point operations and other operations usually
performed on images do not produce always
integers and numbers in proper domain.
Then after operations are performed we should
return results to image format.
It is performed through simple steps (here
described for grayscale image in 256 levels):
Rounding or truncating to integer (rounding is more
precise but truncation is commonly performed);
Luminance below 0 are set to 0 while those above
255 are set to 255.
Point operations - Conclusion
Point operations are very common and usually they
are performed after observing histogram.
We assumed that pixel of target image depends only
on pixel in original image that is on the same
position.
It is possible to define more complex functions that
establish relationship between more pixels.
Some of these combinations remains for your self-
exercise.
In the case of geometrical transform we have that
pixel from position (x,y) moves to the position in
(x
1
,y
1
) target image. Here we are in fact considering
transformation of coordinates in digital image that
can be written as:
The simplest transform is translation where entire
image is moved with a given vector (x
0
,y
0
).
( )
1
1
1
x
y
x
y
g

= = =

X X
Translation
0
1
0
0
0
x x
y y
x
y

= =

X X
0 0
( , ) ( , ) g x y f x x y y =
x
0
y
0
f(x,y) g(x,y)
In this case we keep
dimension of the target
image to the same dimension
as in the original image. In
region appearing by
translation we put white or
some other default color.
This strategy is called
cropping. An alternative
strategy (when we want to
change image dimension) is
enlarging image in order to
entire original image be kept
in target image.
Also, it is possible to have cyclical translation
with part that are removed from the image
cyclically shifted at the beginning.
Cropping
Cropping is operation were part of original image is
used as a new image. Of course this image has
smaller dimensions then the original one.
For example let the original image f(x,y) has
dimensions (M,N) and let we want to crop region
between (M
1
,N
1
) and (M
2
,N
2
) where 0<M
1
<M
2
<M
and 0<N
1
<N
2
<N.
1 1
( 1, 1) ( , ) g x M y N f x y + + =
for x[M
1
,M
2
] i y[N
1
,N
2
]. Determine dimensions of
the target image?
Rotation
Coordinate transform in the case of the rotation is defined as:
Obtained image is given as:
g(x,y)=f(xcos+ysin,-xsin+ycos).
We assumed that coordinate transform is performed around
origin. This is rare situation in digital images. Develop the
coordinate transform for rotation around pixel (x
0
,y
0
).
Positive direction for rotation is counter clockwise.
cos sin
'
sin cos
x
y

=

X
negative direction clockwise

positive direction counter clockwise
Distortion
y
x
(x',y') (x,y)
We will demonstrate distortion along one
of coordinate axis.
Coordinate transform:
' 1 cot
' 0 1
x x
y y

=

g(x,y)=f(x-ycot,y)
Consider distortion that would be performed in paralel to
the line y=ax+b.
Scaling
Coordinate scaling can be described as:
0
'
0
a
b

=

X X
Determine function of the output image based on input image.
Determine dimensions of output image in function a and b. For which
parameter values image is enlarged?
This is scaling along x and y axes. Is it possible to define scaling
along alternative directions?
Could reflection with respect to coordinate axes or origin be described
using scaling?
Nonlinear transforms
There are numerous non-linear transform used in
digital image processing.
Number of non-linear transforms is significantly
greater than of linear ones.
Here, we give a simple example:
g(x,y)=f(x+Asinby,y+Asinbx).
Important example is the fish-eye nonlinearity.
Fish-eye transform
The fish-eye effect is cause by shape and limited
(relatively small) dimensions of camera lens. It causes
that objects in the middle of the scene are larger than
objects on borders of the scene.
Sometimes this effect is desired in photography and
photographers simulate it or they produce it using
special form of lenses.
Try to simulate fish-eye transform and to propose
method for removing this effect.
Geom. transf. - Problem
Original image with pixels on
grid.
I mage rotated for 45 degrees.
Pixels are dislocated from the
grid.
Need for interpolation
Commonly only small number of pixels after
geometrical transforms is on the grid while others are
displaced.
Then we have a problem to determine pixels in grid
for the target images.
Techniques for determination of grid values are
called interpolation.
Here we will describe several strategies for
interpolation.
For other techniques look at textbook, Internet, and
for additional material available at the lecturer office.
Nearest neighbor
Nearest neighbor technique is the simplest
interpolation strategy.
For pixel in the grid we are taking value of
the nearest pixel of interpolated image.
This technique suffers from low quality
problem.
original
rectangle
after rotation for 5 degrees and this
interpolation technique
Human eye is very sensitive to
broken edges and disturbed small
details that are caused by this
interpolation form.
Bilinear Interpolation
Strategy of bilinear interpolation is slightly better with
respect to image quality than the nearest neighbor
but little bit slower. However, calculation burden in
this strategy is still reasonable.
Let pixel of original image be surrounded with four
pixels of transformed image.
pixel that we want to determined
luminance g(x,y)
transformed pixels (we
assume that dimensions of
square in which we perform
interpolation are not
changed)
x
1-x
y
1-y
Bilinear interpolation
For simpler determination we
will rotate the coordinate
system.
f(m,n) f(m+1,n)
f(m,n+1)
f(m+1,n+1)
f(m+x,n+y)
Bilinear interpolation determines luminance in point (m+x,n+y)
as:
f(m+x,n+y)=axy+bx+cy+d constants a, b, c and d
should be determined
Bilinear interpolation
Constants can be determined from the following condition:
f(m,n)=ax0x0+bx0+cx0+d d=f(m,n)
f(m+1,n)=ax1x0+bx1+cx0+d b=f(m+1,n)-f(m,n)
f(m,n+1)=ax0x1+bx0+cx1+d c=f(m,n+1)-f(m,n)
f(m+1,n+1)=a+b+c+d
a=f(m+1,n+1)+f(m,n)-f(m+1,n)-f(m,n+1)
Consider the following case. We are not performing geometrical
transform but we want to change number of pixels in image (for
example instead of NxM we want to get kNxlN where k and l are
integers and k>1 and l>1. Determine relationship that connects
original and target image with bilinear interpolation?
This operation is called image resize.
Rotation MATLAB program
function b=rotacija_i_interpolacija(a, theta, x0, y0)
%realization is performed within function where a is source image
%theta is rotation angle, x0 andy0 are rotation center
[M, N] = size(a); %Size of grayscale image
b = zeros(M, N); %Target image
%we assume that the target image has the same dimensions as source image
%we will perform cropping of remaining parts
for xp= 1 : M
for yp= 1 : N %performing operation for all image pixels
x = (xp- x0) * cos(theta) - (yp- y0) * sin(theta) + x0;
y = (xp- x0) * sin(theta) + (yp- y0) * cos(theta) + y0;
%Determination of the origin of the pixel mapped to (xp,yp) i.e.,
%where it is in the original image (inverse transform)
if ((x >= 1) & (x <= M) & (y >= 1) & (y <= N))
%I s pixel within proper domain?
xd= floor(x); xg= ceil(x);
yd = floor(y); yg= ceil(y); %(xd,yd) bottom left corner
%rectangular for interpolation; (xg,yg) upper right corner
D = double(a(xd, yd));
B= double(a(xg, yd)) - double(a(xd, yd));
C = double(a(xd, yg)) - double(a(xd, yd));
A= double(a(xg, yg)) - double(a(xd, yd))...
- double(a(xd, yg)) - double(a(xg, yd));
%Determination of coefficients
b(xp, yp) = A*(x-xd)*(y-yd)+A*(x-xd) + B* (y-yd)+D;
%Values of target image
end
end
end
b = uint8(b);
%%%end of the program (end of if selections and two for cycles)
%%%and return image to proper format
Write program for distortion.
Write program for rotation and nearest neighbor.
Rotate image for 5 degrees using the nearest neighbor two times and
perform rotation for -5 degrees two times. Perform the same operation
with bilinear interpolation and compare results.
Polar to rectangular raster
In medicine numerous images are created by axial
recording of objects under various angles. This is
imaging technique is common for various medical
scanner types.
Obtained image has circular shape.
Similar images are obtained in radars, sonars, and
some other acquisition instruments.
These images have polar raster (pixels distribution).
Since monitors have rectangular raster we have to
perform corresponding interpolation.
Polar to rectangular raster
4
p
1
p
3
p
2
p
c
p
1
, p
2
, p
3
, p
4
pixels of polar raster
c pixels of rectangular raster
Bilinear interpolation form that is commonly
applied here:
f c
f p p f p p f p p f p p
p p p p
( )
( ) / ( ) / ( ) / ( ) /
/ / / /
=
+ + +
+ + +
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
p
i
are distances between p
i
and c while f() is luminance in the
corresponding pixel
Other interpolation methods
Earlier the bicubic interpolation was not used due to its
demands. It is based on the third order polynomial function.
Today it is assumed that calculation demands are
reasonable and it is one of the most common strategies.
Some sensors in acquisition process deform image (for
example scanners). Fortunately distortion can be known in
advance and we can select appropriate interpolation
strategy commonly using the grid.
The procedure is as follows: scan of the rectangular grid is
performed; then it is observed position where nodes of the
rectangular are moved. Based on this we create inverse
transform that returns image to proper shape using
software means.
Other interpolation forms
A group of the polynomial interpolation algorithm is
quite common and among them the Lagrange
interpolation technique is quite popular.
There are numerous well-established interpolation
technique able to preserve important image features
such for example edges.
Quite common interpolation technique today is based
on spline. This technique is related to both
polynomial interpolation and wavelets.
The Fourier transform can also be used for
interpolation purpose.
For self-exercise
Write own program for evaluation of the image histogram.
Write program for histogram adjusting where upper and lower
bounds are adjusted that reject 5% darkest and 5% brightest
pixels. Pixels outside of this range should be set to the maximal,
i.e., minimal luminance.
How to determined negative of image written using colormap?
Calculation of image negative for color models different from
the RGB?
Write programs for calculation of the image negative.
Create target image based on original image of the hexagonal
shaped range in the size 2-4-2 where pixels of destination
image are equal to mean of pixels of original image.
Realize own functions for all variants of translation.
For self-exercise
Write coordinate transform where rotation is performed for arbitrary
angle.
Write coordinate transform that performs distortion parallel to arbitrary
line y=ax+b.
Determine functional relationship between output and input image for
all transforms defined within lectures.
Is original image enlarged or shrinked with respect to a and b in the
case of scaling?
Can scaling be defined for alternative directions than along the x and y
axes?
Can reflection along coordinate axes and with respect to origin be
described using scaling?
Realize all introduced linear geometric transforms.
Realize coordinate transform: g(x,y)=f(x+Asinby,y+Asinxb). Perform
experiments with A and b.
For self-exercise
Create program for image resize based on bilinear transform. This program
should be able to handle with non-integer values of scale k and l, as well as
with possibility that k and l are smaller than 1.
Write program for distortion.
Write program for rotation and the nearest neighbor interpolation.
Perform rotation for 5 degrees twice using the nearest neighbor and after
that for -5 degrees twice. Also, these operations repeat with bilinear
interpolation. Compare results.
Check if the bilinear interpolation used for transformation of polar to
rectangular raster is the same as the standard bilinear interpolation
introduced previously.
Project
Write program that allows that users can select
colors and adjust colors in interactive manner
including usage of curves presented on slide 18.
When user define more different points curve should
be interpolated using the Lagrange multipliers.
Write program that perform the fish-eye transform as
well as program able to image distorted with fish-eye
return to normal (or close to normal) shape.
Project
Review the Lagrange interpolation formula and use it
for polynomial interpolation using the grid.
Find Internet resources related to interpolation and
write seminar paper related to found facts.
Image and Fourier transform
FT of multidimensional signals
Images are 2D signals.
The Fourier transform of 2D continuous time signal
x(t
1
,t
2
) is:
Inverse Fourier transform gives the original signal:
1 1 2 2
1 2 2 1 2 1
( , , ) ( )
j t j t
e dt dt t X x t

=

1 1 2 2
1 2 1 2 1
2
2
1
(2 )
) ( ( , , )
j t j t
e d d x X t t

+

=

Signal and its FT represent the Fourier transform pair.
This pair can be written in compact form by introducing
vectors (allowing larger number of coordinates than 2):
Fourier transform can be written as: 1 2
( , ,..., )
Q
t t t t =
1 2
( , ,..., )
Q
=
( ( ) )
j t
t
x d t e t X

=

1 2
1 2
... ...
Q
Q
t t t t
dt dt dt dt

= = =
= =

1 1
...
Q Q
t t t = + +
Inverse multidimensional Fourier transform:
We will consider the 2D signals only.
Since we are considering discretized signals we will not
consider in details FT of continuous time signals.
Before we proceed with story about discretized signals
we will give several general comments about the FT.
( (
1
(2 )
) )
j t
Q
X t d x e

Fourier transform
FT establishes the 1 to 1 mapping with signal.
Roughly speaking signal in time and spectral domain
(its Fourier transform) are different representations
of the same signal.
In addition the FT and its inverse have quite similar
definitions (difference in constant and sign of the
complex exponential).
Why we in fact use the FT?
Motivation for introducing the FT
signal in time domain
signal in frequency domain
Consider the sinusoid
represented with red line. In
the FT domain it can be
represented with two clearly
visible spectral peaks. When
we add large amount of
Gaussian noise to sinusoid it
cannot be recognized in time
domain (blue lines) while in
spectral domain still the
spectra achieves maximum for
frequency corresponding to
considered sinusoid.
Motivation for introducing the FT
Roughly speaking: some signals are represented in
better manner in frequency than in time domain.
In addition, filter design is much simpler in spectral
than in space domain. In previous example we will
detect spectral maximum and we will design cut-off
filter that will take just narrow region in the
frequency domain around spectral maximum. In this
way we would reduce significantly influence of noise
to sinusoid.
Similar motivation is used for introducing additional
transforms in digital image processing but we will
consider them later in this course
Similar motivation is used in the case 2D signals and
images.
2D FT of discrete signals
Here we will consider discrete signals.
Then we will skip properties of the 2D FT of
continuous time signals but I propose you to check
that in textbook.
Discrete-time signals are obtained from the
continuous time counterpart by using sampling
procedure.
The sampling in the case of 1D signals is simple and
we can take equidistantly separated samples:
x(n)=c x
a
(n T)
discrete-time signal
continuous time signal (T is sampling
rate)
constant
(commonly c=T)
In order that we can reconstruct continuous-time
signal based on discrete-time counterpart the
sampling theorem should be satisfied.
This theorem is satisfied if sampling rate satisfies:
T 1/2f
m
If the sampling theorem is not satisfied we are
making smaller or bigger mistake.
How to perform sampling in the case of digital
images?
maximal signal frequency
Sampling of 2D signals
The simplest sampling in digital images is:
x(n,m)=c x
a
(n T
1
,m T
2
)
Constant c is commonly selected as c=T
1
T
2
.
Sampling rate is usually equal for both coordinates T
1
=T
2
.
Sampling theorem is satisfied when T
1
1/2f
m1
and T
2
1/2f
m2
.
Here, f
m1
and f
m2
are maximal frequencies along corresponding
coordinates (note that 2D FT of continuous time signals has two
coordinates
1
and
2
. Then f
m1
and f
m2
are maximal
frequencies along these coordinates f
mi
=
mi
/2).
Sampling of 2D signals
Previously described rectangular sampling is not
unique sampling scheme.
In the case of rectangular sampling we are replacing
the rectangular of image with single sample:
Entire rectangular can be replaced with single sample
This is practical sampling scheme but we can
apply some alternative sampling patterns.
2D signal samplings
Some of alternative sampling schemes are given
below:
It can also be rhomb but the hexagon is best
pattern with respect to some well-established
criterion.
However, we will continue with
usage of hexagonal sampling due to
simplicity and practical reasons!!!
Quantization
Discretized signal is not used directly but it is
quantized.
Instead of exact values we are taking values rounded
(or truncated) to the closest value from the set of
possible values (quant).
Errors caused to rounding is smaller than error
caused by truncation but truncation is used more
often in practice.
Quantization
Quantization can be performed with possible values
equidistantly separated but some systems and
sensors are using non-uniform quantization.
Number of quantization levels is commonly 2
k
and
these quant levels are commonly represented as
integers in domain [0,2
k
-1].
We will almost always assume that we have
discretized and quantized (these signals are called
digitalized).
Fourier transform pair between discrete-time signal and
corresponding FT can be represented using the following
relationships:
1 2
1 2
( , ) ( , )
j n j m
n m
X x n e m

= =
=

1 2
1 2
1 2
2
1 2
( , ( , )
1
2 )
)
(
j n j m
X d x e n d m

+
= =
=

2D FT of discrete-time signal is continuous variable and it is not
suitable in this form for operation on the computer machines.
2D FT is periodic with period along both coordinates of 2.
2D DFT
We will not explain in details properties of the 2D
FT of discrete-time signals since we will not use it
in process.
Our goal is to have discretized transform that is
suitable for processing using computer machines.
In order to achieve this we use periodicity
extension property.
Namely, assume that signal x(n,m) is defined
within limited domain (it is always the case for
digital images).
Let size of signal (image) is NxM.
2D DFT
Perform periodical extension of the original signal with period
N
1
xM
1
(it should be satisfied N
1
N and M
1
M but here from the
brevity reasons we assume N
1
=N and M
1
=M).
n
m
original signal x(n,m)
( , ) ( , )
p
r p
x n rN m x n m pM

= =
+ + =

periodical extension
2D DFT
FT of periodically extended signal is:
1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2
( , ) ( , )
( , )
( , ) ( , ) ( 2 ) ( 2 )
j n j m
p
n m r p
j n j m jrN jpM
r p n m
jrN jpM
r p
X x n rN m pM e
x n m e e
X e X N k M k

= = = =

+
= = = =

+
= =
= + + =
= =
= =

Here we changed places of sums and we used property of FT of
translated (shifted) signal with possible neglecting some multiplicative
constants.
Analog Dirac pulses
(generalized functions)
produced by sumation
over infinity number of
terms in sums
2D DFT
Finally we obtain:
Thus, the FT of periodically extended signal is equal to samples
of the 2D FT taken in the discrete grid k
1
[0,N) and k
2
[0,M).
Periodical extension produce discretized FT (DFT).
Periodical extension is commonly not performed in practice due
to infinity number of terms in sums and usage of generalized
functions.
However, we should keep in mind that we assumed and that
the smallest period for extension is equal to dimension of image
NxM.
1 2
1 2
2 2
( , ) ,
p
k k
X X
N M

=

2D DFT
2D discrete signal and 2D DFT are transformation pair
1 2 1 1
1 2
0 0
2 2
( , ) ( , ) e
k k
N
n m
M
N M
j j
n m
X k k x n m

= =

=
It is the FT of discrete
signal calculated in limited
interval and for discretized
frequencies.
1 2
1 2
2 2
1 1
1 2
0 0
1
( , ) ( , ) e
k n k m
N M
j j
N M
k k
x n m X k k
NM

+
= =
=

Important fact: The inverse DFT can be calculated in almost the same way as direct on usign
sums. Differences are very small (minus in complex exponential and normalization constant
1/NM).
Domains of the 2D DFT and FT of
discrete signals
Domain of the 2D FT of the discrete time signal is
Descartes product:
Domain of the 2D DFT is discrete set of points
(k
1
,k
2
)[0,N)x[0,M).
We have to determine relationship between frequencies
in these two domains!!!
Relationship
1
=2k
1
/N and
2
=2k
2
/M can be satisfied
only for 0k
1
<N/2 and 0k
2
<M/2 while for larger k
1
and
k
2
these relationship would produce frequencies outside
of
1
and
2
domain.
1 2
( , ) [ , ) [ , )
[ belongs to interval
( does not belong to
interval
Domains 2D DFT and FT of
discrete signals
For larger k
1
and k
2
we can use the fact that the 2D FT of
discrete time signals is periodical along both coordinates
1
and
2
with period 2 and we can establish relationships:
1
=2(N-k
1
)/N and
2
=2(M-k
2
)/M for N/2k
1
<N and
M/2k
2
<M.
(0,0) (N,0)
(N,M)
(0,M)
Arrows depict
quadrants of the 2D
DFT shift in this
operation for obtaining
properly ordered
frequencies.
2D DFT, convolution and LSIS
Digital image can be subject to numerous forms of
processing.
Assume that image is input in linear space invariant
system:
System is linear when linear combination of inputs
produces linear combination of outputs:
If x(n,m) is input and T{x(n,m)} is transformation of
input produced by the LSIS then it holds:
T{ax
1
(n,m)+bx
2
(n,m)}=aT{x
1
(n,m)}+bT{x
2
(n,m)}
LPIS
?
These systems can be for various
purposes but we will assume their
application for image filtering and
denoising
System is space invariant (extension of the concept of time
invariance) when transform of shifted image is equal to
shifted transform of original image:
If y(n,m)=T{x(n,m)} if should hold
y(n-n
0
,m-m
0
)=T{x(n-n
0
,m-m
0
)}.
LSIS has important property that
its output can be given as a
convolution of input signal with
2D impulse response of the system:
Due to limits in image size,
rounding, discrete nature of
image systems that process
digital imagers are rarely LSIS
but most of them can be
approximated with the LSIS.
y(n,m)=x(n,m)
*n*m
h(n,m)
2D convolution
h(n,m)=T{(n,m)} where:
Assume that impulse response is finite N
1
xM
1
. Then
linear convolution (here, we consider only this type of convolution and
other types will not be considered here) can be defined as :
1 for =0 and =0
( , )
0 elsewhere
n m
n m

=

1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1
0 0
( , ) { ( , )} ( , ) * * ( , )
( , ) ( , )
n m
N M
n m
y n m T x n m x n m h n m
h n m x n n m m

= =
= =
=
Output domain is:

[0,N+N
1
)x[0,M+M
1
)!!!!
2D DFT convolution and LSIS
We should keep in mind size of the output in important
applications.
The FT of convolution is equal to the products of the FTs.
In order to be able to reproduce results in the case of the
2D DFT we should follow the following steps:
Perform zero-padding up to domain [0,N+N
1
)x[0,M+M
1
).
The same operation should be performed with impulse response.
Determine 2D DFT of signal and impulse response.
Multiply obtaned 2D DFTs and calculate inverse 2D DFT.
Write these steps in mathematical form:
1 1 1
( , ) [0, ) [0, )
'( , )
0 [ , ) [ , )
x n m n N m M
x n m
n N N N m M M M

=

+ +
1 1
1 1 1 1 1
( , ) [0, ) [0, )
'( , )
0 [ , ) [ , )
h n m n N m M
h n m
n N N N m M M M

=

+ +
1 2
1 1
1 1
2 2
1 1
1 2
0 0
'( , ) '( , )
k n k n
N N M M
j j
N N M M
n m
X k k x n m e

+ +

+ +
= =
=

1 2
1 1
1 1
2 2
1 1
1 2
0 0
'( , ) '( , )
k n k n
N N M M
j j
N N M M
n m
H k k h n m e

+ +

+ +
= =
=

2D DFT, convolution and LPIS
1 2
1 1
1 1
1 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
1 2 1 2
0 0
1
( , )
( 1)( 1)
'( , ) '( , )
k n k n
N N M M
j j
N N M M
k k
y n m
N N M M
X k k H k k e

+ +
+
+ +
= =
=
+ +

There are cases when calculation of the convolution is faster in the case
of using 3 2D DFTs than by direct computation.
This is possible when we use fast algorithms for evaluation of the 2D
DFTs.
Need for fast algorithms
In the digital signal processing course we have learnt
two the simplest fast algorithms for the 1D DFT
evaluation:
decimation in time
decimation in frequency
Since digital images have more samples than 1D
signals these algorithms are even more important
than in the case of 1D signals.
We can freely claim that the modern digital image
processing would not be developed without FFT
algorithms (FFT is the same transform as DFT but
name only indicates fast evaluation algorithm!!!).
Need for fast algorithms
Direct evaluation for single frequency requires NxM complex
multiplications (complex multiplication is 4 real multiplications and two real
additions) and NxM complex additions (2 real additions). For each
k
1
, k
2
these operations should be repeated NxM times. Then
calculation complexity is of order:
N
2
M
2
complex additions (2N
2
M
2
real)
N
2
M
2
complex multiplications (4N
2
M
2
real+2N
2
M
2
real
additions)
For example N=M=1024 on the PC that can perform 1x10
9
operations in second requires: 8N
2
M
2
>8x10
12
real operations,
i.e., 8x10
3
sec that is more than 2h.
1 2 1 1
1 2
0 0
2 2
( , ) ( , ) e
k k
N
n m
M
N M
j j
n m
X k k x n m

= =

=
Step-by-step fast algorithm

The second sum represents the FT of obtained result in the first
step.
All applied DFTs are 1D and there are in total N+M DFTs.
All 1D DFT can be realized using the fast algorithms.
1 2
1
2 2
2
1 1
1
2
2
0 0
1
0
( , ) ( , ) e
( , )
n m
N M
j j
k k
N M
m
N
n
k
n
j
n
N
X k k x n m e
n k e X

= =

=

= =

=

2D DFT can be written as:
1D DFT of image row
Step-by-Step algorithm
For simplification assume that N=M.
For each of the FFT in rows and columns we need
Nlog
2
N complex additions and multiplications and for
entire freqeuncy-frequency plane it is required:
2NxNlog
2
N complex additions and multiplications.
This ie equal to 8N
2
log
2
N real additions and
multiplications, i.e., 16N
2
log
2
N operations.
For N=M=1024 required number of operations is
160x10
6
. It is equal to 0.16sec on considered
machine.
Step-by-step algorithm
For 1D signals 2FFT algorithms are in usage:
decimation in time
decimation in frequency.
Complexity of both of these algorithms is similar.
The step-by-step algorithm is not optimal for 2D signals but it is quite
popular due to its simplicity.
PC earlier and today mobile devices have problems with memory
demands of the 2D FFT algorithms since today some machines like
mobile devices still have moderate memory amounts. Then we have
problem since in the step by step algorithm we need 3 matrices for:
original image
FT of columns or rows (complex matrix written in memory as two real-
valued matrices)
2D DFT (again complex-valued matrix)
Step-by-step algorithm -
memory
Then in fact we need memory for 5 real-valued matrices.
Fortunately, image is real-valued signal where the following rule
holds:
1 2
1 2
2 2
1 1
*
1 2
0 0
2 ( ) 2 ( )
1 1
1 2
0 0
( , ) ( , ) e
( , ) e ( , )
k n k m
N M
j j
N M
n m
N k n M k m
N M
j j
N M
n m
X k k x n m
x n m X N k M k

+ +
= =

= =
= =
= =
it holds
x*(n,m)=x(n,m)
You can find in the textbook how this relationship can be
used to save memory space!!!
Advanced 2D FFT algorithms
Advanced FFT algorithms for images perform decimation
directly along both coordinates.
1 2
1 1
1 2
0 0
( , ) ( , )
N N
nk mk
N N
n m
X k k x n m W W

= =
=
W
N
=exp(-j2/N)
We assume N=M
This 2D DFT can be given with 4 subsums for even and odd
coefficients
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
1 1 1 1
1 2
0 0 0 0
even even even odd
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
odd even odd odd
( , ) ( , ) ( , )
( , ) ( , )
N N N N
nk mk nk mk
N N N N
n m n m
n m n m
N N N N
nk mk nk mk
N N N N
n m n m
n m n m
X k k x n m W W x n m W W
x n m W W x n m W W

= = = =

= = = =
= + +
+ +

After simple manipulations we obtain all sums within limits of
[0,N/ 2)x[0,N/ 2)
X k k S k k S k k W S k k W S k k W
N
k
N
k
N
k k
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
1 2 00 1 2 01 1 2 10 1 2 11 1 2
2 1 1 2
= + + +
+
where
S k k x m m W
N
m k m k
m
N
m
N
00 1 2 1 2
2 2
0
2 1
0
2 1
2 2
1 1 2 2
2 1
( , ) ( , )
/ /
=
+
=

S k k x m m W
N
m k m k
m
N
m
N
01 1 2 1 2
2 2
0
2 1
0
2 1
2 2 1
1 1 2 2
2 1
( , ) ( , )
/ /
= +
+
=

S k k x m m W
N
m k m k
m
N
m
N
10 1 2 1 2
2 2
0
2 1
0
2 1
2 12
1 1 2 2
2 1
( , ) ( , )
/ /
= +
+
=

S k k x m m W
N
m k m k
m
N
m
N
11 1 2 1 2
2 2
0
2 1
0
2 1
2 12 1
1 1 2 2
2 1
( , ) ( , )
/ /
= + +
+
=

2D DFT can now be represented depending on the
(k
1
,k
2
) as:
X k k S k k W S k k W S k k W S k k
N
k
N
k
N
k k
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
1 2 00 1 2 01 1 2 10 1 2 11 1 2
2 1 1 2
= + + +
+
for
0 2 1
1
k N /
0 2 1
2
k N /
N
N
k
N
k
N
k k
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
1 2 2 00 1 2 01 1 2 10 1 2 11 1 2
2 1 1 2
+ = +
+
for
0 2 1
1
k N /
0 2 1
2
k N /
N
N
k
N
k
N
k k
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
1 2 2 00 1 2 01 1 2 10 1 2 11 1 2
2 1 1 2
+ = +
+
for
0 2 1
1
k N /
0 2 1
2
k N /
Finally:
N N
N
k
N
k
N
k k
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
1 2 2 2 00 1 2 01 1 2 10 1 2 11 1 2
2 1 1 2
+ + = +
+
for
0 2 1
1
k N /
0 2 1
2
k N /
S k k 00 1 2 ( , )
S k k 01 1 2 ( , )
S k k 10 1 2 ( , )
S k k 11 1 2 ( , )
1
WN
WN
WN
k1
k2
k1+k2
X k k ( , ) 1 2
X k k ( , ) 1 2 + /2 N
X k k ( , ) 1 2+ /2 N
X( , ) k k 1 2 + /2 + /2 N N
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
Decomposition can be presented using the following lattice:
Decomposition can
be performed in the
next stage on each
S
ij
(k
1
,k
2
) block. Full
decomposition for
image with 4x4
pixels.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
x(0,0)
x(0,1)
x(1,0)
x(1,1)
1
1
1
1
1
-j
1
-j
1
1
-j
-j
1
-j
-j
-1
x(0,2)
x(0,3)
x(1,2)
x(1,3)
x(2,0)
x(2,1)
x(3,0)
x(3,1)
x(2,2)
x(2,3)
x(3,2)
x(3,3)
X(0,0)
X(2,0)
X(0,2)
X(2,2)
X(0,1)
X(2,1)
X(0,3)
X(2,3)
X(1,0)
X(3,0)
X(1,2)
X(3,2)
X(1,1)
X(3,1)
X(1,3)
X(3,3)
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
Number of complex multiplications for this type of
the FFT algorithm is 3N
2
log
2
N/ 4 while number of
complex additions is 2N
2
log
2
N.
Then there are 3N
2
log
2
Nreal multiplications and
there are 5.5N
2
log
2
Nreal additions.
Total number operations is about half of the number
of operations in the step-by-step algorithm.
There are myriad FFT algorithmtypes!!!
Features of the DFT of real image
2D DFT can be calculated in MATLAB using function:
F=fftshift(fft2(I))
image
Function that calculate the
2D DFT usingFFT algorithm
Shifting FFT coefficients in natural order
(see slide 22)
On the next slide image Lena with logarithm of its 2D DFT is shown
(white positions represent larger values while dark are smaller)
Features of 2D DFT
Test image Lena
2D FFT
values around origin correspond to
(
x
,
y
)=(0,0) are white and they are up to
10
10
times larger than dark positions.
Features of 2D DFT
In the considered image Lena of dimension 256x256 pixels, less than
10 samples of the 2D DFT has more than 99% of energy.
Can we memorize image with just 10 2D DFT samples (comparing to
256x256 pixels).
The answer is NO, NOand NO!!!
Namely, the main part of energy is related to image luminance while
details of image that corresponds to features very important for
human vision are on higher frequencies.
This is very important feature of human eye: components of small
energy on higher frequencies contain main part of information that
humans receive.
High-frequency components have small energy and they are subject to
noise influence.
For self-exercise
Determine properties of the 2D DFT of real-valued signals.
Prove properties of the 2D FT of continuous time signals given in the
textbook. Do these properties hold for 2D FT of discrete signals and
2D DFT?
Assume that 2D signal is discretized in some arbitrary manner
(diamond or hexagon instead of the rectangular sampling).
Reconstruct original signal based on these samples.
Consider convolution of 2D signals. Can evaluation of the convolution
be more efficient using the 2D DFT?
We demonstrated within slides one algorithm for the 2D FFT by
decimation of signal on 4 subsignals. Is this signal decimation in time
or decimation in frequency?.
For self-exercise
Realize the 2D FFT using alternative decimation algorithm.
Is it possible to combine decimations? For example decimation
in frequency along rows and decimation in time along columns.
If it is possible perform this decimation for 4x4 image and
present full decomposition. If it is not possible explain reasons.
Interpolate image using zero-padding of the 2D DFT of original
image!!!
Solve problems given in the textbook at the end of
corresponding chapter.
Radon transform
DCT
Unitary and orthogonal transforms
Radon transform
Radon transform is developed during XIX century.
The aim was to reconstruct interior of objects by using
projections made along different angles.
The entire scientific area called computer tomography is
based on this transform.
In practice, for this transform are used signals that can
penetrate through the object (X-rays or some other
signals) and we are recording the attenuation of these
signals on the way through the objects.
The first application of this transform was recording the
Sun interior based on recordings from the Earth (the Sun
was source of light, i.e., projection in this experiment).
Radon transform
Medicine is the main consumer of
the Radon transform but it is also
used in other fields such as
astronomy.
Recently it is used intensively in
geology.
Namely, the earth surface is
searched for oil and other mineral
goods.
It is used sound signals for these
recordings.
Earth surface
propagation of
sound wave
Radon transform
Assume that we have signal (wave, ray) that has possibility
to penetrate through objects.
This signal attenuates locally in point (x,y) with some
attenuation function f(x,y).
This function can tell us some important information about
material through which this ray is penetrating through the
object (ultrasound is able to propagate through liquid
materials, X-rays attenuate significantly on bones etc).
Therefore, our goal is visualization of attenuation function
f(x,y) for each object point.
However, we know only total attenuation of beam that is
passing through the object (accumulated through the object
on considered path) and based on this information we want
to reconstruct f(x,y).
Radon transform
Consider attenuation function along direction s. A
and B are points where beam entering and exiting
the object.
Under relative mild assumptions beam has linear
propagation in the object and s can be parameterized
as:
xcos+ysin=t
( , )
AB
f x y ds
is angle with respect to the considered coordinate system andt is

parameter determining line from all possible parallel lines with the
same . All lines can be parameterized in this manner.
Attenuation function
Now we can write attenuation as function determined
by angle and parameter t:
P t f x y x y t dxdy
( ) ( , ) ( cos sin ) = +
z z
This relationship holds since
(x,y) along s satisfies
relationship from the previous
slide.
Now we can see that problem
is reduced to determination of
f(x,y) based on P
(t) where
and t are determined by beams
we are sending toward the
object along different angles
and for various values of t.
Usage of the 2D FT
Our goal is to reconstruct f(x,y) based on known P
(t) for
various angles and for various t.
Consider 2D FT of f(x,y):
beams that are
submitted toward
object for angle
1
for various t.
beams that are
submitted toward
object for angle
2
for various t.
F u v f x y e dxdy
j ux vy
( , ) ( , )
( )
=
+
z z
Relationship between P
(t) and
f(x,y) in Fourier domain
FT of signal P
(t) is:
S P t e dt
j t

( ) ( ) =

z
Introduce:
( ) ( , ) ( cos sin ) = +
z z
Now we get:
( ) ( , ) ( cos sin )
j t
S f x y x y t e dxdydt

= +

Relationship between P
(t) and
f(x,y) in Fourier domain
Calculating integral over t we obtain:
( cos sin )
( ) ( , ) ( cos , sin )
j x y
S f x y e dxdy F

+

= =

Now we can claim that there is relationship
between the FT of projections and FT of f(x,y).
Our problem can be solved in 4 steps.
1. Calculating projections.
2. Determination of the 2D FT of projections
3. Determination of the 2D FT of f(x,y).
4. Evaluation of f(x,y) using 2D IFT.
Problems in Radon Transform
Commonly under the Radon transform is assumed
determination of projections P
(t) that are usually

visualized as 2D function of t and .
However, there are plenty of problems in the Radon
(and inverse Radon) transform realization.
The first problem is caused by the fact that we obtain
samples of the FT parameterized as (cos,sin),
i.e., in polar coordinates.
Obviously we should perform interpolation from
rectangular to polar raster in some of the Radon
transform evaluation steps.
Problems in the Rad. trans.
The second important issue is related to recording.
Namely, recording apparatus is moving and we have
no direct relationship with angles but rather with
positions and velocity of apparatuses for scanning and
recording. Then based on position and velocity our
system should reconstruct angle of rays passing
through the object.
Sometime, we already have images of object interior
and we want to determine Radon transform of these
images in order to extract some important features
presented in image
For example these important features could be
existence of straight and sinusoidal lines in image.
Radon. transf. and projections
How to calculate projections if we already have
recorded image?
Projection of
image along
considered angle
is sum of
luminance of
pixels in
considered
direction.
Since image is discrete rays are not passing exactly through the
pixels.
Radon. transf. and projections
Problem of discrete nature of images can be solved in numerous
manners.
Instead of calculating projections for angle rotate image for
angle .
Rotation should be performed with appropriate interpolation.
Projection is calculated by summing horizontal pixels.
In this manner we calculate P
(t).
In the same time we can without rotation sum vertical pixels and in
this manner calculate P
/2-
(t).
This procedure should be performed for all angles.
Note that this is not the most efficient technique for calculating the
Radon transform but it is simple for understanding and it is reason
why it is quite common in practice.
Radon transf. - Example
Assume that we have white line y=ax+b on black
background. Calculate the Radon transform:
( ) ( , ) ( cos sin ) = +
z z
( , ) ( ) f x y y ax b =
Our image can be written as:
Then projection is given as:
( ) ( ) ( cos sin ) P t y ax b x y t dxdy

= +

Radon transf. - Example
After some calculations we obtain:
( sin )
cos si
( ) ( cos ( ) )
n
sin P t x ax b t d
t b
a
x

+
= + + =
Consider this expression. At the first glance we can note that

this expression is equal to infinity for cos+asin=0!!! It
means that we have infinity for: =-arcctg(a) (a is tangens
of the angle between our line and x-axis). For this angle we
can determine the second parameter of the line t=bsin.
Rad. trans. in MATLAB
clear
N=100;
Z=zeros(N,N);
Z(75,25:75)=1;
Z(25,25:75)=1;
Z(25:75,25)=1;
Z(25:75,75)=1;
[R,t]=radon(Z,0:89);
pcolor(0:89,t,R),shading interp
I=iradon(R,0:89);
%%%this function can be called with additional
%%% parameters
This is rather simple
example!
Image is square of
dimension 50x50 (check it
with imshow(Z)). The
second argument of the
radon function are angles
for which this transform is
evaluated.
Image shown with pcolor function has 4 peaks corresponding to 4 edges
of the square.
Inverse transform does not reconstruct image in ideal manner. Why?
DFT - Conclusions
Fourier transform, with its variants, DFT, FT of discrete-
time signals should be quite clear concept for one
engineer.
The FT signal decompose signal in series expansion with
sinusoidal functions. Coefficients on low frequencies
corresponds to the sinusoids with larger periods (slowly
varying) while sinusoids on higher frequencies correspond
to the highly varying signal components.
For flat (slowly varying) images the FT is concentrated
around origin while for fast-varying (textured) images the
FT has components on high frequencies.
DFT - Conclusion
DFT in digital image processing has two serious problems:
DFT for real image gives complex signal. It means that memory
requirements are double of memory requirements for real-valued
signals. However, there are techniques to reduce complexity by
using some properties of the DFT of real signals. How? This
technique then does not solve problem of handling with data.
The second problem is more important. Namely, when image is
corrupted by noise we want to remove those samples of the DFT
that are significantly corrupted by noise. Removing these
components in the DFT domain produces undesired oscillatory
effects in filtered image (caused by the so-called Gibbs
phenomena). Sometimes it is better to keep noise image than
filtered image since these artifacts can be very annoying. This
effect can be reduced by smoothing (not truncating) DFT
coefficients but it introduces some other drawbacks. This the
reason why some alternative transforms are developed for image
filtering and image compression.
Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT)
The most important tool for overcoming drawbacks
of the 2D DFT is the 2D DCT. There are several
definitions of this transform in practice and here we
will use the following (for the 1D DCT):
C
N
x n
n
N
( ) ( ) 0
1
0
1
=
=
for k=1,...,N-1
C k
N
x n
n k
N
n
N
( ) ( ) cos
( )
=
+
=
2 2 1
2
0
1
Inverse DCT
Inverse DCT is defined as:
x n
N
C
N
C k
n k
N
k
N
( ) ( ) ( ) cos
( )
= +
+
=
1
0
2 2 1
2
1
1
For self exercise try to prove that the DCT and inverse
DCT are mutually inverse.
Fast DCT
Since the DCT is very useful in the digital image processing it
is important to have developed fast algorithms for its
evaluation.
There are several approaches for solving this problem:
One is to use the property:
(2 1) (2 1)
exp exp
(2 1)
2 2
cos
2 2
n k n k
j j
n k
N N
N
+ +

+

+

=
and using several simple relationship to reduce the 1D DCT evaluation
to fast evaluation of the 1D DFT.
Try this for homework!!!
Fast DCT
The second technique for fast DCT evaluation is based on
specific methodology for signal extension. Check this
methodology described in the textbook. Again using this
methodology the fast DCT can be reduced to fast DFT
evaluation.
Finally, it is possible to decompose DCT to two DCTs with
N/2 samples. Do it for homework.
dct function is used in MATLAB for the 1D DCT
evaluation while the idct is used for its inverse.
2D DCT
There is not unique form of the 2D DCT. The simplest
realization technique is calculation of the 1D DCT along
columns and after that along rows of newly obtained
matrix.
However, there are alternative techniques for direct
evaluation of the 2D DCT. Again there are several
definitions of the 2D DCT that can be used in practice but
here we adopted:
C k k x n n
n k
N
n k
N
n
N
n
N
( , ) ( , ) cos
( )
cos
( )
1 2 1 2
1 1
1
2 2
2
0
1
0
1
4
2 1
2
2 1
2
2
2
1
1
=
+ +
=

Inverse 2D DCT
Inverse 2D DCT (for our the 2D DCT form) is:
x n n
N N
w k w k C k k
n k
N
n k
N
k
N
k
N
( , ) ( ) ( ) ( , ) cos
( )
cos
( )
1 2
1 2
1 1 2 2 1 2
1 1
1
2 2
2
0
1
0
1
1 2 1
2
2 1
2
2
2
1
1
=
+ +
=

w k
k
k N
i i
i
i
( )
/
=
=

R
S
T
1 2 0
1 1 1
For homework prove that the 2D DCT and its inverse
defined on this slide form transformation pair, i.e., they
are mutually inverse. If this is not satisfied propose
modification of one of them or both!!!
Fast 2D DCT
The same three methodologies used for the 1D DCT
realization can be applied here for the 2D DCT fast
realization.
However, additional problem is related to problem
dimensions since we should decide between step-
by-step realization and direct 2D evaluation.
Step-by-step reduces problem to the 1D DCT and
(with help of the textbook) try to apply these variants
to the realization of the 2D DCT.
I am sharing your excitement with this task!
2D DCT MATLAB - Example
Function for 2D DCT realization in MATLAB is dct2 while its inverse
is idct2. In the case of the 2D DCT (as well as in the 1D DCT)
coefficients shifting is not required.
Logarithm of the DCT coefficients for Baboon is given below.
low-frequency coefficients
with very high values, this part
corresponds to the image
luminance
high-frequency
coefficientswith extremely
small values, these coefficients
correspond to the image details
Unitary and orthogonal
transforms
The DFT and DCT obviously are quite similar.
They have similar properties but even their structure
is quite similar.
Namely, both group of transforms can be written as
(for 1D signals) :
1
0
( ) ( ) ( , )
N
n
X k x n w n k
=
=
They can be also written in matrix form.

Transforms using matrices
Inverse transforms can be written as:
x=W
-1
X
(0) (0, 0) (1, 0) ( 1, 0) (0)
(1) (0,1) (1,1) ( 1,1) (1)
( 1) (0, 1) (1, 1) ( 1, 1) ( 1)
X w w w N x
X w w w N x
X N w N w N w N N x N
X = W x
Unitary and orthogonal transf.
Two important classes of transforms are:
Unitary transform has unitary transform matrix
W
-1
=W
H
(W
H
is Hermitian matrix, i.e., transpose and
conjugate W
H
=(W
T
)
*
).
Orthogonal transforms have orthogonal transformation
matrix: W
-1
=W
T
.
Obviously, all orthogonal transforms are in the same
time unitary for real valued W.
At the first glance the DFT doesnt belong to any of
these two important classes. Then the DFT is
sometimes defined as:
1
0
( ) ( )
1
N
nk
N
n
X k x n W
N
=
=

Multiplicative constant that
has no impact on transform
properties.
DFT as unitary transform
Inverse transform is now defined as:
1
0
( ) ( )
1
N
nk
N
k
x n X k W
N
=
=

It is easy to prove that this form of the DFT is unitary transform.
In order to avoid complications, we assume under orthogonal and
unitary transforms all transforms that can be reduced to these
transforms by simply introducing multiplicative constants.
Basic reason for using these two group of transforms is the fact that inverse matrix
calculation is very demanding operation and that it is avoided in these transforms.
Basis signals
Now, we want to introduce a concept of basis
signals.
Consider the inverse transform:
1
0
( ) ( ) ( , )
N
k
x n X k g n k
=
=
Obviously that this can be written in the

matrix form and that between matrix G
(rows of this matrix are g(n,k)) and
matrix Wexists simple relationship.
Now we can note that by using formalism of the transform
detection we forget very often reasons for its introduction. Signal
(under some conditions, for example signals of finite energy) can
be represented with expansion of some elementary functions
g(n,k) with weighted coefficients that are equal to the
transformation coefficients.
Basis signals
Since considered transforms are linear, sum of
transforms is equal to sum of signals.
Write transform as:
1
1
1
1
0
( ) ( )
N
k
k
X k X k k
=
=
This practically means that transform can be considered

as a sum of N transforms that are equal to X(k
1
) =X
k1
for k=k
1
and 0 elsewhere.
Analyze combination of the last two relationships.
Basis signals
Thus, any signal can be represented as a weighted sum
of matrix of inverse transforms (that is commonly in
simple relation with transform matrix rows or columns).
Signals g(n,k
1
) are called basis and their analysis can
give us a lot of information about nature of some
transform.
1
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
0 0
1 1 1
1
0 0 0
1
( ) ( ) ( , )
( ) ( , ( , ) )
N N
k
k k
N N N
k k
k k k
g n k
x n X k k g n k
X k k g n k X

= =

= = =
= =
= =

Basis signals Example
Consider DFT where g(n,k)=exp(j2nk/N).
Take N=8 and try to visualize real part of the
transform. In order to further simplify
visualization we will use instead of discrete
instants n continuous time variable t.
Obtained basis signals are:
1 cos(t/4) cos(t/2) cos(3t/4)
cos(t) cos(5t/4) cos(3t/2) cos(7t/4)
1
cos(t/4)
cos(t/2)
cos(3t/4)
cos(t)
cos(5t/4)
cos(3t/2)
cos(7t/4)
Basis signals describe
nature of transforms.
Namely, weighted sum of
basis functions produce
transformed signal. When
weight of low-frequency
components is larger (for
small k) signal is more
low-frequency, while in
opposite case it is more
on high frequencies.
Generalized transforms for
2D signals
Before we proceed with some important transforms
(in addition to DFT and DCT) we will consider
generalization of transforms for 2D signals.
Let 2D signal x(n,m) has dimension NxM.
Generalized transform can be written as:
1 1
1 2 1 2
0 0
( , ) ( , ) ( , ; , )
N M
n m
X k k x n m J n m k k

= =
=
4D transformation matrix
Common form of
transformation matrix
Fortunately the 4D transform matrix is not in common
usage and instead we are performing transforms in step-
by-step manner along columns (or rows) and after that on
rows (or columns).
The rationale is the same as in the step-by-step algorithm
for 2D DFT calculation.
Then the 2D transform can be written as:
1 1
1 2 2 1
0 0
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
N M
c r
n m
X k k x n m H m k H n k

= =

=

2D transforms
Matrix form
Matrix representation of separable transforms (where 4D
transform matrix can be written as multiple of 2 2D transform matrices) can
be written as:
X=H
c
x H
r
Inverse transform can be written as (recall basic matrix algebra):
x=H
c
-1
X H
r
-1
The commonly transforms applied on rows and columns
are the same H
c
=H
r
=T and it follows:
X=T x T x=T
-1
X T
-1
For T unitary or orthogonal matrix the 2D transform can be
performed as:
x=T
H
X T
H
or x=T
T
X T
T
Basis images
In analogy to the basis signals we can introduce the basic
images. For image of dimensions NxM it can be defined NxM
basic images that are equal to inverse transform of signal
(i-p,j-q). These NxM basic images can be obtained when p i q
are changed within the range (p,q)[0,N)X[0,M).
If P=T
-1
we have separable transform where basic image
(p,q) is equal to:
f
(p,q)
(n,m)=P(n,p)P(m,q)
Then any image can be represented as a sum of the basic
images:
1 1
, ( , )
0 0
( , ) ( , )
N M
p q p q
p q
x n m X f n m

= =
=
Sinusoidal transforms
Signal can be given in the form of the expansion over
function of different type but sinusoidal (or cosinusoidal
functions) are the most common.
They are quite natural concept. In electrical engineering
they corresponds to electrical current produced in
generators causing such type of current shape in our
power lines. Numerous phenomena in communication
systems are also associated with sinusoidal functions. In
mechanic this function type can appear in the case of
oscillations.
In addition, sinusoidal functions offer elegant
mathematical apparatus useful in analysis of numerous
practical phenomena.
The DFT has coefficients of the transformation matrix:
w(n,k)=exp(-j2nk/N)
In addition we introduced the DCT with coefficients:
I t can be multiplied with N
(
(
2 1)
( ) , ) cos
2
n k
c n k
N
k
+
=

1/ 0
2
( )
/ 0
N k
N
k
k
There are other sinusoidal transforms

as the DST (discrete sinusoidal
transform) with coefficients of the
transformation matrix:
2 ( 1)( 1)
( , ) sin
1 1
n k
s n k
N N
+ +

=

+ +

Hartley transform
The Hartley transform (DHT) is relatively common in
practice.
Its coefficients are defined as:
2 2 2
( , ) cas cos sin
nk nk nk
h n k
N N N

= = +

The Hartley transform is similar to the Fourier transform but
for real-valued signals produces the real-valued transform
what is useful in some applications.
We concluded with the most common sinusoidal
transforms used in practice.
Within the next lecture we will learn that there are
alternatives to the sinusoidal transforms in the case
of digital images.
For exercise determine relationships between these
transform in 1D and 2D cases.
In addition try to calculate basis images for these
transforms.
For self-exercise
Here, we will just repeat tasks for self-exercise
mentioned within lecture.
Apply the Radon transform in the MATALB on several
simple images and try to perform reconstruction
using the iradon command. What are your
conclusions?
Apparatus for recording and creating Radon
transform moves with uniform angular velocity
around an object that is subject to recording. What is
image with Radon image concentrated in single pixel?
Is there more complicated shape than the straight
line that can achieve this kind of functional
relationship.
For self-exercise
Prove that the DCT and the inverse DCT are mutually inverse.
Determine inverse transform for all introduced sinusoidal transforms.
Realize fast DCT using specific periodical extension described in the
textbook; by using the cosine written as two exponential functions; and
by using direct procedure. Compare these solutions.
Realize fast 2D DCT using these three algorithms.
Consider 2D DFT and 2D DCT for some real-valued image and mask
(filter) part of coefficients and calculate inverse transform and compare
it with original image. Present your conclusions.
For self-exercise
Determine relationships between 4 introduced sinusoidal
transform and realize fast algorithms for their evaluations. It is
especially important (and hard) to realize for example DHT with
N samples by decimation to two DHTs with N/2 samples.
For introduced sinusoidal transforms determine inverse
transforms.
For a given N determine basis signals and basis images for
some introduced sinusoidal transforms by using MATLAB. Also,
you can check next slides.
Basis signals and basis images
Show basis signals for DHT with N=32.
clear
N=32;
[n,k]=meshgrid(0:N-1,0:N-1);
H=cos(2*pi*n.*k/ N)+sin(2*pi*n.*k/ N);
G=inv(H);
for k=1:N
plot(G(:,k))
pause
end
Basis signals and images
Form basis images for DHT with N=8.
clear
N=8;
[n,k]=meshgrid(0:N-1,0:N-1);
H=cos(2*pi*n.*k/ N)+sin(2*pi*n.*k/ N);
G=inv(H);
for m=1:8
for n=1:8
baz=G(m,:)'*G(n,:);
pcolor(baz)
title([basis images for m=',num2str(m),' n=',num2str(n)])
pause
end
end

Digital Image Processing

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Digital Image Processing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Digital image processing

Most important systems

Number of bits per pixel

negative direction clockwise

Output domain is:

Step-by-step fast algorithm

is angle with respect to the considered coordinate system andt is

(t) that are usually

Consider this expression. At the first glance we can note that

They can be also written in matrix form.

Obviously that this can be written in the

This practically means that transform can be considered

There are other sinusoidal transforms

You might also like