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MULTIROLE FIGHTER AIRCRAFTS

Aircraft Design Project- I


SUBMITTED BY


CHINNAMUTHU M 720711101028
CHINNARAJA A 720711101029
DEIVAMOORTHY B 720711101030
DELHI DURAI G 720711101031



DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
HINDUSTHAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
COIMBATORE.


HINDUSTHAN
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
COIMBATORE - 641 032.
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Certified that this is the bonafide record of work done by DEIVAMOORTHY B
in the Aircraft Design Project-I (AE 2356 ) of this Institution, as prescribed by the
Anna University for the Sixth Semester during the year 2013-2014.

Place: Coimbatore
Date:


Staff in-charge Head of the Department



University Register no 720711101030

Submitted for the Aircraft Design project - I ( AE2356) Practical Examination of the Anna
University conducted on 08.04.2014


Internal Examiner External Examiner
WHEN YOU DESIGN AN AIRPLANE THINK ABOUT HOW YOU WOULD FEEL
IF YOU HAD TO FLY IT! SAFETY FIRST. Sign on the wall of the design office at Douglas
Aircraft Company, 1992.

Aircraft design is an evolutionary process rather than a revolutionary process. Thanks to
Sir George Cayley who is a milestone in the evolutionary process. If anyone wants to design an
aircraft without taking any help from previous designs, it will be a one of two extremes, one a
success with the hectic and long process or a failure even after long duration.
Airplane design is an art and a science. In that respect it is difficult to learn by reading a
book. Airplane design the intellectual engineering process of creating on paper a flying machine
to meet certain specification and requirements established by potential users or to pioneer
innovative, new ideas and technology, like the aircraft to be designed here.
An example of the former is the designer of most commercial transports, starting at least
with the Douglas DC-1 in 1932, which was designed to meet or exceed various specifications by
an airplane company.
An example of the later is the design of Rocket- powered Bell X-1, the first airplane to
exceed the speed of sound in level of climbing or level flight on October 14, 1947. The design
process is indeed an intellectual activity, but a rather a special one that is tempered by good
intuition developed via experience, by attention paid to successful airplane designs that have been
used in past, and by design procedures and databases that are a part of every airplane
manufacturers.
So there is a need to conduct a literature survey related to what sort of aircraft is going to
be designed.
The project is centered towards a design of safe jet transport. The objective of this project
is to provide a better design by manipulating the previous designs.







TABLE OFCONTENTS



Sl.
No.
Date Exercise Name Marks Signature
1 23.1.14 Literature survey
2 23.1.14 Comparative Plots
3 30.1.14 Weight estimation
4 06.2.14 Engine selection
5 20.2.14 Airfoil selection
6 27.2.14 Wing design
7 27.2.14 Wetted area calculation
8 06.3.14 Drag polar
9 20.3.14 Drag calculation
10 27.3.14 Thrust required calculation
11 27.3.14 Rate off climb calculation















LISTOF SYMBOLS

R -Range
V -Velocity
C -specific fuel consumption
E -Loitering time
L/D -lift to drag ratio


-Velocity at altitude


-Density at altitude
S - wing surface area
b - wing span

-coefficient of viscosity at altitude


-Horizontal tail volume coefficient


- Horizontal tail arm length


- Horizontal tail area


-Wing area


-Wing mean chord
L
VT
-Vertical tail arm length
S
VT
Vertical tail area
C
VT
-Vertical tail volume coefficient
b
W
-Wing span
S
W
-Wing area
VTO - Vertical take-off distance
STO - Take-off distance
FTO - Take-off thrust
VA - Approach Velocity
S Wetted area
-Sweep angle
- Taper ratio


INTRODUCTION

BASIC DESIGN PROCESS:-
An airplane design is both an art and a science. Airplane design is an intellectual
engineering process of creating on paper a flying machine to
Meet specifications established by users
Pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology.
The design process is an intellectual activity developed via experience, by attention paid to
successful airplane designs that have been used in the past and by design procedures and databases
that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.
PHASES OF AIRPLANE DESIGN:-
From the time when an airplane materializes as a new thought to the time the finished product is
ready, the complete design undergoes three distinct phases in perfect sequences which are
Conceptual design
Preliminary design
Detail design
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN:-
The design process starts with a set of specifications or much less frequently to desire to implement
pioneering. There is a concrete goal where we designers are aiming at. The first step towards it is
conceptual design. Within a fuzzy latitude, overall shape, size, weight are determined for the
potential user.
The product of the conceptual design phase is layout of airplane configuration on paper. This
drawing has flexible lines, which can be slightly changed. However we get a detailed account of
the layout configuration at the end of this phase. The major drivers during the conceptual design
process are aerodynamics, propulsion and flight performance.
Structural and control system considerations are not dealt in detail but however they are not dealt
in detail but however they are not totally absent. The designer is influenced by qualitative aspects.
No part of the design process is carried out in total vacuum unrelated to other parts.
PRELIMINARY DESIGN:-
This phase includes only minor changes to be made in the configuration layout. There is serious
control and structural system analysis and design takes place. During this phase substantial wind
tunnel testing will be carried out and major computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations. At
the end of the phase, the airplane configuration is frozen and defined. The drawing process is called
lofting. This process makes precise shape of outside skin of airplane making certain all sections fit
together.
The end of the phase is the decision if the airplane is to be manufactured or not. It is no longer a
critical condition where you bet your company on full scale development of a new airplane.
DETAIL DESIGN:-
This phase is literally the nuts and bolts phase of airplane design. The aerodynamic, propulsion,
structures, performance, flight control analysis are over in the preliminary phase. The airplane is
to be fabricated and machined. The size, number and location of rivets, fasteners are determined
now. Flight simulators are developed. At the end of this phase, the aircraft is ready to be fabricated.
THE SEVEN INTELLECTUAL PIVOT POINTS FOR CONCEPTUAL DESIGN:-
The overall conceptual design is anchored by seven intellectual pivot points seven factors that
anchor the conceptual design thought process. They allow different, detailed thinking to reach out
in all directions from each point.
REQUIREMENTS:-
The requirements are given by the people who are going to buy the customers. For other aircrafts,
these requirements are usually set by the manufacturer in full appreciation of needs of owner.
Requirements of one airplane are different from the other. There can be no stipulated specific
standard. There must be established requirements that serve as impinge off point for design
process. The requirements that are frequently stipulated are:
Range
Takeoff distance
Stalling velocity
Endurance
Maximum velocity
Rate of climb
For dog fighting combat, maximum turn rate and minimum turn radius
Maximum load factor
Service ceiling
Cost
Reliability and maintainability
Maximum size.

SEVEN INTELEECTUAL PIVOT POINTS FOR DESIGN
















NO


YES



REQUIREMENTS
WEIGHT OF AIRPLANE FIRST ESTIMATE

CRITICAL PERFORMANCE PARAMETER
LIFT COEFFICENT (CLMAX)
LIFT-TO-DRAG RATIO
(L/DMAX)
WING LOADING (W/S)
THRUST TO WEIGHT
RATIO(T/W)


CONFIGURATION LAYOUT SHAPE
ANDSIZE OF AIRPLANE ON DRAWING
BETTER WEIGHT ESTIMATE
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS-DOES DESIGN
MEET REQUIREMENTS
S
OPTIMIZATION
AIRCRAFT CONCEPTUAL DESIGN PROCESS























BETTER
REQUIREMENTS

NEW CONCEPT
IDEAS
TECHNOLOGY AVAILABLE
CONCEPT SKETCH
FIRST GUESS SIZING
WEIGHTS
COST
AERO
WEIGHT
S
INITIAL LAYOUT
AERO
PRELIMNARY DESIGN
REFORMED SIZE PERFORMANCE
OPTIMIZATION
ETC
STRUCTURE
S
SIZING AND
PERFORMANCES
OPTIMIZATION
PROPULSION
LANDING GEAR
PROPULSION
REVISED LAYOUT

CRITICAL PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS:-
Requirements stipulate the performance of the new aircraft. The critical parameters are:
Maximum lift coefficient
Lift to drag ratio (L/D)
Thrust to weight ratio (T/W)
Therefore the next step is to make first estimates of W/S and T/W to achieve the performance as
stipulated by requirements.
CONFIGURATION LAYOUT:-
The configuration layout is a drawing of the shape and size of the airplane as evolved till stage.
The critical performance parameters along with first weight estimate helps to draw the
configuration and approximate the size of the aircraft.

BETTER WEIGHT ESTIMATE:-
The overall size and shape of the airplane are better known now. There is now an improved
estimate of weight based on performance parameters. A more detailed estimate of fuel is required
now.
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS:-
This is the point where the configuration is judged if it can meet all original specifications. An
interactive process is initiated where the configuration is modified. The critical performance
parameters are adjusted for improving performance. In this stage, some mature decisions should
be made as the specifications or cost or unavailable technology.
Hence some specifications might be relaxed so that others might get higher priority.
OPTIMIZATION:-
When iterative process is over, it has produced a viable airplane. This leads to optimization. The
optimization analysis is carried out may be carried out by a systematic variation of different
parameters T/W, W/S and plotting the performance of graphs which can be found using a sizing
matrix or a carpet plot from which optimum design can be found.
WEIGHT OF AIRPLANCE FIRST ESTIMATE:-
No airplane can take off the ground unless it produces a lift greater than its weight. There
should be a first estimate of gross takeoff weight. The weight estimate is the next pivot point after
the requirements. Lilienthal, Langley and Wright brothers knew more weight means more drag.
This needed an engine with greater power and hence more weight
CONSTRAINT DIAGRAM:-
A constraint diagram is constructed which identifies allowable solution space for airplane design.
A constraint diagram consists of plots of the sea level thrust to take off weight ratio versus wing
loading attakeoff weight ratioTO/WO versuswing loading at takeoff WO /S determined by
intellectual pivot point.







THE DESIGN WHEEL
























SIZING
AND
TRADE
STUDIES

REQUIREMEN
T

DESIGN
ANALYSIS
DESIGN
CONCEPT

CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES
1. FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS
a. Civil Airplanes
b. Military Airplanes
Civil Airplanes Military Airplanes
Cargo transport Strategic fighters
Passenger travel Interceptors
Mail distribution Escort fighters
Agricultural Tactical bombers
Ambulance Strategic bombers
Executive transport Ground attack airplanes
Training Photo-reconnaissance airplanes
Sports Multipurpose airplanes
Air taxi & charter
Forestry
Fish and wildlife sanctuary
Construction
Aerial photography
Off- shore drilling

2. CLASSIFICATION BY POWER PLANT
a. Types of engine
i. Piston Engines
ii. Turbo-Prop Engines
iii. Turbo-jet Engines
iv. Ram-jet Engines
v. Rockets
b. Number of engines
i. Single Engine
ii. Twin Engine
iii. Multi-Engine
c. Location of power plant
i. Engine (with propeller) located in fuselage nose
ii. Pusher Engine located in the rear fuselage
iii. Engines (jet) submerged in the wing
1. At the root
2. Along the span
iv. Engines (jet) in nacelles suspended under the wing(pod mountings)
v. Engines (jet) located on the rear fuselage
vi. Engines (jet) located within the rear fuselage
3. CLASSIFICATION BY CONFIGURATION
a. Shape and position of wing
b. Type of fuselage
c. Location of horizontal tail surfaces
d. Types of Landing gear




Exp.No:1 Date: 23.01.2014
LITERATURE SURVEY

It is very easy to design an aircraft if we have datas about already existing aircrafts of similar
type. It provides more satisfaction and avoids confusion while choosing some design parameters
for our aircraft. In this detailed survey some many important design drivers like aspect ratio, wing
loading, overall dimensions and engine specifications are determined for our reference. It assists
in proposing a new design and modification in our design which will improve the performance of
the proposed aircraft. This assures the performance of the aircraft as per the design calculations
and easy way of designing an aircraft within particular period of time. So in this literature survey
we have collected some ten already existing 20 seated jet transport aircraft for our reference of
design parameters. Mostly these aircrafts have similar characteristics in many designs aspects
which are shown in the table.
























GEOMETRIC SPECIFICATIONS

Sl.
No.
Name of theAircraft Aspect Ratio Wing Span
(m)
Length
(m)
Wing Area
(m
2
)
Wing Loading
(Kg/m
2
)
1 Chengdu J-10 2.87 9.75 15.49 5.43 33.1
2 EurofighterTyphoon 2.09 11.61 20.83 6.45 64.57
3 F/A-18 Hornet 3.98 12.3 17.1 4.7 38
4
F-16 Fighting
Falcon 3.56 9.96 15.06 4.88 27.87
5 F-35 Lighting II 2.68 10.7 154.67 4.33 42.7
6 HAL Tejas 1.75 8.2 13.2 4.4 38.4
7 JAS 39 Gripen 2.35 8.4 14.1 4.5 30
8 JF-17 Thunder 3.66 9.45 14.93 4.72 24.4
9
Lockheed F-22
Raptor 2.36 13.56 18.9 5.08 78.04
10 MiG-29 3.42 11.4 17.37 4.73 38
11 MiG-29K 3.34 11.99 17.3 4.4 43
12 MiG-29M 3.42 11.4 17.37 4.73 38
13 Mirage 2000 2.03 9.13 14.36 5.2 41
14 Mitsubishi F-2 3.56 11.13 15.52 4.69 34.84
15 Rafale 2.55 10.8 15.27 5.34 45.7
16 Su-27m 3.78 15.3 21.9 5.9 62
17 Su-35 3.78 15.3 21.9 5.9 62
18 Sukhoi Su -47 3.71 15.16 22.6 6.3 61.87
19
Sukhoi T-50 PAK-
FA 3.49 14.7 21.935 6.36 62
20 T-50 Golden Eagle 2.49 14 19.8 6.05 78.8
21 Tornado IDS 7.27 13.91 16.72 5.95 26.6


















WEIGHT SPECIFICATIONS
Sl.
No.
Name of the Aircraft
Empty
Weight
(Kg)
Gross Weight
(Kg)
Maximum Take-off Weight
(Kg)
1 Chengdu J-10 9,750 14,250 19,277
2 EurofighterTyphoon 8777 11,346 14300
3 F/A-18 Hornet 10400 13,013 23500
4 F-16 Fighting Falcon 8570 11,675 19200
5 F-35 Lighting II 13300 17,490 31800
6 HAL Tejas 6500 9,500 13200
7 JAS 39 Gripen 6800 9,068 14000
8 JF-17 Thunder 6586 9,586 12383
9
Lockheed F-22
Raptor 19700 22,822 38000
10 MiG-29 13380 16,720 22400
11 MiG-29K 18550 20,950 24500
12 MiG-29M 11000 13,100 20000
13 Mirage 2000 7500 10,100 17000
14 Mitsubishi F-2 9527 13,927 22090
15 Rafale 9500 14,200 24500
16 Su-27m 8400 11,215 34500
17 Su-35 8400 14,000 34500
18 Sukhoi Su -47 16375 21,645 35000
19 Sukhoi T-50 PAK-FA 8400 13,490 38800
20 T-50 Golden Eagle 18500 23,300 37000
21 Tornado IDS 13890 17,140 28000















POWERPLANT SPECIFICATIONS

Sl.
No.
Name of the Aircraft Type of Engine
Number
of
Engines
Power or Thrust per Engine
(KN)
1 Chengdu J-10 Turbofan 1 79.43
2 EurofighterTyphoon Turbofan 1 44
3 F/A-18 Hornet Turbofan 2 48.98
4 F-16 Fighting Falcon Turbofan 1 76.3
5 F-35 Lighting II Turbofan 1 125
6 HAL Tejas Turbofan 1 53.9
7 JAS 39 Gripen Turbofan 1 54
8 JF-17 Thunder Turbofan 1 49.4
9
Lockheed F-22
Raptor
Turbofan
2 104
10 MiG-29 Turbofan 2 88.26
11 MiG-29K Turbofan 2 88.3
12 MiG-29M Turbofan 2 81.4
13 Mirage 2000 Turbofan 1 64.3
14 Mitsubishi F-2 Turbofan 1 76
15 Rafale Turbofan 2 50.04
16 Su-27m Turbofan 2 86.3
17 Su-35 Turbofan 2 86.3
18 Sukhoi Su -47 Turbofan 2 83.4
19 Sukhoi T-50 PAK-FA Turbofan 2 123
20 T-50 Golden Eagle Turbofan 2 93.1
21 Tornado IDS Turbofan 2 71.53








PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS


Sl.
No.
Name of the Aircraft
Maximum
speed
(m/s)
Cruising
speed (m/s)
Service ceiling
(Km)
Range
(Km)
1 Chengdu J-10 2695 386.11 18,000 1149
2 EurofighterTyphoon 2450 588.89 16765 2900
3 F/A-18 Hornet 1190 347.22 15240 2000
4 F-16 Fighting Falcon 2120 670.54 15240 1950
5 F-35 Lighting II 1930 536.43 18288 2220
6 HAL Tejas 1350 383.33 15000 850
7 JAS 39 Gripen 2,204 388.89 15240 1865
8 JF-17 Thunder 1960 544.44 16920 1689
9
Lockheed F-22
Raptor 2410
670.56
19812 2960
10 MiG-29 2400 666.21 18013 1430
11 MiG-29K 2200 610.56 17500 1500
12 MiG-29M 2600 694.5 17500 1600
13 Mirage 2000 2530 649.44 17060 1550
14 Mitsubishi F-2 2469.6 590 18000 834
15 Rafale 1,912 385.83 15,235 3,700
16 Su-27m 2390 375 18000 3600
17 Su-35 2390 510.42 18000 3600
18 Sukhoi Su -47 1717 500 18000 3300
19 Sukhoi T-50 PAK-FA 2500 416.67 17300 3000
20 T-50 Golden Eagle 1770 246.39 14630 1851
21 Tornado IDS 2400 268.06 15240 1390

















Exp.No:2 Date:23.01.2014

COMPARATIVE GRAPHS

Speed Vs aspect ratio


0.00
2.50
5.00
7.50
0 200 400 600 800
A
S
P
E
C
T

R
A
T
I
O
SPEED (m/s)
SPEED Vs ASPECT RATIO











Speed Vs rate of climb


Speed Vs range
0
150
300
450
0 200 400 600 800
R
/
C

(
m
/
s
)
SPEED (m/s)
SPEED Vs R/C








Speed Vs altitude

Speed Vs wing loading
0
2000
4000
6000
0 200 400 600 800
R
A
N
G
E

(
K
m
)
SPEED (m/s)
SPEED Vs RANGE
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
0 200 400 600 800
A
L
T
I
T
U
D
E

(
m
)
SPEED (m/s)
SPEED Vs ALTITUDE








Speed Vs b/l


0
200
400
600
800
0 200 400 600 800
W
I
N
G
L
O
A
D
I
N
G

(
K
g
/
m
2
)
SPEED (m/s)
SPEED Vs WINGLOADING
0.000
0.250
0.500
0.750
1.000
0 200 400 600 800
b
/
l
SPEED (m/s)
SPEED Vs b/l






















RESULT:
From the above comparative graphs and calculation,
1. Velocity Vs Aspect ratio
Velocity =660m/s
Aspect ratio =3.0
2. Velocity Vs Rate of climb
Velocity =640 m/s
Rate of climb=300m/s
3. Velocity Vs Range
Velocity = 650m/s
Range = 2000 Km
4. Velocity Vs altitude
Velocity =650m/s
Altitude =18000 Km
5. Velocity Vs Wing loading
Velocity =642m/s
Wing loading =355Kg/m
2

6. Velocity Vs b/l
Velocity=640m/s
b/l=0.63
Average velocity = 647m/s =2.19 Mach




Exp.No:3 Date: 30.01.2014

PRIMARY WEIGHT ESTIMATION
The purpose of this section is to introduce a technique to obtain the first estimate of the maximum
take-off weight for an aircraft before it is designed and built. The word estimation is intentionally
selected to indicate the degree of the accuracy and reliability of the output. Hence, the value for
the maximum take-off weight is not final and must be revised in the later design phases. The result
of this step may have up to about 20% inaccuracies, since it is not based on its own aircraft data.
But the calculation relies on the other aircraft data with similar configuration and mission. Thus,
we are adopting the past history as the major source of the information for the calculation in this
step. At the end of the preliminary design phase, the take-off weight estimation is repeated by
using another more accurate technique.
An aircraft has a range of weights from minimum to maximum depending upon the number of pilots
and crew, fuel, and payloads (passengers, loads, luggage, and cargo). As the aircraft flies, the fuel is
burning and the aircraft weight is decreasing. The most important weight in the design of an aircraft
is the maximum allowable weight of the aircraft during take-off operation. It is also referred to as
all up weight. The design maximum take-off weight (MTOW or WTO) is the total weight of an
aircraft when it begins the mission for which it is designed. The maximum design take-off weight
is not necessarily the same as the maximum nominal take-off weight, since some aircraft can be
overloaded beyond design weight in an emergency situation, but will suffer a reduced performance
and reduced stability. Unless specifically stated, maximum take-off weight is the design weight. It
means every aircraft component (e.g. wing, tail) is designed to support this weight.


The major factor that determines the whole design of aircraft especially the selection of
overall weight, airfoil and power plant of the aircraft.
Total weight of an airplane is given by,
W
TO
=WC+WPL+WF+WE

Where,
WTO = Design takeoff weight of the aircraft
WC = crew weight
WPL = weight of the payload
WF = weight of the fuel
WE = empty weight
To simplify the calculation, both fuel and empty weights can be expressed as fractions of the total
takeoff weight, i.e., Wf/WO. Equation
WO = WC+WPL+ ( )WTO+( )WTO
This can be solved for WTO as follows:
WTO ( ) WTO ( ) WTO = WC+WPL
WTO = ( )
Now WTO can be determined if (WF/WTO) and (WE/WTO) can be estimated.
These are described below.
WPL=WPASSENGERS+WBAGGAGE

Assuming that each passenger with baggage weight is 90kg then the payload weight is,

W Pay Load = 3000 kg
Assuming that each crew with baggage weight is 90kg then,
W Crew =(1*90 ) = 90kg
So,
Wpl+Wc
W TO = ---------------------------------
1-(W f/WTO) (WE / WTO )

(90+3000)
= --------------------------------
1-(0.287)-(0.6)
= 27345.13kg


MISSION PROFILE:-



From the figure the various stages of aircraft during mission is as follows,
1 start &warm up
2 Taxiing in the runway
3 Takeoff
4 Climb
5 Cruising
6 Loiter
7 Descent
8 Dush out
9 Drop bombs
10 Strafe
11 Dash in
12 Climb
13 Crusing
14 Decent
15 Landing.
For subsonic jet transport aircraft weight fuel fraction is,
(W15/W0) = ( W1/W0) * ( W2/W1) * ( W3/W2) * ( W4/W3) * ( W5/W4) * ( W6/W5) * ( W7/W6) *
(W8/W7) * ( W9/W8 ) * ( W10/W9) * ( W11/W10 ) * ( W12/W11 ) * ( W13/W12 ) * ( W14/W13 ) * (
W15/W14 )

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT ESTIMATION:

Weight fraction for each profile in mission segment,
For Warm up,
(W1/W0) =0.990
For Taxy,
(W2/W1) =0.990.
For Takeoff,
(W3/W2) =0.990.
For Climb,
(W4/W3) =0.971.
For Cruising,
(W5/W4) = 0.954
For loiter,
(W6/W5) =0.967
For descent,
(W7/W6) = 0.990
For Dush Out,
( W8/W7 ) = 0.951
For Drop Bombs,
( W9/W8 ) = 0.990
For Strafe,
( W10/W9 ) = 0.967
For Dash in,
( W11/W10 ) = 0.954
For Clime,
( W12/W11 ) = 0.971
For Cruise in,
( W13/W12 ) = 0.990
For Decent,
( W14/W13 ) = 0.990
For landing,
(W15/W14) =0.990
Then,
(WF/WTO) = (1-W15/W0))
=0.287
Assume Empty Weight fraction,

So, overall weight,
WPL + WC
W TO = ----------------------------------
1-(W f/WTO) (WE / WTO )

Approximate Overall weight = 27345.13 kg






























RESULT:
Thus the final Takeoff weight of the proposed aircraft was estimated using fuel fraction method
were as follows,
W
TO (APPROXIMATE) =27345.13 kg.

Exp.No:4 Date: 06.02.2014
ENGINE SELECTION
Thrust to weight ratio
Thrust matching
Engine rating
Rubber sizing of the engine
Number of the engines
Thrust to weight ratio:
T/W directly affects the performance of the aircraft. An aircraft with a higher T/W will
accelerate more quickly, climb more rapidly, reach a higher maximum speed, and sustain higher
turn rates. On the other hand, the larger engines will consume more fuel throughout the mission,
which will drive up the aircraft up the aircrafts takeoff gross weight to perform the design mission.
T/W is not a constant. The weight of the aircraft varies during the flight as fuel is burned.
Also, the engines thrust varies with altitude and velocity (as does the horsepower and propeller
efficiency, (p).When the designers speak of an aircrafts thrust-to-weight ratio they generally refer
to the T/W during sea-level static (zero velocity), standard-day conditions.

T/WTO Ratio for General Aviation- single engine is 0.60
Overall weight of aircraft WTO =27345.13 kg =268.255 KN.
Then,
T=0.60268.255
=160.95 KN
So, the thrust needed=160.95 KN
From the literature survey the nearest value of the thrust corresponding aircraft is Jet engine
The Jet engine has the following characteristics,
Thrust per engine =160.95 KN
Number of engine = 1
Type of engine = Turbofan
Total thrust =160.95 KN
















RESULT:
Name of engine selected = Turbofan
Number of engine = 2
Total thrust = 160.95 KN
Exp.No:5 Date:20.02.2014
AIRFOIL SELECTION
Wing design:
This chapter focuses on the detail design of the wing. The wing may be considered as the most
important component of an aircraft, since a fixed-wing aircraft is not able to fly without it. Since
the wing geometry and its features are influencing all other aircraft components, we begin the
detail design process by wing design. The primary function of the wing is to generate sufficient
lift force or simply lift (L). However, the wing has two other productions, namely drag force or
drag (D) and nose-down pitching moment (M). While a wing designer is looking to maximize the
lift, the other two (drag and pitching moment) must be minimized. In fact, wing is assumed ad a
lifting surface that lift is produced due to the pressure difference between lower and upper surfaces.
During the wing design process, eighteen parameters must be determined. They are as follows:
1. Wing reference (or planform) area (SW or Sref or S)
2. Number of the wings
3. Vertical position relative to the fuselage (high, mid, or low wing)
4. Horizontal position relative to the fuselage
5. Cross section (or airfoil)
6. Aspect ratio (AR)
7. Taper ratio
8. Tip chord (Ct)
9. Root chord (Cr)
10. Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC or C)
11. Span (b)
12. Twist angle
13. Sweep angle
14. Dihedral angle
15. Incidence (iw)
16. High lifting devices such as flap
17. Aileron
18. Other wing accessories

The airfoil, in many respects, is the heart of the airplane. The airfoil affects the cruise speed, take-
off and landing distances, stall speed, handling qualities, and overall aerodynamic efficiency
during all phases of flight. The design of the airfoil is a complex and time consuming process.
Much of the Wright brothers success can be traced to their development of airfoils using a wind
tunnel of their own design, and the in-flight validation of those airfoils in their glider experiments
if 1901-1902. More recently, the low speed airfoils develop by peter Lissaman contributed much
to the success of the man-powered Gosssmer Condor, and the airfoils designed by John Rontz
were instrumental to the success of Burt Rutans radical designs.







Cruising Reynolds number (Re) as follows,
Density*Vcr*C
Recr = --------------------------
Viscosityalt
=282.98*10
6

=Velocity at altitude
= Density at altitude
C = (s/b)
= 5.07m
S = wing surface area
b = wing span

And, from standard air table at altitude 18000 m,
Temp = 216.16 k.
Density = 0.819 kg/m
2

= 1.79*10
-5

VCR = M * a
a = ( 1.4*287*216.16 )
0.5

=294.71 m/s

Aspect ratio of our aircraft=3.0
From the literature survey for that aspect ratio,
Area=77.03 m
2

Span=15.2 m
And, c =s/b =5.07m


For the Reynoldss number approximately, from the THEORY OF WING SECTION by ABBOT
following data can be obtained.
Airfoil type Maximum lift coefficient Minimum drag coefficient
NACA 63-006
NACA 63-009
NACA 63-206
NACA 64-006
NACA 64-009

0.83
1.18
1.02
0.83
1.119
0.004
0.0042
0.04
0.038
0.038


















Fig: NACA 64-009 Aerofoil
























RESULT:
From the above analysis NACA 64-009 series type airfoil was selected for our aircraft design.




Exp.No:6 Date:27.02.2014
Wing and Tail Calculations
Fuselage:
Once the takeoff gross weight has been estimated, the fuselage, the wing. And tail can be sized.
Many methods exist to initially estimate the required fuselage size. For certain types of aircraft,
the fuselage size is determined strictly by real world constraints. For example, a large passenger
aircraft devotes most of its length to the passenger compartment. Once the number of passengers
is known and the number of seats across is selected, the fuselage length and diameter are essentially
determined.
Wing:
Actual wing size can now be determined simply as the takeoff weight divided by takeoff wing
loading. Remember that this reference area of the theoretical, trapezoidal wing, and includes the
area extending into the aircraft center line.
Tail Volume Co-efficient:
For the initial layout, the historical approach is used for the estimation of the tail size. The
effectiveness of a tail in generating a moment about the centre of gravity is proportional to the
force produced by the tail and to the tail moment arm. The primary purpose of the tail is to counter
the moments produced by the wing.

1. Length of fuselage:
LFU = a wo
c
= 15.2/0.63

= 24.13 m.
2. Surface area:
Aspect ratio of our aircraft=3.0
From the literature survey for that aspect ratio,
Area=77.03 m
2

Span=15.20 m.
3. Taper ratio


Taper ratio is defined as the ratio between the tip chord (Ct) to the root chord (Cr). This
definition is applied to the wing, as well as the horizontal tail, and the vertical tail.General, the
taper ratio varies between zero and one. 0 1

The taper ratio can be defined as,

=
tip chord
root chord


And the value for the taper ratio in general from design book is0.4
So, C root chord =
2s
b(1+)

=
277.03
15.2(1+0.3)
=7.796 m.
And, Ctip chord = C root chord
=2.338 m.

4. Aerodynamic mean chord:

=
2
3
C root chord(
1++
2
(1+)
)
=
2
3
7.796
1+0.3+0.3
2
(1+0.3)

=5.56 m.
Location of mean chord is, x = 0.25x5.56 = 1.39 m.
And, y =
b
6
(1+2)
(1+)

=
15.2
6
(1+0.6)
(1+0.3)

=3.117 m.



5. Vertical and horizontal volume coefficient:
CHT =


Where,

-Horizontal tail volume coefficient

- Horizontal tail arm length

- Horizontal tail area

-Wing area

-Wing mean chord



Since,

is 25% of the fuselage length,

= 0.25


= 0.2524.13
= 6.0325 m.
For our design,

=77.03m
2

=5.56 m.
From Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach by Daniel.P.Raymer 3
rd
Ed,

=0.40 So,
SHT=


SHT=
0.405.5677.03
6.0325
= 28.39 m
2

And,


Where,
L
VT
-Vertical tail arm length
S
VT
Vertical tail area
C
VT
-Vertical tail volume coefficient
b
W
-Wing span
S
W
-Wing area
Since,

is 50% of the fuselage length,

= 0.5


= 0.524.13
=10.8585 m.
For our design,

= 77.03m
2.

= 15.2m.
From Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach by Daniel.P.Raymer 3
rd
Ed,

=0.07 m.
So,


=
15.277.030.07
10.8585

= 7.547 m
2















Fig: Geometry of wing





















RESULT:
The dimensional parameters are,
Wing span, bw=15.2m
Wing area, Sw=77.06m
2

Root chord, Cr=7.8 m
Tip chord, Ct=2.34m
Mean aerodynamic chord length, Cw=5.56m
Horizontal tail Surface, SHT=28.39m
2
Vertical tail surface, SVT=7.547m
2



Exp.No:7 Date:27.02.2014

Wetted area calculations

Aircraft wetted area (Swet), the total exposed surface area, can be visualized as the area of the
external parts of the aircraft that would get wet if it were dipped into water. The wetted area must
be calculated for drag estimation, as it the major contributor to friction drag.
The wing and tail wetted areas can be approximated from their platforms. The wetted area is
estimated by multiplying the true view exposed plan form area is estimated by multiplying the true
view exposed planform area (S exposed) times a factor based upon the wing or tail thickness ratio.
If a wing or tail were paper thin, the wetted area would be exactly twice the true plan form area.
The effect of finite thickness id to increase the wetted area, as approximated by the following
equations.
Note that the true exposed plan form area is the projected area divided by the cosine of the dihedral
angle.
If t/c 0.05,
S wet =2.003 S exposed
If t/c 0.05,
S wet= S exposed [1.977 + 0.52(t/c)]
The exposed area can be measured from the drawing in several ways. A professional designer will
have access to a planimeter a mechanical device for measuring areas. Use of the planimeter is a
dying art as the computer replaces the drafting board. Alternatively the area can be measured by
tracing onto graph paper and counting squares.
The wetted area of the fuselage can be initially estimated using just the side and top views of the
aircraft. The side and top view projected areas of the fuselage are measured from the drawing, and
the values are averaged.
For a long, thin body circular in cross section, this average projected area times will yield the
surface wetted area. If the body is rectangular in cross section, the wetted area will be four times
the average projected area. For typical aircraft the following equation provides a reasonable
approximation.
S wet=3.4 [(A top + A side) / 2) ]
A more accurate estimation of wetted area can be obtained by graphical integration using a number
of fuselage cross sections. If the perimeters of the cross sections are measured and plotted Vs
longitudinal locations, using the same units on the graph, then the integrated area under the
resulting curve gives the wetted area.
Perimeters can be measured using a professionals map-measure, or approximated using a piece
of scrap paper. Simply follow around the perimeter measurements should not include the portions
where components join, such as at the wing fuselage intersection. These areas are not wetted.

CALCULATIONS

1) For fuselage

=
d
f
2
4

denotes its wetted calculation

From Airplane Design Part II by Dr.Johnroskam,
l
f
d
f
for Single Engine Aircraft is 6.5,
From wing design calculation L
f
=24.13 m,
Now, d
f
=
24.13
8.5
=2.84 m,

=
d
f
2
4
=
2.84
2
4
=6.335 m
2

2) For wing
s
w
=


A known relation,
t
w
c
root
= 0.09(from aerofoil t/c max)
From wing design calculation,c
root
is 7.8 m,

w
=0.095.56 = 0.5004 m.

= 0.500415.2 =7.161 m
2


3)For horizontal tail
s
ht
=
ht

ht
=9.970.05004 =0.5 m
2

ht
=
vt
= 10 percent
w
=0.10.5004 =0.05004
From Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach by Daniel P.Raymer,
(AR)ht=
b
ht
2
s
ht
= 3.5
Now,
b
ht
2
= 3.528.4 = 99.4 m
4) For vertical tail
(AR)vt=
b
vt
2
s
vt
= 1.1

=
vt
t
vt
= 2.8810.05004 =0.1112 m
2.
5) Engine area

e
2
4

=
1.42
2
4
Since d
e
=
d
f
2
= 2.84/2 =1.42 m
=1.583 m
2.


6) 1/4 flap deflection
=15
For Single Engine range, (0.05 to 0.1)
The below is average of above range,
s

= 0.075 m
2


7) 3/4 flap deflection
=45
For Single Engine range, (0.15 to 0.2)
The below is average of above range,
s

= 0.175 m
2


8) Undercarriage
s
u
=1.1s
engine

=1.11.583
=1.741 m
2












RESULT:

The wetted area details are,
S.No Component
s

(m
2
)
1 Fuselage 6.335
2 Wing 7.161
3 Horizontal tail 0.500
4 Vertical tail 0.111
5 Engine 1.583
6 1/4 flap 0.075
7 3/4 flap 0.175
8 Undercarriage 1.741

Exp.No:8 Date:06.03.2014

DRAG POLAR


C
Dt
=C
DO
+K(C
L
)
2
Where,
K=
1


=
1
0.73.0

=0.055

1.At SEA LEVEL, (h=0)
Where,
=1.225 kg/m
3

a = (RT) ^0.5 = (1.4287288.16) ^0.5 =340.268 m/s.
C
L
=
2
^2
=
227345.139.81
1.22577.03129.4^2
= 0.3395




S.No


V
(m/s)

CL CDT =(

+(CL)
2
1
2
3
4
5


129.4
258.8
388.2
517.6
647


0.34
0.085
0.038
0.0212
0.014
0.0475
0.0311
0.0302
0.0301
0.0300

2. At Altitude, (h=18.0 km)

T=281.66 K,
=0.12165 kg/m
3
a = (RT) ^0.5 = (1.4287281.66) ^0.5 =336.40 m/s
C
L
=
2
^2
=
227345.139.8
0.1216577.03129.4^2
= 3.42

S.No


V
(m/s)

CL CDT =(

+(CL)
2
1
2
3
4
5


129.4
258.8
388.2
517.6
647

3.42
0.85
0.38
0.21
0.136

1.8032
0.1395
0.0519
0.0367
0.0328












0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
c
o

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

o
f

d
r
a
g
co efficient of lift
Series1
0.02995
0.03
0.03005
0.0301
0.03015
0.0302
0.03025
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
c
o

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

o
f

d
r
a
g
co efficient of lift
Series1







RESULT: The graph drawn b/w lift coefficient and drag coefficient for different stages of aircraft.
And the variation of trend was observed.
Exp.No:9 Date: 20.03.2014
CALCULATION OF DRAG
Aerodynamic forces that split into two forces: Lift force or lift, and Drag force or drag. A pre-
requisite to aircraft performance analysis is the ability to calculate the aircraft drag at various flight
conditions. Drag force is the summation of all forces that resist against aircraft motion.

The drag coefficient is non-dimensional parameter, but it takes into account every aerodynamic
configuration of the aircraft including, wing, tail, fuselage and landing gear. This coefficient has two
main parts. The first part is referred to as lift-related drag coefficient or induced drag coefficient (CDi)
and the second part is called zero-lift drag coefficient (CDo).




Calculation of CDo
The CDoof an aircraft is simply the summation of CDoof all contributing components.

CDof, CDow, CDoht, CDovt, CDoLG, CDoN, CDoS, CDoHLD, are respectively representing
fuselage, wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear, nacelle, strut, high lift device (such as
flap).
CDoOTHERS is components such as antenna, pitot tube, wire, and wiper




Fuselage
The zero-lift drag coefficient of fuselage is given by the following equation:

where, Cf is skin friction coefficient and is non-dimensional number. It is determined based on the
Prandtl relationship as follows:
(for turbulent and laminar flow)

Where is the air density, V is aircraft true airspeed, is air viscosity, and L is the length of the
component in the direction of flight. For the fuselage, L it the fuselage length. The second
parameter (fLD) is a function of length to diameter ratio

The third parameter (fM) is a function of Mach number (M).

The last two parameters Swetf and S, where are respectively the wetted area of the fuselage and
the wing reference area.




Wing, Horizontal Tail, and Vertical Tail

In these equations, Cfw, Cfht, Cfvt are similar to what we defined for fuselage. The only difference
is that the equivalent value of L in Reynolds number) for wing, horizontal tail, and vertical tail are
their mean aerodynamic chord (MAC).




High lift devices

The fis the flap deflection in degrees (usually less than 50 degrees).


Landing gear

Engine (cooling drag)

where P is the engine power (hp), T is the air temperature (K), is the relative density of the air,
V is the aircraft velocity (m/sec), and S is the wing reference area (m
2
). Th parameter Ke is a
coefficient that depends on the type of engine. It varies between 1 and 3.
Overall CDo

whereKc is a correction factor and depends on several factors such as the type, year of fabrication
and configuration of the aircraft.









Sl.No. Aircraft type Kc
1 Passenger 1.1
2 Agriculture 1.5
3 Cargo 1.2
4 Single engine piston 1.3
5 General Aviation 1.2
6 Fighter 1.1

No. Component
CDo of
component
Percent from
total CDo (%)
1 Wing 0.0053 23.4
2 Fuselage 0.0063 27.8
3 Wing tip tank 0.0021 9.3
4 Nacelle 0.0012 5.3
5 Engine strut 0.0003 1.3
6 Horizontal tail 0.0016 7.1
7 Vertical tail 0.0011 4.8
8 Other components 0.0046 20.4
9 Total CDo 0.0226 100

No. Aircraft type CDo E
1 Subsonic jet 0.014-0.02 0.75-0.85
2 Large turboprop 0.018-0.024 0.8-0.85
3 Twin-engine piton prop 0.022-0.028 0.75-0.8
4 Small GA with
retractable landing gear
0.02-0.03 0.75-0.8
5 Small GA with fixed
landing gear
0.025-0.04 0.65-0.8
6 Agricultural
8 Supersonic jet 0.02-0.04 0.6-0.8
Typical values of CDoand e
for several aircraft
without crop duster
0.06-0.065 0.65-0.75


For our wing, k=
1

=0.1516

1.At SEA LEVEL, (h=0)
Where,
T=288.16 K,
=1.225 kg/m
3
a = (RT) ^0.5 = (1.4287288.16) ^0.5 =340.268 m/s.
C
L
=
2
^2
=
227345.139.81
1.22577.03129.4^2
= 0.3395

S.No


V
(m/s)

CL CDo


CDT =(

+(CL)
2
D=(( CDT
W)/ CL)
(N)
1
2
3
129.4
258.8
388.2
0.34
0.085
0.038
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.0475
0.0311
0.0302
37.48
98.15
213.19
4
5


517.6
647


0.0212
0.014
0.03
0.03

0.0301
0.0300

380.87
596.12








2. At Altitude, (h=18.0 km)

T=281.66 K,
=0.12165 kg/m
3
a = (RT) ^0.5 = (1.4287281.66) ^0.5 =336.40 m/s
C
L
=
2
^2
=
227345.139.8
0.1216577.03129.4^2
= 3.42

S.No


V
(m/s)

CL CDo


CDT =(

+(CL)
2
D=(( CDT
W)/ CL)
(kN)
1
2
3
4
5


129.4
258.8
388.2
517.6
647

3.42
0.85
0.38
0.21
0.136

0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
1.8032
0.1395
0.0519
0.0367
0.0328
141.44
44.03
36.64
46.88
64.70





.









GRAPH BETWEEN VELOCITY & DRAG:









0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
d
r
a
g
(
N
)
velocity(m/s)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
d
r
a
g
(
N
)
velocity(m/s)












RESULT:
From the above tables and graphs, drag and velocity at different altitudes are obtained.


Exp.No:10 Date:27.03.2014


THRUST REQUIRED CALCULATION

Thrust available, from the engine selection calculation, F = 160.95 KN
Freq = F
1.15

For sea level,
Freq = F [(20 h) / (20+h)]
1.15
= 160.95 [(20-0) / (20+0)]
1.15
= 160.95 KN
For h = 3 km,
Freq = 160.65 [(20- 3) / (20+3)]
1.15
=113.69 KN
For h=6 km,
Freq = 160.65 [20-6) / (20+6)]
1.15

=78.98 KN
For h=9 km,
Freq = 160.95 [(20 9) / (20+9)]
1.15
= 52.79 KN.
For h=12 km,
Freq = 160.95 [(20-12) / (20+ 12) ]
1.15
= 32.68 KN.
For h=15 km,
Freq= 160.95 (( 20-15) / (20 +15))
1.15
= 17.17 KN

For h = 18 km,
Freq = 160.95 ( (20-18) / (20+18) )
1.15
= 5.45 KN
S.NO ALTITUDE
(Km)
THRUST or POWER
( KN )
1 0 160.95
2 3 113.69
3 6 78.98
4 9 52.79
5 12 32.68
6 15 17.17
7 18 5.45







RESULT:
Thus the thrust required for multirole fighter aircraft has been
calculated.
h = 0 km, F
req
= 160.95 KN
h = 18 km, F
req
= 5.45 KN
Exp no. 11 Date : 27.03.14
RATE OF CLIMB CALCULATION
Rate of climb is defined as the aircraft speed in the vertical axis or the vertical component of the
aircraft airspeed. Hence rate of climb is about how fast an aircraft gains height.

Jet aircraft:
In general, the Rate of Climb (ROC) is defined as the ratio between excess power and the aircraft
weight


Prop-driven Aircraft:
The available power is the engine power times the propulsive efficiency.




1. At SEA LEVEL (h=0)
S.No V(m/s) T
(KN)
D
(KN)
RATE OF
CLIMB (m/s)
1
2
3
4
5

129.4
258.8
388.2
517.6
647

160.95
160.95
160.95
160.95
160.95

37.48
98.15
213.19
380.87
596.12

59.56
60.59
-75.60
-424.34
-1049.58




2. At h= 18 km.
S.No V(m/s) T
(KN)
D
(KN)
RATE OF
CLIMB (m/s)
1
2
129.4
258.8
5.45
5.45
141.44
44.03
-65.55
-37.22
3
4
5

388.2
517.2
647

5.45
5.45
5.45

36.64
46.88
64.70

-45.136
-79.88
-142.90


1.At h=0km









2. At h=18km
-1200
-1000
-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
0 200 400 600 800
R
/
C
(
m
/
s
)
Velocity(m/s)
Series1











RESULT:
From the above analysis, two graphs rate of climb Vs velocity for different altitudes and rate of
climb Vs altitude drawn and the trend in rate of climb was observed.

TOP VIEW, SIDE VIEW, FRONT VIEW (CAD DRAWING)

-160
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
0 200 400 600 800
R
/
C
(
m
/
s
)
Velocity(m/s)
Series1



















REFERENCE
TEXTS:
1. Theory of wing section by IRA H.ABBOT and ALBERT E.VON DOENHOFF.
2. Aircraft performance and design by JOHN D.ANDERSON JR
3. Aircraft design: A conceptual Approach by DANIEL P.RAYMER
4. Aircraft design by THOMAS CORK
5. Aircraft design by MOHAMMAD SADRAEY
6. Aircraft design by JOHN ROSKAM.
7. JANES All the World Aircrafts

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