Ethnomathematics

SUNYSeries,ReforminMathematicsEducation
JudithSowder,Editor

Ethnomathematics
ChallengingEurocentrisminMathematicsEducation
Editedby
ArthurB.Powell
and
MarilynFrankenstein
StateUniversityofNewYorkPress

Publishedby
StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,Albany
1997StateUniversityofNewYork
Allrightsreserved
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
Nopartofthisbookmaybeusedorreproducedinanymannerwhatsoeverwithoutwrittenpermission.Nopartofthisbookmaybestoredinaretrievalsystemor
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Ethnomathematics:challengingeurocentrisminmathematicseducation/
editedbyArthurB.PowellandMarilynFrankenstein.
p.cm.(SUNYseries,reforminmathematicseducation)
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN079143351X(ch:alk.paper).ISBN0791433528(pb:
alk.paper)
1.Ethnomathematics.2.MathematicsStudyandteaching.
3.Eurocentrism.I.Powell,ArthurB.II.Frankenstein,Marilyn.
III.Series.
GN476.15.E851997
510'.7dc20 9624925
CIP
10987654321

I,ArthurB.Powell,dedicatethisbooktomyparentsBerniceJ.PowellandArthurB.Powell,Sr.fortheirsupportofmyintellectualdevelopmentandtomy
wife,CarolynM.Somerville,andourchildren,SamirRenandKarmaSherie,fortheirsupport,inspiration,andlove.Eachhastaughtmeinvaluable
lessonsconcerningthenegativeeffectsofEurocentrism.
I,MarilynFrankenstein,dedicatethisbooktotwopeoplewhohavegreatlyinspiredmywork:VANGIEDUPIGNY,adearfriend,abrilliantstudentwhoinitany
thoughtmycurriculumwascrazy,whodidn'tneedthe"math"butstayed,andunderstoodeverythinginadditiontothemathIwastryingtoteach,nowa
brilliantteacher,intheschoolsandinthestreets,fromwhomIcontinuetolearnaboutwhateducationcanmeanLEELORCH,adearfriend,an
internationallyrenownedmathematician,whohasactedconsistently,commitedly,againstracism,againstsexism,againstallotherinhumaneinstitutional
structures,andwhohasusedhisprofessionalstandingtoinsistthatvoicessuchasthoseinthisbookareheardbythemathematicalcommunity.

ThemaponthecovershowstherelativeareaofAfricawhichislargerthanChina,theU.S.A.,India,whatiscommonlyreferredtoas"Europe,"Argentina,andNew
Zealandcombined.Thispicturegenerallysurprisespeoplebecausethemapmostofusarefamiliarwithgreatlydistortslandareas,enlarging"Europe"andNorth
AmericaandshrinkingSouthAmericaandAfrica.Sinceanytwodimensionalmapofourthreedimensionalearthmustcontaindistortions,thechoiceofamapcannot
bea"neutral"decision.Instead,mapchoiceinvolvespoliticalstruggleaboutwhichofthesedistortionsisacceptabletousandwhatotherunderstandingsofoursare
distortedbythesefalsepictures.
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments xi
Foreword
U.D'Ambrosio
xv
Introduction
A.B.PowellandM.Frankenstein
1
SectionI.EthnomathematicalKnowledge
A.B.PowellandM.Frankenstein
5
Chapter1.EthnomathematicsanditsPlaceintheHistoryandPedagogyof
Mathematics
U.D'Ambrosio
13
Chapter2.Ethnomathematics
M.AscherandR.Ascher
25
SectionII.UncoveringDistortedandHiddenHistoryofMathematical
Knowledge
A.B.PowellandM.Frankenstein
51
Chapter3.FoundationsofEurocentrisminMathematics
G.G.Joseph
61
Chapter4.AnimadversionsontheOriginsofWesternScience
M.Bernal
83
Chapter5.AfricaintheMainstreamofMathematicsHistory
B.Lumpkin
101

Pageviii
SectionIII.ConsideringInteractionsBetweenCultureandMathematical
Knowledge
A.B.PowellandM.Frankenstein
119
Chapter6.TheMythoftheDeprivedChild:NewThoughtsonPoorChildren
H.P.Ginsburg
129
Chapter7.MathematicsandSocialInterests
B.Martin
155
Chapter8.MarxandMathematics
D.J.Struik
173
SectionIV.ReconsideringWhatCountsasMathematicalKnowledge
A.B.PowellandM.Frankenstein
193
Chapter9.Difference,Cognition,andMathematicsEducation
V.Walkerdine
201
Chapter10.AnExampleofTraditionalWomen'sWorkasaMathematics
Resource
M.Harris
215
Chapter11.OnCulture,GeometricalThinkingandMathematicsEducation
P.Gerdes
223
SectionV.EthnomathematicalPraxisintheCurriculum
A.B.PowellandM.Frankenstein
249
Chapter12.EthnomathematicsandEducation
M.Borba
261
Chapter13.Mathematics,Culture,andAuthority
M.Fasheh
273
Chapter14.WorldmathCurriculum:FightingEurocentrisminMathematics
S.E.Aederson
291
Chapter15.WorldCulturesintheMathematicsClass
C.Zaslavsky
307

Pageix
Section.EthnomathematicalResearch
A.B.PowellandM.Frankenstein
321
Chapter16.SurveyofCurrentWorkinEthnomathematics
P.Gerdes
331
Chapter17.ApplicationsintheTeachingofMathematicsandtheSciences
R.Pinxten
373
Chapter18.AnEthnomathematicalApproachinMathematicaEducation:A
MatterofPoliticalPower
G.Knijnik
403
Afterword
G.Gilmer
411
Contributors 419
Index 431

Pagexi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Whatisparticularlysignificantabouttheacademicdisciplineofethnomathematicsisthatitemergedfromintellectualinfluencesofemancipatorystrugglesworldwide
andthatinterestandworkinthedisciplinehasnotbeenlimitedtotheacademy.Manypeoplehavecontributedtotheemergenceofethnomathematicsthroughtheir
organizationalandcurricularefforts,therebychangingideasandpracticeswithinthemathematicseducationcommunity.Amongthemany,wewanttoacknowledge
thecentralroleoftheauthorsinthisvolume.Theyhaveactedinthespheresofmathematicsandmathematicseducationasarenownednineteenthcenturyintellectual
urgedattheendofhiscritiqueofphilosophy:Thephilosophershaveonlyinterpretedtheworldinvariouswaysthepointistochangeit.
1
Therehavebeenmanypeoplethathavecontributedtotheideaofthisbookandtoitsproduction.Jointly,wewanttothankanumberofpeopleatRutgersUniversity
Newark.WearegratefultoEleanoreHarrisfor,whilewewerebothinsouthernAfrica,sheensuredthatourinitialproposalreachedourpublisherandauthors,and
keptusabreastofrelatedcorrespondence.Sincethebeginning,shehasprovideduswithtremendousclericalsupport.WealsothankMahendraRamnauth,Kevin
Powell,andMichaelBramlett,eachofwhomassistedwithresearchandcomputerrelatedtasksandtoDanielNess,TeachersCollege,fortypographicalcorrections.
Forme,Arthur,itisapleasuretoacknowledgetheincalculablesupportofRutgersUniversity(NewarkCollegeofArtsandSciences)andinspirationofcolleagues.
Mostresearchandcommunicationcosts
1.Marx's"ThesesonFeuerbach,"writteninthespringof1845,containsthisasitseleventhandfinalthesis(KarlMarxandFrederickEngels,CollectWorks,Volume5,NewYork:
InternationalPublishers,1976,pp.5and8).Lorch(1996)writesthat"InthemainentrancehalltoBerlin'sHumboldtUniversity[Germany'smostprestigious],thisquotationis
engravedinmarbleinhugeletters."

Pagexii
havebeengraciouslydonatedbymydepartmentandcollege.IamindebtedtomycolleagueandfriendProfessorWilliamJoneswhowasthefirsttoinsistthat,
besidesclass,IexaminecarefullyandrecognizetheroleofcultureintheAfricanDiasporaandunderstandhowitshapeseducationalpracticesinAfricanAmerican
communities.Consequently,in1986,Iparticipatedincampusseminarsontheincorporationofnewscholarshiponrace,class,gender,andcultureintoourcollege's
curriculumand,asaresult,developedanextensivebibliographyonmathematicsandculture,whichledmetoethnomathematics.Finally,Ioweaspecialandwarm
wordofappreciationtomywife,CarolynM.Somerville,whoalwayssupportedmeinthisworkandwhodebatedwithmetheethnomathematicsofaparticular
chapterandeventuallyassistedmeinpreparingitsinclusion.
I,Marilyn,acknowledgethevitalintellectualandpoliticalsupportthatthestudents,faculty,andstaffattheCollegeofPublicandCommunityService(CPCS)provide.
TheinstitutionalphilosophyofCPCSincludesavisionoftheactivistrolethateducationcanplayincreatingajust,humaneworld,andavisionthatintellectualand
politicalactivismdialecticallysupporteachother.Withinthatcontextmyworkasanantiracist,anticapitalist,antisexist(andsoon...)activistacademichasnot
merelybeen"tolerated,"butmoresignificantly,hasbeenvalued.
WealsowanttoacknowledgethesupportofSUNYPress.WegreatlyappreciatedPriscillaRoss,ouracquisitioneditor,whotreatedourworkasaserious
intellectualproject,notmerelyamarketingitem.Shelistenedtoallourarguments,understoodourchoices,andwasinstrumentalininsuringthatourideaswereintact
inthefinalmanuscript.Also,wearegratefultoDianeGaneles,ourproductioneditor,whopromptlyrespondedtoallourqueriesandhelpeduswithallthedetailsof
movingthebookfrommanuscripttopublication.
Forpermissiontoreprint,wewishtothankthefollowing:
Routledge,London,fortheusewithalterationsintheintroductiontosections1,2,3,4,and6ofourchapter,"TowardLiberatoryMathematics:PauloFreire's
EpistemologyandEthnomathematics,"whichappearedinPoliticsofLiberation:PathsfromFreire,editedbyPeterL.McLarenandColinLankshear,1994.
AspecialnoteofthankstoDavidWheeler,founderandeditorofFortheLearningofMathematics,foruseofthefollowingarticles:
D'Ambrosio,U.(1985).EthnomathematicsandItsPlaceintheHistoryandPedagogyofMathematics.FortheLearningofMathematics5(1):4148reprinted
hereaschapter1.
Walkerdine,V.(1990).Difference,Cognition,andMathematics

Pagexiii
Education.FortheLearningofMathematics10(3):515reprintedhereaschapter9.
Harris,M.(1987).AnExampleofTraditionalWomen'sWorkasaMathematicsResource.FortheLearningofMathematics7(3):2628reprintedhereas
chapter10.
Borba,M.(1990).EthnomathematicsandEducation.FortheLearningofMathematics10(1):3943reprintedhereaschapter12.
Fasheh,M.(1982).Mathematics,CultureandAuthority.FortheLearningofMathematics3(2):28reprintedhereaschapter13.
Zaslavsky,C.(1991).WorldCulturesintheMathematicsClass.FortheLearningofMathematics11(2):3236reprintedhereaschapter15.
Knijnik,G.(1992).AnEthnomathematicalApproachtoMathematicsEducation:Culture,Mathematics,Education,andtheLandlessofSouthernBrazil.Forthe
LearningofMathematics13(3):2326reprintedhereaschapter18asAnEthnomathematicalApproachinMathematicalEducation:AMatterofPoliticalPower.
ScienceHistoryPublications,Ltd.fortheuseofAscher,M.andAscher,R.(1986).Ethnomathematics.HistoryofScience,14:125144reprintedhereaschapter
2.
InstituteofRaceRelationsfortheuseofJoseph,G.G.(1987).FoundationsofEurocentrisminMathematics.Race&Class28(3):1328reprintedhereaschapter
3.
TheUniversityofChicagoPressfortheuseofBernal,M.(1992).AnimadversionsontheOriginsofWesternScience.ISIS,83:596607reprintedhereaschapter
4.
TransactionBooks,NewBrunswick,NJ,fortheuseofLumpkin,B.(1983).AfricaintheMainstreamofMathematicsHistory.InI.vanSertima(Ed.),Blackin
Science:AncientandModern(pp.100109)reprintedhereaschapter5.
LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,Hillsdale,NJ,fortheuseofGinsburg,H.E(1986).TheMythoftheDeprivedChild:NewThoughtsonPoorChildren.InU.Neisser
(Ed.),TheSchoolAchievementofMinorityChildren:NewPerspectives(pp.169189)reprintedhereaschapter6.
ControlPublications,Melbourne,Australia,foruseofMartin,B.(1988).MathematicsandSocialInterests.Search:ScienceandTechnologyinAustraliaandNew
Zealand19(4):209214reprintedhereaschapter7.
Science&SocietyQuarterly,NewYork,NY,foruseofStruik,D.J.(1948).MarxandMathematics.Science&Society12(1):181196reprintedhereaschapter
8.

Pagexiv
KluwerAcademicPublishers,Dordrecht,TheNetherlands,fortheuseofGerdes,P.(1988).OnCulture,GeometricalThinkingandMathematicsEducation.
EducationalStudiesinMathematics19(3):137162reprintedhereaschapter11.
TheJournalofNegroEducation,HowardUniversity,Washington,DC,fortheuseofAnderson,S.E.(1990).WorldmathCurriculum:FightingEurocentrismin
Mathematics.TheJournalofNegroEducation59(3):348359reprintedhereaschapter14.
TheUniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,Philadelphia,PA,fortheuseofamodifiedversionofchapter5ofPinxten,R.,vanDooren,I.,andHarvey,F.(1983).The
AnthropologyofSpacereprintedhereaschapter17.

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FOREWORD
Itisanhonortobeinvitedtowritethisforewordanditgivesmemuchpleasuretodoso.
Writingaforewordalwaysgivesonetheopportunitytobepersonal.IamwritingthisforewordtwelveyearsaftertheinitialproposalforcreatingtheInternational
StudyGrouponEthnomathematics(ISGEm),whichfollowedtheFifthInternationalCongressonMathematicsEducationinAdelaide,Australia.Ithinkmyopening
plenarytalkinthatmeetingwasinfluentialitmarkedthebeginningofanewdrivetowardsethnomathematics.Althoughmuchwasalreadygoingon,theintensityof
whathappenedsincethenisimpressive.
WecannotmistakerecognizingtheimportanceofthiswhenweseethegrowthofethnomathematicsanditschallengetoEurocentrism,thespellingoutof
criticalmathematicseducation,
1
andthecentralpositionofmathematicsinthetrendtowardsmulticulturaleducation.Allthesefieldsofinquiryareessentiallyanew
reflectiononeducation,inparticular,mathematicseducationanditssocialandcognitiveimplicationsonhistory,inparticular,thehistoryofmathematicson
epistemology,inparticular,epistemologyofmathematicsandonmathematicsitself.
Thewordethnomathematicshasbeenusedforsometime,mostlyconcerningmathematicspracticedin''cultureswithoutwrittenexpression,"identifiedwithcultures
called"primitive."However,thereisnowabroaderuseoftheword"ethnomathematics,"whichisgivenexpressioninthisbook.Weseedifferentattemptsatdefining
andevenproposalsforalternativenames,allofwhichisnormalandindeedreaffirmstheemergenceofanewareaofstudies.Theundeni
1.Editor'snote:Thisreferstoanotheremergingareainmathematicseducation.AnattempttocoordinatethedevelopmentoftheseideasistheCriticalmathematicsEducators
Group(CmEG).Foracopyofthisgroup'snewsletter,contactoneoftheeditorsofthisbook.

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ablefactisthatnowadayswesearchforanew,broaderviewofmathematicsanditssocialimplications.Thiscollectionrepresentsanexpressionfroma
criticalmathematicseducationperspectiveofsuchasearch.
Ethnomathematicswasforgedinthecauldronofexperiences,reflections,delusions,andhopesoftheusesofmodemscience,particularlymathematics,forabetter
qualityoflifefortheentirehumanspecies.Weallsharethedreamofequityanddignityintherelationofeveryhumanbeingtotheother,ofunderstandingourplacein
thecosmicreality,ofachievinginnerpeace,andoffindingarelationofequilibriumwithotherspeciesandwithnatureasawhole.Someofourcolleaguesmaystill
comewiththequestion:"Butwhatdomathematicsandmathematicseducationhavetodowithallthis."Andtheymaygoevenfurther:"Thesearethedomainsofthe
socialandpoliticalsciences,ofphilosophyandreligion,ofpsychologyandpsychoanalysis,ofenvironmentalsciencesandecology,notofmathematicsand
mathematicseducation."
Iseeethnomathematicsasawayofgoingbacktobasics.Ofcourse,basicsinthebroadsensementionedabove,withtheglobalobjectivesthatconstituteour
commondream.Somepeoplestillmaynotseewhatthishastodowithsuchaspecificmodeofthoughtasmathematics,whichhasitsowncodes,norms,rules,and
valuesincludingrigor,precision,noncontradictionidentifiedwithwhatsomecall"positivisticrationality."However,itisindeedconceivabletoaskaboutother
codes,norms,rules,andvaluesbelongingtoalternativerationalities.
Thecomplexityofeverysociety,sodifferentonefromanother,isresponsibleforthegenerationofcodes,norms,rules,andvaluesinthedirectionoforganizing,
classifying,comparing,andorderingtheactionofitsindividuals.Instancesofthesecodes,norms,rules,andvaluesareinstrumentsofanalyses,ofexplanations,andof
actions,suchasmoreorless,smallandbig,fewormany,nearandfar,andinandout.Thesecodes,norms,rules,andvaluesforinstance,cardinalityandordinality,
countingandmeasuring,andsortingandcomparingtakedifferentformsaccordingtotheculturesinwhichtheyweregenerated,organized,andaccepted.To
recovertheseformsandbehaviorsindifferentculturalenvironmentshasbeenthemainthrustofethnomathematics,whichhasfoundacommongroundwiththe
objectivesofintellectualmovementsinpsychologyandanthropology.
Thediscoveryoftheotherinthehumanspecieshasbeenamajorsteptowardssociallife.Howdoestherecognitionoftheothermanifestinoureverydaybehavior?
Whatkindofrelationsdoweestablish

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withtheother,presentorremoteintimeandspace?Communicationsisseenasthemaininstrumentintheserelations.Languageandmusic,drawingsandpaintings,
artifactsandconstructions,artsandreligions,divinationsandsciencesarealleffortstorelatetotheimmediateenvironmentortotranscendinspaceandintimegoing
backtothepastorforeseeingandforetellingthefuture.
Inthelastthreecenturies,wehavewitnessedthedevelopmentofnewmodesofpropertyandofproduction,newwaysoforganizingdailylifeinurbancommunities,
newrelationsinfamilyandinsocietyatlarge.EachofthesedevelopmentscarrytheirownspecificitiesthatconnecttothedominatingEurocentricconceptionof
mathematics.Sincecolonialtimes,thisconceptionwasimposedgloballyandlateracceptedasthepatternof"rational"humanbehavior.Theresultsofthisintended
globalizationunderthecontroloftheimperialistpowersarefarfrombeingacceptable.
Theconceptofethnomathematicscomes,consciouslyorunconsciously,fromthesereflections.Morethanjustlearningaboutthestylesofknowinganddoingof
marginalizedcultures,bothinnationsoftheperipheryaswellasinsocalleddevelopedcountries,wearealsoconcernedwiththereasonswhythebehaviorofhuman
beingstowardsfellowhumanbeingsbecamesodespicable:peopleburntandgassedinconcentrationcamps,citiesbombed,humandignityreducedtomererhetorics,
humanbeingstorturedbyotherhumanbeings,andculturalactscensoredandrepressed.Alloftheseactshavebeenperformedofficiallybycountriesthatfetealarge
numberofNobellaureatesandboastthehighestdegreeofscientificdevelopmenthencerationalityvalidatedbygoodmathematics.Forwhatreasonshashumanity
gonesolow?Asamathematician,Iwasalwaysinsearchofthehumanitarianvaluesimplicitinmyspecialty.Couldn'twe,asmathematicians,seeourselvesasheralds
ofaneweraforhumankind.Whynot?Butforthisweneedtorecognizetheethicalcomponentsinscienceandmathematics.Ofcourse,thevaluesofmathematicsare
alwaysspelledout.EvenahumanistlikeBertrandRussellwouldsaythat"Mathematicspossesses...supremebeautyabeautycoldandaustere,likethatof
sculpture."Naturally,everyonelearnsinschoolthefundamentalsofmathematicsthebasics!thathave,insuchacoldandausterelypreciseway,producedbombs
anddestructivetechnology.Ethnomathematicsmayhelpusinourquestfortheaffectionandloveinthissculpture.
Ifelttheneedforabroaderviewofthehistoryofscienceandmathematics,aspartofthehistoryofideas,tohelpusunderstandwhymathematicsbecamesocentral
inbuildingupmodemthought

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andmodernsociety.Itisthusnaturaltolookintothehistoryofmathematicstobridgeourunderstandingofthenatural,thesocial,thepolitical,theeconomical,the
religious,andmanyotherinfluencesonthestylesandmotivationsinthedevelopmentofmathematics.
ItisnotenoughtosaythattheRomansrefusedGreekphilosophybecausetheyhadapracticalsense,thattheEuropeanMiddleAgesweretheagesofthedarkness,
thatmodemmathematicsisaresultofthethoughtsofafewacademiciansoftheRenaissanceandModemAgewhocapturedtheGreekmessagethatwaspreserved
andconveyedbytheArabs.Itissonaivetoaccepttheseasexplanations.
Wearenaturallyledtoaskmuchbroaderquestions:IsitpossibletounderstandGreekmathematicswithoutreadingandinterpretingQuintusCurtiusRufus'Historyof
Alexander.AndhowcanwetalkaboutMedievalmathematicswithoutananalysisofVitruviusandoftheurbanizationofEurope?Buthowcanwetalkabout
urbanizationwithoutreferringtoMachuPichu?Howcanweappreciatetheconstructionofcathedralswithoutseeingthemasintimatelyrelatedtothedevelopmentsof
Medievalgeometry.ButhowcanwetalkaboutcathedralsandignorethebigmosquesofMoptiandDjenne?Ofcourse,ananalysisofthesocialandpolitical
constructionofEuropeisneededtounderstandthestepstowardsmathematicalknowledgeintheMiddleAges.Thisiswhyitisindeedrelevantforustolearnofthe
Arthurianepics,whichiscloselyrelatedtotheatmospherecreatedintheEnglishmonasteriesthatpavedthewayforRogerBacon,Ockham,andothers.Ofcourse,
CambridgeandOxfordarerelatedtothis.ButtheepicofSundyathaisatleastasimpressiveasthatofArthur,andthishastodowiththeemergenceoftheMasa.
Naturally,theimportanceofthemedievaluniversityatTombouctouisrelatedtothis.
Astringofquestionsarefundamentallyimportanttounderstandtheculturaldynamicsoftheencounters.Whoweretheintellectualswhomettheconquerorsin
AfricaandcanweuseasimilarlineofquestioningconcerningAsiaandLatinAmerica?Howdidtheseintellectuals,allhavingthesearchforexplanationsastheir
leitmotiv,succeedinorganizingacolloquium?Ofcourse,acolloquiumistheoutcomeofeveryauthenticinterculturalencounter.Ifthesecolloquiadidnothappen
whichisinconceivablewhywasitso?
Letusconsiderthe"heroes"ofmoderntimes.Napoleon,SirCecilRhodes,andmanyotherswhoareinjustabouteveryencyclopedia.Butonlyafewencyclopedias
listSamoryToureandPanchoVilla,andwhentheydotheseheroesappearasbanditsoratbestrebels.

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Thewayhistoryhasbeenmanipulatedisdisgusting.Thisisnolesstruewiththehistoryofmathematics.
Broadeningourviewofhistoryhaseverythingtodowithunderstandingtheroleofmathematicsandmathematicseducationinoursociety.Thisbroadenedview
contributestomyviewsofethnomathematicsasaprograminthehistory,epistemology,andpedagogy,inparticular,ofmathematics.
Wearenowlookingatethnomathematicsasfocusingtheseissuesfromwithin.Ofcourse,manystilltrytoignorethequestionsmentionedabovethatshapethis
approach.AbouttwentyyearsagoIwasaskedbyacolleague:"ButwhatcanNietzschesayabouttheobjectivesofmathematicseducation?AndwhoisthisPaulo
Freire?"Questionsofthiskindarerecurrent.PeoplefrequentlyaskwhatdoSartreandFoucault,andFlaubertandMusil,andDr.Kevorkian,andO.J.Simpsonhave
todowithmathematicseducation?
Thesequestionsmaycomebecausethesepeopleareafraid,notofethnomathematics,butofthemselvessinceethnomathematicsquestionswhatisingrainedinmost
scientists,particularlyscienceeducators,andinaveryspecialway,mathematiciansandmathematicseducators:theirabsolutebeliefinwhattheypracticeandteach.
Manyexercisetheirprofessionwithoutquestioningthewhyand,evenworse,withoutsharingtheknowledgeandviewsoftheirstudents,captivesintheprocess.
Therewasagreattransformationintheworldaboutthesametimewhenthewordmathematicsbegantobeusedinasensesimilartowhatwehavetoday,whichgoes
backtothefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.Thisisnocoincidence.Sincethen,newmodesofexplanation,ofproductionandofpropertywereimposedonallof
humanity.Newconceptsofspaceandoftimeandnewperceptionsofbigandsmallemerged.
Itisimpossibletounderstandthehistoryofideaswithoutunderstandingthecomplexityofconceptsandperceptions,ofpossibilitiesanddifficulties,ofdesiresand
ambitions,ofcostsandrewardsofnewthinking.Howcanwetalkaboutthehistoryofmathematicswithoutanalyzingthesegeneralandbroadcategories?
Fromtheconceptualizationofaglobalworldthroughthedevelopmentofmeansforeffectiveglobalization,weseethemajorstepsinthedevelopmentofmodem
scienceandmathematics.Theconceptofaglobalworldisintimatelyrelatedtotheemergenceofreligionsofconversion,essentiallytheChristianandIslamicfaiths.
Butindeedglobalizationismadepossiblewiththeintensificationofthemeansof

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masstransportationships,trains,automobiles,andairplanesandofcommunicationtelephone,radio,andtelevision.Indeedmodernscienceandmathematicsare
intrinsictotheworldasitistoday.ThesameasGreekgeometrywasintrinsictoGreekthought.Thesameaseachculture'smathematicsisintrinsictothe
correspondingculturalenvironment.Ifwequestionthecurrentworldorder,thereisnowayofavoidingquestioningthemodeofthoughtparexcellenceofmodem
times,scienceandmathematics.Thus,theneedtolookintothepoliticaldimensionsofscienceandmathematics.
Weallareconcernedwiththefuture.Butnotonlythemoreimmediatetimes.Ourconcernisthefuturethatwewillnotseethefuturethatinducesustowrite,to
produceart,books,andknowledgethefutureinwhichwewantournametoberememberedwithrespectandaffectionandourpersontobereferredtoasagood
example.Thesamefuturethatinducesotherstoamassfortunesandbuildpower.Amongtheseconcernswefindreasonsforthemultipledrivingforcesinthelifeof
everyhumanbeing.Aseducatorswehavetogoinanotherdirection.Wewalkintothefutureledbythehandsofthenewgenerations.Thus,ourconcernisthefuture
ofourchildren,ofourstudentsandtheirchildren,ofourgrandchildrenandtheirchildren.Hence,educationisanactoflove.Mathematicseducationisnodifferent.
Whyshoulditbeoddtodiscusstheseitems,tobringloveintoourreflections,whenwearetalkingaboutmathematics?
Alookathistorywillshowthattheseissueshavebeenrelevanttoscienceandmathematics.However,theyweregraduallyremovedinthenameofanethicsbasedon
asetofvaluesintrinsictomathematics,suchasrigor,precision,resilience,andothersofthesamekind.Yet,Iamalsoconcernedwithanethicsofrespect,solidarity,
andcooperation.Infact,weknowthatsomuchisinvolvedintheacquisitionofknowledge.Knowledgeresultsfromthecomplexityofsensorial,intuitive,emotional,
andrationalcomponents.Isthisincompatiblewithmathematics?Ifnot,howdotheyrelate?
Ethnomathematicshaseverythingtodowithallthis.Asaresearchprogram,ethnomathematicsinvitesustolookintohowknowledgewasbuiltthroughouthistoryin
differentculturalenvironments.Itisacomparativestudyofthetechniques,modes,arts,andstylesofexplaining,understanding,learningabout,andcopingwiththe
realityindifferentnaturalandculturalenvironments.Anetymologicalabuseleadsmetousethewords,respectively,ethnoandmathemafortheircategoriesof
analysisandtics(fromtechne).
Inhistoricalterms,thisisananalysisofthegenerationofknowledge,ofitsintellectualandsocialorganization,andofitsdiffusion.

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Thesephasesinanalyzingknowledgeareusuallystudiedinisolationonefromanotherandareidentifiedwithdisciplineslabeledcognition,epistemology,history,
sociology,andeducation.Theholisticapproachlooksprimarilyintotheinterrelationsofallthesephasesintheanalysisofknowledge.
Wheredoesethnomathematicsstandatthismoment?Muchworkhasbeendone.Somedoctoraltheseshavebeensubmitted,severalbookshavebeenpublished,and
newresearchisgoingoninseveralpartsoftheworld.Thisbookisaparticularlyimportantcontributionbecauseitbringstogetherinonecollectionadiversegroupof
articlesrelatingtoethnomathematics.PowellandFrankenstein'sorganizationandanalysisinextensivesectionintroductionsshowhowtheseclassicarticleshavemade
significantcontributionstothefield.Asaresult,thefieldismovedforward,theemergingdisciplineofethnomathematicsisstrengthened.Ethnomathematicsstillhasfor
manytheconnotationsofanonacademicpracticeandofanantisciencetheory.Contributions,suchasthisbook,showethnomathematicsinitstruedimensionasan
holisticandtransdisciplinaryviewofknowledge.
UBIRATAND'AMBROSIO
SOPAULO

Page1
INTRODUCTION
ArthurB.PowellandMarilynFrankenstein
PerhapsthemosttellingpointtomentionindiscussinganeducationalchallengetoEurocentrismisthat
Geographically,Europedoesnotexist,sinceitisonlyapeninsulaonthevastEurasiancontinent...Europehasalwaysbeenapoliticalandculturaldefinition....Beforethe19th
century,geographersgenerallyreferredtoitas"Christendom."WhencolonialismbegantospreadWesterncultureandreligiontoallcornersoftheglobe,someBritishand
GermangeographersbegantodelineatetheeasternboundariesofaEuropeancontinent.Whattheywereactuallydoingwastryingtodrawtheeasternlimitsof"western
civilization"andthewhiterace(Grossman,1994,p.39).
Thisisanimportantillustrationofhowfalse"facts"becomepartofourtakenforgrantedknowledgeoftheworld.Thatassumed"knowledge"extendsbeyondthe
merecreationofthisfictitiousgeographicentitytoproclaimingEurope'scentralityinthecreationofknowledgeandthedevelopmentof"civilization.''IntheEurocentric
account,Europe(and"Europeanized"areasliketheU.S.A.)hasalwaysbeenandcurrentlyisthesuperiorCenterfromwhichknowledge,creativity,technology,
culture,andsoforthflowforthtotheinferiorPeriphery,thesocalledunderdevelopedcountries.
Ofcourse,therearesignificantintellectualchallengestoEurocentrism.Amin(1989)arguesagainstthisaccountbyshowingthecentralcontributionsoftheArab
Islamicculturestoworldknowledge,andbyshowinghowtheEurocentricversionof"humanistuniversalism...negatesanysuchuniversalism.ForEurocentrismhas

Page2
broughtwithitthedestructionofpeoplesandcivilizationswhohaveresisteditsspread"(p.114).Diop(1991)demonstratesthattheGreekfoundationsofEuropean
knowledgearethemselvesfoundeduponBlackEgyptiancivilization.Bernal(1987)illustrateshowEurocentrismdevelopedineighteenthcenturyEuropeasthe
rationaleforvariousformsofEuropeanslaveryandimperialism.Blaut(1993)furthershowsthatthesuccessfulconquestoftheAmericasandthespreadofEuropean
colonialism,actionswhichwereresponsiblefortheselectivedevelopmentofEuropeandunderdevelopmentofAsia,Africa,andLatinAmerica,"isnottobeexplained
intermsofanyinternalcharacteristicsofEurope,butinsteadreflectsthemundanerealitiesoflocation"(p.2).
Inspiteofthisscholarship,theEurocentricmythpersistsandinfluencesschoolcurricula,eveninasupposedlyneutraldisciplinelikemathematics.Thisbookchallenges
theparticularwaysinwhichEurocentrismpermeatesmathematicseducation:thatthe"academic"mathematicstaughtinschoolsworldwidewascreatedsolelyby
EuropeanmalesanddiffusedtothePeripherythatmathematicalknowledgeexistsoutsideofandunaffectedbycultureandthatonlyanarrowpartofhumanactivity
ismathematicaland,moreover,worthyofseriouscontemplationas"legitimate"mathematics.Thischallengehasbroughttogetherknowledgefrommathematics,
mathematicseducation,history,anthropology,cognitivepsychology,feministstudies,andstudiesoftheAmericas,Asia,Africa,WhiteAmerica,NativeAmerica,and
AfricanAmericatocreateanewdiscipline:ethnomathematics.Thisbookalsoattemptstoorganizethevariousintellectualcurrentsinethnomathematics,fromananti
Eurocentric,liberatoryperspective.Wearecriticallyselective,notjustinterested,forexample,inthemathematicsofAngolansanddrawings,butalsointhepoliticsof
imperialismthatarrestedthedevelopmentofthisculturaltradition,andinthepoliticsofculturalimperialismthatdiscountsthemathematicalactivityinvolvedincreating
Angolansanddrawings.
ThisbookisorganizedintosectionsthatfocusonspecificchallengestoEurocentrisminmathematicseducation.Eachsectionbeginswithanextensiveintroduction,
followedbycontributionswejudgetobepathbreakingtothedevelopmentofthatareaofethnomathematics.Thefirstsection,"Ethnomathematicalknowledge,"
definesthefieldandpointstootherchallengestoEurocentrism.Thesecondsection,"Uncoveringdistortedandhiddenhistoryofmathematicalknowledge,"challenges
thehistoriographicprojectofEurocentrism.Thethirdsection,"Consideringinteractionsbetweencultureandmathematicalknowledge,"inquiresintowhodoes
mathematicsandhowvariouspracticesinfluencemathematicalactivity.Thefourthsec

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tion,"Reconsideringwhatcountsasmathematicalknowledge,"examinesnonacademicsourcesofmathematicalknowledge.Thefifthsection,"Ethnomathematical
praxisinthecurriculum,"discussespossibilitiesforincorporatingbroadernotionsofmathematicsintotraditionalandnontraditionaleducationalsettings.Finally,section
six,''Ethnomathematicalresearch,''analyzesresearchactivityinthefieldandprovidesanexampleofamethodologicalapproachthatenablespoliticalchallengestothe
politicsofsilenceandpoverty.
Athemethatemergesthroughoutthesevariousdirectionsofethnomathematicalthoughtconcernstheneedtoreconsiderthediscretecategoriescommoninacademic
thought.Asante(1987)arguesthatanunderlyingtheoreticaltenetofanAfrocentricperspectiveisthat"oppositionaldichotomiesinreal,everydayexperiencedonot
exist"(p.14).ForFreire(1970,1982)thismeansbreakingdownthedichotomybetweensubjectivityandobjectivity,betweenactionandreflection,betweenteaching
andlearning,andbetweenknowledgeanditsapplications.ForFasheh(1989)andAdams(1983)thismeansthatthoughtwhichislabeled"logic"andthoughtwhichis
labeled"intuition"continuouslyanddialecticallyinteractwitheachother.ForD'Ambrosio(1987)thismeansthatthenotionthat"thereisonlyoneunderlyinglogic
governingallthought''istoostatic.ForDiop(1991)thismeansthattheinteractionsbetween"logic"and"experience"changeourdefinitionof"logic"overtime
(p.363).ForLave(1988)thismeansunderstandinghow"activityinsetting"isseamlesslystretchedacrosspersonsacting.''ForDiop(1991)thismeansthatthe
distinctionsbetween"Western,""Eastern,"and"African"knowledgedistortthehumanprocessofcreatingknowledgewhichresultfrominteractionsamonghumans
andwiththeworld.Throughoutthisbook,weemphasizethatunderlyingallthesefalsedichotomiesisthesplitbetweenpractical,everydayknowledgeandabstract,
theoreticalknowledge.Understandingthesedialecticalinterconnections,webelieve,leadsustoconnectmathematicstoallotherdisciplines,andtoviewmathematical
knowledgeasoneaspectofhumanstryingtounderstandandactintheworld.Weseeethnomathematicsasapowerfulandinsightfulvehicleforconceptualizingthese
connections.
References
AdamsIII,H.H.(1983).Africanobserversoftheuniverse:TheSiriusquestion.InI.VanSertima(Ed.).Blacksinscience:Ancientandmodem(pp.2746).New
Brunswick,NJ:Transaction.

Page4
Amin,S.(1989).Eurocentrism.NewYork:MonthlyReview.
Asante,M.K.(1987).TheAfrocentricidea.Philadelphia:TempleUniversity.
Bernal,M.(1987).BlackAthena:TheAfroasiaticrootsofclassicalcivilization.Vol.1.London:FreeAssociation.
Blaut,J.M.(1993).Thecolonizer'smodeloftheworld:GeographicaldiffusionismandEurocentrichistory.NewYork:Guilford.
D'Ambrosio,U.(1987).Reflectionsonethnomathematics.InternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematicsNewsletter3(1):35.
Diop,C.A.(1991).Civilizationorbarbarism:Anauthenticanthropology.NewYork:LawrenceHillBooks.
Fasheh,M.(1989).Mathematicsinasocialcontext:Mathwithineducationaspraxisversuswithineducationashegemony.InC.Keitel,P.Damerow,A.Bishop,and
EGerdes(Eds.).Mathematics,education,andsociety(pp.8486).Paris:UNESCO.
Freire,P.(1970).Pedagogyoftheoppressed.NewYork:Seabury.
.(1982)."Educationforcriticalconsciousness."BostonCollegecoursenotestakenbyM.Frankenstein.
Grossman,Z.(1994).Erectingthenewwall:GeopoliticsandtherestructuringofEurope.ZMagazine(March):3945.
Lave,J.(1988).Cognitioninpractice.Cambridge,England:Cambridge.

Page5
SECTIONI
EHTNOMATHEMATICALKNOWLEDGE
ArthurB.PowellandMarilynFrankenstein
Ethnomathematicsemergedasanewconceptualcategoryfromthediscourseontheinterplayamongmathematics,education,culture,andpolitics.Naturally,ithas
variousdefinitionsandassociatedperspectiveseachdefinitionandperspectiveandthetermitself,hasbeendebatedandthenrejectedorembracedinscholarly
journalsandinotheracademicforums.
1
Amongrecent,writteneffortstodefineanddescribetheterrainofethnomathematics,twodominantpositionsarerepresented
bytheideasofAscherandAscher(1986Ascher1991),andD'Ambrosio(1985/reprintedhereaschapter1,1987,1988,1990).
AscherandAscher(1986/reprintedhereaschapter2)defineethnomathematicsas"thestudyofthemathematicalideasofnonliteratepeoples"(p.125).While
acknowledgingthatmathematicalideasexistinallcultures,Ascher(1991)pointsoutthatthisdoesnotimplythat,acrosscultures,mathematicalideasarethesame.
InWesterncultureandamongtheTshokweofAfrica,theculturalsurroundingsofthegraphtheoreticalideasarenotthesame,norshouldweexpectthattheywouldbe.Thestrip
patternsthatweseearoundus,thoseoftheIncas,andthoseoftheMaoriarequitedifferentinstyle,inusage,andintheirotherculturallinkages.Sharedisthecreationofstrip
patternsandaninterestinthem,butnotnecessarilysharedisthemotivationfortheircreation,northeworldvieworaestheticthatleadstotheparticularstripthatresults(p.186).
...
...[Mathematical]ideasexistinallcultures,butwhichonesareemphasized,howtheyareexpressed,andtheirparticularcontextswillvaryfromculturetoculture(p.187)...

Page6
...Thedifferences,however,arenottheabilitytothinkabstractlyorlogically.Theyareinthesubjectsofthought,theculturalpremises,andwhatsituationscallforthwhich
thoughtprocesses(p.190).
ThesestatementsrevealtheanthropologicalandmathematicalrootsandconcernsoftheAschers'project.Theirprojectalsohasideologicalconcerns:Theyintendto
challengeEurocentrichistoricalandanthropologicalnotionsaboutthelocusofmathematicalideas,includingperniciousstatementsinthemathematicalliterature
concerningthevalueofthemathematicalideasofnonliterate,nonWesternpeoples.
2
Astheypointout,moststatementsaboutnonliteratepeoplesareusually(1)in
preliminarychaptersinhistoriesofmathematicsorintextsonthespiritofthesubject,and(2)theoreticallyandfactuallyflawed(1986,p.125).Nonliteratepeoplesare
thoughtofasprimitiveorexistingearlieralongalinearevolutionarypath.Assuch,theirideasareplacedatthebeginningofdiscussionsofmathematics.Incontrast,
AscherandAscher(1975,1981,1986)andAscher(1983,1987,1988a,1988b,1990,1991),havedemonstratedthatcertainnotionsofnonliteratepeoplesare
akintoandascomplexasthoseofmodern,"Western"mathematicstheyhavebroadenedthehistoryofmathematicsbyimbuingitwithamulticultural,global
perspective.However,circumscribingtheterrainofethnomathematicstothemathematicalideasofnonliterate,nonWesternpeoples,weinsist,istoosmallacircle.
Theradiusshouldbelongersincemuchliesinthecomplementofthecircle.
Todiscoverthecomplementrequiresabroaderperspectiveofethnomathematics.Insightfully,D'Ambrosio(1985/reprintedhereaschapter1),thefounderandmost
significanttheoreticianoftheethnomathematicsprogram,pointsoutthatbeliefintheuniversalityofmathematicscanlimitonefromconsideringandrecognizingthat
differentmodesofthoughtorculturemayleadtodifferentformsofmathematics,radicallydifferentwaysofcounting,ordering,sorting,measuring,inferring,classifying,
andmodeling.Thatis,onceweabandonnotionsofgeneraluniversality,whichoftencoverforEurocentricparticularities,wecanacquireananthropologicalawareness:
differentculturescanproducedifferentmathematicsandthemathematicsofoneculturecanchangeovertime,reflectingchangesintheculture.ForD'Ambrosio
ethnomathematics,existingatthecrossroadsofthehistoryofmathematicsandculturalanthropology,overcomestheEgyptianandGreekdistinctionbetweenscholarly
andpracticalmathematics,adistinctionrootedinsocioeconomicclassdifferentia

Page7
tion(pp.4445).Nowinthetwentiethcenturythisdistinctionismanifestedinthecontrastbetweenthe"academic"mathematicsthatistaughtinschools,whichallows
anelitetoassumemanagementofasociety'sproductiveforces,andthe"everyday"mathematics,whichallowsindividualstofunctioneffectivelyintheworld.Onthe
otherhand,ethnomathematicsis
themathematicswhichispractisedamongidentifiableculturalgroups,suchasnationaltribalsocieries,laborgroups,childrenofacertainagebracket,professionalclasses,andso
on.Itsidentitydependslargelyonfocusesofinterest,onmotivation,andoncertaincodesandjargonswhichdonotbelongtotherealmofacademicmathematics.Wemaygo
evenfurtherinthisconceptofethnomathematicstoincludeforexamplemuchofthemathematicswhichiscurrentlypractisedbyengineers,mainlycalculus,whichdoesnot
respondtotheconceptofrigorandformalismdevelopedinacademiccoursesofcalculus(D'Ambrosio1985,p.45).
Herewehaveaconceptionofethnomathematicswhichembracesabroaderspectrumofhumanitythanthepreviousone.Withinthisconception,culturalgroupswithin
Westernsocietiesalsohaveanethnomathematics.Moreover,D'Ambrosio(1987)arguesthatweshouldneitherminimizenorignoretheinfluenceofcultural
atmosphereandmotivation.Aswiththeproductionofotherculturalproducts,music,forexample,mathematicalideastakeshapewithinparticularcontextsandwhich
ideasareproducedisconnectedtocontextualcontent.
ThiscallsforasomewhatdifferentwayoflookingintotheHistoryofScienceandtheepistemologicalfoundationsofscientificknowledge.Itcallsforanethnological
interpretationofmentalprocessesandtherecognitionofdifferentmodesofthought,aswellasdifferentlogicsofexplanation,whichdependuponexperientialbackgroundofthe
culturalgroupbeingconsidered.Thusweareledtodisclaimtheassertionthatthereisonlyoneunderlyinglogicgoverningallthought(p.3).
Here,then,differentculturalgroupsindustrialengineers,children,Peasants,computerscientists,forexamplehavedistinctwaysofreasoning,ofmeasuring,of
coding,ofclassifying,andsoon.Consequentlyeachgrouphastheirownethnomathematics,includingacademicmathematicians.Further,itistheinformalandadhoc
aspectsofethnomathematicsthatbroadenittoincludemorethanacademicmathematics.ThispointhasbeenaptlyelaboratedbybothBorba(1990/reprintedhereas
chapter12)andMtetwa(1992).Forinstance,

Page8
statingthatethnomathematicsis"[m]athematicalknowledgeexpressedinthelanguagecodeofagivensocioculturalgroup,"Borbapointsoutthatthisimpliesthat[e]
venthemathematicsproducedbyprofessionalmathematicianscanbeseenasaformofethnomathematics..."(p.40).Further,heechoesthecritiqueofuniversality:
Althoughacademicmathematicsmaybeinternationalinthatitiscurrentlyinuseinmanypartsoftheworld,itisnotinternationalinthatonlyasmallpercentageofthepopulation
oftheworldislikelytouseacademicmathematics(p.40)....
Henceethnomathematicsshouldnotbemisunderstoodas"vulgar"or"secondclass"mathematics,butasdifferentculturalexpressionsofmathematicalideas(p.41).
Beyondcritiquingtheimperialismofacademicmathematics,Borbaarguesforarecognitionofdiverseexpressionsofmathematicalideasinsteadofone
ethnomathematicsdominatinganother.Thegenesisofethnomathematicalideasdependsonthecognitivepracticesofaculturallydifferentiatedgroup,andthoseideas
maintain,evolve,ordisappearaccordingtothedynamicsofthegroupanditsrelationtootherculturalgroups.Atsomestage,aprofessionalclassofmathematicians
maydecidetotheorizeanaspectofethnomathematicalknowledgetheyappropriateitandlaterreturnitinacodifiedversion.Inthiscontext,D'Ambrosiowrites:
Wemaylookforexamplesinmathematicsoftheparalleldevelopmentofthescientificdisciplineoutsidetheestablishedandacceptedmodeloftheprofession.Onesuchexample
isDirac'sdeltafunctionwhich,about20yearsafterbeinginfulluseamongphysicists,wasexpropriatedandbecameamathematicalobject,structuredbythetheoryof
distributions(1985,p.47).
D'Ambrosio'sbroaderviewofethnomathematicsaccountsforthedialecticaltransformationofknowledgewithinandamongsocieties.Moreover,hisepistemologyis
consistentwithFreire's(1970,1973)inthatD'Ambrosioviewsmathematicalknowledgeasdynamicandtheresultofhumanactivity,notasstaticandordained.
Necessarily,thisconceptionofethnomathematicsadmitsacritiqueofthehistoriographyofmathematics(D'Ambrosio,1988).Thatis,therearemathematicalnotions
ofpeoplesthatwrittenhistoryhashidden,frozen,orstolen.Includingtheseideasmakesitclearthatwhatislabeled"Western"mathematicsismoreaccuratelycalled
"worldmathematics"(Anderson,1990/reprintedhereaschapter14).Weargue

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thatethnomathematicsincludesthemathematicalideasofpeoples,manifestedinwrittenornonwritten,oralornonoralforms,manyofwhichhavebeeneither
ignoredorotherwisedistortedbyconventionalhistoriesofmathematics.Weandothermathematicseducatorsarepushingtheboundariesofbothethnomathematics
andacademicmathematicssothatthetwofieldsmergetoencompassalloftheintellectualenterprisesandotheractionsofeverydaylifehavingtodowith
mathematics.
3
Fashehgoessofarastodefinetheunderlyingprojectofethnomathematicsas"workinghardtounderstandthelogicofotherpeoples,ofotherwaysof
thinking."
4
Notes
1.OnesuchforumisthenewsletteroftheInternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematics(ISGEm).Tosubscribeorreceivefurtherinformation,contactGloria
Gilmer,9155North70thStreet,Milwaukee,WI53223,U.S.A.
2.Joseph'swork(1987/reprintedhereaschapter3,1991),particularlythelatterone,Thecrestofthepeacock:ThenonEuropeanrootsofmathematics,
representotherrecent,significantchallengestoEurocentrichistoriography.
3.Forexample,seeAscher(1983),Crowe(1971,1975),Gattegno(1988),Gerdes(1986,1988a/reprintedhereaschapter11,1988b),Harris(1987),Ginsburg
(1986/reprintedhereaschapter6),Joseph(1991,1993),andZaslavsky(1973,1990,1991,1992,1996).
4.Fashehmadethisremarkduringhispanelpresentation"MathematicsEducationintheGlobalVillage:Whatcanweexpectfromethnomathematics?"attheSixth
InternationalCongressonMathematicsEducationinBudapest,Hungary,July1988.
References
Anderson,S.E.(1990).Worldmathcurriculum:FightingEurocentrisminmathematics.JournalofNegroEducation59(3):348359.
Ascher,M.(1983).ThelogicalnumericalsystemofIncaquipus.AnnalsoftheHistoryofComputing5(3):268278.
.(1987).MuTorere:AnanalysisofaMaorigame.MathematicsMagazine60(2):90100.

Page10
.(1988a).Graphsincultures(II):Astudyinethnomathematics.ArchivesforHistoryofExactSciences39(1):7595.
.(1988b).Graphsincultures:Astudyinethnomathematics.HistoriaMathematica15(3):201227.
.(1990).Arivercrossingproblemincrossculturalperspective.MathematicsMagazine63(1):2629.
.(1991).Ethnomathematics:Amulticulturalviewofmathematicalideas.Belmont,CA:Brooks/Cole.
Ascher,M.,andAscher,R.(1975).Thequipuasavisiblelanguage.VisibleLanguage9(4):329356.
.(1981).Codeofthequipu:Astudyinmedia,mathematics,andculture.AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress.
.(1986).Ethnomathematics.HistoryofScience24:125144.
Borba,M.C.(1990).Ethnomathematicsandeducation.FortheLearningofMathematics10(1):3943.
Crowe,D.W.(1971).ThegeometryofAfricanartI:Bakubaart.JournalofGeometry1:169182.
.(1975).ThegeometryofAfricanartII:AcatalogofBeninpatterns.HistoriaMathematica2:253271.
D'Ambrosio,U.(1985).Ethnomathematicsanditsplaceinthehistoryandpedagogyofmathematics.FortheLearningofMathematics5(1):4448.
.(1987).Reflectionsonethnomathematics.InternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematicsNewsletter3(1):35.
.(1988).Ethnomathematics:Aresearchprograminthehistoryofideasandincognition.InternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematicsNewsletter4
(1):58.
.(1990).Etnomatemtica:Arteoutcnicadeexplicareconhecer[Ethnomathematics:Artortechniqueofexplainingandknowing].SoPaulo:Editora
Atica.
Freire,E(1970).Pedagogyoftheoppressed.NewYork:Seabury.
.(1973).Educationforcriticalconsciousness.NewYork:Seabury.
Gattegno,C.(1988).Thescienceofeducation:Part2B:Theawarenessofmathematization.NewYork:EducationalSolutions.
Gerdes,E(1986).Howtorecognizehiddengeometricalthinking:Acontributiontothedevelopmentofanthropologicalmathematics.FortheLearningof
Mathematics6(2):1012,17.

Page11
.(1988a).Onculture,geometricalthinkingandmathematicseducation.EducationalStudiesinMathematics19:137162.
.(1988b).OnsomepossibleusesoftraditionalAngolansanddrawinginthemathematicsclassroom.JournaloftheMathematicalAssociationofNigeria
18(1):107125.
Ginsburg,H.E(1986).Themythofthedeprivedchild:Newthoughtsonpoorchildren.InU.Neisser(Ed.).Theschoolachievementofminoritychildren:New
perspectives(pp.169189).Hillsdale,NewJersey:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.
Harris,M.(1987).Mathematicsandfabrics.MathematicsTeaching120:4345.
Joseph,G.G.(1987).Foundationsofeurocentrisminmathematics.Race&Class28(3):1328.
.(1991).Crestofthepeacock:ThenonEuropeanrootsofmathematics.London:I.B.Tauris.
.(1993).MulticulturalMathematics.Oxford:OxfordUniversity.
Mtetwa,D.(1992)."Mathematics"andethnomathematics:Zimbabweanstudents'view.InternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematicsNewsletter7(1):13.
Zaslavsky,C.(1973).Africacounts:NumberandpatternsinAfricanculture.Boston:Prindle,WeberandSchmidt.
.(1990).SymmetryinAmericanfolkart.ArithmeticTeacher38(1):612.
.(1991).Multiculturalmathematicseducationforthemiddlegrades.ArithmeticTeacher38(6):813.
.(1992).Multiculturalmathematics:Interdisciplinarycooperativelearningactivities.Portland,ME:Walch.
.(1996).Themulticulturalmathclassroom:Bringingintheworld.Portsmouth,NH:Heinemann.

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Chapter1
EthnomathematicsanditsPlaceintheHistoryandPedagogyofMathematics
UbiratanD'Ambrosio
Editors'scomment:InagreementwithGerdes(seechapter16),weconsiderUbiratanD'Ambrosio,aBrazilianmathematicianandphilosopherofmathematicseducation,"the
intellectualfatheroftheethnomathematicsprogram."Sincethemid1970s,hehaspresentedhisethnomathematicsprograminbothEnglishandPortugueseinavarietyofforums
throughouttheworld.Thischapterrepresentsthefirstcomprehensive,theoreticaltreatmentinEnglishofethnomathematics.Theseideashavestimulatedthedevelopmentofthe
field.ThischapterfirstappearedinFortheLearningofMathematics5(1):4148,in1985.HehasamoreupdatedstatementinPortugueseinD'Ambrosio(1990).Attheendofthe
presentversion,theauthorincludesabriefupdate.
IntroductoryRemarks
Inthispaper,wewilldiscusssomebasicissueswhichmaylaythegroundforanhistoricalapproachtotheteachingofmathematicsinanovelway.Ourprojectrelies
primarilyondevelopingtheconceptofethnomathematics.
Oursubjectliesontheborderlinebetweenthehistoryofmathematicsandculturalanthropology.Wemayconceptualizeethnoscienceasthestudyofscientificand,by
extension,technologicalphenomenaindirectrelationtotheirsocial,economic,andculturalbackgrounds.
1
Therehasbeenmuchresearchalreadyonethnoastronomy,
ethnobot

Page14
any,ethnochemistry,andsoon.Notmuchhasbeendoneinethnomathematics,perhapsbecausepeoplebelieveintheuniversalityofmathematics.Thisseemstobe
hardertosustain,forrecentresearch,mainlycarriedonbyanthropologists,showsevidenceofpracticeswhicharetypicallymathematical,suchascounting,ordering,
sorting,measuringandweighing,doneinradicallydifferentwaysthanthosewhicharecommonlytaughtintheschoolsystem.Thishasencouragedafewstudiesonthe
evolutionoftheconceptsofmathematicsinaculturalandanthropologicalframework.Butweconsiderthisdirectiontohavebeenpursuedonlytoaverylimitedand
wemightsaytimidextent.AbasicbookbyR.L.WilderwhichtakesthisapproachandarecentcommentonWilder'sapproachbyC.Smorinski
2
seemtobethe
mostimportantattemptsbymathematicians.Ontheotherhand,thereisareasonableamountofliteratureonthisbyanthropologists.Makingabridgebetween
anthropologistsandhistoriansofcultureandmathematiciansisanimportantsteptowardsrecognizingthatdifferentmodesofthoughtsmayleadtodifferentformsof
mathematicsthisisthefieldwhichwemaycall''ethnomathematics."
AntonDimitriu'sextensivehistoryoflogic
3
brieflydescribesIndianandChineselogicsmerelyasbackgroundforhisgeneralhistoricalstudyofthelogicsthatoriginated
fromGreekthought.Weknowfromothersourcesthat,forexample,theconceptof"thenumberone"isaquitedifferentconceptintheNyayaVaisesika
epistemology:"thenumberoneiseternalineternalsubstances,whereastwo,etc.,arealwaysnoneternal,"andfromthisproceedsanarithmetic(p.119).
4
Practically
nothingisknownaboutthelogicunderlyingtheIncatreatmentofnumbers,thoughwhatisknownthroughthestudyofthe"quipus"suggeststhattheyusedamixed
qualitativequantitativelanguage.
5
Theseremarksinviteustolookatthehistoryofmathematicsinabroadercontextsoastoincorporateinitotherpossibleformsofmathematics.Butwewillgofurther
thantheseconsiderationsinsayingthatthisisnotamereacademicexercise,sinceitsimplicationsforthepedagogyofmathematicsaredear.Werefertorecent
advancesintheoriesofcognitionwhichshowhowstronglycultureandcognitionarerelated.Althoughforalongtimetherehavebeenindicationsofacloseconnection
betweencognitivemechanismsandculturalenvironment,areductionisttendency,whichgoesbacktoDescartesandhastoacertainextentgrowninparallelwiththe
developmentofmathematics,tendedtodominateeducationuntilrecently,implyingaculturefreecognition.Recentlyaholisticrecognitionoftheinterpenetra

Page15
tionofbiologyandculturehasopenedupafertilegroundofresearchoncultureandmathematicalcognition.
6
Thishasclearimplicationsformathematicseducation,as
hasbeenamplydiscussedinmybooksSocioculturalBasesforMathematicsEducation,
7
andSeveralDimensionsofScienceEducation.
8
AHistoricalOverviewofMathematicsEducation
Letuslookverybrieflyintosomeaspectsofmathematicseducationthroughouthistory.Weneedsomesortofperiodizationforthisoverviewwhichcorresponds,toa
certainextent,tomajorturnsinthesocioculturalcompositionofWesternhistory.(Wedisregardforthispurposeotherculturesandcivilizations.)
UptothetimeofPlato,ourreferenceisthebeginningandgrowthofmathematicsintwodearlydistinctbranches:whatwemightcall"scholarly"mathematics,which
wasincorporatedintheidealeducationofGreeks,andanother,whichwemaycall"practical"mathematics,reservedtomanualworkersmainly.IntheEgyptianorigins
ofmathematicalpractice,therewasthespacereservedfor"practical"mathematicsbehindit,whichwastaughttoworkers.ThisdistinctionwascarriedonintoGreek
timesandPlatodearlysaysthatallthesestudies[cipheringandarithmetic,mensurations,relationsofplanetaryorbits]intotheirminutedetailsisnotforthemassesbut
foraselectedfew,"(LawsVII,818)
9
and"weshouldinducethosewhoaretosharethehighestfunctionsofStatetoenteruponthatstudyofcalculationandtakehold
ofit,...notforthepurposeofbuyingandselling,asiftheywerepreparingtobemerchantsorhucksters"(RepublicVII525b).
10
Thisdistinctionbetweenscholarly
andpracticalmathematics,reservedfordifferentsocialclasses,iscarriedonbytheRomanswiththe"trivium"and"quadrivium"andapracticaltrainingforlaborers.In
theMiddleAges,webegintoseeaconvergenceofbothinonedirection:thatis,practicalmathematicsbeginstousesomeideasfromscholarlymathematicsinthe
fieldofgeometry.PracticalgeometryisasubjectinitsownrightintheMiddleAges.Thisapproximationofpracticaltotheoreticalgeometryfollowsthetranslation
fromtheArabicofEuclid'sElementsbyAdelardofBath,(earlytwelfthcentury).DominicusGomdissalinus,inhisclassificationofsciences,saysthat"itwouldbe
disgracefulforsomeonetoexerciseanyartandnotknowwhatitis,andwhatsubjectmatterithas,and

Page16
theotherthingsthatarepremisedofit,"ascitedin(p.8).
11
Withrespecttocipheringandcounting,changesstarttotakeplacewiththeintroductionofArabic
numeralsthetreatiseofFibonnaci(p.481)
12
isprobablythefirsttobeginthismixingofthepracticalandtheoreticalaspectsofarithmetic.
ThenextstepinourperiodizationistheRenaissancewhenanewlaborstructureemerges:changestakeplaceinthedomainofarchitecturesincedrawingmakesplans
accessibletobricklayers,andmachinerycanbedrawnandreproducedbyothersthantheinventors.Inpainting,schoolsarefoundtobemoreefficientandtreatises
becomeavailable.Theapproximationisfeltbyscholarswhostarttousethevernacularfortheirscholarlyworks,sometimeswritinginanontechnicallanguageandin
astyleaccessibletononscholars.ThebestknownexamplesmaybeGalileo,andNewton,withhisOptiks."
Theapproximationofpracticalmathematicstoscholarlymathematicsincreasesinpaceintheindustrialera,notonlyforreasonsofnecessityindealingwithincreasingly
complexmachineryandinstructionmanuals,butalsoforsocialreasons.Exclusivelyscholarlytrainingwouldnotsufficeforthechildrenofanaristocracywhichhadto
bepreparedtokeepitssocialandeconomicalpredominanceinaneworderinnote12(p.482).Theapproximationofscholarlymathematicsandpractical
mathematicsbeginstoentertheschoolsystem,ifwemaysocalleducationintheseages.
Finally,wereachalaststepinthisroughperiodizationinattainingthetwentiethcenturyandthewidespreadconceptofmasseducation.MoreurgentlythanforPlato
thequestionofwhatmathematicsshouldbetaughtinmasseducationalsystemsisposed.Theanswerhasbeenthatitshouldbeamathematicsthatmaintainsthe
economicandsocialstructure,reminiscentofthatgiventothearistocracywhenagoodtraininginmathematicswasessentialforpreparingtheelite(asadvocatedby
Plato),andatthesametimeallowsthiselitetoassumeeffectivemanagementoftheproductivesector.Mathematicsisadaptedandgivenaplaceas"scholarly
practical"mathematicswhichwewillcallfromnowon,"academicmathematics,"thatis,themathematicswhichistaughtandlearnedintheschools.Incontrasttothis,
wewillcallethnomathematicsthemathematicswhichispracticedamongidentifiableculturalgroups,suchasnationaltribalsocieties,laborgroups,childrenofa
certainagebracket,professionalclasses,andsoon.Itsidentitydependslargelyonfocusesofinterest,onmotivation,andoncertaincodesandjargonswhichdonot
belongtotherealmofacademicmathematics.Wemaygoevenfurtherinthisconceptofethnomathematicstoincludemuchofthemathematicswhich

Page17
iscurrentlypractisedbyengineers,mainlycalculus,whichdoesnotrespondtotheconceptofrigorandformalismdevelopedinacademiccoursesofcalculus.Asan
example,theSylvanusThompsonapproachtocalculusmayfitbetterintothiscategoryofethnomathematics.Andbuildersandwelldiggersandshackraisersinthe
slumsalsouseexamplesofethnomathematics.
Ofcoursethisconceptasksforabroaderinterpretationofwhatmathematicsis.Nowweincludeasmathematics,apartfromthePlatoniccipheringandarithmetic,
mensurationandrelationsofplanetaryorbits,thecapabilitiesofclassifying,ordering,inferringandmodeling.Thisisaverybroadrangeofhumanactivitieswhich,
throughouthistoryhavebeenexpropriatedbythescholarlyestablishment,formalizedandcodifiedandincorporatedintowhatwecall"academicmathematics,"but
whichremainaliveinculturallyidentifiedgroupsandconstituteroutinesintheirpractices.
EthnomathematicsinHistoryandPedagogyandtheRelationsbetweenThem
Wewouldliketoinsistonthebroadconceptualizationofmathematicswhichallowsustoidentifyseveralpracticeswhichareessentiallymathematicalintheirnature.
Andwealsopresupposeabroadconceptofethno,toincludeallculturallyidentifiablegroupswiththeirjargons,codes,symbols,myths,andevenspecificwaysof
reasoningandinferring.Ofcourse,thiscomesfromaconceptofcultureastheresultofanhierarchizationofbehavior,fromindividualbehaviorthroughsocialbehavior
toculturalbehavior.
Theconceptreliesonamodelofindividualbehaviorbasedonthecycle...realityindividualactionreality...,schematicallyshownasfigure11.Inthisholistic
modelwewillnotenterintoadiscussionofwhatisreality,orwhatisanindividual,orwhatisaction.Wereferto.
13
Wesimplyassumerealityinabroadsense,both
natural,material,socialandpsychoemotional.Now,weobservethatlinksarepossiblethroughthemechanismofinformation(whichindudesbothsensorialand
memory,geneticandacquiredsystems)whichproducesstimuliintheindividual.Throughamechanismofreificationthesestimuligiverisetostrategies(basedon
codesandmodels)whichallowforaction.Actionimpactsuponrealitybyintroducingfactiintothisreality,bothartifactsand"mentifacts."(Wehave

Page18
Figure11.
introducedthisneologismtomeanalltheresultsofintellectualactionwhichdonotmaterialize,suchasideas,concepts,theories,reflections,andthoughts.)Theseare
addedtoreality,inthebroadsensementionedabove,anddearlymodifyit.Theconceptofreificationhasbeenusedbysociobiologistsas"thementalactivityinwhich
hazilyperceivedandrelativelyintangiblephenomena,suchascomplexarraysofobjectsoractivities,aregivenafactitiouslyconcreteform,simplifiedandlabeledwith
wordsorothersymbols"(p.380).
14
Weassumethistobethebasicmechanismthroughwhichstrategiesforactionaredefined.Thisaction,beitthroughartifactsor
throughmentifacts,modifiesreality,whichinturnproducesadditionalinformationwhich,throughthisreificativeprocess,modifiesorgeneratesnewstrategiesfor
action,andsoon.Thisceaselesscycleisthebasisforthetheoreticalframeworkuponwhichwebaseourethnomathematicsconcept.
Individualbehaviorishomogenizedincertainwaysthroughmechanismssuchaseducationtobuildupsocietalbehavior,whichinturngenerateswhatwecall"culture."
Againaschemesuchasfigure12allowsfortheconceptofcultureasastrategyforsocietalaction.Now,themechanismofreification,whichischaracteristicof
individualbehavior,isreplacedbycommunication,whileinformation,whichimpactsuponanindividual,isreplacedbyhistorywhichhasitseffectonsocietyasa
whole.Wewillnotgodeeperhereintothistheoreticalframeworkthiswillappearsomewhereelse.)
Aswehavementionedabove,culturemanifestsitselfthroughjargons,codes,myths,symbols,utopias,andwaysofreasoningandinferring.Associatedwiththesewe
havepracticessuchasciphering

Page19
Fisure12.
andcounting,measuring,classifying,ordering,inferring,modeling,andsoon,whichconstituteethnomathematics.
Thebasicquestionwearethenposedisthefollowing:Howtheoretical"canethnomathematicsbe?Ithaslongbeenrecognizedthatmathematicalpractices,suchas
thosementionedintheendofthepreviousparagraph,areknowntoseveralculturallydifferentiatedgroupsandwhenwesay"known"wemeaninawaywhichis
substantiallydifferentfromtheWesternoracademicwayofknowingthem.Thisisoftenseenintheresearchofanthropologistsand,evenbeforeethnographybecame
recognizedasascience,inthereportsoftravelersallovertheworld.Interestintheseaccountshasbeenmainlycuriosityorthesourceofanthropologicalconcern
aboutlearninghownativesthink.Wegoastepfurtherintryingtofindanunderlyingstructureofinquiryintheseadhocpractices.Inotherterms,wehavetoposethe
followingquestions:
1.Howareadhocpracticesandsolutionofproblemsdevelopedintomethods?
2.Howaremethodsdevelopedintotheories?
3.Howaretheoriesdevelopedintoscientificinvention?
Itseems,fromastudyofthehistoryofscience,thatthesearethestepsinthebuildingupofscientifictheories.Inparticular,thehistoryofmathematicsgivesquite
goodillustrationsofsteps1,2,and3,andresearchprogramsinthehistoryofscienceareinessencebasedonthesethreequestions.

Page20
Themainissueisthenamethodologicalone,anditliesintheconceptofhistoryitself,inparticularofthehistoryofscience.Wehavetoagreewiththeinitialsentence
inBellone'sexcellentbookonthesecondscientificrevolution:"Thereisatemptationhiddeninthepagesofthehistoryofsciencethetemptationtoderivethebirth
anddeathoftheories,theformalizationandgrowthofconcepts,fromascheme(eitherlogicalorphilosophical)alwaysvalidandeverywhereapplicable....Insteadof
dealingwithrealproblems,historywouldthenbecomealearnedreviewofedifyingtalesforthebenefitofonephilosophicalschooloranother"(p.1).
15
Thistendency
permeatestheanalysisofpopularpracticessuchasethnoscience,andinparticularethnomathematics,deprivingitofanyhistory.Asaconsequence,itdeprivesitofthe
statusofknowledge.
Itisappropriateatthismomenttomakeafewremarksaboutthenatureofsciencenowadays,whichisregardedasalargescaleprofessionalactivity.Aswehave
alreadymentioned,itdevelopedintothispositiononlysincetheearlynineteenthcentury.Althoughscientistscommunicatedamongthemselves,andscientific
periodicals,meetings,andassociationswereknown,theactivityofscientistsinearliercenturiesdidnotreceiveanyrewardassuch.Whatrewardtherewascame
moreastheresultofpatronage.Universitieswerelittleconcernedwithpreparingscientistsortrainingindividualsforscientificwork.Onlyinthenineteenthcenturydid
becomingascientiststarttoberegardedasaprofessionalactivity.Andoutofthischange,thedifferentiationofscienceintoscientificfieldsbecamealmost
unavoidable.Thetrainingofascientist,nowaprofessionalwithspecificqualifications,wasdoneinhissubject,inuniversitiesorsimilarinstitutions,andmechanismsto
qualifyhimforprofessionalactivityweredeveloped.Andstandardsofevaluationofhiscredentialsweredeveloped.Knowledge,particularlyscientificknowledge,was
grantedastatuswhichallowedittobestowuponindividualstherequiredcredentialsfortheirprofessionalactivity.Thissameknowledge,practicedinmanystrataof
societyatdifferentlevelsofsophisticationanddepth,wasexpropriatedbythosewhohadtheresponsibilityandpowertoprovideprofessionalaccreditation.
Wemaylookforexamplesinmathematicsoftheparalleldevelopmentofthescientificdisciplineoutsidetheestablishedandacceptedmodeloftheprofession.One
suchexampleisDirac'sdeltafunctionwhich,abouttwentyyearsafterbeinginfulluseamongphysicists,wasexpropriatedandbecameamathematicalobject,
structuredbythetheoryofdistributions.Thisprocessisanaspectoftheinternaldynamicsofknowledgevisvissociety.

Page21
Thereisunquestionablyatimelagbetweentheappearanceofnewideasinmathematicsoutsidethecircleofitspractitionersandtherecognitionoftheseideasas
"theorizable"intomathematics,endowedwiththeappropriatecodesofthediscipline,untiltheexpropriationoftheideaanditsformalizationasmathematics.During
thisperiodoftimetheideaisputtouseandpracticed:itisanexampleofwhatwecall"ethnomathematics"initsbroadsense.Eventuallyitmaybecomemathematicsin
thestyleormodeofthoughtrecognizedassuch.Inmanycasesitnevergetsformalized,andthepracticecontinuesrestrictedtotheculturallydifferentiatedgroup
whichoriginatedit.Themechanismofschoolingreplacesthesepracticesbyotherequivalentpracticeswhichhaveacquiredthestatusofmathematics,whichhavebeen
expropriatedintheiroriginalformsandreturnedinacodifiedversion.
Weclaimastatusforthesepractices,ethnomathematics,whichdonotreachthelevelofmathematizationintheusual,traditionalsense.Paraphrasingtheterminology
ofT.S.Kuhn,wesaytheyarenot"normalmathematics"anditisveryunlikelytheywillgenerate"revolutionarymathematics."Ethnomathematicskeepsitsownlife,
evolvingasaresultofsocietalchange,butthenewformssimplyreplacetheformerones,whichgointooblivion.Thecumulativecharacterofthisformofknowledge
cannotberecognized,anditsstatusasascientificdisciplinebecomesquestionable.Theinternalrevolutionsinethnomathematics,whichresultfromsocietalchangesas
awhole,arenotsufficientlylinkedto"normalethnomathematics."Thechainofhistoricaldevelopment,whichisthespineofabodyofknowledgestructuredasa
discipline,isnotrecognizable.Consequentlyethnomathematicsisnotrecognizedasastructuredbodyofknowledge,butratherasasetofadhocpractices.
Itisthepurposeofourresearchprogramtoidentifywithinethnomathematicsastructuredbodyofknowledge.Toachievethisitisessentialtofollowsteps1,2,and3
above.
Asthingsstandnow,wearecollectingexamplesanddataonthepracticesofculturallydifferentiatedgroupswhichareidentifiableasmathematicalpractices,hence
ethnomathematics,andtryingtolinkthesepracticesintoapatternofreasoning,amodeofthought.Usingbothcognitivetheoryandculturalanthropologywehopeto
tracetheoriginofthesepractices.Inthisway,asystematicorganizationofthesepracticesintoabodyofknowledgemayfollow.

Page22
Conclusion
Foreffectiveeducationalactionnotonlyanintenseexperienceincurriculumdevelopmentisrequired,butalsoinvestigativeandresearchmethodsthatcanabsorband
understandethnomathematics.Andthisdearlyrequiresthedevelopmentofquitedifficultanthropologicalresearchmethodsrelatingtomathematics,afieldofstudyas
yetpoorlycultivated.Togetherwiththesocialhistoryofmathematics,whichaimsatunderstandingthemutualinfluenceofsociocultural,economic,andpoliticalfactors
inthedevelopmentofmathematics,anthropologicalmathematics,ifwemaycoinanameforthisspecialty,isatopicwhichwebelieveconstitutesanessentialresearch
themeinThirdWorldcountries,notasamereacademicexercise,asitnowdrawsinterestinthedevelopedcountries,butastheunderlyinggrounduponwhichwecan
developcurriculuminarelevantway.
CurriculumdevelopmentinThirdWorldcountriesrequiresamoreglobal,clearlyholisticapproach,notonlybyconsideringmethods,objectives,andcontentsin
solidarity,butmainlybyincorporatingtheresultsofanthropologicalfindingsintothethreedimensionalspacewhichwehaveusedtocharacterizecurriculum.Thisis
quitedifferentthanwhathasfrequentlyandmistakenlybeendone,whichistoincorporatethesefindingsindividuallyineachcoordinateorcomponentofthe
curriculum.
ThisapproachhasmanyimplicationsforresearchprioritiesinmathematicseducationforThirdWorldcountriesandhasanobviouscounterpartinthedevelopmentof
mathematicsasascience.ClearlythedistinctionbetweenPureandAppliedMathematicshastobeinterpretedinadifferentway.WhathasbeenlabeledPure
Mathematics,andcontinuestobecalledsuch,isthenaturalresultoftheevolutionofthedisciplinewithinasocial,economic,andculturalatmospherewhichcannotbe
disengagedfromthemainexpectationsofacertainhistoricalmoment.ItcannotbedisregardedthatL.Kronecker("Godcreatedtheintegerstherestistheworkof
men"),KarlMarx,andCharlesDarwinwerecontemporaries.PureMathematics,asopposedtoMathematics,cameintoconsiderationataboutthesametime,with
obviouspoliticalandphilosophicalundertones.ForThirdWorldcountriesthisdistinctionishighlyartificialandideologicallydangerous.Clearly,torevisecurriculum
andresearchprioritiesinsuchawayastoincorporatenationaldevelopmentprioritiesintothescholarlypracticeswhichcharacterizesuniversityresearchisamost
difficultthingtodo.Butallthedifficultiesshouldnotdisguisethe

Page23
increasingnecessityofpoolinghumanresourcesforthemoreurgentandimmediategoalsofourcountries.
ThisposesapracticalproblemforthedevelopmentofmathematicsandscienceinThirdWorldcountries.Theproblemleadsnaturallytoacloseforthethemeofthis
paper:thatis,therelationbetweenscienceandideology.
Ideology,implicitindress,housing,titles,sosuperblydenouncedbyAimCsaireinLaTragdieduRoiChristophe,takesamoresubtleanddamagingturn,with
evenlongerandmoredisruptingeffects,whenbuiltintotheformationofthecadresandintellectualclassesofformercolonies,whichconstitutethemajorityofso
calledThirdWorldcountries.Weshouldnotforgetthatcolonialismgrewtogetherinasymbioticrelationshipwithmodemscience,inparticularwithmathematicsand
technology.
Notes
1.UbiratanD'Ambrosio,"ScienceandtechnologyinLatinAmericaduringdiscovery,"ImpactofScienceonSociety27,no.3(1977):267274.
2.R.L.Wilder,MathematicsasaculturalsystemOxford:Pergamon,1981seealsoC.Smorynski,"Mathematicsasaculturalsystem,"Mathematical
Intelligencer5,no.1(1983):915.
3.AntonDimitriu,Historyoflogic(4vols)(Kent,England:AbacusPress,1977).
4.KarlsH.Pottered.,Indianmetaphysicsandepistemology.EncyclopediaofIndianPhilosophies(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1977).
5.MarciaAscher,andRobertAscher,CodeoftheQuipu(AnnArbor,MI:TheUniversityofMichiganPress,1981).
6.DavidELancy,Crossculturalstudiesincognitionandmathematics(NewYork:AcademicPress,1983).
7.UbiratanD'Ambrosio,Socioculturalbasesformathematicseducation(SoPaulo:UNICAMP,Campinas1985).
8..Severaldimensionsofscienceeducation(Santiago:CIDE/REDUC,1990).
9.Plato,Dialogues,ed.,E.Hamilton,andH.Cairns(NewYork:PantheonBooks,1963).

Page24
10.Plato,Dialogues(Republic),ed.,E.Hamilton,andH.Cairus(NewYork:PanthemBooks,1963).
11.StephenK.Victored.,PracticalgeometryinthehighMiddleAges(Philadelphia:TheAmericanPhilosophicalSociety,1979).
12.UbiratanD'Ambrosio,''Mathematicsandsociety:somehistoricalconsiderationsandpedagogicalimplications,"Int.J.Math.Educ.Sci.Technol.,2,no.4,
(1980):479488.
13..Unitingrealityandaction:Aholisticapproachtomathematicseducation,inTeachingTeachersTeachingStudents,L.A.SteenandD.J.Alberseds.
(Boston:Birkhauser,1980),3342.
14.CharlesJ.Lumsden,andEdwardD.Wilson,Genesmindandculture(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1981).
15.EnricoBellone,Aworldonpaper(Cambridge,MA:TheMITPress,1980orig.ed.1976).

Page25
Chapter2
Ethnomathematics
MarciaAscherandRobertAscher
Editors'scomment:MarciaAscher,amathematician,andRobertAscher,ananthropologist,challengetheideathatnonliteratepeopleshaveonly"primitive"mathematicalideas.
Theirwork,directedtowardprofessionalmathematicians,hasprovideddetailedevidenceofsophisticatedmathematicalideasamongnonliteratepeoples,ideasakintoandas
complexasthoseofmodern,"Western"mathematics.Assuch,thischapter,whichfirstappearedinHistoryofScience,14:125144,in1986,playedasignificantroleinintroducing
ethnomathematicstotheEnglishreadingmathematicalcommunity.
Authors'Note1995:Thisarticlewaswrittenintheearly1980sbutdidnotfindjournalacceptanceforseveralyears.Hence,itreflectsourearliestthinkingonethnomathematics.
Sincethenwehaveclarifiedourthoughtsontwomostimportantpoints.Firstofall,wesubsequentlyarticulatedwhatwemeantbytheterm"mathematicalideas"whichoccursin
thefirstsentencebutunderliestheentirediscussion.Tous,mathematicalideasincludethoseinvolvingnumber,logic,spatialconfigurationand,moresignificant,thecombination
ororganizationoftheseintosystemsandstructures.Second,weusedtheterm"nonliterate"tocountertheoutmodedusageof"primitive"inthemathematicsliterature.But,in
definingthescopeofethnomathematics,thattermistoolimited.Theterm"traditional"isbetteralthoughnosinglewordissufficient.AnentirechapterofEthnomathematics:A
MulticulturalViewofMathematicalIdeas(Belmont,CA:Brooks/Cole,1991)isdevotedtoadetailedelaborationofwhatweseeasthescopeandimplicationsofethnomathematics
aswellasitsrelationshiptootherfieldsofendeavor.

Page26
I
Ethnomathematicsisthestudyofmathematicalideasofnonliteratepeoples.Werecognizeasmathematicalthoughtnotionsthatinsomewaycorrespondtothatlabelin
ourculture.Forexample,allhumans,literateornot,imposearbitraryordersonspace.Particularordersdevelopwithinculturalcontextsandtheirformandcontent
willnecessarilybeexpressiveofthecultureinwhichtheyarise.
Afairnumberofstatementsaboutnonliteratepeoplesarefoundinmathematicalliterature,usuallyinapreliminarychapterinhistoriesofmathematicsorinbooksthat
offeranintroductiontothespiritofthesubject.Mostofthepresentationsaretheoreticallyandfactuallyflawed.Hereweshowthatitistimetorevisethesestatements
andurgetowardanethnomathematicsappropriatetocontemporarythought.
II
Wechoosetheterm"nonliterate"forpeoplethatareelsewherecalled"primitive."Insodoing,weraiseanissuethatismuchmorethanquibblingaboutaword.
"Primitive''asappliedtopeopleisaproductofthetheoryofclassicalevolution.
1
Crucialinthislargelynineteenthcenturyparadigmistheassumptionthatnonliterate
peoplesaretheearliestlivingrepresentativesalongastraightevolutionarypaththatledfromsavagerytocivilizationinaseriesofpredestinedstages.
2
Nonliterate
peopleswerecalled"primitive"becausetheywerethoughttobeoriginal,earlyancient,primeval.Itmaybecommonknowledgethat"primitive,"whenappliedtothe
ethnographicpresent,isatheoreticalanachronismbutitsusecontinuesinmathematicaltexts.Thus,theideasoflivingorrecentlyextinguishednonliteratepeoplesare
erroneouslyplacedatthebeginningofchronologicallyorganizeddiscussionsofmathematics.
Fortheclassicalevolutionists,themathematicalthoughtofnonliteratepeopleswasconfinedtonumber.Itcouldbenothingmoreif,aswasthecase,itwastakenfor
grantedthatnonliteratepeopleswerelivingancestorsandthatmathematicsbeganwithnumeration.E.B.Tylor,themosthighlyregardedmemberoftheschool,
devotedonechapterofhisPrimitiveCulturetothe"Theartofcounting."
3
Some

Page27
twentytwoyearslater,themathematicianL.L.ConantwrotehisinfluentialbookTheNumberConcept:ItsOriginandDevelopment.
4
Thebook,whichis
pervadedbytheideasoftheclassicalevolutionistsandinparticularbytheideasofTylor,continuestobefollowedtoday.
5
Forcurrentmathematicianstoo,
6

mathematicalthoughtofnonliteratepeoplescentersonnumberusingnumberwordsasdata.Discussionsemphasizebodypartsreferredtointhenumberwords,how
wordsareformed,howhighnumberwordsgo,andwhetherdifferentnumberwordsareusedfordifferentcategoriesofobjects.Recordsofcounts,iftheyoccur,are
11assemblagesofpebbles,notchesonsticks,orknotsonstrings.Differencesinideasareassociatedwiththeneedsofthedifferenteconomiesofhuntingand
gatheringorherdingorcommerce.Andsometimesnonliteratenumbercomprehensioniscomparedtoanumbersensefoundinotheranimals.
7
Thesenotionsrequire
examination.
ThefactthatthesamewordisusedforanumberandabodyparttellsusnothingaboutnumberasnumberIneverylanguage,wordsfornumbers,justaswordsfor
anythingelse,arecoinedfreelyinseveralways.Ifawordisadoptedfromanalreadyexistingword,itsoontakesonameaningappropriatetoitsnewcontext.For
example,whenanEnglishspeakersays"afoot"inthecontextofmeasurement,noEnglishhearerthinksheisthinkingofabodypart.Ifinanonliterateculture,wehear
awordforabodypartinthecontextofnumber,thereisnoreasontopresumeotherwise.Forspeakerswithinbothlanguagecommunities,thecircumstancesofthe
coinageareirrelevant.
Howhighnumberwordsgoreflectsonlyhowhighpeopleinalanguagecommunitywishtocountandisunrelatedtointelligenceorabilitytoformulateabstractions.
Theflexibilityandexpendabilityofalllanguagespermittheadditionofhighernumberwordsasandiftheyareneeded.
8
Theconceptofcountingisuniversal.
9
Whatis
universallybeingrecognized,andwhatthelargevarietyofnumberwordshaveincommon,isthatthereisanequalamountfromonetothenext.Inshort,allnumber
wordsarenamesgivento1,1+1,1+1+1,andsoforth.Newnamesarecreatedwhentheyareneeded,buttheirpresenceorabsenceimpliesnothingnewaboutthe
numberconcept.Kronecker's"Godmadetheintegers..."andthepropertiesbeingcapturedbythePeanopostulatesareperhapsyetanotherwayofsayingthesame
thing.
Thestudyoflanguageisalsomainlyresponsibleforourinsightsintothediversityandrichnessofthewaysinwhichtheworldiscategorizedindifferentcultures.
10
The
useofdifferentnumberwords

Page28
fordifferentcategoriesofobjectsisoftenerroneouslycitedinmathematicaltextsasevidenceforthelackofanabstractconceptofnumber.Forexample,Tsimshians
aresaidtohavesevendistinctsetsofnumberwordswithonesetforflatobjectsandanimals,oneforroundobjectsanddivisionsoftime,oneformen,oneforlong
objects,oneforcanoes,andoneforcountingwhennodefiniteobjectisreferredto.
11
Mathematiciansshould,butapparentlydonot,recognizethatthesecategories
areneithermutuallyexclusivenorexhaustiveandwonderwhatwordaTsimshianusesforroundflatobjectsorobjectssuchasstars.Theuseofsetsofnumberwords
ornumericalclassifiersiswidespreadandstilleludesconclusiveanalysis.
12
Letusacceptforthemomentthesimplestatementthatsomegroupshavedifferentnumber
wordsforobjectsthatarelivinganddeadanddiagramitas
Figure21.
infigure21a.Theconceptof3
L
doesnotdetractfromeithertheconceptsof3ortheconceptofliving.Itistheirintersection.Infigure21b,onlythelabelsare
changed.Someone,notprivytoeitherdiagram,hearingonlyA,B,C,Dmightthinkthemquitedistinct.Thehearermightbrandthemaproductofconcretethinking,
whileinactuality,theabilitytosimultaneouslycarrybothdimensionsmakestheidearathersubtle.Inmathematicalwriting,Blackfeetaresaidtousedifferentsetsof
numbersforthelivingandthedead.
13
Allthatcanbeconcludedisthattheyinsistonthisfundamentalopposition.Wemightspeculateontheeffectofsuchadistinction
ifintroducedintoapplicationsofWesternmathematics.Perhapswhenamathematicalmodelisconstructedfromarealisticproblem,itwouldbebettertoretainwith
thevariablestheknowledgethattheyrefertolivingornonlivingobjects.TheycouldbedealtwithasvariableswithrestricteddomainsasisthecasewithDiophantine
equations.Somewhereinthenowconventionalstoryofnumber,thereareshiftsfromtheareaoflanguagetothevisualtactile.Artifactsarein

Page29
troducedpebbles,notchedsticks,knottedcords.Theoftenemphasizedaspectsofartifactsthematerialfromwhichtheyaremadeisofnomathematical
importance.Knottedcords,forexample,canbe11tallies,ortheycanbeassophisticatedasthelogicalnumericalsystemoftheIncas,
14
justaschalkboardscanbe
recordsof11talliesorcomplexintegrals.A11tallyisastepbystepmatchingprocessinwhichindividualobjects,betheypebbles,strokes,orwhatever,are
associated,oneatatime,withotherindividualobjectscreatingforsomepurposeatractablesetofsigns.Anumbersymbol,ontheotherhand,regardlessofthe
medium,isarepresentationofwhateverissubsumedbythemeaningofthenumber.Havingasetofnumbersymbolsimplieshavingsomeorganizedconceptof
numbersandtheirrelationships.Stressedasoftenasthematerialisthemotivationforthecreationanduseofnumbersymbols.Itisdepictedintermsoftheproperty
andbusinessneedsoftheindividualhunterorherder.Clearly,tobeotherthanaprivatecode,asymbolicsystemmustbeshared,spread,andreiteratedbyagroupof
users.
Theconventionalwisdomiswellencapsulatedinananecdotethatisrepeatedwhollyorinpartwithsuchfrequencythatitmusthavespecialappeal.Theanecdotetells
ofanexchangebetweenanativeAfricanDemarasheepherderandsomeoneelsevariouslydescribedasanexplorer,trader,scientist,anthropometrist,orethnologist.
Itisintendedtoshowthattheherdercannotcomprehendthesimplearithmeticfactthat2+2(or2x2)=4.Itdescribeshowtheherderagreestoaccepttwosticksof
tobaccoforonesheepbutbecomesconfusedandupsetwhengivenfoursticksoftobaccoafterasecondsheepisselected
15
Ofcourse,theproblemisnotthatthe
shepherddoesn'tunderstandarithmetic,itisratherthatthescientist/traderdoesn'tunderstandsheep.Sheeparenotstandardizedunits.SincetheDemaraherder
finallyagreedtothetrade,hisconfusioncouldbeattributedtothetrader'swillingnesstopayanequalamountforthesecond,differentanimal.
Otherthandemonstratingtwopeopletalkingpasteachother,theanecdoteraisestheissueofthedifferencebetweenamathematicalconceptanditsapplication.When
inferringmathematicalideasfromconcreteusage,oneisalwaysdealingwithapplications.Itisrecognized,forexample,that2+2=4doesnotapplywhendiscussing
combiningvolumesofgasesorcombiningelementsofoverlappingsets.
16
Evenmoreimportant,aswasrecognizedasearlyas1912byWertheimer,
17
theapplicability
ofeventhesimplestofmathematicalmodelsbecomesaquestionofculturalcategorization.Wesay,forexample,that2apples+2pears=4fruit,but2pants+2
jackets=2

Page30
suits.Awhileagowemighthavesaidthat2men+2women=2couples,butnowwearecarefultosaythat2men+2women=4people.Further,webelievethere
ismeaningin2in.X2in.=4sq.in.butnotin2applesX2apples=4sq.apples.AquestionthathasbeenposedbyWesternscholarswhentryingtodeterminethe
universalityofmathematics,
18
iswhetherornot2+2alwaysequals4.Once4isrecognizedasthenamefor2+2,thequestionbecomes,asitishere,whetherornot
themodelapplies.Thatquestioncanhavedifferentanswersindifferentculturesandevendifferentanswerswithinthesameculture.
19
Whilediscussionofmathematicalideasofnonliteratepeoplescentersonnumber,thepresumptionsandconclusionsextendtologicandthought.Nonliteratepeoples
areoftenexplicitlycharacterizedassimplemindedorchildlike,asonlycapableofconcretethoughtandnotofabstractionorgeneralization,asoflesserintelligence,as
incapableofanalyticthought,andaswithoutformalreasoningorlogic.
20
Inanycontextthesedescriptionsareheavilyjudgmentalinthecontextofmathematics,they
arecondemning.
Toexaminethischaracterization,wepickupthethreadofintellectualhistory.Fortheclassicalevolutionists,the"psychicunityofmankind"wasfundamental.
21
This
tenetwaschallengedinthehighlyinfluentialwritingsofLvyBrhl.
22
Inplaceof"psychicunity,"heerectsadividedworldofthoughtnonliteratepeopleare
"prelogical"wearelogical,wherelogicalisintendedinthebroadsenseofallthoughtandthoughtprocesses.Onceagaingoingovertheissueofnumberbutnow
payingattentiontothought,LvyBrhlreconsidersConant'sfindingsclaimingthathecanaccountforthemforthefirsttimeinasatisfactoryway.HesaysthatConant,
believing5shouldbethemostnatural"base,waspuzzledbythediversityofbaseshefoundinnonliteratecultures.Butthereisnopuzzle,saysLvyBrhl,ifone
understandsthatthemindsofprimitivesdonotfunctionasoursdo,thattheyaremysticalratherthanlogicalandthattheyknowalmostnothingofabstractionhow
then,forthem,canonebasebemore"natural"thananother
23
ThelinethatLvyBrhldrewbetweenhimselfandtheclassicalevolutionistisnotashardandfastas
hewouldhaveusbelieve.Theyneededthenotionofpsychicunityfortheirevolutionaryhypothesisbutcontradicteditatalmosteveryturnastheracialandclass
prejudicesoftheircultureandtimesovershadowedtheirscience.
24
Forexample,theycharacterizednonliteratepeoplesaschildlikeandmeanttwothingsbyit.Used
oneway,childlikestoodforanearlystageinahumanlife,justasprimitiveswereanearlystageintheevolutionofculture.Alternatively,childlike

Page31
meantthatprimitivesthoughtlikechildren.
25
Ineffect,aVictorianprejudiceoftheevolutionistsbecamephilosophyintheworksofLvyBrrhl.
26
Withinafewyearsofthe1910publicationsofHowNativesThink,theideasofLvyBrhlhadenteredthemathematicalliteratureinalengthy,uncriticalmanner,
27

theyarefoundwithforceinMenninger,andcontinueagenerationlaterintheworksofothers.
28
Themythofthechildlike,prelogicalprimitivepersistsinspiteofahost
ofanthropologistsfromDurkheimtoLviStrausswhohaveinveighedagainstit.
29
Whyisthisso?Oneansweristhatthereispolitical,social,economic,andideational
valueinmaintainingthatmostofthepeopleintheworldareourintellectualinferiors.Anotheranswerisfoundinthebeliefthathighertechnologygoeswithhigher
intelligence.Itspersistencewithinscholarlydisciplinesdidnotevaporatebecauseitisdifficulttodealwithanystatementsobroadastoencompassallnonliterate
peoplesandsoincisiveastopinpointamodeofthought.Nevertheless,beginningaboutfifteenyearsago,scholarswithdiverseperspectiveshaveturneddirectlytothe
question.
OneargumentimportantforusaddressesthespecificethnographicexamplesrelatingtonumberusedbyLvyBrhl.Henoted,forexample,thatcertainnumbersand
numbersthataremultiplesordivisorsofthemplayanimportantroleinVeddicreligion,rituals,andlegends.Inthiscontext,onoccasion,3,7,or9aresubstitutedfor
eachother.Fromthis,LvyBrhlconcludes"thisequivalence,anabsurditytologicalthought,seemsquitenaturaltoprelogicalmentality,forthelatter,preoccupied
withthemysticparticipation,doesnotregardthesenumbersinabstractrelationtoothernumbers,orwithrespecttothearithmeticallawsinwhichtheyoriginate."
30

ButarecentfieldstudyofthenumericalideasandarithmeticabilitiesoftheKdang,whoalsohavethistypeofsubstitution,enablesadifferentconclusion.
31
Theiruse
ofnumbersinpracticalarithmeticcontextsandtheiruseofnumbersinnonarithmeticcontextsdonotcontradictordetractfromeachother.Whenusedinsymbolic
contexts,oddnumbersareassociatedwithlifeandevennumberswithdeath.Substitutionswithintheseclassesarepossibleifcircumstancesrequireit.If,forexample,
aceremonialperiodoffourdaysisstipulatedbutcannotbemet,twodayswilldobutthreewouldbeaseriousinfringement.Fourandtwoaremembersofthesame
classandsoareequivalentinthatsenseinthiscontext.Theformationoftheseequivalenceclassesis,wethinkinsteadanexampleofanabstractideaaboutnumber.
OthercounterstoLvyBrhladdresslogicalprocessesspecifically.Noneofthehundredsoflanguagesstudiedsofarlackstheabil

Page32
itytohandlethelogicalconnectorsand,not,or,if...then,andiff.
32
Naturaldiscourse,however,neednotbeexplicitlystructuredasformallogic.Commonlyheld
beliefsmoreoftenarepresumedthanstatedaspremises.Thus,somegraspofthebeliefsofagivencultureareneededsothatthecourseofinferencemaybe
followed.Anoutsider,lackingsuchunderstanding,cantooeasilyfallintothemistakennotionthatwhatisheardissomehowirrationalorillogical.
33
Thereis,asis
positedbysomephilosophers,auniversal"naturalrationality"thatenableslearningthroughinferencesmadefromexperiencewiththediversityofconclusionsstemming
fromdifferentframeworksofconceptsandbeliefsindifferentcultures.
34
Further,theformsofhumanthoughtdeemedlogicalarenowviewedmorebroadlyand
includeinferencesabouttheplausibilityofstatements
35
andthreevaluedlogic.
36
Inasimilarvein,suchareasasheuristics,circumscription,
37
andfuzzylogic
38
arebeing
exploredbycomputerscientistswhoareconcernedwithartificialintelligenceandaretryingtoformalizehumanlikeprocesses.
Theuseofsyllogismsforinvestigatingthereasoningabilityofnonliteratepeoplewasrecentlyreexaminedbycognitivepsychologists.
39
Thestudyprobedmoredeeply
reasoningthatrespondentsusedtoarriveatwhatwereformerlyviewedasunsatisfactoryresponses.HereisoneexampleinwhichaKpellerespondentwouldnot
replytothequestion.
Question:
AllKpellemenarericefarmers.Mr.Smithis
notaricefarmer.IsheaKpelleman?
Onepartoftheresponse: Ifyouknowaperson,ifaquestioncomesup
abouthimyouareabletoanswer.Butifyou
donotknowtheperson,ifaquestioncomes
upabouthim,itshardforyoutoanswer.
40
Althoughthesyllogismposedbythequestionerhasgoneunanswered,theabilitytoreasonandtothinkhypotheticallyhasbeendemonstrated.Whathasalsobeen
demonstratedisthattheKpellerespondentandhisWesternquestionerhavedifferentviewsontalkingaboutpeoplewhomyoudonotknow.Anotherquestioncanbe
summarizedas:
ifAorBthenC,
givennotAandB,
isCtrue?

Page33
andtheansweras:
ifAthenQ,
ifBthennotQ,
ifnotQthennotC,
givennotAandB,
theconclusionisnotC.
41
Hereagainthelogicisfinebuttherespondenthasexplicitlysubstitutedstatementsconsistentwithhisworldview.ComparingseveralsimilarstudieswithKpelle,Vai,
Yucatecans,andNorthAmericans,itwasconcludedthatthelevelofschoolingseemedtobemostsignificantinelicitingtheresponsesexpectedbytheWestern
questioner.
42
ButthisisasitshouldbesinceinformalWesternstyleeducation,onelearnstheschoolculturewhichemphasizes"playingalong"withthequestioner
Additionally,somepsychologistsareconvincedthattestsusedonWesternchildrenandthedevelopmentalstagestheydefineareinvalidwhenusedonadultsand
childreninothercultures.
43
PiagetandothersmodifiedtheirpositionstonotethatevenwithinWesternculturetherearedifferencesinresultswhenquestionsmore
closelymirroredthelifeexperiencesofthosetested.
44
Thereisnotoneinstanceofastudyorrestudythatuponcloseexaminationsupportsthemythofthechildlikeprimitive.Whatthestudiesdoshowmightbesummarized
inthesewords:"Culturaldifferencesincognitionresidemoreinthesituationstowhichparticularcognitiveprocessesareappliedthanintheexistenceofaprocessin
oneculturalgroupanditsabsenceinanother."
45
Nolongercannonliteratepeoplesbethoughttobechildlike.Indeed,theapproachofmanycontemporary
anthropologistsistothinkofthemselvesaschildren.
46
Afterall,anoutsider,fromtheperspectiveofthepeoplevisited,istheonewhoischildlikeandisoftentoldso
becausehedoesnotknow,forexample,howtoaddressanelder,theproperwaytoholdautensilor,perhaps,thatdifferentwordsmustbeusedtocounttheliving
andthedead.
III
Mathematicalideasofnonliteratepeoplemustbedrawnfromethnographicliteraturewiththeunderstandingthatthetaskwillnotbeeasy.Mostanthropologistswere
limitedintheirunderstandingof

Page34
mathematicsandhaveseldomaskedrelevantquestions.
47
Ideasthatmighthavebeendelvedintomoredeeplyorrecordedmorespecificallybysomeonewithan
interestinmathematics,maywellhavenotbeenseenforwhattheywere.Fortunately,atleastsomeanthropologistsincludedinformation,sometimeseven
unbeknownsttothem,thatcanbeused,andsomerecentstudieshavebeenspecificallyconcernedwithrelatedideas.Also,insomecases,thereareavailable
ethnohistoricalaccountsaswellasartifacts.Thecategorymathematicsisourown,andsowecannotexpecttofindanythingsolabelledbyotherpeoples.Moreover,
becausetheyhavenoprofessionalclassesparticularlydevotedtothedoingofmathematics,thereisnoexplicitmathematics.Mathematicalideaswillhavetobefound
implicitinotherareasandactivities.Theircontextinaculturewilldependonwhattheculturethinksaboutandonhowitthinksaboutwhatitthinksabout.
Specificstudieswithinethnomathematicsrequiredetailedinvestigationandanalysis.Aswithanyseriousendeavor,theresultswillbemorethananecdotal.Substantial
studiesarealreadyavailableon,forexample,thelogicalnumericalsystemoftheIncas
48
andMayacalendrics
49
withtheirculturalramifications.Here,however,we
continuewithinstancesisolatedfromtheirfullculturalelaborationtoindicatepossibilitiesandproblems.Expandingbeyondnumberandnumeracy,wecontrastsome
impositionsoforderonspaceandcitesomeconceptualmodelsforwhichtheusersareclearlyawareofandconcernedwithlogicalstructuresanddrawinginferences
fromthem.
ForalongtimeinWesternculture,itwasbelievedthatourEuclideangeometrywasdescribingtruthsaboutthephysicalworldratherthanbeinganelaborationofa
mentalconstruct.Ourmostfundamentalconceptswerethenrecognizedasarbitrary,butsomeillustrationsfromothercultureswillemphasizejusthowarbitrarythey
are.Points,lines,rightangles,rectangles,andplanarsurfacesareessentialtotheworldwehaveconstructedaroundus.This,ofcourse,influencedthecourseof
Westernmathematics,butmathematics,inturn,reinforcedtheirimportancethroughourart,architecture,measuringandmappingschemes,waysofseeingand
describing,andevenouraestheticsense.Whatcouldbemorenaturalthanlookingupatthesky,spottingparticularstars,mentallyconnectingthestarpointswith
straightlinesegments,andcreatingconstellationsthatareseenbygenerationaftergeneration?Apparentlyinkeepingwiththeirspatialideas,nativeAndeanpeoples
seeotherconstellationsfarmoreirregularlyshapedmadeupofdarkerandlighterblotches(cloudsofinterstellardust)inthesky.
50
Justbeforehediedinthe1930s,
BlackElk,anOglala

Page35
Sioux,spokeabouthislifeandthoughts.Hisstatementaboutthecirde(below,right)ispresentedincontrasttoastatementabouttheline(below,left)whichappeared
inarecentlyhighlylaudedworkbytwoAmericanprofessorsofmathematics.Whiletheydifferonthegeometricform,thewriterssharetheirdegreeofconvictionin
therightnessoftheirideasandsupporttheirviewwithnature,God,achievementofgoals,andproperhumandevelopment.BlackElkandtheSioux,however,were
forciblymadetorealizethattheirviewwasnotsharedbyothercultures.
...ineveryhumanculturethatwewill
everdiscover,itisimportantto8ofrom
oneplacetoanother,tofetchwaterordig
roots.Thus,humanbeingswereforcedto
discovernotonce,butoverandover
again,ineachnewhumanlifethe
conceptofthestraightline,theshortest
pathfromheretothere,theactivityof
goingdirectlytowardssomething.
Inrawnature,untouchedbyhuman
activity,oneseesstraightlinesinprimitive
form.Thebladesofgrassorstalksofcorn
standerect,therockfallsdownstraight,
objectsalongacommonlineofsightare
locatedrectilinearly.Butnearlyallthe
straightlinesweseearoundusarehuman
artifactsputtherebyhumanlabor.The
ceilingmeetsthewallinastraightline,the
doorsandwindowpanesandtabletopsare
allboundedbystraightlines.Outthe
windowoneseesrooftopswhosegables
andcornersmeetinstraightlines,whose
shinglesarelayeredinrowsandrows,all
straight.
...IamnowbetweenWoundedKnee
CreekandGrassCreek.Otherscame
too,andwemadetheselittlegray
housesoflogsthatyousee,andtheyare
square.Itisabadwaytolive,forthere
canbenopowerinasquare.
Youhavenoticedthateverythingan
Indiandoesisinacircle,andthatis
becausethePoweroftheWorldalways
worksincircles,andeverythingtriesto
beround.Intheolddayswhenwewere
astrongandhappypeople,allourpower
cametousfromthesacredhoopofthe
nation,andsolongasthehoopwas
unbroken,thepeopleflourished.The
floweringtreewasthelivingcenterofthe
hoop,andthecircleofthefourquarters
nourishedit.Theeastgavepeaceand
light,thesouthgavewarmth,thewest
gaverain,andthenorthwithitscoldand
mightywindgavestrengthandendurance.
Thisknowledgecametousfromthe
outerworldwithourreligion.Everything
thePoweroftheWorlddoesisdoneina
[continuedonnextpage] [continuedonnextpage]

Page36
Theworld,soitwouldseemhas
compelledustocreatethestraightlineso
astooptimizeouractivity,notonlybythe
problemofgettingfromheretothereas
quicklyandeasilyaspossiblebutbyother
problemsaswell.Forexample,whenone
goestobuildahouseofadobeblocks,one
findsquicklyenoughthatiftheyaretofit
togethernicely,theirsidesmustbestraight.
Thus,theideaofastraightlineisintuitively
rootedinthekinestheticandthevisual
imaginations.Wefeelinourmuscleswhat
itistogostraighttowardourgoal,wecan
seewithoureyeswhethersomeoneelseis
goingstraight.Theinterplayofthesetwo
senseintuitionsgivesthenotionofstraight
lineasoliditythatenablesustohandleit
mentallyasifitwerearealphysicalobject
thatwehandlebyhand.
Bythetimeachildhasgrownupto
becomeaphilosopher,theconceptofa
straightlinehasbecomesointrinsicand
fundamentalapartofhisthinkingthathe
mayimagineitasanEternalForm,partof
theHeavenlyHostofIdealswhichhe
recallsfrombeforebirth.Or,ifhisnamebe
notPlatobutAristotle,heimaginesthatthe
straightlineisanaspectofNature,an
abstractionofacommonqualityhehas
observedintheworldofphysicalobjects.
51
circle.Theskyisround,andIhave
heardthattheearthisroundlikeaball
andsoareallthestars.Thewind,inits
greatestpower,whirls.Birdsmaketheir
nestsincircles,fortheirsisthesame
religionasours.Thesuncomesforthand
goesdownagaininacircle.Themoon
doesthesame,andbothareround.
Eventheseasonsformagreatcirclein
theirchanging,andalwayscomeback
againtowheretheywere.Thelifeofa
manisacirclefromchildhoodto
childhood,andsoitisineverything
wherepowermoves.Ourtepeeswere
roundlikethenestsofbirds,andthese
werealwayssetinacircle,thenation's
hoop,anestofmanynests,wherethe
GreatSpiritmeantforustohatchour
children.
ButtheWaischus(whitemen)haveput
usinthesesquareboxes.Ourpoweris
goneandwearedying,forthepoweris
notinusanymore.Youcanlookatour
boysandseehowitiswithus.Whenwe
werelivingbythepowerofthecirclein
thewayweshould,boysweremenat
twelveorthirteenyearsofage.Butnowit
takesthemverymuchlongertomature.
Well,itisasitis.Weareprisonersofwar
whilewearewaitinghere.Butthereis
anotherworld.
52

Page37
SharplycontrastingwithbothoftheseviewsaretheAvilik(Inuit)spatialconceptsstudiedbyEdmundCarpenter,ananthropologistwhoseparticularconcernisthe
interconnectednessofmediaandthought.
53
Heconcludesthattheydonotseparatespaceandtime,butjointhemintoadynamicprocessinwhichspaceitselfisnever
astaticenclosurebut''directioninoperation."Herelatesthistotheirenvironmentwhichheseesasvastwithfewpermanentreferencepoints.FororientationtheAvilik
relyonwinddirectionandchangingsnowandiceformsandrelationships.Ramificationsofthisbasicconceptareseenintheirartandwaysofseeinganddescribing.
Incarvingivory,forexample,afigureissketcheduntilthelimitofthesurfaceisreachedandthenitisturnedoverandthefigurecompletedontheotherside.Each
independentfigurehasitsownhorizonandorientation.Sometimesgroupsoffiguresareallthesamefigurebutshownfromseveraldifferentperspectivesortheymay
depictaneventthatrequiresthepassageoftime.Also,ifanAvilikwishestoshowwhatisinsideorbehindsomething,heorshedrawstheobjectsasiftheywere
transparent.Carpentermakestheanalogyto"anengineer'ssketchofthemovingpartsofanengine,allrelevantelementsareshown,inspiteofthefactthattheycould
neverbeobservedfromasinglevantagepoint"orinasinglemoment.
54
Themostimportantfeatureisthatnosingleorientationseemstobeassumedindrawingor
viewing.Carpenterreportsthatthechildrenpokedfunatwhattheyfoundtobehisoddbehaviorofturningsurfacesorhisheadinordertolookatpictures.Someof
thechildren,whentaughtourmodeofperspectivedrawinginschool,insteadmadetheparallellinesconvergeastheyapproachtheviewer,whichservedtoopenout
insteadofclosethespace,whileothersusedthebottomofthepaperastheclosestvisualpointsandhigherpositionsforpointsmoredistant.
Continuingwiththeorderingandrepresentationofspace,weturntotheconstructionanduseofaspatialmodel.Itisanexampleofanapplicationthegoalisto
navigatefromoneplacetoanotherthroughouttheCarolineIslands,achainthatextendsforabout1,500miles.Itsusersdonotbelieveittobeastatementofreality.
Aswithmostmathematicalmodels,itisanabstractionfromphysicalrealityfromwhichrelationsandlogicalimplicationscanbederivedinordertodealwithall
possiblejourneysratherthanonlyjourneysalreadytaken.Themodelisusedtoorganizefixeddata,incorporaterealisticcues,andmakedecisionsaccordingly.
55
Its
useisstandardizedthroughouttheCarolineIslandsandrequiresalong,intensiveperiodoflearning,muchofwhichtakesplaceinlecturesonland.Thelecturesare
augmentedbydiagramssketchedinthesand.Thenaviga

Page38
tor'sknowledgeincludesmuchmorethanthismodel,butthemodeliscentraltonavigation.Leavinganislandandgettingstartedintherightdirection,keepinga
straightcoursebycombiningtheanglesofthreesetsofprevalentwavetypes,andhominginonthedestinationoncewithinabouttwentymilesofitarealsoimportant,
butthemodelisessentialforknowingwhereyouarewhenoutofsightofanyland.
Themodelconsists,firstofall,ofa"compass"whichisthirtytwopointsirregularlyspacedaroundthehorizon.Thepointsaretherisingandsettingpositionsof
differentstarsand,aspartofamentalconstruct,donotdependonthevisibilityofthestarsduringajourney.Thepathsofthesestars,otherstars,andallknown
islandsarepositionedwithinthisframework.Theregionissufficientlylatitudinallyconfinedsothatthestarrisingandsettingpointsareessentiallythesamethroughout.
Toeachpairoforiginanddestinationislands,thereisassociatedathirdisland,welloutofsightofthecourse,whichisusedasareferencepointduringajourney.The
boatisconceivedofasstationaryandtheislandasmoving.Thedirectcourseofthejourneypassesthesationaryboatasthereferenceislandpassesconsecutivestar
positions(figure22).
56
Meanwhile,ofcourse,tacking
Figure22.
Ajourney.
andrespondingtoparticularcircumstancesaredetoursthatneedbecorrelatedwiththedirectcourse.
57
Withthismodel,thenavigatorsknowjustwheretheyarewhile
sailingandareabletosuccessfullyreachlandfalltargetshundredsofmilesfromtheirstartingpointwhichsubtendaslittleas57.
58

Page39
Orderinghumanrelationshipsiscertainlyasfundamentalasimposingorderonspace.Inourculture,interestinthelogicalstructuringofkinshipisminimalinothers,itis
amuchmoreelaboratedanddynamicelementindailylife.Thereis,ofcourse,noparticularstructurethatisanymorecorrectthananyother.Eachsystemcontainsan
arbitrarysetofruleswhichmustbeconsistentandmustleadtothedesiredoutcomeswhichincorporatethevaluesandworldviewoftheculture.Mostimportantis
thatthemembersoftheculturesharethemodelandconstantlydrawinferencesfromitabouttheirrelationshipstowhomevertheyencounterandtheappropriate
behaviortowardsthem.Thelogicofrelations,inmathematics,ismorerecentthantheAristoteleanlogicofclassesandpropositions.Whileithasnonecessary
connectiontokinstructuring,itisnotuncommontofindWesternkintermsusedasillustrativeexamples.Forexample,spouseofisusedtoillustrateasymmetric
relationship,motheroftoillustrateanasymmetricrelationship,fatherofanduncleofarenonintersectingrelations(withtheexceptionofsomefewreligioussects),
andgrandfatherofistherelativeproductoffatherofandmotherof.
59
Therelationsbeingstatedexplicitlyareimplicitinthedefinitionofthekinrelationships.More
complexkinstructureshavemorecomplexlogicalrelationsimplicitinthem.
LetusexaminethekinrelationshipsfoundamongtheArandaofAustralia.Eachpersonisinoneofeightmarriageclasses.Eachmustmarryapersonfromaspecified
classandtheirchildrenareinanotherclasswhichdependsontheclassofthemother(figure23).The
Figure23.
Arandamarriageclasses:1.Anequalsign
indicatesmarriagepartners.Thearrowpoints
fromthemother'sclasstothechild'sclass.
representationinfigure23raisesanimportantproblem.Itconveystherulesbutdoesnotdisplaytheunderlyinglogicalstructure.Eachdescriptiveorganizationwe
createbringsoutthoseaspectsofthestructurewebelievetobeimportant.Butitmaybewearesuperim

Page40
posingourownviewswhilemissingwhatisimportanttotheAranda.Lookingattwoadditionalrepresentations,wewillbegintoseethelogicalrichnessofthesystem
andsomeoftheeffectsofusingdatacollected,translated,andpresentedbyothers.Figure24dis
Figure24.
Arandamarriageclasses:2.Anequalsign
indicatesmarriagepartners.Thearrowpoints
fromthemother'sclasstothechild'sclass.
playsthepresenceoftwononoverlappingmatricycles,eachoflengthfour,and,althoughsomewhatlessblatently,fournonoverlappingparticycleseachoflengthtwo.
60
Oneoftheprimaryfeaturesofthekinstructure,whichechoesanimportantfeatureofArandaworldview,and,ingeneral,nativeAustraliancosmology,isthatin
thesecycles,pastandfuturearedrawntogetherintothepresent.
61
Theauthorofthemuchmoreelaboraterepresentationinfigure25notesthatthe
Figure25.
Arandamarriageclasses:3.Capitalsindicatefemales,small
lettersindicatemales.Terminatingpointsofhorizontallines
aremarriagepartners.Verticallinesconnectparentstochildren.

Page41
rightandleftsidesshouldbecontiguousandthetopandbottomshouldbecontiguous.Hefurthernotesthatthediagramshouldbeonthesurfaceofatorus.
62
Here
theunifiednatureoftimeandboththematricyclesarepatricyclesaremadevisual.Theunifiednatureofbloodtiesisalsomadevisible:thelesserbloodtiesoneither
sidearedrawntogetherintotheclosestbloodties.Whiletherulesarestatedintermsoftheclassofthepersononemarries,byimplication,theyalsospecifythe
individualsonecannotmarry.Aman,forexample,cannotmarryhismother,aunt,sister,firstcousin,ordaughter.
Itwould,ofcourse,bepossibleforpeopletomemorizerulesandneverconceiveofthesystemabstractlyorasawhole.Thereis,atleastinonecase,dramatic
evidencethatthisisnotso.Inthe1920s,wellbeforeanthropologistshadassophisticatedanunderstandingofkinshipstructuresastheynowdo,
63
ayoung
anthropologist,A.BernardDeacon,wasinvestigatingtheregulationofmarriageinAmbrym,NewHebrides.Anotherwhohadstudieditwithoutconclusionnotedlater
that"classsystemsofrelationswerebutlittleknown"andwhattherewasinthescholarlyliteraturecontainedtoomanydetailsandtoofewdiagramsobscuringthe
simplemainprinciples.
64
ThedramaofDeacon'sfindingswasinthewayhelearnedofit:"...theoldermenexplainedthesystemtomeperfectlylucidly,Icouldnot
explainittoanyonebettermyself.Itisperfectlyclearthatthenatives(theintelligentones)doconceiveofthesystemasaconnectedmechanismwhichtheycan
representbydiagrams[whichtheydrewforDeacononthesand]....Thewaytheycouldreasonaboutrelationshipsfromtheirdiagramswasabsolutelyonaparwith
agoodscientificexpositioninalectureroom."
65
Deacon,asisclearfromothermaterialshecollected,hadabroaderviewthanmanyofhiscolleaguesandaninterest
ininformationthatothersignored.Hislettertohismentorcontinues:"IhavecollectedinMalekula,too,somecasesofaremarkablemathematicalability.Ihope,when
Igetmymaterialtogether,tobeabletoprovethatthenativeiscapableofprettyadvancedabstractthought."
66
Mostunfortunately,lessthanamonthlater,Deacon
wasstrickenwithblackwaterfeveranddied.Hiseditedfieldnotes,however,werepublishedposthumously.
IntheexplanationgiventoDeacon,
67
theelderfirstdrewthreelonglinesarrangedasequallyspacedspokesofawheeltorepresentmenfromeachofthreebwelem.
Thethreemenmarried,whichwasindicatedbyappendingashortlinetoeachofthelonglines.Eachcouplehadaboyandagirlwhoareofthesamebwelemasthe
father,buttheother"line,"solongerlines,comingtogetheratthecenter,wereaddedandthechildrenplacedontheothersideofthem.The

Page42
diagram,sofar,isshowninfigure26.
68
Thewiveswerefromanotherbwelem,asindicatedbyarrowsaddedtoshowwheretheycamefrom.
Figure26.
MarriagerulesinAmbrym:1.
Forexplanationseetext.
But,theelderemphasized,marriagemovesinbothdirections.Themalesonthediagramyetwithoutwiveswould,therefore,marrythesistersofthemenwhohad
marriedtheirsisters.Thiswasshownbyaddingthreeshortlinesandarrowsfromthem.Thefinaldiagramisfigure27.
69
Twoaspectsofthediagramthatare
particularlynotewor
Figure27.
MarriagerulesinAmbrym:2.
Forexplanationseetext.
thyareitsparsimonyandtheearlyinterchangingofthepositionsofthemaleandfemalesymbolsinthefirstandsecond"lines"ofeachbwelem,whichresultsinafinal
diagramwithoutanycrossinglines.Butevenmoreimportantmathematicallyisthataconceptualmodelandtherelationshipsbetweenitselementshavebeenexplicitly,
consistentlyandeffectivelytransformedintoaplanarmodel.Thesystemitselfhasinterestingfeatures:the"line"ofawomanandherfemale

Page43
descendantsremainthesame,buttheirbwelemformacycleoflengththreewiththecycleforone"line"beingapermutationofthecyclefortheotherwhereasthe
bwelemofamanandhismaledescendantsremainthesame,buttheir"lines"formacycleoflengthtwo.Again,thesystemdoesnotpermitthemarriageofamanand
hismother,sister,aunt,ordaughter.OneoftheoriginalsourcesofconfusionaboutthemarriageruleswasthatthepeopleofAmbrymwerereferringtotheclassofan
individual,whiletheanthropologistsweretakingitconcretelytomeantheindividualsthemselves.Inthedescription,forexample,thewordmistakenforbloodsisters
actuallymeansclassificatorysisters,whichismadedearbythesymbolsandtheirplacementinadiagram.Thefactthatlogicalinferencesaredrawnfromthemodel
wasbornoutbytheelderexplaining,beforebeingasked,thattwoorthreekinwordsweremisleadingtheydidnotexactlyreflectthemodel.Oneword,forexample,
wasusedbyamanforhiswife'smotherandhisfather'ssister,althoughtheyarenotinthesameclass.Anotherelderexplainedthematricyclesandpatricycles
explicitlywithadifferentdiagramonthesand.Heplacedthreestones"toformtheapicesofanequilateraltriangle"
70
sayingeachrepresentedabwelem,andthata
womanofthefirstmarriedamanofthesecond,herdaughterinthesecondmarriedamanofthethird,andherdaughter'sdaughterofthethirdmarriedamanofthe
firstagainwhowouldbeinthelineofthefirstwoman'sfather.Inyetanotherexplicitstatement,itwasexplainedthatthemother'smother'smother"cameback''toa
man'sbwelemand"line."
IV
Withthisinterplayofconceptualmodelsanddiagrams,cyclessuperimposedonothercycles,andrulesandtheirlogicalimplications,wecometothecloseofour
discussion.Numbersystems,spatialordering,andkinshipstructuresareofparticularinterestbecausetheyarefundamental.Elsewherewehavebrieflydescribed
interestofseveralculturesintracingdosedfigureswithoutliftingthefingerorcrossinglines.
71
Whetherachildren'spuzzlepartofamythaboutdeathorspeculationon
beingabletotakeaSundaywalkonKnigsberg'sbridges,thefactthatmanysharethisconcerncanonlymakeourWesternsolutionsricher.Ethnomathematicsis
notapartofthehistoryofWesternmathematicsalthoughwewill,ofnecessity,

Page44
needtouseWesternterminologyindiscussingit.AsWesterners,weareconfinedinwhatwecanseeandwhatwecanexpresstoideasinsomewayanalogoustoour
own.TheideasofnonWesternersbelong,asdoours,intheglobalandongoinghistoryofmathematicsalwayskeepinginmindthatthereisnosinglelinearordering
andnonecessaryroutethatallmustfollow.Attheveryleast,ethnomathematicscanleadtoanappreciationoftheintellectualendeavorsofothers.
ThelateRaymondL.Wilder,theprimarymathematicalspokesmanfortheimportanceofrelatingmathematicsandculture,usedhisunderstandingtodescribethe
processesofmathematicaldevelopmentintheWest.
72
ClaudiaZaslavskyincreasedoursensitivitytodevelopmentsinAfrica.
73
Someothermathematiciansand
philosophers,suchasKeyser,Kline,Spengler,andWittgenstein,alsorealizedthatmathematicshasaculturalcontextbutstoppedshortofprobingothercultures.
74
As
timepassed,ourcultureandworldviewgaverisetodifferentphilosophiesofmathematics,noneofwhichseemsquitesatisfactorynow.
75
Anunderstandingofwhatis
universalandwhatisnot,abetterunderstandingofthemathematicalideasofnonliteratepeoples,andacceptanceofthefactthattheyarenotourearlyhistoryare
essentialtotheemergenceofaphilosophyofWesternmathematicsfittingourtimesandourculture.
Notes
1.R.L.Carneiro,"Classicalevolution,"inMaincurrentsinculturalanthropology,ed.byR.NarollandF.Naroll(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:1973),57121,p.73
M.J.Herskovits,"Ageneologyofethnologicaltheory,"inContextandmeaninginculturalanthropology,ed.,M.E.Spiro(NewYork:1965),40315,p.408.
2.P.Bagby,Cultureandhistory(Berkeley:1963),18R.L.BealsandH.Hoijer,Anintroductiontoanthropology(NewYork:1965),711.
3.E.B.Tylor,Primitiveculture(Boston:1874),i,24072.Tylorsaysthatcountingbeganwithgesturesusingfingersandtoes.Atthatstage,humanscouldcountno
furtherthanfour.Later,withtherealizationthatwordsexistedforhandsandfeet,wordsfornumberscameintobeing.Stilllater,itwasfoundthatasystembasedon
five(onehand)wasscanty,onebasedontwenty(handsandtoes)wascumbersome,andsothebasetenwasadopted,andsoon.Ateveryjunctureinthestory,
Tylorpointstoaculture,fromnativeAustraliansandnativeAmericansthroughPolynesiansandnativeAfricansand,ofcourt,uptoandendingwithus.

Page45
4.L.L.Conant,Thenumberconcept:Itsoriginanddevelopment(NewYork:1896).
5.C.B.Boyer,Ahistoryofmathematics(NewYork:1968)R.Dubisch,Thenatureofnumber(NewYork,1952)H.W.Eves,Anintroductiontothehistory
ofmathematics(NewYork:1stedn.,19535thedn.,1982)G.Ifrah,Histoireuniverselledeschiffres(Paris:1981).
6.AnexceptiontotheclassicalevolutionaryparadigmisfoundinA.Seidenberg,"Thediffusionofcountingpractices,"UniversityofCaliforniapublicationsin
mathematics,iii(Berkeley:1960),215300idem,"Theritualoriginofcounting,"Archiveforhistoryofexactsciencesii(1962):140.Seidenbergdrawson
diffusionism,themajorcontendingnineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyscheme.Accordingtohim,nonliteratepeoplesinventednothingwhatsoeverinthewayof
number,letaloneinotherareasofmathematicalthought.
7.Someoralloftheseideasarein:A.D.Aleksandrov,"Ageneralviewofmathematics,"inMathematics:Itscontent,methods,andmeaning,editedbyA.D.
Aleksandrov,A.N.Kolmogorov,M.A.Lavrent'ev(Cambridge,MA:2ndedn.,1969originalRussianedn.,1956),i,164,pp.710P.Beckmann,Ahistoryof
(pi),2ndedn.(NewYork:1971),1012C.B.Boyer,op.cit.(ref.5),35W.F.Brett,E.B.FeldmanandM.Sentlowitz,Anintroductiontothehistoryof
mathematics,numbertheoryandoperationsresearch(NewYork:1974),1113L.N.H.Bunt,P.S.Jones,andJ.D.Bedient,Thehistoricalrootsof
elementarymathematics(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:1976),23N.A.Court,Mathematicsinfunandearnest(NewYork:1961originaledn.,1935),6466T.
Dantzig,Number(NewYork:4thedn.,1967originaledn.,1930),121M.deVilliers,Thenumeralwords:Theirorigin,meaning,history,andlesson(Cape
Town:1923),16,4649R.Dubisch,op.cit.(ref.5),49H.W.Eves,op.cit.(ref.5,1982),25,16G.Flegg,Numbers,theirhistoryandmeaning(New
York:1983),846G.Ifrah,op.cit.(ref.5),9107M.Kline,MathematicsinWesternculture(NewYork:1972originaledn.,1953),1314E.E.Kramer,The
natureandgrowthofmodernmathematics(Princeton,NJ:1982),5K.Menninger,Numberwordsandnumbersymbols(Cambridge,MA:1969originaledn.,
1957),912,3340,1967,22356,297C.D.MillerandV.E.Heeren,Mathematicalideas(Glenview,IL:2ndedn.,1973),14C.D.MillerandV.E.Heeren,
Mathematicsaneverydayexperience(Glenview,IL:1976),1N.Myers,Themathbook(NewYork:1975),14D.E.Smith,Historyofmathematics(New
York:1958originaledn.,1923),i,614D.J.Struik,Aconcisehistoryofmathematics(NewYork:2ndrev.edn.,1948),25B.L.vanderWaerdenandG.
Flegg,Historyofmathematics,counting(MiltonKeynes,England:Bucks,1975),pt.1,12,40pt.11,4245.
8.C.F.Hockett,Man'splaceinnature(NewYork:1973),138.
9.K.Hale,"Gapsingrammarandculture,"inLinguisticsandanthropology:InhonorofC.F.Voegelin,editedbyM.D.Kinkade,K.L.Hale,O.Werner

Page46
(Lisse,TheNetherlands:1975),295316,Z.Salzmann,"Amethodforanalyzingnumericalsystems,"Word,v(1950):7883.
10.M.R.Crick,"Anthropologyofknowledge,"Annualreviewofanthropology,xi(1982):287313,pp.28898.
11.R.Dubisch,op.cit.(ref.5).
12.R.Burling,"HowtochooseaBurmesenumberclassifier,"inContextandmeaninginculturalanthropology,editedbyM.E.Spiro(NewYork:1965),243
64.
13.A.Seidenberg,op.cit.(ref.6,1960),p.275.
14.M.AscherandR.Ascher,CodeoftheQuipu:Astudyinmedia,mathematics,andculture(AnnArbor,MI:TheUniversityofMichiganPress,1981).
15.L.L.Conant,op.cit.(ref.4),p.4N.A.Court,op.cit.ref.7),6566M.deVilliers,op.cit.(ref.7),4849H.W.Eves,Inmathematicalcircles,reprinted
aspartofTheothersideoftheequation(Boston:1973original,1969)5G.Flegg,op.cit.(ref.7),p.19M.Kline,op.cit.(ref.7),p.14K.Menninger,op.
cit.(ref.7),p.34.
16.M.Kline,Mathematics,aculturalapproach(Reading,PA.:1962),581L.Wittgenstein,Remarksonthefoundationsofmathematics,editedbyG.H.von
Wright,R.Rhees,andG.E.M.Anscombe,translatedbyG.E.M.Anscombe(Oxford,England:1956),14e.
17.M.Wertheimer,"Numbersandnumericalconceptsinprimitivepeoples,"inAsourcebookofgestaltpsychology,editedbyW.E.Ellis(London:1955),265
73.
18.E.g.,S.Restivo,"Mathematicsandworldview:OttoSpengler'sanalysisofnumbersandculture"(PaperpresentedatInternationalSocietyfortheComparative
StudyofCivilizationsConference,Bloomington,Indiana,May1981).
19.ForasomewhatdifferentinsightintothepersistenceofthisstoryoftheDemara,wegotoitssource,F.Galton,ThenarrativeofanexplorerintropicalSouth
Africa(London:1853).AcousinofDarwinandapeerandfriendofE.B.Tylor,Galtonwasconsideredageniusbymanybecauseofthebreadthandoriginalityof
histhinking.Heisincludedamongtheearliestofmodemstatisticians.Hisgreatinterestinnumbersandinmeasuringmentaldifferencesinpeoplewererelatedtoan
ideaheadvocatedtowhichhegavethename"eugenics."DiscussionsofGaltoncanbefoundin:S.J.Gould,Themismeasureofman(NewYork:1981),7577
andJ.R.Newman,"CommentaryonSirFrancisGalton,"inTheworldofmathematics,editedbyJ.R.Newman(NewYork:1956),116772.Galton's1853
AfricantravelogueprovidesafascinatingglimpseintoEuropeanreactionsuponjustmeetingotherssodifferentfromthemselves.Now,125yearslater,thosereactions
canhardlybeusedasscientificevidenceaboutnonliteratepeoples.

Page47
20.A.D.Alexsandrov,op.cit.,(ref.7),p.7L.Brunschvicg,Lestapesdelephilosophiemathmatique(Paris:1972originaledn.,1912),7T.Dantzig,op.cit.
(ref.7),p.46M.deVilliers,op.cit.(ref.7),4647R.Dubish,op.cit.(ref.7),34,7,11W.C.Eels,"NumbersystemsoftheNorthAmericanIndians,"
Americanmathematicalmonthly,20(1913):26372,2939H.W.Eves,op.cit.(ref.15),56G.Ifrah,op.cit.(ref.5),1112C.J.Keyser,Mathematicsas
acultureclueandotheressays(NewYork:1947),3334M.Kline,op.cit.(ref.7),13R.W.Marks,"Introduction,"inThegrowthofmathematics,editedby
R.W.Marks(NewYork:1964),14,p.1K.Menninger,op.cit.(ref.7),910D.E.Smith,op.cit.(ref.7),7M.Wertheimer,op.cit.(ref.17),p.267A.N.
Whitehead,"Mathematicsasanelementinthehistoryofthought,"inThegrowthofmathematics,editedbyR.W.Marks(NewYork:1964),724,pp.78.
21.Theexactformulationofpsychicunityvariesfromtexttotext,butusuallywithinthefirsttenpagesthereisastatementtotheeffectthatthementalcapacitiesof
humanbeingsthroughouttheworldarethesame.Forexample,contrastL.H.Morgan,Ancientsociety(NewYork:1877),8,1718,withE.B.Tylor,op.cit.(ref.
3),p.6,33.
22.ForadiscussionoftheinfluenceofLvyBrhl,seeJ.Cazeneuve,LucienLvyBrhl(NewYork:1972).
23.L.LvyBrhl,Hownativesthink(London,England:1926originalFrenchedn.,1910).
24.R.L.Carneiro,op.cit.(ref.1),9093.
25.E.B.Tylor,op.cit.(ref.3),31,246,272J.Lubbock,Prehistorictimes(London,England:1865),569andidem,Theoriginofcivilizationandthe
primitiveconditionofman:Mentalandsocialconditionofsavages(NewYork:1870),45.
26.ThroughtheyearsLvyBrhlmodifiedhisopinions,althoughhisposthumouslypublishedworkshowsthathispositiononnumberremainedthesame.SeeL.
LvyBr,Thenotebooksonprimitivementality(NewYork:1975),1434.OthersfollowedLvyBrhldressinghisideasinnewclothes.See,forexample,the
substitutionof"incompletelogic"for"prelogical"and"preoperative"for"childlike''inC.R.Hallpike,Foundationsofprimitivethought(Oxford,England:1979).
27.SeeL.Brunschvicg,op.cit.(ref.20).
28.K.Menninger,ZahlwortandZiffer(Gttingen,Germany:1957)idem,op.cit.(ref.7),andothers,e.g.,Ifrah,op.cit.(ref.5).
29.E.Durkheim,Theelementaryformsofreligiouslife(NewYork:1915),2701C.LviStrauss,Thesavagemind(Chicago:1966).
30.L.LvyBrhl,op.cit.(ref.23),p.221.

Page48
31.R.H.Barnes,"NumberandnumberuseinKdang,Indonesia,Man,xvii(1982):122.
32.J.F.Hamill,"Transculturallogic:Testinghypothesesinthreelanguages,"inDiscourseandinferenceincognitiveanthropology,editedbyM.D.LoflinandJ.
Silverberg(TheHague:1978),1943,p.31M.D.Loflin,"Discourseandinferenceincognitiveanthropology,"ibid.,316,p.4.
33.J.Silverberg,"Thescientificdiscoveryoflogic:Theanthropologicalsignificanceofempiricalresearchonpsychicunity(inferencemaking)",ibid.,28195.
34.S.B.Barnes,"Naturalrationality:Aneglectedconceptinthesocialsciences,"Philosophyofthesocialsciences,vi(1976):11526.
35.E.Hutchins,"ReasoninginTriobrianddiscourse,"QuarterlynewsletteroftheLaboratoryofComparativeHumanCognition,1(1979):1317.
36.D.E.Cooper,"Alternativelogicin'primitivethought,'"Man,10(1975):23856.
37.J.McCarthy,"Circumscriptionaformofnonmonotonicreasoning,"Artificialintelligence,xiii(1980):2739.
38.L.A.Zadeh,"Copingwiththeimprecisionoftherealworld:Aninterview,"CommunicationsoftheAssociationforComputingMachinery,27(1984):304
11.
39.Intheearly1930s,syllogismswereusedtoinvestigatethereasoningabilitiesofnonliteratepeopleinUzbekistan,CentralAsia.ForadiscussionofthisseeA.R.
Luria,Languageandcognition,editedbyJ.V.Wertsch(Washington,DC:1981).Luriabelievedsyllogismscould"serveasamodelforthosetechniquesof
languagethatmakelogicalthinkingpossible"(ibid.,201).Frequently,responseswereintermsofdirectpersonalexperienceinsteadofthepremisesstatedorthere
wasarefusaltoanswerwhentherespondenthadnoknowledgeofthesubject.Comparingthiswithotherresponses,itwasconcludedthatlogicalthinkingisa
concomitantofthemoredevelopedsocioeconomicsystems.
40.S.Scribner,"Modesofthinkingandwaysofspeaking:Cultureandlogicreconsidered,"inThinkingreadingsincognitivescience,editedbyP.N.Johnson
LairdandP.C.Watson(NewYork:1977),483500,p.490.
41.Ibid.,487.
42.Ibid.,486.
43.M.Cole,"Anethnographicpsychologyofcognition,"inP.N.JohnsonLairdandP.C.Watson,op.cit.(ref.40),46882M.Cole,J.Gay,J.A.GlickandD.
W.Sharp,Culturalcontextoflearningandthinking(NewYork:1971)M.ColeandP.Griffin,"Culturalamplifiersreconsidered,"inThesocialfoundationsof
languageandthought,editedbyD.R.Olsen(NewYork:1980),34364

Page49
LaboratoryofComparativeHumanCognition,"Cognitionasaresidualcategoryinanthropology,"Annualreviewofanthropology,vii(1978):5169.
44.P.N.JohnsonLairdandP.C.Watson,"Atheoreticalanalysisofinsightintoareasoningtask",inP.N.JohnsonLairdandP.C.Watson,op.cit.(ref.40),143
58J.Piaget,"Intellectualevolutionfromadolescencetoadulthood",ibid.,15865.
45.M.Cole,J.Gay,J.A.Glick,D.W.Sharp,op.cit(ref.43),233.Forasimilarviewstatedinadifferentway,seeC.LviStrauss,"Thestructuralstudyofmyth,"
JournalofAmericanfolklore,lxviii(1955):42844,p.444.
46.G.E.MarcusandD.Cushman,"Ethnographiesastexts,"Annualreviewofanthropology,xi(1982):2569,p.42.
47.Focusonnumberwasdifficulttobroadenasthequestionsputtononliteratepeoplesbyethnologistsremainedessentiallythesame.Forexample,the1951edition
ofNotesandqueries,BritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience,London,containsessentiallythesamequestionsasthearithmeticsectionwrittenforthe
1874editionofthesamework.Thisbookisageneralguidetoanthropologicalfieldwork.
48.M.AscherandR.Ascher,CodeoftheQuipudatabook(AnnArbor,MI:1978)idem,op.cit.(ref.14).
49.D.H.Kelley,DecipheringtheMayascript(Austin,TX:1976).
50.G.Urton,Atthecrossroadsoftheearthandsky:AnAndeancosmology(Austin,TX:1981).
51.P.J.DavisandR.Hersh,Themathematicalexperience(Boston:1981),1589.
52.J.G.Neihardt,BlackElkspeaks(Lincoln,NB:1961),198200.
53.E.Carpenter,"Eskimospaceconcepts,"Explorations,5(1955):13145.
54.Ibid.,143.
55.K.G.Oatley,"Mentalmapsfornavigation,"Newscientist,lxiv(1974):8636K.G.Oatley,"Inference,navigation,andcognitivemaps,"inP.N.JohnsonLaird
andP.C.Watson,op.cit.(ref.40),53747.
56.W.H.Goodenough,"NativeastronomyinMicronesia:Arudimentaryscience,"Thescientificmonthly,lxxiii(1951):10510W.H.Alkire,"Systemsof
measurementonWoleaiAtoll,CarolineIslands,"Anthropos,lxv(1970):171.Figure22followsthediagramsinibid.,53andinK.G.Oatley,op.cit.(ref.55,
1974),p.866.
57.Itisusuallydifficulttosailinthedirectiononewishestogo.Forexample,itisimpossibletosaildirectlyintoawind.Tackingissailingbackandforthatanglesto
thewind.Changingfromonetacktoanotheracrossthewindrequireschangingthesettingofthesailsfromonesideoftheboattothe

Page50
other.Becauseoftheirdesign,thisishardertodoontheboatsofthePacificnavigators,astheirentiremastwithsailsmustbemovedtotheotherendoftheboat.
ThetacksbythePacificnavigatorsaresometimes,therefore,aslongas120miles.ForafullerdiscussionseeT.Gladwin,Eastisabigbirdnavigationand
logiconPulwatAtoll(Cambridge,MA:1970).
58.K.G.Oatley,op.cit.(ref.55).
59.C.J.Keyser,op.cit.(ref.20),p.223.
60.BarryAlpher,personalcommunication1979.
61.W.E.H.Stanner,"Thedreaming",inAustraliansignposts,editedbyT.A.G.Hungerford(Melbourne,Australia:1956),5165.
62.FigureadaptedfromT.G.H.Strehlow,Arandatraditions(Melbourne,Australia:1947),174.
63.P.Courrge,"Unmodlemathmatiquedesstructureslmentariesdeparent,"inAnthropologieetcalcul,ed.byP.RichardandR.Jaulin(Paris:1971),126
81.
64.J.Layard,StonemenofMalekula:Vao(London:1942),98.
65.A.B.Deacon,Malekula,avanishingpeopleintheNewHerbrides,editedbyC.H.Wedgewood(London:1934),pp.xxiiiii.
66.Ibid.,p.xxiii.
67.A.B.Deacon,"TheregulationofmarriageinAmbrym,"JournaloftheRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute,lvii(1927):32542.
68.Ibid.,331.
69.Ibid.,332.
70.Ibid.,329.
71.M.AscherandR.Ascher,op.cit.(ref.14),1604.Weplantodiscussthesefiguresatgreaterlengthinanotherpaper.
72.R.L.Wilder,Mathematicsasaculturalsystem(NewYork:1981).
73.C.Zaslavsky,Africacounts(Westport,CT:1979originaledn.,1973).
74.C.J.Keyser,op.cit.(ref.20)M.Kline,op.cit.(ref.16)M.Kline,op.cit.(ref.7)O.Spengler,ThedeclineoftheWest(NewYork:1926),iL.
Wittgenstein,op.cit.(ref.16).
75.S.MacLane,"Mathematicalmodels:Asketchforthephilosophyofmathematics,"Americanmathematicalmonthly,lxxxviii(1981):46272.

Page51
SECTIONII
UNCOVERINGDISTORTEDANDHIDDENHISTORYOFMATHEMATICALKNOWLEDGE
ArthurB.PowellandMarilynFrankenstein
Freire(1970,1973)insiststhatinourstruggletowardhumanliberation,the"cultureofsilence"representsamajorobstacle.Throughitsmechanisms,theoppressed
participateintheirowndominationbyinternalizingviewsofoppressorsandbynotspeakingorotherwiseactingagainstthoseoppressiveviews.IntheUnitedStates,
thiscultureofsilencesurroundingmathematicalknowledgeisfueledbytheideologyof"aptitudes"thedeepseatedbeliefthat"adifferenceinessenceamonghuman
beings...predeterminesthediversityofpsychicandmentalphenomena"(Bisseret,1979,p.2).Particularindividuals,andvariouscommunitiesbelieve,speakandact
asiftheyhavenonmathematicalminds.Inthecaseofwomen,researchershaveexploredthestructural,emotional,andculturallyconditionedcognitivefactorsthatlead
womentobelievemenhavemoremathematical"aptitude."Tobias(1978)andDowling(1990)discussresearchintohiddenmessagesaboutgender,race,andclassin
thecontentandimagesofmathematicstextbooksBeckwith(1983)summarizesstudiesofmediainfluenceonchildren'sperceptionofallegedsuperiormathematics
abilitiesofboys.Ernest(1976)concludesthatthesebeliefsare''theresultofmanysubtle(andnotsosubtle)forces,restrictions,stereotypes,sexroles,parental
teacherpeergroupattitudes,andotherculturalandpsychologicalconstraints"(p.11).Wearguethatanothersignificantreasonforthesilencearoundmathematicsof
somanywomenandpeopleofcolorproceedsfromthewidespreadmythspresentedinWestern"hisstories"ofmathematics.
TheprevailingEurocentric,andmalecentric,myth,expressed

Page52
andbelievedbymanyWesternmathematicians,suchasKline(1953),isthat:
[mathematics]finallysecuredafirmgriponlifeinthehighlycongenialsoilofGreeceandwaxedstronglyforashortperiod....WiththedeclineofGreekcivilisation,theplant
remaineddormantforathousandyears...whentheplantwastransportedtoEuropeproperandoncemoreimbeddedinfertilesoil(pp.1011).
Thisandothermythspermeatesodeeplythehistoryofmathematicsthateventheimagesofmathematicianspresentedintextbooks,suchasEuclid,wholivedand
studiedinAlexandria,are"falseportraits...whichportraythemasfairGreeksnotevensunburnedbytheEgyptiansun."TherearenoactualpicturesofEuclidand
noevidencetosuggestthathewasnotablackEgyptian(Lumpkin,1983,pp.104105/reprintedhereaschapter5).Joseph(1987/reprintedhereaschapter3)
discussesthecosmopolitan,raciallydiversenatureofAlexandriansociety,"ameetingplaceforideasanddifferenttraditions...[involving]continuingcrossfertilisation
betweendifferentmathematicaltraditions,notablythealgebraicandempiricaltraditionsofBabyloniaandEgyptinteractingwiththegeometricandantiempirical
traditionsofclassicalGreece"(p.18).African,Egyptian,Alexandriansocietycreatedtheenvironmentinwhichsomeofitscitizens(andprobablytheirstudents)for
example,Euclid,Archimedes,Apollonius,Diophantus,Ptolemy,Heron,Theon,andhisdaughterHypatiacontributedtothedevelopmentofmathematics.
Wegainfurtherinsightintowhysuchmythswerecreatedandperpetuated,denyingcommunitiesandculturestheirhistory,whenweexaminehowracism,sexism,and
philosophicalorideologicalperspectiveshaveimpactedacademicresearch,thehistoriographyofmathematics,andfoundationalissuesofmathematicsitself.For
example,Europeanscholarsarbitrarily,yetpurposefully,changedthedateoftheoriginationoftheEgyptiancalendarfrom4241to2773B.C.,claimingthat,"such
precisemathematicalandastronomicalworkcannotbeseriouslyascribedtoapeopleslowlyemergingfromneolithicconditions"(Struik,1967,pp.2425,quotedin
Lumpkin,1983,p.100).
1
Foranotherexample,thenameofakeyresearcherinthetheoryoftheelasticityofmetalstheresearchwhichmadepossiblethe
constructionofsuchremarkableengineeringfeatsastheEiffelTowerwasnotlistedamongtheseventytwoscientistswhosenamesareinscribedonthatstructure.
Theyareallmen,andthecontribution

Page53
ofSophieGermainremainsunrecognized(Mozans,quotedinOsen,1974,p.42).Thisisjustasmallexampleofamuchlargerhistoricalpicturethatobliterated
knowledgethat,inspiteofsexism,womendidcontributetothemathematicalsciences.
Oftenthehistoriographyofmathematicsrevealsphilosophicalandevenideologicalbiases.Yethistoriesthatalmostexclusivelyprivilegethemathematicstraditionally
taughtina"Western"conceptionneglectimportantvariants.Within"Western"schoolsofthoughtonthefoundationsofmathematicsand,inparticular,controversies
surroundingthecalculus,historiansandmathematicians"fail"torecognizethatradicallydistinctphilosophicalandpoliticalperspectivesgeneratedecidedlydifferent
ideasaboutthenatureofthecalculus.Asidefromprofessionalmathematicians,othersworriedandwroteseriouslyaboutthecalculusanditsphilosophicaland
theoreticalfoundations.OnesuchthinkerwasKarlMarx,whosephilosophicalideasonthecalculusandalternativetheoreticalformulationswereonlyfirstdiscussedin
EnglishbyStruik(1948/reprintedhereaschapter8).
2
StillinthecurrentNorthAmericanefforttoupdateandtocreatealeanstructureandlivelypedagogyforthe
calculus,westillfindnoaccountofMarx'sideasonthecalculus.
Wegainadditionalinsightintothecomplexityoftheeurocentricmythwhenwenotethat,althoughEuclidisadamantlydescribedas"Greek,"Ptolemy(circaA.D.150)
whoseworkdominatedastronomyuntilreplacedbyCopernicus'stheoryaround1543,isoftendescribedas"Egyptian."Ptolemy'smore"practical,"appliedwork
couldbecontrastedtoEuclid'smore"theoretical"contributions(Lumpkin,1983,p.105).Classically,dominantculturesemployasupposedintellectualhierarchyto
differentiatetheirvaluationoftheproductsoftheoppressedaspracticalincontrasttotheirown"theoretical"products.Harris(1987/reprintedhereaschapter10)
showsthatthisdistinctioncontinuestodenigratewomen'sknowledge.Diop(1991)discussesanumberofcasesinwhichEuropeanscholarsusedthispractical
theoreticalhierarchytodenythesophisticatedmathematicalknowledgeoftheancientEgyptians.Forexample,indiscussingtheEgyptianformulaforthesurfacearea
ofasphere(s=4
2
demonstratedinproblem10ofthePapyrusofMoscow),DiopshowshowPeet(1931)"letshisimaginationrunitscourse"ina"particularly
whimsicaleffort"toavoidattributionofthismathematicalfeattotheEgyptians.Instead,Peettriestodemonstratethatproblem10representstheformulaforthe
surfaceofahalfcylinder,knowledgewhichisconsistentwiththelesssophisticatedmathematicshebelievedtheEgyptiansunderstood:

Page54
Theconceptionoftheareaofacurvedsurfacedoesnotnecessarilyargueaveryhighlevelofmathematicalthoughtsolongasthatareaisonewhich,likethatofthecylinder,can
bedirectlytranslatedintoaplanebyrollingtheobjectalongtheground.(quotedinGillings,1972,p.198)
TotransformthisinformationinthePapyrus,Peet,"whodoesnotrecoilfromthisdifficulty,"explainsthatonlyonedatum
3
isgiveninproblem10becausethediameter
andheightofthecylinderwereequal,sotheonedatumrepresentsbothvalues!Inaddition,PeetsupposesthatthescribeinchargeofrecopyingthePapyrusmust
havemadeamistakeandomittedastatementaboutthesecondmissingdatum(Diop,p.253).Further,DioppointsoutthatevenGillings,whoarguedforcefullyfor
thesophisticatedmathematicalknowledgeoftheancientEgyptians,getscaughtupinthepracticaltheoreticaldichotomy.Afteracceptingtheinterpretationofproblem
10astheformulaforthecurvedsurfaceareaofahemisphere,1500yearsaheadofArchimedes,Gillingsspeculatesthat:
Whetherthescribestumbleduponaluckycloseapproximationorwhethertheirmethodsweretheresultsofconsideredestimationsovercenturiesofpracticalapplications,we
cannotofcoursetell....[Frommuralsandotherart,onecanconcludethat]theartofthebasketmakerorweavermusthavebeenoneofsomeconsequenceintheEgyptian
economicworld.Whenoneisweavingbasketswhichareroughlyhemisphericalonerequiresaquantityofmaterialforthecircularplanelidthatisabouthalfthatrequiredforthe
basketitself.Sincethecalculationoftheareaofacirclewasacommonplaceoperationtothescribes(problem50oftheRhindMathematicalPapyrus),overaperiodofyearsit
couldhavecometobeequallycommonplacethatthecurvedareaofthehemisphericalbasketwasdoublethatofthecircularlid(pp.200201).
Diopcommentsonhowabsurditistothinkthatsolelyempiricalobservation,withoutanytheoreticalreasoning,couldleadtosuchcomplexmathematicalknowledge.
Finally,Diop(1991)remarkshowcuriousitisthat
[i]ftheancientEgyptiansweremerelyvulgarempiricistswhowereestablishingthepropertiesoffiguresonlythroughmeasuring,iftheGreekswerethefoundersofrigorous
mathematicaldemonstration,fromThalesonwards,bythesystemizationof"empiricalformulas"

Page55
fromtheEgyptianstheywouldnothavefailedtoboastaboutsuchanaccomplishment(p.255).
Bernal(1992/reprintedhereaschapter4)arguesforcefullyagainstthedenialofthecentralityofancientEgyptiansinthedevelopmentofmathematicalandscientific
knowledge.Forinstance,hecitesresearchthat"thenotionthattheEgyptianswerebettergeometers[thantheMesopotamians]fitsbothwiththeirunparalleled
architecturalachievementandwiththeirreputationamongtheGreeksasthefoundersofgeometryandtheirteachersinit"(p.605).Inanotherinstance,Bernalcites
anotherscholar,deSantillana,whoarguesagainsttheskepticismwithwhichcontemporaryhistoriansofsciencetreatancientGreekwriterswhoclaimedEgyptian
mathematicsandastronomyweresuperiortotheirown:"Weareaskedtoadmit,then,thatthegreatestmathematicianofGreece[Eudoxos]learnedEgyptianandtried
toworkonastronomyinEgyptwithoutrealizingthathewaswastinghistime"(p.606).
Inanotherexample,Bernal(1987,pp.272280)detailshowthispracticaltheoreticalsplitwasused,inyetanotherfeatofintellectualgymnastics,toresolvethe
"tensions"aroundthediscoveriesofthemathematicalknowledgeembeddedinthestructureofthepyramids.IftheGreekswerethefirst"true"mathematicians,how
couldEuropeanscholarsexplainthatsuchextraordinarymathematicalprecision,includingmeasurementsthatleadtoimportantrelationssuchas , ,and
Pythagoras'striangle,hadbeenbuiltintothepyramidsbytheancientAfricanEgyptians(describedbyclassicalGreekscholarHerodotusashavingblackskinsand
woollyhair)?
4
Usingsarcasm,Bernaldescribeshowthistension
ismadestillmoreunbearablebythefactthattheGreekshadbeentoldaboutmanyofthePyramidsextraordinaryfeaturesandthattheybelievedtheEgyptianstohavebeenthe
firstmathematiciansandastronomers.Finally,thereistheproblemthatsomanyoftheGreekmathematiciansandastronomershadstudiedinEgypt(p.277).
Bernalfurthershowshowthesimplestresolution"believetheGreeksandaccept...thattherewasan...'axialage'around3000B.C.,"followedafewcenturies
laterbyasophisticatedknowledgeofmathematics,builtintothepyramids,retainedbylaterEgyptiansandpassedonbythemtovisitingGreekswas"notavailable
toconventionalscholarsattheheightofimperialism"(p.278).Therejectionof

Page56
thissimplersolutionpersistedinspiteofthefactthatthereisnothingtobackthealternativehypothesisthattheGreeksachievedasudden,qualitativeintellectual
breakthroughinthefourthcenturyB.C."approximatingtotheactualachievementsofthePyramidsandtheconsistentancienttraditionofasuperiorEgyptian
mathematics"(p.278).Thefoundationsupportingthealternative"Greekhypothesis"wastheargumentthatthemathematicalknowledgeembeddedinthePyramids
were"chancequalitiesthathadremainedtotallyunsuspectedtotheconstructors...[purelytheresultof]intuitiveandutilitarianempiricism"(Lauer,quotedinBernal,
1987,p.277278)practical,nottheoretical.
Theabovediscussionprovidessomedetailedexamplesoftheinteractionandintersectionofracism
5
andsexismaswellasphilosophyandideologywithintellectual
elitism,which,inpartisfueledbythedifferentvaluesattributedtopracticalandtotheoreticalwork.Forthedichotomyinworkandvalueassignedtotheoryarewhat
Anderson(1990/reprintedhereaschapter14)theorizesaskeyfactorsinthealienationthatresultsfromcapitalistmodesofproductionwhich"distancespeoplefrom
theircreativesourceandtheircreativity...andallowscapitaltoextractmoresurplusvaluefromhumanlaborandgainmorecontroloverourmindsandsocio
politicalactivities"(p.352).Instead,ifweunderstandthecreationanddevelopmentofmathematicsasinextricablylinkedtothematerialdevelopmentofsocietywe
cancorrectanduncoveritshiddenhistory.
Inancientagriculturalsocieties,theneedsforrecordingnumericalinformationthatdemarcatedthetimestoplant,gaverisetothedevelopmentofcalendarssuchas
thatontheIshangobone,approximately25,000yearsold(Marshack,1991),foundatafishingsiteofLakeEdwardsinZaire(Zaslavsky,1983,pp.111112De
Heinzelin,1962,June).And,asAfricanwomen,forthemostpart,werethefirstfarmers,
6
theyweremostprobablythefirstpeopleinvolvedinthestruggletoobserve
andunderstandnature,andtherefore,tocontributetothedevelopmentofmathematics(Anderson,1990,p.354).Then,associetiesevolved,themorecomplex
mathematicalcalculationsthatwereneededtokeeptrackoftradeandcommercegaverisetothedevelopmentofplacevaluenotationbyBabylonians(circa2000
B.C.)(Joseph,1987,p.27/reprintedhereaschapter3).Andthiscontinuestothepresentdaywhenforexample,militaryneedsandfundingdrivethedevelopmentof
artificialintelligence(Weizenbaum,1985).

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Notes
1.LumpkingoesontoreportthatnewdiscoveriescausedStruiktoreconsider.Inapersonalcommunicationtoher,hestatesthat"[a]stomathematics,the
StonehengediscussionshavemadeitnecessarytorethinkourideasofwhatNeolithicpeopleknew.Gillings(1972)hasshowntheancientEgyptianscouldworkwith
theirfractionsinamostsophisticatedway."
2.TranslatedandpublishedinEnglishin1993,Marx'sMathematicalManuscriptsareavailablefromNewParkofLondon,England.YearsafterStruik'sarticle,
Gerdes(1983/1985)wrotethefirstpopularaccountofportionsofMarx'smanuscripts.
3.Onlyonedatum,thediameter,isneededintheformulaforthesurfaceofasphereboththediameterandheightareneededintheformulaforthesurfaceofa
cylinder.
4.SeeDiop(1991,pp.103108)forarcheologicalevidenceandhieroglyphicanalysistosupportthethesisthattheancientEgyptianswereblackpeoplesdescended
fromSouthernAfricanswhomigratednorth.
5.TheEurocentricmythistenacious,pernicious,andsilencing,distortingperspectiveandinducingmyopicvision.Thisideologicalmessageofthedominantculture
becomesinternalizedbytheoppressed.IntheUnitedStates,forexample,adistinguishedmathematician,oneofthefirstAfricanAmericanstoearnaPh.D.in
mathematics,inaprestigiouspublicationoftheMathematicalAssociationofAmerica,avehicleforreformincollegiatemathematicseducation,statedthatwithinthe
Blackcommunity"thetraditionofmathematicsandsciencestudyhasneverbeenverystrong"(Newman,1989,p.4,emphasisadded).Thispositiondisregardsthe
historicalcontributionsofAfricansandAfricanAmericanstomathematics.HisstatementalsoignoresthestructuralrolethatthepoliticaleconomyoftheUnitedStates
playsinthemathematicalunderdevelopmentofAfricanAmericans.Further,alongwithhundredsofothers,suchasThomasFuller,BenjaminBanneker,ElbertFrank
Cox,MarjorieLeeBrowne,andEvelynBoydGranville,thismathematicianisasterlingexampleofhow,inspiteofsocialandinstitutionalracism,theAfrican
Americancommunityproducescontributorstothemathematicalsciences.
ForsocialandbiographicalinformationonFuller,seeFauvelandGerdes(1990)and,onBanneker,seeBedini(1972).Concerningbiographicalinformationon
Cox,Browne,Granville,andNewman,seeNewell,Gibson,Rich,andStubblefield(1980).AlsoseeGilesGiron(1991)forsketchesofBrowne,Granville,and
Cox.
6.Insummarizingrecentpaleontologicalandgeneticevidence,Stringer(1990)contendsthat"modemdemographicpatternsmostprobablybegan

Page58
withthedispersalofearlymodernhumansfromAfricawithinthepast100,000years"(p.101).
References
Anderson,S.E.(1990).Worldmathcurriculum:Fightingeurocentrisminmathematics.JournalofNegroEducation59(3):348359.
Beckwith,J.(1983).Genderandmathperformance:Doesbiologyhaveimplicationsforeducationalpolicy?JournalofEducation165:159173
Bedini,S.A.(1972).ThelifeofBenjaminBanneker.NewYork:Scribner.
Bernal,M.(1987).BlackAthena:Theafroasiaticrootsofclassicalcivilization.Vol.1.London:FreeAssociation.
.(1992).AnimadversionsontheOriginsofWesternScience.ISIS,83:596607.
Bisseret,N.(1979).Education,classlanguageandideology.London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul.
DeHeinzelin,J.(1962).Ishango.ScientificAmerican206(6):105116.
Diop,C.A.(1991).CivilizationorBarbarism:Anauthenticanthropology.NewYork:LawrenceHillBooks.
Dowling,P.(1990).Somenotestowardsatheoreticalmodelforreproduction,action,andcritique.InR.Noss,A.Brown,P.Drake,P.Dowling,M.Harris,C.
Hoyles,andS.MellinOlsen.(Ed.),ProceedingsoftheFirstInternationalConference:PoliticalDimensionsofMathematicsEducation:Action&Critique.
London:InstituteofEducation:UniversityofLondon.
Ernest,J.(1976).Mathematicsandsex.AmericanMathematicalMonthly83:595614.
Fauvel,J.,andGerdes,P.(1990)."Africanslaveandcalculatingprodigy:BicentenaryofthedeathofThomasFuller."HistoriaMathematica17:141151.
Freire,P.(1970).Pedagogyoftheoppressed.NewYork'.Seabury.
.(1973).Educationforcriticalconsciousness.NewYork:Seabury.
Gerdes,P.(1985).Marxdemystifiescalculus.Trans.B.Lumpkin.Vol.16.Minneapolis:MarxistEducationalPress.(Originalpublishedin1983asKarlMarx:
Arrancarovumisteriosomatemtica.Maputo:UniversidadeEduardoMondlane.)

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GilesGiron,J.Blackpioneersinmathematics:Brown,Granville,Cox,Clayton,andBlackwell.Focus:ThenewsletteroftheMathematicalAssociationof
America,(JanFeb,1991):p.18,21.
Gillings,R.J.(1972).Mathematicsinthetimeofthepharaohs.Cambridge,MA:MITPress.
Harris,M.(1987)."Anexampleoftraditionalwomen'sworkasamathematicsresource."FortheLearningofMathematics7(3):2628.
Joseph,G.G.(1987).Foundationsofeurocentrisminmathematics.Race&Class28(3):1328.
Kline,M.(1953).Mathematicsinwesternculture.NewYork:Oxford.
Lumpkin,B.(1983).Africainthemainstreamofmathematicshistory.InI.V.Sertima(Ed.),Blacksinscience:Ancientandmodern(pp.100109).New
Brunswick,NJ:Transaction.
Marshack,A.(1991).Therootsofcivilization.RevisedEdition.MountKisco,NY:MoyerBell.
Marx,K.(1983).Mathematicalmanuscripts.London:NewPark.
Newell,V.K.,Gipson,J.H.,Rich,L.W.,andB.Stubblefield.(Ed.).(1980).Blackmathematiciansandtheirworks.Ardmore,PA:Dorrance.
Newman,R.(1989).Minoritiesandmathematics:Acaseforalgebra.UMETrends(August):p.4.
Osen,L.M.(1974).Womeninmathematics.Cambridge,MA:MIT.
Stringer,C.B.(1990).Theemergenceofmodemhumans.ScientificAmerican(December):98104.
Struik,D.J.(1948).Marxandmathematics.ScienceandSociety12(1):181196.
Weizenbaum,J.(1985).Computersinuniform:Agoodfit?ScienceforPeople17(1and2),2629.
Zaslavsky,C.(1983).TheYorubanumbersystem.InI.V.Sertima(Ed.),Blacksinscience:Ancientandmodern(pp.110126).NewBrunswick,NJ:
Transaction.

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Chapter3
FoundationsofEurocentrisminMathematics
GeorgeGhevergheseJoseph
Editors'scomment:GeorgeGhevergheseJoseph,amathematicalstatistician,providesanimportantchallengetoEurocentricismthrough*thisoverviewandcriticalanalysisofthe
dominanthistoriographyofmathematics.JosephhasheavilyrevisedhisoriginalarticleofthesamenamethatappearedinRaceandClass,28(3):1328,in1987,publishedin
EnglandbytheInstituteofRaceRelations.Hefurtherelaboratesissuesraisedinthischapter,includingspecificexamplesofthemathematicsofdifferentcultures,inTheCrestofthe
Peacock.'NonEuropeanRootsofMathematics(London:PenguinBooks,1992)andinMulticulturalMathematics(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1993).
Introduction
ThereexistsawidespreadEurocentricbiasintheproduction,dissemination,andevaluationofscientificknowledge.Andthisisinpartaresultofthewaypeople
perceivethedevelopmentofscienceovertheages.FormanyThirdWorldsocieties,stillinthegripofanintellectualdependencepromotedbyEuropeandominance
duringthepasttwoorthreecenturies,theindigenousscientificbasethatmayhavebeeninnovativeandselfsufficientduringprecolonialtimesisneglectedoroften
treatedwithacontemptthatitdoesnotdeserve.Anunderstandingofthedynamicsofprecolonialscienceandtechnologyofthesesocietiesisessentialinformulatinga
strategyofmean

Page62
ingfuladaptationoftheindigenousformsthatremaintopresentdayscientificandtechnologicalrequirements.
NowanimportantareaofconcernforantiracistsisthemannerinwhichEuropeanscholarshiphasrepresentedthepastandpotentialitiesofnonwhitesocietieswith
respecttotheirachievementandcapabilitiesinpromotingscienceandtechnology.TheprogressofEuropeanditsculturaldependencies
1
duringthelastfourhundred
yearsisperceivedbymanyasinextricablyorevencausallylinkedwiththerapidgrowthofscienceandtechnologyduringthatperiod.Inthemindsofsome,
scientificprogressbecomesauniquelyEuropeanphenomenonthatcanbeemulatedbyothernationsonlyiftheyfollowaspecificallyEuropeanpathofsocialand
scientificdevelopment.
SucharepresentationofsocietiesoutsidetheEuropeanculturalmilieuraisesanumberofissuesthatareworthexploring,howeverbriefly.First,recentstudiesofIndia,
China,andpartsofAfrica,contained,forexample,intheworkofDharampal(1971),Needham(1954),andVanSertima(1983),wouldsuggesttheexistenceof
scientificcreativityandtechnologicalachievementslongbeforetheincursionsofEuropeintotheseareas.Ifthisisso,weneedtounderstandthedynamicsof
precolonialscienceandtechnologyintheseandothersocietiesandtoidentifythematerialconditionsthatproducedthesedevelopments.
Second,thereistheissueofwho''makes"scienceandtechnology.Inamaterialandnonelitistsense,eachsociety,impelledbythepressuresanddemandsofits
environment,hasfounditnecessarytocreateascientificbasetocaterforitsmaterialrequirements.Theperceptionsofwhataretheparticularrequirementsofa
societywouldvaryaccordingtotimeandplace,butitwouldbewrongtoarguethatthecapacitytomakescienceandtechnologyisaprerogativeofoneculture
alone.
Third,ifoneattributesallsignificanthistoricaldevelopmentsinscienceandtechnologytoEurope,thentherestoftheworldcanimpingeonlymarginallyeitherasan
unchangingresidualexperiencetobecontrastedwiththedynamismandcreativityofEuropeorasarationaleforthecreationofacademicdisciplinescongealedin
subjectssuchasdevelopmentstudies,anthropology,orientalism,sinology,andindology.ThesesubjectsthenserveasthebasisfromwhichmoreelaborateEurocentric
theoriesofsocialdevelopmentandhistoryaredevelopedandtested.
Oneofthemorehearteningaspectsofacademicresearchinrecentyearsisthattheshakyfoundationsofthese"adjunct"disciplines

Page63
arebeingincreasinglyexposedbyscholars,anumberofwhomoriginatefromcountriesthatprovidethe"rawmaterials"ofthesedisciplines.Inarecentcontribution,
EdwardSaid(1985)pointstoanumberofexamplesof"subversive"analyses,inspiredbysimilarimpulsesashisseminalantiorientalismcritique(1978),whichare
aimedatnothinglessthanthedestructionoftheexistingEurocentricparadigmaticnorms.Forexamplethegrowingmovementtowardspromotingaformofindigenous
anthropologythatseesitsprimarytaskasquestioning,redefiningand,ifnecessaryrejectingparticularideasthatgrewoutofcolonialexperienceinWestern
anthropology,iswellexaminedinFahim(1982).Inasimilarvein,IproposetoshowthatthestandardtreatmentofthehistoryofnonEuropeanmathematicsexhibita
deeprootedhistoriographicbiasintheselectionandinterpretationoffacts,andthatmathematicalactivityoutsideEuropehadasaconsequencebeenignored,
devalued,ordistorted.
2
TheHistoricalDevelopmentofMathematicalKnowledge
The"Classical"EurocentricTrajectory
Mosthistoriesofmathematicsthatweretohaveagreatinfluenceonlaterworkwerewritteninthelatenineteenthorearlytwentiethcentury.Duringthatperiod,two
contrastingdevelopmentsweretakingplacethathadanimpactbothonthecontentandthebalanceofthebooksproducedonbothsidesoftheAtlantic.Exciting
discoveriesofancientmathematicsonpapyriinEgyptandclaytabletspushedbacktheoriginsofwrittenmathematicalrecordsbyatleast1,500years.Butafar
strongeradverseinfluencewastheculminationofEuropeandominationintheshapeofpoliticalcontrolofvasttractsofAfricaandAsia.Outofthisdominationarose
theideologyofEuropeansuperioritywhichpermeatedawiderangeofsocialandeconomicactivities,withtracestobefoundinthehistoriesofsciencethat
emphasizedtheuniqueroleofEuropeinprovidingthesoilandspiritofscientificdiscovery.Thecontributionsofthecolonizedwereignoredordevaluedaspartofthe
rationaleforsubjugationanddominance.AndthedevelopmentsinmathematicsbeforetheGreeksnotableinEgyptandMesopotamiasufferedasimilarfate,
dismissedasunimportanttothelaterhistoryofthesubject.Inhisbook,BlackAthena(1987),MartinBernalhasshownhowtherespectforan

Page64
cientEgyptianscienceandcivilization,sharedbyancientGreeceandprenineteenthcenturyEuropealike,wasgraduallyeroded,leadingeventuallytoaEurocentric
modelwithGreeceasthesourceandEuropeastheinheritorandguardianoftheGreekheritage.
Figure31.
Figure31presentsthe"classical"Eurocentricviewofhowmathematicsdevelopedovertheages.Thisdevelopmentisseenastakingplaceintwosections,separated
byaperiodofstagnationlastingoverathousandyearsGreece(fromabout600B.C.toA.D.300)andpostRenaissanceEuropefromthesixteenthcenturytothe
presentday.Theinterveningperiodofinactivitywasthe"DarkAges"aconvenientlabelthatexpressedpostRenaissanceprejudicesaboutitsimmediatepastand
theintellectualselfconfidenceofthosewhosawthemselvesasthetrueinheritorsofthe"Greekmiracle''oftwothousandyearsearlier.
Twopassages,onebyawellknownhistorianofmathematicswritingattheturnofthecenturyandthesecondbyacontemporarywriterwhosebooksarestillwidely
referredtoonbothsidesoftheAtlantic,showthedurabilityofthisEurocentricviewanditsimperviousnesstonewevidenceandsources:
ThehistoryofmathematicscannotwithcertaintybetracedbacktoanyschoolorperiodbeforethatoftheIonianGreeks(RouseBall,1908,p.1)....
[Mathematics]finallysecuredafirmgriponlifeinthehighlycongenialsoilofGreeceandwaxedstronglyforashortperiod....WiththedeclineofGreekcivilizationtheplant
remaineddormantforathousandyears...whentheplantwastransportedtoEuropeproperandoncemoreimbeddedinfertilesoil(Kline,1953,pp.910).
Thefirststatementisafairsummaryofwhatwaspopularlyknownandacceptedastheoriginsofmathematicsthen,exceptfortheneglectoftheearlyIndian
mathematicscontainedintheSul

Page65
basutras(TheRulesoftheCord),belongingtotheperiodbetween800and500B.C.,whichwouldmakethematleastasoldastheearliestknownGreek
mathematics.Thibaut'stranslationoftheseworks,publishedaround1875,wereknowntohistoriansofmathematicsattheturnofthecentury.
Thesecondstatement,however,ignoresasubstantialbodyofresearchevidencepointingtothedevelopmentofmathematicsinMesopotamia,Egypt,China,pre
ColumbianAmerica,India,andtheArabworld.MathematicsisperceivedasanexclusiveproductofwhitemenandEuropeancivilizations.Andthatisthecentral
messageoftheEurocentrictrajectorydescribedinfigure31.
ButthiscomfortingrationaleforEuropeandominancebecameincreasinglyuntenableforanumberofreasons.First,thereisthefulsomeacknowledgmentgivenby
ancientGreeksthemselvesoftheintellectualdebttheyowedtotheEgyptiansandBabylonians.TherearescatteredreferencesfromHerodotus(fl.450B.C.)toProclus
(fl.A.D.400)oftheknowledgeacquiredfromtheEgyptiansinfields,suchasastronomy,mathematics,andsurveying,whilesomecommentatorsevenconsideredthe
priestsofMemphistobetruefoundersofscience.
ToAristotle(fl.350B.C.),Egyptwasthecradleofmathematics.Histeacher,Eudoxus,oneofthenotablemathematiciansofthetime,hadstudiedinEgyptbefore
teachinginGreece.Evenearlier,Thales(d.546B.C.),oneoftheearliestandgreatestofGreekmathematicians,werereportedtohavetravelledwidelyinEgyptand
Mesopotamiaandlearntmuchoftheirmathematicsfromtheseareas.SomesourcesevencreditPythagoras(fl.500B.C.)withhavingtravelledasfarasIndiainsearch
ofknowledge,whichmayexplainsomeofthecloseparallelsbetweenIndianandPythagoreanphilosophyandreligion.
3
Asecondreasonwhythetrajectorydescribedinfigure31wasfoundtobeuntenablearosefromthecombinedeffortsofarchaeologists,translators,andinterpreters
whounearthedevidenceofahighlevelofmathematicspractisedinMesopotamiaandinEgyptatthebeginningofthesecondmillenniumB.C.,providingfurther
confirmationofGreekreports.Inparticular,theBabylonians(agenerictermthatisoftenusedtodescribeallinhabitantsofancientMesopotamia)hadinventedaplace
valuenumbersystem,knewdifferentmethodsofsolvingquadraticequations(whichwouldnotbeimproveduponuntilthesixteenthcenturyA.D.)andknewthe
relationshipbetweenthesidesofarightangledtrianglewhichcametobeknownasthe"Pythagoreantheorem."
4
TheneglectoftheArabcontributiontothedevelopmentofEuro

Page66
peanintellectuallifeingeneralandmathematicsinparticularisanotherseriousdrawbackofthe"classical"view.ThecourseofEuropeanculturalhistoryandthehistory
ofEuropeanthoughtareinseparablytiedupwiththeachievementofArabscholarsduringtheMiddleAgesandtheirseminalcontributionstomathematics,natural
sciences,medicine,andphilosophy.Inparticular,weowetotheArabsinthefieldofmathematicsthebringingtogetherofthetechniqueofmeasurement,evolvedfrom
itsEgyptianandBabylonianrootstoitsfinalforminthehandsofGreeksandAlexandrians,withtheremarkableinstrumentofcomputation(ournumbersystem),which
originatedinIndia,andthesupplementingofthesestrandswithasystematicandconsistentlanguageofcalculationwhichcametobeknownbyitsArabicname,
"algebra."AnacknowledgmentofthisdebtbycertainbookscontrastsharplywithafailuretorecognizeotherArabcontributionstoscience.
5
Finally,indiscussingtheGreekcontribution,thereisaneedtorecognizethedifferencebetweentheclassicalperiodofGreekcivilization(i.e.from600to300B.C.)
andthepostAlexandriandynasties(i.e.fromthethirdcenturyB.C.tothethirdcenturyA.D.).InearlyEurocentricscholarship,theGreeksoftheancientworldwere
perceivedasethnicallyhomogeneousandoriginatingfromareaswhichweremainlywithinthegeographicalboundariesofpresentdayGreece.Itwaspartofthe
EurocentricmythologythatfromthemainlandofEuropehademergedagroupofpeoplewhohadcreated,virtuallyoutofnothing,themostimpressiveofallcivilization
ofancienttimes.AndfromthatcivilizationhadsprungnotonlythecherishedinstitutionsofthepresentdayWesternculture,butalsothemainspringofmodemscience.
Thereality,however,ismorecomplex.
Theterm"Greek,"whenappliedtotimesbeforetheappearanceofAlexander(356323B.C.),reallyreferstoanumberofindependentcitystates,oftenatwarwith
oneanother,butexhibitingcloseethnicorculturalaffinitiesand,aboveall,sharingacommonlanguage.TheconquestsofAlexanderchangedthesituationdramatically,
forathisdeathhisempirewasdividedamonghisgenerals,whoestablishedseparatedynasties.Thetwonotabledynastiesfromthepointofviewofmathematicswere
thePtolemaicdynastyofEgyptandtheSeleuciddynastywhichruledoverterritoriesthatincludedtheearliersitesoftheMesopotamiancivilization.Themostfamous
centeroflearningandtradebecameAlexandriainEgypt,establishedin332B.C.andnamedaftertheconqueror.Fromitsfoundation,oneofitsmoststrikingfeatures
wasitscosmopolitanismpartEgyptian,partGreek,aliberalsprinklingofJews,Persians,Phoenicians,andBabylonians,

Page67
andevenattractingscholarsandtradersfromasfarawayasIndia.AlivelycontactwasmaintainedwiththeSeleuciddynasty.Alexandriathusbecamethemeeting
placeforideasanddifferenttraditions.ThecharacterofGreekmathematicsbegantochangeslowly,mainlyasaresultofthecontinuingcrossfertilizationbetween
differentmathematicaltraditions,notablythealgebraicandempiricalbasisofBabyIonianandEgyptianmathematicsinteractingwiththegeometricandantiempirical
traditionsoftheearlyGreekmathematics.AndfromthismixturecamesomeofthegreatestmathematiciansofantiquitynotablyArchimedesandDiophantus.Itis,
therefore,misleadingtospeakofAlexandrianmathematicsasGreek,exceptinsofarasthetermshowsthatGreekintellectualandculturaltraditionsservedasthe
maininspirationandtheGreeklanguageasthemediumofinstructionandwritinginAlexandria.Inthatsense,ouruseoftheterm"Greek"iscloselyanalogoustothe
useoftheterm"Arab"todescribeacivilizationwhichcontainedanumberofethnicandreligiousgroups,butallofwhomwereimbuedwiththeArabiccultureand
language.
AModifiedEurocentricTrajectory
Figure32belowtakesonboardsomeoftheobjectionsraisedaboutthe"classical"Eurocentrictrajectory.Thefigureacknowledgesthatthereissomeawarenessof
theexistenceofmathematicsbeforetheGreeks,andoftheirdebttoearliermathematicaltraditions,notablythoseofBabyloniaandEgypt.Butthisawarenessisalltoo
likelytobetemperedwithdismissiverejectionsoftheirimportancecomparedtoGreekmathematics:"thescrawlingofchildrenjustlearningtowriteasopposedto
greatliterature"(Kline,1962,p.14).
ThedifferencesincharacteroftheGreekcontributionbeforeandafterAlexanderarerecognizedtoalimitedextentinfigure32bytheseparationofGreecefromthe
Hellenisticworld(inwhichthePtolemaicandSeleuciddynastiesbecamethecrucialinstrumentsofmathematicalcreation).Thereisalsosomeacknowledgementofthe
Arabs,butmainlyascustodiansofGreeklearningduringtheDarkAgesinEurope.
6
Theirroleastransmittersandcreatorsofknowledgeisignored.Soarethe
contributionsofothercivilizationsnotablythoseofChinaandIndia.TheyareperceivedeitherasborrowersfromGreeksources,orhavingmadeonlyminor
contributionstomainstreammathematicaldevelopment(i.e.developmentseventuallyculminatinginmodemmathematics).
7
Morerecently,historiesofmathe

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Figure32.
maticscarryseparatechapters,servingas"residual"dumps,entitled"Oriental"mathematicsor"Indian/Chinese"mathematics,whichareofmarginalrelevancetothe
mainstreamthemespursuedinthesebooks.ThismarginalizationofnonEuropeanmathematicsisreflectedinthenatureofthescholarshipsthatcharacterizesthe
treatmentofthesesubjectsinsuccessivetextbooks.Anopennesstomorerecentresearchfindings,especiallyinthecaseofIndianandChinesemathematics,issadly
missing.Asaconsequence,paraphrasesofthecontentsofearliertextsorquotesfromindividualswhosescholarshiporimpartialityhavebeenseriouslyquestionedare
reproducedineachsucceedinggenerationoftextbooks.
8
Figure32thereforeremainsaflawedrepresentationofhowmathematicsdeveloped:itcontainsaseriesofbiasesandremainsquiteimpervioustonewevidenceand
arguments.Withminormodifications,itremainsthemodeltowhichmanyrecentbooksonthehistoryofmathematicsconform.Itisinterestingthatasimilar
Eurocentricbiasexistsinotherdisciplinesaswell:forexample,diffusiontheoriesinanthropologyandsocialgeographyindicatethat"civilization"spreadsfromthe
Center(i.e.,"Greater"Europe)tothePeriphery(i.e.,totherestoftheworld).AndthetheoriesofmodernizationorevolutiondevelopedwithinsomeMarxist
frameworksarecharacterizedbyasimilartypeofEurocentrism.Inallsuchconceptualschemes,thedevelopmentofEuropeisseenasaprecedentforthe

Page69
wayinwhichtherestoftheworldwillfollowatrajectorywhosespiritsisnotdissimilartotheonesuggestedinfigures31and32.
AnAlternateTrajectoryfortheDarkAges
Ifwearetoconstructanunbiasedalternativetofigures31and32,theguidingprincipleshouldbetorecognizethatdifferentculturesindifferentperiodsofhistory
havecontributedtotheworld'sstockofmathematicalknowledge.Figure33presentssuchatrajectoryofmathematicaldevelopment,butconfinesitselftotheperiod
betweenthefifthandfifteenthcenturiesA.D.thePeriodrepresentedbythearrowlabelledinfigures31and32asthe"DarkAges"inEurope.Thechoiceofthis
trajectoryasanillustrationisdeliberate:itservestohighlightthevarietyofmathematicalactivityandexchangebetweenanumberofculturalareasthatwentonwhile
Europewasindeepslumber.
Figure33.
TheroleoftheArabsisbroughtoutinfigure33.ScientificknowledgewhichoriginatedinIndia,China,andtheHellenisticworldwassoughtoutbyArabscholars
andthentranslated,refined,synthesized,andaugmentedatdifferentcentersoflearning,starting

Page70
withJundishapurinPersiaaroundthesixthcentury(evenbeforethecomingofIslam),andthenmovingtoBaghdad,CairoandfinallytoToledoandCordobain
Spain,fromwherethisknowledgespreadintoWesternEurope.Considerableresourcesweremadeavailabletothescholarsthroughthebenevolentpatronageofthe
caliphstheAbbasids(therulersoftheEasternArabEmpirewithitscapitalatBaghdad)andtheUmmayads(therulersoftheWesternArabEmpirewithitscapital
firstatDamascusandlateratCordoba).
TheroleoftheAbbasidcaliphatewasparticularlyimportantforthefuturedevelopmentofmathematics.Thecaliphs,notablyalMansur(754775),HarunalRashid
(786809)andalMamun(A.D.809833),wereintheforefrontofpromotingthestudyofastronomyandmathematicsinBaghdad.Indianscientistswereinvitedto
Baghdad.WhenPlato'sAcademywasclosedin529,someofitsscholarsfoundrefugeinJundishapur,whichacenturylaterbecamepartoftheArabworld.Greek
manuscriptsfromtheByzantineEmpire,thetranslationsoftheSyriacschoolsofAntiochandDamascus,theremainsoftheAlexandrianlibraryinthehandsofthe
NestorianChristiansatEdessawerealleagerlysoughtoutbyArabscholars,aidedandabettedbytherulerswhohadcontroloveroraccesstomenandmaterials
fromtheByzantineEmpire,Persia,Egypt,SyriaandplacesasfareastasIndiaandChina.
CaliphalMansurbuiltatBaghdadaBaitalHikma(HouseofWisdom)whichcontainedalargelibraryformanuscriptscollectedfromvarioussourcesan
observatorywhichbecameameetingplaceofIndian,Babylonian,Hellenistic,andprobablyChineseastronomicaltraditionsandauniversitywherescientificresearch
continuedapace.AnotablememberofthisinstitutionMohammedibnMusaalKhwarizmi(fl.A.D.825)wrotetwobookswhichwereofcrucialimportancetothe
futuredevelopmentofmathematics.Oneofthebooks,theArabictextofwhichisextant,isentitledHisabaldjabrwaalmuqabala(whichmaybelooselytranslated
astheCalculationbyRestorationandReduction).Thetitlereferstothetwomainoperationsinsolvingequations:"restoration,"thetransferofnegativetermsfrom
onesideoftheequationtotheother,and"reduction,"themergingofliketermsonthesamesideintoasingleterm.Inthetwelfthcenturythebookwastranslatedinto
LatinunderthetitleLiberAlgebraeEtAlmucabola,thusgivinganametoacentralareaofmathematics.
AlKhwarizmiwroteasecondbook,ofwhichonlyaLatintranslationisextant:AlgorithmiDeNumeroIndorum,whichexplainedtheIndiansystemofnumeration.
WhilealKhwarizmiwasatpainstopointouttheIndianoriginofthisnumbersystem,subsequenttransla

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tionsofthebookattributednotonlythebookbutalsothenumeralstotheauthor.ThereforeinEuropeanyschemeusingthesenumeralscametobeknownasan
algorismorlateralgorithm(acorruptionofthenameofalKhwarizmi)andthenumeralsthemselvesasArabicnumerals.
Figure33showstheimportanceoftwoareasofsouthernEuropeinthetransmissionofmathematicalknowledgetoWesternEurope.SpainandSicilywerethe
nearestpointsofcontactwithArabscienceandhadbeenunderArabhegemony,CordobasucceedingCairoasthecenteroflearningduringtheninthandtenth
centuries.ScholarsfromdifferentpartsofWesternEuropecongregatedinCordobaandToledoinsearchofbothancientandcontemporaryknowledge.Itisreported
thatGherardoofCremona(c.11141187)wenttoToledoafteritsrecapturebytheChristians,insearchofPtolemy'sAlmagest,anastronomicalworkofgreat
importanceproducedinAlexandriaduringthesecondcenturyA.D.Hewassotakenbytheintellectualactivitytherethathestayedovertwentyyears,duringwhichhe
isreportedtohavecopiedortranslatedeightymanuscriptsofArabscienceorGreekclassics,whichwerelaterdisseminatedacrossWesternEurope.Gheradowas
justoneofanumberofEuropeanscholars,includingPlatoofTivoli,AdelardofBath,andRobertofChester,whoflockedtoSpaininsearchofknowledge.
Themainmessageoffigure33isthatitisdangeroustocharacterizemathematicaldevelopmentsolelyintermsofEuropeandevelopments.Thedarknessthatwas
supposedtohavedescendedoverEuropeforathousandyearsbeforetheilluminationthatcamewiththeRenaissancedidnotinterruptmathematicalactivity
elsewhere.Indeed,theperiodsawgreatactivityinotherpartsoftheworld,adiscussionofwhichwillbefoundinJoseph(1992).
Therearetwoadditionalfeaturesofmathematicalknowledgethatfigure33couldservetohighlight.First,itisnotgenerallyrecognizedthatpracticallyalltopicstaught
inschoolmathematicstodayaredirectlyderivedfromthemathematicsoriginatingoutsideWesternEuropebeforethefifteenthcenturyA.D.Thefailuretorecognizethis
factispartlyafunctionoftheheavilyEurocenterednatureofschoolcurriculaandpartlyduetotheunwarrantedneglectofhistory(andparticularlynonEurocentric
history)ofmathematicsinatypicalmathematicsclassroom.Second,figure33showstheonewaytrafficofmathematicalknowledgeintoWesternEuropeuptothe
fifteenthcentury.Thus,theArabmathematicalrenaissancebetweentheeighthandtwelfthcenturiesshapedanddeterminedthepaceofdevelopmentsinthesubjectfor
thenextfivehundredyears.

Page72
TheAnatomyofEurocentricBias
TheEurocentrichistoriographyofmathematicsexhibitscertainfeatureswhichmayexplainthebiasesthatresult.First,thereisageneraldisinclinationtolocate
mathematicsinamaterialistbaseandthuslinkitsdevelopmentwitheconomic,political,andculturalchanges.Second,thereisatendencytoperceivemathematical
pursuitsasconfinedtoanelite,afewwhopossesstherequisitequalitiesorgiftsdeniedtothevastmajorityofhumanity.Thisisaviewprevalenteventodayinthe
classroomandthusdetermineswhatistaughtandwhobenefitsfromlearningmathematics.Third,thereisawidespreadacceptanceoftheviewthatmathematical
discoverycanonlyfollowfromarigorousapplicationofaformofdeductiveaxiomaticlogic,whichisperceivedasauniqueproductofGreekmathematics.Asa
consequence"intuitive"orempiricalmethodsaredismissedasoflittlerelevanceinmathematics.Finally,thepresentationofmathematicalresultsmustconformtothe
formalanddidacticstylefollowingthepatternsetbytheGreeksover2,000yearsago.And,asacorollary,thevalidationofnewadditionstomathematicalknowledge
canonlybeundertakenbyasmall,selfselectingcteriewhosecontrolovertheacquisitionanddisseminationofsuchknowledgethroughjournalshasahighly
Eurocentriccharactertoday.
AsanillustrationofhowthefeatureslistedabovecancreateEurocentricbias,letusexaminethestatusascribedtomathematicalpursuitswhichdonotconformtothe
criteriamentionedinthelastparagraph,notablyinEgyptandMesopotamiabeforetheemergenceofGreekmathematics.
Acommonlyexpressedviewisthat,beforetheGreeks,therewasnomathematicsinthesenseofthecharacteristicintellectualactivitywhichgoesunderthatname
today.Theargumentgoes:preGreekmathematicshadneitherawelldefinedideaof"proof"noranyperceptionoftheneedforproof.WheretheEgyptiansor
Mesopotamianswereinvolvedinactivitieswhichcouldbedescribedas"mathematics,"theseactivitieswerepurelyutilitarian,suchastheconstructionofcalendars,
parcellingoutland,administrationofharvests,organizationofpublicworks(e.g.,irrigationorfloodcontrol),orcollectionoftaxes.Empiricalrulesweredevisedto
helpundertaketheseactivities,butthereisnoevidenceofanyovertconcernwithabstractionsandproofswhichformthecoreofmathematics.Inanycase,the
argumentcontinues,theonlyevidencethatwehavetoassessthemathematicsofthesetwocivilizationsamountstolittlemorethattheexercisesthat

Page73
schoolchildrenoftodayareexpectedtoworkout,whichmerelyinvolvetheapplicationofcertainrulesorprocedurestheyarehardly"proofs"orresultswhichhave
universalapplication.
Theword"proof"hasdifferentmeanings,dependingonitscontextandthestateofdevelopmentofthesubject.Tosuggestthatbecauseexistingdocumentaryevidence
doesnotexhibitthedeductive,axiomatic,logicalinferencecharacteristicofmuchmodemmathematics,theseculturesdidnothaveanideaofproof,wouldbe
misleading.GeneralizationsabouttheareaofacircleandthevolumeofatruncatedpyramidarefoundinEgyptianmathematics.Checkingthecorrectnessofadivision
byasubsequentmultiplicationorverifyingthesolutionsofdifferenttypesofequationbythemethodofsubstitutionarefoundinBabylonianmathematics.Amethodin
commonuseinEuropeuntilaboutahundredyearsagoforsolvinglinearequationsisgenerallyknownasthemethodof"falseposition."
9
Thismethodwasincommon
usetosolvepracticalproblemssuchasfindingthepotencyofbeerorobtainingoptimalfeedmixturesforcattleandpoultryinEgyptianandBabylonianmathematics.
AsGillings(1972)hasargued,Egyptian"proofs"arerigorouswithoutbeingsymbolic,sothattypicalvaluesofavariableareusedandgeneralizationtoanyothervalue
isimmediate.Oragain,generalizationsofthemethodsusedinsolvingproblemscontainedintheAhmespapyrus(c.1650)andtheMoscowpapyrus(c.1850B.C.)
twoofthemostimportantmathematicaldocumentsfromEgypt,involveapplicationsofthesameproceduretooneexampleafteranother.Toillustrate,consideroneof
the"lessontexts"datingbacktothetimeofthefirstBabylonianDynastyofHammurabi(c.1700B.C.),translatedandinterpretedbyNeugebauer(1935).Forthesake
ofsimplicity,Ihaveconvertedthequantitiesexpressedinbase60(i.e.,sexagesimal)systemtoourbase10(i.e.,decimalsystem).
Problem
Length(ush),breadth(sag).Ihavemultipliedlengthandbreadth,thusobtainingthearea(asha).ThenIaddedtotheareatheexcessoflengthoverbreadth:183(wastheresult).
ThenIaddedlengthandbreadth:27.Required(toobtain)length,breadthandarea.
Solution
Given:27and183,theSums.
Result:15length,12breadth,180area.
Method
Onefollowsthismethod:[step1]27+183=2102+27=29
Takeonehalfof29andsquareit:[step2](14.5)
2
=210.25

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Subtract210fromtheresult:[step3]210.25210=0.25
Takethesquarerootof0.25[step4]Squarerootof0.25=0.5
Then,length=14.5+0.5=15
breadth=(14.50.5)2=12
area=15x12=180
Solutionusingpresentdaynotation
Letlength=xandbreadth=y.Thentheproblemissolvedbyevaluatingthetwoequations:
xy+xy=183 (1a)
x+y=27 (1b)
Nowdefineanewvariabley
*
suchthaty
*
=y+2
Then(1a)and(1b)canberewrittenas:
xy
*
=27+183=210
(2a)
x+y
*
=2+27=29
(2b)
[Note:Thetransformationsof(la)and(1b)to(2a)and(2b)areshownbystep1]
Thegeneralsystemofequationsofwhich(2a)(2b)isaparticularcaseis:
xy
*
=p
x+y
*
=s
Andthesolutionis:
x=1/2s+w (3a)
y
*
=1/2sw
(3b)
wherew=squarerootof[(1/2s)
2
p
Substitutingp=210,s=29givesw=0.5,whichcanthenbeusedtoevaluatex=15,y=y
*
2=12andarea=180.
WhattheBabylonianmethodinvolvedwasthestepbystepapplicationofthegeneralformula,expressedinmodemalgebraicsymbolism,givenin(3a)and(3b)to
numbers.TheSumeriansymbolsushandsag,forlengthandwidthrespectively,servethesamepurposeasouralgebraicsymbolsxandy.Andinsteadofprovidinga
formulaforthesolutionsofthistypeofproblem,theBabyloniansgaveoneexampleafteranother,justasanelementaryschooltextbookmaydotodaytoensurethat
themethodiscorrectlyapplied.Suchademonstrationmaybeaseffectiveasformal''proofs"inproblemsofthisnature.
Thisproblemisalsoindicativeofthelevelofsophistication

Page75
reachedbyBabylonianmathematics.Todismisssuchaworkas"scrawlingsofchildrenjustlearningtowrite"(Kline,1962)ismoreareflectionoftheauthor's
prejudicesthananobjectiveassessmentoftherealqualityofsuchmathematics.
AfurthercriticismlevelledagainstEgyptianandBabylonianmathematicsisthattheirmathematicswasmoreapracticaltoolthananintellectualpursuit.Thiscriticismis
symptomaticofawidespreadattitude,againoriginatingwiththeGreeks,
10
thatmathematicslackingautilitarianbentisinsomesenseafinerorbettermathematics.
Thisattitudehasevenpercolatedrightacrossthemathematicscurriculuminschoolsandcolleges.
11
Asaconsequence,thereisbothasenseofremotenessand
irrelevanceassociatedwiththesubjectamongmanywhostudyit,andaningrainedelitismamongthosewhoteachit.Thiselitismistranslatedataclassroomlevelinto
aview,oftenimplicitandnotspoken,thatrealmathematicsasopposedto"doingsums"isanactivitysuitedforaselectfewwhichwhenextendedprovidesthe
broaderargumentthatmathematicsisauniqueproductofEuropeanculture.Thus,elitismintheclassroomisultimatelylinkedtotheformofintellectualracismthatI
havedescribedasEurocentrism.
CounteringEurocentrismintheClassroom
TheforegoinganalysisillustratestheneedtoconfrontandthencounterEurocentrisminmathematics.Acommonlyexpressedviewoftheeducationalestablishmentin
thiscountry[England,editors'snote]isthatwhileacorrectionoftheEurocentricbiasinhistorymaybeaworthwhileexercise,ithaslittlerelevancetomathematical
activitieswithintheclassroom.IhavestatedelsewherewhyIthinkthisisamisconceivedviewandhowanunbiasedhistoricalperspectivecanenrichthequalityof
mathematicalactivityintheclassroomaswellasprovideavaluableinputintoantiracisteducationgenerally.(Joseph,1984198519861994,andNelsonetal.,
1993).Itwouldbeusefultorestatetheseargumentsinthecontextofthethemesexploredhere.
First,mathematicsisshowntohaveflourishedallovertheworld,withitsinternallogicprovidingapointofconvergencefordifferentmathematicaltraditions,without
beingconstrainedbygeography,gender
12
(seeOsen,1974)orrace.Yetwithinthisunitythereisaninterestingdiversitywhichcouldservetoentertainandeducateat
thesametime.Bybringingtotheattentionofthestudentsdifferencesinthelanguageandstructureofcountingsystemsfoundacrosstheworld,byshowinghow
differentcalendarsanderasoperate,orby

Page76
examiningdifferentspatialrelationscontainedin,say,traditionalAfricandesigns,IndianrangolipatternsandIslamicart,theycouldservebothasusefulexamplesof
appliedmathematicsaswellasincreasetheirawarenessofculturaldiversity.
13
Second,ahistoricalapproachmay,ifhandledcarefully,provideausefulmaterialisticperspectiveinevaluatingcontributionsmadebydifferentsocieties.Theimplied
mythofthe"Greek"miracleinexplainingtheoriginsofmathematicswillgivewaytoamorebalancedassessmentofthenatureofearlymathematicalaccomplishments.
Thus,theIshangobone,foundonafishingsitebythebanksofLakeEdwardinZairedatingbackabouttwentythousandyears,wasfirstthoughtofasapermanent
numericalrecordofunknownobjects.Acloserstudyofthenotchesonitrevealedthatitmayhavebeenasixmonthcalendarofthephasesofthemoon.
14
Similarly,
anAmericanquipufoundinPeruwasfirstthoughtofasanartobjectconsistingofanintricatepatternofwovenknots.Butitwaslaterrecognizedthattheartefact
containedtherecordofawholepopulationcensus,wheretheknotsofvaryingsizesstoodfordifferentnumericalmagnitudesanddifferentcolorcodingusedtoshow
characteristicssuchassexandage.Inapredominantlypastoralorsimpleagriculturaleconomy,suchingeniousdeviceswereinventedtosatisfythemainmathematical
requirementstherecordingandpreservationofsuchinformationaswasrequiredtokeeptrackofthepassageoftimeorpredictseasonsforplantingseedorthe
comingofrains.Butassocietiesevolved,mathematicaldemandsbecamemorevariedandsophisticated,leading,forexample,tothediscoveryoftheplacevalue
notationbyBabylonians(c.2000B.C.)formorecomplexcomputations,andtheeventualadoption3,000yearslater,wheremechanicalcontrivancessuchasthe
abacusorrodnumeralswerenolongersufficient,ofournumbersystem(developedbytheIndiansabout2,000yearsago),whenwrittencalculationsbecameessential
fortradeandcommerce.BoththeBabylonianinventionandtheIndiannumeralsweremomentousdiscoveriesatthetime,butaretakenforgrantedtoday.
Finally,ifweaccepttheprinciplethatteachingshouldbetailoredtochildren'sexperienceofthesocialandphysicalenvironmentinwhichtheylive,mathematicsshould
alsodrawontheseexperiences,whichwouldincludeincontemporaryBritainthepresenceofdifferentethnicminoritieswiththeirownmathematicalheritage.Drawing
onthemathematicaltraditionsofthesegroups,showingthattheseculturesarerecognizedandvalued,wouldalsohelptocountertheentrenchedhistoricaldevaluation
ofthem.Again,bypromotingsuch

Page77
anapproach,mathematicsisbroughtintocontactwithawiderangeofdisciplines,includingartanddesign,historyandsocialstudies,whichitconventionallyignores.
Suchaholisticapproachwouldservetoaugment,ratherthanfragment,achild'sunderstandingandimagination.
Notes
1.Theterm"culturaldependencies"isusedheretodescribethosecountriesnotablytheUnitedStates,Canada,Australia,andNewZealandwhicharemainly
inhabitedbypopulationsofEuropeanoriginorwithsimilarhistoricalandculturalroots.Forthesakeofbrevity,theterm"Europe"isusedfromnowontoincludethese
areasaswell.
2.Aconciseandmeaningfuldefinitionofmathematicsisvirtuallyimpossible.Inthecontextofthisarticle,thefollowingaspectsofthesubjectareparticularly
highlighted.Mathematicsisaglobalactivitywhichhasdevelopedintoaworldwidelanguage,withaparticularkindoflogicalstructure.Itcontainsabodyof
knowledgerelatingtonumberandspace,andprescribesasetofmethodsforreachingconclusionsaboutthephysicalworld.Anditisanintellectualactivitywhich
callsforbothintuitionandimaginationinreachingconclusions.Oftenitrewardsthecreatorwithastrongsenseofaestheticsatisfaction.
3.Theseparallelsinclude:(a)abeliefintransmigrationofsouls(b)thetheoryoffiveelementsmakingupmatter,(c)thereasonsfornoteatingbeans(d)thestructure
ofthereligiophilosophicalcharacterofthePythagoreanfraternitywhichresembledBuddhistmonasticordersand(e)thecontentsofthemysticalspeculationsofthe
PythagoreanschoolwhichbeararemarkableresemblancetoUpanishads.AccordingtoGreektradition,Pythagoras,Thales,Empedocles,Anaxagoras,Democritus,
andothersundertookjourneystotheEasttostudyphilosophyandscience.WhileitisfarfetchedtoassumethatalltheseindividualsreachedIndia,thereisastrong
historicalpossibilitythatsomeofthembecameawareofIndianthoughtandsciencethroughPersia.
4.ThestatementanddemonstrationofthesocalledPythagoreantheoremisfoundinvaryingdegreesofdetailallovertheworld.Avarietyofevidenceisnow
availableonthewidespreadpracticaluseofthetheoremamongtheBabylonians(c18001600B.C.).TheChineseprovidedaproofofthetheoremintheiroldest
extantmathematicaltextentitledChouPei(c.1000800B.C.).TheearliestknownIndianworkongeometry,Sulbasutra(c.800600B.C.),containsadiscussionof
thetheoremanditsapplicationtoconstructionofaltars.ItisalsoworthnotingthateventhoughthetheoremisuniversallyassociatedwiththenameofPythagoras,
thereisnoevidencethatPythagoras

Page78
hadeitherstatedorprovedthetheorem.TheearliestGreekproof,whichisstilltobefoundinschoolgeometrytextswasgivenbyEuclid(fl.300B.C.).
5.Theyinclude:(a)anearlierdescriptionofpulmonarycirculationofthebloodbyibnalNafis,usuallyattributedtoHarvey,thoughtherearerecordsofaneven
earlierexplanationinChina(b)thefirstknownstatementoftherefractionoflightbyibnalHaytham,usuallyattributedtoNewton(c)thefirstknownscientific
discussionofgravitybyalKhazin,againattributedtoNewton(d)thefirstdearstatementoftheideaofevolutionbyibnMiskawayh,usuallyattributedtoDarwinand
(e)thefirstexpositionoftherationaleunderlyingthe"scientificmethod"foundintheworksofibnSina,ibnalHaythamandalBirunibutusuallycreditedtoFrancis
Bacon.
6.Inareviewarticle,Nisbet(1973)haspointedouthowmuchthemythofaRenaissanceoccurringinEuropebetweenthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturieshas
persisted,inspiteofoverwhelmingevidencetoindicatethattherewascontinuousintellectualdevelopmenttakingplaceinEuropefromthetwelfthcentury.
7.Chinese,Japanese,orMayanmathematicsareoftenignoredonthegroundsthattheyfalloutsidethemainlineofmathematicaldevelopmentthatculminatedinthe
Europeanadvanceofthesubject.Inthecaseofothertraditions,Eurocentrichistoriesremainlargelysilent.AnotableexceptionisarecentbookbyKatz(1993).Its
coverageisglobalanditsexaminationofnonWesternmathematicaltraditionsisdearandthorough.
8.OneindividualwhoisfrequentlyquotedbyhistoriansasanauthorityonIndianmathematicsisG.R.KayewhowasintheserviceoftheRajattheturnofthe
century.Hisinterpretationsbothwithregardtodatingcertainmathematicaldocuments(notablySulbasutraandtheBakhshaliManuscript),whichhegenerally
tendedtoputmuchlaterthanotherscholars,usuallyonfairlyflimsygrounds,aswellashistendencytoattributeanythingsignificantinIndianmathematicstoaGreek
origin,havebeencriticizedbynotablescholarsofancientIndianmathematics(seeforexampleDattaandSingh,1935and1938,SarasvatiAmma1979,
Srinivasiengar1967)withoutapparentlymakingmuchimpressiononthosewhocontinuetowritehistoriesofmathematicsinEuropeandherculturaldependencies.
Hellonocentrismstillprevails.Forexample,Pingree(1981)haspreparedachronologyofIndianastronomynotablefortheabsenceofanyIndianpresenceandthe
everpresenceofGreekinfluences!
9.Tosolveforxinequation willequal6.Sotoobtaintherequired24,weneedtomultiply6by4.Orthecorrectxvalueis20.

Page79
10.AnimportantdistinctionrunningrightacrossGreekthoughthasbeenarithmetica,thestudyofthepropertiesofpurenumbers,andlogisticatheuseofnumbers
inpracticalapplications.Thecultivationofthelatterdisciplinewastobelefttotheslaves.AlegendhasitthatwhenEuclid(fl.300B.C.)wasaskedwhatwastobe
gainedfromstudyinggeometry,hetoldhisslavetotossacoinattheinquirer.
11.Thereis,however,adiscerniblemovementtowards"utilitarian"mathematicsinthemodemclassroom.Sothetidemaybeturning.
12.Thecontributionofwomenmathematicianshasalsobeenneglectedinstandardhistoriesofearlymathematics,exceptfortheoccasionalmentionofHypatia(d.
A.D.415)whosecrueldeathatthehandsofaChristianmobistakenbysometorepresenttheendofAlexandrianmathematics.
13.Itisnotmyintentionheretoenterthecontroversyregardingtheprecisemeaningoftheculture.Therelationshipbetweenapeoplewhopossessacultureandthe
cultureitselfishighlycomplexandverygermanetothepointunderdiscussion.Theterm"culture"isusedhereinananthropologicalsensetodescribeacollectionof
customs,rituals,beliefs,tools,mores,andsoforth,possessedbyagroupofpeoplewhomayberelatedtooneanotherbyfactorssuchasacommonlanguage,
geographicalcontiguity,orclass.
14.Marshack(1972)hasargued,onthebasisofaclosefitobservedbetweenthenumbersineachgroupofnotchesandtheastronomicallunarperiods,thatthe
Ishangoboneofferspossibleevidenceofoneofman'searliestintellectualactivities,devisingsequentialnotationbasedonasixmonthlunarcalendarforactivitiessuch
astattooing,decorating,gaming,orceremonialfestivals.
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Scribner'sSons.
Said,E.(1985).Orientalismreconsidered.RaceandClass.Vol.26,No.2.
.(1978).Orientalism.NewYorkandLondon:VintageBooks.
SarasvatiAmma,T.A.(1979).Geometryinancientandmedievalindia.Delhi:MotilalBanarsidass.
Scott,J.E(1958).Ahistoryofmathematicsfromantiquitytothebeginningofthenineteenthcentury.London:TaylorandFrancis.
Srinivasiengar,C.N.(1967).Thehistoryofancientindianmathematics.Calcutta:WorldPress.
VanSertima,I.(1983).Blacksinscience.NewBrunswick,NJ:TransactionBooks.

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Chapter4
AnimadversionsontheOriginsofWesternScience
MartinBernal
*
Editors'scomment:MartinBernal,aprofessorofgovernmentandNearEasternstudies,reviewsandthenchallengesspecificclaimsmadefortheoriginalityofGreekscience,such
astheallegedlackoforiginalorabstractideasamongtheEgyptians.AsinBlackAthena:TheAfroasiaticRootsofClassicalCivilization,NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversity
(1987),heprovidesaninvaluableaccountofhowEurocentricideologyhasdistortedthehistoryofthedevelopmentofscientificandmathematicalknowledge.Thischapterfirst
appearedinISIS,83:596607,in1992.
IspentthefirstfiftyyearsofmylifetryingtoescapefromtheshadowofmyfatherJohnDesmondBernal,andhence,amongotherthings,fromscienceandthehistory
ofscience.Therefore,thetrepidationthatisproperforanyonewhoisneitherascientistnorahistorianofsciencewritingforIsisismultipliedmanyfoldinmycase.
Nevertheless,IamgratefulfortheinvitationtoputforwardmyviewsontheoriginsofWesternscience.
Anyapproachtothisquestionimmediatelystumblesoverthedefinitionof"science."Asnoancientsocietypossessedthemodernconceptof'science"orawordforit,
itsapplicationtoMesopotamia,Egypt,China,India,orGreeceisboundtobeanarbitraryimposition.Thislackofclarityisexacerbatedbythedashbetween
historians,likeDavidPingree,whoareconcernedwith"sciences"as"functioningsystemsofthought"withinaparticularsocietyandthosewhoapply
*Icouldnothavebegun,letalonecompleted,thispaperwithoutmanyyearsofpatienthelpandencouragementfromJamilRagep,who,itshouldbepointedout,isfarfrom
acceptingallmyconclusions.

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transhistoricalstandardsandsee"science"as"theorderlyandsystematiccomprehension,descriptionand/orexplanationofnaturalphenomena...[and]thetools
necessaryfortheundertakingincluding,especially,mathematicsandlogic."
1
Ishouldaddthewords"realorimagined"after"naturalphenomena."
Pingreedenouncestheclaimsofwhathecalls"Hellenophilia"that"science"isanexclusivelyGreekinventionowinglittleornothingtoearliercivilizationsandthatitwas
passedonwithoutinterferencetotheWesternEuropeanmakersofthe"scientificrevolution."Puzzlingly,theworkofOttoNeugebauerandhisschool,including
PingreehimselfontheextentandsophisticationofMesopotamianastronomyandmathematicsandGreekindebtednesstoit,aswellasM.L.West'sdemonstration
oftheNearEasterninfluencesonthepreSocraticcosmologies,appearstohaveleftthiskindofthinkingunscathed.
2
Therearestilldefendersoftheclaimthat"Thales[seenasaGreek]wasthefirstphilosopherscientist"theword"scientist"beingusedhereinthepositivistsense.
AccordingtoG.E.R.Lloyd,theGreekswerethefirstto"discovernature,""practicedebate,"andintroducesuchspecificsasthestudyofirrationalnumbers(notably
andgeometricalmodelingforastronomy.Lloydseesthediscoveryofnatureas''theappreciationofthedistinctionbetween'natural'and'supernatural,'thatisthe
recognitionthatnaturalphenomenaarenottheproductsofrandomorarbitraryinfluencesbutregularandgovernedbydeterminable,sequencesofcauseandeffect."
3

However,itisclearthatatleastbythesecondmillenniumB.C.MesopotamianastronomyandEgyptianmedicine,totaketwoexamples,wereconcernedwithregular
and,ifpossible,predictablephenomenawithrelativelylittlesupernaturalinvolvement.
4
ItistruethatEgyptianmedicinecontainedsomereligionandmagic.Atonepointeventhe"scientific"EdwinSmithPapyrusonsurgeryturnstomagicalcharms.
However,E.R.Doddsandothershaveshownhowisolatedthenaturalphilosophers'criticismwasagainstthewidespreadGreekbeliefintheefficacyofmagic.
5
Even
Hippocraticmedicine,whichisgenerallyregardedashighlyrational,wasinstitutionallycenteredonthereligiouscultofAsclepiusandhisserpents,whichlaidgreat
emphasisonthereligiouspracticeofincubation.Boththecultandthepractice,incidentally,hadclearEgyptianroots.
6
OnthequestionoftheallegeduniquenessofGreek"scientific"debate,aswecanseefromthoseinGilgamesh,"debates"areatleastasoldasliterature.Some,suchas
the"Disputebetweenamanand

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hisBa,"whichdatesbacktoMiddleKingdomEgypt,containquiteprofoundphilosophy.ItisalsoclearthatdifferentMesopotamian,Syrian,andEgyptiancitieshad
notmerelydifferentgodsbutdistinctcosmogonies,mostofwhichinvolvedabstractelementsorforceswithoutcults,ofwhichthepriesthoodsoftheotherswere
aware.Therewerealsoattemptedandactualsyncretizations,suggestingthattherehadbeendebates.
7
Thissituationresemblesthatplausiblyreconstructedforthe
cosmologicaldisputesofthepreSocratics.
LaterGreekphilosophicalandscientificdebatesdearlyowedagreatdealtotheSophists,whocamefromtheGreektraditionof"persuasion,"withitsclose
associationwithlegaldisputes.Oratory,persuasion,andjusticearehighlyvaluedinnearlyallcultures,but,interestingly,theyreceivedparticularemphasisinEgypt.
ThecentralsceneinEgyptianiconographyisthejudicialweighingofthesoulofthedeadperson,andthelegalbattlebetweenHorusandSethisacentralepisodeinits
mythology.OneofthemostpopularEgyptiantextswasthatofTheEloquentPeasant,whichitsmostrecenttranslatorintoEnglish,MiriamLichtheim,describesas
"bothaseriousdisquisitionontheneedforjusticeandaparableontheutilityoffinespeech."
8
IhavewrittenelsewhereonthecentralityoftheimageofEgyptianjusticetobothMycenaeanandIronAgeGreece,andthereisnodoubtthatGreeksoftheClassical
andHellenisticperiodssawEgyptianlawastheultimatebasisoftheirown.AsAristotlewroteattheendofthePolitics:"ThehistoryofEgyptatteststheantiquityof
allpoliticalinstitutions.TheEgyptiansaregenerallyaccountedtheoldestpeopleonearthandtheyhavealwayshadabodyoflawandasystemofpolitics.Weought
totakeoverandusewhathasalreadybeenadequatelyexpressedbeforeusandconfineourselvestoattemptingtodiscoverwhathasalreadybeenomitted."
9
WhilethefirstattestationofwrittenlawinEgyptcomesfromthetombofRekhmireinthefifteenthcenturyB.C.,thereisnoreasontodoubtthatitexistedmuch
earlier.
10
Inanyevent,theEgyptianNewKingdomissufficientlyoldbyGreekstandards.ItisclearthatwhatAristotlewasrecommendinghadnothithertobeen
carriedout.Nevertheless,itwouldseemlikelythatAristotlewasconventionalinhisbeliefthat,eventhoughEgyptianandGreeklawswereverydifferentinhisown
day,thetruefoundationofGreeklawandjusticelayinEgypt.
Theemphasisonlawisimportantbothbecauseofitspromotionofargumentanddialecticandbecauseoftheprojectionsofsociallawintonatureandthe
establishmentofregularities.
11
ThereisnodoubtthattheEgyptianM3't(Maat:"truth,""accuracy,""justice")wascen

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traltobothsocialandnaturalspheresinthesamewayastheGreekMoira,whichderivedfromit.Similarly,itisclearthattheEgyptiansappliedthe"justice"ofscales
tosocialandlegallifeatleastasearlyastheMiddleKingdom.
12
ToreturntosomeofthespecificclaimsmadefortheoriginalityofGreekscience,thereisnownodoubtthatBabylonianscholarswereconcernedwith thecubit.
13

Thus,theirrationalnumberparexcellencewasemployedinEgyptfromthebeginningofthesecondmillenniumB.C.atthelatestwhetherornotitsirrationalitywas
provedinEuclideanfashion,itsuseprovidescircumstantialevidencethatEgyptianscribeswereawareoftheincommensurabilityofthesideanddiagonal.
ModernscholarshavepouredscornonthewidespreadancienttraditionholdingthatEgyptianshadknownofthe"Pythagorean"triangle.However,theverycautious
GayRobinsandCharlesShutemaintainthatknowledgeofitisshownbytheuseinLateOldKingdompyramidsofasekedof palms,whichimposed"ahalfbase
widthtoheightof3:4andsocouldhavebeenmodeledona3:4:5rightangledtriangle."
14
Ishalldiscussthestrongpossibilitythatgeometry,thoughttobetypicallyGreek,camefromEgypt.However,atthispointitwouldseemdifficulttoarguethatbefore
thesecondhalfofthefourthcenturyB.C.anyaspectofGreek"science"withthepossibleexceptionofaxiomaticmathematicswasmoreadvancedthanthatof
MesopotamiaorEgypt.
WasNeugebauerRighttoDismissAncientTraditionsofEgyptianScience?
Inthissection,IshouldliketotakeitasgiventhatR.O.Steuer,J.B.deC.M.Saunders,andPaulGhaliounguihaveestablishednotmerelythatEgyptianmedicine
containedconsiderable"scientific"elementslongbeforetheemergenceofGreekmedicine,butthatEgyptianmedicineplayedacentralroleinthedevelopmentof
Greekmedicine.
15
Similarly,theworkofNeugebauerandhisschoolhasmadeitimpossibletodenythatsomeMesopotamianmathematiciansandas

Page87
tronomerswere"scientific"inthepositivistsenseandthatMesopotamian"science"intheseareaswascrucialtothecreationofGreekmathematicsandastronomy.
However,Ishouldliketochallengethesescholars'dismissalofclaimsthattherewasanEgyptianmathematicsthatcouldhavehadasignificantinfluenceonGreek
thinkers.
DespitehisearlypassionforancientEgyptandhisconsiderableworkonEgyptianastronomy,throughouthislonglifeNeugebauerinsistedthattheEgyptianshadno
originalorabstractideasandthatmathematicallyandscientificallytheywerenotonthesamelevelastheMesopotamians.Heclaimedthattheaccurateastronomical
alignmentsofthepyramidsandtemplesinEgyptandtheuseof andcouldallbeexplainedastheresultsofpracticalknacksratherthanofprofoundthought.An
exampleofthisapproachisthefollowing:"IthasevenbeenclaimedthattheareaofahemispherewascorrectlyfoundinanexampleoftheMoscowpapyrus,butthe
textadmitsalsoofamuchmoreprimitiveinterpretationwhichispreferable."
16
InhisExactSciencesinAntiquity,Neugebauerdidnotarguewiththepyramidologicalschoolhesimplydenouncedit,recommendingthatthoseinterestedinwhat
headmittedtobe"theverycomplexhistoricalandarchaeologicalproblemsconnectedwiththepyramids"readthebooksbyI.E.S.EdwardsandJ.ELaueronthe
subject.
17
WhileEdwardsdoesnotinvolvehimselfwiththepyramidologistsandtheircalculations,thesurveyorandarchaeologistLauerdid,inthefaceofoppositionfrom
Egyptologists,whowere"astonishedthatweshouldgivesomuchimportancetothediscussionoftheorieswhichhaveneverhadanycreditintheEgyptological
world."Lauer'sworkhadacertaincontradictoryquality.Headmittedthatthemeasurementsexhibitedbythepyramidsdohavesomeremarkablepropertiesthatone
canfindsuchrelationsas , ,andPythagoras'strianglefromthemandthatthesefactsgenerallybearouttheclaimsHerodotusandotherancientwritersmadefor
them.Ontheotherhand,hedenouncedthe"fantasies"ofpyramidologistsandclaimedthattheformulasaccordingtowhichthepyramidswerealignedandthe
extraordinarydegreeofsiderealaccuracytheyexhibitedwerepurelytheresultof''intuitiveandutilitarianempiricism."
18
AconflictbetweentheacceptanceoftheextraordinarymathematicalprecisionoftheGreatPyramidanda"certainty"thattheGreekswerethefirst"true"
mathematiciansrunsthroughoutLauer'smanywritingsonthesubject.ThestrainismadestillhardertobearbyLauer'sawarenessthatsomeGreekshadbeentold
aboutmanyofthispyramid'sextraordinaryfeaturesandthattheybelievedtheEgyptianstohavebeenthefirstmathematiciansandastronomers.

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Moreover,therewastheproblemthatsomanyoftheGreekmathematiciansandastronomershadstudiedinEgypt.Lauer'shonestattempttodealwiththese
difficultieswasthefollowing:
Eventhoughuptonow,noesotericEgyptianmathematicaldocumenthasbeendiscovered,weknow,ifwecanbelievetheGreeks,thattheEgyptianpriestswereveryjealousof
thesecretsoftheirscienceandthattheyoccupiedthemselves,Aristotletellsus,inmathematics.Itseemsthenreasonablyprobablethattheyhadbeeninpossessionofan
esotericscienceerected,littlebylittle,inthesecrecyofthetemplesduringthelongcenturiesthatseparatetheconstructionofthepyramids,towardstheyear2800[Ishouldputit
twohundredyearsearlier]totheeveofGreekmathematicalthoughtinthesixthcenturyB.C.Asfarasgeometryisconcerned,theanalysisofbuildingsasfamousastheGreat
Pyramidwouldtakeanotableplaceintheresearchesofthesepriestsanditisperfectlyconceivablethattheycouldhavesucceededindiscoveringinit,perhapslongaftertheir
erection,chancequalitiesthathadremainedtotallyunsuspectedtotheconstructors.
19
ThequestionofwhenEgyptiansdevelopedthissophisticatedmathematicalknowledgeisnotdirectlyrelevanttothetopicofthisarticle.However,apartfromthe
precisionandintricacyofmanyofthearchitecturalconstructionsoftheOldKingdom,thereisanotherargumentfortheexistenceofrelatively"advanced"mathematics
inthefirsthalfofthethirdmillenniumB.C.Thisisthatalthoughthetwogreatmathematicaltextsthathavesurvived,theMoscowandtheRhindpapyri,comefromthe
MiddleKingdominthetwentiethandnineteenthcenturiesB.C.,someoftheproblemssetinthemusemeasuresthatbelongtotheOldKingdom,whichhadbeen
discardedbythelaterperiod.
20
Lauer'ssolutionstillallowedsomelaterEgyptianstohavebeencapableofrelativelyadvancedthought.Hecontinued:
Forthewholelengthofthethreethousandyearsofherhistory,Egyptthus,littlebylittle,preparedthewayfortheGreekscholarswholikeThales,Pythagoras,andPlatocameto
study,theneventoteach,likeEuclidattheschoolinAlexandria.Butitwasintheirphilosophicspirit,whichknewhowtodrawfromthetreasureamassedbythetechnical
positivismoftheEgyptians,thatgeometrycametothestageofagenuinescience.
21
EventhisdegreeofrecognitionwastoomuchforNeugebauer.Asheputitatonepoint:"Ancientsciencewastheproductofavery

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fewmenandthesefewhappenednottobeEgyptians."In1981,hepublishedhisnote"OntheOrientationofPyramids,"inwhichheshowedhowaccuratealignments
couldbemadewithoutsophisticatedastronomy,simplybymeasuringandturningtheshadowofamodelpyramidorthecapstoneoveraperiodofsomeweeks.
Thereisnoevidence,onewayortheother,whetherthiswasthemethodused,butitwouldseemplausible,ifonlybecausepyramidsappeartohavehadsolarrather
thanstellarculticassociations.Nevertheless,therequirementofwhatNeugebauerconcedestobe"remarkableaccuracyof...orientationoftheGreatPyramid,"a
structureofextraordinarysophistication,indicatesveryseriousreligiousandtheoreticalconcerns.
22
Thus,Neugebauer'schoiceoftheword"primitive"todescribethe
alignmentseemsinappropriate,thewordisasweshallseeindicativeofhisgeneralopinionoftheancientEgyptians.
ThereislittledoubtthatthismodernviewoftheEgyptians'lackofmathematicsandsciencehasbeeninfluencedbyadistasteforthetheologyandmetaphysicsin
whichmuchofEgyptianandPlatonicknowledgewasembeddedandbyprogressivistviewsthatnoonewholivedsoearlycouldhavebeensosophisticated.It
mayalsohavebeenreinforcedbyassumptions,almostuniversalinthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,thatnoAfricansofanysortcouldhavebeencapableof
suchgreatintellectualachievements.
AnindicationthatsuchattitudesmayhavehadanimpactevenonsuchamagnificentchampionofliberalismandfoetoracismasNeugebauercomesinoneofhis
bibliographicalnotes,wherethefirstbookherecommended"foradeeperunderstandingofthebackgroundthatdeterminedthecharacterofEgyptianarithmetic"was
LucienLvyBrhl'sFonctionsMentalesDansLesSocitsInferieures.LvyBrhlwasfarfromtheworstofhisgeneration.Neverthelesshebelongedtoit,andit
wasappropriatethathisworkwastranslatedintoEnglishasHowNativesThink.
23
Havingsaidthis,thereisnodoubtthatNeugebauerhadsomesubstantialargumentstobackhiscase.Thestrongestofthesewerehisclaimsthatnoneofthesurviving
mathematicalpapyrifrompharaonicEgyptcontainedwhathebelievedtobesophisticatedcalculationsandthattheEgyptians'systemsofnumbersandfractionswere
toocrudeforprofoundmathematicalandastronomicalthoughtofthekindthathadbeenattributedtothem.Therearesevenmajorargumentsagainstthisposition.
1.ThestrongpossibilitythatpaceNeugebauerthesurvivingEgyptianpapyridocontain"advanced"mathematics.

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2.ParallelsfromMesopotamiaandPtolemaicEgyptshowingthatonecannotrelyonthepapyrologicalrecordtogaugethefullrangeofpharaonicEgyptian
"science."
3.ThegeneralagreementthatEgyptiangeometrywasequaltoorbetterthanthatofMesopotamia,inconjunctionwiththeconventionalwisdomthatoneofthe
chiefcontributionsoftheGreekstoMesopotamian"arithmetic"wasgeometricmodeling,whichsuggeststhatthegeometricalinputmaywellhavecomefrom
Egypt.
4.ThecoordinationofsophisticatedgeometryandcomputationinEgyptwithextraordinarypracticalachievements.
5.TheGreekinsistencethattheylearnedmathematicsandmedicinenotfromMesopotamiabutfromEgypt.
6.TheGreekadoptionofanEgyptianratherthanaMesopotamiancalendar.
7.ThefactsthatmuchofHellenisticandRomansciencetookplaceinEgypt,notGreece,andthatalthoughtheywroteinGreeksomeofitspractitioners,including
theastronomerPtolemy,wereEgyptian.
Thefirstargumentisbuttressedbythefactthat,aswehaveseen,Neugebauerpreferred"moreprimitiveinterpretations"andthereforecouldhaveoverlooked
evidenceofmoresophisticatedwork.Thus,wemustallowforthepossibilitythatthesurvivingtextscontainorrefertoelementsthataremoresophisticatedthanhe
andsomeothertwentiethcenturyhistoriansofsciencehavesupposed.Thereislittledoubtabouttheemploymentofirrationalnumbers,mentionedabove,andtheuse
ofarithmeticalandgeometricalprogressionsintheRhindPapyrusproblems40and79.
24
TheSovietscholarV.V.Struve,whowasthefirsttostudytheMoscowMathematicalPapyrus,wasmuchmorerespectfulthanNeugebauer.Hewrote,forinstance,
that"wemustadmitthatinmechanicstheEgyptianshadmoreknowledgethanwewantedtobelieve."HewasconvincedthatthispapyrusandtheRhindMathematical
Papyrusdemonstratedatheoreticalknowledgeofthevolumeofatruncatedpyramid,andhehasbeenfollowedinthisinterpretationbylaterscholars.Giventhemany
pyramidssuccessfullyconstructedduringtheOldandMiddleKingdoms,thiswouldnotinitselfseemunlikely.Archimedes,however,maintainedinthethirdcentury
B.C.thatthevolumesofpyramidswerefirstmeasuredbyEudoxosofKnidosahundredyearsearlier.
25
Here,asinsomeotherinstances,Archimedeswasknowinglyor

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unknowinglymistaken.Evenso,itispossiblethatEudoxoswasthefirsttotransmittheformulastoGreece.EudoxosspentmanyyearsinEgyptandwasreportedto
havelearnedEgyptianandtohavemadetranslations,someofwhichmaywellhavecomefromtheBookoftheDead,intoGreek.AsGiorgiodeSantillanapointed
out,itisunlikelythatEudoxostranslatedthesetextsmerelyfortheirentertainmentvalueitismuchmoreprobablethathebelievedthattheycontainedesoteric
astronomicalinformation.
26
ThisraisestheimportantsuggestionthatEgyptianreligiousandmysticalwritingsanddrawingsmaywellcontainesotericmathematicaland
astronomicalwisdom.
ToreturntoearthwiththeparticularcaseofthemeasurementofthesurfaceareaofeitherasemicylinderorahemisphereintheMoscowPapyrus:RichardGillings,
whobelievesthemeasurementreferstothelatter,describestheEgyptianoperationsandwrites:
Ifthisinterpretation...isthecorrectonethenthescribewhoderivedtheformulaanticipatedArchimedesby1,500years!Letus,however,beperfectlydear[that]inneithercase
hasanyproofthateither orA
hemisphere
=2 r
2
beenestablishedbytheEgyptianscribethatisatallcomparablewiththeclarityofthedemonstrationsoftheGreeks
DinostratosandArchimedes.Allwecansayisthat,inthespecificcaseinhand,themechanicaloperationsperformedareconsistentwiththeseoperationswhichwouldbemade
bysomeoneapplyingtheseformulaseventhoughtheorderandnotationmightbedifferent.
27
Ingeneral,itisdearthatthespecificallymathematicalpapyrigiveconsiderableindicationsofsophisticatedoperations.AsStruveputitintheconclusionofhisstudyof
theMoscowPapyrus:
ThesenewfactsthroughwhichtheEdwinSmithandMoscowpapyrihaveenrichedourknowledge,obligeustomakearadicalrevisionoftheevaluationmadeuptonowof
Egyptian"science"[Wissenschaft].Problemssuchastheresearchintothefunctionsofthebrainorthesurfaceareaofaspheredonotbelongtotherangeofpractical"scientific"
questionsofaprimitiveculture.Theyarepurelytheoreticalproblems.
Orearlier:
TheMoscowPapyrus...confirmsinastrikingwaythemathematicalknowledgeoftheEgyptianscholarsandwenolongerhaveanyreasontorejecttheclaimsoftheGreek
writersthattheEgyptiansweretheteachersoftheGreeksingeometry.
28

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ObjectionsbyNeugebauerandotherstoStruve'sspecificinterpretationofthesurfaceareaofahemispherehavenowbeenanswered.
29
Similarly,asmentioned
above,claimsfortheuseof"Pythagorean"trianglesandthesophisticationofthemeasurementofthevolumeofthetruncatedpyramidhavebothsurvivedearlier
skepticism.IfthesebasesofStruve'sgeneralcasestillstand,shouldoneacceptNeugebauer'sdismissalofit?
EvenifoneweretoconcedeNeugebauer'sargumentthatthemathematicscontainedinthesepapyriismerelypracticalandprimitive,thereisthesecondargument:the
stronglikelihoodthatmoresophisticatedworkwasrecordedonothersthathavenotbeenpreserved.LauerraisedthepointthatallreportsindicatethattheEgyptian
priestsweresecretiveabouttheirwritingsthereforetherewouldhavebeenfewcopiesandthechancesoftheirsurvivalwouldhavebeenslim.Itshouldbe
emphasizedthatrelativelyfewpapyriofanykindhavesurvived.ThisisverydifferentfromMesopotamia,wherethebakedclaytabletsareremarkablydurableand
hundredsofthousandsofthemhavebeendiscovered.TheproblemwithMesopotamiantextsisnotalackofthembutthedifficultyoffindingenoughAssyriologiststo
readandpublishthem.Evenhere,however,therearegapsinwhatexists.Neugebauerpointsoutthatthe"greatmajority"ofmathematicaltabletscomefromoneof
twoperiods,theOldBabylonianperiodoftwohundredyearsinthefirsthalfofthesecondmillenniumB.C.andtheSeleucidperiod.Continuitiesbetweenthetwo
setsoftextsmakeitclearthatsophisticatedmathematicswascarriedoutinthetwelveormorecenturiesthatintervened.However,thereisnorecordofthis.
30
ThesituationisfarworseinEgypt,andthereisnodoubtthatmostofthepapyriwrittenandallofthosethathavesurvivedweretextsusedforteachingscribes
techniquesthatwereusefulforpracticalaccountingratherthan"stateoftheart"advancedmathematics.
31
AninstructiveparallelcanbeseeninthePtolemaicperiod.
Manymoremathematicalpapyrihavebeenfoundfromthesefewcenturiesthanfromthewholepharaonicperiod,yetnoneofthesegobeyondBook1ofEuclidor
giveanyindicationsoftheextraordinarysophisticationoftheworkweknowfromtextualtransmissiontohavebeentakingplaceinHellenisticEgypt.Thus,the
argumentfromsilence,whichshouldalwaysbeappliedsparingly,shouldbeusedwithparticularcautioninevaluatingtheabsenceoftextualproofofadvanced
Egyptianmathematics.
Againstthis,itisarguedthatthefewtextsthatdoexistshowaconsistencyoftechniquesandnotationthatmakesitimpossiblefor

Page93
theEgyptianstohaveproducedsophisticatedmathematics.Thisbringsustothethirdargumentagainstskepticism:Egyptiannumericalnotationmaynothavebeenas
flexibleandhelpfulasthatoftheMesopotamians,butitwas,ifanything,betterthanthatintheGreekswrotetheirsophisticatedformulas.Thereisnodoubtthat
Egyptianmathematicswasbasedonverysimpleprinciplesontheotherhand,theexistingpapyrishowthatextraordinarilyelaboratemathematicalstructureswere
erecteduponthem.
NeugebaueradmitsthatwhiletheEgyptianswerenotasgoodintheirarithmeticastheBabylonians,theirgeometrywasequallygoodandifwearetobelieveother
scholars'interpretationsoftheMoscowPapyrus,EgyptianswereabletocarryoutgeometricaloperationsthatwerebeyondthoseoftheMesopotamians.Thenotion
thattheEgyptianswerethebettergeometersfitsbothwithunparalleledarchitecturalachievementsandwiththeirreputationamongGreeksasthefoundersofgeometry
andtheirteachersinit.
32
Giventhisconcernwithgeometry,itisnotsurprisingthattherearedirectandindirectproofsthatEgyptiansreliedonplansfortheirarchitecturalconstructions.Struve
mayhavebeenexaggeratingwhenhewrote,"TheEgyptianplansareascorrectasthoseofmodernengineers."
33
Nevertheless,thereisnoreasontosupposethatthey
wereinferiortothoseoftheGreeksandRomans.
AccordingtotheEgyptians,thetraditionofmakingplanswentbacktoImhotep,atthebeginningofthethirddynasty,circa3000B.C.,butmostmodernscholarshave
understoodthisclaimmerelyasamythicalprojectionontodeifiedprototypeofallarchitects.However,itisnowproventhatarchitecturalplanswereusedduringthe
OldKingdomandthatImhotepdiddesigntheStepPyramidandtheelaboratecomplexofbuildingsaroundit.Furthermore,anostraconfoundattheStepPyramid
doescontainmeasurementsforavault.
34
ThiscoordinationofgeometryandcomputationwitharchitectureconstitutesthefourthargumentagainstmoderndenialsthattheEgyptianspossessedasuperior
mathematics.Whilethetextualevidenceforsuchknowledgecanbeconstruedasambiguous,thecaseforitisgreatlystrengthenedbythearchitecturalevidence.In
additiontothepyramidsthereweretemples,granaries,andirrigationnetworksonhugescalesthatrequiredextraordinaryplanningandtheabilitytovisualizethese
structuresinadvanceonwritingordrawingsurfaces.
ThefifthreasonforsupposingthattheEgyptianshadsophisticatedmathematicsisthattheGreekssaidso.WritersonthesubjectwereunanimousthatEgyptian
mathematicsandastronomyweresu

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periortotheirownandthatwhileonlytwoGreekmathematiciansweresupposedtohavestudiedinMesopotamia,themajorityofGreekscientists,astronomers,and
mathematicianshadstudiedorspenttimeinEgypt.
Thesereportsaretreatedwithskepticismbymodernhistoriansofscience,whoknowthattherewasnoEgyptianscienceormathematicsworthstudying.However,as
deSantillanawroteaboutEudoxos,whoundoubtedlystudiedinEgypt:"Weareaskedtoadmit,then,thatthegreatestmathematicianofGreecelearnedEgyptianand
triedtoworkonastronomyinEgyptwithoutrealizingthathewaswastinghistime."
35
ThereislittledoubtthataftertheAssyrianandPersianconqueststhemathematicsandastronomyofEgyptdrewfrombothEgyptianandMesopotamiansources.
However,theGreekbeliefthatitwasallEgyptiantraditionstrengthensthecasethatthenativecomponentwassignificant.
ThesixthargumentagainsttheskepticsisthefactthattheGreeksadoptedanEgyptianratherthanaMesopotamiancalendar.Apartfromthegreaterconvenienceof
theEgyptiancalendar,thisadoptionisindicativeofwhatseemstohavebeenawiderGreektendencytodrawfromnearbyEgyptratherthanmoredistant
Mesopotamia.
ThefinalargumentisthatinHellenistictimes,whileAthensremainedthecenterofGreekphilosophicalstudies,nearlyall"Greek"sciencetookplaceinEgypt.Thiswas
partlytheresultofPtolemaicpatronage,butifwearetobelieveGreekandRomansources,the"scientists"alsodrewandbuiltonEgyptianwisdom.Itisstrikingthat
EuclidworkedinEgyptattheverybeginningofthePtolemaicperiod,thatistosayamerefiftyyearsearlierEudoxoshadfelttheneedtolearnEgyptianinorderto
studymathematicsandastronomy.Thus,itwouldseemmoreaccuratetoviewEuclid'sworkasasynthesisofGreekandEgyptiangeometrythanasanimpositionof
theGreekrationalmindonmuddledorientalthinking.
WhileitistruethatBabylonianmathematicsandastronomyflourishedundertheSeleucids,asalreadynoted,mostofthegreat"Greek"scientistswroteinGreekbut
livedinEgypt,andsomeindeedmayhavebeenEgyptian.Forpossibleexamplesofthis,therearetheinventorHeron,the\DiophantosandtheastronomerPtolemy,
whowasknowninearlyArabicwritingsasanUpperEgyptian.
36
ItseemstobegenerallyacceptedthatthegreatGreekcontributiontomathematicsandastronomywastheintroductionofgeometricmodeling,inparticularthe
transpositionofMesopotamianarithmeti

Page95
calastronomicalcyclesintorotatingspheres.
37
However,theGreeksthemselvesbelievedthatgeometrydevelopedinEgypt,aviewsupportedbyEgyptian
architecturalsophisticationandthemathematicalpapyri.Furthermore,thosemostresponsiblefortheGreekviewoftheheavensasspinningspheres,Platoand
Eudoxos,werereportedtohavespenttimeinEgyptandwereknownfortheirdeepadmirationofEgyptianwisdom.
38
WehaveseenhowparticularlycloseEudoxos'sassociationwaswithEgyptianpriests,anditwaspreciselyEudoxoswhoestablishedthenewastronomyofcomplex
concentricspheres.
Ibelievethatthesesevenargumentspresentaverystrongcaseindeedthattherewererichmathematicalparticularlygeometricalandastronomicaltraditionsin
EgyptbythetimeGreekscholarscameincontactwithEgyptianlearnedpriests.AftertheAssyrianconquestofEgypt,intheseventhcenturyB.C.,Egyptian
mathematicsandastronomyweresubstantiallyinfluencedbyMesopotamian"scientific"thought,aprocesswhichcontinuedinPtolemaicandRomanEgypt.
39
The
EgyptianmedicaltraditionappearstohavebeenlessaffectedbyMesopotamia.Ingeneralthe"scientific"triumphsofHellenisticEgyptwouldseemtotheresultof
propitioussocial,economic,andpoliticalconditionsandthemeetingofthree"scientific"traditions,thoseofEgypt,Mesopotamia,andGreece.However,thetwo
formerweremucholderthanthethird,reachingbacktothethirdmillenniumorbeyond,andmoresubstantial.Itshouldalsobenotedthatthepointatwhichthe
Greeks"pluggedinto"NearEastern''science"wasEgyptthiswasthereasonthattheGreeksalwaysemphasizedthedepthandextentofEgyptianwisdom.
Thearbitrarinessoftheapplicationoftheword"science"toancientcivilizationswasnotedatthebeginningofthisessay.Isuppose,likeHumptyDumptywecanuse
wordsmoreorlessasweplease.However,theonlywaytoclaimthattheGreekswerethefirstWesternscientistsistodefine"science"as"Greekscience."Ifless
circulardefinitionsareused,itisimpossibletoexcludethepracticeandtheoryofsomemuchearlierMesopotamiansandEgyptians.
Notes
1.ForPingreesee"HellenophiliaversustheHistoryofScience,"alectureoriginallypresentedatthedepartmentofhistoryofscience,HarvardUniversity,14
November1990,andnowpublishedinthisspecialsection.For

Page96
thepassagecitedseeG.E.R.Lloyd,EarlyGreekScience:ThalestoAristotle(NewYork/London:Norton,1970),p.1,quotingMarshallClagett,Greek
ScienceinAntiquity:HowHumanReasonandIngenuityFirstOrderedandMasteredtheExperienceofNaturalPhenomena,newcorrecteded.(New
York:Collier,Macmillan,1962),p.15.
2.SeeOttoNeugebauer,TheExactSciencesinAntiquity(NewYork:Dover,1969)andM.L.West,EarlyGreekPhilosophyandtheOrient(Oxford:
Clarendon,1971)paceJohnVallance,"OnMarshallClagett'sGreekScienceinAntiquity,"Isis(1990)81:713721,onp.715.SeealsoG.S.Kirk,"Popperon
ScienceandthePresocratics,"Mind(1960)69:318339,esp.pp.327328andKirk,"CommonSeineintheDevelopmentofGreekPhilosophy,''Journalof
HellenicStudies(1961)81105117,pp.105106.
3.Lloyd,EarlyGreekScience,p.8.
4.Neugebauer,ExactSciencesinAntiquity,(cit.n.2),pp.2952PaulGhalioungui,TheHouseonLife:PerAnkhMagicandMedicalScienceInAncient
Egypt,2nded.(Amsterdam:H.M.Israel,1973)andGhalioungui,ThePhysiciansofAncientEgypt(CairoAlAhramCenterforScientifictranslation,1983).
5.E.R.Dodds,TheGreeksandtheIrrational(Berkeley/LosAngeles:Univ.ofCaliforniaPress,1951)C.E.R.Lloyd,Magic,Reason,andExperience
(Cambridge,England:CambridgeUniv.Press,1979)pp.1058,263264andGarthFowden,TheEgyptianHermes:AHistoricalApproachtotheLaterPagan
Mind(Cambridge,England:CambridgeUniv.Press,1986),pp.8182.
6.J.B.deC.M.Saunders,TheTransitionFromAncientEgyptiantoGreekMedicine(Kansas:LawrenceUniv.KansasPress,1963),p.12.
7.SeeE.A.WallisBudge,TheGodsoftheEgyptians:StudiesinEgyptianMythology,vol.1(London:Methuen,1904),pp.282281andMarshallClagett,
AncientEgyptianScience,vol.1:KnowledgeandOrder,2pts.(Philadelphia:AmericanPhilosophicalISociety,1989),pp.263372.Foranannotatedtranslation
ofthe"DisputebetweenamanandhisBa"seeMiriamLichtheimAncientEgyptianLiterature,3,vol.1:TheOldandMiddleKingdoms(Berkeley/LosAngeles:
Univ.ofCaliforniaPress,1975),pp.163169.
8.Lichtheim,AncientEgyptianLiterature,vol.1,p.169.
9.Aristotle,Politics,7.10,translatedbyErnestBarkerinThePoliticsofAristotle(Oxford:OxfordUniv.Press,1958),p.304.SeeMartinBernal,"Phoenician
PoliticsandEgyptianJusticeinAncientGreece,"inAnfngepolitischenDenkensindenAntire,editedbyKurtRaaflaub(Munich:HistorischesKollegs,Kolloquien
24,1993),pp.241261.
10.A.Theodorides,"TheConceptofLawinAncientEgypt,"inTheLegacyofEgypt,editedbyJ.R.Harris(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1971),pp.291313and
AnneBurtonDiodorusSiculusBook1:ACommentary(Leiden:Brill1972),pp.219225.

Page97
11.SeeJosephNeedham,ScienceandCivilizationinChina,vol.2(Cambridge:CambridgeUniv.Press,1956),pp.518583.
12.Bernal"PhoenicianPoliticsandEgyptianJustice,"ClagettsubtitlesAncientEgyptianScience"KnowledgeandOrder,"(cit.n.7),pp.xixii.Thesewordsare
translationsoftheEgyptianrhtandM3't,whichheseesasTheEgyptian"rudimentary"science.SeeTheconstantreferencestobalancesandplumblinesassymbolsof
justiceinTheEloquentPeasant,translatedbyLichtheim,AncientEgyptianLiterature(cit.n.7),vol.1,pp.170182.
13.ForthetriplesseethebibliographyattheendofOlafSchmidt,"OnPlimton322:PythagoreanNumbersinBabylonianMathematics."Centaurus(1980)4:413,
onp.13.OntheEgyptianestimatefornseeRichardGillings,MathematicsintheTimeofthePharaohs(NewYork:Dover,1972),pp.142143andGayRobins
andCharlesShute,TheRhindMathematicalPapyrus:AnAncientEgyptianText(London:BritishMuseumPublications,1987),pp.4446.Onthedoubleremen
seeGillings,MathematicsinTheTimeofthePharaohs,p.208.
14.GayRobinsandCharlesShute,"MathematicalBasesofAncientEgyptianArchitectureandGraphicArt,"HistoriaMathematica(1985)12:107122,onp.112.
SeealsoBeatriceLumpkin,"TheEgyptianandPythagoreanTriples."Ibid.,(1980)7:186187,andGillings,MathematicsintheTimeofthePharaohs,app.5.
15.SeeGhalioungui,HouseofLifeGhalioungui,PhysiciansofAncientEgypt(cit.n.4)R.O.Steuer,andJ.D.deC.M.Saunders,AncientEgyptianand
CnidianMedicine:TheRelationshipofTheirAetiologicalConceptsofDisease(Berkeley/LosAngeles:Univ.ofCaliforniaPress,1959)andSaunders,
TransitionfromAncientEgyptiantoGreekMedicine(cit.n.6).PaceJ.A.Wilson,"MedicineinAncientEgypt,BulletinofHistoricalMedicine(1962)36
(2):114123Wilson,"AncientEgyptianMedicine,"editorialinJournaloftheInternationalCollegeofPhysicians,sect.I,(June1964)41(6):665673andG.E.
R.Lloyd,introductiontoTheHippocraticWritingsed.G.E.R.Lloyd(London:Penguin,1983),p.13n.EventheskepticalHeinrichyonStaden,whoisvery
reluctanttoconcedeEgyptianinfluencesonHellenisticmedicine,admitsthatthestudyofpulsesandtheirtimingbywaterclocks,forwhichhissubjectHerophilusof
AlexandriawasfamousprobablycamefromtheEgyptiantradition:vonStaden,Herophilus:TheArtofMedicineinEarlyAlexandria(Cambridge,England:
CambridgeUniv.Press,1989),p.10.
16.Neugebauer,ExactSciencesinAntiquity(cit.n.2),p.78(italicsadded).Ishallchallengethisinterpretationbelow.
17.Ibid.,p.96.
18.J.F.Lauer.Observationssurlespyramides(Cairo:InstitutFrancaisd'ArcheologieOrientale,1960),pp.11,10,424(hereandelsewhere,translationsaremy
ownunlessotherwiseindicated).

Page98
19.Ibid,pp.13.ForamoreskepticalviewofthisseeRobinsandShute,"MathematicalBases,"(cit.n.14),p.109.
20.RobinsandShute,RhindMathematicalPapyrus,(cit.n.13),p.58.
21.Lauer,Observationssurlespyramides,(cit.n.18),p.10.
22.Neugebauer,ExactSciencesinAntiquity,(cit.n.2j.p.91andNeugebauer,"OntheOrientationofPyramids,"Centaurus(1980)24:13.ProfessorJames
WilliamschallengesNeugebaueronthisinhisFundamentalsofAppliedDynamics(NewYork:Wiley,1996,pp.4344).
23.Neugebauer,ExactSciencesinAntiquity,p.92andLucienLevyBruhl,HowNativesThink(NewYork:Knopf,1926).
24.RobinsandShute,RhindMathematicalPapyrus(cit.n.13),pp.4243,56.
25.V.V.Struve,"MathematischerPapyrusdesstaatlischenMuseumsderschnenKunsteinMoskau,"QuellenundStudienzurGeschichtederMathematik(Pt.
A)(1930)I:184andPaulVerEecke,Lesoeuvrescompletesd'Archimede(Paris:Blanchard,1960),p.xxxi.AmonglaterscholarwhohavesupportedStruve's
view(onpp.174176)seeGillings,MathematicsintheTimeofthePharaohs(cit.n.13),pp.187194andRobinsandShute,RhindMathematicalPapyrus,p.
48.
26.GiorgiodeSantillana,"OnForgottenSourcesintheHistoryofScience,"inScientificChange:HistoricalStudiesintheIntellectual,Social,andTechnical
ConditionsforScientificDiscoveryanTechnicalInvention,fromAntiquity,tothePresent,editedbyA.C.Crombie(London:Heinemann,1962),pp.813
828,onp.814.
27.Gillings,MathematicsintheTimeofthePharaohs(cit.n.13),p.200.
28.Struve,MathematischerPapyrus,"(cit.n.25),pp.183,185.
29.Gillings,MathematicsintheTimeofthePharaohs(cit.n,13),pp.194201.
30.Neugebauer,ExactSciencesInAntiquity(cit.n.2),p.29.
31.RobinsandShute,RhindMathematicalPapyrus(cit.n.13),p.58.
32.SeeHerodotos,2:109DiodorosSikeliotes,1:69.5,81:3,94:3Aristotle,Metaphysics1:1.(981b)Hero,Geometria2Strabo,16:2,24,and17:1,3and
ClementofAlexandria,Stromateis1:74.2.SeealsoCheikhAntaDiop,CivilizationorBarbarism:AnAuthenticAnthropology,translatedbyYaaLengiMeema
Ngemi(NewYork:LawrenceHill,1991),pp.257258.
33.Struve,"MathematischerPapyrus"(cit.n.25),pp.16}165,onp.165.
34.SergioDonadoni,"Plan,"inLexikonderAgyptologie,editedbyWolfgangHelckandEberhardvols.Vol.4(Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz,197719U),

Page99
cols.10581060.FormydatingseeMartinBernal,BlackAthena:TheAfroasiaticRootsofClassicalCivilization,Vol.2:TheArcheologicaland
DocumentaryEvidence(London:FreeAssociationBooksNewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversity,1991),pp.206216.
35.DeSantillana,"ForgottenSources"(cit.n.26),p.814.
36.J.F.Weidler,Historiaastronomiae(Wittenberg:Gottlieb,1741),p.177.
37.Pingree,"HellenophiliaversustheHistoryofScience"(cit.n.1).
38.SeethebibliographyinWhitneyDavis,"PlatoonEgyptianArt,"JournalofEgyptianArchaeology(1979)66:121127,onp.122,n.3.
39.AclearexampleofthiscanbeseeninthefragmentdiscussedbyNeugebauerinhisexquisiteswansong:Neugebauer."ABabylonianLunarEphemerisfrom
RomanEgypt,"inAScientificHumanist:StudiesinMemoryofAbrahamSachs,editedbyE.Leichty,etal.(OccasionalPublicationsoftheSamuelNoahKramer
Fund,9)(Philadelphia:UniversityMuseum,Univ.Pennsylvania,1988),301304.

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Chapter5
AfricaintheMainstreamofMathematicsHistory
BeatriceLumpkin
Editors'scomment:BeatriceLumpkin,amathematicseducator,presentsspecificexamplestodemonstratethecentralityofAfricancontributionstothedevelopmentofmathematics
knowledge.ThischapterwasfirstpublishedinI.VanSertima(Ed.),Blacksinscience:Ancientandmodern,NewBrunswick,NJ:Transaction,pp.100109,in1983.Inapostscript,
writtenforthisvolume,sheincludesabriefupdate,discussingrecentscholarshipandaddressingcriticismsmadesinceherchapterwasfirstpublished.Elsewhere,alongwith
DorothyStrong,shehasappliedtheseandotherexamplestotheteachingofmathematicsinMulticulturalScienceandMathConnections:MiddleSchoolProjectsandActivities
(Portland,ME:Walch,1992).
Summary:Forthousandsofyears,Africawasinthemainstreamofmathematicshistory.ThishistorybeganwiththefirstwrittennumeralsofancientEgypt,aculturewhoseAfrican
originhasbeenreaffirmedbythemostrecentdiscoveriesofarchaeology.Withalongerperiodofscientificworkthananyotherareaoftheworld,progressinmathematics
continuedontheAfricancontinentthroughthreegreatperiods,ancientEgyptian,Hellenistic,andIslamic.ThelanguagechangedfromEgyptiantoGreektoArabic.Butthe
traditionofAfricansciencecontinued,despiteachangeoflanguage.TheRenaissanceinEuropewastriggeredbythescienceandmathematicsbroughttoSpainandItalybythe
MoorsofNorthAfrica.Althoughallpeoplesandcontinentshaveplayedaroleinthehistoryofmathematics,thecontributionsofAfricaarestillunacknowledgedbyEuropeanand
NorthAmericanhistorians.

Page102
OneoftheearliestexamplesofwritingwerethehieroglyphsonNarmer'spalette,namedforthefirstkingofupperandlowerEgypt,whowasalsoknownasMenes.
Thenumeralsusedcitedthousandsofheadsofcattleandthousandsofprisoners,indicatingthatnumeralsandhieroglyphsalreadyhadalonghistoryinEgypt.
1
Ithas
recentlybeenlearnedfromthefindingsoftheInternationalNubianRescueMission,whichsalvagedancientartifactsandmonumentsbeforetheAswanDamflooded
theNubianarea,thatpharaonickingsandhieroglyphicwritingwereknownsouthofthefirstcataractgenerationsbeforeMenes.
ThesefindingshavereaffirmedtheAfricanoriginofthegreatancientcivilization.Fromthisregion,intheinteriorofAfrica,hascomeevidenceoftheearliestknown
cultivationofgrain.
2
Withthisnewevidence,thedateoftheEgyptiancalendarmustalsobereconsidered.Originallythoughttodatebackto4241B.C.whenfirst
analyzedbyEuropeanscholars,itsapparentdatewasarbitrarilychangedto2773B.C.Itwasclaimedthat"Suchprecisemathematicalandastronomicalworkcannot
beseriouslyascribedtoapeopleslowlyemergingfromNeolithicconditions."
3
Theinternalevidenceisconsistentwitheitherdate,basedontheSothiccycleofabout
1,468years.
4
Struik,himself,haskeptanopenmindonlightthatcouldbeshedbynewdiscoveries.Incorrespondencewiththisauthor,hewrote:"Astomathematics,
theStonehengediscussionshavemadeitnecessarytorethinkourideasofwhatNeolithicpeopleknew.GillingshasshownthattheancientEgyptianscouldworkwith
theirfractionsinamostsophisticatedway."
5
TheearlybeginningsofalgebraandgeometryinancientEgyptarebrieflycoveredinmanyhistorybooks.ButthefullscopeanddepthofancientEgyptianmathematics
havebeenlargelyoverlookedbecausethefirstjudgementoftheEuropeantranslatorsofthepapyridismissedthismathematicsas"primitive."
6
Itisonlyinthelastten
yearsthatafulllengthstudyofthismathematicswaspublished.ItisoftennotrealizedthatAfricancontributionsdidnotendwiththeancientEgyptiansbutcontinued
throughtheHellenisticandIslamicEmpires.Indeed,Africacontinuedinthemainstreamofmathematicsforthousandsofyears,fightuptotheEuropeanRenaissance.
Anyunprejudicedviewofworldhistorymustacknowledgethatmanydifferentpeoplesandracesoneverycontinenthavemadegreatmathematicaldiscoveries.The
Maya
7
ofCentralAmericausedazerohundredsofyearsbeforeA.D.876,
8
itsearliestknownuseinIndia.AndtheancientChinese,almost2,000yearsago,solved
systemsofequationswithamethodsimilartothemodernelementarytransfor

Page103
mationsofmatrices.
9
ButitwasthroughAfricathatthescience,mathematics,andknowledgeoftheentireEasternworldreachedEurope.Thiswastrueinthetimeof
theclassicalGreeksandcontinuedthroughtheMiddleAgeswhenIslamicscholarsdominatedtheintellectuallifeofEurope,Africa,andthewesternandcentralparts
ofAsia.
VerydifferentfromtheaboveisthetheoryofhistorynowtaughtatmostNorthAmericanuniversitiesandacceptedas"fact"bythousandsofpracticingmathematicians
andteachers.TheyteachthepurelyEuropeanoriginofmathematics.AccordingtothisversionofhistorymathematicsbeganinGreeceinthefifthcenturyB.C.Withthe
declineoftheGreekEmpire,nofurtherprogresswasmadeuntilEurope,thehuehomeofmathematics,wasreadytoadvanceagainduringtheRenaissance.
10
To
those,suchasKline,whodismissallmathematicsbeforetheGreeksaslessthan"true"mathematics,GeorgeSarton,theencyclopedistofscience,replies:"Itischildish
toassumethatsciencebeganinGreece.The'Greekmiracle'waspreparedbymillenniaofworkinEgypt,Mesopotamiaandpossiblyotherregions.Greekscience
waslessaninventionthanarevival."
11
ThreegreatperiodsofAfricanmathematicswillbebrieflyconsideredinthisarticle.Theyare:TheancientEgyptianmathematicsofthepyramids,obelisks,andgreat
temples,
12
theAfricanparticipationinclassicalmathematicsoftheHellenisticperiod,andtheAfricanparticipationinIslamicmathematics.Otherperiodsandlocalesof
mathematicsontheAfricancontinentarenotdescribedalthoughfutureresearchmaywellshowthattheseplayedanimportantroleinthehistoryofmathematics.This
vastsubject,notcoveredhere,includesthemathematicalgamessowidespreadinAfrica,
13
thesystemsofmeasurementusedintheAfricanforestkingdoms,andthe
mathematicsusedinbuildingthegreatstonecomplexesofZimbabwe.PerhapsnowthatZimbabwehasitsowngovernment,moreinformationwillbecomeavailable
andnewchaptersinthehistoryofmathematicswillbewritten.
Thegreataccuracyofthedimensionsofthepyramids
14
stillgivesrisetowonder.Geometry,literallythemeasurementoftheland,requiredahightechnologyin
additiontotheoreticalmathematics.Thefamous"ropestretchers"towhomDemocrituscomparedhimself,usedspecialropes,twistedofmanyfinestrandstoassure
highstabilityandconstantlength.TheaccuracyoftheEgyptianvaluefor (theconstantratioofcircumferencetodiameterofanycircle)wasprobablyaresultof
theoreticalanalysisof"squaringacircle"
15
andconfirmationofexperimentandaccuratemeasurement.TheEgyptianvaluefor was3.16,muchclosertothemodern
3.14thanthebiblicalvalue,3.0.

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ContrarytothereportsthattheancientEgyptiansdidnotderiveanygeneralprinciplesandlimitedthemselvestospecificexamples,manyoftheproblemsinthe
mathematicalpapyriendedwithgeneralstatements.Forexample,inthepapyruswrittenbythescribeAhmose(RhindMathematicalPapyrus61B)thesolutionwas
followedby:Behold!Doesoneaccordingtothelikeforeveryunevenfractionwhichmayoccur.Gillingslistsovertensuchstatementsinthispapyrus.
16
Inhisbook,MathematicsintheTimeofthePharaohs,GillingstriestodiscovermethodsthatmayhavebeenusedbytheancientEgyptianscribestoderivetheir
oftenamazingresults.Byapproachingthesubjectwithoutprejudice,withthekeennessofamathematicaldetective,Gillingsinvestigatedthetersecluesleftbythe
scribesandhasrevealedsomeunsuspectedachievements.Theseincludeformulasforthesummationofarithmeticandgeometricseriesandthemeasurementofthe
areaofacurvedsurface.Anefficientirrigationtechnology,efficientcentraladministration,andtheskillofthefarmersofancientEgyptmadepossiblealargefood
surplus,enoughtosupportthemathematicians,teachers,andotherintellectuals.Inturn,theseancientAfricanmathematicianscontributedtoproductionbydeveloping
methodsofmeasuringthelandthroughformulasfortheareasofrectangles,triangles,circles,andeventheareaofacurveddome.Propertiesofsimilartriangleswere
knownandsometrigonometry,theequivalentofourcotangent,helpedassureaconstantslopeforthefacesofpyramids.
Theirverysystemofmeasurementshowsknowledgeofsome"Pythagorean"triads.Anareameasuredincubitswasdoubledifcubitswerereplacedbydoubleremens
whiletheshaperemainedsimilar.
17
Aloneoftheancients,theEgyptiansknewthecorrectformulaforthevolumeofatruncatedpyramid,thusstumpingthemodern
expertswhowonder"Howdidtheydoit?"Firstandseconddegreeequationsweresolvedbythemethodoffalseposition,amethodthatcontinuedinuseuptothis
century.ButperhapsitwasintheiruseofarithmeticandgeometricseriesthattheEgyptians'workhasalmostamodernring.Indeedtheformulausedforthesumofn
termsofanarithmeticseriesistheequivalentofoneweusetoday,
Sometimestheseancientproblemsseemedpuremathematicalfun.Forwhatpracticalsignificancecouldtherehavebeeninproblem

Page105
79oftheAhmosepapyruswhichseemstoanticipatethisMotherGooserhymeby3,500years,
"AsIwasgoingtoSt.Ives,
Imetamanwith7wives.
Eachwifehad7sacks,
Eachsackhad7cats..."
Comparewith:
Houses7
Cats49
Mice343
Spelt2,401
(earsofgrain)
Hekats16,807
(measuresofgrain)
18
Egyptianfractionswere,perhaps,themostimportantapplicationofmathematicsinthosetimesbecausetheywereusedfortheextensivebookkeepingneededfor
largepublicworkssuchaspyramidconstruction.Thesewereunitaryfractionsusing1asthenumerator.Forexample,insteadof2/5theywrotetheequivalent1/3+
1/15.ThesefractionsremainedinuseinEuropeuntilfairlyrecenttimeswhentheywerereplacedbythedecimalfractionswhichtheMoorshadintroduced.Withtheir
fractions,theEgyptianscouldadd,multiply,divide,andtakesquareroots.
AlexandrianMathematics
EgyptiancontributionstoscienceandmathematicsdidnotendwiththeconquestbytheMacedonian,AlexandertheGreat.Attractedbythegreatwealthandlearning
ofEgypt,Alexander,in332B.C.,orderedtheconstructionofAlexandria,acitywhichbecametheintellectualcenteroftheGreekspeakingworld.InAlexandria,the
productsandideasofthecitystatesofNorthAfrica,AsiaMinor,Greece,India,andChinamingledandtookfirmrootonAfricansoil.Agreatmuseumandlibrary
attractedthebestscholarsandeducatedmanygenerationsofEgyptianstudents.
Itwasinthefourthcenturybeforeourera
19
thatGreekmathe

Page106
maticiansdevelopedthedeductive,axiomaticmethod,establishingthelogicalfoundationonwhichmathematicssoproudlyreststoday.AsStruikwrote,"Thisagain
maybeconnectedwiththefactthatmathematicshadbecomeahobbyofaleisureclasswhichwasbasedonslavery,indifferenttoinvention,andinterestedin
contemplation."
20
Ofcourse,nomodernscholarhastriedtobelittlethisgreatGreekaccomplishmentbecauseitrestedonaneconomicbaseofslavery.Contrastthiswiththecaseof
Egypt,whereslaveryplayedamuchlesserrole.YetHollywoodmoviesandpopulartextsclaimthatthegreatnessofthepyramidperiodislessenedbecauseslave
laborwasused.
UptothefourthcenturyB.C.,accordingtoNeugebauer,Greekmathematicswassimilarto,andnodoubtanoutgrowthofEgyptianandBabylonian.Hecautionsthat
"ifmodernscholarshaddevotedasmuchattentiontoGalenorPtolemyastheydidtoPlatoandhisfollowers,theywouldhavecometoquitedifferentresultsandthey
wouldnothaveinventedthemythabouttheremarkablequalityofthesocalledGreekmindtodevelopscientifictheorieswithoutresortingtoexperimentsorempirical
tests."
21
ItwasinEgyptthatHellenisticmathematicsreacheditspeak.StruikattributesthisfloweringofmathematicstothecentralpositionthatEgyptoccupiedduringthe
PtolemaicperiodastheintellectualandeconomiccenteroftheMediterraneanworld.
22
WhowerethepeopleofAlexandria?TheyweretheAfricanpeopleofEgypt
withafewimmigrantsfromGreece,westernAsiaandneighboringAfricancountries.Sartonremindsusthat"GreekemigrantsweretoofewinpreChristiantimesand
toolittleinterestedinscienceandscholarshiptoaffectandchangeEasternminds."
23
Therulingclass,itself,wasmixedfromthefirstdaysofAlexandriabecause
Alexander,theMacedonian,orderedhisofficerstomarryandmixwiththelocalpopulation.
Nonetheless,althoughnopictureshavecomedowntousofanyofthegreatmenandwomenofAlexandria,falseportraitshavebeenpublishedwhichportraythemas
fairGreeks,notevensunburnedbytheEgyptiansun.ThismisleadingpracticeisdecriedbyGeorgeSarton,inanarticleon"IconographicHonesty"inwhichthisdean
ofsciencehistorydeclares"Idonotbelievethereisasingleancientscientistofwhoselineamentswehaveanydefiniteknowledgethustopublish"portraits'of
Hippocrates,AristotleorEuclidis,untilfurthernotice,stupidandwicked."
24
InthecaseofEuclid,bestknownoftheAlexandrianmathematicians,thereisnotashredofevidencetosuggestthathewasanything

Page107
otherthanEgyptian.Euclid'sfameisbasedonhisthirteenmajortexts,TheElements,astrictlylogicaldeductionoftheoremsfromaccepteddefinitionsandaxioms.
Forover2,000yearsthesebooksdominatedtheteachingofmathematicstothedelightofmathematiciansandthediscomfitureofstudents.Inasimilarmanner,The
Almagest,writtenbyanotherEgyptian,ClaudiusPtolemy,C.A.D.150,dominatedastronomyuntilfinallyreplacedbyCopernicus'theoryofasuncenteredplanetary
system,c.1543.
TheAlmagest(thegreatestinArabic)containsinitsthirteenbooksthefoundationsofsphericaltrigonometry,acatalogueof1,028starsandtheepicyclesystemofan
earthcenteredastronomy.Bysomepeculiarracialreasoning,PtolemyisoftendescribedasEgyptianonlybecausehisworkwasofapractical,appliednature,
differinginthisrespectfromthestrictlytheoreticalworkofEuclid.ThefactisthatbothwereAlexandriansandthereforeitishighlyprobablethattheywereAfricans.
InPtolemy'stime,Alexandriawasalready400yearsoldandverymuchapartofEgypt.
OfHeron,anotherAlexandrianwhowroteMetricaongeometricmeasurement,andPneumatica,abookaboutmachines,HowardEvessays''Therearereasonsto
supposehewasanEgyptianwithGreektraining."
25
Anothergreatmathematicianofthattime,Diophantus,oftheAlexandriaofthethirdcentury,continuedthe
traditionofEgyptianalgebra.HisArithmeticaonnumbertheorymarkstheauthorasageniusinhisfield
26
andintroducedbriefsymbolstosimplifyalgebraic
expressions(syncopation)inplaceofthelong,wordyformulationstheninuse(rhetoricalalgebra.)
AlloftheseAlexandrianmathematicianswrotetheirbooksinGreek.TheiruseofGreekmakesthemnomoreEuropeanthantheuseofEnglishbyNigerianstoday
changesthatnationality.TothisveryincompletelistofEgyptianmathematicianswhoworkedinAlexandriamustbeaddedTheonandhisdaughterHypatia,whose
memorystillinspireswomentobecomemathematicians.
AfricanMathematicsDuringtheIslamicEmpire
InthelengthyperiodbetweenthedeclineoftheGreekandRomanEmpirestotheeveoftheRenaissance,aperiodofalmost1,000years,Europedisappearsfrom
themainstreamofthehistoryofmathematics.Thatis,withtheexceptionofMoorishmathematiciansin

Page108
SpainandItalywhocamefromNorthAfricaandbroughtwiththem4,000yearsofAfricanAsianmathematics.InMoorishSpain,"Cordoba,inthetenthcentury,
wasagreatcentreoflearning,whereonecouldwalkforseveralmilesinastraightlinebythelightofthepubliclamps."
27
Awholeseriesofnewinventionsbecame
availableduringthisperiod:steel,silk,porcelain,andpaper.Africanpapyruspaperwasstillusedandappreciatedforitsfinequalities,butpulppaperfromChinawas
comingintowideruse.
28
Struik,whohasreadtheIslamicmathematiciansintheRussiantranslations(unfortunatelymuchofthisworkisstillnotavailableinEnglish)stressestheircontinuityof
cultureunderArabicrule."TheancientnativecivilizationshadevenabetterchancetosurviveunderthisrulethanunderthealienruleoftheGreeks."
29
InNorthAfrica,theArabs,astheGreeksbeforethem,intermarriedwiththeAfricanpeopleofthesecountriesandquicklyabsorbedthecultureandlearningofEgypt.
TherapidphysicalexpansionoftheIslamicEmpirehaditsintellectualparallelintheexchangeofknowledgeamongEgypt,Persia,India,andChina.
Fromtheeighthcenturyuntilthefifteenth,Arabicwasthelanguageofmathematicsandscience.About773AlFazaritranslatedtheIndianSiddhantatoArabic,
popularizingtheHindudecimalsystemthezeroisbelievedtohavecomeintouselater.ThabitibnQurraandhisschoolproducedexcellentArabictranslationsof
Euclid,Appolonius,Archimedes,Ptolemy,andTheodosiusandmadeimportantadditionsoftheirown(826901).Tothisday,mostoftheseclassicsareknowntous
onlythroughtheArabictranslations,theoriginalGreekversionshavingbeenlost.Butonebook,morethananyother,wasthevehicleforintroducingEuropeto
IslamicalgebraandtheHinduArabicnumeralsandarithmetic,alKhwarizmi'sAljabrwa'lmuqabalah.Fromtheauthor'snamewegetthecommonmathematical
term,"algorithm."Fromthetitle,aljabr,wegetthemodernterm,"algebra."
SomeofthegreatestscholarsofthistimecametoEgypttowork,wheretheycouldenjoysupportforthefullscopeoftheirresearch.Amongthemwasthe
outstandingmathematicianphysicistIbnalHaytham(Alhazen).AlthoughborninBasra,hisproductivelifewasspentinEgypt,pioneeringinopticsandgeometry.
30

IbnalHaythamisthefirstofthreeIslamicmathematicianswhoopenedthedoortononEuclideangeometry.Throughhisworkandthatofhissuccessors,Umaral
KhayyamiandNasiralDinalTusi,Europeanmathematicianshundredsofyearslaterwereinspiredtocreatenewgeometries.

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IslamicMathematicsReachesEurope
ThemainroutesoftransmissionofIslamiclearningwerefromNorthAfricatoSpain,alsotoSicilyandsouthernItaly,whereMoorishrulelastedformanygenerations.
TheEuropeanswhoappearinthemathematicalhistoryofthetimehadstudiedwithIslamicscholars.ConstantinetheAfrican(d.1087),amerchantfromCarthage,
broughtapreciouscargoofmanuscriptstoSalernowhereaschoolwasfoundedtotranslateandstudytheArabicworks.AdelardofBath(11161142)madealong
voyagetoArabcountriesandtranslatedArabclassicsintoLatin.Fibonacci(LeonardoPisano)(11701240)gothisstartinmathematicsduringhislongresidencein
theNorthAfricancoastalcitywherehisfatherwasamerchant.
31
Inshort,assummarizedbyHaskins,"Thefullrecoveryofthisancientlearning,supplementedbywhattheArabshadgainedfromtheOrientandfromtheirown
observation,constitutesthescientificrenaissanceoftheMiddleAges."
32
InterruptedProgress
TheperiodwhichfollowstheEuropeanRenaissanceandbringsusdowntothemodernerasawthepillagingofAfrica,Asia,andtheAmericasbyEuropean
colonialism.SlaverydepopulatedAfricaanddrasticallyinterruptedAfricanprogress.Butitisnomereacademicexercisetoreconstructwithoutprejudicethe
thousandsofyearsofhistoryduringwhichAfricacontributedtothemainstreamofmathematics.Worldsciencewillbecomemuchricherwhentheformercolonial
peoplestaketheirplace,oncemore,inthemainstreamofmathematicsandscience.
Notes
1.SirAlanGardiner,Egyptiangrammar(GriffithInstitute:Oxford,1927,1978),5.
2.Wendorf,Schild,ElHadidi,Close,Kobusiewicz,Wieckowska,Issawi,Haas,"UseofbarleyintheEgyptianlatepaleolithic,"Science28,no.4413

Page110
(Sept.79),V.205:134147.(Paperhasbeenwithdrawnbytheauthors.Seeupdatebelow.)
3.DirkJ.Struik,Aconcisehistoryofmathematics(NewYork:Dover,1967),245.
4.CarlB.Boyer,Ahistoryofmathematics(NewYork:Wiley),1968,12.AlsoseeRichardA.Parker,"Egyptianastronomy,astrology,andcalendricalreckoning,"
inDictionaryofScientificBiography.NewYork:Scribners,vol.XV),708.
5.LetterdatedApril4,1978.GillingsistheauthorofMathematicsinthetimeofthepharaohs,citedinref.15below.
6.MorrisKline,Mathematics,aculturalapproach(Reading,MA:AddisonWesley,1962),14.
7.J.Eric,S.Thompson,TheriseandfallofMayacivilization(Norman,OK:Univ.ofOklahomaPress,1954),p.158.ForpossibleAfricaninfluenceinOlmec
andMayacivilizations,seeIvanVanSertima,TheycamebeforeColumbus(NewYork:RandomHouse,1976).
8.Boyer,Ahistoryofmathematics,p.235.
9.Ibid.,p.219.
10.MorrisKline,Mathematicsinwesternculture(NewYork:OxfordPress,1953),23.
11.GeorgeSarton,Ahistoryofscience(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniv.Press,1959),ix.
12.BeatriceLumpkin,"Thepyramids,ancientshowcaseofAfricanscienceandtechnology,"inJournalofAfricanCivilizations,vol.2,nos.1and2:1026.
13.ClaudiaZaslavsky,Africacounts:numberandpatterninAfricanculture(NewYork:LawrenceHillBooks,1979),section4.
14.I.E.S.Edwards,ThepyramidsofEgypt(Middlesex,Eng.:Penguin,1961),118.
15.RichardJ.Gillings,Mathematicsinthetimeofthepharaohs(Cambridge,MA:MITPress,1975),1415.
16.Ibid.,p.233.
17.Ibid.,p.208.
18.Chace,ArnoldB.TheRhindmathematicalpapyrus,reprintedbytheNationalCouncilofTeachersofMathematics,Reston,VA:1979,andagainin1986.
19.OttoNeugebauer,Theexactsciencesinantiquity(N.Y.:Dover,1957,1969),148.

Page111
20.DirkJ.000,Aconcisehistoryofmathematics,pp.48,49.
21.OttoNeugebauer,Exactsciences,p.152.
22.DirkJ.Struik,Aconcisehistoryofscience,pp.49,50.
23.GeorgeSarton,Ahistoryofscience,p.4.
24.GeorgeSarton,"Iconographichonesty,"Isis30(1939):226.
25.HowardEves,Anintroductiontothehistoryofmathematics(NewYork:Holt,RinehartandWinston,1964,1969),159.
26.Ibid.,p.159.
27.HenryJamesJ.Winter,Easternscience,(London:JohnMurray,1952),62.
28.JohnD.Bernal,Scienceinhistory,(NewYork:Cameron,1954),195.
29.DirkJ.Struik,Aconcisehistoryofmathematics,p.69.
30.AldoMieli,Lasciencearabe,(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1938),105.
31.AldoMieli,Lasciencearabe,p.243.
32.CharlesHomerHaskins,Studiesinthehistoryofmedievalscience(Cambridge,MA:HarvardU.,1927),3.
Postscript
WhenthisarticlefirstappearedinSeptember1980,itreceivedafavorableresponsefrommanywhowantedtorestoreAfricatoitsrightfulplaceinhistory.Inthe
yearssince1980,therehasbeenagrowingawarenessofAfricancontributionstomathematicsandscience.
Severalarticlesinthisvolumehavecontributedtothisincreasedawareness.However,therehasalsobeenmuchadversecriticismofthearticle'smaintheme,that
Africawasinthemainstreamofmathematicshistory,andthatschoolmathematicsowesalottoancientAfricanmathematicians.Thisconceptseemstohavetouched
anerveamongthosewhoinsistonstayingwiththeEurocentricapproachthat"mathematicsbeganinGreece."
Inviewofrecentscholarship,someadditionsandcorrectionstothisarticleareappropriateatthistime.Althoughthesummaryofthearticlestatesthatthehistoryof
mathematicsinAfricabegan"with

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thefirstwrittennumeralsofancientEgypt,"mathematicsinAfricastartedmuchearlierEvenifhistoryistakeninthenarrowsenseofwrittenhistory,numberswere
recordedinAfricalongbeforethedevelopmentofEgyptiannumerals.Thediscoveryoftallymarksonafossilizedbaboonbone,foundinBorderCavebetweenSouth
AfricaandNamibia,pushesthedateofnumberrecordsbacktoatleast35,000B.C.E.
1
Longbefore3100B.C.E.,theapproximatedateoftheearliestknownEgyptian
numerals,
2
theIshangobonewascarvedintheLakesregionofCentralAfrica.RecentworkdatestheIshangofossiltobetween23,00018,000B.C.E.Theboneis
inscribedwithtalliesthatshowacomplexarrayofvalues.
3
WendorfandSchildetal.,whopublishedapaperonaSouthEgyptianlocationforthe"earliestknowncultivationofgrain,"havewithdrawntheirpaper.Theynow
believethatthedomesticatedbarleytheyfoundwasalaterintrusionintothe14,000yearoldsite.However,theageoftheharvestingtoolsreportedintheirpaper
remainsunchanged,evenifthegrainthatwasharvestedwasprobablywild.Moreover,otherinvestigatorsatthesamesitehavefoundevidencethatgrainwasmade
intoamashforinfants19,000yearsago,possiblyforweaning.
4
Sincethearticlewaspublished,therehavebeenmanyattemptstorefuteSarton'spositionforamostlyEgyptianoriginofthepopulationofAlexandria.Ithasbeen
claimedthatearlyAlexandriawasstrictlyaGreekenclave.Butthequestionhasnotbeenaddressed,"WhywasthescientificcenteroftheMediterraneanworld
establishedinEgyptinsteadofGreece?"Itisthisauthor'sopinionthatthesynthesisofthenewAlexandriansciencewasasynthesisofcultures,andthatthegenetic
originofthepeopleofAlexandriaisirrelevanttothisissue.ThemagneticpullofancientEgyptiancultureonGreekscholarshasbeenwellestablished.
Thisupdatewillcitesomesophisticatedmathematicalachievementsthatwerenotincludedintheoriginalarticle.Theseconceptsoccurinthecontextofconstruction
plansandbookkeepingapplications,notinthe"mathematical"papyri.Inthesensethatthismathematicswaspracticedoutsidetheformalschoolsetting,itcouldbe
called"Ethnomathematics."Perhapsthatexplainswhytheachievementsdescribedbelowdonotappearinthe"HistoryofMathematics"textbooks.However,one
cannothelpbutwonderwhatpartracialprejudiceplayedintheiromissionfromtextbooks.ThefollowingexampleswerewellknowntofoundersofEgyptologysuch
asPetrie,Gardiner,Reisner,Borchardt,andScharff.

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1.RectangularCoordinates,c.2700B.C.E.
Anarchitect'splanonalimestoneostracon,foundattheSaqqarapyramidcomplex,isdatedc.2700B.C.E.Thisartifactshowsanarchitect'sdrawingforacurved
sectionofatempleroof.Thedrawingshowshorizontalcoordinatesspaced1cubitapart.Forthesehorizontalcoordinates,heightsaregivenforpointswhichdefinea
curve.Thecurveinthesketchexactlymatchesthecurveofthetempleroofnearthespotwheretheostraconwasfound.TheverticalcoordinatesaregiveninEgyptian
numeralsthatareeasytoread.Startattheupperleft.Undertheoutstretchedarm,thehieroglyphforcubits,thenumberthreeisshownas .Underthe3cubits,3
palmsand2fingersareshown.Sincethereare7palms/cubit,and4fingers/palm,thiscoordinateisequivalentto98fingers.
Thisarchitect'splanshowstheearliestknownuseofrectangularcoordinates.ItispossiblethattheconceptofcoordinatesgrewoutoftheEgyptianuseofsquaregrids
tocopyorenlargeartwork,squarebysquare.Itneedsjustoneshort,importantstepfromtheuseofsquaregridstothelocationofpointsbycoordinates.Clarkeand
Engelbachrecognizedthearchitect'splanas"ofgreatimportance."
5
Butnohistorytextbookhaspickedupthis"important"example.
Figure51.
Architect'sdiagramgivingcoordinatesforacurve,
c.2700B.C.E.,Saqqara,duServiceXXV.Clarkeand
Engelbach,1930,fromAnnalesduServiceXXV.

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2.TheEgyptianZeroSymbol,TwoApplications
Itistruethatazeroplaceholderwasnotused(orneeded)intheEgyptianhieroglyphicorhieraticnumeralsbecausethesenumeralsdidnothavepositionalvalue.But
thezeroconcepthasmanyotherapplications.OnlyafewhistorianssuchasBoyer
6
andGillingshavereportedanyuseofthezeroconceptinancientEgypt.But
Gillingsadded,"Ofcoursezero,whichhadnotyetbeeninvented,wasnotwrittendownbythescribeorclerkinthepapyri,ablankspaceindicateszero."
7
Inthis
statement,Gillingswasrepeatingtheconventionalwisdom.HewasnotawarethatEgyptianshad,infact,inventedazerosymbol.TheancientEgyptianzerosymbol
wasthesameasthehieroglyphforbeauty,anabstractionofahumanwindpipe,heart,andlungs.Theconsonantalvalueswerenfrthevowelsoundsareunknown.
Figure52.
DiagramoflevelinglinesfromatombatMeidum.
Horizontallevelinglineswereusedtoguidetheconstructionofpyramidsandotherlargestructures.Thesemassivestonestructuresrequireddeepfoundationsand
carefullevelingofthecoursesofstone.Oneoftheselevelinglines,sometimesatpavementlevel,wasusedasareferencefortheotherlevels,andwaslabeled"nfr,"or
"zero."Otherhorizontallevelinglineswerespaced1cubitapartandlabeledas"1cubitabovenfr,""2cubitsabovenfr,"or"1cubit,2cubits,3cubits,"andsoforth,
belownfr.Herezerowasusedasareferenceforasystemofdirectedorsignednumbers.
8

Page115
Anumberofexamplesoftheselevelinglinesarestillvisibleatpyramidandtombsites.In1931,GeorgeReisnerdescribedthezeroreferenceforlevelinglinesatthe
Mycerinus(Menkure)pyramidatGizabuiltc.2600B.C.E.HegavethefollowinglistcollectedearlierbyBorchardtandPetriefromtheirstudyofOldKingdom
pyramids.
9
nfrw
zero(Notethewsuffixaddedtonfrfor
grammaticalreasons.)
mtpnnfrw
zeroline
hrnfrw
abovezero
mdhrnnfrw
belowzero
ZeroBalanceinBookkeeping
ThesamenfrsymbolwasalsousedtoexpresszeroremaindersinamonthlyaccountsheetfromtheMiddleKingdomdynasty13,c.1770B.C.E.Thebookkeeping
recordlookslikeadoubleentryaccountsheetwithseparatecolumnsforeachtypeofgoods.Attheendofthemonth,theaccountwasbalanced.Foreachitem,
incomewasadded,thendisbursementsweretotaled.Finally,thedisbursementtotalforeachcolumnwassubtractedfromtotalincomeforthecolumn.Several
columnshadzeroremainders,shownbythenfrsymbol.
10
TheEgyptianuseofthesamesymbolfortwodifferentapplicationsofthezeroconceptisofmorethan
passinginterest.Also,theancientEgyptianpenchantformakingtablesandorganizingdataisworthyofnote.
3.EgyptianCipherizationofNumerals
CarlBoyercreditedtheEgyptianswithintroducingtheideaofcipherizationwhentheyinventedhieraticnumerals.Hieraticscript,generallyspeaking,wasacursive
formofthehieroglyphs.Hieraticnumerals,however,weredifferentfromthehieroglyphicnumerals.Thehieraticnumeralsusedciphers,asBoyerexplained,"foreach
ofthefirstnineintegralmultiplesofintegralpowersoften."Hecalledthehieraticnumeralsystem,"decimalcashregistercipherization,"referringtooldstylecash
registers,whichsentupaflagforeachdecimalplace.Boyeraddedthat,"TheintroductionbytheEgyptiansoftheideaofcipherizationconstitutesadecisivestepin
thedevelopmentofnumeration."
11

Page116
Forexample,anumbersuchas19,607writteninhieroglyphswouldrequiretwentythreesymbols,butinhieraticwouldneedonlyfoursymbols.Thefourhieratic
cipherswouldbetheequivalentof10,0009,000600and7.(SeethelastlineinFigure53.)Boththehieroglyphicandthehieraticnumeralsystemsdidnotuse
positionalvalueanddidnotneedazero"placeholder."Ionicnumerals,asBoyershowed,alsoused"decimalcashregistercipherization,"yetanotherexampleof
EgyptianinfluenceonGreekmathematics.
Figure53.
Center:Hieroglyphicnumerals.Right:Hieratic
Numerals.ReadEgyptiannumeralsfromrighttoleft.
AdaptedfromArnoldBuffumChace,TheRhindmathematicalpapyrus(Reston,VA:NCTM,1979),137.
Notes
1.J.Bogashi,K.Naidoo,andJ.Webb."Theoldestmathematicalartefact,"inMathematicalGazette71:294.
2.BruceWilliamsandThomasJ.Logan."TheMetropolitanMuseumKnifeHandleandaspectsofpharaonicimagerybeforeNarmer,"JournalofNearEastern
Studies,vol.46,no.4(1987):24548.
3.Claudia,Zaslavsky,AfricaCounts(Westport,CT:LawrenceHill,1979),19.HerdiscussionoftheIshangoboneisbasedon:DeHeinzelin,Jean."Ishango,"in
ScientificAmerican,vol.206(June1962):105114and,AlexanderMarshack,TheRootsofCivilization,(Mt.Kisco,NY:Mayer,Bell,1991).

Page117
4.GordonC.Hillman,''LatePalaeolithicplantfoodsfromWadiKubbaniyainUpperEgypt:dietarydiversity,infantweaningandseasonalityinariverine
environment,"inForagingandFarming,theEvolutionofPlantExploitation,editedbyDavidC.HarrisandGordonC.Hillman(London:UnwinHyman,1989),
230.
5.SomersClarke,andR.Engelbach,AncientEgyptianConstructionandArchitecture(NewYork:Publisher,1990,orig.1930),523.
6.CarlB.Boyer,Ahistoryofmathematics(NewYork:Wiley,1968),18.
7.Gilllings,Mathematicsinthetimeofthepharaohs,p.228.
8.DieterArnold,BuildinginEgypt(NewYork:OxfordUniversity,1991),17.
9.GeorgeA.Reisner,Mycerinus,thetemplesofthethirdpyramidatGiza,(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversity,1931),7677.
10.AlexanderScharff,"EinRechnungsbuchdesKniglichenHofesausder13.Dynastie(PapyrusBoulaqNr.18),"ZeitschriftfrgyptischeSpracheund
Altertumskunde57(1922):589,5**,8**,12**.
11.CarlB.Boyer,"FundamentalStepsintheDevelopmentofNumeration,"inIsis35(1944):15368.Allquotationsinthisparagrapharefrompages15758.

Page119
SECTIONIII
CONSIDERINGINTERACTIONSBETWEENCULTUREANDMATHEMATICALKNOWLEDGE
ArthurB.PowellandMarilynFrankenstein
Inhiseducationalpractice,Freireinitiatestheprocessbyfirstconsideringwhocreatesculture.Thisisdonetoclarifythatallpeople,whetherliterateorilliterate,are
culturalactors.Towardthisend,heemphasizesananthropologicalconceptofculture.Inthefollowingquoteheindicatessignpostsofadefinitionofculture:
thedistinctionbetweentheworldofnatureandtheworldofculturetheactiveroleofmen[andwomen]inandwiththeirrealitytheroleofmediationwhichnatureplaysin
relationshipsandcommunicationsamongmen[andwomen]cultureastheadditionmadebymen[andwomen]toaworldtheydidnotmakecultureastheresultofmen's[and
women's]labor,oftheireffortstocreateandrecreatethetranscendentalmeaningofhumanrelationshipsthehumanistdimensionofculturecultureassystematicacquisitionof
humanexperience(butascreativeassimilation,notasinformationstoring)thedemocratizationofculturethelearningofreadingandwritingasthekeytotheworldofwritten
communication.Inshort,theroleofman[andwoman]asSubject[s]intheworldandwiththeworld(1973,p.46).
Thesalientpointsforourdiscussionarethatculturalproductsarethecreationofpeopleandthattransformationsofnaturearemadebyallpeople.Mathematicsisa
culturalproductand,therefore,iscreatedbyhumansintheinterconnectedmidstofculture.
1
Theinteractionsaredialectical:people'sdailypractice,language,and
ideologyeffectandareeffectedbytheirmathematicalknowledge.Bishop(1990),andothermathematicseducators,reviewinganthropological

Page120
studiesandinvestigatingmathematicalactivitiesindifferentcultures,viewmathematicsasa"panculturalphenomenon...asymbolictechnology,developedthrough
engaginginvarious[integrated]environmentalactivities"whichcanbeclassifiedas
counting:theuseofasystematicwaytocompareandorderdiscreteobjects...locating:exploringone'sspatialenvironment,andconceptualisingandsymbolisingthat
environment,withmodels,maps,drawings,andotherdevices...measuring:quantifyingqualitieslikelengthandweight,forthepurposesofcomparingandorderingobjects...
designing:creatingashapeoradesignforanobjectorforanypartofone'sspatialenvironment...playing:devising,andengagingin,gamesandpastimeswithmoreorless
formalisedrulesthatallplayersmustabideby...explaining:findingwaystorepresenttherelationshipsbetweenphenomena(pp.5960).
FurtherGattegno(1970,1988)arguesthatmentalfunctionings,orstructures,neededtolearntospeakalanguageareakintothoseusedindoingmathematics.The
implicationthathedrawsisthatanyonewhosucceedsinlearningalanguagehasalreadymathematizedhisorherlinguisticdomainand,therefore,capableof
mathematizingotherdomains.Notonlydoeshepositthatmathematicsisabirthright,butalsothatmathematicalstructuresaredevelopedthroughaspecificcultural
activity:learningtospeakalanguage.
Observersoflessuniversalculturalcontextsalsonarratehowpeopleacquire"unschooled"knowledgeofmathematics.Considerableresearchdocumentsthat
unschooledindividuals,intheirdailypractice,developaccuratestrategiesforperformingmentalarithmetic.Forexample,theDioula,anIslamicpeopleofCte
D'Ivore,havetraditionallyengagedinmercantileactivities.Ginsburg,Posner,andRussell(1981)discoveredthatunschooledDioulachildrendevelopsimilar
competenceinmentaladditionasthosewhoattendedschool.Theseresearchershypothesizethatthisisaresult,atleastinpart,ofthedailyexperiencesofchildren
workinginmarketplaces.Further,studyingBrazilianchildrenwhoworkedintheirparents'markets,Carraher,CarraherandSchliemann(1985)concludethat
"performanceonmathematicalproblemsembeddedinreallifecontextswassuperiortothatonschooltypewordproblemsandcontextfreecomputationalproblems
involvingthesamenumbersandoperations"(p.21).Throughinterviewswiththeyoungsters,theseinvestigatorslearnedthatinthemarketplacethechildrenreasoned
bymentalcalculations,whereasintheformaltesttheyusuallyreliedonpaperandpencil,schooltaughtalgorithms.

Page121
Mistakesoftenoccurasaresultofconfusingthealgorithms.Moreover,thereisnoevidence,oncethenumbersarewrittendown,thatthechildrentrytorelatetheobtained
resultstotheproblemathandinordertoassesstheadequacyoftheiranswers....Theresults[ofthisstudy]supportthethesis...thatthinkingsustainedbydailyhumansense
canbeinthesamesubjectatahigherlevelthanthinkingoutofcontext(p.27).
Wedonotinterpretthisworkassuggestingthattheseyoungsterscannotdoschoolmathematics.Carraher,CarraherandSchliemann(1985)concludejustthatthe
schoolmathematicscurriculumshouldstartfromthemathematicalknowledgethatthechildrenalreadyhave(p.28).Further,Ginsburg(1982)reflectsonthisissue
crossculturally:
althoughcultureclearlyinfluencescertainaspectsofcognitivestyle(i.e.,linguisticstyle),othercognitivesystemsseemtodevelopinauniformandrobustfashion,despite
variationinenvironmentorculture.Childrenindifferentsocialclasses,bothblackandwhite,developsimilarcognitiveabilities,includingbasicaspectsofmathematicalthought
(pp.207208).
Inthesamestudy,healsoconcludesthat"uponentrancetoschoolvirtuallyallchildrenpossessmanyintellectualstrengthsonwhicheducationcanbuild....
Elementaryeducationshouldthereforebeorganizedinsuchawayastobuilduponchildren'salreadyexistingcognitivestrengths."Hefurtherarguesthatthereason
whypoorchildrendonotdo"well"inschool
mayincludemotivationalfactorslinkedtoexpectationsoflimitedeconomicopportunities,inadequateeducationalpractices,andbiasonthepartofteachers...[therefore]reform
effortsmustnotbelimitedtothepsychologicalremediationofthepoorchild.Theymustalsofocusonteachingpractices,teachers,andtheeconomicsystem(pp.208209).
AnalyzingstudiesoninteractionsbetweencultureandcognitionaswellasethnographicdataofadultsintheUnitedStatesengagedinsupermarketandweight
watchingactivities,Lave(1988)arguesagainstconsideringmathematicalknowledgeandcontextseparately.Rather,shetheorizesthat"activityinsetting[is]
seamlesslystretchedacrosspersonsacting"andthatthecontextoftenshapesthemathematicalactivity,becomingthecalculatingdevice,ratherthanmerelytheplacein
whichthemathematicalcalculationsareapplied(p.154).Scribner(1984)foundthatthisoccurswhendairyworkersinvent

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theirownunits(fullandpartialcases)tosolve,onthejob,problemsofproductassembly.Inanotherexample,Lave(1988)describeshowashopperwhofound,ina
bin,asurprisinglyhighpricedpackageofcheeseinvestigatedforerrorbysearchingthroughthebinforasimilarsizedpackageandcheckingtoseewhethertherewas
apricediscrepancy(p.154).Ifinstead,theproblemweresolvedasatextbookproblemratherthanasacalculationshapedbythesetting,theshopperwouldhave
dividedweightintopriceandcomparedthatquotientwiththepriceperpoundprintedonthelabel.Laveuses,inbothsensesoftheterm,thephrase"dissolving
problems"fordiscussingwhathappensinpractice.Mathematicsproblems"disappearintosolutionwithongoingactivityratherthan"beingsolved."Such
transformationsposeachallengetoscholasticassumptionsconcerningtheboundedcharacterofmathproblemsolvingasanendinitself"(p.120).
Lavethentheorizesaboutthesocietalreasonswhysomanyshoppersattendtoarithmetic.Schoolmathematics,shecontends,isfilledwithshoppingapplications,so
thatmoneybecomesavaluefree,"natural"term,justaformofneutralschoolarithmetic.Whenadultsgoshoppingtheirchoicesarefirstmadequalitatively.Thatis,an
itemmaybethebestbuymathematicallybutisrejectedbecausethepackageistoobigtofitontheirpantryshelf.However,theyfallbackonarithmeticcalculations
whenthereisnoothercriteriaforchoice.Thisprovidesabasisforbelievingthattheirdecisionisrationalandobjective.Thus,asLaveargues,"pricearithmetic
contributesmoretoconstructingtheincorrigibilityof'rationality'thantotheinstrumentalelaborationofpreferencestructures"(p.158).
2
Focusingonthelinguisticconstructionofthiskindofmathematicalrationality,Walkerdine(1988)arguesthatakeywayinwhichthis"mathematicallyprecise,"
positivistrationalitygetsconstructedisthroughthesuppressionofthemultiplemeaningsoflexicaltermsindifferentpractices.Onesetofmeanings,onepathto
cognitivedevelopmentischosenastrue,as"normal."Byanalyzingtranscriptsofchildrenusingandlearningbasicmathematicalconceptssuchassizerelations,she
indicateshowthemeaningofthesemathematicaltermsisshapedbysocialrelationsconstitutingthepracticeinwhichthosewordsareused.Schools,shecontends,
ignorethesemultiplesignificationsand,therefore,makejudgmentsabouttheconceptualdevelopmentofchildrenwhichproduceaparticularsetofbehaviorsand
whichthenareconsideredtherationalpathtointellectualdevelopment.Forinstance,inaskingchildrenquestionsthatinvolvecomparingthesizesof"daddy,mommy
andbabybear,"teacherstendto

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ignorehowthepowerrelationsintheirfamiliesaddanothersignificationtotheterms"big,bigger,biggest."Forinstance,inthelifeofachild,daddymaybethebiggest
physicallybutmommymaybethebiggestpowerfigure.Childrenmayanswertheschoolmathematicalquestionincorrectlybecausethe"bearstory"contextis
confusedwiththemeaningsofsizeintheirfamilypractices,notbecausetheyare"unready"tolearnthesizeconceptsofthecurriculum.Formalacademicmathematics
is"builtpreciselyonaboundeddiscourseinwhichthepracticeoperatesbymeansofsuppressionofallaspectsofmultiplesignification.Theformsarestrippedof
meaning,andthemathematicalsignifiersbecomeempty"(p.97).Walkerdinegoesontosuggestthattolearnschoolmathematics,childrenmustlearntotreatall
applications,allpracticesasundifferentiatedaspectsofavaluefree,neutral,andrationalexperience.
Evenothersupposedlymorevaluefreemathematicalconceptsareshapedbyspecificphilosophicalandideologicalorientations.Forexample,Martin(1988/
reprintedhereaschapter7)citesFormanwhoanalyzedhowtheintenseantagonismto"rationality"whichexistedintheGermanWeimarRepublicafterWorldWarI
resultedinaparticularinterpretationofamathematicalconstruction.
Formansuggeststhatthispressureledthequantumphysiciststosearchfor...amathematicalformalismwhichcouldbeinterpretedasnoncausal.Incrudeterms,theacausal
Copenhageninterpretationanditsassociatedmathematicalframeworkwasadoptedbecausetheylookedgoodpublicly....Inthedecadessincetheestablishmentoftheorthodox
orCopenhageninterpretation,anumberofalternativeinterpretationshavebeenputforth.Someoftheseusethesamemathematicalformulations,butinterprettheirphysical
significancedifferently,whileothersusedifferentmathematicalformulationstoachievethesameordifferentresults....[So]theinterpretationoftheequationsofquantumtheory
assupportingindeterminismwasnotrequiredbytheequationsthemselves.Furthermore,itseemspossiblethatmanyoftheachievementsofthetheorymighthavebeen
accomplishedusingasomewhatdifferentmathematicalformulationwhichcouldwellhavebeendifficulttointerpretinderterministically(pp.210211).
Onotheroccasions,philosophyandideologyhavepromptedvariantinterpretationsoffundamentalmathematicalconceptsandtechniques.Forinstance,thedialectics
andhistoricalmaterialismofKarlMarx,alongwithhisprojecttoelaboratetheprinciplesofpoliticaleconomybetween1873and1881,ledhimtostudycriticize,and

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developanalternativetheoreticalfoundationforthedifferentialcalculus(Marx,1983).Struik(1948/reprintedhereaschapter8)wasthefirsttorevealtotheEnglish
speakingworldthatMarxengagedinthismathematicalstruggle.Marx'scritiqueofprevailingmethodsforderivingthederivativeofafunctionwastwofold:(1)the
derivativeofafunctionwasalwayspresentbeforetheactualdifferentiationoccurred,and(2)noneofthemethodsaccountedforthedialecticalnatureofmotionand
changetowhichafunctionissubjectedintheprocessofdifferentiation(Powell,1986,p.120).Outoftouchwithprofessionalmathematiciansandunawareof
Cauchy'sworkonthecalculusandlimits,Marxovercamehiscritiqueofthetheoreticalfoundationsofthecalculusbydevelopingbothaconceptualformulationanda
techniquefordifferentiationthatcapturedsymbolicallythevexingproblematicthatwastheimpulsebehindthemethodofNewtonandLeibniz:motionandchange.
Indeed,hisdiscoveries,stimulatedandinformedbyhisphilosophicalandideologicalframework,representedrediscoveriesand,insomeinstances,anticipatedfuture
conceptualandphilosophicaldevelopments(Gerdes,1985Powell,1986).
GroundedinaculturalpraxistheconceptualmathematicaldescriptionofdynamicsMarxattemptedtoundergirdthecalculuswithaculturalconstruct
dialecticswhichwaspartofthephilosophicalandideologicalperspectiveofanidentifiableculturalgroup.Mathematicalknowledgeseemsunconnectedtocultural
contextsince,inisolationandathistoricalmomentsdistantfromtheirgenesis,particularmathematicalideas,suchasthederivative,mayappeardetachedfroma
specificculturalinterpretationorapplication.Ideas,however,donotexistindependentofsocialcontext.Moreover,assomecriticaltheoristsandrealistphilosophers
remindus,ourcategories,concepts,andotherideasareessentiallydependentonobjectiverealityornature.Inacritiqueofantirealistepistemology,Johnson(1991)
rightlyarguesthat
...allthese(social)thingsarematerializedin,anddependenton,thatwhichisessentiallymindindependent,namely:thenaturalworld.Theveryhumanactivityof"cuttingup"
theworldinto[forexample]hammersandchairspresupposesaworldofnaturallyexistingthings(liketreesandironore)capableofbeingfashionedintotools.Inotherwords,the
essentialindependencegoesoneway:natureisessentiallyindependentofmind,butmind(andallitsproducts)isnotessentiallyindependentofnature(1991,p.25).

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Thesocialandintellectualrelationsofindividualstonatureortheworldandtosuchminddependent,culturalobjectsasproductiveforcesinfluenceproductsofthe
mindthatarelabeledmathematicalideas.Further,thoughtherearerecognizedphilosophicalvariantstothefoundationsofmathematics,theseeminglynonideological
characterofmathematicsisreinforcedbyahistorywhichhaslabeledalternativeconceptionsas"nonmathematical"(Bloor,1976,ascitedinMartin,1988,p.210).
Notes
1.Rotman(1988)referstoHegelandMarxtoexplainwhybothmathematiciansandpopularculturethinksofmathematicalobjectsand'thesemioticbasisof
mathematicalpersuasion"(p.29)as"'outthere,'waitingindependentlyofmathematicians,tobeneitherinventednorconstructednorsomehowbroughtintobeingby
humancognition,butdiscoveredasplanetsandtheirorbitsarediscovered"(p.29).HearguesthatHegelelaborateshow
humanproductsfrequentlyappeartotheirproducersasstrange,unfamiliar,andsurprisingthatwhatiscreatedneedbearnoobviousortransparentmarkersofitshuman
(social,cultural,historical,psychological)agency,butonthecontrarycan,andforthemostpartdoes,presentitselfasalienandpriortoitscreator.
Marx,whowasinterestedinthecasewherethecreativeactivitywaseconomicandtheproductwasacommodity,sawinthismaskingofagencyafundamentalsourceof
socialalienation,wherebythecommodityappearedasamagicalobject,afetish,separatedfromandmysterioustoitscreatorandheunderstoodthatinordertobebought
andsoldcommoditieshadtobefetishized,thatitwasaconditionoftheirexistenceandexchangeabilitywithincapitalism.Capitalismandmathematicsareintimatelyrelated:
mathematicsfunctionsasthegrammaroftechnoscientificdiscoursewhicheveryformofcapitalismhasrelieduponandinitiated.Soitwouldbefeasibletoreadthe
widespreadacceptanceofmathematicalPlatonismintermsoftheeffectsofthisintimacy,torelatetheexchangeofmeaningwithinmathematicallanguagestotheexchangeof
commodities,toseeinthenotionofa"timeless,eternal,unchangeable"objectthepresenceofapurefetishizedmeaning,andsoonfeasible,inotherwords,toseeinthe
realistaccountofmathematicsanideologicalformationservingcertain(technoscientific)endswithintwentiethcenturycapitalism.
...Whetheroneseesrealismasamathematicaladjunctofcap
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italismorasatheisticwishforeternity,thesemioticpointisthesame:whatpresentdaymathematiciansthinktheyaredoingusingmathematicallanguageasatransparent
mediumfordescribingaworldofpresemioticrealityissemioticallyalienatedfromwhattheyare,accordingtothepresentaccount,doing,namely,creatingthatreality
throughtheverylanguagewhichclaimstodescribeit(p.30).
2.Borba(199?),inamanuscriptonthepoliticsintrinsicto"academic"mathematics,arguesthattheuseofmathematicsineverydaylifenotonlymakesourchoices
seemmore"rational,"butalsoservestoendthediscussion.Onceweusemathematicstojustifyadecision,noonecanquestionthatdiscussionafterall,itisnow
"scientificallyproved."Makinganotherpoint,Frankenstein(1987)alsocontendsthattheshoppingapplicationsofschoolarithmeticcurriculacontributetothe
appearanceof"naturalness"inthewayoursocialandeconomicstructuresareorganized.Heradultstudentsoftenfinditludicroustothinkofrestructuringsociety
wherefoodwasfree,forexample,whereeatingwasacivilrightnotapaidforcommodity.
References
Bishop,A.J.(1990).Westernmathematics:Thesecretweaponofculturalimperialism.RaceandClass32(2):5165.
Bloor,D.(1976).Knowledgeandsocialideology.London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul.
Borba,M.C.(1990).Ethnomathematicsandeducation.FortheLearningofMathematics10(1):3943.
Carraher,T.N.,Carraher,D.W.,andSchliemann,A.D.(1985).Mathematicsinthestreetsandinschools.BritishJournalofDevelopmentalPsychology3:21
29.
Frankenstein,M.(1987).Criticalmathematicseducation:AnapplicationofPauloFreire'sepistemology.InI.Shor(ed.).Freirefortheclassroom(pp.180210).
Portsmouth,NH:Boynton/Cook.
Freire,P.(1973).Educationforcriticalconsciousness.NewYork:Seabury.
Gattegno,C.(1970).Whatweowechildren:Thesubordinationofteachingtolearning.NewYork:Avon
.(1988).Thescienceofeducation:Part2B:Theawarenessofmathematization.NewYork:EducationalSolutions.
Gerdes,P(1985).Marxdemystifiescalculus.(TranslatedbyB.Lumpkin).Vol.16.Minneapolis:MarxistEducationalPress.(Originalpublishedin

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1983asKarlMarx:Arrancarovumisteriosomatemtica.Maputo:UniversidadeEduardoMondlane.)
Ginsburg,H.P.,Posner,J.K.,andRussell,R.L.(1981).Thedevelopmentofknowledgeconcerningwrittenarithmetic:Acrossculturalstudy.International
JournalofPsychology16:1334.
Ginsburg,H.P.(1982).Thedevelopmentofadditioninthecontextofculture,socialclass,andrace.InT.ECarpenter,J.M.Moser,andT.A.Romberg(Ed.)
Additionandsubtraction:Acognitiveperspective(pp.191210).Hillsdale,NewJersey:LawrenceErlbaum.
Johnson,D.K.(1991).Apragmaticrealistfoundationforcriticalthinking.Inquiry:Criticalthinkingacrossthedisciplines7(3):2327
Lave,J.(1988).Cognitioninpractice.Cambridge,England:Cambridge.
Martin,B.(1988).Mathematicsandsocialinterests.Search19(4):209214.
Marx,K.(1983).Mathematicalmanuscripts.London:NewPark.
Powell,A.B.(1986).MarxandmathematicsinMozambique.ScienceandNature(7/8):119123.
Rotman,B.(1988).Towardasemioticsofmathematics.Semiotica72(1,2):135.
Scribner,S.(1984).Studyingworkingintelligence.InB.RogoffandJ.Lave(ed.).Everydaycognition:Itsdevelopmentinsocialcontext(pp.940).Cambridge,
MA:Harvard.
Struik,D.J.(1948).Marxandmathematics.ScienceandSociety12(1):181196.
Walkerdine,V.(1988).Themasteryofreason.London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul.

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Chapter6
TheMythoftheDeprivedChild:
NewThoughtsonPoorChildren
HerbertP.Ginsburg
Editors'scomment:HerbertGinsburg,acognitivepsychologistandmathematicseducationresearcher,evaluatespsychologicalresearch,conductedfromabout1970to1985,on
theintellectualdevelopmentandeducationofpoorchildren.Hedocumentsthatpeopleofvariousculturalbackgroundsevenfromdifferentsocioeconomicclassesdevelopthe
requisitecognitivestructurestodomathematicsevenbeforetheyattendschool.ThischapterfirstappearedinTheschoolachievementofminoritychildren:Newperspectives(V.
Neisser(ed.),pp169189,Hillside,NJ:LawrenceErlbaum,1986).Thepresentversionprovidesabriefupdateinapostscript.
Introduction
Theaimsofthischapteraretoevaluatethepasttenorfifteenyears'psychologicalresearchontheintellectualdevelopmentandeducationofpoorchildren.Although
muchoriginalworkinthisareawasmisguided,someinsightshavebeengainedintotheintellectualfunctioningofthepoor.Ingeneral,researchsuggeststhatpoor
childrenasagroupdonotsufferfrommassiveintellectualdeficiency.Theirschoolfailureatleastinthefirstseveralyearsofschoolcannotbeexplainedprimarilyin
termsofcognitivedevelopmentaldeficit.Hence,researchonpoorchildrenandtheireducationmusttakenewdirections.Inthesecondpartofthechapter,Ioffer
speculationsonthetypesofresearchweshouldundertake.

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TheMythoftheDeprivedChild
Inevaluatingpreviousresearchonpoorchildren,itisusefultobeginbydescribingthepoliticalandsocialclimateofthelate1960sandearly1970s,aperiodof
considerablefermentandconflict.Onemajorforceatthetimewasakindofliberalenvironmentalism.In1964,LyndonJohnsonproclaimedthewaronpoverty.On
theassumptionthateducationisthegatewaytomiddleclassprosperity,oneofthemajorcampaignsofthatwarwastobetheeducationofpoorchildren,especially
blacks.Thetaskforthegovernment,then,wastoprovideadequateeducationforthoselackingit.Doingthisrequiredbothlegalandpsychologicalremedies.Legal
battlesoverdesegregationwerefoughtandsometimeswon.Buttheliberalsdecidedearlyonthatdesegregationwasnotsufficient.Poorchildren,especiallyblacks,
didnotperformadequatelyinthepublicschools,evenwhensegregationwasnolongerinplace.Toremedythissituation,theJohnsonadministrationleanedheavilyon
theadviceofsocialscientists,whorecommended,amongotherthings,thecreationofHeadStartandthefundingofpsychologicalandeducationalresearch.The
governmentofferedconsiderablesupportforsocialsciencegenerally,includingeducationallyorientedresearch(e.g.,ProjectLiteracy),andworkonpoorchildrenin
particular.Thegeneralaimoftheresearchwastobetheunderstandingoftheproblemsofpoorchildren,sothatappropriateremediescouldbedeveloped.There
suitsofthisworkwereoftwotypes:abodyofresearchonpoorchildren'scognitivefunctioning,andvariousattemptsat''compensatoryeducation,"programs
designedprimarilytoremedyintellectualdeficienciesinpreschoolersandpreparethemforschooling.
Clearly,theliberalenvironmentalistapproachwaswellintentioned.Andinthepoliticalclimateofthe1980s,thatisnosmallcompliment.Yet,severalofuswere
dissatisfiedonanumberofgroundswiththeliberalenvironmentalistposition.Intheearly1970s,IwroteTheMythoftheDeprivedChild(Ginsburg,1972),theaim
ofwhichwastoofferacritiqueandanalysisofexistingworkonpoorchildren'sintellectandeducation.Thebookmadeanumberofpoints,andfromthem,Ihave
selectedafewmajorthemesthatareusefulassteppingpointsforananalysisofthesituationtoday.
Thebookbeganbystatingtheobvious,namely,thatpoorchildrenasagroupweredoingbadlyinpublicschoolsandthattheeducationalsystemrequireddrastic
improvement.Thequestionthenbecame:whatdoweknowaboutpoorchildren'sintellectualcapacities,

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andhowcanthatknowledgebeusedtoimproveeducation?Thebulkofthebookfocusedonananalysisofpsychologicalknowledgeconcerningpoorchildren's
intellect.Theargumentwasroughlyasfollows:Liberalenvironmentalists(e.g.,Hunt,1969)believethatpoorchildrendevelopinadeprivedenvironmentthatstunts
theirintellectualgrowth.Theenvironmentfailstoprovidesufficientstimulationorprovidesthewrongkindofstimulation.Asaresult,poorchildrensufferfromcognitive
deficits.Nativisttheoryalsopostulatesacognitivedeficit,butoffersadifferentexplanationofitsorigins.Jensen(1969)proposesthatlowerclasschildren,andblacks
inparticular,sufferfromaspecificcognitivedeficit,aninabilitytoengagein"conceptuallearning,"andthisinabilityisaresultofgeneticinheritance.Accordingtoboth
theenvironmentalistsandthenativists,thecognitivedeficit(whateveritsorigins)preventspoorchildrenfromlearningtheconceptualmaterialtaughtinschool.
Iarguedthatbothviews,andagooddealoftheresearchstemmingfromthem,weremisguided,andproposedanalternativeviewof"cognitivedifference."The
reasoningbehindtheargumentwassomethinglikethis.
First,muchoftheempiricalevidencesupportingthedeficitviewcouldnotbebelieved,largelyonmethodologicalgrounds.AsLabov(1972)pointedoutatthetime,
manyofthesestudieslikethoseofBereiterandEnglemann(1966),andDeutsch(1967)employedrigidmethodologiesandwerenotbasedonanunderstandingof
childreningeneralorpoorchildreninparticularItiseasytogetpoorchildrentodobadlyonsomestandardtestitismuchhardertoemploymethodssensitivetotheir
truecompetence.Anyonewhohadrealcontactwithpoorchildren,Ifelt,wouldrealizethatmuchofthepsychologicalresearchwasinsensitive,narrowminded,and
wrong.
Second,thecognitivedeficitresearchseemedtoignoreimportantcognitiveuniversals.Inthe1960s,cognitivetheorywasnotwellunderstoodoraccepted.Ifeltthat,
fromaPiagetianperspective,theimportantpointwasnotthatpoorchildrenproducedfewerPeabodycorrectresponsesthanmiddleclasschildren,butthatall
children,poorandmiddleclassalike,wereprobablycapableoftheconcreteoperationsandevenformaloperationsaswell.Theessenceofthematterwas
commonalitiesinbasicaspectsofmentalfunctioning,notindividualdifferences.Atthetime,therewaslittleempiricalsupportforthisposition,asidefromtheworkof
Labov(1972)onblackEnglish.ThemaintheoreticalfoundationswereinPiaget'stheoryandLenneberg's(1967).
Third,athirdargumentstressedpossibleculturaldifferences.

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Thegeneralpointwasthatpoorchildrenarenotsomuchdeficientastheyaredistinctive.Presumablyinresponsetotheuniquedemandsoftheirdistinctive
environments,theydevelopspecialkindsofadaptationsskillsnotpossessedbymiddleclasschildren.Again,therewasverylittleevidencetosupportthisintuition.
Labov'sworkonblackEnglishwasagaincited,aswereanecdotesperhapsapocryphalorevenstereotypicaboutblackchildren'sknowledgeofarithmeticbeing
expressedinnumbersrunninginHarlem.
Fourth,anotherthemewasthatpoorchildrendidnothavetobeinstructedinbasicintellectualskillstheywerequitecapableoflearningontheirown.Agooddealof
developmenttakesplaceinanaturalandspontaneousfashion.Thispositionwaspartlyareactionagainstbehavioristtheoriesoflearning,someofwhichwerestill
takenseriouslyatthetime,andparticularlyworkoncognitivesocialization,likethatofHessandShipman(1967).Theseresearchersclaimedessentiallythat(a)poor
mothersdidnotknowhowtotraintheirchildreninbasiccognitiveskills,and(b)byimplication,ifthecognitiveskillswerenottrained,theywouldnotdevelop.The
counterargumentwasthatmanyPiagetiantypeskillsdevelopindependently,ontheirown,andthatparentsdonotevenknowthattheskillsexist,letaloneattemptto
teachthem.Hence,Istressedselfdirectedlearning,andthispositionledtosomerecommendationsconcerningtheimplementationof"openschools,"whichwerefelt
toprovideasolutiontotheeducationofthepoor.
Fifth,finallyIarguedthatitisnecessarytoexaminewhatismeantby"successinschool."Usuallyschoolsuccessisdefinedintermsofperformanceonstandard
achievementtests,whichinturnconceptualizeacademicknowledgeinlimited,oftentrivialways.Standardtestsandmanyeducatorsandpsychologistswhouse
themconceiveofacademicknowledgeintermsofcorrectresponses,quantitativetraits(e.g.,"verbalability"),andtheregurgitationofprepackagedknowledge.Yet
weknowfromcognitivetheorythatknowledgeiscomplex:itinvolvesconstructionitmustbeconceptualizedintermsofprocessandstrategyandtheleastinteresting
aspectisthesurfaceresponse.Thus,theconventionalconceptionofschoolsuccesswassuperficial,missingtheheartofthematter,namelythecognitiveanalysisof
children'sconceptsandstrategiesinparticularareasofacademicwork.Intheabsenceofsuchcognitiveanalyses,itwasnotpossibletodiscussintelligentlywhat
children,poororotherwise,didordidnotknoworneedtoknowintheschoolcontext.
Ibelievethatmyassessmentofthesituationintheearly1970swasnottoofaroffthemark.Theempiricalresearchofbothenviron

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mentalistsandnativistswas,indeed,insensitiveandunconvincing.Boththeenvironmentalistandthenativisttheorieswerebasicallywrong.The"cognitivedifference"
viewofferedsomeusefulinsights.Letusseewhateventsinthesubsequenttenorfifteenyearshavetosayaboutthesematters.
First,considerthesocialcontext.Overthepastfifteenortwentyyears,thepoliticalsituationhaschangeddrastically.Federalconcernwithproblemsofpovertyhas
diminishedsteadily,sothatthewaronpovertyseemslightyearsaway.Indeed,inthe1980s,theReaganAdministrationseemedtobeconductingawaronthepoor,
ratherthanonpoverty,sothatonepositivelyyearnsforthefolliesoftheliberals.ThesecommentsonPoliticsarenotadigressionpsychologicalresearchisheavily
influencedbythepoliticalclimate.Theresultofthepoliticalretreatfromaconcernwithpovertyisacorrelateddecreaseinpsychologicalresearchonthetopic.Witha
fewnotableexceptions,therecentpasthasgivenuslittleresearchonpoorchildren'sintellectandeducation.Anunanticipatedbenefitisthatwedonothaveto
contendwithvolumesofmisguidedresearch,butthegeneraloutcomeisthatpsychologicalproblemsofpovertyarebeingsweptundertherug.Withsomenotable
exceptions,forexample,theworkofYando,Seitz,andZigler,1979Ogbu,1978andFeagansandFarran,1982,researchonpoorchildrenisnolongerapopular
topicindevelopmentalpsychology.
Atthesametime,somerecentworkdoesshedlightonkeyaspectsofthecognitivedifferencepositionandopensupimportantquestionsforfutureresearchand
theory.Someofthisworkderivesfromthedirectstudyofpoorchildrenmostofitstemsfromworkinrelatedareas.
1.Methodology.
Intheearly1970s,itseemedclearthatmuchofthedatapurportingtodemonstratecognitivedeficitsinpoorchildrenweresimplyunbelievable.Theresearch
techniquesemployedwerenotsensitiveenoughtouncoverthetrueextentofpoorchildren'scompetence.Sincethattime,severaldevelopmentshavereinforcedthe
basicpoint.Manycrossculturalresearchershavebecomedissatisfiedwithstandardmethods.TraditionalcrossculturalresearchreliedonstandardWestern
techniques,liketranslatedintelligencetests,toinvestigatecognitionin"primitive"peoples.Thegeneral,andperhapspredictable,findingwasthatnonWesternerslack
whatevercognitiveskillswereunderinvestigation.ColeandScribner(1974),providingastrongcritiqueofthisapproach,showedthatstandard,traditionaltechniques
oftenyieldabsurdresultsconcerningtradi

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tionalpeople'scompetence.Westerntasksarenotalwaysinterpretedinthewayintendedtheymaybemisunderstood,withtheresultthatstandardizationoften
precludesvalidity.Onealternativeistomakeeveryefforttodiscovertasksthatarerelevantforindividualsinthecontextofthelocalculture.Onetaskmaybesuitable
fortappingcompetenceinoneculture,whereasanobjectivelydistincttaskmaybesuitableformeasuringthesameskillinanotherculture.Althoughthetasksare
objectivelydifferent(dissimilarinstructions,materials,etc.),theymaybesubjectivelyequivalentintappingthesamecognitiveprocesses.Conversely,theidenticaltask
maybesubjectivelyinequivalentbetweencultures.Thekeyformeasuringcompetenceisnotnecessarilyobjectiveidentity,butsubjectiveequivalence.
Theimplicationsformethodologyareenormous.Standardizationoftenmakesnosenseanddefeatsthepurposesforwhichitwasintended.Extendingtheargument,
wemaythinkofchildrenasanalogoustocultures.Eachchild,oratleasteachdevelopmentallevel,hasitsownperspective(culture).Forsubjectiveequivalencetobe
achieved,objectiveidentityoftenneedstobeabandonedandtasksadaptedtoeachperspective.
Ifcrossculturalworksuggestssensitivitytoindividualculturesortotheculturesofindividuals,recentdevelopmentsincognitiveresearchalsopointtoflexibilityof
method.AgooddealoftheNewellandSimon(1972)researchoncomplexproblemsolvinginadultsemploysthetalkingaloudmethod,inwhichindividualssay
"everythingthatcomesintotheirhead"astheyaregrapplingwithadifficultproblem.Theexperimenteroccasionallyasksquestions,butforthemostpartthedataare
essentiallyintrospections.Severalconsiderationsleadtheseinvestigatorstoeschewsimplequantifiablemeasuressuchasthoseusuallyobtainedinthelaboratory.One
isthattheinvestigatorsareinterestedincomplexintellectualactivities,whichoftencannotbeexpressedinsimpleways.Anotheristhatintrospectioncanindeedbe
valuableatleastforcertainaspectsofcognitivestudy.Inanyevent,theuseofthetalkingaloudprocedureshowsthatseriouspsychologistsareexploringflexibleand
nontraditionalmethodsintheinvestigationofcognitiveprocesses.(ForfurtherdiscussionofthispointseeGinsburg,Kossan,Schwartz,&Swanson,1983.)
Athirdexampleisevenmoredirectlypertinenttothequestionofpoorchildren.Overthepasttenyears,theclinicalinterviewtechniquehasplayedaveryimportant
roleinresearchonmathematicalthinking.Mostinvestigatorshavecometomakeacommonsensicaldistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformanceinintellectual
functioning:itseemsobviousthatoftenchildrendonotdemonstratein

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theirperformancethetrueextentoftheirknowledge.Youngchildreninparticularoftenknowmuchmorethantheyreveal.Often,too,standardtestsfailtotapmuch
morethanthesurfaceperformance.Consequently,contemporaryresearchersoftenfinditusefultoemploytheclinicalinterviewmethodtoassesscompetence.Inthis,
theyareindebtedtoPiaget,whorecognizedearlyon(1929)thattheassessmentoftruecompetenceoftenrequiresflexiblequestioningquestioningthatiscontingent
onthechild'sresponse,thatemploystechniqueslikecountersuggestion,thatdeliberatelymanipulatesphrasing,andthatgenerallyattemptstodiscovermeansfor
gettingthechildtoperceivetheprobleminthemannerintended.Theclinicalinterviewisdeliberatelynonstandardizedthatisitsstrengthforthepurposeofassessing
competence(Ginsburg,Kossan,Schwartz,andSwanson,1983).
Followingisanexampleshowinghowtheclinicalinterviewtechniquecanbeusedtorevealunsuspectedcompetenceinachildwhoisperformingpoorlyinarithmetic.
ButchwasinthethirdgradeofanupstateNewYorkelementaryschool.Histeacheridentifiedhimashavingsevereproblemsinlearningelementaryschoolarithmetic.
Bothhisgradesandhisachievementscoreswerelow,inarithmeticaswellasotherschoolsubjects,andhewasacandidateforrepeatingthirdgrade.Hewasnot
retardedorseverelyemotionallydisturbed.Outsideoftheclassroom,intheplayground,hewaslivelyandboisteroushiseverydaybehaviorseemedtorevealatleast
averageintelligence.Yetintheclassroomhewasquietandobviouslyhadconsiderabletroublelearningarithmetic.WantingtoknowwhyButchwashavingproblems
inarithmetic,theteacherrequestedadiagnosis,whichshehopedwouldproduceanunderstandingofButchandidentifythosefactorsresponsibleforhisfailureto
learn.
Inaclinicalinterviewthefollowingconversationtookplace.Askedwhathewasdoinginschool,Butchsaidhewasworkingwithfractions.
Interviewer:Fractions?Canyoushowmewhatyouaredoingwith
fractions?
Butchwrites:
Interviewer:OK.Sowhatdoesthatsay?
Butch:8,16.
Interviewer:Whatdoyoudowithit?
Butch:Youadditupandputthenumberupthere.
Interviewer:OK.Whatisthenumber?
Butchwrites:

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Severalfeaturesoftheinterviewarenotable.First,theinterviewerallowedButchtodeterminethetopicfordiscussion,sothatshecouldexploretheissuesthat
concernedhim.TheaimwastoletButchdeterminetheagenda,nottoimposeonhimapreconceivedplanofinterviewing.Second,theinterviewertriedtogetButch
toexplaininhisownwordswhathewasdoing.Thequestionsweredesignedtobeopenended,like"Whatdoyoudowithit?",sothatButchcouldanswerthemina
waythatwouldrevealhismentalprocesses.Inshort,theinterviewaimedatdiscoveringthechild'sapproach:whatarehisconcernsandhowdoesheoperate?These
centralfeaturesofclinicalinterviewingdistinguishitsharplyfromnormative,standardizedtesting.
Tothispoint,theinterviewshowsthatButchisdoingsomethingunusual.Heconfusesfractionswithdivisionandcannotcalculatethesimpledivision.Heseemstolack
anunderstandingofschoolarithmeticandengagesinhighlyirregularprocedures.Whatisgoingon?Thenextexcerptclarifiessomeofthesemattersandillustratesthe
powerofclinicalinterviewing.
Interviewer:Howdidyoudothat?
Butch:Iwent,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23.Iaddedfrom16.
ItwasclearthatButchgottheanswer23justasheearlierhadsaidhedid:"Youaddthemup."TheinterviewalsorevealedthatButchdidthisaddingbycountingon
fromthelargernumber.Thus,inthisbriefexcerpt,theinterviewerlearnedthatButchusedtheword"fractions"butwroteadivisionproblem,solvedawrittendivision
problembyaddition,anddidadditionbycounting!TheclinicalinterviewshowedthatButchwasnotwrongsimplybecauseofstupidity,poorconceptualabilityorthe
like.Instead,therewereclearreasonsforhismistakes,andhepossessedsurprisingskillinmentalcalculation.Further,theinformationwasprovidedbyButchhimself,
proddedbyclinicalinterviewtechniques.
Weallknowintuitivelythatclinicalinterviewingisasensiblewaytoproceed.Evenhardnosedexperimentalistsuseit.Beforestartinganexperiment,investigators
oftenusetheclinicalmethod(callingitpilotwork)tofindoutwhattodointheexperiment.Then,iftheexperimentdoesnotwork,theexperimentalistusestheclinical
methodtofindoutwhatwentwrong.Theactualexperimentmaybesomethingofaformality.And,ofcourse,collegeprofessorsusetheclinicalmethod.Eventhough
theymayfinditconvenienttousestandardizedmethodslikemultiplechoiceteststoassesstheperformance

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oflargenumbersoffreshmen,theyemploysomethingliketheclinicalinterviewinexaminingdoctoralcandidates,whenthingsarereallyserious.Whatprofessorwould
conductadoctorateexaminamultiplechoiceformat?Inanyevent,theclinicalinterviewisincreasinglypopularinresearchonmathematicalthinkingandoftenreveals
surprisingcompetenciesinchildrenwhoperformpoorlyinschoolarithmetic.
Theserecentmethodologicaldevelopmentsstrengthentheearlierargumentsconcerningtheirrelevanceofmuchresearchoncognitivedeficitsinpoorchildrenbecause
itwasbasedonstandardmethodsoflimitedsensitivity.Moreover,thesedevelopmentshaveinfluencedasleasttworecentstudiesofpoorchildren'sintellectual
functioning.R.Yando,V.Seitz,andE.Zigler(1979)madeseriousattemptstoemployflexiblemethodsintheirresearch,andsodidRussellandIinourstudiesof
preschoolandkindergartenchildren'smathematicalthinking(GinsburgandRussell,1981).Inourresearch,wecouldnotengageinextensiveclinicalinterviewing,
becausethechildrenweresoyoung.Consequently,wespentmanyhoursdevisingandrevisingexperimentaltaskssothatchildrenwouldunderstandthem.Often,
someminorchangeinwordingorproceduremadeanimmensedifference,anditusuallytookmanyhourstodiscovertheseminorvariations.Forexample,webegan
withwhatwethoughtwasaneasytaskdesignedtomeasurethechild'sabilitytodeterminethesumoftwovisiblecollectionsofobjects.Wepresentedastoryinwhich
thechildwasrequiredtofindtheunionoftwostaticsets.Forexample:"Turtlehasthreenutsandowlhastwonuts.That'sthreeandtwo.Howmanydotheyhave
altogether?"Whenthetaskwaspresentedinthismanner,innercitychildrenperformedquitebadlyontheaverage.Werevisedthetask,usingproblemsthatstressed
theactivecombiningofsets.Thus:"Puppethastwopennies.He'swalkingtothestoreandfindsonemorepenny.Howmanypenniesdoeshehavealtogether?"With
thisapparentlyminorchangeinthesemanticsoftheproblem,innercitychildren'sperformancelevelsimproved,andclassandracedifferencesdidnotachieve
statisticalsignificance.
Inbrief,flexiblemethodologyisattheheartofresearchonintellectualcompetence.Muchcognitivedeficitresearchhasnotusedthiskindofmethodologyandhenceis
irrelevant.Recentresearch,usingflexiblemethods,uncoversimportantareasofcompetenceinpoorchildren.Itistosomeofthesecompetenciesthatweturnnext.
2.Universals.
Tenyearsago,therewasabitofevidencesuggestingthatpoorchildrenarecharacterizedbycertain"cognitiveuniver

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sals,"likethePiagetianconcreteoperationsorbasicsyntacticprocesses.Recentresearch,mostofitinthecrossculturaltradition,atteststothebasicvalidityofthis
pointofview.Forexample,arecentreviewofcrossculturalPiagetianresearch(DasenandHeron,1981)suggeststhatvirtuallyallculturesexaminedseemtopossess
thecapabilityforconcreteoperationalthinking,althoughtheevidenceconcerningformaloperationsisbynomeansclearSimilarlytheresearchofColeandScribner
(1974)andtheircolleaguesgenerallydemonstratesthatnonliterateWestAfricansshowbasiccompetenciesinreasoning,memory,andthelike,althoughthese
competenciesmaynotbeexpressedintypicallyWesternfashion.Thus,theKalaharibushmen(TulkinandKonnor,quotedbyFlavell,1977)demonstratethe
capabilityforscientificthinkingastheyengageinthetrackingofanimals.Atthesametime,theywouldnodoubtfinditimpossibletodealwithsuchPiagetianformal
operationaltasksasthecombiningofchemicals.
Ourownresearch(Ginsburg,Posner,andRussell,1981a,1981b,1981c)examinesthedevelopmentofmathematicalthinkinginunschooledandschooledWest
Africansintwodifferentcultures.OneofthesegroupsintheIvoryCoast,theBaoul,isananimist,agriculturalgroup,placingnoparticularemphasisonmathematics.
OurresearchwasconductedinareaswheresomeBaoulchildrenattendedschools,whileothersdidnot.Thesecondgroup,theDioula,areMuslimswhohave
traditionallyengagedinmercantileactivitiesandarescatteredthroughoutWestAfrica.TheDioula,althoughoftenilliterate,needtoemploycalculationalprocessesin
thecourseofcommerce.LiketheBaoul,someDioulasubjectsattendedschoolandothersdidnot.ThetwoAfricangroupsprovidedausefulcontrastintermsof
hospitalitytomathematicalideasandprocedures.Weusedthesegroupstoinvestigatetheeffectsofschoolingandcultureonthedevelopmentofinformalmathematical
skills.
OnebasicfindingwasthatunschooledAfricanchildrenfrombothculturespossessfundamentalinformalconceptsofmathematics,likemore,equivalence,andadding.
Posner(1982)foundthatBaoulandDioulachildrenrangingfromfourorfiveyearsofagetonineortenyearsofageperformaboutaswellasAmericansonthe
elementaryconceptofmore.YoungchildreninbothAfricancultures"...possessthebasicnotionofinequalitybytheageof910,regardlessofschoolingorethnic
background,theydisplayahighlevelofaccuracy.MoreovertheirmethodsfordeterminingthegreatersetaresimilartothoseofAmericanchildren...suggesting...
auniversalcapacity"(Posner,1982).Althoughtheymayacquirethisconceptatalater

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agethanAmericans,theAfricansdoacquireit,withoutthebenefitofschoolingormiddleclassAmericanculture.Posneralsoinvestigatedelementaryadditionand
foundthatbothschooledandunschooledDioulaareextremelyskilledinthisarea,andthatschooledBaoularealsoadept.OnlyunschooledBaoul,membersofthe
agriculturalsociety,didrelativelybadly,perhapsbecausetheircultureplaceslittleemphasisoncounting.Inanyevent,theimportantfindingisthatunschooledDioula
childrenarecompetentinelementaryadditionusingcountingandothereffectivestrategies,andthateventheunschooledBaoulachievesomesuccessinthisarea.
Ginsburg,Posner,andRussell(1981a)investigatedmorecomplexformsofadditioninschooledandunschooledDioulachildrenandadults,andinAmericanchildren
andadults.Ingeneral,unschooledDioulachildreneventuallyexhibitahighdegreeofcompetenceinthesolutionofverballypresentedadditionproblems.Theyoung
Dioulabeginwithelementarycountingprocedures,butolderDioulaswitchtotheextensiveutilizationofregroupingmethods(e.g.,23+42=20+40+3+2),whichare
moreefficient,particularlyinthecaseoflargernumbers.Atfirst,theDiouladonotemploythestrategieswithgreataccuracybutwithagebecomeincreasingly
proficientintheiruse,learningtodiscriminateamongdifferenttypesofproblemsandtoapplydifferentstrategieswhereappropriate.Moreover,thestrategies
employedbytheDioulaareessentiallythesameasthoseobservedinAmericanchildren.SchoolingandAmericanculturearenotnecessaryforthedevelopmentof
mentaladditionstrategies.OthercrossculturalresearcherslikeSaxe(SaxeandPosner,1983)findsimilarresults.Apparently,illiteratechildrengrowingupinwhatwe
wouldconsidertheabjectpovertyoftraditionalculturesneverthelessmanagetodevelopsomefundamentalcognitiveconceptsandskills.
Poorchildreninourownculturedevelopsimilarskills.Thatwasthehypothesisoftenyearsago,anditisevenmorereasonabletoday.Basiccognitiveskillsshouldbe
nolessprevalentinlowerclassAmericansthaninunschooledAfricansormiddleclassAmericans.OurresearchintheWashington,D.C.ghetto(Ginsburgand
Russell,1981)wasdesignedtoinvestigatethedevelopmentofinformalmathematicalnotionsinlowerandmiddleclasschildren,bothblackandwhite,atthe
prekindergartenandkindergartenlevels.Eachchild,seenindividually,wasgivenalargenumberofmathematicalthinkingtasks(17inall),manyderivedfromourwork
inAfricaandfromtheworkofinvestigatorslikeGelman.Thetasksrangedfromsuchinformalskillsastheperceptionofmore,theunderstandingofaddition
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simpleenumeration,andadditioncalculation,tosuchschooltaughtnotionsastherepresentationandwritingofnumbers.
Ingeneral,wefoundnosocialclassdifferencesandatmoststatisticallyinsignificanttrendsfavoringmiddleclassoverlowerclasschildren.Inthevastmajorityof
cases,childrenofbothsocialclassesdemonstratedcompetenceonthevarioustasksandusedsimilarstrategiesforsolvingthem.Ifthesecompetenciesandstrategies
werenotevidentatthepreschoollevel,theyemergedbykindergartenageinallgroups.Forexample,middleandlowerclasschildrenmadeeffectiveuseofcounting
strategiestosolveadditioncalculationproblemsinvolvingconcreteobjects.Ingeneral,theonlylargedifferencesinvolvedage:developmentalchangesfrompreschool
tokindergartenfaroutweighsocialclassdifferencesinthisarea.Furthermore,theresearchshowedfewerracialthansocialclassdifferences.Racehasonlytrivial
associationswithearlycognitivefunction.Jensen's(1969)notionthatlowerclassandblackchildrenexhibitweaknessesinabstractthoughtiswrong,atleastwith
respecttoearlymathematicalcognition.Manyofthetasksemployedinourstudywereprimeexamplesofabstractthought(e.g.,theunderstandingofaddition
operations)andyetwerenotassociatedwithracialorsocialclassdifferences.Ouroverallconclusionwasthat,atleastattheageoffourorfive,poorchildren,black
orwhite,possessfundamentalcompetenciesinearlymathematicalthinkingthereislittleevidenceofpervasivecognitivedeficit.
3.CognitiveDifference.
Tenyearsago,anumberofushypothesizedthatpoorchildrenwerecharacterizedbycognitivedifferences,notdeficits(e.g.,Cole&Bruner,1971).Themajor
evidencewasLabov'swork,showingthatblackEnglishisdifferentonthesurface,butemploysthesamebasicsyntaxasstandardEnglish.Thebasicargumentwas
thatcognitivedifferenceswereanexpressionofdistinctiveadaptationstouniqueenvironments.
Whiletheargumentwaslargelyconjectural,thereissomerecentcrossculturalevidencesheddinglightonthequestionofcognitivedifferences.Weknowinageneral
waythatculturesdevelopdistinctivetechniquesfordealingwithdistinctiveproblems.Thus,thePuluwatislandersdevelopclevermethodsfornavigatingwithoutspecial
instruments(Gladwin,1970).OurownresearchintheIvoryCoastexaminedthedevelopmentofmathematicalthinkingwithinthecontextsoftwoverydifferent
cultures,oneMoslemandmercantileandtheotheranimistandagricultural.TheDioulatraditionallyengageincommerceandhavewideexperienceindealingwiththe
moneyecon

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omy.Bycontrast,theBaouloftendonot.WeencounteredDioulaadultswhoengagedincomplexformsofmentalarithmetic,andevenunderstoodbasic
mathematicalprinciplesinapracticalfashion(PetittoandGinsburg,1982).Researchmakesitclearthatculturalgroupssometimesdevelopdistinctivepatternsof
cognitioninresponsetolocalenvironmentaldemands.Unfortunately,weknowlittlemorethanthiswehavevirtuallynosolidinformationconcerningthedistinctive
cognitiveactivitiesofsubgroupswithinourownculture.Moreaboutthisbelow.
4.CognitiveSocialization.
Myearliercritiquestressedspontaneousdevelopmentanddowngradedtheroleofcognitivesocialization.Iarguedthatpoorchildrencanlearnontheirown,that
cognitivesocializationascarriedonbythemiddleclassisnotnecessarytoinstructpoorchildreninthebasicintellectualskillsthatwilllaterformthebasisforschool
learning.Insomewaysthecritiquewasaccurateandinsomewaysamistake.Itwasaccurateinpointingoutthatchildren'slearningincludingthatofpoorchildren
isoftenspontaneousanddoesnotalwaysdependonadultinstruction.Someaspectsofcognitiondoindeeddevelopinamoreorlessselfdirectedfashion,without
thenecessityforparentalinvolvement.Infantsprobablydevelopobjectpermanence,actionschemes,andperceptualskillsontheirown,withoutparentalhelpor
knowledge.Preschoolchildrendevelopmethodsforadditionandconceptsofequivalenceontheirown,withoutexplicitinstruction(althoughparentsorotheragentsof
culturemustofcoursedirectlyorindirectlyprovidethebasiccountingnumbers).Weprobablyunderestimatetheextenttowhichchildrenspontaneouslydevelopbasic
concepts,skills,andsensibleviewsoftheworld.
Thecritiquewasalsoaccurateinpointingoutthatmuchoftheearlycognitivesocializationresearchwasbadlyconceivedandexecuted.Forexample,theinfluential
studiesofHessandShipman(1967)gaveanoversimplifiedviewofcognitivesocializationandstudieditpoorly.Theseinvestigatorsconceivedofcognitive
socializationasaonewayprocessinwhichparentsshapechildren'sintellectualdevelopment.Suchtheorizingdoesnotdojusticetotheselfdirectedaspectsofhuman
developmentandtothecomplexinteractionsbetweenparentsandchildren.Also,HessandShipmanexaminedtheparentchildinteractionoflowerclassfamiliesina
laboratorysettingthatrequiredmotherstoinstructchildreninanartificialtaskThissituationmayhavebeencomfortableformiddleclassmothersandchildren,butfor
theirlowerclasspeersitmayhavebeenuninterest

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ing,andeventhreateningandcondescending.Forthisgroup,thelaboratorytaskappearstobeculturallybiasedandlackinginecologicalvalidity.Littlecanbelearned
fromresearchofthistype.
Atthesametime,eventhoughmycritiquemayhavebeenreasonable,Iprobablyunderestimatedtheextenttowhichcognitivesocializationisimportantandnecessary
forthedevelopmentofbasicintellectualskills.PerhapsIwastoomuchofaPiagetian.Piagetneverreallyunderstoodtheroleofthesocialculturalenvironment.But
Vygotskydid.AndrecentresearchintheVygotskytradition(e.g.,Greenfield,1984andRogoff&Gardner,1984),illustratesthesubtleandimportantwaysinwhich
parentchildinteractionshapesearlycognitivedevelopment.Childrendonotlearneverythingontheirownparentsseemtoplayamajorroleinshapingcertainkey
elementsofchildren'scognition.
Whatdoesthismeanfortheunderstandingofpoorchildren?Probablyitisstillcorrecttomaintainthattheyacquirecertainintellectualskillsontheirown,inaself
directedfashion.Inthesecases,cognitivesocializationmaybebesidethepoint.Atthesametime,cognitivesocializationmaybecrucialforthedevelopmentofsome
intellectualandotherskillsthatmaylaterplayamajorroleinschooling.Hence,weneedtousesensitivemethodsandsophisticatedtheoriestolearnmoreabout
cognitivesocializationingeneralandinpoorchildreninparticular.
5.AcademicKnowledge.
Tenorfifteenyearsagoweseemedtoknowvirtuallynothingaboutacademicknowledgeandneededtoknowmuchmoreifweweregoingtosayanythingsensible
aboutpoorchildren'sperformanceinschool.Sincethen,wehavemadeenormousstridesinourunderstandingofschooledcognition.Nowwecangofarbeyondour
earlierintuitionthatachievementtestscoresdonottellthewholestory.Nowwehavehadmorethanadecadeofseriousresearchintosuchmattersasreading(both
decodingandcomprehension),expositorywriting,andmathematicalthinking.Havingrecentlyeditedabookonthesubject(Ginsburg,1983),Iamfamiliarwiththe
latestresearchonmathematicalthinking.Wenowknowagooddealaboutearlycountingactivitiesandtheirroleinearlycalculation(Fuson&Hall,1983)themental
numberlineandsubsequentconceptsofbaseten(Resnick,1983)theroleofsystematicstrategiesinthegenerationofcalculationalerrors(VanLehn,1983)the
semanticsandsyntacticsofwordproblemsolving(Riley,Greeno,&Heller,1983)andthebasicstrategiesofalgebraicproblemsolving(Davis,1983).Children's
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volvescomplexcognitiveactivities,whosenatureandextentwearejustbeginningtounderstand.
Onebenefitoftheworkonacademicknowledgeisthatwearenowinapositiontoperformsensibleandinformativestudiesofschoollearningon
''excellence"(Edmonds,1986).Whenwereliedsolelyonachievementtestsasthedependentmeasure,thiswasnotpossible.Intheabsenceofanadequatetheoryof
academicknowledge,itwasimpossibletocometoasoundunderstandingofwhatchildrenreallylearninschool.Now,however,wecanbegintounderstandthese
issues,andthisshouldbeofgreatbenefitindealingwithpoorchildren'seducation.
Inparticular,thenewcontributionstothetheoryofacademicknowledgeallowustocometoatleastapreliminaryunderstandingofschoolfailure.Thedesireto
ameliorateschoolfailurewasthemotivatingforcebehindtheearlystudiesofpoorchildren'sintellectnowwehaveresearchthatshedslightonthenatureofschool
failureandhenceontheschoolperformanceofmanypoorchildren.RussellandGinsburg(1984)conductedastudyofcognitivefactorsunderlyinglowachievementin
schoolmathematics.Thestudyincludedbothmiddleandlowerclasschildrenatthethirdandfourthgradelevels.(Byimplication,thestudyisespeciallyrelevantto
understandingpoorchildren,becausetheyaredisproportionatelyrepresentedintheranksofschoolfailures).Ourgeneralaimwastodeterminewhetherfourthgrade
childrenwhoscoredatleastoneyearbelowthenormonstandardmathematicsachievementtestsdisplayedunusualpatternsofthinkinginseveraldifferentareasof
mathematicalcognition.Wewishedtoknowwhetherthelowachieversdisplayedweaknessesintheareasof:(a)informalmathematicalthinking,(b)abstractthought,
(c)calculationalaspectsofarithmetic,and(d)basicconcepts(e.g.,knowledgeofbaseten).Wetestedeachchildindividuallyagainusingclinicalinterviewtechniques
andlargenumberoftasksdevelopedovermanyyears.Severalfindingsarerelevantforourconcerns.First,themathematicsdifficulty(MD)childrenpossess
fundamentalinformalconceptslikethementalnumberlineandprocedureslikementaladditionandestimation.Theyarecapableofbasicenumerationskillsandeven
conceptsofplacevalueasappliedtowrittennumbers.Theydisplayinsightintosomestructuredtasksandcansolvebasicwordproblems.Theymakemoreerrors,by
definition,thandonormalchildren,buttheerrorsaretheresultsofcommon"bugs"(Brown&Burton,1978)orerrorstrategiesMDchildrenmakeerrorsforthe
samereasonsasnormallyachievingchildren.OurgeneralconclusionwasthatMDchildrenareessentiallynormalwithre

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specttobasicmathematicalthinking.Theyarecapableofabstractthoughtanddonotdisplaycognitiveprocessesofanunusualnature.
Ofcourse,thereareanumberofcautionsthatmustberaisedinrespecttothisstudy.Foronething,wedidnotstudyallcognitiveprocesses,sothatourconclusions
arenecessarilylimitedtotheparticularmeasuresemployed.Second,weobtainedsomeresultsthatwereincongruousanddifficulttoexplain,forexample,MD
childrenhaveparticulardifficultywithelementarynumberfacts.Theyhadahardertimerememberingthat2+2is4thantheydidinperformingsomerather
complicatedmentaladditionstrategies.ThisresultisprobablyjustthereverseofwhatJensenwouldexpectinhisview,poorchildrenhavespecialtalentforrote
memoryandcannothandleconceptualtasks.TheresultcontradictsJensen'sview,butIhavenoeasywayofexplainingiteither.
Ourresultsatpresentareinconclusive,andagooddealofresearchneedstobedone.Onthebasisofclinicalexperiencewithchildrenfailinginschool,Ipredictthat
researchresultswouldsupporttheviewthatlowachievingchildrenasagroupdonotsufferfromseriouscognitivedeficiencieslikeinabilitytounderstandabstractions.
Furthermore,inatleastthefirstseveralgradesofschoollowachievingchildrenarenotlikelytodisplayunusualpatternsofacademiccognition.Theymaygetmany
wronganswers,buttheirbasicunderstandingofschoolrelatedworkisnotqualitativelydifferentfromthatofnormalachievingchildren.Atthesametime,theremust
eventuallybeacumulativedeficitthatputsthesechildrenfurtherandfurtherbehind.Thus,childrenwhofailtolearnsimpleadditionandsubtractionwillbeatadear
disadvantageinlearningmorecomplicatedtopicsinarithmetic(likethelongdivisionalgorithm).Thus,theremustcomeapointwherechildrenwhofailinschoolare
really"outofit,"andtheiracademiccognitionmusteventuallybecomedeficient.Butthisdoesnotreflectbasiccognitivedifficulties.
Ifthehypothesisisbasicallycorrect,thatschoolfailuredoesnotoriginallyderivefromdeficientcognition(butmayeventuallyproduceit),whydochildrenexhibit
schoolfailureinthefirstplace?Thequestionleadsusintoareaslikeeducation,motivation,andstyle.Withrespecttoeducation,itshouldbeabundantlyclearthat
manyschoolsteachbadly,andthisislikelythemajorcauseofchildren'sacademicfailure.Thereisnoevidencethatunderstimulatingconditionspoorchildrencannot
learnquitewell.Anotherfactorismotivational:childrenpronetoschoolfailuremayexperiencesomeformofdistressthatpreventsthemfromexhibitingtheircapability
orrealizingtheirpotential.Andofcourse,oncethesechildrenfallbehind,the

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prophecybecomesselffulfilling.Finally,thereisthefactorofstyle:somechildren'slearningstyleorcognitivestylemaynotmesheffectivelywiththeteaching
environmentoftheschools.
Inbrief,overrecentyears,wehavemadeimportantadvancesinourunderstandingofappropriatemethodology,inourunderstandingofbasicandperhapsuniversal
cognitiveprocesses,inourknowledgeofdistinctivecognitiveadaptationsinresponsetouniqueenvironments,inourviewsofcognitivesocialization,andinour
conceptualizationofacademicknowledge.Mostoftheseadvancesareindirectlyrelevanttotheunderstandingofpoorchildren,butimportantlyrelevantnonetheless.
Ingeneral,thefindingssupportthehypothesisthatpoorchildrendonotsufferfrommassivecognitivedeficiencies.Povertyofintellectcannotexplaintheirfailurein
school.
NeededResearch
Cognitivedevelopmentalpsychologyismovinginnewdirectionsthatcaninformthestudyofpoorchildren.Researchersarebeginningtogo"beyondthepurely
cognitive"(Schoenfeld,1983)toproposenewperspectivesonissuesofintellectualdevelopment.Someofthesenewwaysoflookingatmindmayprovideinsights
intopoorchildren'sintellectualgrowthandeducation.
1.LearningPotential.
Forthemostpart,cognitivepsychologistshavefocusedattentiononanarrowaspectofmentallifethecurrentcognitivestructureoftheindividual.Traditional
researchhasfocusedonsuchissuesasthenatureofconcreteoperationsatagesXvs.Y,orthecountingstrategiesofyoungchildren.Socalleddevelopmentalstudies
typicallyexamineprocessA(e.g.,egocentriccommunication)indifferentgroupsofchildrenatagesX,Y,andZ.Eventhefewstudiesemployingassubjectsthesame
childrenatdifferentagelevelstypicallyexamineexistingcognitivestructuresinastaticfashionanddonotfocusonthedevelopmentalprocessitself.Tobesure,there
areexceptionstothesituationIhavedescribedsomedevelopmentalistshavefocusedondevelopmentandlearning.Forexample,aftermanyyears'exploring
cognitivestructures(concreteoperations,formaloperations,etc.)theschoolofPiagetturnedinthe1970stotheexaminationofissuesofequilibration(asinInhelder,
Sinclair,&Bovet,1974).Yetmostcognitivedevelopmentalpsychologyisnotdirectlycon

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cernedwiththeprocessofdevelopment,butwiththecharacterizationofdifferencesincurrentstructuresatvariousagelevels.
Forthepurposesofeducationwhetherofpoorchildrenoranyoneelsetheperspectiveofthiskindofdevelopmentalpsychologyisvaluablebutatthesametime
hasshortcomings.AsIarguedpreviously,itisimportanttounderstandthestructureofacademicknowledgetoanalyzeitsconceptsandprocesses.Itisvaluableto
determine,forexample,thatatthepreschoollevel,poorchildrenpossesscertaininformaladditionconceptsandprocedures(Ginsburg&Russell,1981),orthat
mathematicalerrorsaregeneratedbycommonerrorstrategies(Ginsburg,1981).Yet,forpurposesofeducation,itisevenmoreimportanttoknowhowonecanbuild
ontheinformalknowledgeoreliminatethebugslearningpotentialanddevelopmentarethecruxofthematter,notcurrentcognitivestructure.Thefocusison
becomingmorethanonbeing.Indeed,Papert(1980)evensuggeststhatafocusoncurrentcognitivestructuremaybecounterproductive:
Theinventionoftheautomobileandairplanedidnotcomefromadetailedstudyofhowtheirpredecessors,suchashorsedrawncarriages,workedordidnotwork.Yet,thisisthe
modelforcontemporaryeducationresearch....Therearemanystudiesconcerningthepoornotionsofmathorsciencestudentsacquirefromtoday'sschooling.Thereisevena
veryprevalent"humanistic"argumentthat"good"pedagogyshouldtakethesepoorwaysofthinkingasitsstartingpoint....
Nevertheless,Ithinkthatthestrategyimpliesacommitmenttopreservingthetraditionalsystem.Itisanalogoustoimprovingtheaxleofthehorsedrawncart.Butthereal
question,onemightsay,iswhetherwecaninventthe"educationalautomobile."(p.44)
ApplyingPapert'sperspectivetothecaseofpoorchildren,wemightarguethatitislessimportanttoknowwhatinformalknowledgepoorchildrenpossessatagefour
orwhythirdgradersinthecurrentschoolsmakeadditionerrorsthanitistodiscoverwhatpoorchildrencandoundermorenearlyidealcircumstances.Current
cognitivestructures,astheyareshapedbythetypicalschoolenvironment,maybealmostirrelevanttotheissueoflearninginmorestimulatingcircumstances.Whether
thepoorchildcanorcannotcountatagefouroremployssomeerrorstrategymaynotbeofgreatrelevanceforwhatheorshecanaccomplishintheatypical
classroom.
Muchoftheliteratureonradicaleducationalreformsupportsthispoint.Manyyearsago,educatorslikeKohl(1967),showedthatunusualclassroomscouldproduce
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children.Morerecently,Papert(1980)andhiscolleagueshaveshownthattheLOGOcomputerenvironmentcanproducedramaticlearninginphysicallyhandicapped
children,someofwhomareevenjudgedtoberetardedinordinaryclassrooms.Edmonds(1986)showsthatreadingproblemscanberemediedeveninchildrenwho
mightbeconsideredlearningdisabled.Itisclearthattheexistencetheoremhasbeendearlyproven:poorchildren(andvarioushandicappedchildrenaswell)can
learnunderunusualconditions.Thepotentialexistseveniftheeffectiveeducationalenvironmentisrare.Psychologicaltheoriesoflearningdisabilitiesshouldbetreated
withgreatskepticismtheydescribeonlywhatexistsundercurrentconditions,notwhatcanoccur.
Psychologistsshouldfocusmoreontheissueoflearningpotentialandlessonthedescriptionofcognitivestructureconceivedinstaticterms.Formanyyears,the
psychologicalstudyoflearningwasdullandirrelevantperhapsthereweregoodreasonsforabandoningit.Butnowitseemstobetime,asBrownandFrench(1979)
havesuggested,toreturntothisancientbutstillcentraltopic.
2.NoncognitiveFactors.
Motivationplaysafundamentalroleineducation.Weareallfamiliarwithchildrenwhomakegreatintellectualstrideswhentheyget"turnedon,"whenthereisinterest
inandpassionforlearning.Thelatestculturalphenomenonofthistypeischildrenwhogethookedoncomputersandwithoutthebenfitofformalinstructionor
despiteitbecomeexpertintheiruse.Weareallfamiliarwithotherchildrenwhoarefrightenedoflearning,forexample,fearofmathematics,orcontemptuousofit,
orafraidtoexhibittopeerssignsofintellectualinterest.Ogbu'sanalysis(1986)focusesonthemotivations,beliefs,andexpectanciesproducedbythecastesystemin
thiscountry:somechildrendonotlearninschoolbecausetheyperceivenosocialoreconomicbenefitsfromdoingso.Cliniciansarefamiliarwithchildrenwhose
failuretolearnisrootedintheirneuroticcharacterstructure.Forinstance,theteacher'sdisapprovalmaybelinkedtotheparent's,andsubtractioninarithmeticmaybe
seenasaninstanceofthe"takingaway"oflove.Suchaberrationsmaybemorecommonthanwethink.
Itisnotenoughtosay,asPiagetseemsto,thatthecognitivestructuresarethesourceoftheirownmotivation("functionalassimilation").Certainlythereis,canbe,
shouldbe"intrinsicmotivation,"butmanyotherformsofmotivationareattheheartofeducationaswell.Indeed,Iwouldmaketwospeculations.Oneisthatmost
casesoflearningproblemsorlowachievementintheschoolscanbeex

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plainedprimarilyonmotivationalgroundsratherthanintermsoffundamentalcognitivedeficit.Mostchildrenfailinschoolnotbecausetheyarestupid(cognitively
deficient,lackingin"formaloperations",etc.)butbecausetheyareafraid,turnedoff,andthelike.Ithinkacademicpsychologistsareoutoftouchwithrealitywhen
theytakesoseriouslytheroleofbasiccognitivefactors(i.e.,intelligence,conceptualthought,Piagetianoperations)inschoolfailure.Ofcourse,it'seasiertomeasure
cognitivevariablesthanmotivationandpersonality.
Asecondspeculationisthatunderstandingmotivationmaybeatleastasusefulforeducationalpracticeforremediationasknowledgeofcognitivestructureor
process.Nodoubt,asBrown,Palinesar,andPurcell(1986)haveshown,focusedinterventionbasedoncognitiveanalysis(diagnosis)ofdisruptionsinprocesscan
providesuccessfulremediation.Butitmayalsobetruethatmotivatingpoorachieversinnewways,withoutpayingmuchattentiontotheircognitiveprocesses,may
alsodramaticallyimprovetheirlearning.Theevidenceforthisislargelyanecdotal:thesearecasesofchildrenwhoreadpoorlyuntilforsomereasonthey"decide"to
read,whereupontheylearnveryrapidly,withoutthebenefitoftutorialhelpbasedonprofoundcognitiveanalysis.
Motivationiscentraltolearning,justasiscognition.Itisfoolishtoargueaboutwhichismoreimportant.Botharevital.Butwedevelopmentalandeducational
researchershavetendedtoslightthemotivational.
3.CognitiveStyle.
AsItriedtoillustrateintheforegoing,poorchildrenprobablydonotsufferfromfundamentalcognitivedeficits.Instead,thereisevidencefortheexistenceofuniversal
basiccognitiveprocesses.Atthesametime,poorchildrenoranychildrenmaydevelopdistinctiveintellectualadaptationstothespecialdemandsoftheir
environments.Thisisthecognitivedifferenceview,usuallyputinoppositiontothedeficittheory.
Animportantresearchquestionforthefuturehastodowiththenatureandextentofsuchcognitivedifferencesandtheirroleineducation.Onewayofconceptualizing
thedifferencesmaybeintermsofcognitivestyle.Thisconcepthasalongandcheckeredhistory,originatinginpsychoanalytictheorybuteventuallybecoming
entombedinpsychometricpractice.Thebasicideaseemstobethatintellect,likeotheraspectsofpsychologicalfunctioning,hasapersonality,astyle.Intellectcanbe
impulsive,ordefensive,orvivacious,ordull,justasoursocialbehaviorcanbe.Inaninformalstudyoflettersofrecommendation,Ifoundthatprofessional
psychologistsreliedheavilyon

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styleconceptsinevaluatingtheirstudentsandcolleagues.Hardlyanyonespokeofgmanydescribed"independenceofmind."
Oneresearchissueconcernstheextenttowhichpoorchildrenexhibitdistinctivecognitivestylesthatinterferewithschoolwork.Boykin(1979)hassuggestedthat
blacksexhibita"verve"ofintellectthatmayclashwiththeexpectationsofthemiddleclassschool.(Forarecentreview,seeShade,1982).Thepersonalityofintellect
seemsbasictocognitivefunctionweneedtoknowmuchmoreabouttheroleofcognitivestyleinpoorchildren'sintellectandeducation.
4.TheIndividualintheSocialSystem.
Intellectandpersonalityareembeddedinsociallifetheycannotbefullyunderstoodinisolation.Weneedagenuineecologicalpsychologythatinterpretsbehaviorand
cognitioninthecontextofthelargersocialpoliticalsystem.Johnnyfailsinschoolnotsolelyorprimarilybecauseheisdumb,butbecauseofthemotivationlinkedto
hisimplicitbeliefsconcerninghisplaceintheclassandcastesystem,becauseofthewayinwhichheistreatedbyteacherswhosechoiceofprofessionisitself
influencedbytheclasssystemandbysocialexpectationsconcerningsexroles,andbecauseofpoliticaleconomicfactorsbeyondhiscontrolthatplacehiminajobless
familywithfewmaterialresources.Educationisasocialpoliticalphenomenonasmuchasapsychologicalissue.Theespousalofanarrowlypsychologicalperspective
isnaive.
Althoughoverthepastseveralyearspsychologistshavebecomeincreasinglyawareoftheneedforanecologicalpsychology(Bronenbrenner,1979Neisser,1976
Ogbu,1986),agooddealoftheoreticalworkneedstobedonetomakeitareality.
Conclusion
Wehavemadeprogressinourunderstandingofpoorchildren'sintellectandeducation.Theoldmythsofcognitivedeficitareevenlesscrediblenowthanbefore.At
thesametime,werequiremoreresearchandthinkingaboutlearningpotential,motivation,cognitivestyle,andtheroleofsocialpoliticalfactors.Tomakeprogress,
weneedtosupplement(ortransform?)ourcognitivenotionswithgenuinelypsychologicalandecologicalconsiderations.Thisshouldleadtoimprovedunderstanding
ofpoorchildren,toreformoftheeducationalsystem,andtotheprogressofpsychologygenerally.

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Postscript
Fromthevantagepointof1996,myroughlytenyearoldpaperdoesnotseemterriblydatedinsomerespects.Itspokeoftheneedtoemploymoreflexiblemethods
toexaminepoorchildren'sintellectualdevelopmenttoconsiderissuesofculturaldifferenceanddistinctivenessasopposedtocognitiveorcultural"deprivation"or
"deficit"toexamineacademicknowledgeandmotivationindetailtofocusonlearningpotential,onwhatispossible,ratherthanontheeducationalstatusquoandto
developmoregenuinelyecologicaltheoriesofdevelopment.Overthepasttenyearsorso,researchershaveinfactbeguntoconductworkalongtheselines(e.g.,
Brown&Campione,1994McLloyd,1990Moll,Amanti,Neff,&Gonzalez,1992Natriello,McDill,&Pallas,1990),andinsodoinghaveaddedgreatlytoour
knowledge.
Butinotherrespects,thepaperseemstocomefromanotherworld,aworldmoreinnocentthantoday's.Thecurrentlandscapeofpovertyincludesbothanunderclass
whosesufferingisalmostunimaginableandastaggeringarrayofethnicgroupsstrugglingtofindahomeintheUnitedStates.Thechildrenoftheunderclassarenot
merelypoor:theybearterribleburdensofviolence,drugs,andanabsenceofsocialsupport.Thechildrenofethnicgroupsbringabewilderingvarietyofdifferencesto
theeducationalsystem.AlthoughLatinosarebecomingoneofthelargestminoritiesintheU.S.,theschoolsystemunderstandsthempoorly.Andothergroups,too
numeroustomentionVietnamese,Russians,Caribbeansbringtheirstylesandvaluestoschoolsillpreparedtoappreciatethem.Todaythechallengesfor
researchersandforeducatorsandforthebodypoliticareevenmoredauntingthantheyweretenortwentyfiveyearsago.
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Chapter7
MathematicsandSocialInterests
BrianMartin
Editors'scomment:BrianMartin,originallyatheoreticalphysicistandnowworkinginscienceandtechnologystudies,presentsanoverviewofhowmathematicalknowledgeis
notneutralanddiscussesthewaysinwhichmathematicalknowledgeisshapedbyculturalinfluences.ThischapterfirstappearedinSearch,19(4):209214in1988.
Mathematicsisaproductofsocietyanditcanbothreflectandservetheinterestsofparticulargroups.Theconnectionbetweenmathematicsandinterestgroupscan
beexaminedbylookingatthesocialconstructionofmathematicalknowledgeandbylookingatthesocialsysteminwhichmathematicsiscreatedandused.
Scientistshavelongbelievedthatscientificknowledgeisknowledgeaboutobjectivereality.Theycommonlydistinguishtheirenterprisefromreligiousorpoliticalbelief
systems,seeingscientifictruthasunbiased.Thisbeliefsystemhasalwayshaddifficultieswithcertainapplicationsofsciencesuchasnuclearweapons.Theusualwayin
whichthebeliefinthepurityofscienceismaintainedisbydistinguishingbetweenscientificknowledgeanditsapplications.Scientificknowledgeisheldtobepure
whileitsapplicationscanbeforgoodorevil.Thisisknownastheuseabusemodel.
Thisstandardpicturecameunderattackinthelate1960sandearly1970s.Radicalcriticsarguedthatscienceisinevitablyshapedbyitssocialcontext.Forexample,
fundingofpesticideresearchbythechemicalindustryarguablyinfluencesnotonlywhatresearchtopicsaretreatedasimportant,butalsowhattypesofecological
modelsareconsideredrelevantforunderstandingagriculturalsystems.Many

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criticsarguedthatthekeymotivebehindscienceisprofitandsocialcontrol(Rose&Rose1976a,bArdittietal.1980).
Thepoliticalcriticsofsciencedrewonandstimulateddramaticchangesinthestudyofthehistory,philosophy,andsociologyofscience.ThomasKuhn(1970)opened
thedoorwithhisconceptofparadigms,whichareessentiallyframeworksofstandardideasandpracticeswithinwhichmostscientificresearchproceeds.Whena
paradigmisoverthrowninthecourseofascientificrevolution,thecriteriafordevelopingandassessingscientificknowledgechange.Theimplicationisthatthereisno
overarchingrationalmethodtodecidewhatisvalidknowledge:scientificknowledgedepends,onsomelevelonthevagariesofhistoryandculture.
Sociologistsstudyingscientificknowledgehavedevelopedandfilledoutthispicture.Theyhaveexaminednotonlythelargescalepoliticalandeconomicinfluenceson
scientificdevelopmentbutalsothemicroprocessesbywhichscientists''negotiate"whatisscientificknowledge(Barnes,1974,1977,1982Bloor,1976Latourand
Woolgar,1979,Mulkay,1979Knorr,etal.1980).
Mostofthisanalysishasbeencommunicatedusingsocialsciencejargoninspecialistjournalsandhashadrelativelylittleimpactonpractisingscientists.Theonly
philosopherofsciencetakennoteofbymanyscientistsisKarlPopper,andevenhisideasareusedmoreasa"resource"instrugglesoverknowledgethanas
methodologicalaids(Mulkay&Gilbert1981).Nowhereisthismoretruethaninmathematics.
Whatdoesitmeantotalkabouttherelationshipbetweenmathematicsandsocialinterests?Itcanrefertotheimpactofsocialfactorssuchassourcesoffunding,
possibleapplicationsorprevalentbeliefsinsocietyonthecontentandformofmathematicalknowledge,suchasonthechoiceofareastostudy,theformulationof
methodsofproofandthechoiceofaxioms.Alternatively,itcanrefertotherolemathematicsplaysinapplications,fromactuarialworktoindustrialengineering.
Finally,itcanrefertothesocialorganizationoftheproductionofmathematics:thetrainingofmathematicians,patternsofcommunicationandauthorityinmathematical
work,professionalisation,specializationandpowerrelations.
"Interest"herereferstothestakeofanindividualorsocialgroupinparticulartypesofactionsorsocialarrangements.Aninterestcanbesmallscale,suchasthe
personaladvantagetoamathematicianinpublishingapapertogaintenure,orlargescale,suchasthestrategicadvantagetoamilitaryforceinusinganalgorithmfor
trackingmissiles."Socialinterests"arethoseassociatedwithmajorsocialgroup

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ingssuchassocialclasses,largeorganizations,occupationalorethnicgroups.
Myaimhereistosurveysomeideasbearingonmathematicsandsocialinterests.Iapproachtheproblemfromtwodirections.Thefirstisviathesociologyof
knowledge.Cansociologicalexaminationbeappliedtothecreationandelaborationofmathematicalknowledge?Whatdoesitmeantotalkofthesocialshapingof
mathematics?Therearesomeprovocativestudiesinthisarea,butinmyviewtheydonotleadbythemselvestoacomprehensivepicturewhichcanbeusedto
evaluatetheroleofmathematicalworkincontemporarysociety.
Thesecondpathinvolveslookingatthesystemofproductionandapplicationofmathematicalknowledge,andinparticularattheuseofexpertiseinmodernsociety
andattherelationshipbetweenmathematicaltheoryandapplication.
PathOne:SociologyofKnowledge
Thesociologyofknowledgeattemptstoexplaintheoriginandevolutionofknowledgeusingthesamesortsofanalysiswhichareappliedtootherphenomena,both
naturalandsocial.Thedynamicsofknowledgeinvolvesocial,economic,political,religious,biological,andallsortsofotherfactors.Ratherthanassumingthatthe
contentandstructureofknowledgeis"given"bylogicorthenatureofrealityatranscendentalexplanationofknowledgethesociologyofknowledgelooksfor
moremundaneexplanations.
DavidBloor(1976)isaleadingproponentofthe"strongprograminthesociologyofscience,"whichaimstoinvestigateallknowledgeusingsociologicalmethods.The
keyfeaturesofthestrongprogramaccordingtoBloorarethatknowledgebeexplainedincasualterms,thatexplanationsbeimpartialandsymmetricalwithrespectto
thetruthorfalsityofthebeliefsbeingexplained,andthatthetheorybeappliedtoitself.
BlooradoptsanapproachtomathematicsbasedonimprovingJohnStuartMill'sviewthatallmathematicsisultimatelybasedonphysicalmodelsandhuman
experiences,suchasthemanipulationofpebbleswhichcanbeseenasamotivationforarithmeticwithnaturalnumbers(Bloor1976,Ch.5).Thetraditionalobstacles
toMill'sviewisF.L.G.Frege'spointthatmathematicsseemstobe"objective":mathematicalreasoninghasacompulsionaboutitwhichcannotalwaysbe

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attributedtoalinkwithphysicalmodels.ToextendMill'stheory,BloorobservesthatFrege'sdefinitionofobjectivityisequivalenttosocialconvention:mathematicians
haveinstitutionalizedasetofbeliefsaboutthewaystoproceedwiththesymbolstheyworkwith.Theseinstitutionalizedbeliefsareratherlikerulesinagame:they
mustbeadheredto.Bloor'sextensionofMill'sperspectiveisthatphysicalsituationsprovidemodelsforcertainstepsinmathematicalreasoning(usuallythemore
basicfeatures)whilemathematicalconventiongivesanobligatoryaspecttothesestepsandextensionsofthem.Mathematicsthusdealsnotwithphysicalrealitybut
withsocialcreationsandconventions.
Bloor'sreconstructionofMill'spositionprovidesapowerfulbasisforthesociologicalinvestigationofmathematics.Sincethe"lawlike"featuresofmathematical
reasoningarebasedonconventions,thenitisnaturaltoinvestigatehowtheseconventionsarecreated,sustained,andoverturned.
Bloorinvestigatesthehistoryofmathematicstoseewhathappenedtoalternativeconceptionsofmathematics,dealingwithissuessuchaswhetheroneisanumber,
Diophantineequations,andPythagoreanandPlatonicnumbers(Bloor1976,ch.6).Hisconclusionisthatalternativeconceptsdidexist,butthathistorianshave
relegatedthemtothehistoricalrubbishbinof"nonmathematics."Inthiswayonly"genuinemathematics"remainspartofthehistoryofmathematics,whichthusseems
tobecumulativeandwithoutsignificantdeviationsoralternatives.
Blooralsoexaminesthewaysinwhichmathematicalreasoningissocially"negotiated,"namely,thepracticesthroughwithmathematiciansdevelopagreeduponways
ofusingandinterpretingthesymbolsandtoolsoftheirtrade,includingcriticism,argumentation,reclassificationandconsensus(Bloor1976,ch.7).Bloorgivesamong
otherexamplesthecaseofthenegotiation,overtheyears,oftheproofoftheformulaE+2=V+Frelatingthenumberofedges,vertices,andfacesofapolygonal
solid.
Bloor'sprogramisapowerfulone.Itopensthefoundationsofmathematicstosociologicalexaminationbyallowingthe"objectivity"ofmathematicalreasoningtobe
seenasfundamentallysocialinnature.ButBloordoesnotextendhisanalysistoaddresstherelationbetweenmathematicsandsocialinterests.Evenifitisaccepted
thattheformulaE+2=V+Fdependsonsomewhatarbitraryagreementsamongmathematiciansratherthanbeinginherentinthenatureofpolygonalsolids(orthe
mathematicalconceptsofpolygonalsolids),thatdoesnotprovidemuchinsightintowhetherthesocial

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negotiationoftheformulaowesmuchorprovidesspecialbenefitstoparticulargroupsinsociety.
Atthisstageitisworthwhiletospelloutthedifferentchannelsthroughwhichtheformandcontentofmathematicscanbeshapedbysociety.Socialinterestscanbe
connectedwiththechoiceofareasofmathematicstostudy,theinterpretationofmathematics,andthedevelopmentofmathematicalframeworks.
TheChoiceofMathematicalAreastoStudy
Differentialfundingortheavailabilityofapplicationscanaffecttheopeningofbranchesofstudyandtheprestigeofdifferentsubjects.Forexample,thefieldof
operationsresearchgrewoutofmilitaryapplicationsofmathematicsduringWorldWarIIandthestrengthofthefieldismaintainedbycontinuingmilitaryinterest.
LukeHodgkin(1976)arguesthatthegreatsurgeinthe"mathematicsofcomputation,"whichencompassesnumericalanalysisandpartsofcomputerscience,is
connectedtothedevelopmentoftheneedsofcontemporarycapitalismplustheavailabilityofsuitabletechnologyforcomputing(suchastransistorsandnowchips).
Hepointsoutthatthemathematicsofcomputationisnotasimple"reflection"oftheeconomicsystem,asasimplisticMarxistaccountmightsuggest.Instead,the
influenceofthesystemofeconomicproductionismediatedthroughthesocialinstitutionsofscience,whoseorganizationpredatedthegreatgrowthofcomputational
mathematics.
Choiceinmathematicalresearchisalsoinvolvedatthedetailedlevelofapplication.Partialdifferentialequationscanbeappliedtomanyproblemstheparticularsets
ofequationswhichareselectedoutforformulationandsolutioncanbeinfluencedbyapplications,whichinturnarelinkedtosocialinterests.
TheInterpretationofMathematics
Inmanycases,especiallyinappliedmathematics,mathematicalconstructionsarechosenbecausetheyhavedesirablephysicalorsocialinterpretations.Anexample
hereisPaulForman's(1971)studyoftheeffectofWeimarcultureonthedevelopmentofquantumtheory.Themostimportantstridesinquantumtheoryoccurredin
Germany

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inthedecadeafterWorldWarI.FormandocumentstheintenseantagonismtorationalitywhichprevailedthenintheWeimarRepublic.Sincecausalitywasidentified
withrationality,physicistscameunderpressuretorenouncetheirtraditionalallegiancetocausality.Formansuggeststhatthispressureledthequantumphysiciststo
searchfor,oratleastlatchonto,amathematicalformalismwhichcouldbeinterpretedasnoncasual.Incrudeterms,theacausalCopenhageninterpretationandits
associatedmathematicalframeworkwereadoptedbecausetheylookedgoodpublicly.
Forman'sstudyisquiterelevanttomathematics,sincetheoreticalphysicsconstitutestheforemostapplicationofmathematics.Thecaseofquantumtheoryisintriguing
because,inthedecadessincetheestablishmentoftheorthodoxorCopenhageninterpretation,anumberofalternativeinterpretationshavebeenputforth.Someof
theseusethesamemathematicalformulations,butinterprettheirphysicalsignificancedifferently,whileothersusedifferentmathematicalformulationstoachievethe
sameresults.
ThestatisticalinterpretationfavoredbyEinsteinusesthesamemathematics(Ballentine1970)....
Thehiddenvariableinterpretation,adeterministapproach,formulatestheequationssomewhatdifferentlyand,optionally,cangivedifferentresultsfromtheorthodoxtheoryby
additionofanextraparameter(Bohm1952Cushing1994)....
Thesplittinguniverseinterpretationisadifferentinterpretationofthesamemathematics(DeWitt1970)....
The"realist"interpretation,whichgetsridoftheindeterministelementinquantumtheoryentirely,usesadifferentmathematicalapproachtoachievesomeofthesamebasic
results(Land1965)....
TheexistenceoftheseinterpretationsorreformulationsofquantumtheoryaddssupporttoForman'sanalysis.Attheleast,theinterpretationoftheequationsof
quantumtheoryassupportingindeterminismwasnotrequiredbytheequationsthemselves.Furthermore,itseemspossiblethatmanyoftheachievementsofthe
theorymighthavebeenaccomplishedusingasomewhatdifferentmathematicalformulation,whichcouldwellhavebeendifficulttointerpretindeterministically.
SostrongwasthecommitmenttoindeterminismthatphysicistsacceptedwithoutquestionJohnvonNeumann'sproofinthe1930sthatnohiddenvariabletheorycould
beconstructed.AlthoughBohm

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demonstratedsuchatheoryin1952,itwasnotuntilthe1960sthattheflawinvonNeumann'sproofwasexposed(Pinch1977).
Inmyexperience,mostphysicistsdonotworrygreatlyaboutwhatquantumtheory"means"butsimplyusemathematicsinapragmaticfashion.Indeed,oneofthe
''crisispoints"commonlyexperiencedbyphysicsstudentsiswhentheygiveuptheirincreasinglyuncomfortableattemptstounderstandwhatthetheoryreallymeans
andinsteadjustacceptit,usuallybysweepingtheirdoubtsunderthecarpet.Mosthistoriansandtextbookwritershaveaccommodatedthisprocess,asBloorhas
arguedaboutmathematicshistory,byexorcisingalternativeinterpretationsasunsuccessful,irrelevantornonexistent.
TheDevelopmentofMathematicalFrameworks
Thechoiceofaxioms,thetypesoftheorems,thestyleofproofsandahostofotherfacetsofmathematicscanbeshapedbyfactorssuchasviewsaboutthenatureof
socialreality.
Anexamplehereisgametheory,amathematicaltheorywhichdealswithconflictsituations,originallydevelopedtomodeleconomicsystems(Martin1978).Key
conceptsofthetheoryincludethe"players"inagame,eachofwhichhasanumberof"choices,"followedby''payoffs."Themathematicaltheoryofgamesisbuilt
arounddeterminingtheoptimalstrategiesformakingchoices.Theplayers,choicesandpayoffsareusuallyassumedtobefixedcompetitionisbuiltinpayoffstendto
bequantifiable.Hence,gametheoryisespeciallysuitedforapplicationswhichassumeandreinforceindividualismandcompetition.
Gametheoryhasbeenappliedinmanyareas,suchasinternationalrelations.Whatoftenhappensinpracticeisthatthevaluesofthemodelersareincorporatedintothe
gametheoreticformulation,whichusuallyensuresthatthegamegivesresultswhichlegitimatethoseverysamevalues.Gametheoryinthissituationprovidesa
''mystifyingfilter":valuesarebuiltintoanostensiblyvaluefreemathematicalframework,whichthusprovides"scientific"justificationforthedecisiondesired.Arguably,
gametheoryhasbecomepopularbecauseitsmathematicalframeworkmakesiteasytouseinthisway.
Theabovementionedstudiesandothers(Thomas1972Ogura1974Bos&Mehrtens1977MacKenzie1978Mehrtens1987foracomprehensivesurveyand
analysisseeRestivo1983)showhowthesocialcontext,suchaseconomicsorbeliefsystems,caninfluencethe

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areasofmathematicsthatareopenedupandmadefashionable,thetypesoftheoriesthataredeveloped,andtheparticularmathematicalformalismsthatare
formulatedandused.Theseareexamplesoftheimpactofsocialfactorsonmathematicalknowledge,buttheyhardlyestablishthatallmathematicsisinfluencedin
thesesortsofways.ToestablishthiswouldrequiremanystudiesinthelineofBloor'sstrongprogram,inanattempttowhittledowntheareasofapparentautonomyof
mathematicalknowledge.Onlyiftherangeofsociologicalstudieswasverybroadcouldtheburdenofproofbeputonthosewhoclaimthatthereareareasof
mathematicsfreeofsuchformativeinfluences.
Evenifthestrongprogramcouldbesodeveloped,whatwoulditsayaboutmathematicsandsocialinterests?Theexistenceofinfluencesonthecreationandadoption
ofmathematicalknowledgedoesnotautomaticallymeanthatknowledgepreferentiallyservesparticulargroupsinsociety.
Thestudiesinthesociologyofknowledgeinitiatethecasethatmathematicsisconnectedwithsocialinterests,byrefutingtheviewthatmathematicalknowledge
alwaysspringsantisepticallyfromthenatureoflogic,fromphysicalrealityorfrommathematicians'heads.Thelimitsofsociologicalexaminationofmathematicsremain
tobetested.SomesuchasBloor(1981)thinktheprospectsaregoodwhileothersdisagree(Laudan1981).Inanycase,sincemostofthesociologyofknowledge
studiesdealwithinfluencesontheoriginanddevelopmentofmathematicalknowledgeinearliereras,theyonlypartiallyaddressconcernsabouttheusesofpresent
daymathematics.Topursuethecasefurther,Iturntothesecondpath.
PathTwo:TheMathematicsSocietySystem
Thisapproachtolookingatmathematicsentersnotatthelevelofmathematicalknowledgebutatthelevelofthesocialsystemsinwhichthatknowledgeiscreatedand
applied.Thesocialsystemofsciencereferstopatternsofemployment,funding,communication,training,authoritydecisionmaking,andsoforth.Theaimhereisto
lookatthewaysystemsofproductionandapplicationofmathematicsrelatetosocialinterests.Todothis,Iselectoutsomesalientfeaturesofthesocialsystems
associatedwithmathematicalexpertise.

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SourcesofPatronage
Mostofthemoneyformathematicsresearchwhichislargelyforsalaries,butalsoforoffices,libraries,computingandtravelcomesfromgovernmentsandlarge
corporations.Thesourceoffundinginevitablehasaninfluenceontheareasofmathematicsstudiedandthetypesofmathematicalapplicationsundertaken.Asargued
byHodgkin(1976),muchofthestimulusforworkincomputationalmathematicsalsocomesfromactualorpotentialmilitaryapplications.
Atthedetailedlevelofapplication,theformulationofmathematicalproblemsisstronglyinfluencedbyfundingandopportunitiesforapplication.Inmanufacturing
industry,mathematicalproblemsgrowoutoftheneedtocutcosts,improvetechnologies,orcontrollabor.Amathematicalmodelfortherapidcoolingofametalbar
withoutcrackingistiedtoanimmediateproblem.Themathematicsoflighttransmissioninopticalfibresisdrivenbyinterestinapplicationintelecommunications.The
numberofexamplesisendless.
Whathappensinmanycasesisthatapracticalproblem,suchasmodelingairpollutiondispersionorthetrajectoriesofmissiles,leadstoamoreesotericmathematical
projectinnumericalanalysisordifferentialequations.Theapplications,andthusthefunding,inthesecaseshaveanindirectinfluenceonthetypeofmathematical
problemsstudiedandthoughttobe"interesting."Thatparticulartypesofparabolicpartialdifferentialequationsbecomewholefieldsofstudyinthemselvesisnotdue
simplytosomeabstractmathematicalsignificanceoftheseequations,buttotheirsignificanceinpracticalapplications,evenifatseveralstagesremoved.
Professionalization
Today,mostmathematicianstakingamathematiciantobeapersonwhocreatesorappliesmathematicalknowledgeatahighlevelarefulltimeprofessionals,
workingforuniversities,corporationsorgovernments.Therearefewamateurs,nordomanymathematiciansworkfortradeunions,asfarmers,inchurches,oras
freelancers.Mathematics,liketherestofscience,hasbeenprofessionalizedandbureaucratized.Thesocialorganizationofmathematicsinfluencesthewaysthat
ambitiousmathematicianscanpursuefameandfortune(Collins&Restivo1983)
Mathematicianshaveavestedinterestintheirsalaries,theircon

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ditionsofwork,theiroccupationalstatus,andtheirselfimageasprofessionals.Theirpreferencesfortypesandstylesofmathematicsareinfluencedbythesefactors.
JudithGrabiner(1974)arguesthattherehavebeen"revolutionsinthoughtwhichchangedmathematicians'viewsaboutthenatureofmathematicaltruth,andabout
whatcouldorshouldbeproved."Grabinerexaminesoneparticularrevolution,theswitchfromthe1700swhenthemainaimofmathematicianswastoobtainresults
tothe1800swhenmathematicalrigorbecameveryimportant.OfthevariousreasonsforthiswhichGrabinercanvasses,oneisworthnotinghere.Onlysincethe
beginningofthe1800shavethemajorityofmathematiciansmadetheirlivingbyteaching.Ratherthanjustobtainingmathematicalresultsforapplicationsortoimpress
patrons,teachersneedtoprovideasystematicbasisforthesubject,toaidstudentsbutalsotoestablishasuitablebasisfordemarcatingtheprofessionandexcluding
selftaughtcompetitorsfromjobs.Thisisanexampleofhowthesocialorganizationoftheprofessionofmathematicscanaffectviewsaboutthenatureofmathematical
truth.
GertSchubring(1981)hasarguedthatintheprofessionalizationofmathematicsinPrussiaintheearly1800s,the"metaconception"ofpuremathematicsplayedan
importantrole.Bydefining"mathematics"asseparatefromexternallydefinedobjectives,themathematiciansorientedthedisciplinetointernalvaluesthattheycould
control.Todothis,supportfromthestatehadtobeavailablefirst.Givenstatepatronageforacademicpositions,themathematicianscouldproceedtoestablisha
disciplinebyestablishingtrainingwhichchannelledstudentsintothenewprofessionalorientation,reducingthenumberofselftaughtmathematiciansobtainingjobsin
thefieldandsocializingstudentsintothemetaconceptionofpuremathematics.ThisaccountmeshesnicelywiththatofGrabiner.
Thisprocesscontinuestoday.Especiallyinuniversities,thehomegroundsofpuremathematics,mathematiciansstaketheirclaimstoautonomyandresourcesontheir
exclusiverights,asexperts,tojudgeresearchinmathematics.Thisisnodifferentfromtheclaimsofmanyotherdisciplinesandprofessions(Larson1977).Thepointis
thatifmathematiciansemphasizedapplicationastheirprimaryvalue,theirclaimstostatusandsocialresourceswouldbedependentonthevalueoftheapplication.
Theconceptionof"pure"mathematicsenablesanexclusiveclaimtocontroloverthedisciplinetobemade.
HerbertMehrtens(1987,p.160)developsthethesisthat"ascientificdisciplineexchangesitsknowledgeproductspluspoliticalloyaltyinreturnformaterialresources
plussociallegitimacy."Heshows

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howGermanmathematiciansinthe1930swereabletoaccommodatetheimperativesoftheNazis,especiallybyprovidingusefultoolstothestate.Theadaptabilityof
theGermanmathematicscommunitygrewoutofitssocialdifferentiation,specificallythedifferentfunctionsofteaching,pureresearch,andappliedresearch.Mehrtens'
studyprovidesanexcellentmodelforanalyzingtheinteractivedynamicsofthetwofactorsofpatronageandthestructureoftheprofession.
MaleDomination
Mostmathematiciansaremen,andmathematicsliketherestofnaturalscienceisseenasmasculine:asubjectforthosewhoarerationalemotionallydetached,
instrumental,andcompetitive.Mathematiciansarecommonlythought,especiallybythemselves,tohaveaninnateaptitudeformathematics,andclaimscontinuetobe
madethatmalesarebiologicallymorecapableofmathematicalthoughtthanfemales.Theteachingofpuremathematicsasconceptsandtechniquesseparatedfrom
humanconcerns,plusthemaledominatedatmosphereofmostmathematicsresearchgroups,makeacareerinmathematicslessattractiveforthosemoreorientedto
immediatehumanconcerns,especiallywomen.
Maledominationofmathematicsislinkedwithmaledominationofthedominantsocialinstitutionswithwhichprofessionalmathematicalworkistied,mostnotablythe
stateandtheeconomicsystem,throughstateandcorporatefundingandthroughprofessionalandpersonalcontacts(Bowling&Martin1985).
Thehighstatusofmathematicsasadisciplinemaybeattributedinparttoitsimageasamasculinearea.Mathematicalmodelsgainaddedcredibilitythroughtheimage
ofmathematicsasrationalandobjectivecharacteristicsassociatedwithmasculinityasopposedtomodelsofrealitythatareseenassubjectiveandvalueladen.
Specialization
Therearevariouswaysinwhichmathematiciansshapeandusetheirexpertknowledgetopromotetheirinterestsvisvisothersocialgroups.Ifmathematical
knowledgewastooeasytounderstandbyothersbothnonmathematiciansandothermathematicianstheclaimsbymathematiciansforsocialresourcesand
privilegewouldbe

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hardertosustain.Specializationenablesenclavesofexpertisetobeestablished,preventingscrutinybyoutsiders.Inapplicationswork,specializationensuresthatonly
particulargroupsareserved.Inallcases,specializationplusdevicessuchasjargonpreventreadyoversightbyanybodyotherthanotherspecialists.Sincehiring
professionalstounderstandspecialistbodiesofknowledgecanbeaffordedonalargescaleonlybygovernmentsandlargecorporations,specializationservestheir
interestsmorethanthoseofthedisabledortheunemployed,forexample.
Theroleofthesefactorsisparticularlyobviousinmathematicalmodeling.Amathematicalmodelmaybeasetofequations,whichisthoughttocorrespondtocertain
aspectsofreality.Forexample,mostoftheoreticalphysics,suchaselementarytheoryforprojectilesorsprings,canbeconsideredtoconsistofmathematicalmodels.
Inmostpartsofphysics,themodelsareconsideredwellestablished,andphysicistsworkbymanipulatingoradaptingtheexistingmodels.Butinotherareasthe
choiceofmodelsisopen.Variouspartsofrealitymaybechosenassignificant,andvariousmathematicaltoolsmaybebroughttobearinthemodelingprocess.
Manypeoplewhohavebeeninvolvedinmathematicalmodelingwillrealizethegreatopportunitiesforbuildingthevaluesofthemodelerintothemodel.Ihaveseen
thisprocessatworkinavarietyofareas,includingmathematicalecology,gametheory,stratosphericchemistryanddynamics,votingtheory,windpower,and
econometrics.
Agoodexampleisthesystemsofdifferenceequationsusedintheearly1970stodeterminethe"limitstogrowth."Thechoiceofequationsandparametersmoreor
lessensuredthatglobalinstabilitywouldresult(Coleetal.,1973).Whendifferentassumptionswereusedbydifferentmodelers,differentresultsforexample,that
promotionofglobalsocialequalitywouldpreventglobalbreakdownwereobtained,nicelycompatiblewiththevaluesofthemodelers.Anotherexampleisthe
valuesbuiltintoglobalenergyprojectionsdevelopedattheInternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis(Keepin&Wynne1984).
Mathematicalmodelsaresociallysignificantintwoprincipalways:aspracticalapplicationsofmathematicsandaslegitimationsofpoliciesorpractices.Mostmodels
arecloselytiedtopracticalapplications,suchasinindustry.Thenarrowspecializationinvolvedinthemodelingensuresthatfewotherthanthosedevelopingorfunding
theapplicationwouldbeinterestedinorcapableofusingthemodel.Thissortofappliedmathematicsiscloselylinkedtothesocialinterestsmakingthespecific
application.Whethertheapplicationistelecommunicationssatellites,antipersonnelweaponsorsolarhousede

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sign,onemayjudgethemathematicsbythesamecriteriausedtojudgethatapplication.Itisnotadequatetosaythatthekillerisguiltywhilethemurderweaponis
innocent,forinthesesortsofapplicationsthemathematical"weapon"isespeciallytailoredforitsjob.Certainlyappliedmathematicianscannotescaperesponsibilityfor
theirworkbyreferringto"neutraltools,"whetherthisreferstotheirmathematicalconstructionsortothemselves.
Modelsservingaslegitimationsareinvolvedinamorecomplicateddynamic.Inmanycasessuchaslimitstogrowthstudiesthemodelsdonomorethan
mathematiciseaconclusionwhichwouldbeobviouswithoutthemodel.Butthemodelsareseenasimportantpreciselybecausetheyaremathematical,thusdrawing
ontheimageofmathematicsasobjective.Amathematicsbasedclaimalsohastheadvantageofbeingtheworkofprofessionals.Anyonecanmakeaclaim,butifa
scientistdoesso,relyingontheallegedlyobjectivetoolsofmathematics,thatismuchmoreinfluential.Althoughexercisesinmathematicalmodelingareoftenshot
throughwithbiases,forpublicconsumptionthisoftenisoverlookedthemodelersdrawonanauraofobjectivitywhichissustainedbythemoreesotericresearchesof
puremathematicians.
Whatthenofpuremathematics?Therearetwomajorwaysinwhichalinktosocialinterestscanbemade.Firstispotentialapplications.Thesearenotalwayseasy
toassess,butagoodguessoftencanbeobtainedbylookingatactualapplicationsinthesameorrelatedspecialities.Ifanynewapplicationturnsup,itislikelytobe
inthesameareasandtobeusedbythesamegroups.
Itisadebatablepointwhethermathematicsshouldeverbeevaluatedseparatelyfromapplications.Arguably,thestudyofnatureistheprimarymotivationforthe
developmentofandimportanceofmathematics,andthe"correctness"ofpuremathematicsshouldbejudgedbyitsultimateapplicabilitytothephysicalworld(Kline
1959,1980).Theprimaryreasonfortheascensionofpuremathematics,namely,mathematicswhichisisolatedfromapplication,isthesocialsystemofmodern
science.
Thissystemincludingfunding,professionalization,maledominationandspecializationinwhichclaimstosoleauthorityoverareasofknowledgeareusedtoclaim
resources,isthesecondwaythatpuremathematicsisconnectedwithsocialinterests.Evenifsomebitofpuremathematicalresearchturnsouttohavenoapplication,
itisstillusuallythecasethatsocialresourceshavebeenexpendedtosupportprofessionalworkerswhoaremostlymaleandwhoproduceintellectualresultsof
interestonlytoahandfulofotherslikethemselves.Furthermore,theworkofpuremathematicians,andindeed

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theirveryexistence,helpslegitimatetheclaimsofmathematicstoobjectivity.
Conclusions
Thequestion,"Whatisthelinkbetweenmathematicsandsocialinterests?",isusuallyansweredinadvancebyassumptionsaboutwhatmathematicsreallyis.If
mathematicsistakentobethatbodyofmathematicalknowledgewhichsitsaboveoroutsideofhumaninterests,thenbydefinitionsocialinterestscanonlybeinvolved
inthepracticeofmathematics,notinmathematicsThisPlatoniclikeconceptionseesmathematicsasvaluefree,butisitselfavalueladenconception:itservesto
deflectattentionfromthemanylinksbetweenmathematicsandsociety.
Mostpeoplewouldagreethatnuclearweaponshavenotbeenconstructedtoserveallpeopleequallyparticularsocialinterestsareinvolvedindesigningbuilding
testinganddeployingnuclearweapons.Butwhatoftheuranium,plutonium,iron,andotheratomscontainedinnuclearweapons?Aretheseatoms"valueladen?"A
reasonablestanceinmyviewisthattheatomsinthemselvesarenotlinkedtoanyparticulargroupsexcepttheplutoniumatomswhichweremanufacturedby
humansbutthattheconnectionentersthroughthehumanlyconstructedconfigurationofatoms.Theideaofavaluefreeatominisolationisallverywell,butthatis
notwhatweencounterinhumanconstructions.
Elementsofmathematicalknowledgecanbelikenedtoatoms,exceptthatallmathematicalconceptshavebeencreatedbyhumans.Inisolation,themathematical
conceptsofanintegraloraringseemnottobeassociatedwiththeinterestsofparticulargroupsinsociety.Butmathematicalconceptsdonotexistinisolation.They
areorganizedtogetherforparticularpurposes,verynarrowlyfordetailedapplications,moregenerallyforteaching.Themorespecializedandadvancedideasare
mostlyrestrictedtoasmallsegmentofthepopulation,whichclaimssocialresourcesandstatusduetoitsexpertise.
Thebeliefthatmathematicsisabodyoftruthindependentofsocietyisdeeplyembeddedineducationandresearch.Thissituation,byhidingthesocialroleof
mathematicsbehindascreenofobjectivity,servesthosegroupswhichpreferentiallybenefitfromthepresentsocialsystemofmathematics.Exposingthelinksbetween
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andsocialinterestsshouldnotbeseenasathreatto"mathematics"butratherasathreattothegroupsthatreapwithoutscrutinythegreatestmaterialandideological
benefitsfromanallegedlyvaluefreemathematics.
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Ballentine,L.E.(1970).Thestatisticalinterpretationofquantummechanics.ReviewofMadernPhysics42:358381.
Barnes,B.(1974).Scientificknowledgeandsociologicaltheory.London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul.
.(1977).InterestsandtheGrowthofKnowledge.London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul.
.(1982).T.S.KuhnandSocialScience.London:Macmillan.
Bloor,D.(1976).KnowledgeandSocialImagery.London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul.
.(1981).Thestrengthsofthestrongprogramme.PhilosophyoftheSocialSciences11:199213.
Bohm,D.(1952).Asuggestedinterpretationofquantumtheoryintermsof"hidden"variables.PhysicalReview85:166193.
Bos,H.J.M.,andMehrtens,H.(1977).Theinteractionsofmathematicsandsocietyinhistory:someexploratoryremarks.HistoriaMathematica4:730.
Bowling,J.,andMartin,B.(1985).Science:amasculinedisorder?ScienceandPublicPolicy12:308316.
Cole,H.S.D.etal.(1973).ThinkingabouttheFuture.London:ChattoandWindus.
Collins,R.,andRestivo,S.(1983).Robberbaronsandpoliticiansinmathematics:aconflictmodelofscience.CanadianJournalofSociology8:199227.
Cushing,J.T.(1994).Quantummechanics:HistoricalcontingencyandtheCopenhagenhegemony.Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress.
DeWitt,B.S.(1970).Quantummechanicsandreality.PhysicsToday23:3035.

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Forman,P.(1971).Weimarculture,casualty,andquantumtheory,19181927:adaptationofGermanphysicistsandmathematicianstoahostileintellectual
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Hodgkin,L.(1976).Politicsandphysicalsciences.RadicalScienceJournal4:2960.
Keepin,B.,andWynne,B.(1984).TechnicalanalysisofIIASAenergyscenarios.Nature312:691695.
Kline,M.(1959).MathematicsandthePhysicalWorld.NewYork:Crowell.
.(1980).Mathematics:TheLossofCertainty.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Knorr,K.D.,Krohn,R.,andWhitley,R.(Eds).(1980).TheSocialProcessofScientificInvestigation.Dordrecht:D.Reidel.
Kuhn,T.S.(1970).TheStructureofScientificRevolutions.Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress.
Land,A.(1965).NewFoundationsofQuantumMechanics.Cambridge,MA:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Larson,M.S.(1977).TheRiseofProfessionalism:ASociologicalAnalysis.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.
Latour,B.,andWoolgar,S.(1979).LaboratoryLife:TheSocialConstructionofScientificFacts.London:Sage.
Laudan,L.(1981).Thepseudoscienceofscience?PhilosophyoftheSocialSciences11:173198.
MacKenzie,D.(1978).Statisticaltheoryandsocialinterests.SocialStudiesofScience8:3583.
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Mehrtens,H.(1987).ThesocialsystemofmathematicsandNationalSocialism:asurvey.SociologicalInquiry57:159182.
Mulkay,M.(1979).ScienceandtheSociologyofKnowledge.London:AllenandUnwin.
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187201.

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Chapter8
MarxandMathematics
DirkJ.Struik
Editors'comment:Inourconceptionofethnomathematics,''ethno"notonlyreferstoaspecificethnic,national,orracialgroup,gender,orevenprofessionalgroup,butalsotoa
culturalgroupdefinedbyaphilosophicalandideologicalperspective.Thesocialandintellectualrelationsofindividualstonatureortheworldandtosuchminddependent,
culturalobjectsasproductiveforcesinfluenceproductsofthemindthatarelabeledmathematicalideas.Inthischapter,DirkJ.Struik,aneminentmathematicianandhistorianof
Mathematics,indicateshowaparticularperspectivedialecticalmaterialismdecisivelyinfluencedMarx'stheoreticalideasonthefoundationofthecalculus.Thischapterfirst
appearedinScienceandSociety12(1):181196,in1948.Attheendofthepresentversion,theauthorincludesabriefupdateinapostscript.
MarxreceivedhisearlytraininginmathematicsattheGymnasiumofTrier(Treves),theRhinelandcitywherehewasborn.Athisgraduation,in1835,hisknowledge
ofmathematicswasconsideredadequate.Thismeansthathestartedhiscareerwithsomeknowledgeofelementaryarithmetic,algebratothequadraticequations,and
planeandsolidgeometry.Healsomayhavehadtrigonometry,andalittlehigheralgebra,analyticalgeometryandcalculus.
Therearenoindicationsthatheshowedanyinterestinmathematicsduringtheturbulentyearsbeforeandafter1848,inwhichheandEngelsdevelopedtheiroutlook
ontheworld.ThefirsttokenthatMarxhadreturnedtohisstudyofmathematicsisfromtheperiodinwhichhesettledinLondonandwasworkingonhisgreat
scientificprojects.InalettertoEngelsofJanuary11,1858,
1
hewrote:

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DuringtheelaborationoftheeconomicprinciplesIhavebeensodamneddelayedbycomputationalerrorsthatoutofdespairIundertookagainaquickscanningofthealgebra.
Arithmeticwasalwaysalientome.Viathealgebraicdetour,however,Icatchupquickly.
Fromthisperioduntilhisdeathin1883,Marxshowedcontinuedinterestinthestudyofmathematics,oftenreturningtoitasadiversionduringhismanydaysofillness.
Hisstudyofalgebrawasfollowedbythatofanalyticalgeometryandthecalculus.InalettertoEngelsofJuly6,1863,hereportedprogress:
InmysparetimeIdodifferentialandintegralcalculus.Apropos,IhaveplentyofbooksonitandIwillsendyouoneifyouliketotacklethatfield.Iconsideritalmostnecessary
foryourmilitarystudies.Itisalsoamucheasierpartofmathematics(asfarasthepurelytechnicalsideisconcerned)thanforinstancethehigherpartsofalgebra.Asidefrom
knowledgeofthecommonalgebraicandtrigonometricstuffnopreparatorystudyisneededexceptgeneralacquaintancewiththeconicsections.
2
ItseemsthereforethatMarxfoundalgebraeasierthanarithmeticandthecalculuseasierthanalgebra.Buthewasnotsomuchinterestedinthetechniqueofthe
calculus.Hewasirresistiblydrawntotheageoldquestionofthefoundationofthecalculus,themoreso,sinceinthebookswhichheconsultedonthissubject,the
calculuswastreatedinamostunsatisfactoryandoccasionallyinacontroversialway.Marx,likesomanydialecticalthinkersbeforeandafterhim,foundunending
fascinationinthedifferentdefinitionsofthederivativeandthedifferential,asisshownbyalargeamountofmanuscriptmaterialwhichwasfoundamonghispapers.
Intheyearsafter1870,Marxeventriedtodevelophisownviews.EngelsreportsonthisphaseintheprefacetothesecondvolumeofCapital:
After1870anintermissionsetinagain,mainlyduetosickness.Thecontentofthemanynotebookswithabstractsofthisperiodconsistsofagronomy,Americanandespecially
Russianagrarianrelations,money,marketandbankingsystems,andfinallynaturalscience,geologyandphysiology,andespeciallyindependentmathematicalpapers.
3
Marx,inthelaterdaysofhislife,castsomeofhisreflectionsconcerningthedifferentialcalculusintoareadableformanddis

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patchedthemanuscripttoEngels.AletterofAugust18,1881showsthatEngelshadstudiedthem:
YesterdayIfoundatlastthecouragetostudyyourmathematicalmanuscriptsevenwithoutreferencetotextbooks,andIwasgladtoseethatIdidnotneedthemIcomplimentyou
onyourwork.Thematterissoperfectlydear(sonnenklar)thatwecannotbeamazedenoughhowthemathematiciansinsistuponmystifyingit.
4
EngelscontinuestopresentMarx'viewpointinhisownwordsandtocompareitwithHegel'sviews,withwhichbothheandMarxwerethoroughlyfamiliar.Heends
withthewords:
Thematterhastakensuchaholdofmethatitnotonlyturnsaroundinmyheadthewholeday,butthatalsolastweekinadreamIgaveafellowmyshirtbuttonstodifferentiate
andthisfellowranawaywiththem[unddiesermirdamitdurchbrannte].
5
Marx,whoatthattimewaspreoccupiedwithhiswife'ssicknessshediedinDecemberofthesameyeardidnot,itseems,returntothesubjectinhissubsequent
correspondence.When,however,EngelsreportedtoMarx(November21,1882)onanexchangeoflettersbetweenhimandtheirfriendSamMooreonthesubject
ofMarx'mathematicaltheories,Marxmadeapromptreplythenextday.Wereturntothiscorrespondencelaterinthisarticle.
Marxdiedbeforehecouldaddanythingmoretohisideas.EngelslaterthoughtofpublishingMarx'mathematicalmanuscriptstogetherwithhisownonthedialecticsof
nature.IntheprefacetothesecondeditionoftheAntiDhring(1885),hementionshisownstudiesinmathematicsandthenaturalsciences,andaddsthathehadto
discontinuethemafterthedeathofMarx.Heconcludes:"therewillperhapslaterbeanopportunitytocollectandtopublishtheobtainedresults,togetherwiththe
posthumous,andveryimportant,manuscriptsofMarx."
6
Engelsdidnotfindthetimetoaccomplishthiswork,andthepapersofMarxandEngelsdealingwiththeexactsciencesremainedinthearchives.TheGermanSocial
Democrats,whoinheritedthepapersofMarxandEngels,wereunabletoappreciatethedialecticsofmathematics,physics,andchemistry.Understandinghadtowait
untiltheRussiansbegantoshowthefundamentalimportanceofMarx'andEngels'philosophicalwork.Lenin'sMaterialismandEmpiriocriticism(1908)wasatrail
blazer,butitdidnotbecomeknownoutsideofstrictlyRussiancirclesuntilitwaspublishedinGerman,longafter

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therevolutionof1917.LatertheRussianspublishedEngels'DialecticsofNature,firstinRussian,then(1927)intheoriginalGerman.
BothLenin'sandEngels'booksarenowavailableinEnglish,Lenin'sinatranslationof1927,Engels'inatranslationof1940.
StilllatersomeofthemostcharacteristicofMarx'mathematicalmanuscriptswerepublished,butonlyinaRussiantranslation.
7
Ourstudyisbasedonthepapers
publishedbytheRussians.ItistobehopedthatallofhismathematicalnotebookswilleventuallybepublishednotonlyinRussian,butalsointheoriginalGerman.
TheextentofMarx'interestinmathematicsisshownbythefactthattheMarxEngelsLeninInstituteinMoscowhasobtained,since1925,photographiccopiesof
about900pagesofMarx'mathematicsmanuscripts,allofwhichhavebeendecipheredandputinorder.
8
Theyconsistessentiallyofabstractsoftextbooks,studiedby
Marx,oftenwithnotes,ofcomprehensiveaccountsofspecialsubjects,andofindependentinvestigations,expressingdifferentstagesinMarx'studies,frompreliminary
sketchestofinishedmanuscriptsprobablypreparedforthebenefitofEngels.Onlyafewpages,hardlytwentyfouraredevotedtocomputationalwork.
Byfarthemostvoluminousofthesemanuscriptsdealwithalgebra,whichMarxstudiedfromLacroix',Maclaurin'sandperhapsfromothertexts.Mostofthisalgebra
dealswiththesolutionofequationsofhigherdegree,butMarxalsoshowedaninterestinseries,notablydivergentseries.Therearealsoabstractsdealingwithanalytic
geometry,notablyfromabookbyHymers.
OthermanuscriptscontainMarx'reflectionsonthedifferentialcalculus.Thereareagainplentyofabstractsandcomprehensiveaccountsbasedonthetextbooksof
Lacroix,Boucharlat,andHind,supplementedbythoseofHallandHemming,allpopularschooltextsfromtheearlydecadesofthenineteenthcentury.Thiswork
dealsmainlywiththeconceptionoffunctionandofseries,oflimitandofderivative,theseriesofTaylorandMaclaurin,andthedeterminationofmaximaandminima.
MarxshowedparticularinterestinLagrange'sfamoususeoftheTaylorseriesforthe"algebraic"foundationofthecalculus,andcomparedthedifferentdefinitionsof
thederivativeandthedifferentialinthevarioustexts.Marx,inoneofhisownnotes,reproducesthederivationofthebinomialtheoremfromTaylor'stheorem,and
remarksthat"Lagrange,onthecontrary,derivesTaylor'stheoremfromthebinomialtheorem,"afactwhichheoftenrepeatsandtowhichhedevotessomethought.
Oneofhismanuscriptpapersisentitled"AsomewhatmodifieddevelopmentofTaylor'stheoremonpurelyalgebraicbaseaccordingtoLagrange,"
9

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othershavesuchsignificantheadingsas:"Taylor'stheoremisbasedonthetranslationfromthealgebraiclanguageofthebinomialtheoremintothedifferentialwayof
expression,"and"Maclaurin'stheoremisalsoonlytranslationfromthealgebraiclanguageofthebinomialtheoremintothedifferentiallanguage."Twonotebooks,
probablydatingfromalaterperiodinMarx'life,containexamplesofthemethodofdifferentiationwhichMarxeventuallypreferred,aswellasapaperonthe
differentialandahistoricalsketchofthemethodsofdifferentiationusedbyNewton,Leibniz,D'Alembert,andLagrange.Thesenotebookspresentthepositionwhich
MarxseemstohaveplacedbeforeEngels.Theyalsocontainalongpaperontheintegralcalculus,whichcontainsacriticalanalysisofNewton's"Analysisper
aecquationesnumeroterminoruminfinitas."Theirpublishedcontentsformthesubjectofthepresentarticle.
Marxstudiedthecalculusfromtextbookswhichwereallwrittenunderthedirectinfluenceofthegreatmathematiciansofthelateseventeenthandtheeighteenth
centuries,notablyofNewton,Leibniz,Euler,D'Alembert,andLagrange.Hewasnotsomuchinterestedinthetechniqueofdifferentiationandintegrationasinthe
basicprinciplesonwhichthecalculusisbuilt,thatis,inthewaythenotionsofderivativeanddifferentialareintroduced.Hesoonfoundoutthataconsiderable
differenceofopinionexistedamongtheleadingauthorsconcerningthesebasicprinciples,adifferenceofopinionoftenaccompaniedbyconfusion.Thisconfusiononly
increasedintheschooltextbookswrittenbytheminorauthors.
10
Differentanswersweregivenonsuchquestionsaswhetherthederivativeisbasedonthedifferential
orviceversa,whetherthedifferentialissmallandconstant,smallandtendingtozero,orabsolutelyzero,andsoforth.Marxfeltthechallengeofferedbyaproblem
whichhadattractedsomeofthekeenestmindsofthepastandwhichdealtwiththeveryheartofthedialecticalprocess,namely,thenatureofchange.Notfindingany
satisfyinganswerinthebooks,hetriedtoreachananswerforhimselfinhisowntypicalway:bygoingtothesources,comparingtheresults,andforgingbeyondthem
intonewregions.ItmayperhapsstrikethereaderthatamongthesourcesstudiedbyMarxthereseemstobenoreferencetoAugustinCauchyatanyrateasfaras
wecanjudgefromthepublishedmaterial.Cauchy'swork,whichunderliestheexpositionofthefoundationofthecalculusinourpresentdaytextbooks,couldhave
beenavailabletoMarx.
11
ThereasonthatMarxtooknonoticeofCauchymaybethatCauchy'sideasonlyslowlypenetratedintotextbooks,sothattheymighthave
escapedMarx,whodidnotmoveamongprofessionalmathematicians.
12
Amore

Page178
likelyreasonisthatCauchy'swayofdefiningthederivativewasessentiallythatofD'Alembert,sothatMarxdidnotconsiderhismethodanewone.
WhateverMarx'reasonsweretoignoreCauchy'swork,hisfeelingofdissatisfactionwiththewaythecalculuswasintroducedwassharedbysomeoftheleading
youngerprofessionalmathematiciansofhisday.Inthesameyear(1858)inwhichMarxresumedhisstudyofmathematics,RichardDedekindatZrichfeltsimilar
dissatisfaction,inhiscasewhileteachingthecalculus.Writingin1872,hefirststatedthatinhislessonshehadrecoursetogeometricalevidencetoexplainthenotionof
alimitthenhewenton:
Butthatthisformofintroductionintothedifferentialcalculuscanmakenoclaimtobeingscientific,noonewilldeny.Formyselfthisfeelingofdissatisfactionwasso
overpoweringthatImadethefixedresolvetokeepmeditatingonthequestiontillIshouldfindapurelyarithmeticandperfectlyrigorousfoundationsfortheprinciplesof
infinitesimalcalculus.
13
ThisledDedekindtoanewaxiomaticapproachtotheconceptionofcontinuumandirrationalnumber,whichwasoneofthegreatpioneeringeffortsinwhatwecall
the"arithmetizationofmathematics."Someyearslateroneoftheotherpioneersofthenewmethodsofrigorinmathematics,PaulDuBoisReymond,exclaimed:
Whatmathematicianwoulddenythatespeciallyinitspublishedformtheconceptionoflimitanditsclosestassociates,theconceptionofthelimitless,theinfinitelylargeand
theinfinitelysmall,theirrational,etc.,stilllackrigor?Theteacherinwriteandwordisusedtohurryquicklythroughthisquestionableentrancetoanalysis,inordertoroamthe
morecomfortableonthewellblazedroadsofthecalculus.
14
Itwasnotuntilthelastdecadesofthenineteenthcentury,undertheinfluenceofDedekindandDuBoisReymond,aswellofWeierstrassandCantorthatthethorough
overhaulingoftheprinciplesofthecalculustookplace,whichunderliesmodernmethods,andhasshownthatCauchy'sapproachcanleadtofullrigorThiswork
appearedtoolatetoinfluenceMarxandEngels.
15
TheresultisthatMarx'reflectionsonthefoundationsofthecalculusmustbeappreciatedasacriticismof
eighteenthcenturymethods.Wefeel,however,thathiswork,developedcontemporaneouslywithbutindependentlyoftheleadingmathematiciansofthesecondhalf
ofthenineteenth

Page179
century,evennowcontributestotheunderstandingofthemeaningofthecalculus.
Weshouldneverforget,ofcourse,thatMarxneverpublishedhismaterial,andthatthereisnotevenanindicationthatheintendedpublication,eventhoughEngels
seemstohaveplayedwiththeidea.Marxworkedonmathematicsinsparehours,forrelaxation,ofteninhoursofsickness,guidedbysomebookswhichhehappened
tohaveinhislibrary,suchasBoucharlat's,whichintroducedtheprinciplesofdifferentiationinanunsatisfactoryway.Helookedforelucidationinthesourcesquoted
inBoucharlatandsimilarbooks,whichledhimtoNewton,Leibnitz,D'Alembert,andLagrange.Hisnoteswereinthefirstplaceintendedforhisownclarification,
afterreadingthoseclassicsinattemptstounderstandtheoftenobscuretexts.Struckbytheunsatisfactoryformulationsinthesebooks,hetriedinacharacteristicway
tostraightenoutthedifficultiesforhimself.
ThedifficultieswhichMarxtriedtoovercomeareatpresentasrealasinhistime,evenifourformalapparatusismorecarefullyelaboratedandpracticallyfoolproof.
ThesedifficultiesaxeasoldasZenoofEleaandasyoungasthelatestphilosophicalorphysiologicalattempttounderstandhowrestcanpassintomotion,andhow
motioncanleadtorest.ThisisthereasonwhyMarxstudiedsocarefullytheconceptionofthederivativeofafunctionandtherelatedconceptionofthedifferential.He
foundthattherearethreemainmethodsbywhichtheseconceptionshavebeendeveloped.Marxclassifiedthem,calledthemthemystical,therationalandthe
algebraicmethod(connectedwiththenamesofNewtonLeibnitz,D'Alembert,andLagrangerespectively),andthenopposedtothemhisownmodeofunderstanding
thederivative,thedifferential,andthecalculusingeneral.Letusexplainthedifficultybydifferentiatingthefunctiony=x
3
inthedifferentwayscriticizedbyMarx.
(1)NewtonLeibnitz.("Themysticaldifferentialcalculus")
16
xchangesinto inNewton,intox+dxinLeibnitzwefollowLeibnitz.Thenychangesintoy
1

=y+dyandy
1
=y+dy=(x+dx)
3
=x
3
+3x
2
dx+3x(dx)
2
+(dx)
3
.Since(dx)
2
and(dx)
3
areinfinitesimalascomparedwith3x
2
dx,theymaybedropped,and
weobtainthecorrectformula
dy=3x
2
dx
Thisishighlymysterious,andthemysterydoesnotdisappearifwefirstdividedybydx

Page180
dy/dx=3x
2
=3xdx+(dx)
2
andthenleth=dxbezero.Itistruethatweobtaintherightformula
butasMarxremarks:
thenullificationofhisnotpermittedbeforethefirstderivedfunction,here3x
2
,hasbeenliberatedfromthefactorhbydivision,hence(y
1
y)/h=3x
2
+3xh+h
2
.Onlythencan
weannul(aufheben)thefinitedifference.Thedifferentialcoefficientdy/dx=3x
2
mustthereforealsooriginallybedevelopedbeforewecanobtainthedifferentialdy=3x
2
dx.
Inotherwords,weknewinadvancewhattheanswermustbe,andbuildupsomereasoningtomakeitplausible.ItwasthisloosewayinwhichNewtonandLeibnitz
usuallyfoundedthecalculuswhichledBishopBerkeleytohisfamouscriticisminTheAnalystof1734.Hereheaskedwhetherthedxarezeroornotzero,called
them"Ghostsofdepartedquantities"andconcludedthatnomathematicianwhobelievedtheseabsurditiescouldreasonablyobjecttothemiraculoustenetsofreligion.
Ithasnotbeentheonlycaseinwhichfoundationdifficultiesinsciencehavebeenexploitedforidealistandobscurantistreasons.
Mathematiciansfeltthedifficultyandtriedtocopewithitbysuggestingmoreexactwaysoffoundingthecalculus.
17
Themostimportantcontributionswerethoseof
D'AlembertandLagrange.
(2)D'Alembert("Therationaldifferentialcalculus").
18
InMarx'words:D'AlembertstartsdirectlyfromthestartingpointofNewtonandLeibnitz
x
1
x=+dx
buthemakesimmediatelythefundamentalcorrectionx
1
=x+ x,thatmeans, xbecomesanundetermined,butprimafaciefiniteincrement,whichhecallsh.The
transformationofthishorDsintodx(heusedtheLeibnitznotation,likeallFrenchmen)isonlyfoundasthelastresultofthedevelopmentoratleastjustbeforeclosing
hour(knappvorTorschluss),whileitappearsasstartingpointwiththemys

Page181
ticsandtheinitiatorsofthecalculus:
Now,byplacingh=0,theexpression[f(x+h)f(x)]/hchangesinto
ThewayinwhichD'AlembertdifferentiatesisverymuchakintoCauchy'smethod.WewriteatpresentwithCauchy
Marx'objectiontothismethodisthatthoughitisformallycorrect,thederivativef(x)isalreadypresentin3x
2
+3xh+h
2
,thatis,beforedifferentiation.Itissimply
thefirsttermofasum,3x
2
+2xh+h
2
,andD'Alembert'smethodonlyconsistsindevisingawayinwhichtogetridofthemember(ormembers)ofthesumwhich
follows3xMarxcallsthis"Loswicklung"(separation)whilethecorrectmethodshouldbeEntwicklung(development):
ThederivationthereforeisthesameasinLeibnitzandNewton,butthereadymadederivativeisinstrictlyalgebraicwayseparatedfromitsfurthercontext.
19
Thereisno
developmentbutaseparationofthef(x),
20
here3x
2
fromitsfactorhandthememberswhichappearnexttoitintheothermembersmarchingoninrankandfile.Whathasreally
developedisthelefthandsymbolicside,namely,dx,dyandtheirratio,thesymbolicdifferentialcoefficientdy/dxor0/0(ratherintheotherway0/0=dy/dx),whichinitsturnagain
provokedsomemetaphysicalshudders,thoughthesymbolwasmathematicallyderived.D'Alemberthad,bystrippingthedifferentialcalculusfromitsmysticalgarb,madean
enormousstepahead.
Marx'evaluationofD'Alembert'sworkas"anenormousstepahead"stillstands.Thisisthemoreremarkable,sinceevenmodemhistoriansofmathematicshaveaway
ofglossingoverit.MarxnextproceedstoLagrange.

Page182
(3)Lagrange("Thepurelyalgebraicdifferentialcalculus").
y=f(x)=x
3
y
1
=(x+h)
3
=x
3
+3x
2
h+3xh
2
+h
3
Lagrangesimplydefinesthecoefficientofhasthederivative: ,ormoregenerallybyTaylor'stheoremforageneralf(x):
MarxthenparaphrasesLagrange'smethodinthewords:Inthefirstmethod(1),aswellasintherationalone(2),therequiredrealcoefficientisfabricatedreadymadebythe
binomialtheoremandcanbefoundalreadyassecondtermoftheseriesexpansion,henceinthetermwhichnecessarilycontainsh
1
.Thewholefurtherdifferentialprocedure,beit
asin(1)orbeitasin(2),isthereforeluxury.Letusthereforeshedtheuselessballast.Weknowonceandforallfromthebinomialexpansionthatthefirstrealcoefficientisthe
factorofh,thesecondonethatofh
2
,etc.Theserealdifferentialcoefficientsarenothingbutthederivedfunctionsoftheoriginalfunctioninx,expandedbinomiallyinsuccession.
...Thewholerealproblemreduceditselftothefindingofmethods(algebraicones)ofexpandingallkindsoffunctionsofx+hintointegralascendingpowersofh,whichinmany
casescannotbeeffectedwithoutgreatprolixityofoperations.
21
UptonowthereappearsnothinginLagrange,butwhatcanbefounddirectlyfromD'Alembert'smethod(since
thisalsoincludesthewholedevelopmentofthemystics).
TheobjectionwhichMarxraisedagainsttheclassicalwriterswasthatallfourhadthederivativealreadypreparedbeforetheprocessofdifferentiationreallybegins.
Marxwantedamethodwhichactuallyfollowedtheprocessofvariationofthevariableandinthisprocessitselfdefinedthederivativeas0/0,inwhichcaseitcanbe
endowedwithanewsymboldy/dx.Thederivative,heclaimed,shouldbederivedbyaprocessofdifferentiation,notbeproducedfromthebeginningbythebinomial
theorem.
Whetherwestartfalselyfromx+dxorcorrectlyfromx+h,ifwesubstitutethisundeterminedbinomialintothegivenalgebraicfunctionofx,wechangeitintoabinomialofa
definitedegree,e.g.(x+

Page183
h)
2
insteadofx
3
,andthisinabinomialinwhichinonecasedx,intheothercaseh,figuresasitslastmember.Henceitalsofiguresintheexpansiononlyasafactor,withwhichthe
functions,derivedfromthebinomial,areexternallyaffected.
22
ThislackofinternaldevelopmentcanbeavoidedinthemethodwhichMarxsuggests,sayfory=x
3
:
y=f(x)=x
3
Whenx=x
1
,orxx
1
=0,weobtain:
Inthismethod,writesMarx,weobtainfirstapreliminaryderivative,namely andthispassesbyx=x
1
intothedefinitederivative.Thispassing
forms
1
toxdoesawaywithany''infinitesimal"approximation,itshowsthatthederivativeisactually0/0,obtainedwhenxx
1
isactuallyzero:
Hereweseeinstrikingform:
Firstlytoobtainthederivativewemustplacex=x
1
,hencexx
1
=0inthestrictmathematicalsense,withoutatraceofonlyinfinitesimalapproximation.Secondly:Thoughthe
factthatx
1
hasbeenplaced=xhencexx
1
=0,nothingsymbolicentersintothe"derivative."Thequantityx
1
,originallyintroducedbythevariationofx,doesnotdisappear,itis
onlyreducedtoitsminimalboundaryx.Itremainsanelementintroducedasnewintotheoriginalfunction,whichbyitscombinationpartlywithitself,partlywiththexofthe
originalfunctionproducesattheendthe"derivative,"thatisthepreliminary"derivative"reducedtoitsminimumvalue....Thetranscendentalorsymbolicaccident(0/0=dy/dx=
3x
2
)occursonlyonthelefthandside,butithasalreadylostitsterror,asitappearsnowonlyastheexpressionofaprocessthatalreadyhasshownitsrealcontentontheright
handsideoftheequation.
23
Atthemomentthatx=x
1
thequotientDy/Dxbecomes0/0.Sinceinthisexpression0/0everytraceofitsoriginandofitsmean

Page184
inghasdisappeareditisreplacedbythesymboldy/dx,inwhichthefinitedifferencesDyandDxappearinsymbolicalformasliquidated(aufgehobene)orvanished
(verschwundene)differences.Atthismomentalgebradisappearsandthedifferentialcalculus,whichoperateswiththesymbolsdy/dx,begins.
InordertounderstandMarx'intentionsbetter,wetranslateherepartoftheletterwhichEngelswrotehimAugust18,1881,afterhehadreadMarx'manuscript:
Whenwesaythatiny=f(x)thexandyarevariables,thenthisis,aslongaswedonotmoveon,acontentionwithoutallfurtherconsequences,andxandystillare,protempore,
constantsinfact.Onlywhentheyreallychange,thatisinsidethefunction,theybecomevariablesinfact.Onlyinthatcaseisitpossiblefortherelationnotofbothquantitiesas
such,butoftheirvariabilitywhichstillishiddenintheoriginalequation,torevealitself.ThefirstderivativeDy/Dxshowsthisrelationasitoccursinthecourseofthereal
change,thisisineverygivenchangethefinalderivativedy/dxshowsitinitsgenerality,pure.hencewecancomeformdy/dxtoeveryDy/Dxwhilethisitself(Dy/Dx)onlycovers
thespecialcase.However,topassfromthespecialcasetothegeneralrelationshipthespecialcasehastobeliquidatedassuch(alssolcheraufgehobenwerden).Hence,afterthe
functionhaspassedthroughtheprocessfromxtox'withallitsconsequences,x'canbequietlyallowedtobecomexagain,itisnolongertheoldx
1
whichwasonlyvariablein
name,ithaspassedthroughrealchange,andtheresultofthechangeremains,evenifweliquidateitagainitself(auchwennwirsieselbstwiederaufheben).
Weseehereatlastclearly,whatmanymathematicianshaveclaimedforalongtime,withoutbeingabletopresentrationalmasonsforit,thatthederivativeistheoriginal,the
differentialsdxanddyarederived.
ThedifferencebetweenMarx'methodandD'Alembert'smethod(andalsothatofCauchy)shouldnotbemisunderstoodandrejectedastrivialorinsignificant(xx'=
hversusx'=x+h).Marx,asIseeit,wasperfectlysatisfiedthatD'Alembert'smethodisformallycorrect.However,hewantedtocometoanunderstandingofthe
processofdifferentiationitself.Isthederivativeobtainedbylettingx(andy)passthroughasequenceofconstantvalues,orisitnecessarytoletx(andy)really
change?Thusunderstood,weseetheold"paradox"ofZenoemerging:canthemotionofapointbeobtainedbyfollowingasequenceofpositionsofthispointatrest?
Zenoshowed

Page185
thatasequenceofsuchpositionswillneverproducemotionhealsoshowedbyasimilarreasoningthatAchilleswillneverreachthetortoise.D'Alembert'smethods,
Marxclaimed,representsamodeofthoughtwhichdoesnotdojusticetotheactualeventwhichhappenswhenafunctionisdifferentiated.Whathappensisareal
change,andthisisbetterunderstoodwhenwefirstwriteDy/Dxasafunctionofxandanentirelynewx',andthenletx=x'.Moreover,h=x'xdoesnotonly
approachzero,hbecomeszero.Emphasisisplacedonthefactthatthederivativeonlyappearswhenbothdyanddxareabsolutelyzero.Thisneverbecameclear
withthe"mystics"LeibnitzNewton,andappearedasanaccidentalthinginD'AlembertLagrange
24
.Itissolittleunderstoodthatinsomepopulartexts,suchas
Hogben'sMathematicsfortheMillion,theimpressionisgiventhattheprocessofdifferentiationisonlyapproximatelytrue.Buteveninourmodemtextbooks,
thoughtheyuseaformalapparatuswhichisunimpeachable,someofthethoughtbehindtheapparatusisnotfullyclarified.
Letustake,asanexample,thetextbookPureMathematicsofG.H.Hardywhoisoneofourgreatestlivingmathematicians.Thederivativeisexplainedinthe
CauchyD'Alembertway:
whichmeansthat{ (x+h) (x)}/htendstoalimitwhenhtendstozero.Whatdoesthismean?Wearetoldthat (y)tendstothelimitlasytendstozero,if,when
anypositivenumber ,howeversmall,isassigned,wecanchoosey
0
( )sothat| (y)l| when0y y
0
( ).
25
Thisdefinitionisexact,inthesensethatwehaveacorrectandsubtlecriteriumtotestanylimit.But (y)alwayshoversnearthelimit,sincewearetoldthaty"tends"
tozero.Similarly, '(x)isdefinedbymeansofanhwhich"tends"tozero.Thequestionis,istheeventh=0everreached?Marxnotonlyaffirmsit,hestressesit.The
usualmodemtextbookdefinitiondoesnottakethisquestionseriously,becauseitissatisfiedwithapragmaticcriteriumwhichallowsustorecognizealimitwhenit
appears.
26
TheresultisthatmuchteachingoftheelementsofcalculusproceedsasfollowsandIconfesstoitmyselfinmyownteaching.First,itisshownthatalimitcanbe
approachedascloselyaswelike,butneverreached.Thenthederivativeisdefinedwiththeaidofthisconceptionoflimit.Andthensuddenlywebegintoworkwith
this

Page186
derivative,whichcouldneverbereached(aswehavebeforedemonstrated)asifitactuallyhadbeenreached.Thecaseh=0,x'=x,thoughpresentintheformal
apparatus,issomehowobscuredinthereasoning.AnexceptionisfoundintheworkofMoritzPasch,whoinhisverycarefulanalysisofthederivativedevelopsa
formalapparatusinwhichthereisfullroomforthecaseh=0.
27
Marxthereforebelongedtothatschoolofthinkerswhoinsistonutmostclarityofthoughtininterpretingaformalapparatus.Hispositioncontrastssharplytothatof
thosemathematiciansormathematicalphysicistswhobelievethattheformalapparatusistheonlythingthatmatters.Marx'positionwasthatofthematerialist,who
insiststhatsignificantmathematicsmustreflectoperationsintherealworld.
ItisinterestingtonoticethatthedifferencesbetweenMarx'andD'Alembert'sformalapparatusdiminishwhenweconsidermorecomplicatedfunctions.Forthecasey
=sinxthederivative,intheD'Alembertwayofdifferentiation,isstillobtainedbyseparation(Loswicklung),butbyy=logxthederivativecanonlybeobtainedfrom
Dy/Dbylettinghpassthrougharealchange.
Assoonasdy/dxisestablishedastheresultofarealchange,itbecomesitselfthesubjectofacalculus,thedifferentialcalculus.Marx,inamanuscriptonthemeaning
ofthedifferential,derivedasoneofthefirstformulasofthiscalculus,thatthederivativeofy=uz,uandzfunctionsofx,isgivenby
Whenuz=f(x),thendy/dxcanbewrittenf'(x)and"thef'(x)standsopposedtody/dxasitsownsymbolicexpression,asitsdoubleorsymbolicequivalent."
Thesymbolicdifferentialcoefficienthasbecomeanindependentstartingpoint,whoserealequivalenthasfirsttobefound.Theinitiativehasbeenmovedformthefighthand
pole,thealgebraicone(indy/dx=f'(x))tothelefthandone,thesymbolicone.Withthis,however,thedifferentialcalculusappearsalsoasaspecifickindofcomputation,
operatingalreadyindependentlyonitsownterritory.Itsstartingpointsdu/dx,dz/dxaremathematicalquantitieswhichbelongexclusivelytothiscalculusandcharacterizeit.And
thisreversal(Umschlag)ofthemethodresultedhereformthealgebraicdifferentiationofuz.Thealgebraicmethodchangesautomaticallyintoitsopposite,thedifferentialmethod.

Page187
Now,byremovingintheequation(a), thecomcommondenominatordx,weobtain(b),d(uz)=dy=udz+zduinwhicheverytraceofitsorigin
from(a)hasbeenremoved.
It(b)isthereforevalidinthecasethatuandzdependonxaswellasinthecasethattheyonlydependoneachotherwithoutanyrelationtox.Itisfromthebeginningasymbolic
equationandcanservefromthebeginningasasymbolicoperationalequation.
Thedifferentialisthereforeasymbolicformwewouldsayanoperationalformdy=f'(x)dxappearsasjustanotherformofdy/dx=f'(x)andisalways
convertibleintothedifferentialform.Modemmathematicianswillhavenofaulttofindwiththismethod,andV.Glivenkohasspeciallyshown
28
howHadamard,the
Frenchmathematician,hadstressedtheoperationalcharacterofthedifferential.Marxdoesnotmention,however,thenowcommoninterpretationthatdyshouldbe
f'(x)Dx,obtainedbyarbitrarilyplacingdx=Dx.Thiswayofrepresentingdy,whichdatesbacktoCauchy,mayhaveescapedMarx(hecriticizesBoucharlatforhis
introductionofthedifferential,butBoucharlat'smethodsisanantiquatedone).WebelievehoweverthatMarxwouldinanycasehaveobjectedtothisequationdx=
Dx,whichestablishedanidentitybetweentwoconceptionswithanentirelydifferentoperationalmeaning.TheinterpretationofdybyCauchy,whichhasfounditsway
inallourtexts,ismechanicalandcanonlybejustifiedbytheusetowhichtheformulady=f'(x)dxcanbeputasanapproximationtocertainchangesofaconstantx
intoanequallyconstantx+Dx.
29
AndthefactthatthisdifferencebetweendxandDxdyandDycanbeneatlyrepresentedinafigurewouldnothaveimpressed
MarxandEngels,whoseinterestwasinthearithmeticalalgebraicrelationshipofthesymbolsofthecalculuswiththerealprocessofchange.Thismaybeshownfrom
thefollowingcorrespondencebetweenMarxandEngelsafterSamMoorehadwrittenhisopiniononthemanuscriptmaterialofMarx:
EnclosedfirstamathematicsattemptbyMoore.Theresultthat"thealgebraicmethodisonlythedifferentialmethoddisguised"refersofcourseonlytohisownmethodof
geometricalconstructionandistherealsorelativelycorrect.Ihavewrittentohimthatyoudonotcareaboutthewayinwhichthematterisrepresentedinthegeometrical
construction,theapplicationtotheequationofthecurvesisindeedsufficient(reichejahin).Moreover,thefundamentaldifferencebetweenyouandtheoldmethodisthatyou
makexchangeintox',

Page188
hencemakethemreallyvary,whiletheotheronedepartsformx+h,whichisalwaysonlythesumoftwoquantities,butneverthevariationofaquantity.Yourxtherefore,even
whenithaspassedthroughx'andhasagainbecomex,isyetanotherthanbeforewhilexremainsconstantduringtheperiodwhenhisfirstaddedtoxandlateragainsubtracted.
However,everygraphicalrepresentationofthevariationisnecessarilytherepresentationofthepastprocess,oftheresult,henceofaquantitywhichbecameconstant,thelinex
itscomplementisrepresentedasx+h,twosegmentsofaline.Fromthisalreadyfollowsthatagraphicalrepresentationofhowxbecomesx'andx'againbecomesxisimpossible
(EngelstoMarx,Nov.21,1882)
30
Marx'answerfollowedthenextday:
Sam,asyouhaveseenimmediately,criticizestheanalyticalmethodwhichIhaveusedbysimplypushingitaside,andinsteadkeepshimselfbusywiththegeometricalapplication,
towhichIdidnotdevoteoneword.
Icouldinthesamewaygetridof(konntedamitabspeisen)thedevelopmentofthepropersocalleddifferentialmethodbeginningwiththemysticalmethodofNewtonand
Leibnitz,thencontinuingwiththerationalistmethodofD'AlembertandEuler,andfinishingwiththestrictlyalgebraicmethodofLagrange(whichhoweveralwaysstartsfrothe
sameoriginalprincipleasNewtonLeibnitz)Icouldgetridofthiswholehistoricaldevelopmentofanalysisbysayingthatpracticallynothingessentialhaschangedinthe
geometricalapplicationofthedifferentialcalculus,thatis,inthegeometricalrepresentation(Versinnlichung).
31
ThislastremarkofMarxshowsaffinitywiththatofDedekind,whoalsoendeavoredtobuildupthecalculusindependentofthegeometricalrepresentationofthe
derivative.WecanconsiderthisasoneofthecharacteristicsofMarx'analysis,inwhichitagreedwithourmodemapproach.Anotherimportantfeaturewashis
insistenceontheoperationalcharacterofthedifferentialandonhissearchfortheexactmomentwherethecalculusspringsformtheunderlyingalgebraasanew
doctrine."Infinitesimals"donotappearinMarx'workatall.Inhisinsistenceontheoriginofthederivativeinarealchangeofthevariablehetakesadecisivestepin
overcomingtheancientparadoxofZenobystressingthetaskofthescientistinnotdenyingthecontradictionsintherealworldbuttoestablishthebestmodein
whichtheycanexistsidebyside.
32
HerehispositionisdirectlyoppositetothattakenbyDuBoisReymond,whothoughtthat

Page189
theincrementsdx,dyhavetobetakenasbeingatrest,invariable
33
,orofthemodemmathematicianTarski,whodeniestheexistenceofvariablequantities
altogether.
34
Marx'positioninthisrespectwillbeappreciatedbymostmathematicians.
WebelievethatthissurveyofMarx'opinionsontheoriginofthecalculusdemonstratesthatpublicationofhisothermathematicalmanuscriptsisalsodesirable.
Postscript
Afterthispaperwaspublishedin1948,thecollectedmathematicalworksofMarxwerepublishedinMoscow,theoriginalGermantexttogetherwithaRussian
translationandintroduction:K.Marks,Matematiceskie*rukopisi(1968,640pp).ApartialEnglishtranslationexits:ThemathematicalmanuscriptsofKarlMarx
(London,NewPark,1983).SeethereviewbyD.J.StruikintheArchivesInternationalesd'histoiredessciences97(1976)343H.Kennedy,"KarlMarxand
thefoundationsofdifferentialcalculus,"HistoriaMathemtica4(1977):303318,andEGerdes,Marxdemystifiescalculus(translatedfromPortuguesebyBeatrice
Lumpkin),MEPPublications,Minneapolis,1983,withextensivebibliography.
Notes
1.MarxEngels,Gesamtausgabe(Berlin:1930),Abt.III,Bd.II,p.273.
2.Ibid.,III,p.149.
3.Marx,Karl,Capital(Chicago:1919),II,p.10.
4.MarxEngelsGesamtausgabe,Abt.III,Bd.IV,p.513.
5.Ibid.,p.514.
6.Engels,Friedrich,AntiDhring(NewYork:1939),p.17.
7.Marx,Karl,MarksizmiEstestvoznanie(Moscow:Partisdat,1933).TheRussiantranslationofthemanuscriptsoccupiesp.561itisfollowedbyarticlesbyE.
Kolman,S.Ianovskaia,D.J.Struik,H.J.Muller,andothers.TheoriginalGermantextofthemanuscripthasnot,asfarasIknow,beenpub

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lished,thoughthereseemstohavebeenplansseeUnterdemBannerdesMarxismus(1935),no.9,p.104,n.1.Ireceivedin1935atypewrittencopyofthe
originalGermantextofthepublishedmathematicalmanuscriptsfromtheMarxEngelsInstituteinMoscow,andthequotationsinthepresentarticlearetranslated
fromthistext.
8.Theinformationconcerningthegeneralcharacterofthe900pagesofMarx'mathematicalmanuscriptsistakenfromS.Ianovskaia,"OMatematicheskich
RukopisiakhK.Marksa,"p.136180.SeealsoE.Colman,ScienceattheCrossRoads(London:1931),p.233235.
9."NachLagrangesomewhatmodifiedEntwicklungdesTaylorschenTheoremsaufblossalgebrischerGrundlage."
10.AgoodsurveyofthevarioustheoriesisgivenbyECajori,"GraftingoftheTheoryofLimitsontheCalculusofLeibniz,"Am.Math.Monthly30(1923):p.223
34.
11.A.Cauchy,Resumdesleonsdonnesal'EcoleRoyalePolytechniquesurlecalculinfinitsimal(Paris:1823).
12.TheprefacetothesixtheditionofBoucharlat'sbook(1856),whichMarxconsulted,thoughmentioningindetailtheworkofNewton,Leibniz,D'Alembert,and
Lagrange,issilentaboutCauchy.OneofthefirstwidelyusedtextbookswhichexplicitlyusedCauchy'smethodswasC.Jordan,Coursd'analyse,whichappearedin
1882.
13.R.Dedekind,StetigkeitundIrrationalzahlen(1872).Translatedin"EssaysontheTheoryofNumbers"(Chicago:1901),p.1f.
14.EDuBoisReymond,DieallgemeineFunktionentheorie,I(1882),p.2.TheauthorwasthebrotherofthephysiologistEmil,whoframedthesloganof
agnosticism:"Ignorabimus."
15.ItisevendoubtfulifanypertinentinformationontheworkofthegreatGermanmathematiciansofthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyreachedMarxand
Engels.TheEnglandoftheirdayswasanexcellentplacetostudycapitalism,aswellasphysicsandchemistryandbiology,butitwasbackwardinmathematics,
exceptinsomespecializedbranchesofgeometryandalgebra.
16.Leibnitzissuedhisfirstpublicationonthecalculusin1684,Newtonhisin1693.
17.Seee.g.,ECajori,AHistoryoftheConceptionsofLimitandFluxioninGreatBritainfromNewtontoWoodhouse(Chicago,andLondon:1919).
18.D'Alemberton"Diffrentiel"inDiderot'sEncyclopdie(1754).
19."IosgewickeltvonihremsonstigenZusammenhang."
20."EsistkeineEntwicklung,sonderncineLoswicklungdesf(x)."

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21.Weknowthatoftenitcannotbedoneatall,butthisrequiresanextensionofthefunctionalconceptionbeyondLagrange'shorizon.
22."nuralsFaktor,womitdiedurchdasBinomabgeleitetenFunktionenusserlichbehaftetsind."
23."DastranszendentaleodersymbolischeUnglckereignetsichnuraufderlinkenSeite,hataberseineSchreckenbereitsverloren,daesnunals
AusdruckeinesProzesseserscheint,derseinenwirklichenGehaltbereitssufderrechtenSeitederGleichungbewhrthat."
24.MoreinformationinECajori,"TheHistoryofZeno'sArgumentsonMotion,"vi,Am.Math.Monthly22(1915):p.143149.
25.G.H.Hardy,PureMathematics(Cambridge,England:CambridgeUniversityPress,6thed.,1933),esp.p.116,198.Thisdefinitionoflimitisvalidwheny
tendstozerobypositivevalues.Inasimilarway,adefinitionoflimitcanbereachedwhenytendstozerobynegativevalues.
26.Seee.g.ECajori,Am.Math.Monthly,22(1915),p.149,concerningvariablesreachingtheirlimits:"Inmodemtheoryitisnotparticularlyaquestionof
argument,butratherofassumption.Thevariablereachesitslimitifwewillthatitshallitdoesnotreachitslimit,ifwewillthatitshallnot."Suchareasoningseemsto
leadtotheconclusionthatitdependsonourwillwhetherAchilleswillreachorwillnotreachthetortoise.
27.M.Pasch,"DerBegriffdesDifferentials,"inMathematikamUrsprung(Leipzig:1927),p.4673,esp.61,68.
28.V.Glivenko,"DerDifferentialbegriffbeiMarxundHadamard,"UnterdemBannerdesMarxismus(1935)no.9,p.102110RussiantextinPodZnamenem
Marksizma(1934)no.5.SeeJ.Hadamard,Coursd'analyse,I(Paris:1927),p.2and6.
29.CompareC.DelaVallePoussin,Coursd'analyseinfinitsimale,I(Paris:Louvain,1923),p.52:"Forthesubstitutionofdxfor xintheequationdf(x)=
f'(x) xthereisnonecessity,butitishallowedbycustomandthiscustomisjustified."
30.ThewordsbetweenquoationmarksareinEnglishintheletterseeMarxEngelsGesamtausgabe,Abt.III,Bd.II,p.571.
31.MarxEngelsGesamtausgabe,Abt.III,Bd.IV,p.572.CompareMarx,Capital,PartI,ch.3,Section2:"TheMetamorphosisofCommodities,"(Engl.
translation,ed.1889,p.76).
32.MarxEngelsGesamtausgabe,Abt.III,Bd.IV,p.572.CompareMarx,Capital,PartI,ch.3,Section2:"TheMetamorphosisofCommodities,"(Engl.
translation,ed.1889,p.76).
33.DuBoisReymond,DieallgemeineFunktionentheorie,I,(1882),p.141,stateshisdislikefortheconceptionofdxasa"vanouissante,"

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sincehedisapproves(gehtmirentschiedenwiderdenMann)quantitieswhichbegintomoveonlywhenwelookattheformulas:"Aslongasthebookisclosed,
profoundrestprevials.AssoonasIopenit,theracetozerobeginsofallquantitiesprovidedwiththed."Marx,withoutcomingtoDuBoisReymond's
conclusion,mighthavesharedhiscriticism,sincehewantedtoexpressnotonlyachangeonpaper,butachangeinreality.
34.A.Tarski,IntroductiontoLogic(NewYork:1941),p.4.

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SECTIONIV
RECONSIDERINGWHATCOUNTSASMATHEMATICALKNOWLEDGE
ArthurB.PowellandMarilynFrankenstein
InaFrenchmathematicseducationstudy,asevenyearoldwasaskedthefollowingquestion:''Youhavetenredpencilsinyourleftpocketandtenbluepencilsin
yourrightpocket.Howoldareyou?''Whenheanswered:"twentyyearsold,"itwasnotbecausehedidn'tknowthathewasreallyseven,orbecausehedidnot
understandanythingaboutnumbers.Ratheritwas,asPulchalskaandSemadeni(1987)conclude,becausetheunwritten"socialcontract"betweenmathematics
studentsandteachersstipulatesthat"whenyousolveamathematicalproblem...youusethenumbersgiveninthestory....Perhapsthemostimportantsinglereason
whystudentsgiveillogicalanswerstoproblemswithirrelevantquestionsorirrelevantdataisthatthosestudentsbelievemathematicsdoesnotmakeanysense"(p.
15).
AsthissituationdescribedbyPulchalskaandSemadenireveals,wecanobservethesplitbetween"everyday"mathematicalknowledgeand"school"mathematicsin
manydifferentcontexts.Earlier,wenotedthatD'Ambrosio(1985/reprintedhereaschapter1)tracesthehistoricaldevelopmentofthissplittothesocialstratification
ofEgyptianandGreeksocieties.Inacontemporarycontext,Frankenstein(1989)findsthatworkingclassadultstudentsintheUnitedStatesareoftensurprisedto
learnthatthedecimalpointisthesamepointusedtowriteamountsofmoney.Similarly,Spradbery(1976)workedwithsixteenyearoldstudentsinEnglandwho
hadfailedconsistentlytomasteranythingbutthemostelementaryaspectsofschoolMathematics....Theyhadreceived,andremainedunhelpedby,considerable"remedial"
teachingand,finally,theyleft

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school"hatingeveryfinkwhatgoesoninmaffs."Yetintheirsparetimesomeofthesesameyoungpeoplekeptandracedpigeons....Weighing,measuring,timing,usingmap
scales,buying,selling,interpretingtimetables,devisingschedules,calculatingprobabilitiesandaverages...wereanaturalpartoftheirstockofcommonsenseknowledge(p.237).
Besidessocialandclassdivisions,Harris(1987/reprintedhereaschapter10)showsthatsexismalsounderpinsthedichotomybetween"school"mathematicsand
one'sstockofcommonsenseknowledgeandpervertswhatcountsasmathematicalknowledge.Forexample,aproblemaboutpreventingthelagginginarightangled
cylindricalpipefrominappropriatelybunchingupandstretchingout,islabeledengineeringandconsideredtobe"mathematics,"whereastheidenticaldomestic
problemofdesigningtheheelofasockiscalled"knitting"andnotconsideredtohavemathematicalcontent.We,instead,classifyboththeengineeringanddomestic
problemsasexamplesofethnomathematics.Further,Gerdes(1988/reprintedhereaschapter11)andhisstudentsraisequestionsabouthowimperialismmighthave
beenresponsibleforarrestingthedevelopmentofvarious"abstract"geometricalandalgebraicideasinherentintraditionalMozambicanmaterialculture.
Themathematicalknowledgeembeddedintheactivityofadultshandlingmoney,studentsracingpigeons,andwomenknittingsocksisnotfragmentedfromthe
knowledgeofeachoftheseactivitiesrather,itiscreatedandrecreatedinpraxis.However,theacademicallyenforceddisjuncturebetween"practical"and"abstract"
mathematicalknowledgecontributestostudentsfeelingthattheydonotunderstandorknowanymathematics.Further,Joseph(1987/reprintedhereaschapter3)
considersthatthisdisjuncturefuelstheintellectualelitismthatregardsmathematicaldiscoveryasfollowingonly"fromarigorousapplicationofaformofdeductive
axiomaticlogic."Moreover,thiselitism,combinedwithracism,considersnonintuitive,nonempiricallogicauniqueproductofEuropean,Greekmathematics.This
EurocentricviewdismissesEgyptianandMesopotamianmathematicsasmerelythe"applicationofcertainrulesorprocedures...[not]"proofs''ofresultswhichhave
universalapplication"(pp.2223).Josephdisputesthisbiaseddefinitionofproof,arguingthat
theword"proof"hasdifferentmeanings,dependingonitscontextandthestateofdevelopmentofthesubject....Tosuggestthatbecauseexistingdocumentaryevidencedoes
notexhibitthededuc

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tiveaxiomaticlogicalinferencecharacteristicofmuchofmodernmathematics,theseculturesdidnothaveaconceptofproof,wouldbemisleading.Generalizationsaboutthearea
ofacircleandthevolumeofatruncatedpyramidarefoundinEgyptianmathematics....AsGillings[1972,pp.1456]hasargued,Egyptian"proofsarerigorouswithoutbeing
symbolic,sothattypicalvaluesofavariableareusedandgeneralizationtoanyothervalueisimmediate"(pp.2324).
Henderson(1990)arguesthatformal,academicmathematics"masquerades"asrealmathematics.Hebelieves"noformaldefinitioncancaptureallaspectsofour
experience[ofamathematicalentity]"andfurther,amore"real"conceptofproofis''somethingwhichissufficienttoconvinceareasonableskeptic"(p.3).Henderson
(1996)informshisgeometrystudentsthat"[a]proofaswenormallyconceiveofitisnotthegoalofmathematicsit'satoolameanstoanend.Thegoalis
understanding.Withoutunderstandingwewillneverbesatisfiedwithunderstandingwewanttoexpandthatunderstandingandtocommunicateittoothers."Further,
Hersh(1991)arguesthatalthough"rigorous"proofsareinfallibleinprincipal,manyofthemarefallibleinpractice:
Thedifferencemaybenegligibleforcomputationsofafewlines.It'snotsonegligibleforcomputationsofafewdozenpages.Infact,asimpleprobabilisticargumentshowsthatif
theprobabilityoferrorineachlinehasmagnitude"epsilon,"thentheprobabilityoferrorinsufficientlymanylineshasmagnitude"oneminusepsilon."Inotherwords,a
sufficientlylongcomputationispracticallysuretocontainerrors(pp.2526).
Hegoesontostatethat"additionalgroundsforconfidenceinourconclusions...[suchas]examplesandspecialcases,analogieswithknownresults,anexpected
symmetryoranunexpectedelegance..."arewhatconvincesusthatourconclusions"mustbetrue"(p.26).
AnillustrationofpointsthatHendersonandHershmakeandonethatalsochallengesthe"Greekdeductive"modelofprooffromwithinacademicmathematicsisthe
computerdemonstrationoftopology'sfamousfourcolorconjecture.Gardner(1980)discusseshowthisproof,"buriedinprintoutsthatresultedfrom1200hoursof
computertime"forcesustorethinkwhatcountsasaproofandwhatdistinctionswemakebetweenempiricalscienceandtheoreticalmathematics.Hesummarizes
Tymoczko(1979)whomakesthepointthatthiscomputerproofis"aprogramforattackingthe[fourcolor]prob

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lembycomputeralongwiththeresultsofan'experiment'performeronthecomputer...[blurring]thedistinctionbetweenmathematicsandnaturalscienceand
[lending]credibilitytotheopinionsofthosecontemporaryphilosophersofsciencesuchasHilaryPutnamwhoseemathematicsasa'quasiempirical'activity"(p.14).
TheEurocentricbiasthatdeniestherigorofEgyptianmathematicsalsoconsiderstobe"childlike"and"primitive"themathematicalknowledgeoftraditional,non
literatecultures.AscherandAscher(1986)arguethat"thereisnotoneinstanceofastudyorrestudythatuponcloseexaminationsupportsthemythofthechildlike
primitive'(p.131).Theyprovideexamplesthatnotonlysupportthispoint,butalsorevealhowfalseassumptionsaboutthemathematicalknowledgeofothersand
lackofrespectforthelogicofothersintersectswithracismwhenoneconsiderswhatcountsasmathematicalknowledgeForinstance,theydiscussawellknown
anecdoteaboutatradebetweenanAfricansheepherderandanexplorerTheherderagreestoaccepttwosticksoftobaccoforonesheepbutbecomesconfusedand
upsetwhengivenfoursticksoftobaccofortwosheep.Thestoryissupposedtoshowthattheherdercannotcomprehendthat2+2=4.
1
Analternative
interpretation,respectingtheherder'sknowledge"raisestheissueofthedifferencebetweenamathematicalconceptanditsapplication....Sheeparenotstandardized
units."Soitislogicalthatasecond,differentanimalwouldnotalsobeworthtwosticksoftobacco."[T]heapplicabilityofeventhesimplestofmathematicalmodels
becomesaquestionofculturalcategorization''(p128).Foranotherexample,theAschersquoteLvyBrhl,ananthropologistwhofeltthattheoccasionalsubstitution
of3,7,or9foreachotherinVeddicreligion,rituals,andlegendswas"anabsurdityinlogicalthought...quitenaturaltoprelogicalmentality,forthelatter
preoccupiedwiththemysticparticipation,doesnotregardthesenumbersinabstractrelationtoothernumbers,orwithrespecttothearithmeticallawsinwhichthey
originate"(1910,p.211).TheycounterhisconclusionwithinformationfromarecentfieldstudyoftheKdangwhoalsousethiskindofnumbersubstitution
Whenusedinsymboliccontexts,oddnumbersareassociatedwithlifeandevennumberswithdeath.Substitutionswithintheseclassesarepossibleifcircumstancesrequireit.If,
forexample,aceremonialperiodoffourdaysisstipulatedbutcannotbemet,2dayswilldobut3wouldbeaseriousinfringement....Theformationoftheseequivalenceclassesis
anexampleofanabstractideaaboutnumbers(p.130).

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Anexamplethatshattersthenotionofadichotomybetweenconcreteandabstractthoughtanddemonstratesthesubjective,culturallydeterminednatureof"abstract"
categoriesisprovidedbyGlick(ascitedinRose1988,p.291)inrecountingthefrustrationsofresearchersworkingwithagroupofpeoplewhom"academic
anthropologists"wouldlabel"primitive."Theinvestigatorshadtwentyobjects,fiveeachfromfourcategories:food,clothing,tools,andcookingutensils.Whenasked
tosorttheobjects,mostofthepeopleproducedtengroupsoftwo,basingtheirsortingonpracticalconnectionsamongtheobjects(forexample,''theknifegoeswith
theorangebecauseitcutsit").
[thepeople]attimesvolunteered"thatawisemanwoulddothingsinthewaythiswasdone."Whenanexasperatedexperimenteraskedfinally,"Howwouldafooldoit?"hewas
givenbackgroupingsofthetype...initiallyexpectedfourneatpileswithfoodsinone,toolsinanother.
Walkerdine(1990/reprintedhereaschapter9)ritesanencounterwhichilluminatesthecreationofthecategories"concrete"and"abstract."Shedescribestwo
observations:amotherandhersonsarguingaboutbuyingdrinkstheycouldnotaffordand,afatherandhissonmakingagameoutofcalculatingchange"whatifI
bought...?"Shecontraststheconcretematerialnecessityintheconversationbetweenthemotherandsonswiththeimaginaryconstructionsinthedialoguebetween
thefatherandson.Sheasksintriguingquestionsabouttheseexchanges:
Whatistheeffectofrelativepovertyandwealthonthewayinwhichcertainproblemscanbepresentedas"abstract"versus"concrete,"or,asIwouldprefertoputit,problems
ofpracticalandmaterialnecessityversusproblemsof"symboliccontrol"?Andwhatistherelationshipbetweentheclassicconcrete/abstractdistinctionandtheonebetweena
lifeinwhichitismateriallynecessarytocalculateforsurvivalandalifeinwhichcalculationcanbecomearelativelytheoreticalexercise?Mightcalculationasatheoreticalexercise
havebecomethebasisofaformofreasoningamongimperialpowerswhichdependedfortheaccumulationoftheircapitalontheexploitationofthenewlydiscoveredcolonies?
Dotheoreticalconceptscomewithwealthandwhat,ifso,doesthismeanforeconomicandpsychologicaltheoriesofdevelopmentandunderdevelopment?(p.52)

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Shegoesontoarguethattodescribetheinteractionbetweenthefatherandsonas"abstracted"fromeverydaypracticesismisleadingbecausetheimaginary
calculation"existsasadiscursiverelationinanewsetofpractices,namely,thoseofschoolmathematics,withitsownmodesofregulationandsubjection"(p.54).
Ratherthandichotomizingconcreteversusabstract,Walkerdinespeaksforviewingthedifferentconversationsasshiftingfrom''onediscursivepracticetoanother."
Thekindoflinearthinkingthatputsknowledgeintoseparatecategoriesof"practical"and"abstract"notonlylimitsourconceptionsofwhataremathematicalideasin
everydaylife,butalsoinacademicsettings.Forexample,Bigum(1990)theorizesthattheEurocentricconceptionof"rationalthought,"basedonNewtonian
determinism,resultsinlinearnumeracybeingconsideredtheunderlyingfoundationofacademicmathematicalknowledge.Thislimitstheconceptofmathematical
applicationstothesphereof"linearpredictabilityandcontrol:themathematicsofreason....Inourrationalconstructions,Newton'ssystemoftheworldislong
forgotten,whatremainsistheillusionofcontrolling,knowing,andaccessingtheworld:historycollapses"(pp.45).Diop(1991)arguesthatthediscoveriesand
conceptionsofmodemphysicshavechangedourconceptof"reason"and"calledintoexistenceanewlogicomathematicalformalismthatwillraise,forthefirsttimein
thehistoryofthesciences,"doubt,""uncertainty"attheleveloflogicalvalue"(p.363).Bigum(1990)suggestsamoreappropriatefoundationforanacademic
mathematicsthatcanapplytocomprehendingourpostmodem,quantumexistence.Itwouldberootedintheunpredictabilityofchaoticnonlinearmathematicsthat
"hasproventhatevensimplequestionscanhaveanswerssocomplicatedthattheycontainmoreinformationthanman's[sic]entirelogicalsystem"(Ford,citedin
Bigum,p.7).Moreover,amoreappropriatefoundationwouldalsobegroundedintheselfreferentiallogicofKurtGdel'sIncompletenessTheoremthatassertsthe
impossibilityofcompletelydescribingordecidingtheveracityorfalsityofallquestionswithinagivensystem,which"reflects,perhaps,theunfinishedcharacterof
mathematicallogic"(Diop,1991,p.365).
Note
1.Zaslavsky(1973)relatesthatthistalewasfirsttoldbySirFrancesGaltonafterhevisitedAfrica(p.289).Galton,whocoinedtheterm"eugenics"in1883,
consideredmeasurement"theprimarycriterionofascientificstudy."In

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essence,hetriedto'standardize"anythingthatmightpossiblybemeasured,includingprayer,beauty,andboredomthelatterby"countingthenumberof[a
person's]fidgets."Hefurtherbelievedthatnearlyeverythinghecouldmeasurewasinheritable.WhenhiscousinCharlesDarwinpointedoutthat"mendidnot
differmuchinintellect,onlyinzealandhardwork,"Galtoncounteredthat"theaptitudeforworkisheritablelikeeveryotherfaculty."So,itisnotsurprisingthat
Galtoncouldnotseeamoresophisticatedreasonforthesheepherder'sconfusion.Moreover,animportantnoteforthepoliticsofknowledgeisthatGaltonwas
consideredaleadingintellectofhistimeandhis"scholarship'hadsignificantinfluenceonthedevelopmentofmentalmeasurementssuchastheIQtest(Gould,
1981,pp.7577).
References
Ascher,M.,andAscher,R.(1986).Ethnomathematics.HistoryofScience24:125144.
Bigum,C.(1990)."Postmoderncurriculum:Themathematicalbasisor,whowasKurtGdelanyway?"InR.Noss,A.Brown,EDrake,P.Dowling,M.Harris,C.
Hoyles,andS.MellinOlsen(Ed.).ProceedingsoftheFirstInternationalConference:PoliticalDimensionsofMathematicsEducation:Action&Critique.
InstituteofEducation:UniversityofLondon.
D'Ambrosio,U.(1985).Ethnomathematicsanditsplaceinthehistoryandpedagogyofmathematics.FortheLearningofMathematics5(1):4448.
Diop,C.A.(1991).CivilizationorBarbarism:Anauthenticanthropology.NewYork:LawrenceHill.
Gardner,M.(1980).Thecoloringofunusualmapsleadsintounchartedterritory.ScientificAmerican(February):1421.
Gillings,R.J.(1972).Mathematicsinthetimeofthepharaohs.Cambridge,MA:MITPress.
Gould,S.J.(1981).TheMismeasureofMan.NewYork:W.W.Norton&Co.
Harris,M.(1987).Anexampleoftraditionalwomen'sworkasamathematicsresource.FortheLearningofMathematics7(3):2628.
Henderson,D.W.(1990).Themasqueradeofformalmathematicsandhowitdamagesthehumanspirit.InR.Noss,A.Brown,P.Drake,P.Dowling,M.Harris,C.
Hoyles,andS.MellinOlsen(Ed.).ProceedingsoftheFirstInternationalConference:PoliticalDimensionsofMathematicsEducation:Action&Critique.
(pp.115118)InstituteofEducation:UniversityofLondon.
Henderson,D.W.(1996).Experiencinggeometryonplaneandsphere.UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PrenticeHall.

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Hersh,R.(1991).Whatproof?Unpublishedmanuscript.
Joseph,G.G.(1987).Foundationsofeurocentrisminmathematics.Race&Class,28(3):1328.
Pulchaska,E.,andSemadini,Z.(1987)."Children'sreactiontoverbalarithmeticproblemswithmissing,surplusorcontradictorydata."FortheLearningof
Mathematics,7(3):916.
Rose,M.(1988).Narrowingthemindandpage:Remedialwritersandcognitivereductionism.CollegeCompositionandCommunication39(3):267302.
Spradbery,J.(1976)."Conservativepupils?Pupilresistancetocurriculuminnovationinmathematics."InG.WhittyandM.Young(Ed.).Explorationsinthe
PoliticsofSchoolKnowledge(pp.236243).Driffield:Nafferton.
Tymoczko,T.(1979).TheFourColorproblemandit'sphilosophicalsignificance.TheJournalofPhilosophy,76(2):5783.
Walkerdine,V.(1990).Difference,cognition,andmathematicseducation.FortheLearningofMathematics10(3):5156.
Zaslavsky,C.(1973).Africacounts:NumberandpatternsinAfricanculture.Boston:Prindle,WeberandSchmidt.

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Chapter9
Difference,Cognition,andMathematicsEducation
*
ValerieWalkerdine
Editors'scomment:Throughherargumentagainstpresocialmodelsofcognition,ValerieWalkerdine,acognitivepsychologistandmathematicseducationresearcher,questions
distinctionsbetweenpracticalandtheoreticalknowledgeasitappliestothelearningofmathematics.Inouranalysis,thislaysthegroundworkforreconsideringwhatcountsas
mathematicalknowledge.ThischapterfirstappearedinFortheLearningofMathematics10(3):5156,in1990.
Itseemsapt,whenourconferencetakesplaceinthesocalledThirdWorld,withparticipationofacademicsfromtheoldEuropeanimperialpowersandthenewer
onesnorthoftheborder,todiscusshowunderstandingsofdifferencemightaffectouranalysesofcognitionandmathematicseducation.Toexploretheseissues,I
wanttodiscusssomeimplicationsofmyresearchoncognitivedevelopment,class,andgender,theanalysisofmathematicseducationasdiscursivepractice,andthe
approachestopracticesofmathematicsinformalandinformalsettingsasin,forexample,theworkofLave(1988),Scribner(1984),andCarraher(1988).
Myaimistospeakgenerally,toopenupadebatebyexaminingsomebasicquestionsconcerninghowandwhytheissuesthatareraisedarecharacterizedina
particularway.In"TheMasteryofReason"(1988),IsetoutsomewaysinwhichIfeltthatpoststructuralisttheoriesmighthelpustounderstandtheissuesofcontext
andtransfer.Iarguedinthatvolumethatthereweresomemajorproblems
*
AninvitedtalkgivenattheInternationalGroupforthePsychologyofMathematicsEducation,MexicoCity,July1990.

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withthewayinwhichcontextandtransferweretheorized,stemmingfromaviewofcontextassomethinggraftedontoasinglemodelofcognitivedevelopment.I
suggestedthattheproblemlaywithinthetheoryitselfandthatsimplyaddingoncontextwasnotenough.Iproposedatheoryofpracticesinwhich,insteadofa
unitary,fixedmodelofthehumansubjectpossessingskillsincontexts,linkedtomodelsoflearningandtransfer,wemightunderstandsubjectivityitselfaslocatedin
practices,examiningthediscursiveandsignifyingmethodsthroughwhichapersonbecomes"subjected"ineachpractice.ItisthatanalysiswhichIwanttodrawon
hereinsuggestingthatwemightapproachtheissueofcontextandtransferdifferentlyinordertoproposeatheoreticalaccountwhichdealsadequatelywiththesocial
andhistorical.Todothis,Isuggest,weneedtoabandonourviewofthepregivensubjectwithskillsandpresocialmodelsofhumancognitionaltogether.Sucha
viewis,ofcourse,notnew,butIdowanttosuggestonetheoreticalpathwaywhichmightaidinthisendeavor.
LetmebeginbyexaminingcertainassumptionsaboutchildhoodwhicharemadeinsocalledFirstWorldtheory.Ivividlyrememberattemptingtowritesomenotes
forareviewofLave'sbooksittingoutsideacafeinthefashionableCoyoacandistrictofMexicoCity.Ofcoursethereweretheubiquitoussmallchildrensellingthings:
hereartisanias,elsewhereChiclets,andinsomecomersoftheThirdWorld,themselves.Itwouldbeeasytoimaginearesearchprojectwhichaimedtoexaminethe
advancedcalculatingskillsofsuchchildrenoftenderyearsandtocomparethiswithschoolperformance.Butwhatwoulditmeanandwhatwouldwebedoingitfor?
Ialsorememberthat,justasIwaswatchingasmallboytryingtoselltoys,alittleboyofaboutthesameage,butclearlyfromanentirelydifferentclass,cycledpaston
histricyclewithhismother.Itwasthischildwhoembodiedtheclassicalbourgeoisideaof"child."Ofcourse,onecouldarguethatthesetwochildrenrepresented
difference,orratherculturaldifferencesandstrengths,oneininformalmathematicsperhaps,theotherinformal.Buttoapproachtheproblemofdifferenceinthisway
wouldbesociallyandpoliticallyaproblemforthetwolittleboysarenot"equalbutdifferent."Theydifferalsointhetypeandextentoftheirexploitationand
oppression.WhatIwanttodohereistosketchoutwhatmightbethebeginningsofawayofunderstandingpsychologicallyandsociallyhowdifferenceislived.When
weconcentratesolelyonthecognitiveaspectsofperformancewefailtoengagewithcertaincentralaspectsofthewayinwhichoppressionisexperienced.Thatis,as
intheaboveexample,thechildsellingonthe

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streetisearningmoneywhichislikelytobeacentralplankinhisfamily'ssurvival.Hehastolearntocalculatethenasif(touseanEnglishphrase)"hislifedependedon
it."Meanwhilewemightpointtothewayinwhichsuchcalculationis"lowlevel"(averycommoncomplaintinresearchongirlsandmathematics,forexample,see
Walkerdineetal(1989)foradiscussion)comparedtothesocalled"higherorderreasoning"whichthemiddleclassboymightbeabletoperform.Wemightaddthat
thefirstchildisdeprivedandthatthisexplainshispoorperformanceathigherleveltasks.ButwhatIwanttodohereistoquestionthisverylineofargument.Whatis
higherlevelandhowcanwemakesenseofanargumentlikethisoutsidecertainhistoricalandsocialquestionsaboutthenatureofmathematicsandmathematics
educationitself?Myclaimisthatifwebegintoaddressthesequestionswesetupourpsychologicalargumentsinacompletelydifferentway.
Letmeciteanotherexample.Iremembersittinginaseasidecafewatchingamotherandhersonsnegotiatingthebuyingofdrinks.Theboyswantedcokesandthe
motherarguedthattheseweretooexpensiveandthattheyshouldhave"awarmingcupoftea."Bycontrast,Iwatchedafatherandsonsittinginacafeinaparkin
centralLondonmakingagameoutofcalculatingchange:"WhatifIbought...'?",andsoon.Therewasnoeconomicnecessityatstakehere.Now,althoughitmight
lookatfirstsightasthoughthesetwoexamplesweresimilar,Iwouldarguethattherearesomeimportantdifferences.Whatdoesitmeanthatthefatherandsoninthe
parkareconstructingimaginaryproblemsasopposedtothematerialproblemsfacedbythemothertryingtoregulatehersons'consumptionofexpensive
commodities?Whatistheeffectofrelativepovertyandwealthonthewayinwhichcertainproblemscanbepresentedas"abstract"versus"concrete,"or,asIwould
prefertoputit,problemsofpracticalandmaterialnecessityversusproblemsof"symboliccontrol?''Andwhatistherelationshipbetweentheclassicconcrete/abstract
distinctionandtheonebetweenalifeinwhichitismateriallynecessarytocalculateforsurvivalandalifeinwhichcalculationcanbecomearelativelytheoretical
exercise?Mightcalculationasatheoreticalexercisehavebecomethebasisofaformofreasoningamongimperialpowerswhichdependedfortheaccumulationof
theircapitalontheexploitationofthenewlydiscoveredcolonies?Dotheoreticalconceptscomewithwealthandwhat,ifso,doesthismeanforeconomicand
psychologicaltheoriesofdevelopmentandunderdevelopment?
Howdoourideasof"realmathematics"andofmathematical"truth"becomeincorporatedintothe"truth"aboutthehumansub

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jectwhichisusedintheregulationofthesocial.The"truth"ofreasonandreasoning,oftheworldasabookwritteninthelanguageofmathematics,becomeimportant
aspectsofhistoricallyspecificregimesoftruth.Carraher(1989)discussesthisissue,butFoucault'sideaoftruthisusefulbecauseitallowsustolinkthat
mathematical"truth"withthe''truths"informsofmanagementandgovernmentwhichaimtoregulatethesubject.So,forexample,whenCarrahertellsusthatBrazilian
streetchildrendidnotsolveaproblembyonetoonecorrespondenceweareleftlittleoptionbuttopathologizethemsincewehavenoother(sociallyandhistorically
specific)theoriesonoffer.
Historically,Europeanaccountingpractices,forexample,shiftedincomplexitywhentheyintroduceddoubleentrybookkeeping.Themoneyeconomyintroducedin
relationtomercantilecapitalismasystemofpositiveandnegativeintegers.Thetransformationsof"gold,"intoacommodityisaccomplishedbymeansofanumberof
transformationsofsignificationinwhichthesamesignifier,"gold",becomesadifferentsign(Walkerdine,1986,1988).Manypeoplechartthefactthatshiftswithin
psychologyandmathematicsarerelatedtoparticularsocialandpoliticaleventsandpractices.Howdotheseissuesgetcaughtupinfantasythekindoffantasywhich
otherclassesandgroupshaveofeachother?Samantha,awhitemiddleclassEnglishfouryearoldisaskinghermotherwhythewindowcleanerwillgetpaidfor
cleaningthewindowsofherhome.Sheispuzzlingovertheexchangerelationbetweenworkandmoneyandgoods.TizardandHughes(1984)citethisexampleas
showingthe"powerofthepuzzlingmind"ofthefouryearold.Heretheyuseagenericconcept,andyettheypointoutthatmanyoftheworkingclassfouryearolds
intheirstudydidnotpuzzleovertheexchangerelation.Itwasmadepainfullycleartothechildren:theywereoftentold,forexample,thattheycouldnothavecertain
thingsbecausemoneywasscarce,andindeedthatmoneywasearnedthroughlabor.WhythendoTizardandHughesassumethatsuchaspecificissue,whichclearly
relatestopovertyandwealth,reflectsa"generalstateofmind?"Arethereindeedanygeneralstatesofmindatall?
Whenpoorchildrenfantasizetheymayoftendreamofwealth,offantasiesofplentyinwhichtheyhave,asonenurseryschoolchildputitinherdomesticplay
"chickenandbaconandsteak."Or,likethesevenyearoldsIcitedin"TheMasteryofReason,"theymayfindashoppinggamethattheyareplayingverypleasurable
because,whiletheyaresupposedtobecountingchangeandsubtractingsmallamountsofmoneyfromtenpence,theyactuallylaughatthedisjunc

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tionbetweenpricesandgoods(ayachtfortwopence,forexample)andpretendtobewealthyshoppers,putonmiddleclassaccentsandgenerallyhaveagoodtime.
However,theydonotgetbetteratmaths.Thefantasiesofpovertyarewealth,thefantasiesofmathematicians,accordingtoBrianRotman(1980),areofanordered
world.Hecallsmathematics"Reason'sDream,"adreaminwhich"thingsonceprovedstayprovedforever,"adreamoforderoutsidetheconfinesoftimeandspace.
Andthedreamofdevelopmentalpsychologists?CertainlyforaspecificconfigurationofdevelopmentalpsychologyandeducationthatIshallgoontodescribe,there
isadreamofaclassroomasanaturalenvironmentwithpainandoppressionleftoutsidetheclassroomdoor.
MathematicsandDiscursivePractices
Theoriesofcognitivedevelopment,atleastthosestemmingfromtheworkofPiaget,havetheirrootsintheoriesofevolution.Theyofferusgenerictheoriesofthe
developmentofa"speciesbeing"ininteractionwithanobjectworld,ontogenyrecapitulatingphylogeny.Indeed,thedevelopmentofthehumanspecies,athomewith
amother,isoftentakentobeatthehighestpointoftheevolutionaryscale.Inthisview,thereislittleroomforhistoryorforthesocial,exceptasocialwhichisgrafted
onorwhichregulatesratesofdevelopmentaccordingtoafixedsequence.Thisfixedsequencetakesusfromprelogicaltologicomathematicalreasoningwhichisat
firstconcreteandthenabstract.Theassumedpinnacleofabstractreasoningisrarelyifeverquestioned.Andyet,ofcourse,itispreciselythiswhichvariousgroupsare
routinelyaccusedofnotbeingabletoreach:girls,workingclasschildren,blacks,thirdworldchildren,andsoforth.AndwhatIamputtingforwardisthegermofa
suggestionthatthissimplesequenceisitselfahistoricalproductofacertainworldviewproducedoutofEuropeanmodelsofmindatamomentinthedevelopmentof
EuropeancapitalismdependentonthecolonizationanddominationoftheOther,heldtobedifferentandinferior.ItwastheEuropeanaristocraticandbourgeoismale
whowastobecomethemodelofarationalityfoundeduponalifestyleinwhicheconomicnecessitywasnotanissueandinwhichthedominationoftheOtherwasto
becometoacertainextentjustifiedbyareadingofdifferenceasinferiority.ThatthepositionofthoseOthers,thework

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ingclassesandthecolonizedpeoples,forexample,wasproducedbytheiroppressionandexploitation,theirpoverty,theirappallingworkingconditions,lettingafew
ofthemslowlyintoeducationinorderthatEuropeanandcolonialadministrationmighteventuallybeundertakenbymembersofthedominatedgroupsthemselves,isa
featurewhichisrarelybroughtintoquestionwhenattemptingtounderstandtheproductionofpsychologicalaspectsofdevelopment.
HereIamreferringtothewayinwhichcertaincolonizedpeoplesandmembersoftheEuropeanworkingclasswere"educatedout"forentryintothemiddleclass,but
thatthismeanteffectivelythatregulatorsdidnotneedtobeappliedbycolonizersortheupperandmiddleclassesbecauseoppressedpeoplescouldbetaughtto
regulatethelesseducatedmembersoftheirowngroups.Thismadethewholethingmorecomplex,andsedimentedtheideathat"thenormal"wassomethingthatsuch
peoplescouldaspiretoandwassomethingwhichtheywerenot.Suchconceptsofnormalityandpathologycouldthenbecomecentralplanksofrecognitionandself
regulationthatpeopletookintothemselves.
Inordertosetoutsomeofthewaysinwhichwemightbegintounderstandthis,IwanttooutlineverybrieflytheplaceoftheoriesofcognitivedevelopmentinBritish
mathematicseducationandthengoontoexaminetheidea,assetoutin"TheMasteryofReason,"thatwemightunderstandmathematicseducationintermsof
discursivepractices.TheideaofchilddevelopmentasacentralplankoftheearlyeducationofchildreninEuropegenerallyandinBritaininparticular,hasalong
history,especiallyinrelationtodebatesaboutchildhoodasanaturalstateassociatedwiththeideaofaneducationaccordingtonature.Theideathatreasoningisa
naturalphenomenonwastobecomethecenterpieceofthenew"scientificpedagogy,"usingpsychology,promotedfromtheendofthenineteenthcenturyonward
(Walkerdine,1984).ThepromotionofreasoningcanbeunderstoodaspartofwhatFoucault(1980)hasdescribedasthenewmodesofgovernment,basedasthey
wereonthenecessityfortheproductionofscientificknowledgeinthepopulation,withparticularemphasisonthenewurbanproletariat.Childstudysocietieswereset
upinEnglandaroundtheturnofthecenturyandmanypeoplefollowedDarwin'sexampleofmonitoringthedevelopmentofhisinfantson.Theideaofmapping
developmentwastakentomeanthateducationcouldbescientificallycontrolledaccordingtoanideaofstagesofdevelopment.Therewasanoverwhelmingemphasis
ontheideaofthenormandnormality,throughwhichtheregulationofthepopulationwastobeassured(Rose,1985).Intheearlytwentiethcentury

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followingtheworkofItardandSeguininFrancewithVictor,thewildboyofAveyron,whichimpliedthathumanitycouldbetaught,MariaMontessoriappliedtheir
methodstotheeducationofchildrenfromItalianslums.Itishere,then,thattheideathatfromtheferalchildtothechildoftheOther(workingclass,colonized)isjust
ashortstep,beginstotakeshape.Normaldevelopmentcanbemonitored,humannesscanbetrained.TheOthercanberegulatedbyattemptingtorenderhim/her
normalandbymonitoringthepathologyofdevelopmenttotrytoputitright.Theideaofdevelopmentis,ofcourse,presentedasthoughitwereamatterof"nature"
butthisnatureisveryparticularindeed.Manyauthorshavenotedthatthemodelforreasoningnormalityisthatofawhite,bourgeoismale(e.g.Sayers,1982Le
Doeff,1979).Itshouldbenoted,therefore,thattheideaofnormaldevelopmentcarrieswithitaveryoppressivemodelofthenatural,inwhichtheideaofanormal
courseofdevelopmentisusedasaregulativedevice.Whilesuchideaswereincorporatedintopedagogicexperimentsintheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury,it
wasnotuntilthepostwarperiodthattheyreallybegantocomeintotheirowninstateeducation.Theclimatewasreadyinthe1930s,butthewarintervenedandit
wasnotuntiltheexpansiveyearsofthe1960sthat"childcentredness,"asitbecameknown,becameincorporatedinalargewayincurriculumdevelopment.
Mathematicseducationwasratherslowerthanothercurriculumareastotakeuptheseideas,butthereweretworeportsinthe1950sand1960s,onebythe
MathematicalAssociation(1956)andonebytheSchoolsCouncil(1965)whichadvocatedthe"newpedagogy.''Indoingso,thecentralideaofmathematicsas
reasonbecameenshrinedwithinthecurriculum.Thiswaswidelyinterpretedtomeanthatlogicomathematicalprinciplescouldbeusedtocodeallactivities,andthis
becametranslatedintoakindofcommonsenseunderstandinginwhicheverythingbecamepotentiallymathematics.Therewasaninherentconfusionbecauseitwas
assumedthatchildrenwereunabletorecognizethatmathematicsiseverywhere.Inthisanalysis,representationwasgraftedontoanunproblematicbaseofaction.In
"TheMasteryofReason,''Ichallengedthesecentralnotions,arguingthat"mathematical"signsareproducedwithinspecificpracticesandthatthesepracticesare
alwaysdiscursive.
Letmegivesomeexamples.Ianalyzedthewayinwhichsocalledmathematicalsignifiers,suchas"more"and"less,"wereproducedwithindomesticsettingsinthe
homesofasampleofthirtyfouryearoldgirlsandtheirmothers(TizardandHughes,1984WalkerdineandLucey,1989).Whileitiscommonlyassumedinearly
edu

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cationthat"less"ismorecomplexthan"more"andthatthetwoformapair,acontrastiveopposition,describingthecomparisonofquantities,analysisofthemother
daughterexchangesrevealedthat,althoughtherewereplentyofexamplesofthecomparisonofquantities,thesewerenotdescribedusingthewordpair"more/less,"
andthatwhile"less"wasnotusedatall,"more''wasusedfrequently,butinthecontextoftheregulationbythemothersoftheirdaughters'consumptionof
commodities.Forexample,amothermighttellherdaughterthatshecouldhavenomoreofaparticularlyexpensivecommodityorthatshecouldnothavemorefood
untilshehadeatenwhatwasonherplate.Thecontrastivepairherewasnot"more/less"butsomethingmorelike"more/nomore."Itwillcomeasnosurprisethatsuch
termswereusedmorefrequentlybymothersinworkingclassfamilies,sothatsuchlittlegirlswouldbemorelikelytounderstandtheirmothersasmoreregulativeand
tohaveverystrongnegativeassociationswiththeterms"more."(InWalkerdine(1990),Iciteanexamplefrommyownhistory:mymother'suseofthephrase"much
wantsmore.")
Whatthenwillsuchchildrenmakeoftheuseofthetermmoretodescribethecomparisonofquantitiesinearlymathematics?Iarguethatthismaybethesame
signifierasinthepracticesofthehome,butitisnotthesamesign.Thisdifferenceiscrucialforitsuggestsamorecomplexissuethanexistingpracticemightsuggest.I
arguefurtherthatsuchsignifiersaremadetosignifywhenunitedwithasignifiedwithinaparticularpractice,fromwhichtheytaketheirmeaning.Suchpracticesare
discursivelyregulatedwiththeparticipantspositionedinparticularways.Theideaoftheproductionofmathematicalsignswithinpracticesrendersthematonceboth
sociallyandhistoricallyspecificandlinksthemtothenonrationalnoncognitiveaxisbytheuseofLacan's(1977)transformationofFreud'stheoryofunconsciouschains
ofassociationintochainsofsignifiers.
Ifurtheranalyzedthewaysinwhichdomesticpracticesarediscursivelydifferentfromorsimilartoschoolmathematicalones.Althoughtheanalysisof"mathematicsis
everywhere"stressesthesimilaritybetweenpractices,suchananalysisglossesoverimportantdifferences.Thisdiscoursestressestheideaoftransferandthesense
thatallexperiencescanbeanalyzedlogicomathematically.Myanalysisstresseswhyandhowpracticesaremadetosignifyandsuggeststhattherelationbetween
familyandschoolpracticesisfarmorecomplexthanissuggestedbythenotionofdoingmathematicalexamplesinfamiliarcontexts.Iexaminedexamplesofmothers
anddaughterscookingtogetherandaskedwhenandhowcookingcouldbesaidto

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havebecomemathematics.Certainquitespecificdiscursivetransformationstookplacewhencookingbecamemathematics.Ineverycase,thediscoursemovedaway
fromtheproductofthetask,somethingtobecooked,towardsamathematicalstring,withaparticularlinguisticform,inwhichallexternalreferencewasremoved
fromthestringitself(asforexampleinthestring2+3=5).Iarguedthatcookingcouldnotbesaidtobemathematics,onlytoactasafoilforit,untilthis
transformationhadoccurred.Thisconcentrationonthemathematicalstringforitsownsake,movingawayfromaproduct,istypicalofthemathematicaltaskswhichI
observedinearlyeducation.Indeed,theanalysisoftheshoppinggametowhichIreferredearlier,makesitdearthatoneoftheproblemsforthegroupofsevenyear
oldswasthatthisgamewasrepresentedasshoppingbutthattheregulationofthegamewasquitedistinctfromthatofshoppingpractices.Forexample,eachchild
hadtochooseacardwithanitemtobeboughtandanamountofmoneylessthantenpence.Theyhadtoworkoutwhatchangefromtenpencetheywouldgetifthey
boughttheitemusingplasticcoinsandtorecordthecalculationonpaperAsIhaveexplained,thegroupfoundthedisjunctionbetweenthegamepricesand"real"
pricesthebasisforconsiderablehumorandfantasy.Theyalsohadafreshtenpencepieceeachtimesothattheirmoneyneverdecreasedasitwouldhaveinreal
shopping,andtheirendproductwasacalculationwrittenonapieceofpaperandnotanumberofpurchases.Inotherwordstherewasabsolutelynoexchange.
Now,thisistheissuethatIreferredtorightatthebeginningofthepaper.Thecalculationhasapparentlybecomeabstractedfromitsinsertionineverydaypractices.
Yettousethetermabstractedismisleading,forthenewcalculationexistsasadiscursiverelationinanewsetofpractices,namely,thoseofschoolmathematics,with
itsownmodesofregulationandsubjection.Thechildmovesfromthepositionofashoppertothatofastudent,forexample.WhatIamtryingtoestablishisthatthis
moveisnotbestdescribedasashiftfromconcretetoabstractbutasamovefromonediscursivepracticetoanotherSecond,whatcomestobevalorizedasahigher
orderactivitymighthaveeverythingtodowithattemptstoregulateandcontrolthroughreasoninasocialorderwhichfindsitsnorminabourgeoissubjectwhodoes
notneedtocalculatetosurvive.Third,thenewdiscursivepracticeofschoolmathematicshasitsownmodeofregulationandsubjectification.BythisImeanthateach
childbecomespositionedasasubjectinanewway.Thatwaymaybesimilartoordifferentfromthepatternsofsubjectificationinotherpractices,butevidence
suggeststhatforoppressedgroupsthepatternsaresubstan

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tiallydifferent.Thismayhaveimportantaffectiveconsequences.Allofthissuggeststhattheideaofchildrenandadultspossessingdifferentskillsindifferentcontexts
canbeshowninanewlight.ScribnerandCarraher'ssubjects,forexample,arenotbourgeoissubjects:theyareoppressedandexploitedgroupsworkingclassmen
intheU.S.A.andchildrenfromtheBrazilianlumpenproletariat.
Ishouldliketoend,then,byattemptingtoexemplifythewaysinwhichoppressedsubjectsmaylivethedifferentpositioningfrompracticetopractice.Thisdisturbsthe
cozypictureoftherationalunitarysubject(Henriquesetal.1984),the"naturalchild"ofdevelopmentalpsychology,andsubstitutesanaccountwhichisspecifictotime
andplaceandagainstwhichReason'sDreamlookslikeonemorecolonialfantasy.
SplittingtheDifference
Howdochildrenmanagethetransitionfromonepracticetoanother?Althoughitiscommoninpsychologicalaccounts,especiallyfromthe1960sand1970s,to
suggestthatitisgoodmotheringthatprepareschildrenforsuccessinschool(seeWalkerdineandLucey,1989forareview)suchaccountsareproblematicinthat
theyimplythattheproblemsexperiencedbychildrenfromoppressedgroupsaretheresultofinadequatemothering.Suchaccountsdenythecomplexityofthepainof
movingfromsubjectificationinonepracticetoanotherwhichappearstohaveacompletelydifferentsetofrulesandexpectations.Howmightchildrenfromoppressed
groupscopewithanddefendthemselvesagainstthepain?Althusser(1971)inhisfamousIdeologicalStateApparatusespaperusedLacan'stheoryofthemirrorstage
toarguethatschoolsinterpellatedchildrenassubjects,creatingimaginaryidentitiesforthem.Lacanusedtheideaofthemirrortosuggestthatthechild'sfirstviewof
itselfaswholeandunitarywasthefirstideologicalillusion.Now,whiletheidentitycreatedbytheschoolmaywellbeafiction,ithaspowerfuleffects.WhileLacan
maybequitecorrectinassertingtheillusorynatureoftheideaofacoherentidentity,itisundoubtedlythecasethatsubjectsfromoppressedgroupsexperiencemore
keenlyadisablingsenseoffragmentation(Mama,1987).
Thetitleofthissectionreferstothepsychoanalyticterm"splitting,"whichisoneofthemechanismsofdefenseagainstextreme

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anxiety.WhileFreud(1951)andMelanieKlein(1975)usethisterminratherdifferentways,bothrefertothewayinwhichtheunconsciousdefendsitself(see
Walkerdine,1985Hollway,1984andUrwin,1987forfurtherdiscussion).Althoughonthesurfacesomechildrenmayappeartobedealingwiththetransitionfrom
onepracticetoanotherinadetachedmanner,itispreciselythisdetachmentwhichpsychoanalyticaccountssuggestisakeytoextremedistress.Superrationalitymay
beadefenseagainstextremeanxiety.OneofthesixyearoldgirlsinastudywhichIconductedpresentedinclasstheappearanceofextremestupidity.Shecouldnot
followasimpleinstructionandwasextavagantlyvague.Itlaterbecameclearthathervaguenesswasherbestdefense,thewayinwhichsheroutinelycutofffromthe
factthathermotherwasbeingsystematicallyphysicallyabusedbyherfatherHerviolentfeelingsonlyemergedinanincidentinwhichshehadbrokentheheadsoff
somedollsintheWendyHouse.
PatsyisaworkingclassgirlwhoattheageoffourwaspartoftheTizardandHughes(1984)study.We(WalkerdineandLucey,1989)sawheratten.Atfourshe
was,likemanyothergirlsinthestudy,havingdifficultycomingtotermswithbeinga"biggirl."However,ifhermotherpositionedherasa"clevergirl"shewaswilling
andabletocarryoutcertaintasks.Thepositioningashermother'sclevergirlwasimportant.ShealsoscoredhighonanIQtest.However,attenshewascertainlynot
positionedbyherteacheras"clever".Rathertheteachercategorizedheras"nowherenearasbrightastherest(oftheclass).''ShesaidthatPatsyresortedtoinfantile
behaviorandthatbasicallyshehadnosavinggraces.Howcomethis"clever"littlegirlbecamestupidandinfantileatten?
ItisashockingfactthatthreeotherworkingclassgirlsinthesamplewhogainedhighIQscoresatfourwerealsoregardedasstupidattenandtheyall,likePatsy,
positionedthemselvesasvictims.Whilemanygirlsmentionedtheviolenceofothers,especiallyboys,thesegirlssawthemselvesasthetargetofthatviolence.Usingthe
psychoanalyticdiscourse,whichIhavediscussed,itispossibletoseethisasadefensiveresponsetounendurablepain.WhatifPatsyandtheseothergirlsfelt
frightenedinanalienworldthattheydidnotunderstandandwhichdidnotunderstandthem?Theycouldnoteasilyunleashtheirangeragainstthosewhotheyneeded
desperatelytocallthem"clever,"tomakethemfeelsafeandathome.Toprojecttheirviolentemotionsintoothersandtopresentthemselvesasvictimsasreminiscent
ofsomeofthesymptomsdisplayedbycolonizedpeoplesasdescribedbythepsychiatristFranzFanon(1967)whentalkingabouttheAlgerianWar.Sometimesto
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tosurviveandtolongtobelovedinanalienworldinwhichitisalltooeasytoberejected.Anotherdefense,ofcourse,istodotherejectingfirst,soastomakethe
painoffailuremorebearable.Sociologistshavetendedtodescribesuchstrategiesasantischoolresistance(e.g.Willis,1977).
Forallofthesechildren,crossingtheboundariesfromonepracticetoanothercannotbeeasy.InWalkerdineetal(1989)wepointedoutthatnogirlscrossthe
boundaryfromhometoschoolasaneasytransitionfromdependencytoautonomy.Whengirlsenterschooltheyareclassified,categorized.Thereadingsoftheir
behaviorsandperformancearehighlygenderspecific.Wepresentedampleevidencetosupporttheviewthatevenwhengirlsdisplayedthecharacteristicsvalorizedin
boysthisdidnotmeantheywerejudgedasbeingsuccessful.Often,preciselythesedesignationsrenderedthempathologicalwhenviewedinrelationtofemininity.We
arguedthatitwasnecessarytounderstandhowhighperforminggirlscametobedesignatedas"onlyhardworking"whenpoorlyachievingboyscouldbeunderstoodas
"bright"eventhoughtheypresentedlittleevidenceofhighattainment.Poorlyachievinggirlsinthestudy,quitesimply,wereneverdesignatedbright(seeforexample,
Walkerdineetal,1989,page102).
Inotherwords,wepresentedawholesystemofsubjectificationsthroughwhichgirlsarejudged.Thatthesesubjectificationshavelittleempiricalfoundationinrelation
tothegirls'performancefurtherpointstotheimportanceofthesensethatsomefictionisbeingcreatedtoaccountforwhatitisnecessarytoprovetimeandtimeagain:
theinferiorityoftheOtherTheOtherconstantlythreatensthedominantgroupandnoendoffantasiesandfictionsareemployedtopositiontheoppressedsubjectas
Other,pathological.WearguedfurtherthatsinceReasonhastobeunderstoodasthepossessionof"man,"therewillalwaysbeapushtoproveOthernessas"lack."It
isindeedtheparanoiasofthepowerfulthatareatstakehere:thefearthattheoppressedmightbeabletotakeawaytheirpositionofdominance.Itisourcontention
thatthisdominancehastobeassuredbyanumberofsocialandpsychicstrategiesforconstitutingtheoppressedgroupsasOtherandsopathologizingthem.
Suchissuesbringusbackfullcircletothepathologizationofdifference.Itismycontentionthatanypsychologicalapproachtotheissueofdifferenceandmathematical
performancemustdealwiththecomplexpsychicissuesraisedabove.Thefantasiesofthecolonizerareinscribedintheregulationofcolonialsubjects(Bhabha,1984)
theybecomethe"truths"throughwhichdevelopmentandperfor

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manceareunderstood.Thosefantasiesandtheattemptsatregulationareinscribedintheveryhistoryoftheinsertionoftheoriesofreasonandreasoninginto
mathematicseducation,andwhereverwefindtheOther,theworkingclass,thepeasant,theblack,thegirl,therewefindclaimsoftheproofofabnormality,of
irrationality.Myargumentfinallyisthenthatinordertoaddresstheseissuesproperlyweneedtoconstructaccountswhichmoveawayfromthestagewise
progressionsofmostFirstWorlddevelopmentalmodelstoanunderstandingofdevelopmentasspecifictosocialandhistoricalcircumstances.Onlythen,Isuggest,
willwebeabletoengagewithoppressionassomethingotherthanindividualpathology.
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Freud,S.(1951).Thesplittingoftheegointheprocessofdefence.TheCompletePsychologicalWorksofSigmundFreud.Vol23.London:HogarthPress.
Hollway,W.(1984)."Genderidentityinadultsocialrelations."InJ.Henriques,etal.Changingthesubject.London:Methuen.
Lacan,J.(1977).Ecrits:aselection.London:Tavistock.
Lave,J.(1988).Cognitioninpractice.Cambridge,MA:TheUniversityPressLeDoeff,M.(1978).Operativephilosophy.IdeologyandConsciousnessKlein,
M.(1975).Love,guiltandreparation,andotherworks.London:TheHogarthPress.
Mama,A.(1987).Subjectivity,raceandgenderPh.D.diss.UniversityofLondon,BirkbeckCollege.
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Rotman,S.(1980).Mathematics:anessayinsemiotics.Bristol,Eng.:UniversityofBristol,mimeo.
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Chapter10
AnExampleofTraditionalWomen'sWorkasaMathematicsResource
MaryHarris
Editors'scomment:MaryHarrispresentsaspecificculturalactivityusuallyconsideredwomen'sworkandreconsidersitasmathematicalactivity.ThischapterfirstappearedinFor
theLearningofMathematics7(3):2628,in1987.
"ExAfricasemperaliquidnovi"Plinyissupposedtohavewritten:"ThereisalwayssomethingnewfromAfrica."
PartofthenewnessofPaulusGerdes'workinMozambique(Gerdes,1986a)isthatheoffers"nonstandardproblems,"easilysolvedbymanyilliterateMozambican
artisans,tomembersoftheinternationalmathematicseducationcommunitywhocannot(atfirst)dothem.Theyhavetroubleinconstructinganglesof90,60,and45
degreesandregularhexagonsoutofstripsofpaper,problemswhicharenotroubleatalltopeopleforwhomtheintellectualandpracticalartofweavingisa
necessarypartoflife.
RecentlyIhavebeenofferingtoexperiencedteachersandteachersintraining,someofthe"nonstandardproblems"thatareeasilysolvedbyanywomanbroughtup
tomakeherorherfamily'sclothes.Manyofthemaleteachersaresounfamiliarwiththeconstructionandevenshapeandsizeoftheirowngarmentsthattheycannot
atfirstperceivethatallyouneedtomakeasweater(apartfromthetechnologyandtools)isanunderstandingofratioandallyouneedtomakeashirtisan
understandingofrightanglesandparallellines,theideaofarea,somesymmetry,someoptimizationandtheabilitytoworkfromtwodimensionalplanstothree
dimensionalforms.
Whatmakestheproblemsnonstandardistheviewpointofthose

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whosetthestandards.Gerdes'work,andtheworkofothersinthefieldofethnomathematicsofferaratherthreateningconfrontationtothetraditionalstandardsetters.
Gerdesisupagainstanumberoffactorsthatuntilrecentlyhavetriedtodeterminetheeducation,orpreviouslackofit,inhiscountry.Thefreshnessofhisworkishis
illustrationofthemathematicsthatalreadyexistsinMozambicancultureandhowheissettingabout"defrosting"it.
ItisinterestingtotakeGerdes'analysisandhisenergyandcommitmentandtoapplythemworldwideandinthedifferentcontextofwomen'sculture.Therewillbe
thosewhowillmaintainthat"women"istoowideatermtoallowofasingleculture,butthe"setofwomenwhomakeandusetextilesinhomemaking"wouldcertainly
seemtofitthedefinitionofcultureusedbyWilder(1981)inhisMathematicsasaCulturalSystem.
Inmathematicalactivity,womenloseoutintwoways.Untilveryrecently,inmosthistoriesofmathematics,womenmathematiciansbarelygotamention.Throughout
Westernhistory,asAlic(1986)shows,theworkofwomenmathematiciansandscientistshasbeen"ignored,robbedofcreditandforgotten."Betterthattheyshould
stayathomeanddotheirneedlework,aharmless,practicalandnonintellectualactivity.Manywomendotheirneedleworkinfactoriesindeed,inthetextilesindustry,
womenareatthe"cuttingedge"(ChapkisandEnloe1983).Heretheirlowlystatusisrationalizedbyalltheusualtales:they"aresaidtohavepatience,atolerancefor
monotony,nimblefingers,attentiontodetail,littlephysicalstrength,nomechanicalaptitude"andsoon.Inaworldwherethereislittlepredispositiontotakewomen's
intellectualworkseriously,thepotentialforgivingthemanycreditforthoughtintheirpracticalwork,athomeorinthefactory,isseverelylimited.
ThesocialdistinctionbetweenthepracticalmathematicsconsideredappropriateforanartisanclassandthetheoreticalmathematicsoflitesisolderthanPlato
(D'Ambrosio1985).Yet"practical,scientific,aesthetic,andphilosophicalinterestshaveallshapedmathematics"(Kline1953).Nowadayspracticalmathematicsis
nearlyalwaysseenintermsoftheapplicationoftheoreticalmathematicslearnedintheformalcontextofschool.Itoftenstillcarriesthestigmaofbeingparticularly
suitableforLowAttainers.Womendoingpracticalmathematicsreallyareatthebottomofthepile.
Infactasingleactivitycan,byitsnature,generatemoremathematicsthantheapplicationofthetheorytoaparticularcase.Arecentconferenceofabout240
mathematicsteachersoffersanexample.Theteachersweregivenanactivityposednotasamathematicalonebut

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intheformofaninternalmemotohisvisualizationteamofthemanagingdirectorofanexpensivedesigncompany,askingforsomemorethanusualingenuityofdesign
forapackforasinglesportsball,foracompanyhewishedtoimpress.Theteachersworkedingroupsandproducedanimpressivearrayofpackstogetherwithalist
ofmathematicstheyhadfoundthemselvesinvolvedin,whichrantothreepages.Mostsignificantthoughwasthebehaviourofthegroups.Thosewhoperceivedthe
problemasjustamathematicaloneandonlyattemptedittheoretically,foundthemselvesconfinedtotheverylimitedrangeofmathematicstheyhadchosen.Those
whosetaboutthetaskinapracticalway,however,continuallycameupwithfurtherproblemsbothofconstructionanddesignwhichinturngeneratedmoreproblems
andmoremathematics.Inshort,itwasthetheoreticianswholimitedthemselvesbytheir"theoryandapplications"approach.Thepractitionersfoundthemselves
involvednotonlywithwider,butalsowithdeepermathematicsasitemergedfromthetaskitself.Ofcourse,thepractitionersweremathematicsteachersandtherefore
knewwhattolookfor,butthereisnodoubtatallthattheysurprisedthemselves.
Perhapstheroleofschoolmathematicsteachersinsuchcircumstancesshouldnotbetoteachsometheoryandthenlookforapplicationbuttoanalyzeandelucidate
themathematicsthatgrowsoutofthestudents'activity.Gerdesusestheterm"frozen"formathematicshiddeninculturalartifacts,anditisagoodone,butthereisthe
dangerthatapreperceptionofwhatistheretobefrozencouldlimitwhatisdefrosted.Weneedatermthatimplieshatchingorgerminationofundefinedpotential,as
wellasdefrosting,becausemuchofthemathematicalthinkingthathasbecomefrozeninanartifacthasbeenputtherebysomeonewhohasnotbeenrearedonNorth
AmericantextbooksorstandardWesternmathematicseducationwithallitsattitudesandprejudices.TraditionalNorthAmericanandWesternmathematicshas
ignoredituntilnow(Islamicmathematicshasalwaysreveiledinit),thoughweavershavealwaysknownthatweavingisanintellectualactivity.Aglanceatanypieceof
traditionalweavingrevealsahugerangeofobviousgeometrytoanyonewhochoosestonotice.Howcouldithavegottherewithoutmathematicalthinking?Whydo
peoplechoosenottonotice?
AstudentstudyingsymmetryinaWesternschoolmightbecongratulatedbyhisteacheronproducingthedesigninfigure101,afteraninvestigationstartingwithan
isoscelestriangleandinvolvingtranslationandrotation.Thesameteachermightdrawtheattentionoftherestoftheclasstosuchapatternandsuggesttheclass
analyze

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Figure101.
togethersomeofthethingsthathavehappenedtotheoriginaltrianglethus,synthesisandanalysiscouldtakeplaceoveroneactivity,onestudent'sthinkingcouldbe
revealedtoothers,andfurtherthoughtdeveloped.
Figure102.
Figure102isasketchofamotifworkedonaTurkishflatwovenrug,akiliminthepossessionofthewriterThemotifisoneofmanyontheruganditissketchedin
suchawaythatthelinesofabackgroundgridwouldrepresentgenerallythewarpandweftthreads.Unlikefigure101whereastudentcan"plant"atriangle
anywhere

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onsquaredpaperandworkoutwardsfromit,theweaverhastoworkunderseveralconstraintsbothofdesignandconstruction.Themotifhastobeplacedexactlyin
relationtoothermotifs,inrelationtothesymmetricalborderoftherugandthesymmetricalcenterpanelwithinawideborder,sothatthewholerugitselfis
symmetrical.Constructionconstraintsmeanthattheweaverworksfromrighttoleftandlefttorightonagridalreadydefinedandconfinedbythenumberofwarp
threads.Thelengthoftherugisdeterminedbythedesign,sothattheweaverfinishesitwhenthewholethingissymmetrical.
Forreasonswhichneedtobecloselyexamined,figure101seemstocountasmathematics,figure102doesnot.Mostofthereasonssuggestedtothewritersofar,
donotstanduptomuchexamination.Asummaryofthemisthatfigure102issimplynottakenseriouslyasmathematicsbecausefirsttheweaverhashadno
schoolingandisilliterateandsecond,sheisagirl.Ithasevenbeenstatedbymorethanonemathematicseducatorthattheweaver"isnotthinkingmathematically,"to
whichtheimmediateresponsemustbe:"Howdoyouknow?Haveyouaskedherwhatherthinkingwas?"Itseemsthatthewholequestionastowhetherfigures101,
and102,neither,orbotharemathematicalishedgedaboutwithnotmuchmorethanattitude.Theweaverissimplyassumednotbecapableofthinking
mathematically.
Figure103.
Takeanotherexample,thistimefromindustry,theproblemoflaggingarightangledcylindricalpipeinafactory(figure103).Theproblemistopreventthelagging
frombunchingupattheinsideof

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theangleatAandthusdevelopingahotspotandstretchingoutatB,thusdevelopingacoldspot.Thefactoryisachemicalworksandthelaggingproblemis
compoundedbythefactthattherightanglehastoopenoutonoccasiontoabout180degrees.Soaswellasbeinginefficientincrucialplaces,thelaggingwillsoon
wearout.Inindustrythisisjustthesortofproblemtowhichmathematicalthinkingwouldbebrought.
Whyisitthatthisindustrialproblemisconsideredtobeinherentlymathematicalwhereastheidenticaldomesticproblem,thatofthedesignoftheheelofasock,is
not?DareitbesuggestedthatthereasonisthatsocksaretraditionallyknittedbyGrannyandnobodyexpectshertobemathematical.What,dearoldGran?
Turnheelasfollows:
1strowK.12[14,16],sl.1,K.1,psso.,K.1,turn.
2ndrowP.6[6,8],P.2tog.,P.l,turn.
3rdrowK.tolast6[8,8]sts.,sl.1,K.1,psso,K.1,turn.
4throwP.tolast6[8,8]sts.,P.2tog.,P.l,turn.
5throwK.tolast4[6,6]sts.,sl.1,K.1,psso,K.1,turn.
6throwP.tolast4[6,6]sts.,P.2tog.,P.1,turn.
Figure104.

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Oristherereallysomemathematicalreasonliketheproblemnotbeingcapableofgeneralsolution?Butthewayexperiencedknittersactuallyworkistoageneral
solution.Sockinstructionsaretediouslywrittenoutrowbyrowasinfigure104,butonlythemostinexperiencedorunskilledworkerwouldactuallyusethemlike
this.Thenormalprocedureforanexperiencedpersonistofollowthepatternonlyforaslongasitisnecessarytogetthefeelofthewaythethingisshaping.Women
whomakesocksforfamiliesofchildrenoftenworktotheirowngeneralsolution(thereareseveral),modifyingthemforaparticularchildwhohasgrown.
Why,whenwetakechildrentolookattheenvironmentsothatwecandrawoutthemathematics,dowealwaysshowthemthemanmadeenvironment:cranes,
bridges,pavingslabs,brickpatterns?Whydowechoosenottolookatthecloserenvironment,theonewecarrywithus?Howmanymenwhoweartiesareaware
oftheinterestinggeometrythatisgoingonliterallyundertheirnoses?
Sowhatisitaboutthesockproblemthatensuresthatitwillnotbetakenseriously?Whyisitnonstandard?Isitsimplythatitisnotnormaltocouchitinmathematical
jargon?Verywellthen,hereitisformally:''Deriveageneralexpressionfortheheelofasock."
Andastowhetheryoustillwonderifitismathematicsornot,toquoteGerdesagain,"Pleaseanswerforyourself."
References
Alic,Margaret.(1986).Hypatia'sheritage:Ahistoryofwomeninsciencefromantiquitytothelatenineteenthcentury.London:TheWomen'sPress.
Chapkis,WendyandEnloe,Cynthia.(1983).Ofcommoncloth:Womenintheglobaltextilesindustry.AmsterdamandWashingtonDC:TransnationalInstitute.
D'Ambrosio,Ubiritan.(1985)."Ethnomathematicsanditsplaceinthehistoryandpedagogyofmathematics."FortheLearningofMathematics5,no.1(February).
Gerdes,Paulus.(1986a)."Howtorecognisehiddengeometricalthinking:Acontributiontothedevelopmentofanthropologicalmathematics."FortheLearningof
Mathematics6,no.2(June).
Gerdes,Paulus.(1986b)."Onculture:MathematicsandcurriculumdevelopmentinMozambique."InMaritJohnsenHoinesandStiegMellinOlsen(Eds.).
Mathematicsandculture.Reportofaseminarheldat

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BergenCollegeofEducation,2628September1985.Rdal,Norway:CasparForlag.
Kline,Morris.(1953).Mathematicsinwesternculture.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Wilder,R.(1981).Mathematicsasaculturalsystem.Oxford:PergamonPress.

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Chapter11
OnCulture,GeometricalThinkingandMathematicsEducation
PaulusGerdes
Editors'scomment:PaulusGerdes,aMozambicanmathematicianandmathematicseducator,hasbeenaleadingresearcherinuncoveringmathematicalideasembeddedinAfrican
culturalpracticesandartifactsandinpresentingthesefindingstothemathematicalcommunity.Inthischapter,hedemonstratesanalternativeconstructionofcertain"Euclidean"
geometricalideasbyreconsideringthemathematicsinherentintraditionalMozambicanculture.Consequently,thischapterraisesquestionsconcerningtheoriginsofthese
geometricalideas.Finally,hedemonstrateshowethnomathematicalresearchintoMozambicanmaterialculturecancreateanempoweringcurriculumforMozambicanstudents.
ThischapterfirstappearedinEducationalStudiesinMathematics,Dordrecht19(3):137162,in1988.IthasalsobeenpublishedinBishop,A.(Ed.).Mathematicseducationand
culture.Dordrecht:Kluwer,1988,137162andinGerdes,P.EthnomathematicsandeducationinAfrica.Stockholm:UniversityofStockholmInstituteofInternationalEducation,
1995,3052.
"Colonizationisthegreatestdestroyerofculturethathumanityhaseverknown...Longsuppressedmanifestationsofculturehavetoregaintheirplace..."
SamoraMachel,1978.
"EducationmustgiveusaMozambicanpersonalitywhich,withoutsubservienceofanykindandsteepedinourownrealities,willbeable,incontact
ThisarticleisdedicatedtoSamoraMachel,PresidentofMozambique,whodiedonthe19thOctober1986,thedayIfinishedthischapter.

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withtheoutsideworld,toassimilatecriticallytheideasandexperiencesofotherpeoples,alsopassingontothemthefruitsofourthoughtandpractice."
SamoraMachel,1970.
SomeSocialandCulturalAspectsofMathematicsEducationinThirdWorldCountries
Inmostformerlycolonizedcountries,postindependenceeducationdidnotsucceedinappeasingthehungerforknowledgeofitspeople'smasses.
AlthoughtherehadoccurredadramaticexplosioninthestudentpopulationinmanyAfricannationsoverthelasttwentyfiveyears,themeanilliteracyrateforAfrica
wasstill66percentin1980.Overcrowdedclassrooms,shortageofqualifiedteachers,andlackofteachingmaterialscontributedtowardslowlevelsofattainment.In
thecaseofmathematicseducation,thistendencyhasbeenreinforcedbyahastycurriculumtransplantationfromhighlyindustrializednationstoThirdWorld
countries.
1
Withthetransplantationofcurriculatheirperspectivewasalsocopied:"(primary)mathematicsisseenonlyasasteppingstonetowardssecondary
mathematics,whichinturnisseenasapreparationforuniversityeducation."
2
Mathematicseducationisthereforestructuredintheinterestsofasocialelite.Tothe
majorityofchildren,mathematicslooksratheruseless.Mathsanxietyiswidespreadespeciallyforsonsanddaughtersofpeasantsandlaborers,mathematicsenjoys
littlepopularity.Mathematicseducationservestheselectionofelites:"Mathematicsisuniversallyrecognizedasthemosteffectiveeducationfilter,"asElTom
underlines.
3
UbiratanD'Ambrosio,presidentoftheInteramericanCommitteeonMathematicsEducationagrees:"...mathematicshasbeenusedasabarrierto
socialaccess,reinforcingthepowerstructurewhichprevailsinthesocieties(oftheThirdWorld).Noothersubjectinschoolservessowellthispurposeof
reinforcementofpowerstructureasdoesmathematics.Andthemaintoolforthisnegativeaspectofmathematicseducationisevaluation."
4
IntheirstudyofthemathematicslearningdifficultiesoftheKpelle(Liberia),GayandCole(1967)concluded,thattheredonotexistanyinherentdifficulties:what
happenedintheclassroom,wasthatthecontentsdidnotmakeanysensefromthepointofviewof

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Kpelleculturemoreoverthemethodsusedwereprimarilybasedonrotememoryandharshdiscipline.
5
ExperimentsshowedthatKpelleilliterateadultsperformed
betterthanNorthAmericanadults,whensolvingproblems,liketheestimationofnumberofcupsofriceinacontainer,thatbelongtotheir"indigenousmathematics."
6

SeriousdoubtsabouttheeffectivenessofschoolmathematicsteachingarealsoraisedbyLatinAmericanresearchers.EduardoLuna(DominicanRepublic)(1983)
posedthequestionifitispossible,thatthepracticalmathematicalknowledgethatchildrenacquiredoutsidetheschoolis"repressed"and"confused"intheschool.
7

Notonlypossible,butthishappensfrequently,asshownbytheBrasiliansCarraherandSchliemann(1982):children,whoknewbeforetheywenttoschool,howto
solvecreativelyarithmeticalproblemswhichtheyencounteredindailylife,forexample,atthemarketplace,could,laterintheschool,notsolvethesameproblem,that
is,notsolvethemwiththemethodstaughtinthearithmeticclass.
8
D'Ambrosioconcludesthat"'learned'matheracyeliminatesthesocalled'spontaneous'
matheracy,"
9
thatis,Anindividualwhomanagesperfectlywellnumbers,operations,geometricforms,andnotions,whenfacingacompletelynewandformal
approachtothesamefactsandneedscreatesapsychologicalblockadewhichgrowsasabarrierbetweenthedifferentmodesofnumericalandgeometrical
thought''.
10
Whathappensintheschool,isthat"theformer,letussay,spontaneous,abilities(are)downgraded,repressed,andforgotten,whilethelearnedones(are
notbeing)assimilated,eitherasaconsequenceofalearningblockage,orofanearlydropout."
11
Forthisreason,"theearlystagesofmathematicseducation(offer)a
veryefficientwayofinstillingthesenseoffailure,ofdependencyinthechildren."
12
Howcanthispsychologicalblockadebeavoided?
Howcanthis"totallyinappropriateeducation,leadingtomisunderstandingandsocioculturalandpsychologicalalienation"
13
beavoided?Howcanthis"pushingaside"
and"wipingout"ofspontaneous,natural,informal,indigenous,folk,implicit,nonstandard,and/orhidden(ethno)mathematicsbeavoided?
14
GayandCole(1967)becameconvincedthatitisnecessarytoinvestigatefirstthe"indigenousmathematics,"inordertobeabletobuildeffectivebridgesfromthis
indigenousmathematics"tothenewmathematicstobeintroducedintheschool:"...theteachershouldbeginwithmaterialsoftheindigenousculture,leadingthe
childtousetheminacreativeway,"
15
andfromthereadvancetothenewschoolmathematics.TheTanzaniancurriculumspecialistMmaristresses,that:"...thereare
traditionalmathematicsmethodsstillbeingusedin

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Tanzania....Agoodteachercanutilizethissituationtounderlinetheuniversaltruthsofthemathematicalconcepts."
16
Andhowcouldthegoodteacherachievethis?
Jacobsenanswers:"The(African)peoplethatarebuildingthehousesarenotusingmathematicsthey'redoingittraditionally...ifwecanbringoutthescientific
structureofwhyit'sdone,thenyoucanteachsciencethatway."
17
ForD'Ambrosio,(1984)itbecomesnecessary"...togeneratewaysofunderstanding,and
methodsfortheincorporationandcompatibilizationofknownandcurrentpopularpracticesintothecurriculum.Inotherwords,inthecaseofmathematics,
recognitionandincorporationofethnomathematicsintothecurriculum."
18
''...this....requiresthedevelopmentofquitedifficultanthropologicalresearchmethods
relatingtomathematics...anthropologicalmathematics...constitutesanessentialresearchthemeinThirdWorldcountries...astheunderlyinggroundupon
whichwecandevelopcurriculuminarelevantway."
19
TowardsaCulturalMathematicalReaffirmation
D'Ambrosiostressedtheneedforincorporationofethnomathematicsintothecurriculuminordertoavoidapsychologicalblockade.Informercolonizedcountriesas
Mozambique,thereexistsalsoarelatedculturalblockadetobeeliminated."ColonizationinthewordsofSamoraMachel,firstPresidentofMozambiqueisthe
greatestdestroyerofculturethathumanityhaseverknown.Africansocietyanditsculturewerecrushed,andwhentheysurvivedtheywerecooptedsothattheycould
bemoreeasilyemptiedoftheircontent.Thiswasdoneintwodistinctways.Onewastheutilizationofinstitutionsinordertosupportcolonialexploitation....The
otherwasthe'folklorizing'ofculture,itsreductiontomoreorlesspicturesquehabitsandcustoms,toimposeintheirplacethevaluesofcolonialism.""Colonial
educationappearsinthiscontextasaprocessofdenyingthenationalcharacter,alienatingtheMozambicanfromhiscountryandhisoriginand,inexacerbatinghis
dependenceonabroad,forcinghimtobeashamedofhispeopleandhisculture."
20
Inthespecificcaseofmathematics,thissciencewaspresentedasanexclusively
whitemen'screationandabilitythemathematicalcapacitiesofthecolonizedpeopleswerenegatedorreducedtorotememorizationtheAfricanandAmericanIndian
mathematicaltraditionsbecameignoredordespised.

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Aculturalrebirthisindispensable,asSamoraMachel(1978)underlines:"...Longsuppressedmanifestationsofculture(haveto)regaintheirplace."
21
Inthis
culturalrebirth,inthiscombatofracialandcolonialprejudice,aculturalmathematicalreaffirmationplaysapart:itisnecessarytoencourageanunderstandingthat
thepeoplesoftheThirdWorldhavebeencapableofdevelopingmathematicsinthepast,andthereforeregainingculturalconfidence
22
willbeabletoassimilateand
developthemathematicsweneedmathematicsdoesnotcomefromoutsidetheAfrican,Asian,andAmericanIndiancultures.
Wemayconcludethattheincorporationofmathematicaltraditionsintothecurriculumwillprobablycontributenotonlytotheeliminationofindividualandsocial
psychologicalblockade,butalsooftherelatedculturalblockade.Now,thisraisesanimportantquestion:whichmathematicaltraditions?Inordertobeableto
incorporatepopular(mathematical)practices,itisfirstofallnecessarytorecognizetheirmathematicalcharacter.Inthissense,D'Ambrosio(1985)speaksabout
theneedtobroadenourunderstandingofwhatmathematicsis.
23
AscherandAscher(1981)remarkinthisconnection"Becauseoftheprovincialviewofthe
professionalmathematicians,mostdefinitionsofmathematicsexcludeorminimizetheimplicitandinformal...involvementwithconceptsofnumber,spatial
configuration,andlogic,thatis,implicitorexplicitmathematics,ispanhuman."
24
Broadeningourunderstandingofwhatmathematicsis,isnecessary,butnotsufficient.Arelatedproblemishowtoreconstructmathematicaltraditions,whenprobably
manyofthemhavebeenasaconsequenceofslavery,ofcolonialism...wipedout.Feworalmostnone(asinthecaseofMozambique)writtensourcescanbe
consulted.Maybefornumbersystemsandsomeaspectsofgeometricalthinking,oralhistorymayconstituteanalternative.Whatothersourcescanbeused?What
methodology?
Wedevelopedacomplementarymethodologythatenablesonetouncoverintraditional,materialculturesomehiddenmomentsofgeometricalthinking.Itcanbe
characterizedasfollows.Welookedtothegeometricalformsandpatternsoftraditionalobjectslikebaskets,mats,pots,houses,fishtraps,adsoforthandposedthe
question:whydothesematerialproductspossesstheformtheyhave?Inordertoanswerthisquestion,welearnedtheusualproductiontechniquesandtriedtovary
theforms.Itcameoutthattheformoftheseobjectsisalmostneverarbitrary,butgenerallyrepresentsmanypracticaladvantagesandis,quitealotoftimes,theonly
possibleoroptimalsolutionofaproductionproblem.Thetraditionalformreflectsaccu

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mulatedexperienceandwisdom.Itconstitutesnotonlybiologicalandphysicalknowledgeaboutthematerialsthatareused,butalsomathematicalknowledge,
knowledgeaboutthepropertiesandrelationsofcircles,angles,rectangles,squares,regularpentagonsandhexagons,cones,pyramids,cylinders,andsoforth.
Applyingthismethod,wediscoveredquitealotof"hidden"or"frozen"mathematics.
25
Theartisan,whoimitatesaknownproductiontechnique,is,generally,doing
somemathematics.Buttheartisanswhodiscoveredthetechniques,didandinventedquitealotofmathematics,werethinkingmathematically.Whenpupilsare
stimulatedtoreinventsuchaproductiontechnique,theymaybeencouragedtodoandlearnmathematics.Heretotheycanbestimulatedonlyiftheteachers
themselvesareconsciousofhiddenmathematics,areconvincedofthecultural,educational,andscientificvalueofrediscoveringandexploringhiddenmathematics,
areawareofthepotentialof"unfreezing"this"frozenmathematics."Nowweshallpresentsomeofourexperiencesinthisnecessary"culturalconscientialization''of
futuremathematicsteachers.
Examplesof"CulturalConscientialization"ofFutureMathematicsTeachers
StudyofAlternateAxiomaticConstructionsofEuclideanGeometryinTeacherTraining
Manyalternateaxiomaticconstructionsforeuclideangeometryhavebeendevised.InAlexandrov'sconstruction,
26
Euclid'sfamousfifthpostulateissubstitutedbythe
"rectangle,axiom":
thatis,ifAD=BCandAandBarerightangles,thenAB=DCandCandDarealsorightangles.Inoneoftheclassroomsessionsofan

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introductorygeometrycourse,weposedthefollowingprovocativequestiontoourfuturemathematicsteachersmanyofwhomaresonsanddaughtersofpeasants
:"Which'rectangleaxiom'dotheMozambicanpeasantsuseintheirdailylife?"Thestudents'firstreactionswereratherscepticalinthesenseof"Oh,theydon'tknow
anythingaboutgeometry."Counterquestionsfollowed:"Dothepeasantsuserectanglesintheirdailylife?"."Dotheyconstructrectangles?"Studentsfromdifferentparts
ofthecountrywereaskedtoexplaintotheircolleagueshowtheirparentsconstruct,forexample,therectangularbasesoftheirhouses.Essentially,twoconstruction
techniquesarecommon:
(a)Inthefirstcase,onestartsbylayingdownonthefloortwolongbamboosticksofequallength.
Thenthesefirsttwosticksarecombinedwithtwoothersticksalsoofequallength,butnormallyshorterthanthefirstones.
Nowthesticksaremovedtoformaclosureofaquadrilateral.
Onefurtheradjuststhefigureuntilthediagonalsmeasuredwitharopebecomeequallylong.Then,wherethesticksarenow

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lyingonthefloor,tinesaredrawnandthebuildingofthehousecanstart.
(b)Inthesecondcase,onestartswithtworopesofequallength,thataretiedtogetherattheirmidpoints.
Abamboostick,whoselengthisequaltothatofthedesiredbreadthofthehouse,islaiddownonthefloor,andatitsendpointspinsarehitintotheground.Anendpointofeach
oftheropesistiedtooneofthepins.
Thentheropesarestretchedandattheremainingtwoendpointsoftheropes,newpinsarehitintotheground.Thesefourpinsdeterminethefourverticesofthehousetobe
built.

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"Isitpossibletoformulatethegeometricalknowledge,implicitintheseconstructiontechniques,intotermsofanaxiom?""Which'rectangleaxiom'dotheysuggest?"
Nowthestudentsarriveatthefollowingtwoalternate"rectangleaxioms":
thatis,ifAD=BC,AB=DCandAC=BD,thenA,B,CandDarerightangles.Inotherwords,anequidiagonalparallelogramisarectangle.
thatis,ifM=ACBDandAM=BM=CM=DM,thenA,B,CandDarerightangles,AD=BCandAB=DC.Inotherwords,anequisemidiagonal
quadrilateralisarectangle."Afterall,ourpeasantsknowsomethingaboutgeometry,"remarksastudent.Another,moredoubtful:"Buttheseaxiomsaretheorems,
aren'tthey?"Thisclassroomsessionleadstoamoreprofoundunderstandingbythestudentoftherelationshipsbetweenexperience,thepossiblechoicesofaxioms,
betweenaxiomsandtheoremsatthefirststagesofalternateaxiomaticconstructions.Itpreparesthefutureteachersfordiscussionslaterintheirstudyonwhich
methodsofteachinggeometryseemtobethemostappropriateinourculturalcontext.Itcontributestoculturalmathematicalconfidence.

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AnAlternateConstructionofRegularPolygons
ArtisansinthenorthofMozambiqueweaveafunnelinthefollowingway.OnestartsbymakingasquarematABCD,butdoesnotfinishit:withthestrandsinone
direction(horizontalinourfigure),theartisanadvancesonlyuntilthemiddle.
Then,insteadofintroducingmorehorizontalstrips,heinterweavestheverticalstrandsontheright(betweenCandE)withthoseontheleft(betweenFandD).Inthis
waythematdoesnotremainflat,butistransformedintoa"basket."ThecenterTgoesdownwardsandbecomesthevertexofthefunnel.Inordertoguaranteea
stablerim,itsedgesAB,BC,andACarerectifiedwithlittlebranches.Asafinalresult,thefunnelhastheformofatriangularpyramid.Sofaraboutthistraditional
productiontechnique.
27
Weposedourstudentsthefollowingquestion:"Whatcanwelearnfromthisproductiontechnique?""ThesquareABCDhasbeentransformedintoatriangular
pyramidABC.T,whosebaseABCisanequilateraltriangle.
Maybeamethodtoconstructanequilateraltriangle?"....Some

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reactedsceptically:"Averyclumsymethodtodoso."Counterquestions:"Avoidoverhastyconclusions!Whatwastheobjectiveoftheartisan?Whatisourobjective?"
"Canwesimplifytheartisans'methodifweonlywanttoconstructanequilateraltriangle?'"Howtoconstructsuchatriangleoutofasquareofcardbordpaper?"An
answertothesequestionsisgiveninthefollowingdiagrams:
jointhetrianglesDFTandCFTuntilCandDcoincide,
Fgoesup,Tgoesdown

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fixthe"doubletriangle"DFTtothefaceATC,e.g.withapaperclip
"Canthismethodbegeneralized?""Startingwitharegularoctagon,howtotransformitintoaregularheptagonalpyramid?""Howtofoldaregularoctagon?"
foldingthediagonalsandFT

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Fgoesup,TgoesdownandA
7
andA
8
approximateuntiltheycoincide
"Howtotransformtheregularheptagonalpyramidintoaregularhexagonalpyramid?"As2
n
gonsareeasytofold(bydoublingthecentraldiagonalswhenonestarts
withasquare)andeachtimethatthesimplified"funnelmethod"isapplied,thenumberofsidesofaregularpolygon(oroftheregularpolygonalbaseofapyramid)
decreasesby1,itcanbeconcludedthatallregularpolygonscanbeconstructedinthisway.
28
Oncearrivedatthispoint,itispossibletolookbackandask:"Didwe
learnsomethingfromtheartisanswhoweavefunnels?""Isitpossibletoconstructaregularheptagonusingonlyarulerandacompass?""Whynot?''"Andwithour
method?"
"WhataretheadvantagesofourgeneralmethodinrelationtothestandardEuclideanrulerandcompassconstructions?""Whatareitsdisadvantages?""Whichmethod
hastobepreferredforourprimaryschools?""Why?"
FromWovenButtonstothe"TheoremofPythagoras"
29
Bypullingalittlelassooaroundasquarewovenbutton,itispossibletofastenthetopofabasket,asiscommonlydoneinsouthernpartsofMozambique.Thesquare
button,wovenoutoftwostrips,hidessomeremarkablegeometricalandphysicalconsiderations.Bymakingthemexplicit,theinterestinthisoldtechniqueisalready
revived.Butmuchmorecanbemadeoutofit,aswillnowbeshown.
Whenoneconsidersthesquarewovenbuttonfromabove,one

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observesthepattern(a)orthepatternobtained(b)afterrectifyingtheslightlycurvedlinesandbymakingthehiddenlinesvisible:
Initsmiddlethereappearsasecondsquare.Whichothersquarescanbeobserved,whenonejoinssomeofthesesquarewovenbuttonstogether?Dothereappear
otherfigureswiththesameareaas(thetopof)asquarewovenbutton?
Yes,ifyoulike,youmayextendsomeofthelinesegmentsorruboutsomeothers.

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Whatdoyouobserve?Equalityinareas?
HenceA=B+C:

Page238
thatis,onearrivesatthesocalled"TheoremofPythagoras."
Theteacherstudentsthemselvesrediscoverthisimportanttheoremandsucceedinprovingit.Oneofthemremarks:"HadPythagorasorsomebodyelsebefore
himnotdiscoveredthistheorem,wewouldhavediscoveredit"....Exactly!Bynotonlymakingexplicitthegeometricalthinking"culturallyfrozen"inthesquare
wovenbuttons,butbyexploitingit,byrevealingitsfullpotential,onestimulatesthedevelopmentoftheabovementionednecessaryculturalmathematical(self)
confidence."HadPythagorasnot...wewouldhavediscoveredit."Thedebatestarts."Couldourancestorshavediscoveredthe'TheoremofPythagoras'?''"Did
they?"..."Whydon'tweknowit?"...."Slavery,colonialism...."By"defrostingfrozenmathematicalthinking"onestimulatesareflectionontheimpactof
colonialism,onthehistoricalandpoliticaldimensionsofmathematics(education).
FromTraditionalFishtrapstoAlternateCircularFunctions,Football,andtheGenerationof(Semi)regularPolyhedra
Mozambicanpeasantsweavetheirlighttransportationbaskets"Litenga"andfishermentheirtraps"Lema"withapatternofregularhexagonalholes.Onewayto
discoverthispatternisthefollowing.Howcanonefastenabordertothewallsofabasket,whenbothborderandwallaremadeoutofthesamematerial?Howto
wrapawallstriparoundtheborderstrip?
Whathappenswhenonepresses(horizontally)thewallstrip?Whatisthebestinitialanglebetweentheborderandwallstrip?

Page239
Inthecasethatbothstripshavethesamewidth,onefindsthattheoptimalinitialanglemeasures60.Byjoiningmorewallstripsinthesamewayandthenintroducing
morehorizontalstrips,onegetsthe"Litenga"patternofregularhexagonalholes.
Bythisprocessofrediscoveringthemathematicalthinkinghiddeninthesebasketsandfishtrapsandinothertraditionalproductiontechniquesthefutureteachers
feelthemselvesstimulatedtoreconsiderthevalueoftheirculturalheritage:infact,geometricalthinkingwasnotandisnotalientotheirculture.Butmorethanthat.This
"unfreezingofculturallyfrozenmathematics"canserve,inmanyways,asastartingpointandsourceofinspirationfordoingandelaboratingotherinteresting
mathematics.Intheconcretecaseofthishexagonalweavingpattern,forexample,thefollowingsetsofgeometricalideascanbedeveloped.
A.TilingPatternsandtheFormulationofConjectures.
Regularhexagonalandotherrelatedtilingpatternscanbediscoveredbythestudents.

Page240
Withthesofoundequilateraltriangle,manyotherpolygonscanbebuilt.Byconsideringthesefigures,generalconjecturescanbeformulated,forexample,
*thesumofthemeasuresoftheinternalanglesofangonisequalto3(n2)60
*areasofsimilarfiguresareproportionaltothesquaresoftheirsides
side=1area=1=1
2
side=2area=4=2
2
side=3area=9=3
2

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*thesumofthefirstnoddnumbersisn
2
.
Oncethesegeneraltheoremsareconjectured,therearisesthequestionofjustifying,howtoprovethem.
B.AnAlternateCircularFunction.
Letusreturntotheweavingofthese"Litenga"baskets.Whathappenswhenthe"horizontal"and"standing''stripsareofdifferentwidth,forexample,1(unityof
measurement)anda?
Onefindsasemiregularhexagonalpattern.Howdoestheoptimalangle
adependona?
a=hex(a)
Howdoesavary?Bothaandacanbemeasured.Onefinds:
Wehavehereaculturallyintegratedwaytointroduceacircularfunction.Afterthestudyofthe"normal"trigonometricfunctions,theirrelationshipscanbeeasily
established,forexample,

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C.FootballsandPolyhedra
Thefacesandedgesofthe"Lema"fishtrapdisplaytheregularhexagonalholepattern.Atitsverticesthesituationisdifferent.Theartisansdiscoveredthatinorderto
beabletoconstructthetrap,"curving"thefacesatitsvertices,itisnecessary,forexample,attheverticesA,B,andCtoreducethenumberofstrips.Atthesepoints,
thesixstripsthat''circumscribe"ahexagon,havetobereducedtofive.Thatiswhyoneencountersattheseverticeslittlepentagonalholes.
Whatcanbelearntfromthisimplicitknowledge?Whattypesofbasketscanbewoven,thatdisplayatalltheirverticespentagonalholes?
Itcomesoutthatthesmallestpossible"basket,"madeoutofsixstrips,issimilartothewellknownmodernfootballmadeoutofpentagonalandhexagonalpiecesof
leather.
Whenone"planes"thisball,onegetsatruncatedicosahedron,boundedby20regularhexagonsand12regularpentagons.Byex

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tendingthese20hexagons,onegeneratestheregular.Ontheotherhand,whenoneextendsthe12pentagons,theregulardodecahedronisproduced.
Whattypeof"baskets"canbewoven,ifoneaugmentstheir"curvature?"Insteadofpentagonallywoven"vertices,"therearisesquareholevertices.Byplaningthe
smallestpossible"ball,"onegetsatruncatedoctahedron,boundedby6squaresand8regularhexagons.Onceagain,byextensionofitsfaces,newregularpolyhedra
arediscovered,thistime,thecubeandtheregularoctahedron.Whenoneaugmentsstillmorethecurvatureofthe"ball,''thereappeartriangularholeverticesandby
"planing"the"ball,"onegetsatruncatedtetrahedron,boundedby4regularhexagonsand4equilateraltriangles.Byextensionofitshexagonalortriangularfacesone
obtainsaregulartetrahedron.
Manyinterestingquestionscanbeposedtofutureteachers,forexample,
*isitpossibleto"weave"othersemiregularpolyhedra?Semiregular,inwhatsense?
*didwegenerateallregularpolyhedra?Why?
*whathappensifone,insteadofreducingthematerialata
vertexofthebasket,augmentsit?
ConcludingRemarks
Ofthestruggleagainst"mathematicalunderdevelopment"andthecombatofracialandneocolonialprejudice,aculturalmathemati

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calreaffirmationmakesapart.A"culturalconscientialization"offuturemathematicsteachers,forexample,inthewaywedescribed,seemsindispensable.
Someotherconditionsandstrategiesformathematicseducationtobecomeemancipatoryinformercolonizedand(therefore)underdevelopedcountrieshavebeen
suggestedelsewhere.
30
Acknowledgments
TheauthorisgratefultoDr.A.J.Bishop(Cambridge)forhisinvitationtowritethisarticleandtoDr.W.Humbane(Maputo)forproofreadingthispaper
Notes
1.Cf.e.g.Eshiwani(1979),Nebres(1983)andE1Tom(1984).
2.BroomesandKuperes(1983,p.709).
3.E1Tom,1984,p.3.
4.D'Ambrosio(1983,p.363).
5.GayandCole(1967,p.6).
7.GayandCole(1967,p.66).
8.Luna(1983,p.4).
8.Carrahera.o.(1982).
9.D'Ambrosio(1984,p.6).Cf.D'Ambrosio(1985b).
10.D'Ambrosio(1984,p.6),italicsEG.
11.D'Ambrosio(1984,p.8),italicsEG.
12.D'Ambrosio(1984,p.7).
13.Pinxten(1983,p.173).
14.Thesetermsareusedbydifferentauthors,amongthemareD'Ambrosio:spontaneousCarraher,D.,Carraher,T.andSchliemann,A,:naturalPosner,Ascher:
informalGayandCole:indigenousMellinOlsen:folk

Page245
AscherandAscher:implicitCarraher,D.,Carraher,T.,andSchlieman:nonstandardGerdes:hidden,"frozen"D'Ambrosio:ethno.
15.GayandCole(1967,p.94).
16.Mmari(1978,p.313).
17.QuotedbyNebres(1984,p.4).
18.D'Ambrosio(1984.p.10).
19.D'Ambrosio(1985a,p.47).
20.Machel(1978,p.401).
21.Machel(1978,p.402).
22.Cf.Gerdes(1982,1985a).
23.D'Ambrosio(1985,p.45).
24.AscherandAscher(1981,p.159),italicsP.G.cf.Gerdes(1985b,2).
25.ThefirstresultsaresummarizedinGerdes(1985b).Cf.Gerdes(1986a,f).Bybringingtothesurfacegeometricalthinkingthatwashiddeninveryoldproduction
techniques,likethatofbasketry,wesucceededinformulatingnewhypothesesonhowtheancientEgyptiansandMesopotamianscouldhavediscoveredtheirformulas
fortheareaofacircle[cf.Gerdes(1985b,c,1986d)]andforthevolumeofatruncatedpyramid[cf.Gerdes(1985"b)].Itprovedpossibletoformulatenew
hypothesesonhowthesocalledTheoremofPythagorascouldhavebeendiscovered[cf.Gerdes(1985b,1986c,e)].
26.ExperimentalcoursedevelopedforsecondaryschoolsintheUSSR(1981)byateamdirectedbytheacademicianA.Alexandrov.
27.Theimplicitgeometricalknowledgethatitreveals,isanalyzedinGerdes(1985b).
28.Formoredetails,seeGerdes(1986b).
29.Another"culturallyintegrated"introductiontothe"TheoremofPythagoras"ispresentedinGerdes(1986c,g).
30.Cf.e.g.Gerdes(1985a,1986a),D'Ambrosio(1985b)andMellinOlsen(1986).
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D'Ambrosio,U.(1983).Successesandfailuresofmathematicscurriculainthepasttwodecades:Adevelopingsocietyviewpointinaholisticflame

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work.In:ProceedingsoftheFourthInternationalCongressofMathematicalEducation(pp.362364).Boston:Birkhuser.
.(1984).Theinterculturaltransmissionofmathematicalknowledge:Effectsonmathematicaleducation.Campinas:UNICAMP
.(1985a).anditsplaceinthehistoryandpedagogyofmathematics.InFortheLearningofMathematics.Vol.,no.1,p.5:4448.
(1985b).SocioculturalBasesforMathematicsEducation.Campinas:UNICAMP.
Ascher,M.,andR.Ascher.(1981).CodeoftheQuipu:AStudyinMedia,Mathematics,andCulture.AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,AnnArbor.
Broomes,D.andEKuperes.(1983).Problemsofdefiningthemathematicscurriculuminruralcommunities.InProceedingsoftheFourthInternationalCongress
ofMathematicalEducation.Boston:708711.
Carraher,T.,D.CarraherandA.Schliemann.(1982).Navida,dez,naescola,zero:oscontextosculturaisdaaprendizagemdematematica.InCadernosde
pesquisa.Vol.42:7986.
ElTom,M.(1984).TheroleofThirdWorldUniversitymathematicsinstitutionsinpromotingmathematics.Adelaide,Australia.
Eshiwani,G.(1979)."ThegoalsofmathematicsteachinginAfrica:Aneedforreexamination."InProspects,Vol.9,no.3:pp.346352.
Gay,J.andM.Cole.(1967)Thenewmathematicsandanoldculture:Astudyoflearningamongthe\ofLiberia.NewYork:Holt,RinehartandWinston.
Gerdes,P.(1982).Mathematicsforthebenefitofthepeople.Paramaribo:CARIMATHS.
.(1985a)."Conditionsandstrategiesforemancipatorymathematicseducationinunderdevelopedcountries."InFortheLearningofMathematics.Vol.5,
no.1:1520.
.(1985b).ZumerwachendengeometrischenDenken.Maputo:EduardoMondlaneUniversity.
.(1985c)."ThreealternatemethodsofobtainingtheancientEgyptianformulafortheareaofacircle.InHistoriaMathematica,Vol.12,261268.
.(1986a).Onculture,mathematics,andcurriculumdevelopmentinMozambique.Inplace:MellinOlsen&JohnsenHoines,1542.
.(1986b).Ummtodogeralparaconstruirpolgonosregulares,inspiradonumatcnicamocambicanadeentrelaamento.Maputo:TLANU
booklet,no.4.

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.(1986c).AwidespreaddecorativemotifandthePythagoreantheorem.InFortheLearningofMathematics.Vol.8,no.1(1988):3539.
.(1986d).\zurEntdeckungdesaltmesopotamischenNherungswertes = Maputo:TLANUpreprint,no.19864.
.(1986e).DidancientEgyptianartisansknowhowtofindasquareequalinareatotwogivensquares?Maputo:TLANUpreprint,no.19865
.(1986f).Howtorecognizehiddengeometricalthinking?Acontributiontothedevelopmentofanthropologicalmathematics.InFortheLearningof
Mathematics.Vol.6,no.2:1012,17.
Gerdes,PandH.Meyer(1986g).Pythagoras,einmalanders.InAlpha,Vol.24,no.6(1990):128129
Luna,E.(1983).Anlisiscurricularycontextosociocultural.Santiago.
Machel,S.(1970)."Educatemantowinthewar,createanewsocietyanddevelopourcountry."InMozambique,SowingtheSeedsofRevolution,Harare:
ZimbabwePublishingHouse,1981,3341.
Machel,S.(1978)."Knowledgeandscienceshouldbeforthetotalliberationofman."InRaceandClass.Vol.19,no.4:399404.
MellinOlsen,S.andM.J.Hoines(1986).MathematicsandCulture.ASeminarReport.Radal:CasparForlag.
Mmari,G.(1978).TheUnitedRepublicofTanzania:Mathematicsforsocialtransformation.InSocialistMathematicsinEducation.ESwetz(Ed.).Southampton:
BurgundyPress.
Nebres,B.(1983).Problemsofmathematicaleducationinandforchangingsocieties:problemsinSoutheastAsiancountries.Tokyo.
Nebres,B.(1984).Theproblemofuniversalmathematicseducationindevelopingcountries.Adelaide,Australia.
Pinxten,P,I.vanDoorenandEHarvey.(1983).Theanthropologyofspace:explorationsintothenaturalphilosophyandsemanticsoftheNavajo.
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SECTIONV
ETHNOMATHEMATICALPRAXISINTHECURRICULUM
ArthurB.PowellandMarilynFrankenstein
Thecurricularpraxisofethnomathematicscanbedevelopedbyinvestigatingtheethnomathematicsofaculturetoconstructcurriculawithpeoplefromthatculture,and
byexploringtheethnomathematicsofotherculturestocreatecurriculasothatpeople'sknowledgeofmathematicswillbeenriched.
Instructorsacquireanimportantstartingpointfromwhichtobuildandextendmathematicalstructuresunderstoodbytheirstudentswhenstudentsreflectontheir
ethnomathematics,theirwaysofconceivingmathematicsandmethodsofsolvingproblems,andexpressandexchangetheirreflectionsthrough,forexample,class
discussions,writing,andstudentteacherinterviews.Fasheh(1982/reprintedhereaschapter13)stressestheimportanceoftheexperiencesandcultureofmathematics
teachersandlearners:"Teachingmathwithoutaculturalcontext,byclaimingthatitisabsolute,abstract,anduniversal,isthemainreason,Ibelieveforthealienation
andfailureofthevastmajorityofstudentsinthesubject"(p.8).Gilmer,presidentoftheInternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematics,arguesthatstudentsvalue
mathematicswhenthey"sense[their]powerandownershipintheproductsofthatdiscipline'(1990,p.4).Further,whilestudentsreflectonandreconceivetheir
mathematicalknowledge,theycandiscoverthattheyknowmoremathematicsthantraditionalevaluationsrevealandacquireconfidencethattheycanlearnevenmore.
Justasethnomathematicscanincreasetherespectandconfidencethatstudentshaveforthemselves,itcanalsohelpthemsolveproblemsmoreeffectively.Borba
(1990/reprintedhereaschapter12)definesarealproblem,asopposedtoapseudo,textbooktype

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problem,asa"situationwhichinvolvesanimpasseintheflowoflifeandwhichisimportanttothatperson'sexistence"(p.40).Hearguesthattheethnomathematicsof
agroupofpeopleismoreeffectiveforsolvingrealproblemsbecauseitisrootedintheirculture.Moreover,D'Ambrosio(1987)contendsthat
[i]tisintherealmofone'sownethnomathematicsthatone'screativitywillmanifestitself....Thesourceofauthenticmathematicalandscientificcreativityisnotinformalized
mathematicsandscience,butinmathematicsandscienceinthemaking,fedbythecreativeprocessitself(p.4).
Inaddition,Winter(1991)arguesthatignoringmathematics"inthemaking"ofchildrenandforcingformalizationstooearlyisresponsibleformath"anxiety."Hefeels
thatthedifficultysomanypeopleexperiencelearningmathematicsisnotduetotheinherentdifficultyofitsabstractions,butrather"isaproblemofmathematicsasa
culturalform"(p.82),suchasformalmathematicstextbookpresentation.Hepresentsexamplesfromhisworkwithchildrenthatchallengethetakenforgranted
curricularlogicthat''therelationshipbetweenexperienceandanalyticalthoughtmaybeconceivedasaprogressionfromfacttoconcept,fromconcretetoabstract,
andfromsimpletocomplex"(p.85).Hisexamplesshowthatfiveyearoldscanunderstand"abstract"mathconceptssuchastheprobabilityimplicationsofvarious
ratios,withnoformalteachingonthesubject,andbeforetheyhavecompletelymasteredsupposedlylowerlevelskillssuchascounting.Sowhenthecurriculumstarts
fromourstudentsknowledgeandrespectstheirwaysofunderstandingwecanbemuchmorecreativeinourchoiceofmathematicstobelearned.
Inlearningabouttheethnomathematicsofstudents,teachersgainrespectforandunderstandingofthekindsofmathematicalideasthattheypossess.However,weare
notsuggestingthatthecurriculumshouldbecomposedsolelyofthoseideas.AsFreireasserts,dialogicaleducationdoesnotmeanteachersaremerely"passive,
accidentalpresences,"attemptingtoavoiddomination.Freire(1981)pointsoutthat
[t]heoppositeofmanipulationisnotanillusoryneutrality,neitherisitanillusoryspontaneity.Theoppositeofbeingdirectiveisnotbeingnondirectivethatislikewisean
illusion.Theoppositebothofmanipulationandspontaneityiscriticalanddemocraticparticipationbythelearnersintheactofknowing,ofwhichtheyarethesubjects(p.28).

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Teacherslistentostudentstodiscoverthemesandpresentrelatedproblemstochallengeandextendpreviousperceptionsofstudents.Also,teacherscansuggestnew
themes,onestheyjudgeimportant,andbestronginfluenceswithoutbeingsuperiors,constrainingandcontrollingthelearningenvironment.
Inlearningaboutthemathematicsofstudents,itisalsoimportantforteacherstoexplorehowthesemanticandsyntacticstructureofparticularlanguagesmayfacilitate
mathematicslearning.Forexample,Miura(1987)discusseshowfeaturesofChinese,Japanese,andKoreanarecongruentwithcertainconceptsinarithmetic.Onthe
otherhand,studentscanexperiencedifficultieslearningmathematicswhenrespectisdeniedeitherbyuncriticaladoptionorbyinsensitiveimpositionofdistinctand
distantculturalandlinguisticconventionsfromonemilieutoanother.Forexample,inthePeople'sRepublicofChina,evengraduatesfromseniormiddleschool
experiencedifficultiesreadingmanydigitnumerals,suchas7,612,439,withoutfirstPointingandnamingfromrighttolefttheplacevalueofeachdigitbeforeknowing
howtoreadthe"7"inthemillionsplaceandtherestofthenumeral.Throughaninvestigationofthisproblem,Powell(1986)discoveredthat,duringinstruction,little
attentionisgiventothelinguisticregularityofnamingnumeralsinChinese.Furthermore,hefoundthatthisstateofaffairsiscompoundedbytheadoptionorimposition
ofaforeignconventionofdelimitingdigitsinamanydigitnumeralwhichisatvariancewiththelinguisticstructureofChinesenumeration.UnlikeincertainRomance
andGermaniclanguagesoftheWestwherecommas,spaces,orpointsareusedasdelimitersbetweengroupsofthreedigits,thelinguisticstructureofnamingnumerals
inChineseisbasedongroupsoffourdigits.Powellsuggeststhat,atitsbase,theproblemthatChinesestudentshaveinreadingnumeralslongerthanfourdigits"points
toaconsequenceoftheculturalandPoliticaldominationofsocalleddevelopedsocieties'scientificnormsoverthoseofdevelopingnations"(p.20).
ThisparticulardifficultythatChinesestudentsexperienceinlearningmathematicsispartofageneralproblematicarisingfromtheinteractionoflanguageand
mathematics.Researchexistsonthenatureandcausesofmathematicslearningdifficultiesmanifestedwhencurriculaareadoptedforuseinaculturalandlinguistic
milieudistinctanddistantfromtheoneforwhichthecurriculaweredeveloped(see,forexample,Philp,1973Berry,1985Orr,1987).Berry(1985),inananalysis
ofproblemsinsecondlanguagemathematicslearninginBotswana,suggestsageneraltheoryoftypesoflanguageassociatedlearningproblems,consistingoftwo
categories.Ofinteresthereis

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Berry'ssecondcategoryofproblemswhich"resultfromthe'distance'betweenthecognitivestructurenaturaltothestudentandimplicitinhismothertongueand
culture,andthoseassumedbytheteacher(ordesignerofcurriculumorteachingstrategies)"(p.20).Addingtothenotionsofsemanticandculturaldifferenceswith
whichBerrydefinestheterm"distance,"Powell'sexamplesuggeststhatweincludethenotionofsyntacticdifference.
Anexampleofhowsemantic,syntactic,andculturaldifferencescanbeusedtodisempoweracultural,orlinguistic,groupisfoundinTwiceasLess:BlackEnglish
andthePerformanceofBlackStudentsinMathematicsandScience(Orr,1987).Orrtaughtatawhite,middleclassprivatehighschoolinWashington,DCto
whichagroupofurban,AfricanAmericanstudentsweregivenplacesforanumberofexperimentalyears.Whenthesestudentsperformedpoorlyinmathematicsand
science,shequestionedwhyandfocusedonlinguisticfeaturesofworkdoneinclassandathome.Sheandhercolleaguesfound"explicitevidence"thatAfrican
American"studentswereusingonekindoffunctionword,prepositions,inamannerdifferentfromotherstudentstheirmisusesweredifferentevenfromthemisuses
withwhich[they]werefamiliar"(p.21).Thatis,thesemanticandsyntacticuseofwordssimilartoStandardAmericanEnglish(SAE)bystudentsspeakingBlack
EnglishVernacular(BEV)weredifferentfromthoseusedbystudentswhobelongedtotheculturewithpowerOrrconcludedthatthislinguisticdifferenceisthereason
whyherstudentsdidpoorly:"ForstudentswhosefirstlanguageisBEV,then,languagecanbeabarriertosuccessinmathematicsandscience"(p.9).
Thisviewdistortstheconnectionsbetweenconceptualunderstandingandsemanticandsyntacticdifferences.Aslinguistics,likeLabov(1972),havedemonstrated
BEVandSAEarebothcapableofgeneratinglabelsforconceptsattendedtobythecultureofthespeakers.Theeffect,ifnottheobject,ofOrr'sapproachisto
conferprivilegeonthecultureandlanguage(SAE)ofthedominantpowerand,thereby,todenylegitimacytootherculturallygeneratedlinguistic(BEV)andcognitive
experiences.Inadditiontoherincorrectlinguisticanalysis,shedoesnotadequatelyprobetheeffectsofthesociopoliticalstructureonherstudents.Byjudging
students'linguisticrelatedmathematicalabilityoutofcontextofthepowerrelationswhichmusthaveplayedthemselvesoutinthatsituation,shemissestheopportunity
toteachherstudentsmathematics.
Instead,anethnomathematicalapproachshiftsthefocusawayfromherstudents'misunderstandings.Itstartsbyassumingherstu

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dentshavemathematicalknowledgeandfocusesonhowtolearnaboutandbuilduponthatknowledge.
2
InsteadofOrr'sapproach,teacherscanengagestudentsin
criticallyanalyzingboththeirsandthedominantculture'slanguagefrommathematicalsociologicalandpoliticalperspectives.Then,asopposedtouncriticallyadopting
analternatecode,thelanguageofstudentsisvalidated.Intheiranalysis,studentscometounderstandthevalueanduseoftheirandthedominantcode,explore
differentformulationsofmathematicsproblemsineach,andrealizethepowerrelationshipwhichnecessitatesthattheyalsoacquirelinguisticfacilityinthedominant
culture.
3
However,asDelpit(1988)states"[i]fyouarenotalreadyaparticipantinthecultureofpower,beingtoldexplicitlytherulesofthatculturemakesacquiring
powereasier"(p.282).Todootherwise,asOrrdoes,istovictimizethosewhoarevictimsofthecultureofpower.Shejudgesherstudents'linguisticrelated
mathematicalabilityagainstthecultureofpower.
Anexampleofhowethnographicresearchleadstoanempoweringcurriculum,canbefoundintheworkofGerdesandmembersoftheEthnomathematicsProjectof
theUniversidadePedaggicainMozambique.TheyaredevelopingcurriculumfromethnographicresearchintovariousaspectsoftraditionalmaterialMozambican
culturethatreveal"hiddenmomentsofgeometricalthinking"(1988,p.140/reprintedhereaschapter11).Theyillustratehowrecognizingandstudyingthegeometry
behindcertainMozambicanbasketsandfishtrapsstimulatesstudentstoreconsiderthevalueoftheirculturalheritage"geometricalthinkingwasnotandisnotalien
toourculture"andservesasa"startingpointandsourceofinspirationfordoingandelaboratingotherinterestingmathematics"suchastessellations,trigonometry,
andpolyhedra(pp.153160).WhenhisMozambicanstudents,foranotherexample,analyzetheconstructionofawovenbutton,commonlyusedinsouthernpartsof
Mozambiquetofastenthetopofabasket,theyuncoverthePythagoreantheorem.Andtheyrealizethat
HadPythagorasorsomebodyelsebeforehimnotdiscoveredthistheorem,wewouldhavediscoveredit!'...Bynotonlymakingexplicitthegeometricalthinking"culturally
frozen"inthesquarewovenbuttons,but...byrevealingitsfullpotential,onestimulatesthedevelopmentof...culturalmathematical(self)confidence....
Thedebatestarts."Couldourancestorshavediscoveredthe'TheoremofPythagoras'?""Didthey?"..."Whydon'tweknowit?"..."Slavery,colonialism..."By
"defrostingfrozenmathematicalthink

Page254
ing"onestimulatesareflectionontheimpactofcolonialism,onthehistoricalandpoliticaldimensionsofmathematics[education](pp.151152).
4
Anothercategoryofpraxishasbeenthedevelopmentofcurriculatoinformstudentsabouttheethnomathematicsofothercultures.Mostnotab1y,thesecurricular
experimentshavetakenshapeinWesternsocieties,ofteninanattempttocountermythsandEurocentricviewsaboutnonexistentcontributionsofnonWestern
peoples.Foranumberofequallyimportantreasons,wethinkthisisvital.First,theadditionalexamplesobtainedbyconsideringthemathematicsofnonWestern
peoplesprovidesarichsourceforillustratingandapplyingmathematicalconceptsandtheorems.Second,itgivesamoreaccurateaccountofthehistoryof
mathematicsandthecontributionsofpeoplesallovertheworldtothatknowledge.Third,throughlearningmoremathematics,studentsandteachersacquirerichand
powerfulmathematicalinsights.Finally,studentsofraciallyandculturallydiversebackgroundsareculturallyaffirmed,gaininganappreciationforthecontributionsof
theircommunitiesandofotherpeople'stothehistoryofmathematics(FrankensteinandPowell1989,p.110).
WeagreewithGerdes(1985)thatculturalaffirmationisakeyfactorinstrugglesagainstthemathematicalunderdevelopmentcausedbyracism,sexism,and
imperialism."Formathematicstobecomeemancipatory,itisnecessarytostimulateconfidenceinthecreativepowersofeverypersonandofeverypeople,confidence
intheircaparitiestounderstand,developandusemathematics"(p.17),andconfidenceisdevelopedgreatlythroughculturalaffirmation.However,wealsostressthat
wearenotadvocatingthecurricularuseofotherpeople'sethnomathematicalknowledgeinasimplisticway,asakindof"folkloristic"fiveminuteintroductiontothe
"real"mathematicslesson.Todoso"impliesthatsuchacultureisnotcreditedtheroleasadecisiveandorganicframeforthelivesoftheindividuals,butrathertherole
asastaticandillustrativeframewhichmainlyisofarchaeologicalimportance"(MellinOlsenandHolnes,1985,p.106).
5
Mathematicsshouldbestudiedinawaythat
uncoversitsconnectionstothedevelopmentofhumansocieties,''showingthenecessityofanygivenpieceofcalculation,measureorpatternfortheparticularsociety
ofwhichitwasapart"(Singh,1991,p.21).Finally,wealsostressthatthebroaderhistoricalcontextinwhichthisethnomathematicalknowledgewasdeveloped,after
imperialdevastation,suppressedorstolen,needstobeincludedinthecurriculum.
IntheUnitedStates,thepublicationofZaslavsky'sAfricaCounts

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in1973inspiredanumberofliberalartsmathematicscourses.Zaslavskyhascreatednumerouscurricularapplicationsfromherresearchintothemathematicsof
variouscultures(1985,1991a,1991b/reprintedhereaschapter15,1993,1996).Ascher(1984),implementingcollegiatecurriculumincounterstheEurocentricbias
thatmathematicalideasfromotherculturesare"curiosities"or"ahistoricallyearlierpartofourownmathematics."Ascher'sworkdemonstratesthatsophisticated
mathematicalideasdonotonlyexistasexpressedinacademicmathematicstextsbutcanbeembeddedineverydayculturalactivities.Anderson's(1990/reprintedhere
aschapter14)curriculacountersanothermythofEurocentrismthatallthemathematicscalled"academicmathematics"wascreatedsolelybyEuropeans.He
connectsthedevelopmentofmathematicswith"humanity'songoingstruggletounderstandNature,andcapitalism'sattemptstocontrolanddominateNature"(p.354),
showinghowallpeoplehavecontributedtomathematicalknowledge.Frankenstein(1991)incorporatesresearchaboutotherculture'sethnomathematicsinher
pedagogybyhavingstudentsreflectonethnomathematicalresearchtoappreciatethemathematicalcontributionsandthelogicsystemsofotherpeoples.Theycanthen
usethisappreciationandknowledgetodevelopconfidenceandinsightsthathelpthemwiththeirownmathematicslearning.
Notes
1.Further,shemakestheunsubstantiatedclaimthat,unlikethegrammarofBEV,"thegrammarofstandardEnglish[SAE]hasbeenshapedbywhatistrue
mathematically"(p.158).Sheusesthisethnocentric,elitistclaimtovaultthesupposedintrinsicsuperiorityofthelanguageofthecultureofpower.
2.Suchanethnomathematicalapproach,connectinglanguageandmathematics,ispreciselyattheheartoftheAlgebraProjectcurricula,aU.S.basedproject,
designedbyRobertMosestoinsurethatallmiddleschoolchildrenhaveaccesstostudyingalgebra.Mosesanalyzedboththecontentandthedifficultiesthatstudents
wereexperiencinginelementaryschools.Forinstance,hefoundthatstudentsunderstoodthearithmeticmeaningofnumbersintermsofquantity("howmany?")and
understooddirection("whichway?")but,theydidnotassociatetheirknowledgeofdirectionwiththeirknowledgeofnumbers.Toteachthisandotherprealgebra
concepts,hedevisedafivestepprocess:anactivity,aphysicaleventthechildrenwouldexperienceapictureordiagramtheywoulddrawofthiseventanintuitive
linguisticde

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scriptionofthiseventamoreregimentedlinguisticdescriptionofthiseventasymbolicrepresentationofthisevent,firstthroughstudents'inventedsymbols,then
finallyinstandardizedmathematicalsymbols.Mosesrecognizesthattherewillbeavarietyofidiomaticlinguisticdescriptionsthatneedtobeexpressedbefore
movingtothemorestructuredlanguage(alanguagewhichisneitherBEVnorSAE)thatfacilitatesthemovetorwardalgebraicsymbols.
3.ForanexampleofthisapproachintheteachingofthedominantvarietyofAmericanEnglishtoNativeAlaskans,seeDelpit(1988,p.293).
Asidefromthisparticularissue,focusedontheviolationofagroup'sethnomathematicsexpressedinitslinguisticparticularities,thereareotherpointsofcriticismof
Orr'swork.FormorethoroughgoingcritiquesseeO'Neil(1990)andBaugh(1988).
4.Anotherinterestingexampleofthedevelopmentofmathematicscurriculumfromethnographicresearchintothemathematicsofparticularcommunitiesistheworkof
theDirectionNationaledel'Alphabetisation(DNALFA)inBamako,Mali.Theyinvestigatedwhy,inspiteofdailypreoccupationwithfiguresandcalculations,farmers
andstockbreederswhoboughtandsoldinafluidmarketencountereddifficultieslearningsuchoperationsasmultiplicationanddivisioninaconventionalcurriculum.
Theydiscoveredthatthearithmeticalprocesstaughtintheformaladultclassesdifferedsignificantlyfromtheprocesseswhichthestudentshadalreadyacquired
informallyfromtheirdailymarketexperiences.Inshort,theattempttoimposeclassic,foreignwrittencalculationsupon"studentsexperiencedinmentalarithmetic
confusedeventhemostaptamongthem,anditsodistractedtheirweakerclassmatesthatitposedasevereobstacletotheiracquisitionofwritingandcalculation
skills,andtheyoungadultsfoundtheircompetencereduced,ratherthanincreased,bytheireducationalexperience"(Clarke,1989,p.3).
InSierraLeone,Bockaire(1988)developedaprojectto"investigatethemathematicsthatexistedinMendeculture,thestrengthsandlimitationsofsuch
mathematics,themathematicsthatprobablyexistedlongbeforeformalschoolingwasintroducedintheMendeland"(p.1).Bockaireisawarethat,asaconsequence
ofengaginginandreflectingontraditionalactivities,"atthevillagelevels,onthefarms,attheriversandonthefootpathsorroadstotheirworkplace,"peopledevelop
mathematicalunderstandings,albeitnotinthesamecodifiedformof"Western"mathematics.Cognizantofseverelimitationsinthecolonialistinspiredschoolsystem,
theaimoftheethnomathematicalinvestigationofBockaireandhisteamwastocreateaculturallyappropriatecurriculumtoeducatethoseintheilliterateand
innumeratesectorssince"mathematicscoursesin[SierraLeone's]formalschoolsystemarestructuredwithoutrecognitionandexploitationofthewealthy
mathematicalactivitieswithintheculture"(p.1).Inadditiontocontributingtotheeducationofilliteratefarmers,investigatorsusedtheMende'sapproachtoadding
twosetsofobjectstoteach,atNjalaUniversityCollege,theconceptofhomomorphismto

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asophomorelevelcourseinabstractalgebraandnoticedmarkedimprovementinunderstandingandinterest(p.63).
5.Inarecentconversationwithoneoftheauthors,BobLange,aphysicsprofessoratBrandeis,sharedanexperiencewhichunderlineshowimportantitisforusto
beawareoftheparticularlensthroughwhichweviewothercultures.Evenwhenthatlensisrespectful,itcanbestaticandfalse.Inordertogivestudentsand
educatorsinZanzibaranexperiencewithcomputersbasedontheirmathematicalknowledge,Langedesignedacomputerprogramthatplaystheirversionofthegame
owareorbaokiswahile.Hefeltnervousaboutintroducingtheprogramforhedidnotwanttoviolatetheaestheticsofthebeautifulboardorthetactilepleasureof
actuallyremovingthesmooth,roundedseeds.Hespentalotoftimeplanningwaystohavethecomputerserveasamereadjuncttotheactualpresenceoftheboard
andseeds.Still,hewasconcernedthattheplayerswouldfindthecomputerinappropriateoroffensive.Instead,fromthefirstmovetheymade,thestudentscompletely
ignoredtheboardandseeds.TheyeducatedLangethatforthemtheancientAfricangameofowareisnotprimarilyaboutaesthetics,butaboutabstractstrategies.In
thecontextofhightechnology,theyfoundthecomputerwasanengaging,appropriaterepresentationoftheircontestsofreasoning.Lange,andMichaelSavageofthe
AfricanForumforChildren'sLiteracyinScienceandTechnologyinNairobi,arecurrentlywritinganarticleinwhichtheywillbediscussingthisandotherobservations
thathavearisenfromthisunexpectedlyappropriateuseoftechnology.
References
Anderson,S.E.(1990).Worldmathcurriculum:Fightingeurocentrisminmathematics.JournalofNegroEducation.59(3):348359.
Ascher,M.(1984).Mathematicalideasinnonwesterncultures.HistoriaMathematica11:7680.
Baugh,J.(1988).ReviewofTwiceasless:BlackEnglishandtheperformanceofBlackstudentsinmathematicsandscience.HarvardEducationalReview58(3):
395404.
Berry,J.W.(1985).Learningmathematicsinasecondlanguage:Somecrossculturalissues.FortheLearningofMathematics5(2):1823.
Bockaire,A.(1988).MathematicsusedandneededbyMendefarmersofMoyambaandKailahundistrictsinSierraLeone.Dakar,Sngal:International
DevelopmentResearchCentre.

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Borba,M.C.(1990).Ethnomathematicsandeducation.FortheLearningofMathematics10(1):3943.
Clarke,H.(1989).Projectcompletionreport:Teachingarithmetictoilliterates,No.3P800034.Dakar,Sngal:InternationalDevelopmentResearch
Centre.
D'Ambrosio,U.(1987).Reflectionsonethnomathematics.InternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematicsNewsletter3(1):35.
Delpit,L.D.(1988).Thesilenceddialogue:Powerandpedagogyineducatingotherpeople'schildren.HarvardEducationalReview58(3):280298.Fasheh,M.
(1982).Mathematics,culture,andauthority.FortheLearningofMathematics3(2):28.
Frankenstein,M.(1991).Breakingdownthedichotomybetweenlearningandteachingmathematics.Inunpublishedmanuscript.
Frankenstein,M.,andPowell,A.B.(1989).Empoweringnontraditionalcollegestudents:Onsocialideologyandmathematicseducation.ScienceandNature9/10:
100112.
Freire,P.(1981).Thepeoplespeaktheirword:LearningtoreadandwriteinSoTomandPrincipe.HarvardEducationalReview51:2730.
Gerdes,E(1985).Conditionsandstrategiesforemancipatorymathematicseducationinunderdevelopedcountries.FortheLearningofMathematics5(1):1520.
.(1988).OnsomepossibleusesoftraditionalAngolansanddrawinginthemathematicsclassroom.JournaloftheMathematicalAssociationofNigeria
18(1):107125.
Gilmer,G.(1990).Anethnomathematicalapproachtocurriculumdevelopment.InternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematicsNewsletter5(1):46.
Labov,W.(1972).ThelogicofnonstandardEnglish.InL.KampfandP.Lauter(eds.).Thepoliticsofliterature:DissentingessaysintheteachingofEnglish
(pp.194244).NewYork:Pantheon.
MellinOlsen,S.,andHolnes,M.J.(Ed.).(1985).Mathematicsandculture:Aseminarreport.Raidal,Norway:CasparForlag.
Miura,I.T.(1987).Mathematicsachievementasafunctionoflanguage.JournalofEducationalPsychology79(1):7982.
O'Neil,W.(1990).Dealingwithbadideas:Twiceisless.EnglishJournal79(4):8088.
Orr,E.W.(1987).Twiceasless:BlackEnglishandtheperformanceofBlackstudentsinmathematicsandscience.NewYork:W.W.Norton.

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Philip,H.(1973).Mathematicseducationindevelopingcountries:Someproblemsofteachingandlearning.InA.G.Howson(ed.).Developmentsinmathematics
education(pp.154180).NewYork:Cambridge.
Powell,A.(1986).Economizinglearning:TheteachingofnumerationinChinese.FortheLearningofMathematics6(3):2023.
Singh,E.(1991).Classroompractice:Antiracistmathematics.Unpublishedmanuscript.
Winter,R.(1991)."Mathophobia,"Pythagorasandrollerskating.ScienceandCulture10:82102.
Zaslavsky,C.(1973).Africacounts:NumberandpatternsinAfricanculture.Boston:Prindle,Weber&Schmidt.
.(1985).Bringingtheworldintomathclass.CurriculumReview24(3):6265.
.(1991a).Multiculturalmathematicseducationforthemiddlegrades.ArithmeticTeacher38(6):813.
.(1991b).Worldculturesinthemathematicsclass.FortheLearningofMathematics11(2):3236.
.(1993).Multiculturalmathematics:Interdisciplinarycooperativelearningactivities.Portland,ME:Walch.
.(1996).TheMulticulturalmathclassroom:BringingintheWorld.Portsmouth,NH:Heinemann.

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Chapter12
EthnomathematicsandEducation
MarceloC.Borba
Editors'scomment:MarceloC.Borba,amathematicseducator,discussesrelationshipsbetweenethnomathematicsandacademicmathematics.Heclaimsthat,incontext,
ethnomathematicalmethodsareprobablymoreefficientthanacademicmathematics.Further,hearguesfortheefficacyofethnomathematicsinprovidingaccessforstudents
learningacademicmathematics.ThischapterfirstappearedinFortheLearningofMathematics10(1):3943,in1990.
Introduction
Inthispaper,Iwilldiscussthenotionofethnomathematics,whichcanbeseenasanepistemologicalapproachtomathematics,andwillrelateethnomathematicsto
education.Thisdiscussionwillleadtoaviewofhowmathematicsshouldbeincorporatedintoschoolcurriculaandtosuggestionsregardinghowmathematicsshould
bepedagogicallypractised.
1PhilosophicalBackgroundtoEthnomathematics
Inthissection,Iwillsummarizeaviewofhumanbeingsonwhichtheideaofethnomathematicsisbased,aviewofhowpeoplerelatetootherhumanbeingsandtothe
world.Iwillthenfocusontwoparticularlyimportantideas:"dialogue"and"problem."FinallyI

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willestablishconnectionsbetweentheideaofethnomathematicsandthisviewofhumanbeings.
1.1HumanBeingsandTheirDialogicalRelations
Thisviewofhumansisbasedonaphenomenologicalapproachinwhichapersonisseenasa"beingintheworldwithothers."
1
She/heisa"being"sinceher/his
essenceismanifestedinher/hisdailywaysofexistingintheworld.She/heis"intheworld,"notinthesenseofwater"in"aglass,butinthesenseofbeingina
relationshipwiththeworldwhichexpandstofillaspacewithoutdimensions.Thisrelationshipexpandsfurtherintotheworldass/hecomprehendsnewmeaningsabout
thisrelationshipwiththeworld.She/heis''withothers"becauseshe/healwaysworkswithsomethingand/ortalkswithsomeone(evenifonlytoher/himself).
Inthisphenomenologicalviewofhumanbeings,ahumanisonlyseeninconnectionwiththeworld.She/hecannotbeseenwithouttheworldneithercantheworldbe
seenwithouther/him.Moreover,theconcepts"human"and"world"themselvesareintrinsicallylinkedsincebothtermsreflectmeaningswhichhavebeenconstructed
byhumans.Eachhumanrelatestootherhumansbasedoncomprehensions:understandingexistingmeaningsandmakingnewmeanings.Eachpersonisalsoalwaysin
aplaceintheworldandlivinginahistoricalmoment.
Inher/hisexistence,apersonexperienceseventsinwhichshe/heisalsoinvolved.Theseexperiencescanbeseenasa"chainofconsciousness"whichisincontinuous
andindivisibleflux,likeariver,wherethinkingisbothchangeableandconstantlyflowing.However,experienceislivedinitsowntime,differentfrom"official"
chronologicaltime.Areflectiononanexperienceisnolongerintheoriginalfluxofexperience,butisinanewpartoftheongoingflux,lookingbackatanearliertime.
Thus,consciousnessisanendless,recurrentprocesswhichembodies,inabroadsense,reflecting,knowing,andthinking.
IntheterminologyusedbyPauloFreire(1981),consciousnesscanbeintransitiveor"transitive."Apersonwithintransitiveconsciousnessdoesn'tlinkher/his
experiencestogethershe/healwayslivesinthepresentmomentandthereforecannotmakeimportantconnections.She/heislikelytochangeonlysuperficially,for
example,inresponsetofashions.Apersonwithtransitiveconsciousnessdevelopsamorereflectiveperspectivewhichallowsher/himtomakeconnec

Page263
tionsbetweenher/hisdifferentexperiencesandthereforetomakesignificantchangesinresponsetotheseexperiences.Freirearguesthatreachinga"criticaltransitivity"
isnecessarilyanactiveanddialogical(thatis,indialoguewithotherpeople)process.Thereforetransitiveconsciousnessanddialoguearebothfundamentaltothe
processesofpersonalandeducationalgrowth.
1.2Dialogue
Dialoguecanbeseenasahorizontalrelationshipbetweentwoormorehumanbeings,inwhichthe"being"ofeachpersonopensher/himselftotheother(s)inan
authenticway.Dialogueisanintersubjectiverelationshipinwhichhumanbeingstrytoknoweachotherandrevealtheirtrueselvestoeachother(Bicudo,1979).The
subjectsinvolvedinthedialoguecommunicateusingnotonlyintentionalsigns(forexample,words),butalsousingunconscioussignssuchaspauses,waysofwalking
orbreathing,gestures,andsoon.Inthiscontext,themeaningsofwordscannotbelimitedtothosestoredinthedictionary.However,justgivingsomethinganame
showstheimportancethisthinghasinagivenculture.AccordingtoAlfredSchutz[inWagner,1979],wordsareboundedbypastandfutureelementsofsomeone's
speechwordsalsohaveemotionalandirrationalvalueswhicharenotexplicit.Meaningsofsignsalsochangefromonecultural
2
grouptoanother,sinceeachgroup
"shapes"themeaningofwordstotheircontext.Finally,itisimportanttoremarkthatdialoguecannottakeplaceiftherealmsofconcernofthehumanbeingsinvolved
inthedialoguehavenointersection.Inotherwords,iftheproblemswhichinvolvethemarecompletelydifferent,thedialoguecannotoccur.
Theword"problem"hasbeenusedjustaboveinaverydifferentwaythaninmostmathematicseducationliterature.Thenextsectionwillfocusonthekeyideaof
"problem."
1.3Problem
Whatisaproblem?
3
IfIaskanadultwhoisstandinginfrontofme,"WhatisthecolorofthepantsI'mwearing?"isthataproblem?Ineducationitisimportantto
distinguishaproblemfromasimplequestiontowhichtheanswerisknownwithoutanyneedforreflection.Anothercommonmisuseofthetermproblemiswhenitis
asso

Page264
ciatedwithsimply"notknowing."IfIasksomeonehowmanyuniversitiesthereareintheU.S.A.,isitaproblemforthatpersonifshe/hedoesnotknowtheanswer?
Thisisprobablynotaproblemforher/himbecauseshe/heisn'tlikelytocareaboutthequestion.Whetherornottheanswerisalreadyknown,whetherornotthe
answercanbeeasilyobtained,ifshe/hedoesn'tcareabouttheanswer,itisnotaproblemforher/him.Inthisapproach,whatisofinteresttosomeoneisimportantto
theideaof"problem."Ifanobstacleoccursinthecourseofsomeone'sownexistenceandifshe/hedoesnotknowhowtoovercometheobstacle,thenshe/hehasa
problem.
Aproblemcanbeauthenticoritcanbeimposed.Animposedobstacleorpuzzlewouldbeapseudoproblem,asituationwhichoccursfrequentlyinmathematics
teaching.Studentsareusuallyaskedtosolveproblemswhicharenotproblemsforthempersonallytheyonlyattempttosolvethesepseudoproblemsinordertogeta
goodgrade.
AlthoughthediscussionsofarmayhaveimpliedthatthedefinitionofproblemIhavebeendevelopingistoosubjective,DemervalSaviani(1985)isverydearwhenhe
arguesthat:
Aproblem,asanyotheraspectofhumanexperience,hasasubjectivesideandanobjectiveone,closelyconnectedbyadialecticalunity....Theconceptofproblemimpliesa
consciousnessofasituationofnecessity(subjectiveaspect)andasituationthatpuzzledhisconsciousness(objectiveaspect).(Saviani,1985,p.21,author'stranslation.)
Theobjectiveandsubjectiveaspectsofthedefinitionofproblemarebothculturallyboundedsincewhatisinterestingforsomeone,theaspectofsubjectivity,depends
partiallyontheculturaltraditionsofthatperson.Obstacles(theobjectiveaspect)arealsoculturallybounded,becausewhatisanobstacleinagivenculturemightnot
beoneinanotherculture.
Aproblemthencanbeseenasasituationwhichinvolvesanimpasseintheflowoflifeandwhichisimportanttothatperson'sexistence.Whenaproblemresultsina
mathematicaltreatment,itcanleadtothegenerationofmathematicsbytheperson(s)whowas(were)puzzledbythissituation.
2Ethnomathematics
4
Inthelastsection,itwasseenthatapersonisacognizantbeingwhofunctionswithinthelanguageandinterpretativecodesoftheir

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socioculturalgroup.Alanguageisacodeunderstandableonlytopeoplewhohaveparticipatedincommonpastexperiences.Eachlanguageexpressesawayof
knowingdevelopedbyagroupofhumanbeings.
Onewayofknowingismathematics.Mathematicalknowledgeexpressedinthelanguagecodeofagivensocioculturalgroupiscalled"ethnomathematics."Inthis
context,"ethno"and''mathematics"shouldbetakeninabroadsense."Ethno"shouldbeunderstoodasreferringtoculturalgroups,andnotastheanachronistic
conceptofrace"mathematics"shouldbeseenasasetofactivitiessuchasciphering,measuring,classifying,ordering,inferring,andmodeling.AsdefinedbyUbiratan
D'Ambrosio[1985]:"Ethnomathematicsisthemathematicspractisedamongidentifiableculturalgroups,suchasnationaltribalsocieties,laborgroups,childrenofa
certainagebracket,professionalclasses,andsoon"[D'Ambrosio,1985,p45].Eventhemathematicsproducedbyprofessionalmathematicianscanbeseenasa
formofethnomathematicsbecauseitwasproducedbyanidentifiableculturalgroupandbecauseitisnottheonlymathematicsthathasbeenproduced.
ThisviewofprofessionalmathematicsisconsistentwithGeorgeJoseph'sstatementthat,becauseoftheEurocentricbiasofmostacademicians,thereisa
"misrepresentationofthehistoryandculturesofsocietiesoutsidetheEuropeantradition."However,Joseph'sstatementthat"mathematicscanbelookedatasan
internationallanguage,withaparticularkindoflogicalstructure"isnotconsistentwithanethnomathematicalviewofprofessionalmathematics.[Joseph,1987,p14]
WhileJosephrecognizedthateachmathematicshasaparticularkindoflogicalstructure,hesaysthatmathematicsisinternational.Indoingso,Josephisassuming
mathematicsisindependentofcultureratherthanbeinganhistoricalconstructionwhichissociallyandculturallyboundedsincethewayitisorganizedandthewayitis
expressedrepresentthecodesandunderstandingsofprofessionalmathematicianswhoarealsoculturallybounded.Therefore"academicmathematics"isnotuniversal
(inthesenseofbeingindependentofculture)anymorethan"Quipumathematics"is,or"carpentermathematics,"or"Shantytownmathematics,"
5
andsoon,norisit
internationalinthewayEsperantowasintendedtobecomealanguagecommontoallpeople.Althoughacademicmathematicsmaybeinternationalinthatitis
currentlyinuseinmanypartsoftheworld,itisnotinternationalinthatonlyasmallpercentageofthepopulationoftheworldislikelytouseacademicmathematics.
However,mathematicscanbeconsidereduniversalinthewaythatAlanBishopusestheterm.Basedonhisanalysisofdifferent

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cultures,Bishoparguesthatactivitiessuchascounting,locating,measuring,designing,playing,andexplaining"...arebothuniversal,inthattheyappeartobecarried
outbyeveryculturalgroupeverstudied,andalsonecessaryandsufficientforthedevelopmentofmathematicalknowledge"[Bishop,1988,p182].Bishopalso
believesthat"...mathematicshasaculturalhistory,butalsothatfromdifferentculturalhistorieshavecomewhatcanonlybedescribedasdifferent
mathematics"[1988,p180].
EventhoughBishopdoesnotusetheterminologyethnomathematics,hisviewcomestowardstheapproachdevelopedinthispaperinarguingthateveryculturedoes
mathematics,althoughthemathematicsisexpressedinwaysuniquetothatculture.Thus,"ethnomathematicscanbeseenasafieldofknowledgeintrinsicallylinkedto
aculturalgroupandtoitsinterest,beinginthiswaytightlylinkedtoitsreality
6
andbeingexpressedbyalanguage,usuallydifferentfromtheonesusedbymathematics
seenasscience.Thislanguageisumbilicallyconnectedtoitsculture,toitsethnos"[Borba,1987,p38].
2.1EfficiencyofEthnomathematics
Theethnomathematicsdevelopedbydifferentgroupsarelikelytobemoreefficientatsolvingproblemsrelatedtotheirculturesthanacademicmathematicsis(unless,
perhaps,theproblemisinaschoolcontext)becausetheethnomathematicsdevelopedbyagivenculturalgroupislinkedtotheobstacleswhichhaveemergedinthis
group.Anobstacleandtheneedtoovercomeitdrawspeople'sattentiontoasituationwhichcanbedescribedasaproblemasdiscussedinthispaperWhenthe
solutionofthisprobleminvolvesamathematicaltreatment,thesolutioncontributestothedevelopmentofethnomathematicsinthisculture.Overtime,this
ethnomathematicsisprobablygoingtobemoreefficientthanthemodelsstoredintextbooksandwrittenincodesnotalwaysaccessibletoagivenculturalgroup,
becauseitisconnectedtotheculturewheretheproblemwasgenerated.Hence,ethnomathematicsshouldnotbemisunderstoodas"vulgar"or"secondclass"
mathematics,butasdifferentculturalexpressionsofmathematicalideas.
3Ethnomathematics,Education,andIdeology
Thenotionofethnomathematicshasclearimplicationsforeducation.Ifdifferentpeopleproducedifferentkindsofmathematics,then

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itisnotpossibletothinkabouteducationasbeingauniformprocesstobedevelopedinthesamewayfordifferentgroups.Insteadmathematicseducationshouldbe
thoughtofasaprocessinwhichthestartingpointwouldbetheethnomathematicsofagivengroupandthegoalwouldbeforthestudenttodevelopamulticultural
approachtomathematics.
Foreducatorstodevelopaneducationalapproachbasedonethnomathematics,itisimportanttoconsidertheconceptoftheproblemdiscussedabove.Problems
couldbefoundanddevelopedwhichwerebasedinethnomathematics,thusavoidingtheuseofpseudoproblems.Studentsshouldactivelyparticipateinthedesignof
theirpedagogicalprogram,asproposedbyFreire:"Thecontentofaneducationforcriticalconsciousnessmustbedevelopedbysearchingwiththestudentsfor
experienceswhichgivemeaningtotheirlives."[Freire,1970,p28]Thereforeproblemstobesolvedwouldbechosenbybothstudentsandteachersinadialogical
relationshipwhichfostersacriticalconsciousness(asdiscussedinsection1.1).Knowledgecanbeseenasaproductofthisdialogicalrelationship.Eachpartneris
goingtobelearningfromtheotherinadialecticalway.
Mechanicalviewsofdialogicaleducationalprocessesshouldbeavoidedoneshouldnotexpectelevenyearoldboysorgirlstodevelopasophisticated
comprehensionofthecontradictionsofthepoliticaleconomicsystem.Childrendodevelopaconsciousnessofrelationshipsintheirworldoutoftheirreflectionsonthe
waystheyplay:ontherulesofagame,onthefriendshipsamongthepartnersofthisgame,andevenonthemathematicalrelationshipsofthisgame.
Apedagogywithstudentsaspartnerswiththeteachersdoesn'tmeanthattheeducationalprocessisvaluefree.Theincorporationofsocioculturalaspectsin
mathematicseducationandthedialogicalwayofdoingiteachhavearoletoplay.Adialoguewheretheteacherspeaksthroughher/hisethnomathematics(usually
developedincollege)andstudentsspeakwiththeirs,isnotneutral.Suchadialoguecanallowstudentstostrengthentheirsocioculturalroots,sincetheir(ethno)
knowledgeislegitimized(recognizedasvaluable)intheeducationalprocess.Thispedagogycanalsoemphasizethatmathematicsisnotasingle,uniqueexpressionand
cannotbeseenasa"straightline."Aforestmightbeabetterimageofthewholesetofethnomathematics,inwhicheachtreewouldbeconsideredasadifferent
expressionofethnomathematics,socioculturallyproduced.
Dialogue,whichshouldbeseenasahorizontalratherthanverticalorhierarchicalrelationship,doesn'tmeanthattheroleplayedbytheteacheristhesameastheone
playedbythestudents.Anequalrelationshipdoesn'tmeanauniformone.Theteacherisdifferent

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fromthestudentbecause,amongotherreasons,she/hehasanexplicitintentionofeducating.She/hehasworkedandstudiedtowardsvariousgoalsasaneducator,
oneofwhichmaybedevelopingademocraticeducationalrelationshipbetweenteacherandstudentswhichcanfacilitatethestudents'developmentofacritical
consciousness.Inordertofosterthisdevelopment,suchateacherbelievesshe/hehastosharepowerwiththestudentsintheeducationalprocess.
3.1EthnomathematicsandEducation:AreTheyReallyCompatible?
Theacceptedmathematicsinthiseducationalproposalrangesfromonesdevelopedbystudentstotheoneaccepted/developed/intendedbytheteacherInthe
classroomdialogue,theteachercanlearnfromtheethnomathematics"spoken"bythestudents,justasthestudentsarelearningfromtheacademicethnomathematics
oftheteacherThisdialogicalprocesshasnodichotomybetweeneducationandresearch,betweenteacherandresearcher.Theonewhoeducatesisalsotheonewho
researchestheethnomathematicsdevelopedbystudents.Thereforeresearchinfluenceseducationalpraxis,andviceversa.
Theethnomathematicsofaculturalgroupispartofthegroup'slifethemathematicsisgeneratedbythecultureinan"umbilical"way.Ethnomathematicsisdeveloped
bytheculturalgroup'sinterestintheirproblematicsituations,whichthenfurtherdevelopthegroup'sinterestintheirethnomathematics.Thisinterestin
ethnomathematicsisnaturalbecauseitwasgeneratedbythemembersoftheculturalgroupinresponsetotheirownsituations.However,thisawakenedinterestin
ethnomathematicsdoesnotautomaticallytransfertoaninterestinlearning/developinganyotherethnomathematics,suchasacademicmathematics.Studentsmaynot
havemuchinterestininvestigatingdeeplytheconceptswhichunderlietheirethnomathematics.Iftheteacherforcesstudentstoworkonproblems,evenproblems
basedontheunderlyingideasofthestudents'ownethnomathematics,theywillbepseudoproblems,justassooftenhappensinregularschoolswithacademic
mathematics.
Thisargumentcouldleadustoabeliefthatthereisnowayoutofthedilemmaoftheuseofpseudoproblemsintheclassroom.However,thepreviouslydiscussed
ideaofdialogueoffersapotentialsolution,sincedialogueinitsauthenticformimpliesamutualspeakingandhearing.Hopefullythepeopleinvolvedinadialoguecan
findconvergentpointsandintersectionsintheirrealmsofmeaning.The

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teacher/researcherhasaparticularabilityandresponsibilitytohelpthestudentsfindtheintersectionsbetweentheirrealmsofmeaningandtheteacher's.
4FinalComments:EthnomathematicsinCurrentSchoolSituations
Usingthissameframework,educatorssuchasBorba,Frankenstein,Gerdes,andSkovmose
7
havebeendevelopingpedagogicalproposalsalongthelinessupported
bythispaper.However,mostofthesepedagogieshavebeenapplied,withencouragingresults,in"nonformal"schoolsandinadulteducation.Thus,thequestionstill
remainswhetherthiskindofproposalmakessenseincurrentformalschoolsituations.Althoughthereisstillalongwaytogoindevelopingsuchapedagogyforformal
classrooms,itcanbearguedthatsuchaframeworkcanbetriedinschoolsituationsandinitialanswerscanbedeveloped.
Theideasdevelopedinthispaperindicatethatcurriculacannoteasilybechangedbysimplysubstitutingsomecontentforothers.Itisnecessarytoconsidermore
fundamentalkindsofchange.Intraditionalcurriculatheuseofpseudoproblemsisunavoidablesincestudentsdonotparticipateinchoosingthethemeswhichare
goingtobedevelopedbytheteacherduringtheschoolyear.
"Thematization"and"projectorganization,"touseSkovsmose'sterminology[1985],arewayswhichmanyauthorshavefoundofbothbreakingtheatomizationof
traditionalcurriculaandbuildinganewviewofmathematics.Inthisapproach,thethemesand/ortheprojectstobedevelopedaredecidedbybothstudentsand
teachers.Thethemesarenotnecessarily"mathematical,''or"biological,"or"artistic"themesdevelopedjointlywithstudentswillprobablynotcloselymatchthe
academicdisciplines.Theyarejustresearchestobeundertakenbythegroup,wheretheroleplayedbyteachersistohelpthestudentsdevelopacriticalviewofthe
world,a"transitiveconsciousness"inFreire'swords[1981].
Inthiseducationalproposal,theethnomathematics,theethnobiology,ethnochemistry,andsoforth,practicedbydifferentgroupsofstudentswouldbethestarting
pointofthepedagogicalprocess.This"ethnoknowledge"developedbygroupsofstudentsshouldbecomparedwiththe(ethno)knowledgedevelopedbythe
academicdisciplinesinawaythatthisacademicknowledgecanbealsoseenasculturallybounded.Thestudentsandtheteachersshoulddiscusstheefficiencyand
relevanceofdifferentkindsofknowledgeindifferent

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contexts.Withthisapproach,mystificationaboutsciencemightbeavoidedandmathematicsmightnolongerbeseenasanoppressiveandallpowerfulrealmof
knowledge.
Acknowledgement
Althoughtheyarenotresponsibleforthecontentofthispaper,IwouldliketothankMarciaAscher,MariaBicudo,UbiratanD'Ambrosio,DavidHenderson,Anne
Kepple,MargaretMcCasland,JanRizzuti,andJohnVolminkforcommentsmadeonthispaper.
Notes
1.ThisviewofmanisbasedonHeidegger[1981],Schutz[inWagner,1979]andBorba[1987aorb].
2.Cultureshouldbeunderstoodinthispaperaswhatwasaddedtotheworldbyhumans(astheresultofhumanwork,ofhuman'screativeandrecreativestruggles)
andasmeaningswhicharesharedbyaculturalgroup.
3.ThisviewofproblemisbasedonSaviani[1985]andBorba[1987aorb].
4.Adiscussionofthereasonforusingtheterm"ethnomathematics"insteadof"oral,""informal,""nonstandard,"''cultural,""natural,"or"everyday,"etc,mathematics
canbefoundinBorba[1988a]andBorba[1988b].
5.I'mreferringheretothepaperswrittenbyAscher[1986],Schliemann[1986],andBorba[1987b],respectivelyabouttheQuipu,aboutcarpenters,andabouta
Shantytown.
6.Realityshouldbeunderstoodinthispaperasthehumandimensionoftheworldwherethenaturalcomponentsoftheenvironmentandthoseelaboratedbyhumans
arepresent,thenrealitydoesn'tendinempiricaldata.
7.Forinstance,seeBorba[1987a,1987b],Frankenstein[1983],Gerdes[1985]andSkovsmose[1985].
References
Apple,M.(1979).Ideologyandcurriculum.Boston:RoutledgeandKeganPaul.
Ascher,M.andR.Ascher.(1986).Ethnomathematics.HistoryofScience24.

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Bicudo,M.A.V.(1979).Intersubjetividadeeeducaao,RevistaDidatica15.
.(org)(1987).Educaaomatematica.SoPaulo:EditoraMoraes.
Bishop,A.J.(1988).Mathematicseducationinitsculturalcontext.EducationalStudiesinMathematics19.
Borba,M.C.(1987a).Umestudodeetnomatematematica:suaincorporaaonaelaboraaodeumapropostapedagogicaparao"NucleoEscola"davilanogueira
saoquirino.Master'sthesis.RioClaro,SoPaulo,Brasil:UNESR
.(1987b).Etnomatematica:amatematicadafavelaemumapropostapedagogica.InEFreire,A.Nogueira,andD.Mazza.NaEscolaquefazemos:uma
reflexaointerdisciplinaremeducaaopopular.Brasil:R.J.Petropolis,EditoraVozes.
.(1988a).Etnomatematica:Umadiscussaoteoricasobreestanoao.ProceedingsoftheIINationalBrazilianMeetingofMathematicsEducation.
Maringa,Parana,Brasil:SociedadeBrasileiradeEducaaoMatematica.
.(1988b).Etnomatematica:ohomemtambemconheceomundodeumpontodevistamatematico.BOLEMABoletimdeEducacaoMatematica3,No.
5:pp1934.RioClaro,S.E,Brasil:UniversidadeEstadualPaulista(UNESP).
D'Ambrosio,U.(1984).Culture,cognition,andsciencelearning.ProceedingsofScienceEducationintheAmericas.Panama:NSTAOAS.
.(1985).Ethnomathematicsanditsplaceinthehistoryofpedagogyofmathematics.FortheLearningofMathematics:anInternationalJournalof
MathematicsEducation.
.(1986).Darealidadeaaao:Reflexoessobreeducaaoematematica.Campinas,S.P,Brasil:SummusandCampinas,EditoradaUNICAMP.
Davis,P.J.,andHersh(1981).Themathematicalexperience.Boston:Birkhaauser.
Frankenstein,M.(1983).Criticalmathematicseducation:AnapplicationofPauloFreire'sepistemology.JournalofEducation165,no.4.
Freire,P(1970).Pedagogyoftheoppressed.NewYork:Seabury.
.(1981)Educaocomopraticadaliberdade.RiodeJaneiro:EditoraPazeTerra.
Gerdes,P.(1985).Conditionsandstrategiesforemancipatorymathematicseducationinunderdevelopedcountries.FortheLearningofMathematics:an
InternationalJournalofMathematicsEducation.
.(1981)."Sobreodespertardopensamentogeometrico."Maputo,Mozambique:UniversidadeEduardoMondlane.
Heidegger,M.(1981).Todosnos...ninguemumenfoquefenomenologicodosocial.SoPaulo,Brasil:EditoraMoraes.

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Joseph,G.G.(1987).Foundationsofeurocentrisminmathematics.RaceandClass28.
Martins,J.,andM.A.V.Bicudo.(1989).Apesquisaqualitativaempsicologia:fundamentoserecursosbasicos.SoPaulo,Brasil:EditoraMoraesandEDUC.
Pavao,A.M.B.(1981).Opricipiodeautodeterminaaonoserviosocial:Visofenomenologica.2ndediao.SoPaulo,Brasil:CortezEditora.
Saviani,D.(1985).Dosensocomumaconscienciafilosofica.SoPaulo,Brasil:CortezEditora.
Schliemann,A.D.(1986).Escolarizaoformalversusexperinciapraticanaresoluodeproblemas:umestudocommarceneiroseaprendizesdemarcenaria.
Psicologia:TeoriaePesquisa3(3):set/dez.
Skovsmose,O.(1985).Mathematicaleducationversuscriticaleducation.EducationalStudiesinMathematics16.
Wagner,H.R.(1979).Fenomenologiaerelaessociais:Textosescolhidosdealfredschutz.RiodeJaneiro,Brasil:ZaharEditores.
Wilder,R.(1981).Mathematicsasaculturalsystem.NewYork:PergamonPress.

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Chapter13
Mathematics,Culture,andAuthority
MunirFasheh
*
Editors'scomment:MunirFasheh,amathematicseducator,drawsfromhisexperiencesinPalestinetoemphasizetheimportanceofusingculture,consideredbroadlytoinclude
societalaswellaspersonalexperiences,tomakemathematicslearningmoreeffectiveandmeaningful.Healsodiscussesresistancetothisapproachfromeducationalauthorities.
ThischapterfirstappearedinFortheLearningofMathematics3(2):28,in1982.
Thisarticledealswiththeinteractionbetweenmathematicsinstructionontheonehandandestablishedculturalpatternsofbelief,thinkingandbehaviorontheother
hand,especiallyinThirdWorldcountries.Thearticlepointstotheimportanceofcultureininfluencingthewaypeopleseethingsandunderstandconcepts,andtothe
importanceofusingculturalandsocietalsourcesandpersonalexperiencesinmakingtheteachingofmathematicsmoreeffectiveandmoremeaningful,aswellas,to
thewaysinwhichmathematicscanbeusedtodealwithsomedrawbacksinone'sowncultureandsociety.Inaddition,thearticlepointsouttheconflictthatusually
arisesbetweenexistingauthoritiesandtheteachingofmathematicswhenthelatteristaughtinsuchawayastoenhancecriticalthinking,selfexpression,andcultural
andsocialawareness.TheregionunderconsiderationistheWestBankoftheRiverJordan(easternPalestine)whereIspent
*
ThisisarevisedversionofashortcommunicationthatwaspresentedattheFourthInternationalCongressonMathematicalEducationinAugust1980,atBerkeley,California.

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myschoolyearsandoverfifteenyearsasamathematicsteacherandeducator.
SomeQuestions
Isittruethatmathematicsisaneutralsubjectindependentofculturewithitsexistingpatternsofbeliefandbehavior,anditsintellectualstructures?
Istheteachingofmathematicsdifferentfromtheteachingofhistory?
Shouldmathematicsbetaughtinanabstractanddetachedmanner,orinawaywhichismoresubjective,personal,andfullofmeaning?
Isitpossibletoteachmathematicseffectivelythatis,toenhanceacriticalattitudeofone'ssellsociety,andculturetobeaninstrumentinchangingattitudes,
convictions,andperspectivestoimprovetheabilityofstudentstointerprettheeventsoftheirimmediatecommunity,andtoserveitsneedsbetterwithoutbeing
attackedbyexistingauthoritieswhethertheyareeducationalscientific,politicalreligious,oranyotherform?
Whyismathematicsnever,oratleastrarelytaughttobeusefulinThirdWorldcountries?
Whyaremoststudentswhomajorinmathematicsinthesecountriesusually"conservative"intheirsocialoutlookandtheirbehaviorand"timid"intheirthinkingand
theiranalyses?
WhatshouldbetheobjectivesofteachingmathematicsinThirdWorldcountriesandwhatcanbedonetoachievethem?
Inthispaper,IwilldiscussanswerstosomeofthesequestionsinthecontextofwhatIexperiencedinonesmallregion.
Background
Thiscommunicationisanoutcomeofapersonalexperienceinteachingmathematicsforoverfifteenyearsatdifferentlevels,butmainlyoutoftheexperienceIhadas
theHeadSupervisorofMathematicsInstructionintheWestBankforfiveyears(between1973and1978).Myjobwasmainlytointroduceandimplementanew
curricu

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luminmathematicsinthatregionwithitsveryuniquecircumstances.Theregionincludedover800schoolsandmorethan1,600mathematicsteachers.Thepopulation
consistedofaboutthreefourthsofamillionPalestinianArabs.TheregionwasundertheBritishrulepriorto1948,undertheJordanianruletill1967,andsince1967
underIsraelioccupation.Politicsandpoliticalproblemsareawayoflife,andthesocialpatternsofthinkingandbehaving,onthewhole,aretraditionaland
conservative.Thismademyworkverydifficult,butveryinterestingandnotwithoutproblemsandtroubles.Asanexample,aneducatorusuallyhastodealwithone
authorityintheWestBankIhadtodealwithfour"authorities":theIsraelimilitaryoccupationtheJordangovernment(throughthesyllabus,generalexams,andthe
factthatthepopulationcarryJordanianpassports)thetraditionalandconservativeinstitutionsandsegmentsofthepopulationandthenationalaspirationsandneeds
ofthepeopleintheregion.
Thefirstpartofthenewsyllabustobeimplementedwasa"blind"copyoftheNewMathmaterialsinWesterncountries.Itwaswritten(throughtheinitiativeof
UNESCO)forthetenth,eleventh,andtwelfthgradesintheArabstates,bypeoplemanyofwhomareforeigntotheareaandknownothingofitsculture.Iwasin
chargeofimplementingthenewsyllabusintheschoolsoftheWestBank.Sixregionalmathematicssupervisorsandmanyinterestedandenthusiasticteachersactively
assistedinimplementingthenewsyllabus.Thefirstcourseoftrainingteachers(whichincludedover200teachers)wasinitiatedandrunbyBirzeitUniversityinthe
summerof1972.ItwasfollowedlaterbysimilarcoursesforteachersinlowergradesthroughtheTechnicalEducationalOfficeinRamallah.
ObjectivesofTeachingMathematicsinThirdWorldCountries
MathematicsinThirdWorldcountries(atleastinmine)isusuallytaughtasasetofrulesandformulasthatstudentshavetomemorize,andasetofproblemsusually
nonsensicaltostudentsthattheymustsolve.
1
Theonlyreasonforstudyingmathematicsformoststudentsistopasstheexaminations.Thoughthecitedobjectivesof
teachingmathematicsusuallyassertknowingcertainmathematicalfactsandbeingable"tothinkcorrectly,logically,andscientifically,"amongotherobjectives,Icame
tobelievethatthemainobjectiveofteachingmathematics(oranyothersubject)indevelopingcountries,

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istodoubt,toinquire,todiscover,toseealternatives,and,mostimportantofall,toconstructnewperspectivesandconvictions.Oneofthemainobjectivesof
teachingmathematicsshouldbetorealizethattherearedifferentviewpointsandtorespectthefightofeveryindividualtochoosehis/herownviewpoint.Inother
words,mathematicsshouldbeusedtoteachtoleranceinanagewhichisfullofintolerance.Theobjectiveofteachingmathematicsshouldbetodiscovernew"facts"
aboutone'sself,societyandculture,tobeabletomakebetterjudgmentsanddecisionsandtobuildthelinksagainbetweenmathematicalconceptsandconcrete
situationsandpersonalexperiences.Allthese,inmyopinion,arenecessaryforabalanceddevelopmentofanycountryorsociety.
MathematicsTeachinginAction
Inthissection,Iwillmentionsomeexamplesfrommyexperiencethatbearoutthenatureoftheobjectivescitedintheprevioussection.
1.Afirstgradeteacherputachartwithdays,andsquaresnexttoeachday,atthecomeroftheclassroom.Everydayhewouldcrossanumberofsquares,nextto
thatdayequaltothenumberofstudentsabsentonthatday.Afteraboutamonth,thesixtosevenyearoldstudentsnoticedthatthebiggestnumberofabsentees
occuronSaturdays.Theteacheraskedaboutthe"reason."Aninterestingandheateddiscussionfollowed.Onestudentsaid,"becauseitcomesafterFriday,"(Friday
istheofficialweeklyholiday).Anotherstudentsaid:"ThekidsliketospendSaturdayathomebecausetheirfathersareathome."(Somemenfromthatvillageworkin
IsraelandsoSaturdayistheirdayoff.)Athirdstudentgaveasareason,''thepoortransportationonSaturdaysduetothefactthatsomeworkersdon'tgotoworkon
thatday."
Now,whyissuchanexampleworthmorethanawholebookofroutineanddullexercises?
First,suchanexampledealswithaproblemthatisfamiliarandinterestingtothestudentssimplybecausetheyarelivingit.Second,theproblemisnewtoallofthem,
includingtheteacherSuchanexperiencemakesthestudentsfeelthattheyare"equaltotheteacher"theyarebothdealingwiththeunknown,sotospeak.Third,it
breaksacertainculturalbeliefwhichexistsverystronglyinoursociety,thebeliefisthatthereisonlyone"correct"answertoeveryquestionor

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problem,andthatanswerisgivenby"authority"(inthiscasetheteacher).Allthatthestudentshavetodoistomemorizetheseanswersatleastuntilthedayofthe
examination.Accordingtothisbelieforpattern,thereisnodialogueandtherearenodifferentalternativesorviewpoints.Throughanexamplelikethe'biggestnumber
ofabsentees"problem,thestudentsactuallyshareintheeducationprocess:theygiveandnotmerelyreceiveideasandopinions.
Fourth,thestudents,throughsuchanexample,realizeatthisearlyagetheimportanceandusefulnessofcollectingdataandputtingitinanorderlyform.Thisis
especiallyimportantinacommunitythatdoesn'tbelieveinexperimentationandcollectinginformationasameanstoknowledge.Theylearntobepatientiftheywantto
getresultsandarriveatconclusions.Suchanexperienceconvincesthemthatmathematicscanbeusedtodiscover"facts"aboutthecommunityandtomake
judgments.
Fifth,thechildrenrealizeearlyintheirlivesthatthereisabigdifferencebetweena"fact"anditsinterpretations."ThebiggestnumberofabsenteesoccursonSaturdays"
isa''fact."Butthatfacthasmanyinterpretationsandexplanations,astheanswersofthechildrenthemselvesshowed.
Sixth,suchanexperiencehelpschangetheattitudesofstudentstowardsknowledgeandlearningingeneralandtowardsmathematicsinparticular.Ithelpscreatea
healthyrelationshipbetweenstudentsandteacherswhichisnotauthoritarianorparochialbutratherdynamic,interactive,inadditiontoinstillingconfidenceandself
respectinthestudents.
2.Twoexamplesfollowfrommathematicsforilliterateadults.
2
(a)Aclass,whichconsistedofwomenonly,wasasked(earlyinthecourse)tokeepadailyrecordofthetimeeachwomanspentincooking,cleaning,washing,
takingcareofthechildren,andsoforth,foratleastamonth.Whatwouldthewomenlearnfromsuchanexperience?
First,theylearntoputtheinformationinatabularform.Theyuseadditionandmultiplicationtogettocertainconclusions.Inshort,theylearnandusesometopicsin
mathematicsinapracticalsetting.
Second,thewomenhaveamuchclearerpictureofthemselves,theirlives,theirroles,andthemeaningofbeingahousewife.Ifahusbandshoutsathiswifeattheend
oftheday:"Whathaveyoubeendoingallday?"shecanshowhimdetailsofthemanyjobsthatawomanusuallyhasathomeeveryday,sevendaysaweek,allyear
around,allherlife,andinalmostallcultures.
(b)Inthesummerof1979,Itaughtmathematicstoaclassof

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illiterateworkersinBirzeitUniversity.TheyhadhadsomeclassesofArabicbutnoneinmathematics.Inthefirstperiodofteachingthatclass,Istartedbyasking
somegeneralquestions.Onequestionwas,"Supposeafriendwantstocomeandvisityouherebuthedoesn'tknowtheplace.Allheknowsiswherethepost
officeis.Drawamapforhimshowingthewayfromthepostofficetothisbuilding."Whattookplaceinthatperiodstillthrillsme.Asaresponsetothequestion
mentionedabove,eachworkerdrewamapfromthepostofficetotheclassroom.Themapswerealldifferentfromeachother(fourofthemapsareshownin
figure131).
Figure131.
Oneoftheworkerscommented,"Howcometheyarealldifferentalthoughwehavealldrawnthesameroad!"Anotherworkerreplied,"Buteachofusunderstands
hisownmap."Athirdworkersaidtotheonewhodrewthelowerrightmap,"Whydidyoudrawtheroadtobestraightalthoughitisnotstraight?"Towhichtheother
replied,"WhenIwalkfromthepostofficetowhereweare,Iwalkstraighthere!"ThediscussionthattookplaceinthatfirstperiodpointedtothingsthatInever
thoughtoforrealizedwhenIfirstaskedthatquestion.Wetalkedaboutthemeaningandimportanceofconventionsinunderstandingandcommunicatingwitheach
other.Wetalkedaboutthedifferentmeaningsandusesoftheword"straight"inArabic(whichisalsotrueaboutthedifferentusesofthiswordinEnglish,andI
supposeinmanyotherlanguagestoo).Wetalkedaboutthe

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importanceofbeingabletouseamap,andsoon.LaterthatdayIfeltthatthatclasswasprobablytherichestclassIgaveinmylifeandsupposedlytoilliterates!In
theprocessoftryingtoteach,Iwasbusylearningandreacting.Iwascompletelyinvolved.Iwasconvincedmorethaneverthatstudents(whethertheyarechildrenor
adults)arenotemptyshellstobefilledwithourwisdomandknowledgerather,theyarefullofexperiencesandideas,andtheyhavetheirownpersonalwaysof
lookingatthings.Asteachers,weshouldstartwiththeseexperiencesandpersonalviewpointsinourteaching.ThefirstreactionIhadwhenIsawthedrawingswasto
say,"Theyarewrong."IamgladIdidn't.
3.Teachingsetstoaseventhgradeclassforthefirsttime.
Ibroughtcardsthathadfiveholespunchedinarowalongthetop.EachholecorrespondedtooneoffivequestionsthatIwroteontheboard.Theanswertoeach
questionwaseither"yes"or"no."Iftheanswerwas"yes,"eachgirlwasinstructedtokeeptheholeonhercardcorrespondingtothatquestionunchanged.Ifthe
answerwas''no,"shehadtomakeanotchabovethecorrespondingholeonhercard.Asanexample,oneofthequestionswas,"Areyouamemberofthepublic
library?"
Thethirtytwogirlsinthatclass,andonthatfirstday,learnedalotabouteachother.Theylearnedforexample,thatonlysixgirlsweremembersofthepubliclibraryin
town.Aninterestingdiscussionaboutthereasonforthesmallnumberofmembersfollowed.Inadditiontotheinformationtheygotabouttheirsmall"community,"they
alsolearnedabouttheusesofsuch"computer"cardsincompanies,firms,andsoforth.(Rememberthistookplaceinthe1970's.)Also,thegirlswereintroducedto
somemathematicalconceptsaboutsets.Forexample,throughthequestion,"Howmanygirlswhoresideoutsidetownaremembersofthelibrary?"intersectionofsets
wasintroduced.Andthroughthequestion,"Howmanyofthenewgirlsintheclassaremembersofthelibrary?"theemptysetwasdiscussed.Andsoon.
4.Deductivethinking,
3
historically,hashelpedtosupportthebeliefin"absolutetruths"andtheexistenceofone``correct"answertoeachproblem.Theaxiomsof
geometry,forexample,wereconsideredforalongtimetobetrueinnately,naturally,andapriori.Theywereconsideredtobefamiliartoeverythinkingcreatureand
trueinallpossibleworlds,thusmakingthepossibilityofseeingalternativesverydifficult,ifnotimpossible.Althoughmathematicsandmostmathematicianshavemoved
awayfromsuchan"arrogantandnaive"viewpoint,stillmathematicsisbeingtaughtasifitsstatements

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areabsoluteandeternal.Unfortunately,thissameattitudeexistsalsoindomainsotherthanmath,suchasthesocial,religious,andpoliticaldomains.Thus,theteaching
ofdeductivethinkingtraditionallysupportedthe"dogmatic"dimensionineducation.
However,throughmyexperiencewithschoolsandinBirzeitUniversity,Icametobelievethatdeductivethinkingcanbeusedveryeffectivelytocreatenewattitudes
andawarenessestowardsknowledgeingeneralandtowardsmathinparticularawarenessesandattitudesthatareverymuchneededinoursocietyandcultureandI
imagineinothersocietiesinThirdWorldcountriestoo.
4
First,studentslearnthatmathismanmade.TheylearnthataxiomsarenotGodgivenorNaturegiven,but
rathertheyarestatementsthatevolvewithtimeandthroughalongandhardprocess.Theylearnnotonlythatbasicstatementsevolve,butalsohowthemeaningsof
wordsandconcepts(suchasaxiom)evolve.Second,studentslearntoseesimilaritiesamongthingsthatdonotseemsimilaratfirstsight.Realizingthatthetwo
diagramsinfigure132,forexample,couldbeconsideredasmodelsofoneandthesameabstractsystem(byinterchangingthemeaningsof"line"and"point"inthe
axiomsofthesystem)wasalwaysshockingandinterestingtothestudentsandasourceofaserious,deep,andinvolveddiscussionthatusuallylastedseveralperiods.
Inmyexperience,thiskindofinteractionbrokemanyprejudicesandrigidwaysofthinking.Third,studentslearnanintellectualmodelorstructuretheaxiomatic
modelwhichismissinginourculture.Fourth,ithelpsstudentsseealternativesandthemeaningof"relativelytrue."Theylearnthataxiomscanbecompletelyor
partiallychangedtoproducenewsystemsandmodels.Fifth,ithelpsstudentsrelateacertaineventorphenomenonfromtherealworldtomanypossibleabstract
modelsandviceversa,oneabstractsystemcanhavetwenty"concrete"modelsorapplicationsintherealworld.Sixth(whichIbelievetobethemostimportant
point),itincreasestheawareness,onthepartoftheteachersandstudents,thatmost,ifnotallpeoplearelogical.Thedifferenceamongdifferentpeoplelieseitherin
theirbasicassumptionsorinthe''logic"theyuseorinboth.Accusingastudentofbeingillogicalleadstofeelingsofworthlessnessinthestudentandmakestheteacher
misstheopportunityofunderstandingthatstudentandofexpandinghis/her(i.e.theteacher's)
Figure132.

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"treasure"ofmentalimagesandstructures.Withthatinmind,thequestionbecomes,notwhetheracertainpersonislogicalornot,butratherwhataretheassumptions
andtypeoflogicthatthatpersonisusing.Thequestionalsobecomes,notonlywhattypethatpersonisusing,butalsohowthatpersoncametoacceptoradoptthat
logic(e.g.byforce,bycustom,bycriticalreflection,andsoon).Thatdoesnotmeanthatalllogicsandallassumptionsareequallyeffectiveinunderstandingand
dealingwithaspecificprobleminacertainsituation.Allitmeansisthatdifferentassumptionsanddifferentlogicsareneededatdifferenttimesandindifferent
situationsthereisnoperfectlogicthatisgoodforalltimesandforallsituations.Thus,inourteaching,weshouldtrytoarmthestudentswithdifferenttypesoflogic
andwiththeconfidencetochoosewhichtheyfeeltobeappropriate.
Culture,theIndividual,andtheTeachingofMathematics
Acommonmisconceptionintheteachingofmathhasbeen,andstillis,thebeliefthatmathcanbetaughteffectivelyandmeaningfullywithoutrelatingittocultureorto
theindividualstudent.This,andnotthedifficultyofthesubject,inmyopinion,was,andstillis,themainreasonwhymathisconsideredmeaningless,incomprehensible,
andnotapopularsubjectbythevastmajorityofstudents.Inthissection,Iwilldiscussfurthertheinteractionbetweenculture,thelearner,andtheteachingofmath.
Ithasbeenageneralbeliefthattheteachingofmathisdifferentfromtheteachingofhistory,orsociology,orpoliticalscience.Suchabeliefassertsthatinthelatter
subjectstherearedifferentviewpoints,whileinmath"facts"aretrueirrespectiveofculture,oftheindividual,oroftime.Icametobelievethatthisisamisleadingbelief
thatnegativelyaffectsourteachingofmath."TheFirstWorldWartookplaceintheperiodbetween1914and1918"isahistoricalfact,butitsdescriptionand
interpretationdifferfromonepersontoanotherandfromonenationtoanother.SimilarlyIbelieve,"oneequalsone"isamathematicalfact,butitsdescriptionand
interpretationandapplicationdifferfromonesituationtoanotherandfromoneculturetoanother.Afreshanddeliciousappleisnotequaltoarottenapple.Acertain
chairisnotequaltoanotherchairinallitsdetailsnomatterhowidenticaltheyseemtobe.(Iaskedthisquestionabouttwosimi

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larchairstomysonwhowastenyearsold,"Inwhatwayaretheyequal?"Aftersomediscussionhesaid,"Theyareequalinname,"thatis,inbeingcalled"chairs.")
Nopersonisequaltohimselfthenextday.Onedollarin1970isnotequaltoonedollarin1980.Andsoon.Strictlyspeaking,then,"oneequalsone''doesnothave
trueinstancesorapplicationsintherealworld.
Thetruthofthematteristhatinschoolsandinallourteachingwekeeptheworldofrealityseparatefromtheworldofabstraction(withtheexceptionofsometrivial
andirrelevantexamplesthatarescatteredintextbooksunderthemisleadingtitleof"applications").Intheworldofabstraction,weusuallyagreeabout"facts"butin
therealworld,wefacemanyinterpretationsandmeaningsandwaysoflookingatthesefactssoweargueandwefight.People,forexample,agreethatoneequals
oneistrueinabstraction,butantagonisticfeelingsanddifferentopinionsemergewhenwesayforexamplethat"womenareequaltomen"orwhenwesaythat"one
voteforJordan(withtwomillionpeople)intheUNisequaltoonevotefortheU.S.(with200millionpeople)intheUN."Teachingwithmeaningandbyrelatingthe
abstractworldtotherealworldmakesmathmorerelevantandmoreuseful.Inaddition,ithelpsstudentsappreciateremarkssuchasEinstein'softencitedremark,"As
farasthelawsofmathrefertoreality,theyarenotcertainandasfarastheyarecertain,theydonotrefertoreality."
Cultureinfluencesthewaypeopleseethingsandunderstandconcepts.InArabic,forexample,therearemorethanonehundrednamesfor"camel"(eachname
describesthecamelinadifferentpositionormood).InEnglishthereisbutonewordforcamel.Ontheotherhand,therearehundredsofwordsinEnglishforflowers
(eachworddescribesacertainkindofflower)whilethereareonlytwoorthreewordsinArabicforflowers.Similarly,therearemanywordsforiceintheEskimo
languages(eachworddescribesiceinadifferentform,useorsetting),oneortwowordsforitinEnglishorArabic,andnowordforitinsometropicallanguages.The
Arab'sconceptofcamelismuchricherthantheotherstheBriton'sconceptofflowerismuchricherthantheothers,andtheEskimo'sconceptoficeismuchricher
thantheothers.
Ireadonceaboutaplacewherepeopledonotdifferentiatebetweenyellowandgreen.Theyhaveonlyonewordtodescribe"both"colors.Iwasamazed,"Can'tthey
seethedifference?"ThenonedayIwasdescribingthecolorofacarasgreentoaFrenchman.Hesaid,"Butitisturquoise!"Forhimthereweretwocolorswithtwo
differentnames.Formetherewasonecolorwithonename.

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Anotherexample.Once,anumberofusatBirzeitUniversityweretryingtofindawordequivalenttotheword"privacy."Fivepeopleagreedononeterm,theother
threeheldtheviewthat,strictlyspeaking,"privacy"hasnoequivalent.Wedebatedtheissueforalongtime.Laterwenoticedthatthethreewhohaddifficultyin
findinganequivalentfor"privacy''inArabichadalllivedforsometimeintheU.S.andthushadan"experiential"meaningof"privacy"asitisunderstoodinthe
Americancontext,whiletheotherfivewhofoundthetermsatisfactorygotitfromadictionaryorlearneditinschool(andhaveneverlivedintheWest).Thetwo
wordsevokedthesamemeaningsandimagesandexperiencesinthemindsofthosewhoneverlivedintheWest,anddifferentmeaningsinthemindsofthethree
peoplewholivedinbothcultures."Privacy"inthewayitispracticedinAmerica,isneverexperiencedinanArabsociety,whichisessentiallya"communal"typeof
living.
Onemoreexample.Thereisoneword(raquam)inArabicforthetwowordsinEnglish:"numeral"and"digit."Thiscreatedaconfusionbetweenthetwoconceptsin
themindsofmostteachersandstudentswhomIworkedwithintheWestBank,reflectedinthestatementsthattheyexpressedinrelationtothesetwoconcepts.
TheArabiclanguage,ontheotherhand,canbeusedveryeffectivelytohelpthestudentstothinkcriticallyandwithincontext.ToborrowaremarkmadebyanArab
thinker,"UsuallyinotherlanguagesyoureadinordertounderstandinArabicyouhavetounderstandwhatyouarereadinginordertoreaditcorrectly."Manywords
inArabiccanbereadorpronouncedinasmanyaseightortendifferentwaysdependingonthecontext.Thus,onehastounderstandthemeaningofthewordinorder
toreaditcorrectly.Itisunfortunate,however,thatArabicistaughtinschoolsasasetofreadymadestatementsthatarerepeatedforhundredsorthousandsoftimes.
Undersuchconditions,theearsofthestudentsandatbesttheirtongueswork,buttheirmindsarekept"safe"fromthinking.
Ifculturedeterminesthewayweseeacamelandthenumberofcolorsthatexist,andhowaccurateourperceptionofacertainconceptis,mayitnotalsodetermine
thewaywethink,thewayweprovethings,themeaningofcontradiction,andthelogicweuse?
Justbecausethesamewordorsymbolisusedforcamelbydifferentindividualsorbydifferentnations,wecannotconcludethattheyhaveexactlythesameconcept.
Andjustbecauseweusethesamesymbolforthenumber"one"inthesameclassroomorindifferentclassrooms,thatdoesnotmeanthatthesameimagespopupin
themindsofthechildren.Weunifythesymbolbutmistakenlycon

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cludethatthemeaningandtheimagesareunified.Thisfactisoftenignoredbytheteachersandeducatorsofmath.Whenawordsuchas"area"or"proof"or"axiom"
isusedinamathclass,teachersdonotposequestionstoknowwhatarethemeaningsandtheimagesthatarecreatedinthemindsoftheirstudents.Mathteachers
areusuallysatisfiedifstudentsusesuchwords"correctly''inapurelymechanicalway.
Theworldisheadingtoapeakofculturalchangesandculturalawarenesses.Mathcanbeusedtostressone'sownculturewithitsspecialandbeautifulcharacteristics.
Atthesametime,mathcanbeusedtomakeoneawareofthedrawbacksinone'sowncultureandtrytoovercomethem.Inotherwords,mathcouldandshouldbe
usedtopointoutthestrengthsandweaknessesofone'sownculture.(Ihavealwaysread,forexample,thattheArabsandMoslemscontributedalottomathandthe
sciences,oneoftheircontributionsbeingthesolutionofthegeneralcubicequation.However,thecurriculumnevershowedmehowtheydiditandWesternhistorians
ingeneralhavedeniedthiscontributionbytheMoslems.
5
)Teachingmathinawaydetachedfromculturalaspects,andinapurelyabstract,symbolicandmeaningless
way,isnotonlyuseless,butalsoveryharmfultothestudent,tosociety,tomathitself,andtofuturegenerations.
Itshouldnotbeunderstoodfromtheabovethatmathshouldorcouldbetaughtwithinonecultureseparatefromothercultures.Advancesinthoughtinoneculture
shouldbeunderstoodandwelcomedbyothercultures.Buttheseadvancesshouldbe"translated"tofitthe"borrowing"culture.
6
Inotherwords,toimportideasis
acceptableandshouldbeencouraged,butthemeaningsandimplicationsoftheseideasshouldbe"locallymade."Thatiswhatwedo,forexample,witharefrigerator
whenweimportonefromFrancetoourcountry:wefillitwithArabicfoodratherthanwithFrenchfood.
Notonlylocalandculturalmeaningsshouldbeencouraged,butalsopersonalfeelingsandinterpretations,whicharejustasimportant,especiallywithlittlechildren.
Weshouldencourageinthechildren"subjective"waysoflookingatmathematicalexpressionsandconceptsasmuchasobjectivewaysofunderstandingthem.We
shouldnotstressoneandforgettheotherOneofthemostbeautifulandrevealingdefinitionsofapointIeverheardcamefromasixyearoldgirl.Whenaskedhow
shesawapoint,shesaidthatitisacirclewithoutahole.Thatdefinitioninvolvestheconceptoflimitinmath.Ateacherwholackstheimaginationofthatchildmaybe
unabletounderstandwhatshewastalkingabout.

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Wehavetoencouragechildrento"seewhattheymean"andnotonly"whatwemean."Numbersandsymbolsandwordsweusewithchildrenarenevermeaningless
tothem,andthesesymbolsdon'tmeanonlywhatwemeanbythemwhenwementionthemorusethem.Childrenhavetheirownpersonallikesanddislikesabout
symbols.Theselikesanddislikesbecome,insomecases,strongemotionsandconvictions.Thesethingsareusuallyignoredbymathteachersandeducators.Wehave
toaskquestions,tolittlechildreninarithmeticclasses,suchas,''Whichdoyoulikebetter,fiveortwo,andwhy?"Andnotonlyquestionslike,"Whichisgreater,five
ortwo,andwhy?"
InThirdWorldcountriesweshouldbecarefulnottofollowtheWesternwayofinterpretingobjectiveknowledgeasbeingpurelyabstract,absoluteanddetached.In
teachingamathematicalconceptor"fact,"weshouldaskforexampleswherethatconceptorfactisapplicableortrueandwhereitisnotweshouldaskaboutsome
oftheuses,misuses,andabusesofthatconceptorfact.Weshouldaskforpersonalandculturalmeaningsofthatconceptorfactratherthanjustaskthestudentsto
memorizeitortosolveroutineproblemsconcerningit.Mathcanbeusedtohelpstudentsrelate,organize,seealternatives,andmakebetterdecisions.Weasteachers
andeducatorsofmathshouldfindwaystoaccomplishthat.
AuthorityandtheTeachingofMathematics:ConflictandTrouble
Oneveryimportantaspectofanycultureiswhatconstitutesauthorityinthatcultureandhowthatauthorityreactstoanddealswithpeoplewhentheythinkinacritical
wayorinawaythatdeviatesfromthe"correct"path.Myownexperience,andtheexperienceofmanyothersthatIkneworreadabout,mademeincreasinglybelieve
inthefollowingconviction:inspiteoftheclaimbyeducationalinstitutionsandbyauthoritiesthatcontroltheseinstitutionsthattheyencouragefreeandcriticalthinking,
sucheducationalinstitutions,ingeneral,discouragecritical,original,andfreethinkingandexpression,especiallywhenthattouchesupon"important"issuesinthe
society.Studentswhoaskrelevantquestionsaboutimportanteventsintheimmediatecommunityandseenewalternativesandseeknewinterpretationsofwhatexists
areusuallyconsideredtobevery"dangerous."Teachingpeopletoquestion,todoubt,toargue,toexperi

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ment,andtobecritical,andteachingthatincreasestheawarenessofstudentsconstitute,inmyopinion,arealthreattoexistingandestablishedinstitutions,beliefs,and
authoritieseverywhereandofeverykind.
Peoplewhoengageinteachinginthiswayarethesubjectofallkindsoffamiliaraccusations,fromdisturbinglawandorder,toteachingcorruptiveandimmoralideas,
tobeingathreattonationalsecurityandeventuallytheyareforcedtostopteaching,tosaytheleast.Socrateswasaccusedofthisin"democratic"Athensinancient
times,andOppenheimerandEldridgeCleaverweresimilarlyaccusedin"democratic"U.S.inmoderntimes.ThisisalsotrueforsocialistandThirdWorldcountries.
Theruleunderlyingsucharesponseseemstobethatifaquestioningattitudeisfosteredinteaching,thismayleadtoaquestioningofotherthingsinsociety,including
authorityandtheunderlyingassumptionsandstructuresofthatsociety.
Anyonewhohasneverexperiencedthisandwhodoubtsitshouldhaveasecondlookathis/herownteachingandtrytofindouthowmuchitisrelatedtoimportant
issues.Imeanby"important"thosewhicharerelatedtomattersthatcontroltheeconomy,technology,politics,religion,ethics,theflowofinformation,andthe
suppressionofcertaingroupswhateverisconsideredtobeofprimeimportanceinthatsociety.Ihaveencounteredthistypeofexperiencemanytimes.Onesuch
situationaroseinformingmathandscienceclubsinhighschoolsintheWestBank.Studentswerefreetochooseanyexperimenttoperformoranytopictogather
informationaboutandtodiscuss.Theclubslastedbeautifullyandsuccessfullyinmanyschoolsforalmosttwoyears.Theyweremuchmoresuccessful,however,in
girlsschoolsthaninboysschools.Femalestudentswere,ingeneralmorereceptivetonewideasandmoreinquisitive,sincere,independent,persistent,interested,and
originalthanmalestudents.Mostadministratorsandteachersbetthattheclubswoulddieorceasetoexistinfewmonths.Theywererightasfarastheboysschools
wereconcerned:withinsixmonthsalltheclubsinboysschoolsceasedtoexistbutinsomegirlsschoolsclubscontinuedtobeactiveforabouttwoyears.Theyonly
ceasedtoexistbecauseoftheconstantattacks,harassments,andhostileattitudesthatbegantomountfromtwodirections.BoththeIsraeliauthoritiesandfanatic
individualsamongthelocalArabpopulationfoughttheexistenceoftheseclubseachforitsownreasonsandinitsownways.
7
Inshort,Icametobelievethattheteachingofmath,liketheteachingofanyothersubjectinschools,isa"political"activity.Iteitherhelpstocreateattitudesand
intellectualmodelsthatwillintheirturnhelpstudentsgrow,develop,becritical,moreaware,and

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moreinvolved,andthusmoreconfidentandabletogobeyondtheexistingstructuresoritproducesstudentswhoarepassive,rigid,timid,andalienated.Thereseems
tobenoneutralpointinbetween.
SchoolsinThirdWorldcountries(atleastinmine)intheirpresentstructureandformhelpproducestudentsofthesecondtypementionedabove.Theclassroomis
highlyorganizedthesyllabusisrigidandthetextbooksarefixed.Mathisconsideredasasciencethatdoesnotmakemistakesanditstruthisconsideredtimeless
andabsolute.Thereisonecorrectanswertoeveryquestionandonemeaningforeverywordandthatmeaningisfixedforallpeopleandforalltimes."Wrong"
answersarenottoleratedstudentsareusuallypunishedseverely(onewayoranother)iftheymake"mistakes."Teachers,intheirturn,arealsoexpectedtoperform
accordingtoacertainsetofrigidexpectationsandtheyarepunishediftheydon't.Onesecondgrademathteacher,forexample,inordertoevadepunishment,
explainedtheinabilityofsomeofhisstudentstoanswertheinspector'squestionsbylabelingtheminfrontofthewholeclassasmentallyretarded.Whentheinspector
objected,thesevenyearoldchildrenvolunteeredtoaccuseeachotherofbeingretardedwhenanyoneofthemmadeamistake.
Organizinganumberofideasandstatementsinacoherentwaysoastobeabletoseeneworderandnewrelationsamongtheseideasandstatementsisstrongly
discouragedinschools.Causalstatementsandstatementsthatexpressrelationsareusuallytobememorized,butnevertobediscussedorquestioned.Someexamples
are,"Ifwedon'tgetenoughrain,itisbecausesomegirlswearsleevelessdresses.''"Losingthewar(in1967)isalessonforusfromGod."(Thatwasinfactwhat
NasserofEgyptsaidafterthewar.)Studentsgivecorrectdefinitionsofthesquare,rectangle,andrhombus,buttherelationshipamongthemishardlydiscussedor
askedfor.Whenmysonwaseightyearsold,Iaskedhimonedaywhathehadlearnedinschoolthatday.Oneofthethingshementionedwas,"Ifyouwanttoavoid
gettingsick,thenyouhavetowashyourhandsbeforeyoueat."Afterashorttime,hestartedeatingwithoutwashinghishands.WhenIremindedhimofwhathehad
justsaid,hetoldmehehadmerelytomemorizethatfactforthetest.
Underalltheseconditions,itisnothardtoseewhymostteachersandstudentswhoareattractedtomathandthesciences,atleastincountriesthatI'mfamiliarwith,
are"conservative"intheiroutlook,traditionalintheirbehavior,andtimidintheirthinking.Thesameconditionsalsoexplainwhymathistaught,almostalways,ina
detachedandirrelevantway.

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SummaryandSuggestions
1.Themathteacher,thelearner,theirexperiences,andtheircultureareextremelyimportantfactorsintheteachingofmathematicsandinmakingitmoremeaningful
andmorerelevant.Teachingmathwithoutaculturalcontext,byclaimingthatitisabsolute,abstract,anduniversalisthemainreason,Ibelieve,forthealienationand
failureofthevastmajorityofstudentsinthesubject.
Inaddition,teachingmaththroughculturalrelevanceandpersonalexperienceshelpsthelearnersknowmoreaboutrealityculture,society,andthemselves.That
will,inturn,helpthembecomemoreaware,morecritical,moreappreciative,andmoreselfconfident.Itwillhelpthembuildnewperspectivesandsyntheses,and
seeknewalternatives,and,hopefully,willhelpthemtransformsomeexistingstructuresandrelations.
2.Teachertrainingcoursesandprogramsformagoodstartingpointtomoveinthedirectionmentionedabove.Learningnewtopicsinmathornewmethodsof
teachingthemisnotenoughtoacquireinsightandrelevancethetwomostpreciousqualifiesintheteachingprofession.Teachertrainingcoursesandprograms,I
believe,shouldincludealsocoursesonculture,society,therelationshipbetweenlanguageandthought,andthehistoryofevolutionofmathematicalconceptsamong
otherthings.Nochangeinmathcurriculumiseffectiveunlesstheteachersunderstandthechangeinallitsdimensions.
Wehavetodistinguishbetweensuperficialorformalsuccessofanewplanorprogramorcurriculumandarealsuccessbetweensuperficialchangeandreal
change.ThenewsyllabusinmaththatwasadoptedbytheArabcountriesinthe1970swas"successful."Youcanseethechange:newbooks,newtopics,new
symbols,newterms,andlotsoftrainingcourses.Butthatissuperficialchangeinmyopinion.Therealchangewhichmeanschangeinattitudes,values,assumptions,
relationsandstructureswerecompletelymissing.
3.Changingattitudes,valuesandbasicassumptionsandrelations,however,areverycostlytotheteacherThereisapriceforteachingmathinawaythatrelatesitto
otheraspectsinsocietyandculturewhichmayresultinraisingthe"criticalconsciousness"ofthelearnerAndthepricethattheteacherusuallypaysvariesdirectly

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withthepowerofauthority(regardlessofwhetherthatauthorityassertsitspowerinasubtleordirectway)andwiththeeffectivenessoftheteacherThefearof
payingthepriceisonemainfactor,inmyopinion,thatdivertededucationfromits"natural"courseandforcedittotakedetachedandmeaninglessforms.
4.Toachievesomeoftheobjectivescitedabove,Iwouldliketosuggestthefollowingasonepossibility.Thesuggestionisdirectedtoanyworldorganizationwithan
interestindevelopingnewprogramsinmathsuchasUNESCOortheInternationalCongressesonMathematicalEducation.Twentyorthirtyeducatorsfromdifferent
cultureswhoareconvincedoftheimportanceofrelatingtheteachingofmathematicswithculturalaspectscanstartworkingondevelopingasyllabusbasedonthis
relationship.Thestrength,weaknesses,misuses,abuses(andnotonlytheuses)ofmathematicsinseveralculturesshouldbeincludedinthesyllabus.Different
interpretations,perspectives,andexamplesofcertainconceptsindifferentculturesshouldalsobediscussed.Studentswhogothroughsuchasyllabuswill,Ibelieve,
beabletounderstandthemselves,theirbeliefs,andtheirculturebetterTheywillalsobeabletounderstandotherpeopleandotherculturesbetterInaddition,sucha
syllabus,Ibelieve,willhelp"humanize"mathbyhelpingtobridgethegapbetweenscienceandtechnologyandothersocialandculturalaspectsinsociety.Most
important,itwillhelp,Ihope,infightingthreeofthebiggestevilsinourtime:absolutism,intolerance,andignorance.
Notes
1.Thisdoesnotmeanthatmathematicsintechnologicallyadvancedcountriesisnecessarilytaughtinamuchbetterway.ManymathbooksthatIhaveseenusedin
elementaryclassesintheU.S.,forexample,requirethechildrento"fillintheblanks"withoutanytraceofreallearningtakingplace.
2.Since1976,1havealsobeeninvolvedintheteachingofmathematicstoilliterateadults.
3.Foronereasonoranother,thechapter(inthenewsyllabus)onaxiomaticdeductivethinkingwasomittedinmanyArabcountries.
4.Asaresultoftheseandotherexperiences,Idevisedacoursethatdealswithsomeofthedeficienciesinourschoolsandinourculture.The

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courseattemptstorelateaxiomatic,deductive,andinductivemodesofthinkingtoexperiencesthatthestudentsencounterintheirdailylifeorintheirintellectual
questioning.ThecoursewasfirsttaughttofreshmensciencestudentsinBirzeitUniversityin1978Atextbookforthecourse(inArabic)waspublishedbyBirzeit
Universityin1981.
5.IwouldlikeheretothankDavidHendersonofCornellUniversitywhowasavisitingprofessoratBirzeitUniversityduringthesecondsemesterof1980/81who
firstpointedouttomethatitwasOmarKhayyamandnotItalianmathematicianswhofirstfoundageneralsolutionfortheCubicEquation.Infact,Dr.Henderson
wroteadetailedexpositionofKhayyam'sgeometricsolutionoftheGeneralCubicEquationwhichwasincludedinthecoursementionedinnote4.
6.Thereare,however,somecasesinhistory(speciallyinrelationtosomeconventions)whereblindimitationprovedtobebetter.Arabicnumeralsformedonesuch
case.OriginatedintheEast,theywerewrittenfromrighttoleft.(Inexpressinganaturalnumber,westartwiththeunitspositionattheextremerightandmove
leftwards.)Andthatisthewayitisinalmostallculturesthatexistnow.Thatmakesiteasierfordifferentpeopletocommunicate"numerically."Canyouimaginewhat
wouldhavehappenediftheEuropeansdecidedtoexpressnaturalnumbersinawayconsistentwiththeirownculturesbystartingwiththeunitspositiononthe
extremeleft?Ontheotherhand,thenumberline,beingoriginatedintheWest,"grows"fromlefttoright,anditisthatwayinallsocieties,whichmakesitmucheasier
forpeoplefromdifferentculturestocommunicate"graphically."
7.IwouldliketomentiononereasonthatIbelievetobeimportantinmakingtheclubssucceedingirlsschoolsbutnotinboysschools.Thegirls,ingeneral,are
outsidethemainstreamofsociety(whichistrueformostsocieties)sotheyfoundmoremeaningandrelationshipin"unorthodox"waysineducationliketheclubs'
activitiesthandidtheboys.

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Chapter14
WorldmathCurriculum:
FightingEurocentrisminMathematics
S.E.Anderson
Editor'scomment:S.E.Anderson,amathematicseducator,showshowincludinghistoricalinformationaboutthemathematicalcontributionsofpeoplefromAfrica,Asia,andLatin
AmericaleadsstudentsofcolorandworkingclassstudentsintheUnitedStatestodevelopselfconfidenceandreplacepreviousfeelingsofalienationtowardmathematicswithan
attitudethatmathematicsisintellectuallystimulating.ThischapterfirstappearedinTheJournalforNegroEducation59(3):348359,in1990.
FewGrimStatistics
Beforewegointothenutsandbolts(orchipsandrams)ofhowmathematicscanbetaughtwithouttheracistandsexistbiasofEurocentrism,wemustbeclearabout
thesociopoliticaldemographicterninwhichthiscurriculastruggletakesplace.AccordingtotheCommissiononProfessionalsinScienceandTechnology'sreport,
ScientificManpower,1987andBeyond:Today'sBudgetTomorrow'sWorkForce(pp.1017):
by2010justtwentyyearsfromnowatleastonethirdoftheeighteenyearoldsintheU.S.willbeBlackorLatino
bytheyear2000intenyears85percentofthenewmembersoftheU.S.workforcewillbeBlacks,Latinos,andWhite

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womenonly15percentofthenewworkerswillbeWhitemales
by2000,75percentofallgoodsmanufacturedintheU.S.willbeproducedbyautomationthefewerjobs(inabsolutenumbers)thatwillbeavailablewilleither
benoskills,McDonald'stypejobsorhitechskillsjobs
619U.S.citizensreceivedthePh.D.inmathematicsin1978however,by1988thatnumberwasdownto341halfthosedoctorateswenttoforeigncitizens
whileonlythreewenttoLatinos,twotoNativeAmericans,andonetoanAfricanAmerican
inthepastelevenyears,only78AfricanAmericansreceiveddoctoratesinphysicsand/orastronomy,alongwith97Latinosand11NativeAmericans
themedianmathematicslevelofBlack,Latino,andNativeAmericanhighschoolgraduatesislessthansixthgradethatis,themajorityofthesegraduateshave
noknowledgeoronlyminimalknowledgeofelementaryalgebra.
TheEurocentricBasisofMathematics
Wecangoonandonwithgrimstatistics,butthosegivenabovearesufficienttoconveytheoverallcrisisofcapitalisteducation.Thatcrisisiscurrentlyonthevergeof
implodingpreciselybecauseofitselitist,racist,andsexistnature.AstheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience's(AAAS)(1989)reportonliteracy
goalsforscience,mathematics,andtechnologystates:
Whendemographicrealities,nationalneeds,anddemocraticvaluesaretakenintoaccount,itbecomesclearthatthenationcannolongerignorethescienceeducationofany
students.Race,language,sex,oreconomiccircumstancesmustnolongerbepermittedtobefactorsindeterminingwhodoesandwhodoesnotreceiveagoodeducationin
science,mathematics,andtechnology.Toneglectthescienceeducationofany(ashashappenedtoooftento[white]girlsandminoritystudents)istodeprivethemofabasic
education,handicapthemforlife,anddeprivethenationoftalentedworkersandinformedcitizensalossthenationcanillafford.(pp.156157)
However,asAlkalimat(1990)makesclear:
..strategicinterestsinmodemsociety[have]structuredtheuniversityasatoolofsocietalpowertotrainskilledmentalworkersforthe

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everchangingtechnicaldivisionoflaborinadvancedcapitalism.Further,theuniversityisusedforthepurposeofindoctrinatinganelitewiththemetaphysicalmythofeternal
Eurocentricdominationoftheworld.Thefirstpointisforclassrule,thelatterforracerule.(p.2)
Thetaskofprogressiveeducatorsisnottotrytofixorpropupthecapitalistsystemofeducation.Ourdutyistolaytheseedsforamoreegalitarianeducational
systembasedontheassumptionthatanypersoncanlearnanythingandthatwestudyNaturetoloveandappreciateitscomplexities,beauty,andofferings,notto
controlanddefileit.Thetruebeautyofmathematicscomesfromourabilityovertimetoweavesubjectiveandobjectivefactorsintoavarietyoflogicalsystemsthat
helpexplainthecomplexitiesofNature.Itisfromthisreferencepointthatwemustexamineanalternativemathematicscurriculumandthespecificcasethatwillbe
presentedherein.
AccordingtoJoseph(1987,p.2226),thepresentstructureofmathematicseducationandresearchonalllevelsisbasedonfourhistoriographicpillarswhich
havebeenplacedinthesandfoundationofEurocentrism:
1.thegeneraldisinclinationtolocatemathematicsinamaterialisticbaseandthustolinkitsdevelopmentwitheconomic,political,andculturalchanges
2.theconfinementofmathematicalpursuitstoanelitefewwhoarebelievedtopossesstherequisitequalitiesorgiftsdeniedthevastmajorityofhumanity
3.thewidespreadacceptanceoftheviewthatmathematicaldiscoverycanonlyfollowfromarigorousapplicationofaformofdeductiveaxiomaticlogicbelieved
tobeauniqueproductofGreekmathematicshence,intuitiveorempiricalmethodsaredismissedashavinglittlemathematicalrelevance
4.thebeliefthatthepresentationofmathematicalresultsmustconformtotheformalanddidacticstyledevisedbytheGreeksover2,000yearsagoandthat,asa
corollarythevalidationofnewadditionstomathematicalknowledgecanonlybeundertakenbyasmall,selfselectingcteriewhosecontrolovertheacquisition
anddisseminationofsuchknowledgehasahighlyEurocentriccharacter.
InstitutionalizedEurocentriccurriculaconstantlyreinforcetheracialandsexualinferioritycomplexesamongpeopleofcolorandwomen.Thedominantcurriculumin
usetodaythroughouttheUnitedStatesisexplicitinassertingthatmathematicsoriginatedamongmen

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inGreeceandwasfurtherdevelopedbyEuropeanmenandtheirNorthAmericandescendants.AccordingtoBall(1922),thehistoryofmathematics"cannotwith
certaintybetracedbacktoanyschoolorperiodbeforethatoftheIonianGreeks"(p.1).Klein,writingin1953,claimedthefollowing:
MathematicsfinallysecuredafirmgriponlifeinthehighlycogenialsoilofGreeceandwaxedstronglyforashortperiod...withthedeclineofGreekcivilization,theplant
remaineddormantforathousandyears...whentheplantwastransportedtoEuropeproperandoncemoreimbeddedinfertilesoil(p.10).
FromgenerationtogenerationforcenturiesthistypeofEurocentric"scholarship"hasbeenreproducedintheobjectiveandsubjectivepursuitofjustifyingracismand
imperialrule.WhenthereismentioninmathematicstextbooksofAfrican,Indian,Chinese,orMayancontributions,thatmentionisrelegatedtopassingsentences,
paragraphs,or,onrareoccasions,anonsequiturchapter.
Systematically,thevastmajorityofmathematicscurriculaincollegesandhighschoolsare"turningoff"generationsofyoungpeoplefrompursuingcareersin
mathematicsandscienceingeneraland,intheprocess,reinforcingracistassumptionsaboutpeopleofcolor(Steen,1987,p.251).Thoseofuswhowanttoseetrue
mathematicalandscientificknowledgeflourishamongouryouthandworkersmustbreakfromtheEurocentricperspectiveandbeginthereconstructionoftherichand
complexfabricofworldmathematicalandscientificknowledge.Thisrequiresbreakingwithmostofthepedagogicalandcurriculartraditionsthatexisttoday.There
arerisks,howeverIfoneiswhiteandbreakswiththetraditions,onerisksbeingviewedbyone'smoreconservativeracistpeersasa"crackpot"liberalonasuicide
mission.IfoneisnotWhite,onerisksbeingseenassomesortofatavisticmilitantbentonpaintingtheivorytowerblackanddestroyingtheiconsof"rigor"and"proof''
andreplacingthemwith"simplicity"and"fun."
SixPedagogicalDisastersinMathematicsEducation
BeforelookingatmyownpracticalexperiencesinteachingfromaradicalpedagogyIwilloutlinesixmajorpedagogicaldisastersin

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mathematicsteaching.Popularbeliefandpracticedictatesthatbeforeonecanlearnmathematicsonehasto:
1.Separatearithmeticfromalgebra
2.Teachmathematicswithoutanyhistoricalreferences
3.Usetextbooksthatareelitistandcryptic
4.Doworkandbetestedasanindividualasopposedtoworkingandbeingtestedasstudygroups
5.Acceptthemyththatmathematicsispureabstractionand,therefore,antitheticaltoone'sculturalandworkingenvironmentand
6.Memorize,memorize,memorize.
SeparatingArithmeticfromAlgebra
Becauseweteacherspursuepedagogyundialectically,wetendtocompartmentalizeknowledgeratherthanshowtheinterrelatednessofit.Asaresult,wespendyears
poundingarithmeticskillsintoveryyoungfolk,chastisingthosewhoattemptbeforewearereadyto"teach"ittothemalgebraicprocessessuchastakingabigger
numberfromasmallerone.Additionally,mostelementaryandsecondaryschoolteachersjustdonotunderstandmathematics.Theyareakintotheoneeyedman(or
woman)leadingtheblindasopposedtokeensightedteachersintentondevelopingmathematicalvisionandperspectiveinyoungpeople.Whenalgebraisimposed
uponouryouthduringthatdramaticpubescentperiodwhensomanyothernewandchallenginglifealteringdevelopmentsarealsooccurring,itisretrofittedonto
wornoutarithmeticalcomputationaldrills.Thus,algebrabecomesatraumatictearingapartaworldconstructgraftedontosixorsevenpreviousyearsof
proselytizingalimitedarithmeticworlddisinfectedfromeverydayexperiencesandthehistoricaldevelopmentofpeople.
Byjuniorhighschooltheoverwhelmingmajorityofouryouthareconvincedthatmathematicsteachersaretheirenemiesand,evenworse,thatmathematicsissome
sortofpoisonormindcontrolingdrugthatteacherstrytoforceuponthem.Thoseofuswhoteachmathematicsatthejuniorhighlevelreinforceourselvesbysaying:
"Ohwell,mathematicsisforthechosenfewthegiftedanyway."Bythetimemosttypicalcollegefreshmenenteracollegemathematicsclass,theyarefilledwith
fear,apprehension,andmisinformationaboutmathematics.Inanacceleratedscramble,theyrunawayfrom

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anymathematicsormathematicsrelatedsubjectsfortherestoftheircollegeexperience.Usuallycontributingtothisscrambleisthe"erudite"maleprofessorwho
standsarrogantlybeforehisclasses,teachingmathematicsasifthestudentsweremerelyreviewingthematerialorasiftherewerenostudentsbeforehimatall!
TeachingMathematicsasanAhistoricalDevelopment
Mathematicsandthenaturalsciencesaretheonlyareasofstudypresentedwithlittleornohistoricalcultural,orpoliticalreferences.Thisahistoricalapproachis
essentialforwhatAlkalimat(1990)identifiesasaprocessof"indoctrinatinganelitewiththemetaphysicalmythofeternalEurocentricdominationoftheworld"(p.2).
ThispedagogicalapproachreinforcestheinstitutionalizationofEurocentrism,classelitism,andsexism.EuropeannamessuchasPythagorus,Euclid,CauchyRieman,
Fourier,andNewtonaretossedaboutsansflesh,bones,andpersonalitiesthentheyareattachedtovariouslevelsofabstractionsasiftheyalwaysexisted.
ElitistAndCrypticTextbooks
Wehaveallhadatleastoneexperiencewithamathematicstextsobotched,convoluted,andelitistinitsexplanationofconceptscoveredinclassthatwedreaded
openingit.CrypticmathematicstextsarethenormatalllevelsofAmericaneducation.Capitalist/racisteducationnotonlymassproducestheseintimidating,
incomprehensiblemathematicstexts,butitalsodemandsusageofthem.SuchtextsensuretheclassrulethatAlkalimatdescribes.Inotherwords,everyaspectofthe
educationalprocessandeveryfacetofindustrialandtechnologicalactivitymustconvincethemajorityofpeopleespeciallypeopleofcolorthattheyarebiologically
intellectuallyand/orpsychologicallyincapableofunderstandingmathematics.
TheIndividualUberAlles
Thetypicalsecondaryschoolorcollegemathematicsclassisstructuredsuchthatindividualsmustcompeteruthlesslywitheachotherfor"knowledge."Atthebeginning
ofmostcourses,theteacher,whoassumesthatmoststudentswillfailthismostrigorousandde

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mandingofsubjects,usuallylaysoutthefailureparameters(althoughstudentsusuallyalreadyknowthoseparametersfromtheirownorotherstudents'previous
disastrousencounterswiththesubjectand/orteacher).Insuchsettings,cooperationamongafewstudentsevolvesnotasaresultofitsorganicdevelopmentinthe
course,thematerials,ortheteacherbutratheroutofdesperation.Individualismisreinforcedwithinthemathematicsclass,furtherstrengtheningandlegitimizingclass,
race,andsexualdivisionswithinitandwithinsocietyatlarge.Althoughthestudentaslonersyndromecontradictsthewaymostpeoplehistoricallyandpresentlyhave
solvedproblems,itreaffirmsthefoundationsofcapitalism'stotalitarianrule.
"It'sNotRealMathUnlessit'sAbstract"
Systematicallyfromkindergartentocollege,fromprivateschoolstopublicschools,andfromcoasttocoast,mathematicsispresentedasanabstractionwithlittleor
norelationshiptotherealworldasdivorcedfromsubjectivityaspure,blindinglywhite,and,therefore,beautifulinitssinosoidallikemonotony.Onlyachosenfew
aregiventhe"keys"toenterthissecretsocietyofpurityandbeauty.Thosefewareselectedonthebasisoftheirclass/racepositionandbysheerprobability
(becauseallthoseprivilegedtoaccessmathematicswillnotpursueit).
Erudition,abstraction,andcompartmentalizationthecornerstonesofEurocentricmathematicsandsciencearetheproductsofcapitalism'sneedtofurther
subdividetheworld,itspeople,andtheiractivities(i.e.,toalienateanddistancepeoplefromtheircreativesourceandtheircreativity).Thisprocessallowscapitalto
extractmoresurplusvaluefromhumanlaborandgainmorecontroloverthemindsandsociopoliticalactivitiesofthepeople.(Itisalsooneofseveralreasonswhy
mathematicians,engineers,andscientistsasagrouphavetendedtobemorepoliticallyconservativethantheirsocialscienceorhumanitiescounterparts.Thus,our
studentssufferthroughyearsofmathas"mythamatics,"neverinternalizingitorseeingitasanaturalhumanendeavor.
RoteMemorizationisaDeadEnd
Weareallwitnessestothedisastrousrealityofrotelearning.Howmanyofushaveseenstudentswho,byrotememorization

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alone,havetakenandpassedaseriesofmathematicscourses,yettheylackevenfundamentalmathematicsskills?Howmanytimeshaveweaskedstudents
questionsjustslightlyremovedfromthesubjecttheyhavememorizedonlytogetsilenceandaglazedlookasaresponse.Why?
Weteachersandprofessorshavereducedmathematicsproblemsolvingandtestingtomemorizationofdefinitions,formulae,theorems,andthelike.Thus,thestudent
whocanmemorizethemostandwhohasaccesstothemostreferencematerialand/orproblemsolvingtechnologywillmostlikelydowell.Thiskindoflearningis
solelyforimmediaterecalllittleisinternalizedorretainedforuseinlearningthenextlevelofmathematics.
AnAlternativeCurriculumandPedagogy
Reformsinmathematicseducationhavenotsolvedtheinherentproblemspreciselybecauseoftheirreformistnature.Reformsmerelyrearrangethesamecontentintoa
"newandimproved"format.However,thereareafewofusinthemathematicseducationfieldwhohavebrokenwithtraditionandbroughteveryaspectofteaching
mathematicsintoquestion:ourpedagogy,ourassumptionsabouthowandwhypeoplelearn,ourtexts,andourselves.WitnessBobMosesandhisAlgebraProjectfor
elementaryschools,inwhichyoungsterslearnalgebrafromtheirridesonthesubwayArthurPowell(1986)ofRutgersUniversityNewarkandhisWritinginMath
projectandMarilynFrankensteinoftheUniversityofMassachusettsandherconceptof"radicalmath"(FrankensteinandPowell,1989).
1
Theseandother
progressiveeducatorshavesuggestedandusealternativestothelockstep,nutsandboltsapproachtothearithmeticalgebraprecalculuscalculus''learning"
sequencethatissopervasiveyetsodevastating.
Therearecertain"radical"actionsthatcanbetakentoimprove,quantitativelyandqualitatively,students'knowledgeandappreciationofmathematicsasreal,doable,
andtheirs.WhatBobMosesdoesattheelementaryschoollevelshouldbeexpandedupon.Forexample,studentscouldbeassignedtoworkcollectivelyona
probleminvolvingthestudyofturbulenceinatuborthechaoticstateofadrippingfaucettheirinvestigationscouldextendoverawholeschoolsemesterorterm,
whereupontheywouldresearchanddevelopmath

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ematicalrules,definitions,andtechniquestosolvetheproblem.Shortofamajoroverhaulofthefirsttwoyearsofcollegemathematics,collegelevelcoursesshouldbe
developedthatshowtheinterconnectednessofmathematicsandrealworldproblems.Thesecoursesshouldalsoshowhowpeoplethroughouthistoryhavecreated
mathematicaltechniquestosolveproblems.
HowandWhatITeach
ThefollowingisadiscussionofwhatIhavebeendoinganddevelopingoverthepasttwentyyearswithafullspectrumofcollegestudents,butprincipallyworking
classBlackandLatinoadults(youngandold)preciselybecausetheyarethemostalienatedfromandfearfulofmathematics.Rarelyarethesestudentsintellectually
challengedorstimulated,butoncetheyare,andonceteachersunderstandthattheycanunderstand,Ihavefoundtheirpursuitofknowledgetobeunstoppable.
Mostofmypedagogicalworkisaimedatpsychologicalupliftmentthroughemphasizingthatordinarypeoplecreatemathematicalideasand"do"mathematics.Inmy
basicmathematicscourses(calculusanditsprerequisites),IassumetheroleofconfidencebuilderItellmystudentsthattheyallstartoutwithan"A,"yettheymust
struggletomaintainit.IletthemknowthatIassumetheyallhavetheintellectualcapabilitiestounderstandthematerial,andiftheydonotIattributeittoeithermyown
orthetextbook'sfailuretocommunicateclearly.Inmyview,thequalityofmathematicsknowledgeiscentralandthequantitativeaspectsecondary.Therefore,
althoughImaysetouttocoversixchaptersinasemester,Iwillnotkillmystudentstoachieveit.Iftheycompleteonlythreeorfourchaptersandlearnthosewell,
thenIamconfidentthattheycanpickuptherest.
ATypicalAlgebraClass
Iusethesameapproachandstructureinmyelementary,intermediate,andprecalculusalgebraclassesthatIuseinmyfinitemathematicsclassesormy"Mathasa
HumanEndeavor"classes.Thefirsttwosessionsarelecturediscussionsonthehistorical,cultural,and

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sociopoliticalimplicationsofmathematics.Inthesesessions,Ioutlinetheinterrelationshipsbetweenthedevelopmentofmathematicalideasandtechniques,humanity's
ongoingstruggletounderstandNature,andcapitalism'sattemptstocontrolanddominateNature.
Fromtheoutset,Iemphasizethatsomeoftheveryfirstmathematical/scientificthinkersandinnovatorswereAfricanwomen.HumanityoriginatedinAfrica,and
women,forthemostpart,werethefirstfarmersbothlogicandscientificevidencesupporttheassertionthattherudimentarydevelopmentofmathematicaland
scientificinquiryandexperimentationbeganwiththem.Aswomenand,later,menfurtheredthedomesticationoffoodstuffs,theycreatedmoreleisureandthinkingtime
forthemselvesthus,afewmenandwomenbegantostudyNatureinitsqualitativeandquantitativemodes.Overtime,however,thedomesticationoffoodstuffsalso
playedadirectroleindividingthesexes,bringingforthsocialclassesanditsconcomitantdifferencesinmathematicsknowledge.
Mylecturesincludediscussionoftheancients'rudimentarymethodsofscientificobservation,inquiry,andexperimentationandtheircomplementarymathematical
achievements.Ishowhowearlymathematicsandscienceledtothebuildingofthepyramids,theGreatWallofChina,andtheroadtoKathmanduaswellasthe
developmentofastronomyandastrologythetechniquesofironsmeltingandmetalplating,andsurgerythousandsofyearsbeforeEuropeancivilization.Ialsoshow
howhumankind'smathematicalideasandtechniquesgrewoutofpeople'sneedtounderstandNature,tobuildanddomesticate,andtocommunicateandrecord
resultsfromvarioustypesofsocialinteractions.
IpointouttomystudentsthattheEgyptians,Chinese,andIndiansuseddifferentstylesofmathematicalgeneralizationsinalgebraicproblemsolving.PreHellenic
algebraicproofssuchasthosefoundintwoofthemostimportantEgyptianmathematicaldocuments,theAhmesPapyrus(c.1650B.C.)andtheMoscowPapyrus(c.
1850B.C.),whilenotdeductivelyaxiomatic,wereandstillarevalidproofs.AsJoseph(1987)notes:"Egyptianproofsarerigorouswithoutbeingsymbolic,sothat
typicalvaluesofavariableareusedandgeneralizationstoanyothervalueisimmediate"(p.24).
Duringthesesessions,IstressthattheEgyptianscreatedatremendouscivilizationthatlastedforthousandsofyears.IalsostressthatEgyptisinAfricaandthatthe
peoplewhoinhabitthelandwereandareAfricans.IpointoutthatEgyptiancivilizationproducedcomplextechnologicalinnovationsandformsofcommunicationand
engagedinanextensiveinterchangeofgoodsandideaswithother

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peoplethousandsofyearsbeforetheyhelpedbringforthGreekcivilization.InotethatatleasthalfoftheGreeklanguageisAfricaninoriginandthattheGreek
cosmologicalandmythologicalconstructswerefoundeduponEgyptianconstructs,aswasGreekshipbuilding,architecture,andmathematics.IexplainthatEuclid
thesocalled"father"ofplanegeometryspenttwentyoneyearsstudyingandtranslatingmathematicaltractsinEgypt.Pythagorasalsospentyearsstudying
philosophyandscienceinEgyptandpossiblyjourneyedEasttoIndiaand/orPersiawherehe"discovered"thesocalledPythagoreanTheoremintheIndian
Sulbasutras,acollectionofmathematicaldocuments(c.800500B.C.).AsIaskmystudents,howcouldatheoremwhoseproofwasrecordedinBabylonian
documentsdating1,000yearsbeforehewasbornbeattributedtoPythagoras?
Theintentofthesefirstsessionsistoshatterthemyththatmathematicswasorisa"Whiteman'sthing"andtoshowmystudentsthatallcivilizations,thoughtheydiffer
anddevelopatdifferentpaces,havealwaysbeenboundinextricablytoeachother.ItisimportantthatstudentsknowthatEuropeisnotnownorwasiteverthe
"civilizingcenter"oftheworldsurroundedbywildnessandchaos.TofurtherundothisEurocentricassumption,Ithendiscusstheimportanceoftheconstantflowof
ideasandtechniquesintoEuropefromtheearlyGreeksthroughtheMedievalandRenaissanceperiodstotheriseofcapitalism(seeMidonick,1965).Ishowhow
certainaspectsofEuropeanmathematicscouldnothavedevelopedhadnottheEuropeanstradedwithmoreadvancedsocieties.Oneofthemostglaringexamplesof
thisisthecaseofthe150yearpoliticalstrugglearoundtheincorporationoftheHinduArabicnumeralsystemintocommonusageinEurope.Foracenturyandahalf
duringthemedievalperiod(specificallyaroundA.D.12001350),thedominantRomanCatholicChurch'sfearofarisingrivalclass,coupledwithEuropeanracismand
xenophobiaimpededthespreadofmathematicalknowledgethroughoutEurope.TheVaticandenouncedHinduArabicnumeralsas"theworkofthedevil"becauseit
viewedthewidespreaduseofaneasywaytocalculateasameansbywhichEuropeanmerchantsandcraftsmenwouldbecomeevenmoreindependentofthe
Church.
Thisexampleleadsintoadiscussionofthemythofthe"DarkAges,"whichassertsthatbecauseageneralretrogressionoccurredamongtheEuropeanfeudalelite
duringtheMedievalperiod,nothingwashappeningintellectuallyanywhereelseintheworld.Onthecontrary,ideasinmathematics,science,andphilosophyflourished
bothinsideandoutsideofEuropeduringthattime.GreatAfricanand

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MiddleEasternArabscholarslivedandstudiedinplaceslikeToledoandCordobainSpainaswellasinSicily.Timbuktu,Cairo,Baghdad,andJundishapurwerealso
keycentersofscholarlylearningandresearch.TherichandcomplexArabculturethatdominatedsouthernEurope,mostofAfrica,theMiddleEast,andpartsofIndia
andChinaduringthisperiodbroughtforthsuchintellectualcentersasCaliphalMansur'sHouseofWisdom(BaitalHikma)inBaghdad,wheredocuments,scholars,
andresearchersintegratedthegreatastronomicalstudiesofIndian,Chinese,Greek,andBabylonianscholars.
BaitalHikmawasalsoaresearchuniversityoutofwhichakeymathematicianevolved:MohammedibnMusaalKhwarizmi(c.A.D.825??).Myclassroom
presentationsincludediscussionofalKhwarizmibecauseheauthoredtwofoundationalmathematicstexts:Thefirst,HisabaldjabrwaalMuqabala(TheScienceof
EquationsorTheScienceofReductionandCancellation)notonlygaveEuropeitsfirstsystematicapproachtoalgebra,butalsowasthesourceofthenameforthe
subjectmatter(aldjabror"algebra").Hissecondbook(nowfoundonlyintheLatinoriginal),AlgorithmideNumeroIndorum,explainstheIndiannumeralsystem.
AlthoughalKhwarizmiemphasizedtheIndianoriginsofthenumeralsystem,subsequentEuropeantranslationsofthisbookattributedthesystemtohimhence,
schemesusingthesenumeralscametobeknownas"algorithms"(acorruptionofthename"alKhwarizmi"),andthenumeralsbecameknownas"Arabic
numerals"(Joseph,1987,p.21).
IalsomentionotherimportantArabmathematicianssuchasthealgebraistOmarKhayyam(c.A.D.10501122),knownintheWestsolelyasahedonistpoetand
NasirEddinalTusi(A.D.12011274).Ittook500yearsforalTusi'sideasofgeometryonanonflatsurfacetocatchoninEuropeintheeighteenthcenturytheItalian
geometristSaccheriusedalTusi'sworktocreatethebasisofwhatwenowcall"nonEuclidiangeometry."
Ithenproceedtogivemystudentsanideaoftheintimacyofmathematicalabstractionorconceptstosociopoliticaldevelopments.Idiscusstheperiodfromtheeighth
throughthefifteenthcentury,whenEurope,Africa,Asia,andtheAmericasengagedinarichinterchangeofideasandculture.Ishowhowthisinterchangehelpedto
nurturetheintellectualandscientificdemandsoftherisingEuropeanmerchantclass.Forexample,inthe1600sEuropeanmerchantsbeganmakinggreatdemandson
shipbuildersformoreandbiggershipstocarrymoreAfricanslaves,rawmaterials,andfinishedproductsatafasterpace.Ironically,intheirresearchtoimprove
techniquesforbuildingverylargeships,Europeanshipbuildersturnedtothewis

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domofGambian(WestAfrican),Chinese,andIndianmariners.Thus,mystudentscometounderstandthecontradictionsinherentinthewaydevelopmentsin
hydrodynamics(anditsattendantmathematics)contributedtotheEuropeanbourgeoisie'srelentlesspursuitofprofitandtothehorroroftheoriginalHolocaustthe
slavetrade.
IfurtherpointoutthatcalculuswascreatedtofacilitatethestudyofballisticsandthewarsoflandconsolidationwagedbyEnglandandGermany.Ialsoshowhowthe
needsofthemilitaryincontemporarycapitalistsocietiesformoreefficientweaponryanddefensemechanismshaveinspiredandcontinuetoinspiremany
mathematiciansandscientiststopursuetheWarMachinebringingforthnewmathematicalandscientificdiscoveriesandtechniquesprimarilyforthesakeofcapital.
Insum,theselecture/discussionshelpstudentstounderstandthefollowing:
(a)Peopleofcolorweretheoriginalfoundersandinnovatorsofmathematicsandscience.
(b)EuropewasneverisolatedfromThirdWorld(actuallyFirstWorld)mathematicalandscientificachievements.
(c)EuropeancapitalismdevelopedbecauseofEurope'sincorporationofthemathematicalandscientificideasandtechniquesoftheFirstWorldintotheircapitalist
superstructure.
(d)Europedominated,enslaved,andcolonizedAfrica,Asia,andtheAmericasandtherebystoppedand/orreversedmost,butnotall,formsofFirstWorld
intellectual,mathematical,scientific,andtechnologicalactivity.
Throughthisbriefhistoricalsurvey,Iattempttoputmathematicswithinahumancontext.AlthoughIlimittermpaperstomycalculusand"mathasahumanendeavor"
classes,manyofmystudentsbecomeveryinterestedinthehistoricaldevelopmentofmathematics.Oftentheywindupdoingmorereadingandwritingtermpapersin
thefieldofmathematicsandsciencehistoryforotherclasses.
AFewWordsonStructuringClasses
Abouttwoweeksintoaclass,Ifacilitatethecreationofstudygroupsofnomorethanthreeorfourpeopleofthestudents'choice.Thesegroupsallowcollectivestudy
(aconceptthatoftenmustbeexplainedtomoststudents)andinclassgroupwork.Thestudygroupsareresponsibleforoneortwo"progressreports"(othersmay
callthem"tests"or"exams,"butIprefermytermbecauseIwantto

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conveythemessagethatIamoptimisticaboutmystudents'performanceandconcernedprimarilywithbuildingmathematicalconfidence).
Iwantmystudentstosee,talk,andreadaboutrealpeopledoingrealmathematicsandgettingrealresults.Therefore,Ialsoincorporateaweeklyfifteentotwenty
minuteclassdiscussionofthe"ScienceTimes"sectionoftheNewYorkTimestostressthedirectandindirectrelationshipofmathematicstothesocialandnatural
sciences,thedevelopmentoftechnology,andjobmarketskills.Thesereadings/discussionshelp"demystify"scienceandmathematicswhiletheyalsohelpbuild
students'technicalandformalvocabularies.
Studentsarerequestedtonoteallimportantmathematicaldefinitions,theorems,andformulaeonnotecards.Theyaretobringthesenotecardstoclasswiththemat
alltimes,includingprogressreporttime,foruseasreferences.However,fromtheverybeginningIletmystudentsknowthatmyclasses(andmathematicsitself)are
notaboutseeingwhoisbestatmemorizingrather,theyareaboutgettingeveryonetounderstandandusemathematics.Justaswehavereferencesavailableatourjob
orinourcommunitywork,weshouldhavethemwhenwearepursuingthesolutiontomathematicalandscientificproblems.
Iencouragetheuseofscientificcalculatorsinmyclasses.Iftimeandcomputersareavailable,Iencouragestudentstousesomeoftheeffectiveinteractivesoftware
available.Nonetheless,Iseethecomputerasasupplement,neverasanalternative,tomydirectinteractionswithstudents.
Conclusion
Primari1ytheresultsofmytwodecadesofevolvinganonEurocentricapproachtoteachingmathematicsarereflectedinmystudentshavingamorepositive,self
assuredattitudeaboutthemselvessuccessfullydoingmathematics.Forexample,ofthehundredsofstudentsthattookmyalgebraclassesattheStateUniversityof
NewYorkOldWestbury(19711977)andRutgersUniversityinNewark(19861989),85percentpassedthecourse.Outoftheseabout60percentpursuedat
leastonemoremathematicscoursethattheyinitiallyhadplannedtoavoid.OverthattenyearperiodmanymoreAfricanAmericanstudentsbegantakingandpassing
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atboththesesitesanincreaseof25to28percentatOldWestburyanda19to21percentincreaseatRutgersNewark.Conversely,amongstudentsenrolledinthe
traditionalalgebralectureandtestingformatsatOldWestburydropoutandfailureratesincreasedfrom1978to1988.InbasicalgebraclassesatRutgersNewark,
thefailureanddropoutrateshavehoveredataround50percentforthepastseventeenyears!
Intermsofgeneratingmathematicsmajors,mysuccesseshavebeensmallones:tomyknowledge,onlysevenoreightofmystudentshavedecidedtopursueorhave
successfullymajoredinmathematics.Thus,itcanbesaidthatthisparticularnonEurocentricapproachproducesthebasicselfconfidencestudentsofcolorneedto
getthroughmathematicsclassesandsatisfytherequirementsofnonmathematicsmajors.Togeneratemoremathematicsmajors,oneneedscontroloftheentire
mathematicscurriculumandfaculty,notjustafewclasses.
InstrugglingagainstaEurocentriccurriculuminanydiscipline,weteacherscannotrectifytheproblembytryingtousethesamemethodsthathavesuppressedor
distortedknowledge.Norcanwemerelygraftdiscussionsoftheparticularattributesandachievementsofpeopleofcolor,willynilly,ontotheexistingordertodoso
wouldonlycompoundthemadnessofclass,race,and/orgenderbasedprejudice.AstheEgyptianpoliticaleconomistAmin(1989)claims,suchnarrowminded
nationalismcananddoesgenerateindividualism:
Ineverycase...nationalistculturalistretreatproceedsfromthesamemethod,themethodofEurocentrism:theaffirmationofirreducible"uniquetraits"thatdeterminethecourse
ofhistory,ormoreexactly,thecourseofindividual,incommensurablehistories(p.77).
Thoseofuswhoaregenuinelyconcernedwitheducatingstudentsforliberationratherthantrainingthemforthejobmarketmustattack,critique,anddismantlethe
Eurocentriceducationalconstructwhilesimultaneouslyplantingtheseedsformoreholistic,intunewithnature,popular,andegalitarianformsoflearning.Wecannot
waitanylonger.ThegrimstatisticsImentionedatthebeginningofthisarticleindicatethatasubtlebuteffectiveformofeducationalgenocideistakingplaceinaddition
tothegeneralmoralandpoliticaldeclineofoneofthegreatestworkingclassesintheworld.ThevastmajorityofusAfricanAmericansandLatinospresentlyin
thehallsofacademeareherebecauseofpopularmovementstoopentheuniversitiestoall.Asaconsequence,wearehonorboundtostruggle

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againstthetendencytowardtunnelvision.Inallfieldsofhumanendeavor,andparticularlyinthecrucialfieldsofmathematicsandscience,toofferanalternativethatis
genuinelyegalitarianandtruthfulwemustopenoureyestothecentralityofthecontributionsmadebythevastmajorityoftheworld'speople.
References
Alkalimat,A.(1990).Eurocentricism:AreviewofSamirAmin'sEurocentrism.Unpublishedreview.DepartmentofAfricanaStudies.SUNYStonyBrook.
AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience.(1989).ScienceforallAmericans:Aproject2061reportonliteracygoalsinscience,mathematics,and
technology.Washington,D.C.:AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience.
Amin,S.(1989).Eurocentrism.NewYork:MonthlyReviewPress.
Ball,W.W.R.(1922).HistoryofMathematics.London:MacmillanandCo.
CommissiononProfessionalsinScienceandTechnology.Scientificmanpower,1987andbeyond:Today'sbudgetTomorrow'sworkforce.
Frankenstein,M.andPowell,A.(1989)."MathematicsEducationandSociety:EmpoweringNonTraditionalStudents"InC.Keitel,P.Damerow,A.Bishop,&P.
Gerdes(Ed.),Mathematics,educationandsociety(pp.157159).Paris:UNESCO.
Joseph,G.G.(1987).FoundationsofEurocentrisminmathematics.RaceandClass27(3):1328.
Klein,M.(1953).MathematicsinWesternCulture.NewYork:Macmillan.
Matthews,C.M.(1990).Science,engineering,andmathematicsprecollegeandcollegeeducation.CongressionalResearchServiceIB88068:56.
Midonick,H.O.(1965).TheTreasuryofMathematics.NewYork:PhilosophicalLibrary.
NationalResearchCouncil.(1989).Everybodycounts:Areporttothenationonthefutureofmathematicseducation.Washington,D.C.:NationalAcademy
Press.
Powell,A.B.(1985).Workingwith"underprepared"mathematicsstudents.InM.DriscollandJ.Confrey(eds.).Teachingmathematics:Strategiesthatwork
(pp.18192).Portsmouth,NH:Heinemann.
Steen,L.A.(1987,July17).Mathematicseducation:Apredictorofscientificcompetitiveness.Science251.

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Chapter15
WorldCulturesintheMathematicsClass
ClaudiaZaslavsky
Editors'scomment:ClaudiaZaslavsky,amathematicseducator,iswellknownforhergroundbreakingwork,AfricaCounts:NumberandPatternsinAfricanCulture(Boston:
Prindle,WeberandSchmidt,1973reprintedBrooklyn,NY:LawrenceHill,1979),thatstimuatedinterestinandthedevelopmentofcurricularmaterialsinmulticultural
mathematics,includingherownMulticulturalMathematics:InterdisciplinaryCooperativeLearningActivities(Portland,ME:Walch,1993)andTheMulticulturalMath
Classroom(Portsmouth,NH:Heinemann,1996).Inthischapter,shepresentsvariousmathematicalpracticesofAfricanpeoplesandindigenouspeoplesoftheAmericasand
discusseswhyandhowthesepracticescanbeincorporatedintomathematicscurriculaforchildren.ThischapterfirstappearedinFortheLearningofMathematics11(2):3236,in
1991.
IntheclassroomsoftheUnitedStates,wehavechildrenrepresentingmostoftheculturesoftheworld.Somearrivedinourcountryinthepastfewyears,whileothers
aredescendantsofimmigrantswhocameinpreviousdecadesandcenturies,andstillotherstracetheirancestrytotheoriginalinhabitantsoftheAmericas.Atonetime
theUnitedStateswascalleda"meltingpot"ofmanynationalitiesandcultures.Yetthereweregroupsthatneverhadtheopportunitytobecomepartofthemixmost
NativeAmericans,peopleofAfricandescent,andLatinosfromthecolonyofPuertoRicoandfromtheareathatwasformerlyMexico,nowthesouthwesternpartof
theU.S.,tonamebutafew.Theywerethethrowaways,likethegarbageleftoveraftertheingredientshadbeenchosenforthemeltingpot.Theyconstitutedand
theystilldoadisproportionatelylargesegmentofthepopulationlivinginpoverty.

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Nowwerealizethatthe''meltingpot"analogyisfalseonthecontrary,peoplehavebecomemoreinterestedinrecenttimesinseekingouttheirroots.Theethnic
groupsthathavelivedlongestintheAmericasandhavebeenmostoppressedaretheNativepeoplesandtheAfricanswhowerebroughttotheNewWorldin
chains,toserveasslavestoEuropeanplantationowners.Nowtheirdescendantsaredeterminedtoreasserttheirculturalheritage.Althoughtheirancestorsoften
includedEnglish,Spanish,andotherEuropeans,theyfrequentlychoose,orarecompelledbysocietalpressures,toidentifywiththeoppressedpeoples.Incidentally,
NativeAmericansandAfricansalsointermarried,andmanyAfricanAmericanscancountAmericanIndiansintheirancestors.TheUnitedStatesCensusincludes
peopleofSpanishoriginwitheitherWhitesorBlacks,butalsocalculatesthetotalHispanic(ofSpanishorigin)populationasaseparate,additionalgroup.Subdivisions
andnamesarethesubjectofdisagreementevenamongthepeoplewhobelongtothesegroups,anddiscussionsonthetopicareoftenheated.Inthemedia,in
governmentandcommissionreports,theterm"minorities"includesBlacks,Latinos/as(Hispanics),NativeAmericans,andAsianAmericans.Membersofthese
groupsmayresenttheimplicationoftheword"minority"assignifying"lesser"Theyalsoobjecttobeinglumpedtogetherasthoughtheyareallthesame.Evenwithin
eachofthegroupsIhavenamed,peopledifferwidelyingeographicorigin,culturalstyles,andsocialclass.
Itisestimatedthatbytheyear2000,onethirdofallstudentswillbe"minority."Childrengrowingupinthesefamiliesandcommunitiesoftendifferfromchildrenofthe
dominantcultureintheirlearningstyles.Theymayhavelessaccesstoeducationalopportunities,bothinsideandoutsidetheclassroom.Manyofthese"minority"
studentsattendschoolsthatarepoorlyserviced,scorelowestintheallimportantstandardized"achievement"tests,anddropoutofschoolatahighrate.A
disproportionatenumberofthesechildrenareplacedinthelowesttrack(orstream)fromtheearliestgrades,wheretheyarepresentedwithalimited,outdated
curriculum,taughtbyrotememorizationmethods,andtestedbystandardizedpaperandpencil,multiplechoicetests.
ThemathematicscommunityintheUnitedStatesisembarkinguponaprogramtoreachallstudents.AsstatedintheCurriculumandevaluationstandardsfor
schoolmathematics(NCTM,1989):
Itiscrucialthatconsciouseffortsbemadetoencourageallstudents,especiallyyoungwomenandminorities,topursuemathematics(page68).

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Recognitionisgiventothevariedbackgroundsandinterestsofthestudents:
Studentsshouldhavenumerousandvariedexperiencesrelatedtothecultural,historicalandscientificevolutionofmathematics(page5).
Itisnotonlychildrenofminoritygroupswhobenefitfromtheinclusionoftopicsrelatingtotheirheritage.Studentsinour"globalvillage"mustlearntorespectand
appreciatethecontributionsofpeoplesinallpartsoftheworld.
Educatorsarebeginningtorecognizethevalueofinfusingmathematicswiththeachievementsofworldcultures,to"multiculturalizethecurriculum"(Bishop,1988
D'Ambrosio,1989Gerdes,1988).
IntroducingaCulturalPerspective
LeadingeducatorsintheUnitedStatesdeploretheextenttowhichstandardizedtestsandtextbooksdrivethemathematicscurriculum.Teststakepriority."Ifit'snot
onthetest,don'tteachit,"istheprevailingviewpointofmanyschooladministratorsandteachers.
Hereandtheresometeachersaremotivatedtoimplementthemandatedcurriculumbyintroducingaculturalperspective.Teachersmayevenpresentlanguage,social
studies,orartlessonsthathavemathematicalcontentwithoutbeingawareofthemathematics,asthefollowingincidentswillshow.
TocelebrateChildren'sBookWeek,thereadingsupervisorofalocalschoolinvitedmetotalktoeightyearoldstudentsaboutmybookCountonyourfingers
Africanstyle(1980,1996).Themajorityofthechildreninthisschoolarelowincome,darkskinned,Spanishspeakingimmigrantsorchildrenofimmigrantsfromthe
DominicanRepublic.Theteachershadalreadydiscussedthebookwiththechildren,andthestudentswerepreparedwithquestionsaboutcounting,aboutwriting
books,abouttheprocessofpublication.ManycouldcountinSpanish,andseveral,fromHaiti,knewFrench.Wecomparedthecountingwordsinthethree
languagesEnglish,Spanish,andFrenchnotingthesimilaritiesandthedifferences.
IaskedthechildrentopretendthattheywerevisitingamarketinanAfricancountry,wherenoonespoketheirlanguage.Howwouldtheyaskforeightoranges?Of
course,theysuggestedusingtheirfingers.ThenIproposedthateachchildimaginehowheorshe

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wouldindicateeightand,whenIgavethesignal,toraisetheirhandsshowing"eight"ontheirfingers.Whatavarietyofways!Somechildrenusedthemethods
describedinthebook,whileothersinventeduniquestyles.Manywaystosolveoneproblem,allequallyvalid,andagoodmathematicslessonintheguiseofatalk
aboutbooks!
Wediscussednumbersandhowusefultheyare.Oneboycontributedaremarkabout"playingthenumbers,"theillegalgamblinggamethatispopularinlowincome
communities,inconflictwiththelegalstatelottery.Theteacherquicklyinterrupted:"Butwatchoutforthecops(police)."Theboyseemedbewilderedbyher
comment,butshedidnotexplain.
AsIlefttheschoolInoticedabeautifulpatchworkquilthanginginthelobby,theworkofaclassofnineyearolds.Itwascomposedofthirtysquaresina5x6
arrangement.Thesquareswereidenticalinconstruction,eachconsistingofsmallsquaresandtrianglesofprintorsolidcolorclothsewntogetherBymixingand
matchingthecolorsandpatternsofthefabricsastheirfancyledthem,thechildrenwereabletoachieveavariedandpleasingeffect.
Iarrangedtointerviewtheteachertolearnmoreaboutthismathematicalproduction."Iwasanartmajor,"shesaid,"andIhadthemmakethequiltsothattheywould
getafeelingforlifeincolonialtimes(eighteenthcentury).Iliketocombinesocialstudieswithart.NowwearedoingNativeAmericanbeadpatterns."WhenIadded
thatthechildrenwerealsodoingverygoodmathematics,sheseemedsurprised.Afterall,thisactivitywasnotinthemathematicscurriculum,norwerethese
applicationsincludedonthestandardizedachievementtest.LaterIreadaboutanexhibitofAfricanAmericanpatchworkquilts.Theauthorcommentedonthe
similarityofmanystandardquiltpatternstotraditionalAfricantextilesandthepossibilitythatpatchworkquiltingwasintroducedintoEnglandandAmericabyAfrican
slavewomen(Barry1989).
Iaskedtheteacherwhethertheboyshadobjectedtosewing."Oh,no,"shereplied."Itoldthemthattailorssew.Noproblemwhatsoever"Thephotographsofthe
quiltandofthestudentsworkingwithbeadsappearedintheArithmeticTeacher(Zaslavsky,1990).
Inthisarticle,IshalldescribesomeofthemathematicalpracticesofAfricanpeoplesandoftheindigenouspeoplesoftheAmericas.
NumbersandNumeration
Workwithnumbershasdominatedthemathematicscurriculumsincethebeginningofpublicschooling,satisfyingtheneedsofshopkeepers,clerks,farmers,and
factoryworkers.Allpeopleshavedevel

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opednumerationsystemstotheextentoftheirneeds.TheEnglishsystemofnumerationandmostEuropeansystemsarebasedongroupingbytensandpowersoften.
Whyistencommonlyusedasabase?Isitbecausewehavetenfingers(digits)?ThepeoplesofWestAfricaandMiddleAmerica,aswellastheInuitandother
Eskimopeoplesofthefarnorth,groupbytwenties.Insomelanguages,suchasMendeofSierraLeone,thewordfortwentymeans"awholeperson"allthefingers
andtoes.
Childrencanlearnaboutnumerationsystemsbyexaminingtheconstructionoflargernumbers.IntheYoruba(Nigeria)language,forexample,thenameforfortyfive
means"takefiveandtenfromthreetwenties,"usingtheoperationsofmultiplicationandsubtraction,ratherthanmultiplicationandaddition,asinmostEuropean
languages.Differentsolutionstothesameproblem,onejustasgoodastheother(Zaslavsky,1979a:page207).
Fingergesturestoexpressnumbersarecommonlyusedbypeoplewhodonotspeakeachother'slanguages.Thesegesturesmayberelatedtothenumberwordsor,
again,theymaybequitedifferent.EvenbeforetheindigenouspeoplesofNorthAmericawerepushedwestwardbyEuropeansettlers,tribesspeakingdifferent
languagesmetontheGreatPlains.Ofnecessity,theydevelopedsystemsoffingersigns,includingsignsfornumbers(Zaslavsky,1979b).
Figure151.
IllustrationfromWilliamTomkins:IndianSignLanguage.
Source:(Dover,NewYork).

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AncientEgyptprovidesarichsourceofmaterialaboutnumbers,numerationsystems,writtennumerals,computationalmethods,andapplications(Gillings,1979,
Joseph,1991).LesswellknownistheAfricanoriginofthisgreatcivilizationintheupperNilevalleyofthelandthatisnowSudanandintheoncefertileSahararegion.
Priortotheriseofmodemimperialism,historianshadacknowledgedthattheancientEgyptiansweredarkskinnedpeople.However,Europeanscouldnotadmitthat
thepeoplestheyhadconqueredandenslaved,theblackpeopleofAfrica,werekintotheinventorsofancientEgypt'shighcivilization.Africanshadtobeportrayedas
lessthanhumananddeniedtheirhistory,inordertojustifytheirenslavement,whileEgyptwasdetachedfromtheAfricancontinent.InhisbookBlackAthena,Martin
Bernal(1987seealsoDavidson,1987)discussesthisissueingreatdetailandwithvoluminousdocumentation.Furthermore,manyoftheGreekswhomwerevereas
the"fathersofmathematics"eitherstudiedinEgyptorwereEgyptiansthemselvesPythagoras,Eudoxus,Euclidwerebutafew(Joseph,1987).BeatriceLumpkin
(1983a)discussesthethreegreatperiodsofAfricanparticipationinthedevelopmentofmathematics:theancientperiodofthepyramidsandtemples,theclassical
Hellenisticperiod,andtheIslamicperiod.
ThepeoplesofMiddleAmericadevelopedtheirownsystemsofwrittennumerals,inthecaseoftheMayadatingbackatleasttwothousandyears.Thesystemswere
basedontwentyandpowersoftwenty,andincludedtheuseofzero,positionalnotation,addition,andtherepetitionofsymbols.WhenappliedtoMayanchronology
thegroupingsproceededinthisfashion:20,18x20,18x20x20,andsoforth,torepresentthetwentydaymonths,eighteenmonthyear,andlargergroupings.The
secularyearconsistedofeighteenmonthsoftwentydayseach,plusfiveadditionaldaystomake365,withcyclesoffiftytwoyears.Thesacredyearconsistedof
thirteentwentydaymonths.Bothcountswereusedsimultaneously.ForanexcellentreferenceworkonthemathematicsoftheAmericas,seeCloss(1986).
TheIncaquipurepresentsauniquesystemofrecordkeeping.Apositionalnumerationsystem,basedontenandpowersoften,isembodiedinacollectionofcolored
stringsresemblingatangledmop.Yetthequipucanencompassawholecensus.Foranentrancingdiscussionofquipuconstructionandusageinthecontextofthe
IncaEmpire,whichincludedallofPeruandalargesectionoftheAndeanregionfivehundredyearsago,seeAscher(1981).
Anotheraspectofnumberistheabilitytodomentalarithmetic.Theyear1990markedthetwohundredthanniversaryofthedeathoftheslaveTomFuller,knownas
theAfricanCalculatorShippedtoNorthAmericain1724attheageoffourteen,hedevelopedremark

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ablepowersofcalculation,althoughhewasforbiddenaccesstoanykindofschooling,aswereallslaves,andhecouldneitherreadnorwrite.Lateinhislifehewas
usedbyantislaveryadvocatestodemonstratethementalcapacityofBlackpeople(Fauvel&Gerdes,1990).
DesignandPattern
Mostcultureshavedevelopedcharacteristicdesigns,whichtheyincorporateintotheircloth,basketry,woodenobjects,andbuildings.Forexample,theNavajoofthe
southwesternUnitedStatesareknownfortheirbeautifulrugs,theartisticcreationsofNavajowomen.Theintricatepatternsandfineworkmanshipoftheserugs,
sometimes
CLIFFDWELLINGANDPUEBLOPOTTERY
Figure152.
Thesevenonecoloronedimensionalpatterns
(NativeAmerican).
Source:LeRoyH.Appleton,AmericanIndian
designanddecoration(Dover,NewYork,1971).

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calledthe"firstAmericantapestries,"earnforthemawelldeservedplaceinmuseums.WhentheSpanishconquistadoresintroducedsheepinthesixteenthcentury,the
southwesttribes,traditionallyweaversofcotton,turnedtotheuseofwool.TheNavajolearnedweavingfromthePueblotribes,probablyinthelateseventeenth
century.Fromweavingplainclothandblanketswithsimpledesignsfortheirownuse,theyturnedtocreatingrichlypatternedblanketsandrugsforthecommercial
market.Bythemid1800stheseweavingscommandedagoodprice.Inrecentyears,individualwomenhavebecomefamousfortheirfineweavingandinnovative
designs.Navajorugs,withtheirgeometricmotifsandrepeatedpatterns,provideanexcellentmediumfortheanalysisofsymmetry(Zaslavsky,1990).
TheBakubapeopleofZairearejustlyfamousfortheirembroideredraffiacloth,knownas"Bakubavelvour,"andfortheirmarvelouswoodcarvings.Characterizedby
therepetitionoftraditionalgeometricmotifs,theseartworks,too,havefoundtheirwayintomanymuseumsinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.Someofthepiecesinthe
BritishMuseumdatebackmorethantwocenturies.Avisittoamuseumtostudytheseworksofartmightinspirestudentstocreatetheirownpatterns(Zaslavsky,
1979aWashburnandCrowe,1988).
Figure153.
Thesevenonecoloronedimensionalpatterns(Bakuba,Zaire).
Source:AdaptedfromGeoffreyWilliams,AfricanDesigns
fromTraditionalSources(Dover,NewYork,1971).

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Architecture
Mostofusaresoaccustomedtolivinginarectilinearenvironmentthatitisdifficultforustoimaginedifferentsurroundings.Ourfurnitureandaccessoriesaredesigned
tofitalongstraightwallsandintorightangledcorners.Yet,peopleofothercultureswouldbejustasuncomfortableiftheyhadtogiveuptheircircularhousesforour
rectangles.TheNativepeoplesoftheGreatPlains(northcentralU.S.)traditionallylivedinconicaltipis,portabletentsmadeofanimalskinsanddecoratedwith
meaningfulsymbolsadwellingappropriatetothelifestyleofthepeople.Earlyinthiscentury,BlackElk,theOglalaLakotaleader,lamented:
Wemadetheselittlegrayhousesoflogsthatyousee,andtheyaresquare.Itisabadwaytolive,fortherecanbenopowerinasquare.Youhavenoticedthateverythingan
Indiandoesisinacircle,andthatisbecausethePoweroftheWorldalwaysworksincirclesandeverythingtriestoberound(Neihardt,1961,p.198).
Whyhastheroundhousebeentraditionalinsomesocieties?Onemustconsidertheavailablematerialsandtechnology,aswellasthewaythesocietymakesitsliving.
Asettledagriculturalistbuildsforthefuture,whileapastoralnomadmayabandonashelterafterafewmonths,orpackitupandmoveon.Considerthisaspect,too:a
familythatbuildsitsownhome,usinghardtofindmaterials,wantstoachievethelargestpossiblefloorspaceforagivenquantityofmaterialsforthewalls.Inother
words,maximizetheareaforagivenperimeter.Thecircleistheanswer.
Circularhomescantakeavarietyofforms:theconicaltipi,thehemisphericiglooofthenorthernInuit,thebeehiveshapedthatcheddwellingonMt.Kilimanjaro,the
tallmudbrick,thatchroofedcylindersofWestAfrica.Forsuggestedlessonsbasedontheseideas,seeZaslavsky(1989,1993,1994,1996).
WhohasnotbeenimpressedbythesplendorandaccurateconstructionoftheEgyptianpyramids,nownearlyfivethousandyearsold?Theearlyinhabitantsofthe
landthatisnowMexicoalsobuiltpyramids,someovertwomillenniaago(Lumpkin,1983b,1987).
LesswellknownthantheEgyptianpyramidsistheAfricancitystate,GreatZimbabwe("greatstonehouse"),withitscomplexstonearchitecture.Startedperhaps
eightorninecenturiesago,itservedforseveralcenturiesastheseatofgovernmentfortherulersofavast

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kingdominsouthernAfrica.Severalhundredsmallerstonestructures,spreadacrosstheland,areamemorialtotheformerpoweroftherealm(Asante,1983).
SufficientinformationisavailableaboutthepyramidsandGreatZimbabwetoenablestudentstoanalyzetheirmeasurements,tocomparethelabortimeandthe
quantityofmaterialsthatwentintobuildingtheseedifices,andtoconstructmodels.
GamesofChanceandSkill
Fromtimeimmemorialhumanbeingshavetriedtodivinethefuture.Somediviningpracticesledtogamesofchance,andeventuallytotheimportantandgrowingfield
ofmathematicalprobabilityandstatistics.Tossingacoinisoneofthesimplestformsofgambling.TheIgbo(Nigeria)gameofIgbaita("pitchandtoss")involved
tossingcowrieshells,stillusedascurrencyintothetwentiethcentury,andnotingwhethertheylandedwiththeopeningsupordown.Withtheadoptionofcoinage,the
gamebecameknownasIgbaego(egomeans"money").TheBritishcommentatorG.T.Basdenobservedgroupsofmengamblinginthemarketplace.Thechallenger
tossestwelvecowries."Quickaslightningtheplayersnotethepositionsandforfeittheirstakesorcollecttheirgains.Theplaybecomesexceedinglyfast,andsoona
cloudofdustencircleseachgroupofgamblers.Ihavewatchedplayersatthisgame,andithasalwaysbeenquitebeyondmetonotethepositionsofthefall,the
cowrieshavebeencountedandsnatchedupagainlongbeforeIcouldbegintocount"(quotedinZaslavsky1979a:page114).Studentscanplaythegamewith
macaronishellsorotherasymmetricobjects,andcomparetheseoutcomeswiththeresultsoftossingsymmetriccoins.TheNativeAmericanBowlGameinvolves
tossingfourpeachorplumpitsthathavebeenmarkedononeside,andnotingtheoutcomes.
ItisclaimedthatdiagramsforthreeinarowgameswerechiseledintotheroofslabsofthetempletotheEgyptianpharoahSetiIabouttheyear1300B.C..Nodoubt
theevidence,ifiteverexisted,hassincebeenwornawaybytheelementsandbypollution.TheBritishplayNoughtsandCrossesandNineMen'sMorris,childrenin
theUnitedStatesplayTicTacToe,while"Mill"isthenameofthegameinseveralEuropeancountries.Oneofthemostcomplexversionsofthreeinarowgamesis
theLesothoMurabaraba.Insimpleorcompli

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catedform,suchgamesofstrategyhelpchildrentoacquirethenecessaryskillsinproblemsolvinganddecisionmaking(Zaslavsky,1982,1996).
IntheBritishMuseumisabeautifullycarvedwoodenstatueoftheninetythirdkingoftheBakuba(Zaire)people.Earlyintheseventeenthcentury,hebroughtthe
peacefulartstohispeople,andtaughtthemthegametheycalledLela,avariationoftheuniversalAfricangameoftransferring,usuallyknownbyitsArabicname,
Mankala.Tocelebratehisreign,thekingisportrayedwithamodelofthegameboardinfrontofhim.
ThisancientAfricanstonegame,playedindifferentversionsinmostofthecontinentandinpartsofAsia,isconsideredamongtheworld'sbestgamesofstrategy.In
itssimplestform,thegameisappropriateforchildrenjustenteringschool,andaffordspracticeincountingandintheconceptofonetoonecorrespondence.Ata
moreadvancedlevel,allfouroperationsofarithmeticcomeintoplay.Yetthegameissosophisticatedastochallengeadultsinnationalcompetitions(Zaslavsky,
1979a:pages116136).Africanteenagersplaywithsuchspeedthatitisvirtuallyimpossibleforaninexperiencedonlookerlikemetofollow,muchlessunderstand,
whatisgoingon.
Thegamehasproveditsusefulnessinseveralways.AfricancaptivesbroughtittotheAmericas,andsocialscientistshaveanalyzedtherulesoftheversionspopularin
theUnitedStates,theCaribbeanislands,andBrazil,inordertotracetheancestryofBlackpeoplelivinginthoseregions.InthemonthIwrotethis,Ireceivedaletter
fromateacherinthestateofTexasrequestingpermissiontousethesamplegameinAfricacountsinherawardwinningprojectentitled"LasersfromtheJungle:
TurningPrimaryStudentsonwithAfricanLegends."Ireadilygrantedpermission,butaskedhertosubstitute"rainforest"for"jungle"inthetitle.Foronething,Africa
doesnothavejungles.Second,theword"jungle''inconnectionwithAfricahasnegativeconnotations,evokingtheTarzanimage.
Childrencaninventnewversionsofagamebychangingtherules,varyingtheshapeofthegameboard,orusingadifferentquantityofplayingpieces.Gamesof
strategyencourageyoungpeopletodevelopskillinlogicalinference,asthefollowingincidentwillillustrate.InhisbookGamesoftheNorthAmericanIndians
(1907),StewartCulindescribesathreeinarowgamecalledPicara,playedbyPuebloyoungstersintheSouthwest(Zaslavsky,1982:pages4650).Culin's
descriptionoftherulesisambiguous.Ihadseenoneversioninseveralrecentpublications,butitseemedtomethatanalternativesetofruleswouldmakeabetter
game.Iaskedagroupofelevenand

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twelveyearoldstudentstoplayaccordingtothefirstsetofrules.Withinafewminutestheycomplained:"Thefirstpersontomovealwayswins."ThenIsuggested
thattheytrytheotherversion,withouttellingthemthatitwastheoneIfavored.Theywereunanimousindeclaringitthebettergame.
Conclusions
Theintroductionofmulticultural,interdisciplinaryperspectivesintothemathematicscurriculumhasmanypointsinitsfavor:
Studentsbecomeawareoftheroleofmathematicsinallsocieties.Theyrealizethatmathematicalpracticesaroseoutofpeople'srealneedsandinterests.
Studentslearntoappreciatethecontributionsofculturesdifferenthorntheirown,andtotakeprideintheirownheritage.
Bylinkingthestudyofmathematicswithhistory,languagearts,finearts,andothersubjects,allthedisciplinestakeonmoremeaning.
Theinfusionintothecurriculumoftheculturalheritageof"minority"studentsbuildstheirselfesteemandencouragesthemtobecomemoreinterestedin
mathematics.AsoneelevenyearoldboywroteinhisevaluationofaclassroomactivitybasedonAfricanculture:"Asyouprobablydon'tknowIfeelverystrongly
andamindeepthrustwithmyblackpeople,andthemathhasmademefeelbetter."Thereislittlethatonecanaddtothisheartfeltcomment!
References
Asante,M.,andK.Asante.(1983)."GreatZimbabwe:AnancientAfricancitystate."InI.VanSertima(ed.).Blacksinscience(pp.8489).NewBrunswick,NJ:
TransactionBooks.
Note:Forlessonsincorporatingsomeoftheconceptsdescribedinthisarticle,aswellasotheractivities,seeKrause(1983),SeattlePublicSchools(1984),andZaslavsky(1993,
1994,1996),aswellasreferencesinthetextofthearticle.

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Ascher,M.,andR.Ascher.(1981).CodeoftheQuipu.AnnArbor,MI:UniversityofMichigan.
Barry,A.(1989)."QuiltinghasAfricanroots,anewexhibitionsuggests."NewYorkTimes(November16):p.C12.
Bernal,M.(1987).BlackAthena:TheAfroasiaticrootsofclassicalcivilization.NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversity.
Bishop,A.J.(1988).Mathematicalenculturation.Kluwer,Dordrecht.
Closs,M.E(Ed.).(1986).NativeAmericanmathematics.Austin,TX:UniversityofTexas.
D'Ambrosio,U.(1989).Project:Aresearchprogramandacourseinthehistoryofmathematics:Ethnomathematics.HistoriaMathematica16:285286.
Davidson,B.(1987).TheancientworldandAfrica:whoseroots?Race&Class29(2):115.
Fauvel,J.,andP.Gerdes.(1990).Africanslaveandcalculatingprodigy:BicentenaryofthedeathofThomasFuller.HistoriaMathematica17:141151.
Gerdes,P.(1988).Onculture,geometricalthinkingandmathematicseducation.EducationalStudiesinMathematics19:137162.
Gillings,R.J.(1975).MathematicsinthetimeofthePharoahs.Cambridge,MA:MITPress.
Joseph,G.G.(1987).FoundationsofEurocentrisminmathematics.RaceandClass28(3):1328.
.(1991).Thecrestofthepeacock:nonEuropeanrootsofmathematics.London:I.B.Tauris.
Krause,M.(1983).Multiculturalmathematicsmaterials.Reston,VA:NCTM.
Lumpkin,B.(1983a).Africainthemainstreamofmathematicshistory.InI.VanSertima(ed.).Blacksinscience(pp.100109).NewBrunswick,NJ:Transaction
Books.
.(1983b).Thepyramids:AncientshowcaseofAfricanscienceandtechnology.InI.VanSertima(ed.).Blacksinscience(pp.6783).NewBrunswick,NJ:
TransactionBooks.
.(1987).PyramidsAmericanandAfrican:Acomparison.InI.VanSertima(ed.),AfricanpresenceinearlyAmerica.(pp.169187).NewBrunswick,
NJ:TransactionBooks.
NCTM.(NationalCouncilofTeachersofMathematics)(1989).Curriculumandevaluationstandardsforschoolmathematics.Reston,VA:NCTM.
Neihardt,J.G.(1961).BlackElkspeaks.Lincoln,NB:UniversityofNebraska.

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SeattlePublicSchools.(1984).Multiculturalmathematicspostersandactivities.Reston,VA:NCTM.
Washburn,D.,andD.W.Crowe(1988).Symmetriesinculture.Seattle,WA:UniversityofWashington.
Zaslavsky,C.(1979a).Africacounts:NumberandpatterninAfricanculture.NewYork,NY:LawrenceHill.Frenchedition:L'Afriquecompte!Nombres,
formesetdmarchesdanslacultureafricaine.Argenteuil,France:ditionsduChoix,1995.
.(1979b)It'sOKtocountonyourfingers.Teacher96(February):5456.
.(1980).CountonyourfingersAfricanstyle.NewYork:Crowellrepublished(1996),NewYork:BlackButterfly.
.(1982).Tictactoeandotherthreeinrowgames.NewYork:Crowell.
.(1989).Peoplewholiveinroundhouses.ArithmeticTeacher37(September):1821.
.(1990).SymmetryinAmericanfolkart.ArithmeticTeacher38(September):612.
.(1991).Multiculturalmathematicseducationforthemiddlegrades.ArithmeticTeacher38(February):813.
.(1993).Multiculturalmathematics:Interdisciplinarycooperativelearningactivities.Portland,Maine:J.WestonWalch.
(1994).Multiculturalmath:Handsonactivitiesfromaroundtheworld.NewYork,NY:ScholasticProfessional.
(1996).Themulticulturalmathclassroom:Bringingintheworld.Portsmouth,NH:Heinemann.

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SECTIONVI
ETHNOMATHEMATICALRESEARCH
ArthurB.PowellandMarilynFrankenstein
Asthefieldofethnomathematicsdevelops,wewillneedtocontinuereinterpretingconclusionsothershavedrawnaboutvariouspeople'smathematicalknowledge,and
continueuncoveringanddisseminatingthedistortedandhiddenhistoriesofmathematicalknowledge.Thisresearchwillexpandanddeepentheknowledgewecreate
andrecreateaboutourworld.Itwillalsoleadustoreexaminehowwegenerateknowledge.So,forexample,wesuggestcoinvestigationbetweenstudentsand
teachersintodiscoveringeachothers'ethnomathematicalknowledge.Thiswillimproveourteaching,aswediscussbelow,andwillalsopointthewaytonewresearch
methodologies.Finally,insupportofFreire'stheorythatthepurposeofknowledgeisforpeopletoresolvethefundamentalcontradictionofourepochbetween
dominationandliberation,weneedtoexploretheconnectionsbetweentheculturalactioninvolvedinteachingandlearningethnomathematicsandtheeconomicand
politicalactionneededtocreatealiberatorysociety.
Notonlydoesethnomathematicalresearchforceareconsiderationofmathematicalknowledge,butalsothroughthisreconsiderationsignificantepistemological
questionsemerge.Arethemathematicsfoundindifferentculturalprocessesandartifactsdifferentmathematicsordifferentmanifestationsofoneuniversal
mathematics?WhenGerdesandhiscolleaguesinMozambiquefindgraphtheoreticideasinthelusonaofAngola,aretheyfindingadifferentmathematicsorjusta
differentexpressionofwhatweknowasacademicmathematics?Ontheotherhand,isthevaluethatwebestowonthelusonatraditionsolelyduetoconnectionswe
seebetweenitandaca

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demicmathematics?Further,dowemisstrulydifferentmathematicsbecauseweexaminedifferentculturaltraditionsthroughthelensofacademicmathematics?As
Pinxtendiscussesinchapter17,when,indeed,weconfrontadifferentconceptofspace,itisdifficultforacademicmathematicianstosee.Moreover,aswereconsider
manyculturalpracticesandartifactsastheproductofmathematicalactivity,someworrythatwewillloosewhatisuniqueabout"mathematics."Asidefromtheelitism
ofthisconcern,whatislostbyablurringofdisciplines?Theprocessofmakingmeaningandunderstandingtheworldmayrequirethatweseecomplicated
interconnections,overlappings,andfuzzyboundariesamongdisciplinesaswellasbetweenrationalityandotherwaysofknowing.Finally,asAudreLorde(1984)
states
aswecomemoreintotouchwithourownancient,noneuropeanconsciousnessoflivingasasituationtobeexperiencedandinteractedwith,welearnmoreandmoretocherish
ourfeelings,torespectthosehiddensourcesofpowerfromwheretrueknowledgeand,therefore,lastingactioncomes(asquotedinWeiler,1994,p.28)...
Rationalityisnotunnecessary.Itservesthechaosofknowledge.Itservesfeelings.Itservestogetfromthisplacetothatplace.Butifyoudon'thonorthoseplaces,thentheroad
ismeaningless.Toooften,that'swhathappenswiththeworshipofrationalityandthatcircular,academicanalyticthinking.Butultimately,Idon'tseefeel/thinkasadichotomy.I
seethemasachoiceofwaysandcombinations(asquotedinWeiler,1994,p.29).
Furtherasethnomathematicalresearchcontinuestoforceustoreconsiderwhatcountsasmathematicalknowledge,italsoforcesustoreconsiderallofourknowledge
oftheworld.Henderson(1990)arguesthatalthough"formal,symbolicexpressionsareoftenexcellentwaysofcapturingcertainaspectsofourexperience"the
erroneousviewthat"formal"mathematicsistheultimate,realmathematics"limitstheunderstandingswhichweconstructofourhumanexperience...[and]damages
thehumanspirit"(p.5).Pinxten,vanDooren,andHarvey(1983)
1
arguethatthemathematicseducationofNavajosstartfromafullydevelopedknowledgeoftheir
spatialsystem(adynamicsystemwhichisindirectcontrasttothestaticconceptsofacademicmathematics),notsolelybecausethisistheonlywaytoavoid
socioculturalandpsychologicalalienationofNavajos,butalsobecause."[a]slongassciencecannotpretendtohavevalidanswerstoallbasicquestions...itis
foolishtoexterminateallother,socalledprim

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itive,prescientific,orotherwiseforeignapproachestoworldquestions"(p.174).Adams(1983)remindsusthatinEasternsocietiessuchasIndiaandAfrica,"[t]here
arenodistinctseparationsbetweenscienceandreligion,philosophyandpsychology,historyandmythology.Alloftheseareviewedasonerealityandareclosely
interwovenintothefabricofdailylife"(p.43).
2
HearguesthatWesternsciencewoulddeepenitsknowledgeoftheworldbyreconsideringthevalueofemotional,
intuitive,andspiritualknowledge.HequotesEinsteinwhoclaimed"thereisnoinductivemethodwhichcouldleadtothefundamentalconceptsofphysics...thereis
nologicalpathtotheselawsonlyintuition,restingonasympatheticunderstandingofexperience,canreachthem"(p.41).Wefeelmuchmoreresearchneedstobe
donetouncoverhowthelogicofallpeoplescaninteractwitheachothertohelpusallunderstandandactmoreeffectivelyintheworld.
Oneplaceformathematicsteacherstostartthisresearchiswiththeirstudents'etnomathematics.Frankenstein(1989)encouragesherstudentstouncovertheir
ethnomathematicsthroughevaluatingtheirownlearning.Shestressesthatthereisalwayssomecorrectreasoninginvolvedinanyattempttosolveaproblem.By
probingwhattheydounderstandaboutaparticularproblem,theydiscovertheireverydaymathematicsknowledgeandareempoweredandmotivatedtofindoutwhat
theyneedtolearninordertounderstandmore.PowellandLpez(1989),teacherstudentcoresearchers,usejournalstohelpstudentsexploretheir
ethnomathematics.
Theseexplorationssuggesttheimportanceofdevelopingmethodologiesthateffectivelyandethicallyprobeourstudents'mathematicalknowledge.Lave(1988)and
hercolleaguesintheAdultMathProjectusedanethnographyofsupermarketshoppingasthebasisfromwhichtodesigntheirexperimentsincognitivepsychology,
andthensearchedforexplanationsoftheirfindingsbackinthesupermarket.Gerdes(1988)hasdevisedwaysofuncoveringMozambicanmathematicaltraditions
frommaterialculturewhichwereburiedasaconsequenceofslaveryandcolonialism.Heandhiscolleaguesandstudents
lookedtothegeometricalformsandpatternsoftraditionalobjectslikebaskets,mats,pots,houses,fishtraps,etc.andposedthequestion:whydothesematerialproductspossess
theformtheyhave?Inordertoanswerthisquestion,welearnedtheusualproductiontechniquesandtriedtovarytheforms.Itcameoutthattheformoftheseobjectsisalmost
neverarbitrary,butgenerallyrepresentsmanypracticaladvantagesandis,quitealotoftimes,theonlypossibleor

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optimalsolutionofaproductionproblem.Thetraditionalformreflectsaccumulatedexperienceandwisdom.Itconstitutesnotonlybiologicalandphysicalknowledgeaboutthe
materialsthatareused,butalsomathematicalknowledge,knowledgeaboutthepropertiesandrelationsofcircles,angles,rectangles,squares,regularpentagonsandhexagons,
cones,pyramids,cylinders,etc.(p.140).
Frankensteinusesaninterviewtechniqueinwhichsheencouragesstudentsnottoanswerwithavague"Idon'tknow,"insiststheydon'tcensorthemselvesintheir
attemptstosolveproblems,andasksthemtoevaluatetheirownunderstandings.
Knijnik(1992/reprintedhereaschapter18),discussingthetheoryofherworkwiththeLandlessPeople'sMovementinBrazil,definesanethnomathematical
approachas"theresearchoftheconceptions,traditions,andmathematicalpracticesofaspecificsocialgroupandthepedagogicalworkinvolvedinmakingthegroup
realizethattheydohaveknowledgetheycancodifyandinterprettheirknowledgetheyarecapableofacquiringeruditeknowledge[and]theyarecapableof
establishingcomparisonbetweenthesetwodifferenttypesofknowledgeinordertochoosethemostsuitableonewhentheyhaverealproblemstosolve"(p.4).
Powell(Powell&Lpez,1989Powell&Ramnauth,1992)usesaparticipatoryresearchmodelcombinedwithjournalandotherwritingactivitiestopromptstudents
toreflectonboththecognitiveandaffectivecomponentsoflearningmathematicsandtoengagetheminanalyzingcriticallymethodologicaldimensionsofteachingand
learning.AsLpezobserves:
[I]becameinterestedinthestudyduetomypoormathskills.IfeltthatifItookamoreactiveroleinthelearningofmathematicsImightbeabletodobetterinthecourse.
ThroughoutthesemesterIkeptajournaldetailingmyobservationsoftheclass,course,andmylearningofmathematics....Wemetafterclassesandwheneverourschedules
allowedustodiscusswhatIfeltthatIhadgainedasaresultofwritinginamathematicscourse.IwasthenaskedtocommentonthewritingexperienceandthejournalsthatIhad
kept,toseeexactlyhowitwasthatIhadgainedabetterunderstandingofthemathematicsIwaslearning.Ifoundmanyinstanceswherecertainideasorconceptsbecameclearer
tomeasaresultofwritingaboutthem...(p.172).
Extendingtheideathatwritingiseffectiveinlearningmathematicsandthatteacherandstudentjointlycanstudythisprocess,Powell,Jeffries,andSelby(1989)have
insertedintothediscussiontheneedtoattendtothemoregeneral,humanprocessofempowerment.

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Theirconcernisfortheempowermentofallactorsinvarioussettingsofmathematicseducation.Notonlydidstudentsandtheirinstructorstudystudentjournals,but
studentscritiquedtheinstructor'spedagogicalapproach.Inanalyzingtheproject,studentsdefinedresearchactivitiesinpedagogytobeparticipatoryandtohavethe
potentialtobeempoweringwhentheygiveauthoritytothevoicesofstudents.Inmanyinstructionalsettings,studentsgenerallyfeel,andareoftenconsidered,tobe
withoutpower.Togiveauthoritytothevoicesofstudentsandtoincorporatetheirperspectivesintransformingmathematicspedagogy,instructorsmustbeginby
listeningtostudentsandfindingauthenticwaystoincorporatestudents'perspectivesintoeducationalresearch.
Ontheotherhand,weneedtoavoidwhatYoungman(1986)callsFreire'stendencytowardan"uncriticalfaithin'thepeople'[which]makeshimambivalentabout
sayingoutrightthateducatorscanhaveatheoreticalunderstandingsuperiortothatofthelearnersandwhichis,infact,theindispensableconditionofthedevelopment
ofcriticalconsciousness"(p.179).Whilewelistentostudentthemes,weorganizethemusingourcriticalandtheoreticalframeworks,andwerepresentthemas
problemschallengingpreviousstudentperceptions.Wealsosuggestthemesthatmaynotoccurtostudents,themeswejudgeimportantforshatteringthecommonly
heldmythsaboutthestructureofbothsocietyandknowledgeandthatinterferewiththedevelopmentofcriticalconsciousness.
Weneedtodomoreresearchtofindwaysofhelpingourstudentslearnabouttheirethnomathematicalknowledge,contributingtoourtheoreticalknowledge,without
denyingtheunequaldevelopmentoftoolsforproducingknowledge,butasmuchaspossible"basedoncooperativeanddemocraticprinciplesofequal
power"(Youngman,1986,p.179).Importantly,weneedtodothisinsuchawaythatthecoinvestigatorsincludeculturalworkerswhoseproductsandtraditionsare
beingstudied.Thisisnotonlytoverifyresearchfindings,butalso,andmoreimportantly,sothatthebenefitsofresearcharesharedequably.Furthermore,weneedto
attendtopraxistheinseparabilityofactionandreflectiontobreakdownthedichotomiesbetweenteachingandlearning,betweenformulatingresearchquestions
andfindinganswers.AsLave(1988)concludesabouttheAdultMathProjectstudyofsupermarketmathematics,"descriptionandanalysishavebeenpartofthe
projectasawholeinallitsphases,ratherthanuniquelydividedbetweenmethods(ordisciplines)"(p.121).
3
Buttheunderlyingquestionthroughoutallthisworkishowthe

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culturalactioninvolvedinteachingandlearningethnomathematicscanplayaroleintheeconomicandpoliticalactionneededtocreatealiberatorysociety.Carby
(1990)highlightsthisissueinherremarksonthechangesintheliterarycanonattheuniversities,whereAfricanAmericanwomenhavebecomesubjectsonthe
syllabus,buttheacademycontinuestoignorethematerialconditionsofmostAfricanAmericans.Shechallengesustothinkthroughtheissuesofrealpower:"Arethe
politicsofdifferenceeffectiveinmakingvisiblewomenofcolorwhilerenderinginvisiblethepoliticsofexploitation?"(p.85).Moreover,asLangeandLange(1984)
found,althoughmathematicseducationcanbeempoweringinamoregeneralway,itisnotnecessarilythebestapproachinworkingwithpeopleonspecific
empowermentissues.ThepiecerateworkerstheywereorganizinginthetextileindustryinthesouthernUnitedStateswerestrugglingwithapaysystemmade
intentionallyobscure,andtheLangesfeltitwasmoreempoweringtocreateaslideruledistributedbytheunionthatdidthepaycalculationsfortheworkers,making
themathematicsproblemdisappear,sothattheworkerscould"focusonthesocialandeconomicrelationsunderlyingthewaytheyaretreatedandpaid"(p.14).
Ontheotherhand,thegeneralempowermentthroughethnomathematicalknowledgeis,wefeel,averyimportantpartofthestruggletoovercomeacolonized
mentality,SamoraMachel(1978)arguesthat
colonialismisthegreatestdestroyerofculturethathumanityhaseverknown.Africansocietyanditsculturewerecrushed,andwhentheysurvivedtheywerecooptedsothat
theycouldbemoreeasilyemptiedoftheircontent.Thiswasdoneintwodistinctways.Onewastheutilizationofinstitutionsinordertosupportcolonialexploitation....The
otherwasthe"folklorising"ofculture,itsreductiontomoreorlesspicturesquehabitsandcustoms,toimposeintheirplacethevaluesofcolonialism(p.400).
Aswehavediscussedabove,theconnectionsbetweeneducationalactionandliberatorysocialchangearetheleastdevelopedaspectsofresearchactivitiesin
ethnomathematics.Onthispoint,theworkofKnijnik(1992)withthelandlessinBrazilisanotableexception,anexampleofamathematicseducationresearcher
workingwiththeMovementoSemTerra(LandlessPeopleMovement)towardasharedgoaloftransformingthepoliticaleconomyofBrazil.
4
Ourpracticeconfirms
thatethnomathematicalknowledgeincreasesstudent'sselfconfidenceandopensupareasofcriticalinsightintheirunderstandingofthenatureofknowledge.Butthere
isnoconfirma

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tionthatthisknowledgeresultsinactionagainstoppressionanddomination.Inthecurrenthistoricalcontextofanadvancedcapitalistsociety,itmaybethatthemost
criticalcollectivechangethatapedagogyoftheoppressedcanbringaboutisasubtleshiftinideologicalclimatethatwillencourageactionforajustsocialisteconomic
andpoliticalrestructuring.Thisisnotinsignificant.Nteta(1987)arguesthat''revolutionaryselfconsciousness[is]anobjectiveforcewithintheprocessof
liberation"(p.55).HeshowshowtheaimofSteveBiko'stheoriesandtheBlackConsciousnessMovementinSouthAfrica"todemystifypowerrelationssothat
blackswouldcometoviewtheirstatusasneithernatural,inevitablenorpartoftheeternalsocialorder...createdconditionsthathaveirreversiblytransfiguredSouth
Africa'spoliticallandscape"(pp.6061).Wearguethataswemoredearlyunderstandthelimitsofoureducationalpractice,wewillincreasetheradicalpossibilitiesof
oureducationalactionforliberatorychange.Thus,wefeelthemostimportantareaforethnomathematicalresearchtopursueisthedialecticsbetweenknowledgeand
actionforchange.
5
Fasheh(1982/reprintedhereasChapter13)pointsthewaytothedirectionofinvestigationbyhypothesizingthat
teachingmaththroughculturalrelevanceandpersonalexperienceshelpsthelearnersknowmoreaboutreality,culture,society,andthemselves.Thatwill,inturn,helpthem
becomemoreaware,morecritical,moreappreciative,andmoreselfconfident.Itwillhelpthembuildnewperspectivesandsyntheses,andseeknewalternatives,and,hopefullywill
helpthemtransformsomeexistingstructuresandrelations(p.8).
Notes
1.Arevised,updatedversionofthelastchapteroftheirbookisreprintedinthisvolumeaschapter17.
2.Inthisessay,Adams(1983)providesanincredibleexampleoftheexaggerateddistortionoftheknowledgeofAfricanpeoples.ToexplainhowtheDogonofMali
acquiredtheirextensiveastronomicalknowledgesomeWesternscientistswentasfarashypothesizingthatalienshipslandedfromouterspacetotelltheDogonabout
thestars,refusingthevastlymorecrediblehypothesisthat,sincelenseshavebeenshowntodatebackto2000B.C.,theDogonmayhaveplacedonelensinfrontof
theotherandcreatedabasictelescope(pp.3637,41).

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3.Lave'sworkontheinseparabilityofcognitionandcontextandanethnomathematicalperspectiveofthemeaningof"logicalthought,"forcesustoreevaluateLuria's
(1976)conclusionsaboutreasoningandproblemsolving.Hispoliticalprojectwasprogressive,stemmingfromadesiretoshowthatwithschoolingpeasantswere
intellectuallyequaltopeopleintheotherclassesinRussiansociety.Buthisinterpretationswerelimitedbyhisstaticviewofwhat"abstract"reasoningis.Hiscognitive
psychologicalexperimentsinmathematicsproblemsolvingwithunschooledpeopleinremoteRussianvillagesledhimtotheorizethatthesepeoplecouldnotabstract
"theconditionsoftheproblemsfromextraneouspracticalexperience...and[derive]theappropriateanswerfromasystemofreasoningdeterminedbythelogicof
theproblemratherthangraphicpracticalexperience''(p.120).Luriafeltthat"thesignificanceofschoolingliesnotjustintheacquisitionofnewknowledge,butinthe
creationofnewmotivesandformalmodesofdiscursiveverbalandlogicalthinkingdivorcedfromimmediatepracticalexperience"(p.133).But,ifasLaverecognizes,
cognitionoccursalwaysinextricablyseamlesslyintertwinedinpracticethenpossiblyLuria'sexperimentalfindingsweretheresultofaculturaldissonance(affective,
linguistic,ideological,andsoon)betweentheexperimentersandtheexperimentedupon.Andif,asanethnomathematicalviewtheorizes,wecannotanddonotwant
todichotomizetheabstractandthepractical,thenwecanconcludethatschool'sattemptstodothisareattemptstoobscureknowledgeintheinterestofthestatus
quo.Wehopesomepeoplemoreversedincognitivepsychologythanweare,willpursuethesequestions.Also,wethinksuchareevaluationofLuriawouldbean
importantcasestudyinhoweventhemostprogressive,criticalprojectsoccurinahistoricalcontextwhichlimitstheirwork.Noknowledgeisstatic,allknowledge
mustbecriticallyinterrogated,reexamined,andrecreated.
4.Inadifferentcontext,Powell(seeBaldassarre,Broccoli,Jusinski,andPowell,1993)workedwithstudentswhoactedontheircritiquesofeducationalmaterials,
resultinginthebanningofthedistributionofthoseoffensivematerials.ThispointstodifferencesintheterrainofpoliticalstruggleswhereintheUnitedStatesastrong,
consciousoppositionalpoliticalmovementislacking.
5.Tothisend,JohnVolminkandtheeditorshaveorganizedaCriticalmathematicsEducatorsGroup.Contacttheeditorsforacopyofthegroup'snewsletter.
References
AdamsIII,H.H.(1983).Africanobserversoftheuniverse:TheSiriusquestion.InI.V.Sertima(ed.).Blacksinscience:Ancientandmodern,(pp.2746).New
Brunswick,NJ:Transaction.

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Baldassarre,D.,Broccoli,M.,Jusinski,M.M.,andPowell,A.B.(1993).Criticalthinkingandcriticalcollectiveactionineducation:Race,gender,andthe
mathematicalestablishment.InW.OxmanandM.Weinstein(eds.).CriticalThinkingasanEducationalIdeal:ProceedingsoftheFifthAnnualConferenceof
theInstituteforCriticalThinking.October2224,1992(pp.154158).Montclair:NewJersey,InstituteforCriticalThinking,MontclairState.
Carby,H.V.(1990,Sept./Oct.).Thepoliticsofdifference.Ms.Magazine.pp.8485.
Fasheh,M.(1982).Mathematics,culture,andauthority.FortheLearningofMathematics3(2),28.
Frankenstein,M.(1989).Relearningmathematics:AdifferentthirdRRadicalmaths.London:FreeAssociation.
Gerdes,P.(1988).OnsomepossibleusesoftraditionalAngolansanddrawinginthemathematicsclassroom.JournaloftheMathematicalAssociationofNigeria
18(1):107125.
Knijnik,G.(1992).Anethnomathematicalapproachinmathematicaleducation:Amatterofpoliticalpower.FortheLearningofMathematics13(3):2326.
Lange,B.,andLange,J.(1984).Organizingpiecerateworkersinthetextileindustry.ScienceforthePeople(May/June):1216.
Lave,J.(1988).Cognitioninpractice.Cambridge,England:Cambridge.
Lorde,A.(1984).Sisteroutsider.Trumansburg,NY:TheCrossingPress.
Luria,A.R.(1976).Cognitivedevelopment:Itsculturalandsocialfoundations.Cambridge,MA:Harvard.
Machel,S.(1978).Knowledgeandscienceshouldbeforthetotalliberationofman.Race&Class19(4):399404.
Nteta,C.(1987).Revolutionaryselfconsciousnessasanobjectiveforcewithintheprocessofliberation:BikoandGramsci.RadicalAmerica21(5):5561.
Pinxten,R.,VanDoren,I.,andHarvey,E(1983).Theanthropologyofspace.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvania.
Powell,A.B.,Jeffries,D.A.,andSelby,A.E.(1989).Anempowering,participatoryresearchmodelforhumanisticmathematicspedagogy.Humanistic
MathematicsNetworkNewsletter(4):2938.
Powell,A.B.,andLpez,J.A.(1989).Theroleofwritinginlearningmathematicsandscience:Acasestudy.InEConnollyandT.Vilardi(eds.),TheRoleof
WritinginLearningMathematicsandScience(pp.157177).NewYork:TeachersCollege.

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Powell,A.B.,andRamnauth,M.E(1992).Beyondquestionsandanswers:Promptingreflectionsanddeepeningunderstandingsofmathematicsusingmultipleentry
logs.FortheLearningofMathematics12(2):1218.
Weiler,K.(1994).Freireandafeministpedagogyofdifference.InEL.McLarenandC.Lankshear(eds.).Politicsofliberation:PathsfromFreire(pp.1240).
London:Routledge.
Youngman,E(1986).Adulteducationandsocialistpedagogy.London:CroomHelm.

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Chapter16
SurveyofCurrentWorkonEthnomathematics
PaulusGerdes
Editors'comment:PaulusGerdes,aMozambicanmathematicianandmathematicseducator,hasbeenaleadingresearcherinuncoveringmathematicalideasembeddedinAfrican
culturalpracticesandartifactsandinpresentingthesefindingstothemathematicalcommunity.Inthischapter,hepresentsacomprehensivesurveyandanalysisofresearchinthe
fieldofethnomathematics.ThischapterisarevisedversionofapaperhepresentedattheannualmeetingoftheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience,Boston,MA,
February1116,1993.
ForthefirsttimeinitshistorytheannualmeetingoftheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofSciencehasthisyearinitsprogramasessionon
Ethnomathematics.Ithanktheorganizers,inparticularVicePresidentC.DavisoftheAmericanMathematicalSociety,fortherecognitionofethnomathematicsasa
scientificendeavorandforthehonortobeinvitedtopresentthefirstAAASsurveyoncurrentworkonEthnomathematics.Thisisnotaneasytask.Allovertheworld
ethnomathematicalresearchisbeingdoneandalreadyhundredsofpublicationshaveseenlight.Inpreparingthispresentation,Ihadtoreflectonquestionssuchas
Whatisethnomathematicsallabout?
Howandwhydidethnomathematicsemerge?
Whatresearchtrendsexist?
Whattoincludeinthesurvey?
Whereandwhendoes"currentwork"start?
Whatconcreteexamplesshouldbegiven?

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AstheotherspeakersinthissessionU.D'Ambrosio(Brazil),M.Frankenstein(U.S.A.),M.Closs(U.S.A.),andG.Joseph(UK)willaddresstheaudienceon
specificthemesofethnomathematicalresearchintheAmericas,Asia,andEurope,IwillconcentrateinmysurveyontheAfricancontinentandonMozambiquein
particular.
1
Itseemsusefultostartthesurveywithanhistoricalintroduction.
Ethnomathematicsmaybedefinedastheculturalanthropologyofmathematicsandmathematicaleducation.Assuchitisarelativelynewfieldofinterest,thatliesatthe
confluenceofmathematicsandculturalanthropology.Astheviewofmathematicsas"culturefree"and"universal"hasbeendominantandmaybestillis,
ethnomathematicsemergedlaterthanotherethnosciences.Amongmathematicians,ethnographers,psychologists,andeducationalists,Wilder,White,Fettweis,
Luquet,andRaummayberegisteredasforerunnersofethnomathematics.
IsolatedForerunners
InhisaddresstotheInternationalCongressofMathematiciansin1950,entitledTheCulturalBasisofMathematics,"R.Wilderstatesthatitisnotnewtolookat
mathematicsasaculturalelement:"Anthropologistshavedoneso,butastheirknowledgeofmathematicsisgenerallyverylimited,theirreactionshaveordinarily
consistedofscatteredremarksconcerningthetypesofarithmeticfoundinprimitivecultures"(Wilder,1950,p.260).Hecitestheessay"TheLocusofMathematical
Reality:AnAnthropologicalFootnote"(1947)bytheanthropologistL.WhiteasanoteworthyexceptionandrefersalsotoC.Keyser's''MathematicsAsA
CultureClue"(1932).Keyserdefendedthethesisthat"ThetypeofmathematicsfoundinanymajorCultureisaclue,orkey,tothedistinctivecharacterofthe
Culturetakenasawhole"(Wilder,1950,p.261).Wildercomments"Sincetheculturedominatesitselements,andinparticularitsmathematics,itwouldappearthat
formathematiciansitwouldbemorefruitfultostudytherelationshipfromthispointofview"(Wilder,1950,p.261).WilderagreedwiththeanthropologistR.Linton,
whoobservedinhis"TheStudyofMan"(Linton,1936,p.319)that"Themathematicalgeniuscanonlycarryonfromthepointwhichmathematicalknowledge
withinhisculturehasalreadyreached."
Wildersummarizedhisideasinthefollowingway:"Inman'svariousculturesarefoundcertainelementswhicharecalledmathe

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matical.Intheearlierdaysofcivilization,theyvariedgreatlyfromoneculturetoanothersomuchthatwhatwascalled'mathematics'inoneculturewouldhardlybe
recognizedassuchincertainothers.Withtheincreaseindiffusiondue,first,toexplorationandinvention,and,secondly,totheincreaseintheuseofsuitablesymbols
andtheirsubsequentstandardizationanddisseminationinjournals,themathematicalelementsofthemostadvancedculturesgraduallymergeduntil,exceptforminor
culturaldifferencesliketheemphasisongeometryinItaly,oronfunctiontheoryinFrance,therehasresultedessentiallyoneelement,commontoallcivilizedcultures,
knownasmathematics.Thisisnotafixedentity,however,butissubjecttoconstantchange.Notallofthechangerepresentsaccretionofnewmaterialsomeofitisa
sheddingofmaterialnolonger,duetoinfluentialculturalvariations,consideredmathematics.Somesocalled'borderline'work,forexample,itisdifficulttoplaceeither
inmathematicsoroutsidemathematics"(Wilder,1950,p.269,270).
LaterWilderelaboratedhisideasintwobooks"EvolutionofMathematicalConcepts"(1968)and"MathematicsAsACulturalSystem"(1981).Accordingto
Smorynski,Wilder'sthesismaybesummarizedas"Eachculturehasitsownmathematics,whichevolvesanddieswiththeculture"(Smorynski,1983,p.11).
Whitestartshisaforementionedstudy"TheLocusofMathematicalReality..."byaskingthequestion"Domathematicaltruthsresideintheexternalworld,thereto
bediscoveredbyman,oraretheymanmadeinventions?"(White,1956,p.2349).Lookingforananswer,hestatesthat"mathematicsinitsentirety,its'truths'andits
'realities,'ispartofhumanculture"(White,1956,p.2351)and"Mathematicsisaformofbehavior:theresponsesofaparticularkindofprimateorganismtoasetof
stimuli"(White,1956,p.2353)andconcludesthatmathematicaltruths"arediscoveredbuttheyarealsomanmade.Theyaretheproductofthemindofthehuman
species.Buttheyareencounteredordiscoveredbyeachindividualinthemathematicalcultureinwhichhegrowsup''(White,1956,p.2357).Mathematicsdidnot
originatewithEuclidandPythagorasnoreveninancientEgyptorMesopotamia,but,inWhite'sview"Mathematicsisadevelopmentofthoughtthathadits
beginningwiththeoriginofmanandcultureamillionyearsorsoago"(White,1956,p.2361).
WilderandWhitewerenotawareofthestudiesbytheGermanmathematician,ethnologist,andpedagogueE.Fettweis(18811967)
2
onearlymathematicalthinking
andculturenorofthereflectionsoftheFrenchpsychologistG.Luquetontheculturaloriginofmathematicalnotions(Luquet,1929).
ApparentlyO.Raum'sbook"ArithmeticinAfrica"(1938)wasnot

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knownamongmathematiciansandanthropologistsofhistime.ItcontainsthesubstanceofacoursegiveninthecolonialdepartmentoftheUniversityofLondon's
InstituteofEducation.T.Nunnwritesintheforewordthat"...education...cannotbetrulyeffectiveunlessitisintelligentlybasedonindigenouscultureandliving
interests"(Raum,1938,p.4).O.Raum,sonofamissionaryandbroughtupinAfrica,withteachingexperienceinSouthAfricaandTanganyika(currently,Tanzania)
statesinhisprefacethat:"OneoftheuntestedassumptionsmadebymanyEuropeansisthatAfricanshavenogiftforarithmetic.ItmaybetruethattheAfricansto
whomtheyteacharithmeticmakemistakes.ButsodoEuropeanchildren.ThefaultmaythereforenotlieintheAfricanpupilsatall:itmaybethatthemethodof
teachingorthetypeofarithmetictaughtiswrong"(Raum,1938,p.5).Thebookmakesthreeprincipalsuggestions:"FirstlythattheordinarybehaviorofAfricans
providesconcreteexamplesofthegeneralizationsconcerningthelogicalnatureofnumberwhichhavebeenevolvedbytheworld'smathematicalphilosophers.
Secondlyitissuggestedthat,forteachingtheAfricanchildtohandlethesystemofnumbersandtocarryoutoperationswithit,tribalactivities,bothadultandjuvenile,
withanumericalbearing,arethemostsuitablemedia.Thirdlyitissuggestedthat,ifgeneralizationsandabstractionsaretobeacquiredbythepupilsaslasting
instrumentsofthought,advancedarithmeticalprocessesmustbedevelopedfromthenumericalproblemsoftheirownculturalbackground."Oneoftheprinciplesof
goodteaching"laysdowntheimportanceofunderstandingtheculturalbackgroundofthepupilandrelatingtheteachinginschooltoit"(Raum,1938,p.5).
ThereflectionsofWilder,White,Fettweis,Luquet,andRaumdidnotfindalotofecho.Theprevailingideainthefirsthalfofthecenturywasthatofmathematicsas
anuniversal,basicallyaprioristicformofknowledge.Areductionisttendencytendedtodominatemathematicseducation,implyingonculturefreecognitionmodels.
3
UbiratanD'Ambrosio,theIntellectualFatheroftheEthnomathematicalProgram
Thefailuresofthehasty"NewMathematics"curriculum,transplantedfromtheNorthtotheSouthinthe1960stheimportanceattributedinthenewpolitically
independentstatesoftheThird

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Worldtoeducationforall,includingmathematicaleducation,inthestriveforeconomicindependenceandthepublicunrestintheNorthabouttheinvolvementof
mathematiciansandmathematicalresearchintheVietnamwar....aresomefactorsthatstimulatedreflectionabouttheplaceandimplicationsofmathematicalresearch
andteaching.
Attheendofthe1970sandbeginningofthe1980s,therestartedtobeagrowingawarenessamongmathematiciansofthesocietalandculturalaspectsof
mathematicsandmathematicaleducation.
4
Indicationsofthisarethesessiononthesocietalobjectivesofmathematicaleducationand"Whytostudymathematics?"at
the1976InternationalCongressonMathematicalEducation(ICME3,Karlsruhe,Germany),the1978ConferenceonDevelopingMathematicsinThirdWorld
Countries(Khartoum,Sudan)[seeElTom,1979],the1978WorkshoponMathematicsandtheRealWorld(Roskilde,Denmark)[seeBoossandNiss,1979],the
sessiononMathematicsandSocietyatthe1978InternationalCongressofMathematicians(Helsinki,Finland),the1981SymposiumonMathematicsinthe
Community(Huaraz,Peru),the1982CaribbeanConferenceonMathematicsfortheBenefitofthePeoples(Paramaribo,Surinam).TheBrazilianU.D'Ambrosio
playedadynamizingroleinalltheseinitiatives.Itisinthatperiodthathelauncheshisethnomathematicalprogram.AtthefourthInternationalCongressof
MathematicsEducationin1984(Adelaide,Australia)hepresentsintheopeningplenarylecturehisreflectionsonthe"Socioculturalbasesformathematics
education"(cf.D'Ambrosio,1985a).
D'Ambrosioproposeshisethnomathematicalprogramasa"methodologytotrackandanalyzetheprocessesofgeneration,transmission,diffusionand
institutionalizationof(mathematical)knowledge"indiverseculturalsystems(D'Ambrosio,1990,p.78).Incontrastto"academicmathematics,"thatis,themathematics
taughtandlearnedintheschools,D'Ambrosiocalls"ethnomathematicsthemathematicspracticedamongidentifiableculturalgroups,suchasnationaltribalsocieties,
laborgroups,childrenofacertainagebracket,professionalclasses,andsoon"(D'Ambrosio,1985b,p.45)."Themechanismofschoolingreplacesthesepractices
byotherequivalentpracticeswhichhaveacquiredthestatusofmathematics,whichhavebeenexpropriatedintheiroriginalformsandreturnedinacodified
version"(D'Ambrosio,1985b,p.47).Beforeandoutsideschoolalmostallchildrenintheworldbecome"matherate,"thatis,theydevelopthe"caparitytouse
numbers,quantities,thecapabilityofqualifyingandquantifyingandsomepatternsofinference"(D'Ambrosio,1985a,p.43).Inschool"the'learned'matheracy
eliminatesthesocalled'spon

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taneous'matheracy.Anindividualwhomanagesperfectlywellnumbers,operations,geometricformsandnotions,whenfacingacompletelynewandformalapproach
tothesamefactsandneedscreatesapsychologicalblockagewhichgrowsasabarrierbetweendifferentmodesofnumericalandgeometricalthought"(D'Ambrosio,
1985a,p.45).Asaconsequence,"theearlystagesofMathematicseducationofferaveryefficientwayofinstillinginthechildrenasenseoffailureand
dependency"(D'Ambrosio,1985a,p.45).Inotherwords"themathematicalcompetencies,whicharelostinthefirstyearsofschooling,areessentialatthisstagefor
everydaylifeandlaboropportunities.Buttheyhaveindeedbeenlost.Theformer,letussayspontaneous,abilitieshavebeendowngraded,repressedandforgotten
whilethelearnedoneshavenotbeenassimilatedeitherasaconsequenceofalearningblockage,orofanearlydropout,orevenasaconsequenceoffailureormany
otherreasons"(D'Ambrosio,1985a,p.46).Thequestionwhicharisestheniswhattodo:"shouldwe...giveupschoolmathematicsandremainwith
ethnomathematics?Clearlynot..."(D'Ambrosio,1985a,p.70).InD'Ambrosio'sview,oneshouldcompatibilizeculturalforms,thatis,"...themathematicsin
schoolsshallbesuchthatitfacilitatesknowledge,understanding,incorporationandcompatibilizationofknownandcurrentpopularpracticesintothecurriculum.In
otherwords,recognitionandincorporationofethnomathematicsintothecurriculum"(D'Ambrosio,1985a,p.71).Inordertoincorporateethnomathematicsintothe
curriculum,itisnecessaryto''identifywithinethnomathematicsastructuredbodyofknowledge"(D'Ambrosio,1985b,p.47).Researchershavetotrytofind
"underlyingstructureintheseadhocpractices.Inotherterms,wehavetoposethefollowingquestions:
1.Howareadhocpracticesandsolution,ofproblemsdevelopedintomethods?
2.Howaremethodsdevelopedintotheories?
3.Howaretheoriesdevelopedintoscientificinvention?(D'Ambrosio,1985b,p.48).
Somecharacteristicsofthisethnomathematicsarealreadyknown:
1.Itislimitedintechniquessinceitdrawsonnarrowresources.Ontheotherhand,itscreativecomponentishigh,sinceitisunboundtoformalrulesobeyingcriteria
unrelatedtothesituation.

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2.Itisparticularisticsinceitiscontextbound,althoughitisbroaderthanadhocknowledge,contrarytotheuniversalisticcharacterofmathematics,whichideally
claimsandaimstobecontextfree.
3.Itoperatesthroughmetaphorsandsystemsofsymbolswhicharepsychoemotionallyrelated,whilemathematicsoperateswithsymbolswhicharecondensedina
rationalway"(D'Ambrosio,1987,p.3738).
LetusnowbrieflyreviewotherconceptsthathavebeenproposedandthatarerelatedtoD'Ambrosio'sethnomathematics.
GestationofNewConcepts
Colonialeducationpresentedmathematicsgenerallyassomethingrather"western"or"European,"asanexclusivecreationof"whitemen.''Withthehastycurriculum
transplantationduringthe1960sfromthehighlyindustrializednationstoThirdWorldcountriestherecontinued,atleastimplicitly,thenegationofAfrican,Asian,
AmericanIndian,...mathematics.
Duringthe1970sand1980s,amongteachersanddidacticiansofmathematicsindevelopingcountriesandlateralsoinothercountriesemergedagrowingresistanceto
thisnegation(cf.e.g.Njock,1985),againsttheracistandneocolonialprejudices,thatitreflects,againsttheEurocentrismofmathematicsanditshistory.
5
Many
teachersanddidacticiansstressedthatbeyondthe"importedschoolmathematics"therealsoexistedandcontinuestoexistothermathematics.
Inthiscontext,variousconceptshavebeenproposedtocontrastwiththe"academicmathematics"/"schoolmathematics"(i.e.,theschoolmathematicsofthe
transplanted,importedcurriculum):
indigenousmathematics[Cf.e.g.GayandCole,1967Lancy,1976].CriticizingeducationofKpellechildren(Liberia)in"westernoriented"schoolsthey
"aretaughtthingsthathavenopointormeaningwithintheirculture"(1967,p.7)GayandColeproposeacreativemathematicaleducationthatusestheindigenous
mathematicsasstartingpoint
sociomathematicsofAfrica[Zaslavsky,1973]:"theapplicationsofmathematicsinthelivesofAfricanpeople,and,conversely,the

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influencethatAfricaninstitutionshadupontheevolutionoftheirmathematics"(p.7)
6
informalmathematics[Posner,1978,1982]:mathematicsthatistransmittedandthatonelearnsoutsidetheformalsystemofeducation
mathematicsinthe(African)socioculturalenvironment[S.Tour,S.Doumbia(Cted'Ivoire),1984]:integrationofthemathematicsofAfricangamesand
craftworkthatbelongstothesocialculturalenvironmentofthechildinthemathematicscurriculum
spontaneousmathematics[D'Ambrosio,1982]:eachhumanbeingandeachculturalgroupdevelopsspontaneouslycertainmathematicalmethods
7
oralmathematics[Carraheretal.,1982Kane,1987]:inallhumansocietiesthereexistsmathematicalknowledgethatistransmittedorallyfromonegeneration
tothenext
oppressedmathematics[Gerdes,1982]:inclasssocieties(e.g.,inthecountriesoftheThirdWorldduringthecolonialoccupation)thereexistmathematical
elementsinthedailylifeofthepopulations,thatarenotrecognizedasmathematicsbythedominantideology
nonstandardmathematics[Carraheretal.,1982Gerdes,1982,1985aHarris,1987]:beyondthedominantstandardformsof"academic"and"school"
mathematicstheredevelopsanddevelopedinthewholeworldandineachculturemathematicalformsthataredistinctfromtheestablishedpatterns
hiddenorfrozenmathematics[Gerdes,1982,1985a,b]:although,probably,themajorityofmathematicalknowledgeoftheformerlycolonizedpeopleshas
beenlost,onemaytrytoreconstructor"unfreeze"themathematicalthinking,thatis"hidden"or"frozen"inoldtechniques,like,forexample,thatofbasketmaking
folkmathematics[MellinOlsen,1986]:themathematics(althoughoftennotrecognizedassuch)thatdevelopsintheworkingactivityofeachofthepeoplesmay
serveasastartingpointintheteachingofmathematics
mathematicscodifiedinknowhow[Ferreira,1991].
Theseconceptproposalsareprovisional.TheybelongtotrendsthatemergedinthecontextoftheThirdWorldandthatlateronfoundanechoinothercountries.
8
Thevariousaspectsilluminatedbytheaforementionedprovisionalconceptshavebeengraduallyunitedunderthemoregeneral

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"commondenominator"ofD'Ambrosio'sethnomathematics.ThisprocesshasbeenacceleratedbythecreationoftheInternationalStudyGroupon
Ethnomathematics[ISGEm]in1985.
IllustrativeExamples
SugarCaneFarmersinBrazil
"ThesugarcanefarmersofnortheasternBrazilhavetheirownmeasuresandproceduresofdetermininglandarea,whicharenottakenintoaccountinBrazilian
mathematicaleducation.Whiletheirproceduresmightatfirstappeartobesimplyincorrect,ourinterviewsshowthatfarmersindeedunderstandhowmeasuresof
linearmagnitudesarerelatedtoareas.Theimprecisionacceptedbyfarmersappearsnottobeduetocarelessness,butrathermotivatedbypracticalconsiderations
andthepreferenceforworkingwithintegervalues"(AbreuandCarraher,1989,p.70).
CowryGamesinCted'Ivoire
In1980,aresearchseminaron"MathematicsintheAfricanSocioCulturalEnvironment"wasintroducedattheMathematicalResearchInstituteofAbidjan
(IRMA,Cted'Ivoire),foundedin1975byS.Tour.TheseminarisdirectedbyS.Doumbia.Oneoftheinterestingthemesanalyzedbyherandhercolleaguesisthe
mathematicsoftraditionalWestAfricangames.Theirworkdealswithclassificationofthegames,solutionofmathematicalproblemsofthegamesandexploringthe
possibilitiesofusingthesegamesinthemathematicsclassroom.Theirconclusionasrevealingasitisthattherulesofsomegames,likeNigbAlladian,showa
traditional,atleastempiricalknowledgeofprobabilities,willcertainlystimulatefurtherresearch.
OneplaysNigbAlladianwithfourcowryshells.Inturn,eachofthetwoplayerscaststhecowryshells.Whenallfourlandinthesameposition,thatis,all"up"orall
"down,"orwhentwolandinthe"up"positionandtheothertwointhe"down"position,theplayerwinspoints.Intheothercases,one"up"andthree"down,"orthree
"up"

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andone"down,"Aparticipantdoesnotwinpoints.TheresearchersofIRMAfoundexperimentallythatthechanceofacowryshelltofallinthe"up"positionistwo
fifths.Thefollowingtableshowstheprobabilitiesoffour"up,"four"down,"andsoforth:
position probability

all"up"

all"down"

twoup,"two"down"

one"up,"three"down"

threeup,"onedown"

Oneseesthattherulesofthegamehadbeenchoseninsuchawaythatthechancetowinpointsis(almost)thesameastowinnopoints.S.Doumbiaconcluded
"withoutanyknowledgeofcalculationofprobability,theplayershavemanaged...toadoptaclevercountingsystem,inordertobalancetheirchances.The
probabilityofscoringsomepointsis ."(Doumbia,1989,p.175)
9
MarketWomeninMozambique
Lecturersandstudentsofthemaster'sdegreeprograminmathematicseducationforprimaryschoolsatMozambique'sPedagogicalUniversity(BeiraBranch)have
beenanalyzingarithmeticinandoutsideschool.Oninterviewingilliteratewomentoknowhowtheydeterminesumsanddifferences,itwasfoundthatthewomen
"solved

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easilynearlyalltheproblems,usingessentiallymethodsoforal/mentalcomputation,i.e.,computationbasedonthespokennumerals.Themethodsusedwerevery
similartothosesuggestedbythepresentdaymathematicssyllabusforprimaryeducation,butincludingsomeinterestingalternatives"(J.Draisma,1992,p.110).For
instance,59percentoftheinterviewedwomencalculatedmentally625=..?byfirstsubtracting2andthen3.Schematically:
625=..?
622=60
603=57,
Thatis,theyusedthesamemethodasisemphasizedintheschoolbook.Another29percentofthewomensubtractedfirst5from60andthenadded2:
625=..?
605=55
55+2=57,
and12percentsubtractedfirst10from62,andaddedthedifferencebetween10and5,thatis,5.Schematically:
625=..?
6210=52
105=5
52+5=57.
Didthesewomen(re)inventtheirmethod?Didtheylearnthem?Fromwhomandhow?
Whenmultiplying,mostoftheinterviewedwomensolvetheproblemsbydoubling.Anexampleillustratestheprocess613=..?Schematicallythesolutionisthe
following:
613=..?
213=26
413=226
226=52
613=26+52
26+52=78
(J.Draisma,oralcommunication,1992).Doeseachofthesewomen(re)inventthedoublingmethodspontaneously?Ordoesthereexistatradition?Ifso,howisthe
methodtaughtandlearned?

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UnschooledPeasantsinNigeria
Shirley(1988)andhisstudents(e.g.Azenge,1988)attheAhmaduBelloUniversityinNigeriaconductedoralinterviewswithunschooled,illiteratemembersofthe
students'homecommunities.Theyfoundthat"althoughsomeofthe(arithmetical)algorithmsusedbytheinformantsaresimilartothosetaughtinschools,some
interestingnonstandardtechniqueswerealsofound"(Shirley,1988,p.5).Severalrespondentsdisplayedagoodnumbersense,especiallyinusingdecomposition,
associativity,anddistributivitytosimplifyintoroundnumbers"(Shirley,1988,p.6).Forinstance,todetermine18+19=..?,someusedthefollowingprocedure:1
removedfrom18,leaves17and1combinedwith19gives20,therefore17+20givesthesameresultas18+19.Schematically:
18+19=..?
181=17andl+19=20
17+20=37
Yetanotherapproachtothesameproblemroundedboth18and19to20,notingthat2and1hadbeenrespectivelyaddedthetwo20sgive40,andthenthe2and
1aresubtractedtoyield37.Theynotedthattheilliteraterespondentspresentedsomecreativesolutionstodivisionproblems."For453=..?,onerespondent
apparentlyknewthat213is7,andsodecomposed45into21+21+3.Dividingallthetermsofthissumby3andaddinggave7+7+1=15"(Shirley,1988,p.
7).Shirleygivestheadvisetoassignteacherstudenttofind(ethno)algorithmsintheircommunitiesliterateorilliterate,ruralorurban,asToooften,schoollessons
leavetheimpressionthatthereisonlyonewaytodoagiventask"(Shirley,1988,p.9).
EthnomathematicsasaFieldofResearch
Intheprevioussections,ethnomathematicswasthemathematicsofacertainsubculture.Inthatsensesocalledacademicmathematicsisalsoaconcreteexampleof
ethnomathematics.Whenallethnomathematicsismathematics,whycallitethnomathematics?Andnotsimplythemathematicsofthisandthatsubculture?
Doingso,ethnomathematicsmaybedefinedatanotherlevel,as

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aresearchfield,thatrecognizestheexistenceofmanymathematics,particularinawaytocertainsubcultures.
Asaresearchfield,ethnomathematicsmaybedefinedastheculturalanthropologyofmathematicsandmathematicaleducation,orintheformulationofD'Ambrosioin
1977:"Ethnoscienceasthestudyofscientificand,byextension,technologicalphenomenaindirectrelationtotheirsocial,economicandcultural
background"(D'Ambrosio,1987,p.74).Inthissense,itincludes"thestudyofmathematicalideasofnonliteratepeoples,"whichishowAscherdefined
ethnomathematicsin1986.
10
Amongethnographersandanthropologiststheconceptof"ethnoscience"hasbeenusedsincetheendofthenineteenthcentury.Theiruseoftheconceptseemstobe
morerestrictedandtohaveadifferentideologicalconnotationthantheconceptasitisusednowadaysbymathematiciansandmathematicseducators.
IntheethnologicaldictionaryofPanoffandPerrin(1973),twodefinitionsoftheconceptofethnosciencearepresented.Inthefirstcase,itisa"branchofethnology
thatdedicatesitselftothecomparisonbetweenthepositiveknowledgeofexoticsocietiesandtheknowledgethathasbeenformalizedintheestablisheddisciplinesof
westernscience"(Panoff&Perrin,1973,p.68)Thisdefinitionraisesimmediatelysomequestions."Whatispositiveknowledge?""Inwhatsenseexotic?""Doesthere
existaWesternscience?"Inthesecondcase,''eachapplicationofoneoftheWesternscientificdisciplinestonaturalphenomenawhichareunderstoodinadifferent
waybyindigenousthinking"iscalledethnoscience(Panoff&Perrin,1973,p.68).Bothdefinitionsbelongtoatraditionthattracesbacktothecolonialtimewhen
ethnographywasborninthemost"developed"countriesasa"colonialscience,"thatstudiedalmostexclusivelytheculturesofsubjectedpeoples,alsoa"science"that
opposedthesocalledprimitivethinkingtotheWesternthinkingassomehowabsolutelydifferent.
Amongethnographersthereexistsalsoanothercurrent,onethatconsidersethnoscienceinastrikinglydifferentway.Forexample,C.Favrod(1977)characterizes
ethnolinguisticsinhisintroductiontosocialandculturalanthropologyasfollows:"Ethnolinguisticstriestostudylanguageinitsrelationshiptothewholeofculturaland
sociallife"(Favrod,1977,p.90).Whenwetransferthischaracterizationofethnolinguisticstoethnomathematics,weobtainbyanalogy:"Ethnomathematicstriesto
studymathematics(ormathematicalideas)inits(their)relationshiptothewholeofculturalandsociallife."Inthissense,ethnomathematicscomesneartothe
sociologyofmathematics(1942)ofD.

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Struik:"Mathematicshasitsrootsintheoutsideworld,ornature...societyisonlypartofthis,directingwhatandhowtheserootswillcontinuetosprout"(Struik,
1986,p.297).H.BosandH.Mehrtens(1977)publishedaliteraturereviewontheinteractionsbetweenmathematicsandsociety.
AccordingtoT.Crump,thetermethnosciencebecamepopularamongethnographersinthe1960s:"Itmaybetakentorefertothe'systemofknowledgeand
cognitiontypicalofagivenculture'"(Crump,1990,p.160).
11
InCrump's"TheAnthropologyofNumber"(1990)thereisalmostnoreferencetotheworkof
"ethnomathematicians.''Hepointsoutthat"first,fewprofessionalmathematicianshaveanyinterestinthecognitiveassumptionsintheirworksecond,few
anthropologistsarenumerateinthesenseofbeingabletorealizehowsignificantthenumbersthatoccurinthecourseoftheirfieldworkmightbeinthelocal
culture"(Crump,1990,p.viii).Stillinthe1990s,anthropologists,historiansofscience,andmathematiciansneedtocollaboratewitheachothertodevelop
ethnomathematicsasananthropologyofmathematics(D'Ambrosiousessometimestheexpression"anthropologicalmathematics,"e.g.1985bcf.Gerdes,1985c).
EthnomathematicalMovement(cf.Gerdes,1989a)
12
Thescholarswhoareengagedinethnomathematicalresearcharenormallyhighlymotivated.Inthissensewemightspeakofanethnomathematicalmovement,that
maybecharacterizedasfollows:
Ethnomathematiciansuseabroadconceptofmathematics,including,inparticular,counting,locating,measuring,designing,playing,explaining
13
Ethnomathematiciansemphasizeandanalyzetheinfluencesofsocioculturalfactorsontheteaching,learning,anddevelopmentofmathematics
Ethnomathematiciansdrawattentiontothefactthatmathematics(itstechniquesandtruths)isaculturalproducttheystressthateverypeopleeveryculture
andeverysubculturedevelopsitsownparticularmathematics.Mathematicsisconsideredtobeauniversal,panhumanactivity.Asaculturalproduct,
mathematicshasahistory.Undercertaineconomic,social,andculturalconditions,itemergedanddevelopedincertaindirectionsunderotherconditions,itemerged
anddevelopedin

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otherdirections.Inotherwords,thedevelopmentofmathematicsisnotunilinear(Cf.Ascher&Ascher,1986,p.139,140).
Ethnomathematiciansemphasizethattheschoolmathematicsofthetransplanted,imported"curriculum"isapparentlyalientotheculturaltraditionsofAfrica,
Asia,andSouthAmerica.ApparentlythismathematicscomesfromtheoutsideoftheThirdWorld.Inreality,however,agreatpartofthecontentsofthis"school
mathematics"isofAfricanandAsianorigin.Itbecameexpropriatedintheprocessofcolonizationthatgreatlydestroyedthe(scientific)cultureoftheoppressed
peoples.
14
ThencolonialideologiesignoredordespisedthesurvivalsofAfrican,Asian,andAmericanIndianmathematics.Themathematicalcapacitiesofthepeoples
oftheThirdWorldbecamenegatedorreducedtorotememorization.Thistendencyhasbeenreinforcedbythecurriculumtransplantation(NewMath)fromthehighly
industrializednationstoThirdWorldcountriesinthe1960s.
Ethnomathematicianstrytocontributetotheknowledgeofthemathematicalrealizationsoftheformerlycolonizedpeoples.Theylookforcultureelements,
thatsurvivedcolonialismandthatrevealmathematicalandotherscientificthinking.Theytrytoreconstructthesemathematicalthoughts.
EthnomathematiciansinThirdWorldcountrieslookformathematicaltraditionsthatsurvivedcolonizationandformathematicalactivitiesinpeople'sdailylife
andanalyzewaystoincorporatethemintothecurriculum.
Ethnomathematiciansalsolookforothercultureelementsandactivitiesthatmayserveasastartingpointfordoingandelaboratingmathematicsinthe
classroom.
IntheeducationalcontextEthnomathematiciansgenerallyfavoracriticalmathematicseducationthatenablesthestudentstoreflectontherealitytheylivein
andempowersthemtodevelopandusemathematicsinanemancipatoryway.TheinfluenceofthewellknownradicalThirdWorldpedagogueP.Freireisvisible.
PauloFreireandEthnomathematics
Aseriesofscholarsworkinginthefieldofethnomathematics,likeEGerdes(1975),
15
M.Frankenstein(1981,1983,1989),S.Mellin

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Olsen(1986),M.Borba(1987a),E.Ferreira(1992),andM.FrankensteinandA.Powell(1994)havepaidtributetotheBrazilianpedagogueEFreire.Hisideas,in
particular,throughhisbooks"PedagogyoftheOppressed"(1970)and"EducationforCriticalConsciousness"(1973)influenceddeeplytheirreflection.In
MellinOlsonwords:"IfknowledgeisrelatedtoculturebytheprocesseswhichconstituteknowledgeasFreireexpressesitthismusthavesomeimplicationfor
howwetreatknowledgeinthedidacticprocessesof(mathematical)education"(MellinOlsen,1986,p.103).Freire(1987)himselfincludedthepaper
"Ethnomathematics:TheMathematicsofa'Favela'(slum)inaPedagogicalProposal''writtenbyhisandD'Ambrosio'sstudent,M.Borba,inhisbook"InThe
SchoolWeMake...:AnInterdisciplinaryReflectiononPeople'sEducation."M.FrankensteinandA.Powellarguethatreconsideringwhateducatorsvalueas
mathematicalknowledge,consideringtheeffectofcultureonmathematicalknowledge,anduncoveringthedistortedandhiddenhistoryofmathematicalknowledgeare
significantcontributionsofaFreirean,ethnomathematicalperspectiveinreconceivingthedisciplineofmathematicsanditspedagogicalpractice(Frankensteinand
Powell,1991,p.14).TheuseofFreire'sdialogicalmethodologyisseenasessentialindeveloping"thecurricularpraxisofethnomathematicsbyinvestigatingthe
ethnomathematicsofaculturetoconstructcurriculawithpeoplefromthatcultureandbyexploringtheethnomathematicsofotherculturestocreatecurriculasothat
people'sknowledgeofmathematicswillbeenriched"(FrankensteinandPowell,1991,p.32).
Inthefollowing,Iwillpresentanoverviewofethnomathematicalliteraturecontinentbycontinent,endingthechapterwithadiscussionofethnomathematicalresearch
inMozambique.
Americas
M.andR.Ascher,mathematicianandanthropologist,publishedin1981"CodeOfTheQuipu:AStudyinMedia,MathematicsandCulture,"showinghow
Peruvianpiecesofstringservedtoembodyarich,logical,numericaltradition.M.Closseditedthebook"NativeAmericanMathematics"(1986).Theeditorstates
inhisprefacethat"....nativeAmericanmathematicscanbestbedescribedasacompositeofseparatedevelopmentsinmanyindividualcultures"(Closs,1986,p.2).
Thebookanalysesnumbersystems,numericalrepresentationinrockart,calendrialsystems,talliesandritualuseofnumber,

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andsomeaspectsofgeometry.Ethnomathematicalresearchmethodologyisapointofconcern.Clossremarksthatthe"papersgivesomeideaastotheformwhich
thehistoryofmathematicsmusttakeifitistoincorporatematerialoutsideofitstraditionalboundaries.Itisaforminwhichanalmosttotalrelianceonthehistorical
approachissupplementedorreplacedbydrawingontheresourcesandmethodologiesofotherdisciplinessuchasanthropology,archaeologyandlinguistics"(Closs,
1986,p.2).R.Pinxtenetal.(1983)studiedthe"geometrical"worldviewoftheNavajoandformulatedsuggestionsformathematicseducation(Pinxten,1989).C.
Moore(1986)analyzedtheuseofstringfiguresfor''NativeAmericanmathematicseducation"(cf.Moore,1987,1994).J.Marschall(1987)elaboratedan"atlas"of
AmericanIndiangeometry.
E.Ferreira(1988,1989)andhisstudentsatCampinasStateUniversityhaveanalyzedmathematicsandmathematicsteachingamongIndiancommunitiesinBrazil.For
example,L.PaulaandE.Paula(1986)studiedstringfiguresamongtheTapirapIndians.
C.CossioandA.Jerez(1986)publishedastudyonmathematicsintheQuichua(Ecuador)andSpanishlanguage.
AseriesofimportantstudieshavebeenrealizedbyD'Ambrosio'sstudents.Forexample,theaforementionedM.Borba(1987)analyzedthemathematicsinthedaily
lifeofthepopulationofasluminCampinasS.Nobrestudiedthemathematicsofthepopularanimallotteryandwroteamastersthesisentitled"SocialandCultural
AspectsofMathematicsCurriculumDevelopment"(1989a)(cf.Nobre,1989b)R.Buriascocompletedamastersthesison"MathematicsoutsideandinsideSchool:
FromBlockagetoTransition"(1989)G.Knijnikconcludedadoctoraldissertationonthemathematicsinthestruggleforlifeoflandlesspeasantsinthesouthern
BrazilianstateRioGrandedoSul(cf.Knijnik,1993,reprintedhereaschapter18).
InPernambuco(northeasternBrazil),importantresearchontheborderlinebetweenethnomathematicsandcognitivepsychologyisdonebytheschoolofT.Carraher
(Nunes),A.Schliemann,andD.Carraher,towhichIreferredalreadyabove.
16
Forexample,Schliemann(1984)analyzedmathematicsamongcarpentryapprentices
T.Carraher(1988)comparedstreetmathematicsandschoolmathematics,andT.Carraheretal.(1987)analyzedthedifferencesbetweenwrittenandoral
mathematicsG.Saxe(1988)reportedoncandysellingandmathlearning.ThefirsteditionoftheBrazilianjournal"AEducaoMatemtica"publishedin1993is
dedicatedtoethnomathematics.ItcontainscontributionsfromU.D'Ambrosio,E.Ferreira,L.Meira,G.Knijnik,andM.Borba.
Therehasbeencooperationinethnomathematicalstudiesbe

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tweenMozambiqueandBrazil.InBrazil,Mozambicanresearchersconductedaseriesofworkshopsonethnomathematics:inAprilandMay1988,P.Gerdes(State
UniversityofSoPaulo,RioClaro),inJanuary1992EGerdeswiththeassistanceofM.CherindaandD.Soares(FederalUniversityofSantaCatarina,
Florianpolis)andinJanuary1993,D.Soares(FederalUniversityofSantaCatarina,Florianpolis).EGerdes(1989b)conductedastudyonarithmeticand
geometricaldecorationofIndianbasketsfromBrazil.
InColombia,V.Albis(1988)analyzedsomeaspectsofritualgeometryamongIndianpopulations.A.Cautyandhiscollaboratorsanalyzepossibilitiesofmathematics
educationinthecontextofwhattheycall"ethnoeducationoftheindigenouspopulationsofColombia"(cf.Cauty,1994,1995).
ThenewsletteroftheInternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematicspublishedaseriesofshortarticlesonethnomathematicalresearchandeducationinNorth
America.D.Orey(1989)analyzed"EthnomathematicalPerspectivesontheNCTMStandards"G.Gilmer(1990)proposedan"EthnomathematicalApproachto
CurriculumDevelopment"B.Lumpkin(1990)commentedon"AMulticulturalMathematicsCurriculum"C.Zaslavsky(1989)arguedfor"IntegratingMathWithThe
StudyOfCulturalTraditions,"and''WorldCulturesInTheMathematicsClass"L.Shirley(1991)analysesmathematicsin"kidculture""VideoGamesForMath:A
CaseFor'KidCulture.'"J.StiglerandR.Baranes(1988)publishedareviewofresearchoncultureandmathematicslearning.
OneoftheforerunnersofethnomathematicalinterestintheU.S.A.seemstobeH.GinsburgandhisstudentsPetittoandPosner.In1978,hisstudentsconcludedtheir
Ph.D.dissertationsonmathematicalknowledgeinprofessionalgroupssuchasclothmerchantsandtailorsandtwoethnicgroupsinCted'Ivoireanddidcomparative
testing.Inhispaper"PoorChildren,AfricanMathematicsandtheProblemofSchooling,"Ginsburgdrawsasalesson:"ThemoralforAmericanresearchersisclearIf
poorchildrendobadlyonsometests,thelikelihoodisgreaterthatthereisaproblemwiththetestthanwiththechild"(Ginsburg,1978,p.41).Therefore"...teaching
ofbasicskillscouldbemoreeffectiveifthecurriculawereorientedtotheparticularstylesofeachculture.""ForAfricanchildren,theanswersseemobvious:tobe
effective,curriculamustberesponsivetolocalculture."Ginsburgmaintainsthat"thesameislikelytobetrueforsubgroupsoftheAmericanpoor"(Ginsburg,1978,p.
42,43).
InthecontextoftheinfluenceofEFreire,IreferredalreadytotheworkofM.FrankensteinandA.Powell.TheirCriticalmathemat

Page349
icsEducatorsGroupisactivelyinvolvedinthemathematicalempoweringofnontraditionalstudents(cf.Frankenstein&Powell,1989).
Themulticulturalizationofthemathematicscurriculum
17
isonewaytoincrease(cultural)selfconfidenceamongnontraditionalstudents.M.Ascher(1991)joinedand
adaptedaseriesofherearlierpapersonmathematicalideasin"nonWestern"societiesinthebookEthnomathematics:AMulticulturalViewofMathematical
Ideas.Thebookcontainschaptersonnumbers,graphsinthesand,logicofkinrelations,chanceandstrategyingamesandpuzzles,organizationandmodelingof
spaceandsymmetricstripdecorations.G.Gilmer,M.Thompson,andC.Zaslavsky(1992)preparedmulticulturalmathematicalactivitiesforchildrenfrom
kindergartenthroughgradeeight(cf.Zaslavsky,1992).J.Ratteray(1992)publishedanAfricancenteredapproachforthemulticulturalcurriculum,including
mathematics.
18
B.Lumpkinhaspreparedamulticulturalmathematicsbookforchildren.
Asia,Oceania,andAustralia
R.Souviney(1989)describedtheresultswiththeIndigenousMathematicsProjectthatwasstartedin1976inPapuaNewGuinea.Earlierin1983,D.Lancy
publishedthebookCrossculturalStudiesInCognitionAndMathematicswhereresultsofcognitivetestinginPapuaNewGuineaandintheU.S.A.arecompared.
A.Bishop(1978,1979)analyzedspatialabilities.G.Saxe(1981,1982a,1982b)conductedaseriesofstudiesofbodycountingandarithmeticamongtheOksapmin
ofPapuaNewGuinea.Leanpublishedin1986aresearchbibliographyoncountingsystemsonthesameisland.
P.Harris(1984)andK.Crawford(1984,1989)analyzedmathematicseducationinAustralianAboriginalcommunities.TheWesternAustraliaInstituteofTechnology
publishedin1985thebookLearning,AboriginalWorldViewandEthnomathematicsbyR.Hunting(cf.Hunting,1987).Graham(1988)analysesthe
mathematicaleducationofAboriginalchildren.
G.Knight(1984)publishedtwopapersonthegeometryofMaoriartonweavingandrafterpatterns.M.AscherstudiedmathematicalaspectsofMaorigames.B.
Bartonwroteapaperentitled"UsingTheTreestoSeeTheWood:AnArchaeologyOfMathematicalStructureInNewZealand"(1990),andpreparesaPh.D.
dissertationthathasasatheme"APhilosophicalJustificationForEthnomathematicsAnd

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SomeImplicationsForEducation"(cf.discussionpaperwiththesametitle,1992).
InthelastchapterofhisbookLanguageAndMathematicsEducation,R.Zeppprovidesatheoreticaldiscussionofethnomathematics.
M.Ascher(1988a)andP.Nissen(1988)analyzedmathematicalaspectsofsanddrawingsintheNewHebrides.P.Gerdes(1989c,1994a:chapter11)didastudy
ofthresholddesignsamongtheTamilofSouthIndia.
InaseriesofstudiesJ.TurnerdiscussedprimarymathematicseducationandethnomathematicsinBhutanintheeasternHimalayas(e.g.Turner,1992).
M.Fasheh(1982,1989)analyzedtheculturalconflictsarisinginmathematicseducationontheWestBankofoccupiedPalestine.
Europe
MellinOlsenandhiscolleaguesattheBergenInstituteofEducationorganizedin1985aseminaron"MathematicsandCulture"withparticipantsfromthe
Scandinaviancountries,GreatBritain,France,Mexico,andMozambique(cf.BonillaRius,1986).Itseemstohavebeenthefirstmeetingwithculturalissuesasa
specificthemeinmathematicseducationintheEuropeancontext.M.Harrisexpressed(1987,p.26)howethnomathematicalresearchinAfricastimulatescritical
reflectiononmathematicseducationintheEnglishsetting,inviewofwomen,"workingclass"andminorityemancipation.Her"MathsinWorkProject"basedatthe
UniversityofLondonInstituteofEducationattemptsto"makeareconciliationbetweenschoolidealandworkpracticebybringingmathematicallyrichactivitiesof
dailylifeintoschoolasresourcestobedevelopedmathematicallybyteachers"(Harris&Paechter,1991,p.278).Textilesandtextileactivitiesareanexampleofsuch
a"veryrichmathematicalresource,onethatiscommonandnaturaltoallculturesandbothsexes"(M.Harris,1988,p.28).Ifpupilsofbothsexesandallsocialand
culturalbackgrounds"becomeselfconfidentintheirrecognitionofmathematicsassomethingtheydoandenjoyaspartofeverydayworkinglife,thenthereissurely
morechanceofthemdevelopingthepositiveandconfidentattitudesthatemployerssaytheywant"(HarrisandPeachter,1991,p.282).
19

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InterestinmulticulturalissuesinmathematicseducationisgrowinginFrance.In1992,theFrencheditionofthenewsletteroftheInternationalStudyGroupon
EthnomathematicswaslaunchedbytheInstituteforResearchinMathematicsEducation.EDamerow(1992)underlinesthatitisurgentinGermanytoreflectonthe
issuesraisedbyethnomathematiciansallovertheworld.S.ShanandEBailey(1991)andD.Nelson,G.Joseph,andJ.Williams(1993)analyzethenecessityand
practiceofmulticulturalmathematicseducationforamorejustandequalsocietyintheBritishcontext.O.Skovmose(1994)seesethnomathematicalstudiesasan
importantcontributiontotherealizationofa"criticalmathematicseducation."
OngoingEthnomathematicalResearchIn/OnAfrica
20
IhavealreadymentionedRaum'sArithmeticinAfrica(1938),GayandCole'sNewMathematicsandanOldCulture(1967),andZaslavsky'sclassicalAfrica
Counts(1973).
FromtheSanhuntersinBotswana,Lea(1987,1989a,b,c,1990a,b)andherstudentsattheUniversityofBotswanahavecollectedinformation.Herpapers
describecounting,measurement,timereckoning,classification,tracking,andsomemathematicalideasinSantechnologyandcraft.Educationalsuggestionsare
includedinStottandLea(1993).
Duringthelastyears,awholeseriesofresearchprojectsonspokenandwrittennumerationsystemsinAfricaisbeingcarriedout,forexample,on:
countingintraditionalIbibioandEfiksocieties(I.O.Enukoha,UniversityofCalabar,Calabar,Nigeria)
numerationamongtheFulbe(Fulani)(S.O.Ale,AhmaduBelloUniversity,Bauchi,Nigeria)
preIslamicwaysofcounting(Y.Bello,BayeroUniversity,Nigeria)
countinginNigerianlanguages(AhmaduBelloUniversity,Zaria)
precolonialnumerationsystemsinBurundi(J.Navez,UniversityofBurundi,Bujumbara)
learningofcountinginCted'Ivoire(cf.Tro,1980,Zepp,1983)
numerationsystemsusedbytheprincipallinguisticgroupsinGuinea(S.Oulare,UniversityofConakry)

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countingamongthevariousethnicgroupsinKenya(J.Mutio,KenyattaUniversity,Nairobi)
traditionalcountinginBotswana(H.Lea,UniversityofBotswana,Gaberone)
numberandpatterninselectedculturesinUganda(E.SegujjaMunagisa)
numerationsystemsandpopularcountingpracticesinMozambique.
E.Kane'sPh.D.thesis"TheSpokenNumerationSystemsofWestAtlanticGroupsandoftheMand"(1987)analysesnumerationinabouttwentylanguagesspoken
inSenegal.Heshowsthatspokennumerationsystems,liketheoneoftheMand,aresusceptibletoreformandevolution.Kanedevelopsamethodologyforthe
analysisofnumerationsystemsthatisadaptedtothespecificitiesof"oralcultures."V.Mubumbila(1988)wroteastudyonnumerologyinCentralAfrica.
Zaslavsky(1973,109110)presentsariddlefromtheKpelle(Liberia)aboutamanwhohasaleopard,agoat,andapileofcassavaleavestobetransportedacross
ariver,wherebycertainconditionshavetobesatisfied.Ascher(1990)placesthisrivercrossingprobleminacrossculturalperspectiveandanalysesmathematical
logicalaspectsofstorypuzzlesofthistypefromAlgeria,CapeVerdeIslands,Ethiopia,Liberia,Tanzania,andZambia.Kubik(1990)recorded"arithmeticalpuzzles"
fromtheValuchazi(easternAngolaandnorthwesternZambia).S.Doumbia(1992,1993a,1993b)conductspedagogicalexperimentswithtraditionalverbaland
cowrygames(Cted'Ivoire)(cf.DoumbiaandPil,1992).
ContinuingearlierresearchbyCrowe(1971,1973,1975,1982a,b),Washburn,andCrowe'sbookSymmetriesofCulture,TheoryandPracticeofPlane
PatternAnalysis(1988)classifiesanumberofpatternsfromAfricancontextsonthebasisofthesocalledtwentyfourplanegroupsduetoFederov(1891).More
recentlyWashburn(1990:ch.5)showedhowasymmetryanalysisoftheraffiapatternscandifferentiatepatternsproducedbythedifferentBakubagroups.Zaslavsky
(1979)givessomeexamplesofstripandplanepatterns,andofbilateralandrotationalsymmetries,occurringinAfricanart,architecture,anddesign.Whydo
symmetriesappearinhumancultureingeneral,andinAfricancraftworkandart,inparticular?ThisquestionisaddressedbyGerdesinaseriesofstudies(cf.Gerdes,
1985b,1990a,1991a).Heanalysestheoriginofaxial,doubleaxial,androtationalsymmetryoforderfourinAfricanbasketry.In"FivefoldSymmetry

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and(basket)WeavinginVariousCultures,"itisshownhowfivefoldsymmetryemergedquite"naturally"whenartisansweresolvingsomeproblemsin(basket)weaving
(Gerdes,1992a).TheexampleschosenfromMozambicanculturesrangefromtheweavingofhandbags,hats,andbasketstothefabricationofbrooms.
Langdon(1989,1990)describesthesymmetriesof"adinkra"cloths(Ghana)andexplorespossibilitiesforusingthemintheclassroom.Inasimilarperspective,M.
Harris(1988)describesandexploresnotonlytheprintingdesignsonplainwovenclothsfromGhana,butalsosymmetriesonbasketsfromBotswanaand"buba"
blousesfromtheYoruba(Nigeria).
IreportedalreadytheworkofDoumbiaontraditionalAfricangames(cf.alsoDoumbia,1994).Vergani(OpenUniversity,Lisbon)preparesamonographon
mathematicalaspectsofintellectualgamesinAngola.MveOndo(1990)publishedastudyontwo"calculationgames,"thatis,the"Mancala"games,Owani(Congo)
andSonga(Cameroon,Gabon,EquatorialGuinea)(cf.A.DeledicqandA.Popova,1977).
TheFacultyofEducationoftheAhmaduBelloUniversity(Zaria,Nigeria)hasbeenverydynamicinstimulatingethnomathematicalresearch,forexample,onthe
mathematicsusedbyunschooledchildrenandadultsindailylife,andthepossibilitiestoembedthisknowledgeinmathematicseducation.
21
S.Ale(1989)does
researchonthemathematicalheritageoftheFulbe(Fulani)andthepossibilitiestoconstructacurriculumthatbuildsuponthisheritageandfitstheneedsoftheFulbe
(Fulani)people.G.ThomasEmeagwaliincludedachapteronmathematicsinherrecentbookonscienceandtechnologyinAfricanhistorywithcasestudiesfrom
Nigeria,SierraLeone,Zimbabwe,andZambia.
G.AznafpreparesaPh.D.dissertationonethnomathematicsinEthiopia.D.Mtetwastartedaresearchprojecton"MathematicalThoughtinAspectsofShona
Culture."
Attheregionalconference"Mathematics,Philosophy,andEducation"(Yamoussoukro,Cted'Ivoire,Jan.1993),S.Doumbia(Cted'Ivoire)andEGerdes
(Mozambique)conductedjointlyaworkshoponthedidacticalusesoftraditionalAfricangames,drawings,andcraftwork.Thenewlycreated,postApartheid
AssociationforMathematicsEducationinSouthAfrica(AMESA)organizedatitsfirstnationalcongressin1994aroundtableonethnomathematicsandeducation.
LaterintheyearAMESAformedastudygrouponethnomathematics.

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EthnomathematicalResearchinMozambique
EthnomathematicalresearchstartedinMozambiqueinthelate1970s.Asmost"mathematical"traditionsthatsurvivedcolonizationandmost"mathematical"activitiesin
thedailylifeoftheMozambicanpeoplearenotexplicitlymathematical,thatis,themathematicsis"hidden,"thefirstaimofthisresearchwasto''uncover"the"hidden"
mathematics.Thefirstresultsofthis"uncovering"areincludedinthebookOntheAwakeningofGeometricalThinking(1985b,c)andslightlyextendedin
Ethnogeometry:CulturalanthropologicalContributionstotheGenesisandDidacticsofGeometry(1991a).
Inthepapers"OnCulture,MathematicsandCurriculumDevelopmentInMozambique"(1986)and"OnCulture,GeometricalThinkingandMathematics
Education"(1988),GerdessummarizedhisexperimentsbyincorporatingtraditionalAfricanculturalelementsintomathematicseducation.Thesecondpaperpresents
alternativeconstructionsofEuclideangeometricalideasdevelopedfromthetraditionalcultureofMozambique.Aswellasestablishingtheeducationalpowerofthese
constructions,thepaperillustratesthemethodologyof"culturalconscientialization"inthecontextofteachertraining.Thepapers"AWidespreadDecorativeMotifand
thePythagoreanTheorem"(1988)and"HowManyProofsofthePythagoreanPropositiondothereExist?"aremoreelaboratedinthebookAfricanPythagoras.Ina
paperentitled"AStudyInCultureAndMathematicsEducation"(1992b,1994c),GerdesshowshowdiverseAfricanornamentsandartifactsmaybeusedtocreatea
richcontextforthediscoveryandthedemonstrationofthesocalledPythagoreanTheoremandofrelatedideasandpropositions.Aseriesofethnomathematical
papersareincludedinthebooksEtnomatetica:Cultura,Matemtica,Educao,(1991b),andEthnomathematicsAndEducationInAfrica.(1995a).
InSONAGeometry:ReflectionsonTheTraditionofSandDrawingsinAfricaSouthoftheEquator(1993a,b,1994a,1994d,1995c),Gerdestriedto
reconstructmathematicalcomponentsoftheTchokwedrawingtradition(Angola)
22
andtoexploretheireducational,artisticandscientificpotential.Inanearlierarticle
"OnPossibleUsesofTraditionalAngolanSandDrawingsintheMathematicsClassroom"(1988d,e),Gerdesanalyzedalreadysomepossibilitiesforeducational
incorporationofthistradition.Inthepaper"FindThemissingFigures"(1988f)andinthebookLusona:GeometricalRecreationsofAfrica(1991c),Gerdes
presentsmathematicalamusementsthatareinspiredbythe

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geometryofthesanddrawingtradition.Forchildren(age1015)thebookletLivingMathematics:DrawingsofAfrica(1990b)hasbeenelaborated.
Experimentationwiththeuseof"sona"inteachereducationisdescribedin"ExploringAngolanSandDrawings(sona):StimulatingCulturalAwarenessinMathematics
Teachers"(1993c).Aoverviewofthisresearchisgivenin"OnMathematicalElementsintheTchokwesonaTradition"(1990c).
Inrecentyears,morelecturersandinparticularyounglecturers,whoreturnedhomeafterhavingstudiedabroadhavebecomeinterestedinandstarted
ethnomathematicalresearch.AtthethirdPanAfricanCongressofMathematicians(Nairobi,1991)A.Ismaelpresentedacommunicationon"TheOriginofthe
Conceptsof'Even'and'Odd'inMacuaCulture(NorthernMozambique)"(cf.Ismael,1994)andM.Cherindadeliveredapaperon"MentalArithmeticandthe
TsongaLanguage(SouthernMozambique)."AttheeighthSymposiumoftheSouthernAfricaMathematicalSciencesAssociation(Maputo,1991)D.Soares
presentedacommunicationon"PopularCountingPracticesinMozambique"(cf.SoaresandIsmael,1993,1994).AttheFirstConferenceonMathematicsEducation
inAfrica(Cairo,1992)M.Cherindapresentedapaperon''AChildren's'CircleofInterest'inEthnomathematics"(cf.Cherinda,1994a,b)andJ.Draismaa
communicationon"MentalAdditionandSubtractioninMozambique"(cf.Draisma,1994).AlsoaseriesofstudentsatMozambique'sPedagogicalUniversity
(MaputoandBeira)becameinterestedinethnomathematicalresearch.Twostudentscompletedin1991master'sthesesinthefieldofethnomathematics:"Symmetries
ofOrnamentsOnBasketsofthe'khuama'type"(E.Uaila),and"SymmetriesofOrnamentsOnMetallicWindowGratingsIntheCityofMaputo"(A.Mapap)(cf.
Mapap,1994).
InNumerationinMozambiqueContributiontoaReflectiononCulture,LanguageandMathematicalEducation(Gerdes,1993d),papersbyM.Cherinda,
A.Ismael,D.Soares,A.Mapap,E.Uaila,andJ.Draismaareincluded.Anothercollectivestudy,ExplorationsinEthnomathematicsandEthnosciencein
Mozambique(Gerdes,1994e),containsethnomathematicalcontributionsfromA.Ismael,M.Cherinda,D.Soares,andA.Mapap.GerdesandBulafo(1994)
publishedabookonthegeometricalknowledgeofthemostlyfemaleweaversofthesipatsihandbags.Thisinvestigationofmathematicalknowledgebyfemaleshas
beencontinuedinthestudybyGerdes(1995b)onwomenandgeometryinSouthernAfrica,wherehesuggestsfurtherresearch.

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Notes
1.VeryinformativeisthenewsletteroftheInternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematics(ISGEmNewsletter),thatmaybeobtainedfromtheeditorP.Scott,c/o
CollegeofEducation,UniversityofNewMexico,Albuquerque,NM87131,U.S.A.
2.Forthelistofhispublications,see:K.Reich,M.Folkerts,andC.Scriba,SchriftenverzerchnisvonEwaldPettweis(18811967)samteinerWirdigungvon
OlindoFalsirol,HistoriaMathematicaVol.16(1989):360372.
3.Cf.U.D'Ambrosio'sanalysis,1987,p.80
4.Cf.alsothebibliographicguidebyB.Wilson(1981).
5.Cf.e.g.thestudiesofG.Joseph(1987,1989,1991)andS.Anderson(1990).
6.D'Ambrosiousedin1976thesameterminthecontextofBrazil.SeeU.D'Ambrosio(1976).
7.StudentsandcolleaguesofD'Ambrosio,likeCarraher,Schliemann,FerreiraandBorbapublishedmanyinterestingexamplesofthisspontaneousmathematics.
8.InthecontextofhishistoricalresearchonAncientMesopotamia,J.Hyrupintroducedtheconceptof"subscientificmathematics"(cf.Hyrup,1994).
9.InterestingexamplesaregiveninthebookbyS.DoumbiaandJ.Pil(1992),andinDoumbia(1993a).
10.AtthattimetheAscherswerenotawareoftheworkofD'Ambrosio.Cf.M.AscherandR.Ascher(1986),andM.Ascher(1984).
11.Cf.alsoW.Sturtevant(1972).
12.TheinternationaljournalFortheLearningofMathematicspublishedin1994aspecialissueonethnomathematicseditedbyU.D'AmbrosioandM.Ascher
withcontributionsfromC.Zaslavsky,C.Moore,A.Bishop,P.Gerdes,R.Pinxten,V.Katz,R.Bassanezi,M.AscherandU.D'Ambrosio.
13.Seethechapter"Environmentalactivitiesandmathematicalculture,"inA.Bishop(1988a)importantishisforthcomingbookMathematicalAcculturation
CulturalConflictsinMathematicsEducation,whereitisassumedthatallmathematicseducationisinaprocessofculturalinteraction,andthateverychild
experiencessomedegreeofculturalconflictintheprocess(cf.Bishop,1994).
14.Cf.e.g.Bishop(1989):

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"Oneofthegreatestironiesisthatseveraldifferentculturesandsocietiescontributedtothedevelopmentof[thesocalled]WesternMathematicstheEgyptians,
theChinese,theIndians,theMoslems,theGreeksaswellastheWesternEuropeans.YetwhenWesternculturalimperialismimposeditsversionofmathematics
onthecolonizedsocieties,itwasscarcelyrecognizableasanythingtowhichthesesocietiesmighthavecontributed..."cf.A.Bishop(1990).
15.Cf.thesections"ThetheoryofPauloFreire"and"Theproblemizingmethod,aproblem?"inGerdes(1975)cf.Gerdes(1985a).
16.See"oralmathematics"and"sugarcanefarmersinBrazil."
17.P.Wilson(MathematicsEducationDepartment,UniversityofGeorgia,105AderholdHall,Athens,GA30602)preparedanannotatedbibliographyof
multiculturalissuesinmathematics,1992.
18.Seealsothejournal"AfricaandtheWorld"editedbyRatteray'sInstituteforIndependentEducation.
19.Cf.alsoT.Smart&Z.Isaacson(1989)andJ.Evans(1989).
20.ForabibliographyonethnomathematicsandthehistoryofmathematicsinAfricasouthoftheSahara,seeGerdes(1994b).Cf.theinformationonthehistoryof
mathematicsinAfricaintheAMUCHMANewsletter(AMU=AfricanMathematicalUnionAMUCHMA=AMUCommissionontheHistoryofMathematicsin
Africa).InordertoobtaintheEnglishversionoftheversion,writetotheeditor,P.O.Box915,Maputo,Mozambique.
21.Forasurveyoftheseresearchprojects,see:L.Shirley(1986a,b,1988).
22.Cf.alsoM.Ascher(1988b)andchapter2inM.Ascher(1991).
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Chapter17
ApplicationsintheTeachingofMathematicsandtheSciences
RikPinxten
TothememoryofH.Freudenthal
Editors'scomment:RikPinxten,ananthropologist,useshisresearchontheNavajoconceptionofspacetoproposeageometrycurriculumforNavajochildrenthatstartswiththeir
culture'sconceptionofspace.Inouranalysis,thischapterpresentsachallengetothenotionoftheuniversalityofmathematicalideas.IncontrasttoGerdes(chapter11)who
arguesthatwithoutcolonialismitispossiblethatMozambicanswouldhavebeencredited,forexample,withthediscoveryofthesocalledPythagoreanTheorem,Pinxtenposits
thatNavajogeometryisincommensurablewithstaticconceptionsofspacesuchasthesocalledPythagoreanTheorem.Thischapterisarevisedandexpandedtext,basedlargely
onchapter5ofR.Pinxten,I.vanDooren,andEHarvey.(1983).Anthropologyofspace:ExplorationsintothenaturalphilosophyandsemanticsoftheNavajo.Philadelphia,PA:
UniversityofPennsylvania.
FromtheoutsetofmystudyonNavajospaceIcontinuouslysearchedforpossibleapplicationsofitsresultsinausefulandbeneficialwayfortheNavajopeople.Thefirstand
foremostdomainofapplicationwasfoundintheeducationofyoungNavajoIndians(andmaybeothergroupsofpeopleofnonWesternorigin),particularlyregardinginstruction
indisciplinesthatinvolvespatialconceptualizationandrepresentation.

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StatementoftheProblem
WhenreadingtheworksofPiaget,Bruner,andothersongeneticpsychologyandensuingeducationalprocedures,oneiscompelledtoreconsiderthepremisesof
theseauthors.Ingeneraltermsitcanbestatedthatalltheauthorsagreeonthegeneticprimacyofsomekindofpart/wholedistinction,ofsomekindof"qualitative
geometry"(or,moreprecisely,topology),andofsomedefinitenotionsoforder(conservationprinciplesinPiaget,forexample).Withthispreschoolknowledgeina
moreorlessdevelopedform,thechildenterstheformalinstructioninmathematics,geography,history(aswellasamoresystematicstudyoftheenvironment).The
factthatPiagetianstrategiesandinsightsaregenerallyappliedinWesternEuropeanschoolsnow,andthatthesocallednewmathematics(settheorymathematics)has
conqueredtheWestbynow,isevidenceinfavoroftheapplicabilityevensuccessfulapplicabilityofthetheory.
1
WhenlookingforpossibleapplicationsofsimilarinsightsinthesamedisciplinaryinstructionontheNavajoreservationinthesouthwestonU.S.A.(eveninthebest
schoolsthataretobefoundthere),oneisstruckbytheutterineffectualness,nottosaythetotalinappropriatenessofthesamematerial,thesamepsychological
convictionsandfindingsinthisdifferentculturalsetting.Whathashappened?Whyistherethisdifferencebetweenthetwotypesofeducation?Inmyviewthese
questionswillbeansweredifwelookatthepresupposedconditionsofknowledgeability.Thefactmustbementionedthatmyquestioningofinstructors/teachers,both
Navajosandwhites,onthesemattersandontheirindividualunderstandingsoftheproblemsyieldedverylittleusefulinformation.Verydifferentoutlooksofthe
educationaltaskandsettingarerealized.TheschoolatRockPointisquitefreeor"progressive"ineducationalandsocialmatters,whiletheschoolat,forexample,
RoundRockisratherclassical,aBureauofIndianAffairs(BIA)dominatedschoolwithlowaspirationsandratherpoorresults.Still,teachersfrombothschools,
particularlytheNavajoteachersItalkedto,showedaverypoorunderstandingofthedifferenceinoutlook,system,preconceptions,andactualnotionsbetweenthe
socalledWestern(e.g.,Piagetian)andtheNavajowayoftalkingabout,manipulating,actingupon,andactualformalizationbuildingofspatialdifferentiationsinboth
culturalknowledgesystems.OnlyoneNavajoconsultantwasreallyabletoshiftconsciouslyandswiftlybetweenboth"systems"(BB).
2
Hestartedadeepdiscussion
onthedifferenceshesawbetweenbothspatialsystemsandthe

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way"intranslatability"isfeltwhenonelooksatonefromtheperspectiveoftheother,andviceversa.Heencouragedmetogoaboutthepresentstudy,andIcanonly
hopethatIhavereachedasensibleresult,onethatwillbridgethegapofintranslatabilityandpromotemutualunderstanding.Mostoftheteachers(Navajosaswellas
whiteteachers,eventually)occasionallytoldmeaboutconcreteinstancesof"misunderstand"thespatialinterpretationoftimeinEnglish("before/afterintime")was
generallyconsideredtobeaverydifficultdistinctionforNavajoteachersandchildrenalike,aswellasthevaryinginterpretationsofthepresumably"evident''
part/wholedistinctionsinEnglish.
3
WiththegradualrediscoveryofVygotsky'swork(e.g.,Wassman,1995)andthedetailedpsychoethnographyofM.Cole'sgroup
(e.g.ColeandScribner,1974)suchdistractionsarebetterunderstoodinthe1990s.
Myexperiencesconvincemethatthewidespreadfeelingofineffectivenessofschoolingmaybedueamongother,moresocialandculturalfactorstothe
fundamentalandpoorlyunderstoodlackofcommensurabilityofWesternandNavajoknowledgesystems,sincetheyalreadyexistandplayaroleinfurther,formal
educationwithintheschoolsettings.ThesuccessofPiagetianapproachesineducationmustatleastpartlybeexplainedbythefactthat,forexampleingeometry,they
arefoundedonandbuiltupfromlogicallysatisfyingandclosely"similar"or"naturallypresupposed"preschoolnotions.Inotherwords,thepreschoolknowledgeis
highlyappropriatetoandcompatiblewiththecontentsofinstructioninschool.Further,ourculturehasbuiltonaspatialsystematizationthathasdearlycontinuousand
smoothlydevelopingstagesthatstretchfromthenaturalenvironment(indeedthe"carpenteredworld"Campbell,1964,istalkingabout)anditsconceptualization,all
thewaytomoreabstractandcomplexgeometries.ThisseemingrelativizationofPiagetiannotionsisnotnew:bothatthecenteratGeneva(e.g.Bovet,1974)and
elsewhere(e.g.Pinxten,1976)thiscritiqueontheWesternbiasesinPiaget'stheoryofintellectualdevelopmenthasbeenheard.TheproblemwithNavajoeducation
(andwithanyeducationinnonWesterncultures)canthenbesummarizedasfollows:apartfromotherfactors(social,emotional,etc.),theimpactandprecisecontent
ofpreschoolnativeknowledgeisdifferentintheNavajoculturethanitisinours,andconsequentlythecurriculumanditsactualimplementationintheNavajosituation
shouldbeadjustedinordertoreachasmooth,understandable,reallyintegrateddevelopmentintheknowledgeacquiredatschool.Mostcertainlyinordertoprevent
amerely"schizoid"situation(liketheonethatexistscurrently,whereNavajosobtain

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someknowledgefromtheirtradition,somewoefullyincompleteknowledgefromtheWesterntradition,andfewandbadlyworkedoutmeansofcomparing,
transforming,shifting,ortranslatingfromonetotheother),itisverynecessarytogainabetterunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenbothculturalsystems.The
possibility,then,ofbuildingformalschoolingontheNavajonaturalknowledgebackgroundacquiredinthepreschoolage,canbepursued.ItisthistaskthatIconfront
whenIconsiderthevalueofthepresentstudyforeducation.
4
TheProblemwithSpatialRepresentations
IshallpresentasketchoftheproblemofspatialandmathematicalpreschoolconceptualizationconveyedtoNavajoandWesternchildrentoindicatetherangeand
depthoftheproblemunderdiscussion,forwhichIproposeasolution.Thepresentationisa"sketch"inthesensethatonlysomebasicnotionswillbehighlighted,
whereasthemoresophisticatedorderivedoneswillbeomittedfromconsideration.AnelaboratecurriculumforintuitivegeometryteachingtoNavajochildrencanbe
foundelsewhere(Pinxtenetal.,1987).
TheWesternCase
IseethreemainpointsinthedescriptionofWesternpsychologicaldevelopmentofformalandmathematicalthoughtthataredevelopinginamutuallyexclusivewayin
Navajothought:
1)TheSpecificHierarchy
Inhisexplanationonthechild'sconstructionofspace,Piaget(withotherslikeBruner,Furth,Goodnow,etc.)givesadetailedanalysisofthewaymoresophisticated
notionsarelinearlydeducedorconstruedinasystematiconetooneprogressionfromnotionsacquiredearlier.(PiagetandInhelder,1947cf.alsoinschematicform:
Pinxten1976).Thenotionof"distinctness"isbuiltupon(ordeducedfrom)thatof"neighborhood."Thenotionof"order"isbuiltupon

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thoseof"neighborhood"and"distinctness."Thenotionof"border''isbuiltuponthatof"order,"andsoonuntilallmoresophisticatednotions(theprojectivegeometric
andtheEuclideannotions)areintegratedinthetotalconceptionbysimilar,quitelinear,andsystematicallyprogressingprocedures.Itispertinenttoemphasizethat
thesenotionsandthesystemofprogressiveacquisitionisnotallmeantasamereexternalorformalinterpretation,butaimstodescribethegeneticprogressionthatis
actuallytakingplaceinthechild'smindovertheyears.Inmysemantictermsofmeaningfulspatialrepresentation,itcanbesaidthattheprogressionofsemanitic
constitutionfollowsaquitesystematicandnearlynecessaryprogressionofthefollowingtype:
Near:hasnoconstituentsDistinct:hasaconstituent:nearOrder:hasasconstituents:Near,distanceandsoon.
5
OnefundamentalfeatureofthemodeloftheWesterndevelopmentcanthusbesummarizedasfollows:itisahierarchicalprogressioninthesensethateach
"higher"(morecomplex)notionnecessarilyandexclusivelyimplies"lower"(lesssophisticatedandearlieracquired)notionsasconstituents.Inpractice,theEuclidean
notionsareclearlyconstructedfromtopologicalnotions,whilealltopologicalnotionsinturnhaveonebasicor"primitive"notionincommon,thatis,"neighborhood."
Theeducationalconsequencesofthisdescriptionarestraightforward:sincechildrenstartwithtopologicalspatialpreschoolnotions,thecurriculumcantakethesefor
granted(inaspecificorderofacquisition)andconstruethelogicallyandgenetically"subsequent"notionsquitenaturallyontopofandonthebasisofthesetopological
notions.Thesuccessofthisprocedureinactualschoolinghasbeenacceptedascorroborationofthetheory.Thehierarchyhasvalidateditselfinpractice.
2)ThePart/WholeDistinctionisOmnipresent
AcertainatomismisobviouslycharacteristicofthecurrentWesternstyleofthought.The"objectification"oftheenvironmentistakenforgrantedinthesciences
(situations,staticentitiescanbeabstractedfromtheirenvironmentforacertaintime)andinschoolinstruction(westudyparticularanimals,places,objectsin
themselves).Aparticularlypowerfulaspectofthisapproach,itseems,isthesegmentabilityofobjects(andofspaceandtimeasaspectsofobjects).Thephysical
and,tosomedegree,thepsychicandculturalworldiscon

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sideredtobesliced,segmentedintosmallerparts,whichcanbestudiedinthemselvesingreaterdetail.
6
Itisnotsurprisingthatgeneticpsychologistsandcognitive
psychologistshaveingeneralbeenconcernedmostofallwiththisperspectivewhentheywantedtostudythoughtandthedevelopmentofthought.Neitherisit
surprisingthatmodemmathematics,whichismeanttohavemorenaturallinkswiththeWesternchild'spreschoolknowledge,isessentiallysettheory,thatis,aformal
systemthatbasicallydealswithandoperatesinwholesofwhichtheinitialentityisbutapart.
7
Inalldisciplinestaughtatprimaryandotherschoollevels,thetypesand
characteristicsofsegmentationofpart/wholesystemsareofcentralimportance,sinceindeedthisatomisticperspectiveisbasictoourculturalknowledge.
Consequently,oneshouldemphasizethatinordertosuccessfullyapproachorlearnthemoresystematicpresentationofWesternknowledge(asisattemptedinthe
schoolsetting),aclearandcommonunderstandingofpart/wholenotionsisabsolutelyrequired.
3)TheStaticWorld
AverygeneralandpossiblysomewhatmetaphysicalsoundingcharacteristicofWesternknowledge,asitispracticedandtaught,isthestaticinterpretation:The
outsideworldisprimarilyinterpretedasacompositionofsituations,objects,transitionsbetweensituations,andsoforth,andnotasacompositeofprocessesand
actions.Physics,biologyandthesocialsciencesdecideonconstantsandthusturntothemoststaticcharacterizationsofstaticphenomenainthefirstplace(e.g.,
taxonomiesinbiology:seeAtran(1990),onlytointroducedynamicphenomenaintherangeofstudyatalaterstageofdevelopment(amosttypicalandwellknown
caseoccursagaininbiology:Darwinismcomesupinthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury).Theperspectiveismostclearlydetectableagainindiscussionsonthe
philosophyofscience:afternumerousgenerationssoughtforsensedata,atoms,minimalcharacteristics,andsoon,itisonlyinveryrecentyearsthatattemptsat
praxiologyandtheoriesofeventandchangearediscussedfully.
8
Spaceandtimeareconstruedorthogonallythatis,aspectsoftheworld(objects,situations)arecharacterizedinathreedimensionalspaceuponwhich,asitwere,time
isdefined.Timeis,initsturn,mostoftenrepresentedassegmentablyspatialized,cutupinidenticalunits(atomssotospeak),whichissimilarlyanattempttomakeit
manageableinastaticframework(cf.Grunbaum,1964Einstein,1949,

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particularlyemphasizesthisproblemasoneofhismainpointsSmart,1964).Thepresentoutlinemayappearfarfetchedinregardtotheproblemsathandthismaybe
becauseoftheconcisenessofthediscussionofferedhere.
9
However,therelevanceofthepointwillbecomeclearwhenIdealwiththe"Navajocorrelates"tothese
fundamentalaspectsofknowledge.
Somemoredowntoearthargumentsmayillustratethepointaswell.Geography,fromtheprimaryschoollevelandon,dealswithsegmentedandsegmentableunits
ofland("continent"isaconstant,"state"isastaticunit,mountains,prairies,andevenagriculturallandandcitiesareconceivedofassurfaces,lines,andpoints,thatis
asstaticaspects).Naturalsciencesspeakaboutthedifferentspecies,families,andindividualsasstaticunitsthataredistinguishableinconstantinterrelationships
teachingaboutthehumanbodyemphasizesthepart/wholerelationships,togetherwiththeconstancyofthebodyanditsorgans(itisnotthecontinuousandnever
ceasingprocessesofmetabolism,ofdestructionorreconstructionthatareemphasized,butrathertheconstantforms,themorphologyofitall).
Inageneralway,IwouldliketoemphasisethatWesternschooling(andWesternknowledgeforthatmatter)looksattheworld,firstandforemostintermsofobjects,
states,situations,constantaspectsofphenomena,andthatdynamicaspectsareintroducedinalesserandatleastsecondaryway.Thedisciplineofgeometryis
evidenceofthispoint:topology,andmostcertainlyEuclideangeometryasitistaughtinWesternschools,concernthemselveswithpoints,lines,volumes,sets,andthe
likeasstaticunits.Dynamicaspectsofspatialphenomenaareseldom,ifatall,introducedinthesecurricula.Theappearanceofthisemphasisingeometryandother
disciplinesinconsideredtobecompatible,indeedquiteconsistent,withtheviewofthegeneralemphasisonstaticaspectsofphenomena,onform,onstructure,and
onsegmentabilityinboththeWesterner'snaturalandhislearnedknowledge.
10
TheNavajoCase
TheNavajoconceptualizationoftheexternalworlddiffersfromtheWesternoneonfundamentalpoints.Ishalltakeupthethreecor

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relatedcharacteristicsinNavajotobringoutthedifference,onthebasisofwhichtheeducationalimplicationscanbeoutlined:
1.TheSpecificHierarchy
IncontrasttotheneatlyregularhierarchicalstructureanddevelopmentthatwereshownintheWesternspaceconceptualization,Navajospace(accordingtoour
semanticanalysis,inPinxtenetal.,1983)appearstobefoundedonatleastthreeequallyimportant"basic"notions(movement,volumeness/planeness,dimensions).All
threearetopologicalincharacter.Moreover,noneofthemarereally"primitive"inthesensethatthe(Piagetian)Westernnotionsare:Theyareclearlycomposites
themselves,andhavespatialnotionsastheirconstituentstheycodeterminethemselves.Hence,theyexhibitacertaincircularity.Finally,theycannot,inanystrictsense,
besaidtobethesole''basicconstituents"sincetheyhavethisstatusbyvirtueofthefactthattheywereselectedasthenotionsinvolvedintheconstitutionofmost
othernotions.Ifthisisacriterionof"basicality"(andnoothercriterioncouldbedefendedbysuchstrongarguments),itiscertainlyweakerthanthededucibility
criterionPiagetforwarded.
11
Hence,thehierarchicalstructureor,moregenerally,theorganizationalstructureinNavajospatialknowledgeisnotofthetypethatwasfoundbyPiagetinWestern
children.Consequently,theeducationalproceduresthatwouldbeappropriateandsatisfactoryfortheteachingofspatialnotionsinNavajoculturalsettingscannottake
theWesternhierarchicalspatialstructureforgranted.
2.ThePart/WholeDistinctionIsSecondary
Thepart/wholedistinctionsthatprovedsoimportantinWesternthoughtandknowledgesystemsplayaminorroleinNavajoknowledge.Navajostendtospeakofthe
worldintermsofprocess,event,andfluxes,ratherthanpartsandwholesorclearlydistinguishablestaticentities.Theemphasisisoncontinuouschangesratherthanon
atomisticstructure.Thisbecomesmoreunderstandablewhenoneenvisionstheworldasconstitutedofdynamic"things,"forces,changes,actions,andinteractions:itis
thennotquitesoobvious(asitisinastaticworld,aworldofobjectsandconstantforms)totrytosegmentperceptualandactionalaspects,todistinguishpartsinthe
continuous

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fluxasafirstandselfevidentcharacterization.Thedifferenceiscrucial,Ifeel,anditmustbemadetotallyexplicit:"objects"cannotbedefinedinthesameway,"form"
cannotbeunderstoodinquitethesamewayasintheWesternoutlook,sinceallaspectsofrealityofNavajoknowledgeareprocesslikeandnotthinglike.Inthefirst
place,processesorfluxesshouldnotbe"cutup"andconsideredas(staticallydefined)combinationsof(staticallydefined)chunksofprocessesorfluxes.Thispointis
important:eveninThom's"dynamictopology''(1977,p.110),thedynamicphenomenaarerenderedunderstandableandmanageablebypetrifyingthem,thatis,by
definingthemaschangesbetweeninitialandfinalstates.Inotherwords,adynamicphenomenoncanbegraspedintheWesternoutlookprimarilybydefiningitasa
transformationofastaticphenomenon(state,situation)sinceitcanthenbesegmented.Thisistheprimary(thoughnotexclusive)wayofapproachingrealityinthe
Westernatomisticoutlook.Thisapproachisgenerallyalien,inappropriate,andunnaturaltotheNavajoeye,bothatthelevelofpracticalmanipulation(youcannot
dividelandandfenceitoffbecausebydoingsoyouwouldthenmisstheessentialcharacteroflandasaliving,changingaspect),andatthetheoreticallevel(you
cannotspeaksensiblyofthepartsofthehumanbodythecompletephenomenonofahumanbeingisahighlysolidsystem).
TheforegoinganalysisdoesnotmeanthatNavajosdonotdistinguishobviouslydistinctforms,bodies,objects,andthelikeintheirenvironment.First,theforegoingis
ananalysisoftheinterpretationof(partially)similarpreceptsinNavajoandWesternworldknowledge,notofthepreceptsthemselves.Second,andthisisthemost
importantpoint,Navajosreacttotheoutsideworldasifitwereprimarilyconstitutedofregularphenomena,ofpresumablypatternedor"constantinstances"(objects)
ofprocessesorfluxes.Consequentlythismeansthatifanotionof"object"isintroducedtodescribetheseconstanciesofprocesses,
12
thisnotionhasbutaminor
kinshipwiththeWesternnotionof"object."TheNavajoemphasisisclearlyonprocessinforminsteadofformassuch.
Therelevanceofallthistoeducationalstrategiesmustbedemonstrated:referencetopoint,line,atom,andotherpart/wholeinstancesisobviousforinstance,in
teachinggeometryandthesciencesintheWesternculturalcontext.Evenwhenstartingoutwithpresumablythemostgeneralspatialnotionsoftopologyineducation,
thecentralimportanceofthenotionsofpoint,line,surface,andvolumeinaclearlysegmentational(indeedsettheoretic)senseisnoncontroversial(cf.e.g.,Thom,
1977,startingwith"form,"chap.2).Afterthat,dis

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tinctlyEuclideannotionscanbetaughtandactuallyconstruedontheirbasis,sincetheyconsistofsimilar(thoughmorespecific)notionsofpoint,andsoforth.This
entryintotheconstructionofgeometricnotionsandmodelsisinapplicableinanarithmeticsensetotheNavajostudents.Rather,agenuinelydynamictopological
entryasyetIhavefailedtofindsuchathingworkedoutintheliteratureisrequired:clearlyaformalsystemof"dynamicvolumes,""dynamicdimensions,"and
''dynamicinterpretationsofmovement"(cf.theresuitsofPinxtenetal.,1983),isneeded,whichwilltranslatetheNavajonaturalknowledgenotionsofspace
efficiently.Fromthere,furthermetricnotionsshouldbeworkedoutasrefinementsofthisgenuinebasisofNavajospatialknowledge.Iwillsuggestadetailedsolution
tothisprobleminthefollowingparagraphs.Inanyevent,workshouldbestarted,beginningwithatopologyandfollowingwithasystemofgeometrythatemphasizes
segmentabilityandatomismtoalesserdegreethancontemporaryapproachesdo.(see,again:Pinxtenetal.,1987forcurriculummaterialalongtheselines).
3.TheDynamicWorld
Inearliersections,itwaspointedoutthattheNavajoworldviewstressesthedynamicratherthanthestaticaspectsofreality.Althoughitcannotbesaidthatthesetwo
termsareusedinanyexclusivesenseineithertheNavajoortheWesternrepresentationsystem,theprimacyofoneisobviousforeach.
SpaceandtimeorthogonalityarepresenttoacertaindegreeinNavajoknowledge,althoughthecleardynamizationofspatialphenomenaobscuresthisfact.Indeed,
someaspectsoftimeinWesternthought(notablythetimeaspectofchange,"existenceintime,"andthelike)arenotdistinguishedinNavajo:rather,spatial
phenomenaareconsideredtopossessthesequalitiesinherently(thatis,inaWesterner'sterms).Otheraspectsoftime(e.g.,thenotionsof"generation"and"linear
progressionoftime")areheldasseparateand"genuinelytemporal,"features(cf.chap.1).Consequently,toacertainextentonecanspeakof"timespace"inthe
Navajoworldview(cf.Whorf,1956),referringtotherelatively"timeladen"identityofspace.Inotherwords,spatialphenomenaalwayshavethisspatialdynamic
aspect,whichfromaWesternviewpointmakesthemdifferent,lessstrictly,orpurely"spatial"than,forexample,Euclideangeometricalnotions.
13
Again,the
instructioninasystemofpurelystaticspatialrepresenta

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tionsasiscurrentlypracticedinNavajoschoolseasilyleadstomiscomprehension.
HowCantheProblemofCulturalAlienationBeMetwithinEducation?
Idistinguishamongthreepossibleapproaches:
1.TeachtheWesternSystem
Inthepresentschoolsituation,evenwheretheNavajoviewonrealityreceivesdueattention,Ihaveseenthequestionresolvedinthewrongway.TheNavajo
knowledgeinputwastoleratedorevenencouragedinmattersoftraditionalmoralandsocialconcern,butwasconsideredcompletelyirrelevantor,evenworse,
nonexistentinothermatters.TotheteachertrainedinWesternschools,itappearsobviousthattheNavajos(or,forthatmatter,anyothernonWesternpeople)have
nothingreallytosayortothink,withintheconfinesoftheirculturalknowledge,onsubjectmatterthatisconsideredintherealmofthesciences.Theargumentgoesas
follows:Sometimeduringtheclassicalageafewpeoplestartedacompletelynewwayofthinkingandnothingoftheotherpeoples'knowledgehasanyrealvalueas
comparedtothat.Thisattitudeisunderstandablewhenonereckonsthetechnologicalexplosionthatislinkedwiththistypeofthinking,the"scientificthought"that
conquershugedomainsofnatureandsocietywhereveritisimplanted.However,asIexplainedabove,theproblemoftheinputofotherpeoplesismoredelicateand
makesitselffeltatanotherlevel.Thetwofollowingalternativeapproacheswillmakethisclear.Meanwhile,theeffectofthepresentapproachis,asillustratedin
previousparagraphs,thatthe"victims"ofWesternizededucation,inthiscasetheNavajoIndians,gainahybridandbadlyintegratedknowledge.Thatis,theyendup
beingnotreallyknowledgeableintheirowntraditionandhavinganotherdistinct,separatelyorganized,anddefinitelyincompletesecondsystemofknowledge,the
Westernsystem.Theyareoftenunabletogivegoodandvaluableinformationontheirtraditionalsystem,andalsounabletodiscussandquestioncriticallysomeofthe
aspectsoftheschooledknowledge.Moreover,theintegrationandthedegreeoftranslatabil

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ityorevensubstitutabilityofelementsofonesystemintheother,andviceversa,ismostoftenalarminglypoor.Suchweremyexperiences,atleast,whenItalkedto
andquestionedchildrenandschooledadultsinthissituation.Inotherwords,thenetresultisthegainofapartialandrelativelyunintegratedknowledgeofbothsystems
(abadexampleof"biculturalism"accordingtoFishman,1979),andanalienationfromtherelevanceandmutualrelationshipsofbothsystems.
2.ElaboratetheNavajoSystem
ThesecondpossibilityIenvisionwouldtaketheNavajospatialdistinctionsasgenuinelyqualitativematerialfortheteachingofgeometryandwouldworktowardthe
usualWesterngeometricnotionsfromitsEuclideanfoundationonward.Inpractice,Ifound,thisapproachwouldamounttothetranslation,translatingthebasic
Navajonotionsandtherelationshipsbetweenallnotionsdistinguishedinthecourseofthepresentsemanticanalysisintoexistingformalnotationsandanexistingformal
theory.
Torealizethisstrategy,thedifferentNavajospatialnotionsrequireanotationsystemthat(a)dealswithorisappropriateforrepresentingthemoreorlessqualitative
(ratherthanstrictlymetric)interpretationofspatialdistinctionsinNavajo,andthat(b)hasthecapacitytoemphasizethedynamicaspect(ratherthanthestatic
characterthatisconveyedbymostgeometricsystems).Theonlyformalapproachavailablethattosomeextenthonorsthistypeofinterpretationofspaceisthe
dynamictopologyorcatastrophetheoryasworkedoutmainlybyThom(e.g.,1977).
Ingeneralterms,Thomsetouttoconstructaformaltheorythatwouldaccountforseveraldynamicaspectslikechange,alternation,cessation,wavelikemovement,
andsoon.Hesoughtapplicationsofamodelinseveralsciences,includingsocialsciences(mainlylinguistics).Waivingdetailsofhistheory,itcanbestatedthathe
presentsanapproachtodynamicaspectsaccordingtowhichtheyarechangesbetweentwostates(initialandfinalstate),andaformalcharacterizationoftypes,
features,regularity,andsoforthofsuchchanges.Histheoryisatopologicaltheory,dealingwithpresumablethemostgeneralcharacteristicsofspace(orthosethat
arecommontodifferentsophisticatedspaceslikeEuclideanspace,nonEuclideanspaces,andsoon).Topology,asiswellknown,offersatleasttheadvantageof
speakingaboutthefoundationsofspatialmodels(e.g.,theEuclideanmodel),andthereforedynamictopologycouldbetriedoutasacan

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didateforageneralandfoundationalapproachtogeometries,specificallystartingoutwithdynamicspatialaspects.Itisthistypeofprogram,Ifeelthatshouldbetried
outwithNavajospatialdifferentiation.
TheproblemwiththeThomapproach,though,isthatthereisnoeasyandthoroughgoingintroductorytextofthetheory,aswehaveforgeneral(static)topology(e.g.,
SauvyandSauvy,1972,isaguideforapplicationintheclassroom).Itmaybehopedthatmathematiciansmayfindsomethingvaluableinthepresentexplanationand
thusbeencouragedtoworkoutateacher'sguide.
Theprocedurewouldrunasfollows:Westerngeometriescanbereducedtotheirfoundationsandexpressedintopology.Navajospatialconceptualisationcouldbe
formulatedinalikemanner(emphasizingdynamictopology)andcouldthusbereducedtoaparticularsystemoftopologicalpropositions.
14
Inasecondstage,the
"Western"andthe"Navajo"systemoftopologicalpremises,axioms,andstatementsshouldthenbecompared.Finally,exactadaptationproceduresshouldbedevised
inordertoeasethetransitionfromthe"Navajo"statementstothe"Western"systemandtherelated''Western"geometry.
Thisstrategywillhavethetremendousadvantagethatthetransitioninto"Western"biasedgeometricalnotionsisunderstoodandexplicitlytakenintoaccount,whilein
theformerstrategyitwasbluntlyimposedwithoutconsiderationfortheNavajonativecategories.Indeed,startingfromthepresumablymorebasicformulationsand
notionsoftopologicalaspectsinbothcaseswouldoffertheopportunitytocomparebothsystemsofspatialstructuring(theWesternandtheNavajosystem)as
alternativestoeachother.Further,itwouldmakeanadaptationor"guidedtransition"possiblefortheNavajochild.Iwouldstartwiththedifferencesbetweenthe
child'snotionandtheWesternonesandtrainthetransitionbetweenthetwoexplicitlyandpurposefully,inordertocarefullyconveythedetailedanddifficult
"pitfall"(fromthepointofviewofthe"Westernizing"teaching)thatconfrontthechildbecauseofthedifferenceinoutlookofthesystems.Infurtherdevelopmentof
geometricthinking,the"Western"basiscouldthensafelybetakenasapointofreferencesinceitwasinstructedintheproperway.
Sincethisstrategyhasthetremendousadvantageinthatatleastthegapoftranslatabilityhasbeentakenintoaccount,italonecouldimproveschooling.However,it
hastwoseriousdrawbacks.Inthefirstplace,itunquestionablyendorsesareductionistframe.Statementsandoutlooksdescribedintherepresentationarealwaysre

Page386
ducedtotopologicalphrasingswithinaformalsystem.Since,asImentioned,existingformats(asfarasIknow)wouldcauseaveryseriousreductionoftheNavajo
conceptualcontent(withnoalternativefor"Navajovolume,"thatis,withoutthenotionof"point,"andnumerousdifficultieswiththehierarchicalandnotstrictly
interrelatednotions),thedrawbackmayoutweightheadvantageinthecaseofNavajospace.Adecisivebalancecanonlybemadewhenthedetailedmathematical
"translation"inadynamictopologicalmodelofthesemiformalspatialrepresentationmodel(ofchapter4inPinxtenetal.,1983)iscompleted.Aseconddrawback,
andonethatisplainwithoutcomplexargument,hastodowiththeemploymentoftopologicalphrasingsingradeschoolprocesses.Theprocedure,asoutlined,aimsat
integratingtheNavajoconceptualizationintoageneralsetofspatialdifferentiations.TheinevitableupshotwouldbethatNavajochildrenandteacherswouldhavea
bettergraspandinfactabetterentryintothefieldofgeometrysincetheywouldbeabletounderstandthebasic,foundationallinkithaswithtopologyandthuswith
theirspecific"topologicalsystem."However,allthisisbutanavenuetoWesternknowledgeandthusa''Westernization"ofcommunicationandinteractioninschools.
So,althoughthesecondalternativewouldofferabetterunderstandingofthelinkbetweenNavajothoughtandWesternthought(atleastinsomefields),itrestsonthe
sameimplicitconvictionthatalliswellaslongastheWestexpandsitshegemony.Notonlyisitmorallyandpoliticallyaveryquestionablepositiontohold,but
moreoveritcouldleadtoanensuingdisastrousuniformityintheworld.Indeed,itdoesnottaketoovastanimaginationtounderstandthattheinvestmentofallsurvival
dependenceonone,presumable"true,"outlookontheworldineverydetailisinfactanincrediblerisktheriskissomuchgreaterbecauseonlyverylimitedareasof
theworld,inwhichwehavetosurvive,canbesaidtobereasonablywellunderstoodbythisoutlook.Nevertheless,thatisthegambleweareactuallyengaginginby
thepresentattemptsatcolonialandsemicolonialinstitutional"development"ofallnonWesternpeoples,betheyNavajoIndiansorothers.Goodintentionsare
certainlynotlacking,butconsciousnessofthepayoffinrisksis.
3.IntegratetheWesternSystem
AnalternativeconsistsoftheintegrationoftheWesternoutlookwithintheNavajomodelandintermsoftheNavajospatialmodel.

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ThenetresultofthisstrategywouldleadtotheintegrationofNavajoandWesternthoughtinaNavajobiasedframe,withbothpoliticallyandeducationallyjustified
ends.
15
Iintendtousethemodelofspatialnotions(aspresentedinPinxtenetal.,1983,IV)intwoways:inthefirstplace,themodelshouldfacilitateanunambiguousand
clearlyexpliciteducationintheNavajoknowledgeinthesecondplace,itshouldfacilitatetheintroductionofNavajostoacognitivecontextofforeignnotions(i.e.
Westernnotionsoranyother)whichtheylearninschool.Further,thesenotionsshouldbetranslatedintothenativesystemofknowledgeasmuchaspossible.Ina
way,then,thisstrategyiscomparabletothatoftheforegoingsection,theresultbeingexactlytheinverseofthepreviousone:InsteadofreducingNavajoknowledge
toWesternknowledge,Iratherdefendtheopposite.Thegeneralpoliticalorsocioculturalreasonforthismaneuvreisquitestraightforward.Inviewoftheimpossibility
(forthetimebeing)ofanyclearlyenglobingmetasystemapproach(thereisnoadequatemetalanguageandnorulesofcorrespondenceandtranslationthatIknow
of),Itrytosafeguardasmuchaspossiblethetypicallynativeframeatthecostoftheimportedone,becauseitssurvivalwillenrichusandactualcommunication
betweenculturalknowledgesystemsiscertainlyatthecostofthenativeoneatthepresenttime.
EducationintheNative(Navajo)SpatialKnowledge
IconjecturethatineducationtheexplicittreatmentoftheNavajospatialknowledgeinschools,ingeometrycourses,andalsoinotherpartsofthecurriculum(cf.
below)wouldchangethepresentunhappysituationdramatically.ConsonantwiththeresultsofColeandhiscoworkersonschoolingandliteracy,Iarguethatthe
explicittreatmentofthismaterialinaclassroomsettingwouldimproveteacher'sandpupil'sunderstandingsofspatialnotions(ScribnerandCole,1981).Iproposethe
followingscheme,basedontheresultsofthesemanticanalysis:
Postulates
1.Space(inNavajoknowledge)isfinite,bounded,andabsolute.Thiscanbedemonstratedthroughthemodeloftheworldthatisheld:everyexistingthingis
containedinasaucerlikegrand

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structure,whichassignsadefiniteplacetoanyimaginableentity.(OneneednotidentifythisstructurewiththeEarthbetweenthefourMountains,aslongasthe
ideaofanabsolute,finite,andboundedspaceisrendered).
2.Space,liketheentitiesorobjectswithinit,isdynamic.Thatis,all"entities,""objects,"orsimilarunitsofactionandperceptionmustbeconsideredasunitsthat
areengagedincontinuousprocesses.Inthesameway,spatialunitsandspatialrelationshipsare"qualitative"inthissamesenseandcannotbeconsideredtobe
clearlydefined,readilyquantifiableandstaticinessence.
Elaborations:whilethepreceding"postulates"shouldbeexploredanddemonstratedthroughnumerous,indirectexamplesandcandrawdirectlyonthemeaningsin
Navajoterminologyandphrases,theelaborationsofallspecificnotionsshouldbemorerigidlygovernedintheclassroom.
Inpractice,allnotionsthatwereisolatedfromtheNavajovocabulary(inchapter1and3ofPinxtenetal.,1983)canbetaughtsystematically,startingatwhatever
pointonechooses.Perhapsthemostconveniententrywouldbethemorebasicnotionslike"volumeness,"dimension,"and"movement."Inanyevent,apracticaland
pedagogicalapproachseemsfairlyeasy.
Thefollowingprocedurecanbefollowedstepbystepinordertoconveytheabstractnotionof"volumeness"inNavajo:
1.Theteacherhashispupilsplaywithdifferenttypesofobjects,setsofobjects,andthelike,soastocoverallinstancesofvolumenessencounteredintheNavajo
lexicon.Inthefirstplace,alldifferentclassificatoryverbsinawaydefinedifferenttypesofnonrandomobjects,andothertermsandexpressionscompletethis
picture.
2.Throughouttheprocess,andatseveraldifferentstagesofthisconsciousandexplicitexplorationoftheNavajoworldofobjects,growsthemoreabstractand
englobingnotionthatallthesephenomenaarebutinstancesof"volumeness"(aNavajocorrelatetothisnounisneeded,asisthecaseforalltechnicaland
noncommonnotions).Particularexercisestotraintheacquisitionofthenotionof"volumeness"canbeintroduced.Thedifferencebetweenthisnotionandnotions
like"movement"canbetrainedbyathoroughandexplicitcomparisonofinstancesofbothnotions.

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Subsequently,allothernotionsoftheNavajospatialknowledgesystemcanbetaughtinsimilarways.Oncethemorebasic(andlessconstituted)notionsareacquired,
onecanintroducemoresophisticatednotions,thatis,thosethatshowseveral"constituents"intheirsemanticparaphrases.Forexample,letmeexplain:
"Distance,"amoreorlessmetricnotionthatisacquiredbyWesternchildreninafullandsystematicwayaslateasthefourthorfifthyearofschooling(cf.tenyearsof
agePiagetandInhelder,1947),canbeintroducedthroughthefollowingprocessesoflearning:
1.Theteacherhasthechildrenplaywithrods,displacementsofvolumes,andsoon,andtriestomakethenotionof"spatialdistance"dear.Itistreatedasamore
sophisticatedandhighlyabstractformof"separateness"(whichwasacquiredearlierbecauseitislesssophisticated).
2.Inasubsequentphaseitismadedearinthesameway(bytrialandsearchwithvolumes,objects,sticks,orstepsbetweenthem,etc.)thatatleast"somethingor
someone"mustbeatadistancefrom"somethingorsomeoneelse,"introducinginthiswaytheconstituentcharacterof"volumeness"(objectorego)inthenotion
ofdistancedistanceexistsbetweeninstancesofvolumeness.
3.Insimilarwaystheotherconstituentsareintroducedasnecessary(butinsufficient)componentsof"distance."Intheend,atleastthesemanticcharacterizationof
"distance"(giveninthesemanticanalysisofchap.4inPinxtenetal.,1983)isacquired.Itshouldbeborninmind,atalltimes,thattheschoolingprocessaimsat
acquiringtheabstractions.Concreteinstancesaswellasnamesfortheseinstancescanonlyserveasexamplesatthebeginningoftheprocedure(ofeachattempt
togetateachspecificnotion),butcannotholdasthedefinitionsorabstractionsthemselves.
16
Thisprocedurecanbefolloweduntilallnotionsofthesemanticmodel(givenattheendofchapter4)aretaughtintheirspecificcharacterization,thatis,intheirdouble
roleofhavingconstituentsandbeingconstituents(forothernotions).Inthisway,theNavajonotionsofspaceandthetotalstructureofNavajospatialknowledgecan
betaughtexplicitlyandwithproperpedagogicalmeans.
Iscarcelyelaborateontheactualanddetailededucationalmeansanddevicesthatcanbeusedinthisprocess.Iamconfidentthattheywouldbesomewhatsimilarto
thoseusedinthemodernplayand

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learnschoolsoftheWest,althoughproperandquitedifferentstrategiesmaybedefensible.However,thisisoutsidethedomainofthepresentstudy.Thesequestions
aretechnicalinnatureandaretreatedextensivelyinPinxtenetal.,1987:wedevelopeducationalcontextsherewhicharecommontoNavajochildren'sexperiential
world:thehooghan,therodeo,sheepherding,weaving,andsoon.Iamsatisfiedheretohaveprovidedageneraloutlineandhopefullytohavedemonstratedthata
properteachingoftheNavajospatialknowledgein(modern)schoolsissensible,desirable,andindeedpossible.Itisuptothespecialistsinthecurriculumservicesto
trytotestthisinformationintheproperpedagogicalways.
EducationintheWesternSpatialSystem
OnceafullydevelopedandwelltrainedknowledgeoftheNavajospatialsystemisacquired,the(moreorlesscorresponding)Westernspatialknowledgecanbe
instructed.Again,inordertoavoidablindandmisunderstoodtraininginacompletely"foreign"knowledgesystemand,ontheotherhand,torestrictthereduction
ultimatelyofthenativecategoriestoaWesternbiasededucation,IproposetoteachtheWesternnotionsagainstthefullyconsciousandexplicitbackgroundof
Navajoknowledge.Ifreductionneedbe,itwillthenbeonthepartofWesternnotions.IthusproposetoteachtheWesternalternativeatalaterage,asaspecificand
differentialelaborationonthesamebasicproblemsofinteractionwiththeoutsideworld,somewhatinthewaythenonWesternapproachestoproblemsare,toa
certaindegreeatleast,taughttoWesternchildrenoncetheyhavereachedanageofunderstandinginaWesternculturalcontext.Again,forconcreteexamples,Irefer
toPinxtenetal.,1987.
ConsidertheFollowingPostulates:
1.Space(intheWesternknowledgesystem)isinfinite,bounded,andrelative.Thisperspective,thatsodrasticallydiffersfromtheNavajoview,canbetaughtin
similarwaysthroughreferencetothebasicscientificmodeloftheworldandcanbevisualizedthroughsubstractionsfromtheNavajoview:imagineaneverending
line,imagineacircleasacontinuousmovementalongitscontour,imaginethecharacteristicsofaball(infactverymuchthesamewayweweretaughtaboutthe
characteristicsofthesephenomena)imaginearelativisticview

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pointworkingwithmererelationsbetweenthingsandnothingmoretheLeibnizdescription,almosttotheword,inhisdiscussionsagainstNewtonian
absolutespace(cf.Smart,1964).
2.Spaceisstatic,justastheobjectsandentitieswithinitarestatic.ThismaybeteachablethroughtheideathatWesternspacetakesaccountof"snapshots,"
momentarypicturesofNavajospatialphenomenaandactsuponthem"asif"theywerethethingsorphenomena(inaNavajosense)themselves.
Elaborations:sometrainingis,ofcourse,requiredinordertoinstructtheabovepostulates,sothatreasoningwithinsuchaworldviewbecomesfeasibletosome
degree.(IexperienceddifficultyinswitchingframesduringfieldworkandIdonotintendtominimizethedifficultyofsuchanacquisition).
Fromthispointon,then,severalWesternnotionsofspace,infactgeometricalsystemscanbeinstructed,alwayssecuringthedelicate"translations"thatwereshownto
bepresupposed.
17
For"volume,"thefollowingprocedurecanbefollowed:
1.InrehearsingtheNavajonotionofvolumeness,thewaysinwhich(Western)geometricnotionsofvolumearesimilartoandatvariancewiththeformernotion
caneasilybepointedout.Amajordifferencethatiseasilyclarifiedconcernsthestaticdynamicdichotomy.Again,thevolumenotionisspecialinthesensethatit
resultsina"snapshot"vieworamomentarysliceofthedynamicvolumenessinstancesknowninNavajo.Besidessuchfeatures,thestrictlymetricnaturecanbe
explainedinasimilarway(forinstance,segmentabilityandrespectingofconstancyofformisbasicandeasilyinstructedbydrawingontheworkofPiaget).
Instancesofvolumenesscanbereducedormanipulated,inpracticeaswellastheoreticallytoresultinthetypeofregularandhighlysymmetricalformsthat
Westernersdealwithasvolumes.ahighdegreeofsimilarity,ifnotidentitybetweenWesternandNavajovolumenessliesinthefactthatvolumescanbe
manipulated,perceived,classified,reconstructed,andsooninthesamewayasinstancesofvolumenesscan.Thedifferencebetweenthenotionsisasetof
supplementary,andthereforehighlyrefined,features.
SimilarexplorationsofdifferencesandlikenessesbetweenNavajoandWesternconceptscanbeperformed,bothatapractical(active,concrete)levelandata
theoreticallevel.Asupple

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mentaryandmoredifficulttaskistheteachingandsystematicallyexplicitanalysisofthedifferenceinrelationaldefinitions(orsemanticcharacterizations)betweenpairs
ofnotions.Thistheoreticalwork,thatis,construingtheappropriatesetsofrelationsanddefinitions,ismostoftendonethroughcontrastswiththecorresponding
structuralinformationintheNavajospatialknowledgesystem.Iproposethatthislevelofreasoning,whichinformstheactualaxiomaticwayofrelatingandstructuring
thatistypicalofallsophisticatedWesternknowledge,beintroducedthroughdrillsorthroughadetailedanalysisoftheuseoflogicalrulesintheWesternsystem.The
latterareeasilylinkedwithnativeNavajologicalrulesthatare,nodoubt,muchthesameastheWesternones(cf.examplesinanalysisandfieldmaterial):consistency,
coherence,andlogicaloperatorsarestressedinexplainingandteachingtheWestern(absolutelycrucial)dependenceonthemintheelaboratedformofgeometrical
reasoning.
Butletme,forthesakeofclarityandstrengthofargument,pointoutinverygeneraltermswhatprocedurecanbefollowedtointroducethebasicnotionsofWestern
geometrystartingfrom"volume."
2.Inasecondstep,thenotionof"line"canbeintroduced:whenevertwoconcretevolumes(intheabovesense)toucheachotheratseveralpointsinarow,the
structurethatcanbeseen,drawn,or"walked"(eventually)throughallthesepoints,bypassingandtouchingeachpointonce,constitutesaline.Visually,the
connectionbetweenskyandheavenissuchaline.Aswellastheconnectionbetweentwo"volumes,"aconcatenationofplaceswherebothtoucheachother,likea
mountainandariver,isseenasaneverprogressingconcatenation.
3.Whenevertwovolumestouchoroverlapwithone"side,"thenotionof"surface"canbereached.
4.Whenevertwovolumestouchoroverlapinsuchawaythattheirplaceofbeingtogetherisbutoneandcannotbeseenorvisualizedormadetoprogressinany
direction,buttobealwaysthesameplace,wehaveapoint.Andsoon.
Thedescriptivesophisticationofthesestepscanbeimprovedgreatly.Again,IreferthoseinterestedtothebrilliantworkofWhiteheadonthesetopicstogetanidea
ofamuchmoreappropriate(i.e.,lessintuitiveand"logically"messy)versionofthislineofthought.WhatIintendtodohereismerelytopointoutapossiblewayof

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communicationbetweenthetwosystems,withoutworryingabouttheappropriatenessofthestepsandnotionsimplied.Itisuptoawelltrainedpedagogueor
psychologistto"translate,"asitwere,Whitehead'ssuggestionsintotheproperandcorrectformthatwouldsuittheinstructionofNavajos.Thegeneralnatureofsuch
translationsshouldhavebecomeclearfromthisexposition.
ElaborationofOtherMaterialsalongTheseLines
Theprecedingtypeofinstructionisnotrestricted,ofcourse,tomathematical(or,morestrictlystill,geometrical)reasoningalone.Similar"programs"can,andshould,
beworkedoutforotherdomainsofthecurriculumwherespaceisimplied.
Geographyobviouslyemploysplentyofspatialrepresentation.Itwouldbequiteinterestingtodevelopageographicalsegmentofasocialstudiescurriculumthatwould
takeintoaccountthedynamicandholisticperspectiveofNavajospace.Forexample:
(a)Amountainoravalleyshouldnotnecessarilybeintroducedtheway"objects"areintheWesterncontext,butshouldratherberepresentedasacomplexunitof
mutualinteraction,wherevalleyandmountainaspectschangestatusovertheyears.Thedynamicinteractiverelationshipbetweenthetwoiswhatcountsmostinthe
teaching.AbeautifulexampleisthewayorientationworksasanexploringdeviceforNavajochildrenwhenherdingsheepinacanyon(Pinxtenetal.,1987).
(b)Theearthshouldnotbesubdividedeasilyintostates,butshouldprimarilybeseenasarelativelyconstantbodysurroundedbywater,whereindifferentlifecircles
orterritoriesareidentified,thatis,thecities,thespacesofpeoples,thecommunities,andsoon.Theselifecirclesexhibitarelativelydensepatternofinteractionwith
eachother(somemore,someless)andhaveadenseinnerschemeofinteractiontheyhaveacertainamountofgrowth,decay,change,andsoon.
Thisapproachtogeographycan,ofcourse,beworkedoutinfulldetailandmayyieldveryinterestingresults.Theapproachisnotatalloutlandish,sincethesocalled
NewGeographershavetriedtoworkuponWesterngeographicalnotionsinsomewhatsimilar(butlessradicallyelaborated)ways:seeGouldandWhite(1974)and
thepioneeringworkbyLynch(1960).Ontheotherhand,thebeautifulbookonIfugaogeographybyConklin(1980)couldbeusedasanexampleofthisapproachin
othercultures.

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Naturalsciencescan,obviously,berecastinasimilarway.Theorganismicviewofpersonsandanimalsas"systemsthatwereplacedtoworkinspecificways"can
easilybeemphasizedineducation,insteadoftheobjectiveandsegmentabilitycenteredapproachofcontemporaryWesternteaching.Again,thisalternativeisnotso
alientomodemperspectivesinthelifesciences:Waddington(1977,chaps.1,2)stressestheimportanceofanalternative,dynamic,andevenorganismicapproachin
thesedisciplinestoday.Natureseenasasymbolicsystemwithecosystemsandrelativelyautonomousbiologicalsystems(man,animals,plants)canbearewarding
outlook.
Evenindisciplinessuchashistorysocialscience,andlinguistics,asimilarapproachcanyieldimportantresults.Ineachofthese,thesystemicanddiachronicoutlookof
Navajoknowledgecouldbeworkedintothesyllabus.
WhatIstheUseofAllThis?
ItwillhavebecomeclearthatIpushtowardagenuinelynativeapproachtoaspectsofknowledgethatseemtoberather"established"intheWesterncontext.The
generalquestionthatarisesagainstsuchalaboriousandpainstakingreorientationofpartsofknowledgeandschoolingwillbe:whatistheuseofallthis?or,why
engageinsuchahazardousandunwarrantedenterpriseinsteadofstickingtoestablisheddataanddisciplines?
Ihaveanumberofdifferentandimportant(nottosayuniversallyrelevant)reasonsforproposingsuchacomplicatedapproach:
First,theNavajoreason:intheveryfirstplace,thereistodaythephenomenonofthetotallyinappropriateeducation,leadingtomisunderstandingandsociocultural
andpsychologicalalienationofNavajochildrenandadults.WithitsalmostcompletelackofconsiderationfortheauthenticNavajoworldview,theschoolcurriculum
isscarcelyintegratedintothenativecontext.TheresultisthatpeopleatsomepointhavetochoosebetweentheirnativesystemofknowledgeandtheWestern
alternative.Mostpeopleneverchooseandcometoliveandthinkina"dividedworld,"partlyNavajoandpartlyWestern.Nobodydeservesthissecondrate
treatmentinademocraticsociety.Thealternative,asIemphasizedearlierinthischapter,isaredesignofthecurriculumintermsofthenativeframe.Thisisprecisely
whatIhavetriedtoaccomplishinthisthirdalternative.Iknowofsomeinstitutionsthattrytoworkinthisfashion,notablytheDivisionfor

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CurriculumServicesatAlbuquerque,thecommunityschoolsatRockPointandRoughRock,andsomeindividualworkers.Itishopedthatthepresentworkcanbe
helpfulfortheminthedomainsthathavebeentreatedhere.
Second,theepistemologicalreasonfromaWesternpointofview:itisfascinatingandtheoreticallyrewardingtotrytoworkoutalternativestothehistoricallyand
culturallyspecificoutlookthatpredominatesnowadays.Thechallengeofbridgingthetremendousgapofquasiintranslatabilityandincommensurabilitybetween
WesternandnonWesternoutlooksisamostrewardingandimportanttaskforany(Western)scientistwhoclaimstoworktowardsuniversaltruths.Theformaland
interpretationalintricaciesofsuchaprogramcodeterminetheadequacyofaparticularproposition.So,apartfromthepoliticalandsocialdimensionsofthisandsimilar
researches,Iwanttoemphasizetheepistemologicalrelevance.
Thirdtheevolutionaryreason:finally,andfromthemostgeneralpointofview,anevolutionaryargumentappearscompelling.Throughasystematicsuperimposition
oftheworldviewandthoughtsystemoftheWestontraditionalnonWesternsystemsofthoughtandactionallovertheworld,atremendousuniformizationistaking
hold.Inthepast,inputsfromotherculturesintotheWesternpoolofthoughthaveprovedsignificantandatsomepointsevencrucial(e.g.,theimpactofsomeChinese
conceptsviaLeibniz'stransformationofmodernmathematicsandphysics),whiletheorderlycommunicationandinteractionwithWesternideasprovesbeneficialto
otherculturesatsomepoints.However,throughthesystematicextinctionofothersystemsofknowledgethatisnowtakingplace,theoriginal"poolofresponses"(a
metaphor,ofcourse)isdramaticallyreducedandeventuallyendsupbeingidenticalwiththeWesternpool.Theriskswetakeonaworldwidescale,andthe
impoverishmentwewitnessisevolutionaryspeakingquitefrightening.Aslongassciencecannotpretendtohavevalidanswerstoallbasicquestions(asisthe
caseinourcontemporarysituation,becauseonlysomeaspectsofnatureandsociallifecanbetreatedwithsatisfactoryvalidityandconfidenceinthestillincomplete
scientificsystem),itisfoolishtoexterminateallother,socalledprimitive,prescientific,orotherwiseforeignapproachestoworldquestions.
OnedoesnothavetobelievewithJ.Needham(1956)thatChinesemodelsareappropriateforthe(Western)lifescienceswherethenative(Western)outlookfailsto
applyinasatisfactoryway.However,mutualinspirationandinteractionatafundamentallevelofepis

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temologyandontology(naturalphilosophy,strictlyspeaking)willprobablyalwaysberewardingandilluminatinginallinstances.Inviewofthisgeneralappreciationof
thepossiblerelevanceforsurvivalandthevalueofamultitudeofperspectives(ratherthantheuniqueapproachatthecostofallothersorwhateverculturallybiased
perspectivesonemaycherish),Imeantodefendthesensibilityandthepossiblepoweroftheconsciousandfullfledgedelaborationofnativeknowledge(e.g.,the
Navajosystem).Thisshouldbemaintainedtotheextentwherecomparisonandmutualinfluencescanbemapped,orevenplanned,inanegalitarianway.Asa
concretizationofthisgeneralstrategyIpropose,forexample,thatitmaybeveryinspiringforamathematiciantotrytoconstrueanaxiomatizationofdynamic
topology,inabroaderandlessconfinedwaythanThomhastriedtodo,startingwiththeinsightsofNavajospatialknowledge.Theelementaryandintuitiveinspiration
thatspringsfromtheconfrontationwithasystemofthoughtthatdiffersonsuchbasiclevelscannotbemeasuredbeforehand,thatis,withoutfullconsciousnessand
primaryconsiderationofthespatialknowledgesystemassuch.
Theforegoingargumentsuniteinageneralappreciationofthestrengthandvalidityofparticulartheoriesandmodelsofscience,convergingtothepositionheldbyDon
Campbell(1973,1989).Allhumanbeingsconfronttheworldinmuchthesameway,notwithstandingtheirparticularcultures,anddealwithalmostidenticalquestions,
eveniftheyreceivesomewhatdifferentelaborations.Ifanevolutionarymodelofscienceandtruthhasvalidity,asIagreewithCampbellthatitdoes,thenthevariability
andthemultitudeofperspectivesisvaluable,certainlyinareaswherethevalidityandstrengthofpresumedscientificmodelsandtheoriesaresoweakastoprohibit
validprediction.Isharetheconvictionthatinabilityinthisaspectischaracteristicofalotofdisciplinaryknowledgetoday,andIthereforedefendthethesisthatas
manyrationalapproachesaspossibleshouldbesupportedandelaboratedtoserveasacomprehensiveanalysisoflifequestionsatsomelaterpoint.TheNavajo
thoughtsystemcertainlyisrationalinseveralaspectsandcantherefore,whenitisfullyelaborated,illuminatetheWesternsystematsomepoints,andviceversa.Ihold
thatitisthetaskofphilosophersofscienceandanthropologiststotrytoelaboratemoreadequatecriteriaofrationality(ataskcurrentlybeingundertakenbyseveral
scholars)andtoorganizeaneffectiveandnonalienatingcommunicationwith,andinteractionbetween,nonWesternculturalknowledgesystemsthatarenot
extinguished,throughaconfrontationwithfoundationalpropositionsofthemodernsciences.

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Notes
1.Itisimpossibleatthispointtogointothismatter.However,numerouspublicationsonthetopicexist.ThepublicationsbytheGenevanschoolofthoughtoffer
ampleexamples.
2.BB,abrilliantyoungNavajoman,reactedtotheideaofstudyingNavajospatialknowledgebysaying:''ThemomentIheardofyourstudy,Ithoughtyouwouldrun
intogreatandhighlycomplicatedproblems.SpaceisadeepnotionandpoorlyunderstoodintheNavajostudies."
3.Oneconsultant,LB,toldmeaboutatestontaxonomicclassificationthatwascarriedoutforsometime.Althoughconsultantsfollowedtheinstructionsandfilledin
thetest,theyconfessednottohaveunderstoodwhatwas"known"fromtheminthisway:theysimplewouldnotworkinthismannerontheirown.Theprincipledid
notreallyapply.
4.Thelackofunderstandingoftheincommensurabilitybetweenthetwoculturalknowledgesystems(WesternandNavajo)thatissoapparentindiscussionswith
teachersandstudentsonthismatterisnotdifficulttograsp.ItisawellknownfactthatKantconsideredEuclideangeometrytobeinnate/evident,theonlypossible
geometryoftheoutsideworld,andthatthinkersuntilthefirsthalfofthiscentury(includingFregeandHusserl)couldnotreallycopewiththenonEuclideangeometries
workedoutbyRiemannandLobachevskyinthenineteenthcentury.Thelatterseemedmere"faitsdivers,"counterintuitiveproductsthatcouldnotreallyclaim
compatibilitywithanythinginthephysicalworld,untiltheydidshowit(Einstein,1949,discussesthispoint).Thematterisnotyetfullyingrainedinoureducation,let
alonethemorebasic"shifts"throughtopology(cf.Reichenbach,1958Thom,1977).
5.Theprogressiondoesnotalwayspresentitselfinthatrigidform,buttheideaofasystematicanddearlyhierarchicalprogressioncertainlyholdsforthetotalsystem
ofspatialrepresentation.
6.Seethediscussionsinphilosophyofscience:Russell(1921)soughtsensedata,Goodman(1977)seeksfor"qualiaasatoms".Cf.alsoQuine(1969),"Speakingof
Objects."
7.SeethediscussiononthesemattersinErnest(1991),Pinxten(1994).
8.Iamreferringtothefundamentalworkoncatastrophetheory(e.g.,Thom,o.c.)anddissipativestructuretheory/chaostheory(e.g.,PrigogineandStengers,1990).
9.Theinterestedreaderisreferredtotheworkscited(especiallyAtran).Ihavemadeadetailedanalysisonthesepointselsewhere(Pinxten,forthcoming,Pinxtenand
Farrer,1994).

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10.Iamquiteawareofthefactthatthischaracterizationisanoversimplification,andthatittendstodrawasomewhatonesidedpictureofthetopic.Still,mygeneral
convictionseemstobejustified(cf.referencestophilosophersofscience),whiletheonesidednessismeanttogivethepointextraemphasis.
11.HencethepointisnotthatNavajosareshowntothinkmoreprimitivelyor"prelogically,"butratherthatthesametypeofnotionsandthesameoperationsareused
indifferentways(cf.theconcurringpositionontheuseoflogicaloperatorsbyKpelleinColeetal.,1971).
12.Thom(1977,pp.1011)triestodevelopamoreorlessdynamicnotionof"objects,"whichcontrastsonlywiththeperceptdominatednotion.Hisnotionisnot
applicableheresinceitstartsofffromstatesandconstrues"object"astheresultoftransitionsbetweenstablestates.
13.Throughout,aswillbeclear,"dynamicaspect"cannotbeidentifiedwith"movement"ordisplacementthroughspace.Thelattercategoryhasrelevancebothin
NavajoandWesternsystems,butisalientothe"static/dynamic"dichotomy.
14.Iamawarethattherewouldbeconsiderabletechnicalproblemsinvolved,forexample,theemphasison"volumeness"intheNavajosystemisdifficulttorenderin
anyexistingtopologicalnotationsystemorformaltheory,sincemost(ifnotall)topologiesworkwith"point"asthebasicunit.
15.AtfirstitwasmyintentiontotrytobuildamodelofparalleldevelopmentofWesternandNavajospatialorganization.However,Iwouldneedametalanguage
thatwouldatleastbeabletodescribesimultaneouslyandadequatelyboththestaticandthedynamicoutlook.Noformalsophisticationwhatevercouldbereachedin
thisoutlook,landinguswithmerevagueandanalogouscomparisons.Theactualsearchfor"correlations"betweenbothsystemsofspatialrepresentationthusbecame
highlyhazardous,leavingnopossibilityofdescribingthecorrelationsinanysignificanteydearandunambiguousway.Inviewofallthesedrawbacks,Ideridedto
abandonthisprogramandconcentrateonapedagogicallyfeasiblealternative.IacknowledgeDirkBatens'insightsandadviceonthesepoints.
16.English,likemostEuropeanlanguages,isambiguousinthissense:thesamewordisusedfortheabstractnotionandthegeometricnotion(mostofthetime)thatis
usedtodenotetheconcreteinstance.Thenounplaysadoublerole,attwolevelsofthought.
17.IproposetostartwithnotionsthataregenerallyclosertotheNavajonativesystemthan,forexample,point(whichwasshowntobelackingcompletely).
Whitehead(1953),inabrilliantlittlebook,demonstratesthatgeometryandallgeometricalthesescanbebuiltwithequalvalidityandequalstrength,starting
alternativelyfrom"point,"or"volume,"or"surface"asprimitivenotions.Startingfromtheprimitive"volume,"onecansubse

Page399
quentlysatisfactorilydefine"surface"andanyothergeometricnotion,endingwith"point"asthemostdetailedandcomplexnotionofthewholesystem.Inother
words,theapproachispossiblewithequalvalidityandstrengthfromamultitudeofperspectives.ItisthisideathatIwouldliketorefertohere(inalessstrictand
lesssophisticatedway,tobesure).IconsequentlyproposetointroducevolumefirstintheinstructionofNavajos,eventuallyendingupwithothernotionsofmore
"primitive"status,butatamuchlaterstage.
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Bovet,M.(1974).Cognitiveprocessesamongilliteratechildrenandadults.InCultureandcognition.EditedbyJ.BerryandEDasen.London:Methuen.
Campbell,D.T.(1964).Distinguishingdifferencesofperceptionfromfailurestocommunicateincrossculturalstudies.InCrossculturalunderstanding.EditedbyF
S.C.NorthropandH.Livingstone.NewYork:HarperandRow.
.(1973).Ostensiveinstancesandentitativityinlanguagelearning.InUnitythroughdiversity.AFestschriftforLudwighvonBertalanffy.EditedbyWilliam
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Sauvy,J.,andSauvy,S.(1972).L'enfantladcouvertedel'espace.Paris:Casterman.
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Chapter18
AnEthnomathematicalApproachinMathematicalEducation:
AMatterofPoliticalPower
GelsaKnijnik
Editors'scomment:GelsaKnijnik,aBrazilianmathematicseducator,reportsonherresearchwithanorganizedmovementoflandlessBrazilianruralworkers.Shegrappleswith
theinterrelationsbetweenacademicandpopularknowledgeandwiththecontributionthatanethnomathematicalapproachineducationcanmaketotheprocessofsocial
change.Thischapter,whichhasbeenslightlymodified,firstappearedinFortheLearningofMathematics13(3):2326,in1992.
TheresearchtookplaceintheruralareaofthestateofRioGrandedoSul,inBrazil.Thecountry'stotalareaisapproximately8.5millionsquarekilometers,
correspondingtoalmost50percentofSouthAmerica'stotalareaandmorethan20percentoftheAmericancontinent.Nowadays,Brazilhasabout146million
inhabitants,withademographicdensityofsixteenpeoplepersquarekilometers.
OneofthebiggesteconomicproblemsinBrazil,whichisalsoasocialandpoliticalproblem,isitslandstructurewithitsverydense
Thisarticleexplainsanddiscussestheauthor'sworkinaruralschoolinthesouthernmostBrazilianstate.Thisschoolislinkedwithorganizedruralmovements,mainlytheMST
(MovimentodosSemTerra:landlesspeople'smovement).Twospecificpracticesofthepeoplearepresentedusinganethnomathematicalapproach,theauthordevelopedsome
educationalworkwhichdealswiththeinterrelationsbetweeneruditeandpopularmathematicalknowledgeinthecontextofthestrugglefortheland.Withoutglorifyingpopular
knowledge,thepaperdiscussesthecontributionsthiskindofpedagogicalworkcangivetotheprocessofsocialchange.

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concentration.Ruralpropertiesoflessthantwentyfiveacreswhichrepresent53percentofallBrazilianruralpropertiesoccupyonly3percentofthecountry's
totalarea.However,ruralpropertieswithmorethan2,500acreswhichrepresentonly1percentofallBrazilianruralpropertiesoccupy44percentofthe
country'stotalarea.
Theauthor'sfieldworkwasdevelopedintheruralareaofBraga,asmalldistrictofRioGrandedoSul,about370milesawayfromtheStatecapital,withabout5,000
inhabitants(15percentlessthanitspopulationin1980).With73percentofitspopulationlivingintheruralareas,itisessentiallyanagriculturaldistrict.
TheDER/FUNDEPruralschool,
1
locatedinBraga,wheretheauthordevelopedherresearch,wasfoundedin1989,asaresponsetoorganizedruralmovements,
mainlytheMST.Theschoolaimsatimplementingaformofpopulareducation,understoodasamethodologicalapproachwhichshouldcontributetosocialchanges.
Today,theschoolhastowork,asapriority,withtheorganizedruralworkersthemselvesbecause,astheysay"thereisahistoricurgencyintheneedtoeducatethe
mainagentsinvolvedinthesocialchangeprocess."
Theschoolhasdifferenttypesofformalandnonformalcourses.Theauthor'sresearchwasmoredirectlylinkedwithoneofthesecourses,whichaimsatpreparingand
givingacertificatetoelementaryschoolteachers.Almostallthestudentswere,infact,teaching,evenbeforegettingtherequireddegree.Theyarecalled"lay
teachers."InBrazilianruralareaswhereteachersarescarceand,sometimes,therearenoschools,acommunitymemberwhohasamoreadvancedlevelofstudy
holdstheteacher'sposition,helpingchildrenandalsoadultsinthelearningprocess.Inthissituation,itisabsolutelynecessarytoprovidebetterconditionsforthose
peopleinvolvedwitheducation.Usuallytheschoolsinthoseverydistantcommunitieshaveonlyoneclassforchildreninallthegrades.Theteachersteachparttime
andfarmparttime.
These"layteachers"gototheDER/FUNDEPruralschool,asstudents,forfourperiodsduringtheirschoolvacations.Thisrepresentssixmonthsofalldaystudyat
theschooland"longdistancestudy"whiletheyareteachingintheircommunities.Afterthesefourperiodsthereisaprobationsemester,whentheyteachinthe
communities,supervisedbyDER/FUNDEPteachers.
TodaytheMSTisoneofthemostimportantruralmovementsinBrazil.ThesloganoftheMovement"occupying,resisting,producing"describesthestrugglefor
landreforminordertoavoidaruralexodus,givinginlandpeoplebetterconditionsoflifethroughtheredistributionofthecountry'swealth.
WhenMSTmembersoccupyapieceofland,theyliveonprecar

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iouscampsites,inveryrudimentaryplastictents.Thisisthetimewhentheyorganizethemselvesintogroupsandstartdiscussionsaboutpolitical,economic,andsocial
issues.Theylearnhowtoresistpoliceviolence.Theyalsoplanhowtoproduceandmarketgoodsinthesettlementsaswellashowtomanagethelandtheyare
supposedtoreceivefromthegovernment.Atpresent(October1996),thereareabout145,000peopleinthesettlementsandmorethan24,000inthecampslinked
toMST,spreadovernineteenoutofthetwentysixstatesofBrazil.
ItiscleartotheLandlessPeople'sMovementthateducationisastrategicissueforthelandreformtheBrazilianpeasantshavealwaysbeendeprivedofacademic
knowledgeandinthissituationitishardtoliveandproducegoodssuccessfullyintheruralareas.TheMovementisawarethatitisabsolutelynecessarytohave
academicandthereforetechnological,knowledgewhenorganizing,administering,andplanningproduction.
AnEthnomathematicalApproach
Theauthor'sresearchtakingforgrantedthatpedagogicalpracticeinmathematicaleducationisfundamentallyapoliticalissuetriestoestablishconcretelinks
betweenbroadquestionsofemancipatorypopulareducationintheThirdWorldandtheprocessesoflearningandteachingmathematics.Itdealswiththeinterrelations
betweenacademicandpopularmathematicalknowledgeinthecontextofthestruggleforlanditisalsoinsertedinthebroadereducationalmovementcalled
Ethnomathematics.TheexpressionethnomathematicswascoinedbytheBrazilianProfessorUbiratanD'Ambrosiointhemid1970s.Sincethenhehasmade
importanttheoreticalcontributionsaswellaslaiddownoutstandingresearchguidelinesinethnomathematics.
Iusetheexpressionethnomathematicalapproachtodesignate
theinvestigationofthetraditions,practices,andmathematicalconceptsofasubordinatedsocialgroupandthepedagogicalworkwhichwasdevelopedinorderforthegroupto
beabletointerpretanddecodeitsknowledgetoacquiretheknowledgeproducedbyacademicmathematiciansandtoestablishcomparisonsbetweenitsknowledgeand
academicknowledge,thusbeingabletoanalyzethepowerrelationsinvolvedintheuseofboththesekindsofknowledge.

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Thisapproachassumesthatmathematicsisculturalknowledgeandthatitsbirthanddevelopmentarelinkedtohumanneeds.Itimpliesplacingtheethnomathematical
approach,fromanepistemologicalviewpoint,intheconfluenceofmathematicsandculturalanthropology.
2
Theauthorwouldliketointroduceintothisconfluence
pedagogicalandsociologicalknowledgeaswell.
Atheoreticalanalysisofthepresentfieldworkemphasizesthesociologicaldimensionoftheethnomathematicalapproach.Theobjectoftheresearchreferstotwo
socialpracticesinvolvedintheproductiveactivitiesoftheinlandpeoplewheremathematicalknowledgeisabsolutelynecessary.Theinvestigationdiscussesthe
interrelationsbetweenpopularandacademicknowledgeinthecontextoftwospecificpracticesofthegroupconcerningmathematicalknowledge:cubaodeterra
(estimatingtheareaofapieceofland)andcubagemdamadeira(estimatingthevolumeofatreetrunk).
ThesetworuralsocialpracticesarenotexclusivetothesouthernmostcountrysideofBrazil.InthenortheastregionofBrazil,theresearcherGuidaAbreuhasalso
lookedintothem.Herstudyinvestigatedthemathematicsusedbysugarcanefarmersinactivitiesrelatedtofarming.
3
Whatisrelevant,fromtheauthor'sviewpoint,is
thatthestudentswho,beforecomingtoDER/FUNDEP,knewthepopularmethodswerethosewhotaughtthemtothegroup,duringthemathclasses.Theywere
"teachers"aswellas"students."Inoneofthestudent'sownwords:"BeforeourmathclassIknewthecounts,nowIknowthemathematics."Thissentencecanbe
understoodassayingthatthestudentwasawarethatinthemathclasseshewasabletodecodeandunderstandthemathematicsinvolvedinhissocialpractices.
Furthermore,withthegivenpedagogicalapproach,healsogainedacademicknowledge"bookmathematics,"asthegroupcalledit.Itisimportanttoemphasizethat
popularknowledgewastakenintoaccountinthepedagogicalworkwithoutanyintentionof"exalting''it.
TwoSocialPractices
HereIpresentthemathematicalpracticeswhichweretheobjectoftheinvestigation,startingwiththosereferringtolandareameasurement.Theyconsistoftwo
differentmethods,whichwerecalledbythegroup"Jorge'sMethod"and"Ado'sMethod."ThestudentsJorgeandAdothemselvestaughtthegroupthespecificway
of

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"measuringtheland"intheircommunities.Inestimatingthevolumeofatreetrunk,"Roseli'sMethod"willbeshownbelowshealsotaughtitherselftothegroup.Other
studentswerefamiliarwithothermethodsoffiguringoutthevolumeofatreetrunk,butRoseli'swasthemethodmostusedinthesouthernBraziliancountryside.
Table18.1
Jorge'sMethodofEstimatingArea
PEASANT'SWORDS ACADEMIC'SWORDS
Hereisalandwithfourwalls. Thisisaconvexquadrilateral.
First,weaddallthewalls. First,wefindtheperimeterofthisconvex
quadrilateral.
Second,wedividethesumbyfour. Second,wedividetheperimeterbyfour.
Third,wemultiplytheobtainednumber
byitself.
Third,wefindtheareaofthesquarewhose
sidewasdeterminedafterdividingthe
perimeterbyfour.
Thisisthe"cubao"ofthisland. Thisistheareaofthesquareobtainedfrom
theperimeteroftheconvexquadrilateral.
Table18.2
Ado'sMethodofEstimatingArea
PEASANT'SWORDS ACADEMIC'SWORDS
Thisisalandwithfourwalls. Thisisaconvexquadrilateral.
First,weaddtwooftheoppositewalls
anddividethembytwo.
First,wefindtheaveragebetweentwo
oppositesides.
Second,weaddtheothertwowallsand
alsodividethembytwo.
Second,wefindtheaveragebetweenthe
othertwooppositesides.
Third,wemultiplythefirstobtained
numberbythesecondone.
Third,wefindtheareaoftherectangle
formedbythetwoaveragesreachedbefore.
Thisisthe"cubao"ofthisland. Thisistheareaoftherectanglewhose
sidesweredeterminedbytheaverageofthe
twopairsoftheoppositesidesofthe
convexquadrilateral.

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Table18.3
Roseli'sMethodofEstimatingVolume
PEASANT'SWORDS ACADEMIC'SWORDS
Thisisatrunkofatree. Thisisafrustrumofacone.
First,weselectthemediumsectionofthe
trunkofatree.
Firstwetransformthefrustrumofacone
intoacylinder.
Second,wetakearope.Then,putit
aroundthemiddlesection.Then,wefind
theropelengthanddivideitbyfour.
Second,wefindthecylinderbaseperimeter.
Then,wefinditsfourthpart.
Third,wemultiplytheobtainednumber
byitself.
Third,wefindtheareaofasquarewhose
sidewasobtainedafterfindingthefourth
partoftheperimeterofthebaseofa
cylinder.
Fourth,wemultiplytheobtainednumber
bythelengthofthestemofatree.
Fourth,wemultiplythesquareareabythe
cylinder'sheight.
Thisisthe"cubagemdamadeira." Thisisthevolumeofaquadrangularprism,
whosebasesidewasobtainedthroughone
fourthofthecircumferencelength.This
circumferenceis,infact,thecircumference
ofthecylinderbasethecylinderhadbeen
previouslyobtainedfromthe
transformationofthefrustrumofacone.
Itisnotdifficulttoshow,usingelementarymathematics,thatinthecaseofaconvexquadrilateralarea,Jorge'sresultalwaysexceedsAdo's,whichitself
overestimatesthemeasureofthe"land"obtainedbyacademiccalculations.WhenJorgeandAdowereexplainingtheirmethodstothegroup,thestudentsdecodified
andunderstoodwhatthemethodsmeantintermsofacademicmathematics.Thisrepresentedthepassagefromthefirsttothesecondcolumnintheabovetables.
FinalComments
Thefinalpartofthischapteremphasizessometheoreticalaspectsofthecurrentresearch.Itisimportanttonotethattheworktriesto

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avoid"glorifying"popularknowledgeonthecontrary,itaimsatunderstandinghowpopularmathematicalpracticestheproductofarelationofsocialinequality
representalimitation,adisadvantage.Itisnecessarytounderstandthatthemereperpetuationofthispopularmathematicalknowledgeinvolvedmechanismswhich
reinforcesocialsubordination.ItiscleartotheMSTthatgraspingandappropriatingacademicandtechnologicalknowledgeisastrategicissueintheconcretizationof
landreform.Withoutthisspecificknowledgeitwouldbehardtoorganize,toadminister,toplan,andtocommercializeproduction.Takingintoaccountthese
arguments,itisimportanttoreaffirmthatmerelyglorifyingpopularknowledgedoesnotcontributetotheprocessofsocialchange.Whenaspecificsubordinategroup
becomesconsciousoftheeconomic,social,andpoliticaldisadvantageswhichitsscarceknowledgebringsabout,andtriestolearneruditeknowledge,thistypeof
consciousnessmaycontributetotheprocessofsocialchange.
PierreBourdieu
4
givessupporttothisview,whenhesays:"IfinordertoresistIhavenobetterargumentthantoclaimtherighttoholdtopreciselythatwhichmakes
medominated,isthisresistance?When,onthecontrary,dominatedpeopleendeavortolosewhatmakesthem"vulgar"andendeavortoappropriatethosethingsin
relationtowhichtheyseem"vulgar,"isthissubmission?"Bourdieufinishestheparagraphsaying:"Resistancemaybecomealienationandsubmissionmaybecome
liberation.''
Thesecondpointisthepedagogicalworkwhichispartofwhattheauthorhascalledthe"ethnomathematicalapproach."Tostartwith,ittriestoprobeintoand
rescuepopularmathematics.Thismathematicsisnotlegitimatedbythedominantcultureandhassurvivedonlythroughaprocessoforaltransmissionittendsto
disappear,withoutany"synthesisknowledge"occupyingitsplace.Neverthelessthispedagogicalworkdoesnotsimplytrytorescuepopularknowledge.Italsotries
todecodifyandunderstandit,givingthestudentstheopportunitytobecomeawareofthelimitationsoftheirmethodsandthereasonwhythesemethods,evenwithout
beingexact,areutilizedbysubordinateruralgroups.Furthermore,theprocessofculturalawareness,inPaulusGerdes'words,
5
allowsthebirthofasynthesis
knowledge,"whichisconstructedtakingpopularknowledgeasitsstartingpointbutwhich,however,transcendsit.

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Acknowledgments
IwouldliketoacknowledgeProfessorTomazTadeudaSilva'shelpandacutecriticalsensewhichguidedmethroughthetheoreticalinterpretationofthisresearch.I
alsowishtothankDickTahtaandUbiratanD'Ambrosioforcommentsmadeonthefirstversionofthispaper.
Notes
1.DER/FUNDEP:DepartamentodeEducaoRuraldaFundaoparaoDesenvolvimento,EducaoePesquisadaRegioCeleiro.
2.ISGEmNewsletter:InternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematicsNewsletter1.1(1985).
3.ABREU,GuidaM.C.P.,DisscertaodeMestrado,UniversidadeFederaldePernambuco(Brasil:Recife,1988).
4.Pierre,BOURDIEU,"Osusosdopovo,"inCoisasDitasSoPaulo:Brasiliense,1987,181187.TranslatedfromalecturegivenbytheauthorinLausanne,
Switzerland,1982.(Author'sowntranslationintoEnglish)
5.Paulus,GERDES,Ethnomatematica:cultura,matematica,educacao.Maputo,Mozambique:InstitutoSuperiorPedaggico,1991,6279.

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AFTERWORD
GloriaEGilmer
Editors'note:GloriaEGilmer,mathematician,mathematicseducator,andconsultant,isthefoundingpresidentoftheInternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematics.Alongwith
others,shehasbeeninstrumentalingaininginternationalrecognitionforthegroupand,thereby,thescientificfieldofethnomathematics.
Introduction
From1985to1996,IhavehadtheresponsibilityofpresidingovertheInternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematics(ISGEm),whosegoalsaretwofold:(1)to
promotetheteachingandlearningofmathematicsinculturalcontextsand(2)toencouragefurtherresearchinethnomathematics.Inthisafterword,Ihavethechallenge
ofexploringthetasksaheadforthisorganization.Ourvicepresident,UbiratanD'Ambrosio,hasdonemuchtoshapethefieldofethnomathematics.Ournewsletter
editor,RickScott,togetherwithourcountrydistributors,hasdonemuchtodisseminateinformationfromourmembershiptoabroaderreadership.Ihaveworkedto
buildandretainrelationshipswithotherorganizationsinthemathematicalcommunity,especiallyintheUnitedStates,byarrangingforourinclusionontheirprogramsat
nationalmeetingsand,eachyear,planninganISGEmbusinessandprogrammeeting.ISGEmhasfourspecialinterestgroups(SIGs)throughwhichresearchactivities
areencouraged

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amongourmembers:(1)ConceptualandTheoreticalPerspectives,(2)ResearchinCulturallyDiverseEnvironments,(3)OutofSchoolApplications,and(4)
CurriculumDevelopmentandClassroomApplications.
Background
MyknowledgeofethnomathematicsandsubsequentpresidencyoftheISGEmfollowedcloselyontheheelsofmytenureonthefacultyofAtlantaUniversity(now
ClarkAtlantaUniversity),myatlargemembershipontheBoardofGovernorsoftheMathematicalAssociationofAmerica(MAA),andmymembershiponthe
MathematicsteamoftheNationalInstituteofEducation(NIE,formerlytheresearcharmoftheUnitedStatesDepartmentofEducation).
AtClarkAtlantaUniversity,anhistoricallyAfricanAmericanuniversityinthestateofGeorgia,Ihadtheopportunitytoreturntomyroots,recoversomeofwhatIhad
lost,andguideresearchandpracticesoffutureAfricanAmericanmathematiciansandteachersofmathematics.Duringthisperiod,IalsosucceededEttaFalconerin
directingMAA'sBlacksandMathematicsproject(BAM)ahighschoollectureshipprogramdesignedtoencourageBlackstudentstolearnmoreaboutusesofand
careersinmathematics.ThroughBAMcoordinatorssuchasDellaBell,HenryGore,JimDonaldson,andJackAlexander,newideas,newfaces,andnewincome
cametoMAA.AsamemberofMAA'sBoardofGovernors,Ihadtheopportunitytovisitmanyofournation'sclassroomsintheUnitedStatesandexperiencethe
cultureofthemathematicalcommunitybyworkingwithmathematiciansinleadershippositionslikeDorothyBernstein,HenryAlder,GeraldAlexanderson,Richard
Anderson,DonBushaw,BillChinn,EdDubinsky,R.CraightonBuck,DebraHaimo,DonaldHill,RichardGriego,JohnKennelly,PatKenschaft,AnnelliLax,Joanne
Leitzel,LeeLorch,HenryPollak,GeraldPorter,G.BaleyPrice,DavidRoselle,KenRoss,AlanSchoenfeld,MarthaSiegel,DonaldSmall,DavidSmith,LynnArthur
Steen,MarciaSward,AlvinWhiteWillcox,andmanyothers.
From1981to1984,whileattheNationalInstituteofEducation,IworkedwithprojectofficersfromtheNationalScienceFoundation,tomanagethefirst
governmentfundedstudiesontheuseofcomputersintheteachingandlearningofmathematicsandtheSecondInternationalStudyofMathematicsAchievement,
whichinvolvedtwentyfourcountries.Inaddition,IgatheredinformationforthenowfamousreportoftheNationalCommissiononExcellenceinEducation,released
in1983ANationatRisk:TheImperativeforEducationalRe

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form.WhileatNIE,Ialsojoinedthe1983AmericanDelegationofapproximatelyfiftymathematicianstothePeople'sRepublicofChinaandpreparedanextensive
reportforNIEonmathematicseducationinChinathatcouldinformpracticesintheUnitedStates(Gilmer,1983).AtNIE,Iviewedupdoseandinaglobalcontext
someproblemsandpressingissuesinmathematicseducationtoday.Forexample,intheU.S.A.,mathematicsteachersweresopreoccupiedwithlecturingthat
mathematicalideasandtechniquesthatstudentsacquirewithoutwithoutformalschoolingarevirtuallyunknowntoteachersasaretheprocessesbywhichsuchideas
andtechniquesaretransmittedfromonegenerationtothenext.Realizingthis,Ispentseveralyearsstudying,writing,andspeakingaboutthemathematicslearningof
centralcityresidentsinMilwaukee,WisconsinanddevelopingawarenessofissuesinmathematicseducationthroughsuchcivicorganizationsastheNationalCouncil
ofNegroWomen,theNationalUrbanLeague,andtheNationalUrbanCoalition,allofwhomhaveprogramsinmathematicsandscienceeducation.
In1984attheFifthInternationalCongressonMathematicsEducation(ICME5)inAdelaide,Australia,IfirstlearnedofethnomathematicsfromD'Ambrosio's
plenaryaddressandwroteofmyperceptionsofthisconceptofmathematics(Gilmer,1985).Beforethen,likeBertrandRussell,Itoohadexperiencedthecoldand
austerebeautyofmathematics.Earlyinmycareerasastudentand,later,colleagueofClarenceEStephens,
1
Ilearnedtovaluetherigor,precision,andresilienceof
mathematiciansandtoappreciatesocialandhumanitarianvaluesimplicitinthisscholarlycommunitysuchasrespect,solidarity,andcooperation(Gilmer,1990).Then
asnow,mymodesofunderstanding,learningstyles,intuition,emotions,anduseofmathematicsareallcloselyboundtomyculturalheritagebothasanAfrican
AmericanChristianandasanactivememberofthemathematicalcommunity.Now,however,Iammoreawareoftheimmensepotentialinthedevelopmentand
acquisitionofmathematicalknowledgebytheinclusionoftheconceptofethnomathematics.Ethnomathematicsasafieldofstudyconnectsmathematicalconcepts,
theiracquisitionandapplicationthroughculturalorigins.Inthisway,ethnomathematicspavesthewayforreforminmathematicseducationandnewhorizonsin
mathematicalresearch.
HistoryoftheOrganization
In1985attheAnnualMeetinginSanAntonio,Texas,oftheNationalCouncilofTeachersofMathematics(NCTM),UbiratanD'Am

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brosio,RickScott,GilbertCuevas,andIformedtheInternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematics.InMarch1986,RickScottpublishedthefirstISGEm
newsletter.ThefirstbusinessmeetingwasheldinApril1986inWashington,DC,aspartoftheNCTMAnnualMeeting.InSeptember1987,ClaudiaZaslavsky
becameoursecretaryandElisaBonillajoinedtheboardtotranslatethenewsletterintoSpanish.EachyearwewereabletoholdResearchPresessionsinconnection
withtheNCTMannualmeetings.In1990,theNCTMDirectorsapprovedISGEmforaffiliation.
Alsoin1985,JuliaRobinson,thenpresidentoftheAmericanMathematicalSociety(AMS),appointedmechairofwhatbecametheJointMAA,AMS,AAAS
(AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience)CommitteeonOpportunitiesinMathematicsforUnderrepresentedMinorities(COMUM).Iusedthis
committeetoconnecttheminoritycommunitytothebroaderprofessionalcommunitybycreating"FriendsofCOMUM."ISGEmmembersalsobecame"Friendsof
COMUM."TheyattendedmeetingsoftheCOMUMandsharedideasaboutethnomathematicswithmathematiciansinNAM(NationalAssociationof
Mathematicians),AMS,andMAA.ISGEmmemberswerealsoinvitedtoparticipateinotheractivitiesoftheCOMUMsuchaspanelpresentationsandcontributed
papersessionsatannualmeetings.WhenCOMUMinitiatedtheeffortwhichresultedintheMathematicalSciencesEducationBoard'sproject"MakingMathematics
WorkforMinorities,"manyISGEmmembersparticipated.Inthisway,COMUMprovidedavoiceforideasoftheISGEmatMAA,AMS,andNAMmeetings.
BesideactivitiesandrecognitionintheUnitedStates,ISGEmhasbeenactiveinternationally.Weextendedournewsletterdistributiontotwentycountries.In1988,we
heldourfirstInternationalmeetingatICME6inBudapest,Hungary.Oursecondinternationalmeetingwasheldin1992atICME7inQuebecandourthirdmeeting
washeldin1996atICME8inSeville,Spain.
TheTasksAhead
Intothenextcentury,theISGEmandgenerallyresearchersinthefieldofethnomathematicswillbefacedwiththecontinuingtasksofmobilizinghumanenergiesto
generateanddisseminatemoreethnomathematicalknowledgeandtouseethnomathematicalapproachesforpromotinghumandevelopment.ForISGEm,thesetasks
maybeachievedthroughSIGs,whichmustbestrengthened.Togenerate

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knowledge,wemustdesignstrategiesforretainingouropennesstonewideas.OnesuchstrategyistocontinuetodevelopmeaningfulrelationshipswiththeMAA,
AMS,andNCTMandwithmorediversegroups,suchastheHistoryandPedagogyofMathematics,theCriticalmathematicsEducatorsGroup,theHumanistic
MathematicsNetwork,theAmericanEducationResearchAssociation,theAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience,theAmericanIndianScienceand
EngineeringSociety,theNationalTechnicalAssociation,theNationalAssociationofMathematicians,theBannakerAssociation,theInteramericanConferenceon
MathematicsEducation,andtheAfricanMathematicalUnion.Alongwithprofessionalgroups,theISGEmmusttargetschoolsanduniversitiestoinclude
ethnomathematicalthinkingintheircourseofferings,staffdevelopment,andresearchprograms.Inparticular,ISGEmmustpromotetheinclusionofindividualsfrom
social,racial,class,orgendergroups,whoarepresentlyonthemarginsofprofessionalmathematicalcommunities,intoacademicmathematicsandmathematics
relatedcareersandinvolvethemasseriousresearchersinmathematicseducationstudies.Inthisway,instinctivekindsofmathematicalknowledgethatexistsamong
adultsandchildrenintheirgroupswillbecomewidelyknown.Inaddition,morestudiesintheUnitedStatesandelsewhereareneededtorevealthenatureofinformal
andformalprocessesusedtotransmitmathematicalideasfromonegenerationtoanotherwithingroups.Strategiesneededtoaccomplishthesetasksshouldbepartof
alongrangestrategicplanforthedevelopmentofISGEm.Suchaplanshouldincludethefollowingcomponents:(1)buildingmeaningfulrelationshipsthatencourage
memberstoknoweachotherandtheirwork(2)developingleadershipandsharingresponsibilitiesamongthemembershipand(3)developingandimplementing
strategiesforactingeffectivelyinthepublicarenatofurtherISGEm'smathematicseducationagenda.
ChangingtheParadigm
TheneedfortheabovestrategiesiswelldocumentedbyrecenteventsattheUniversityofRochester.InNovember1995,membersofthemathematicsdepartmentat
theUniversityofRochesterlearnedthattheuniversityadministrationintendedtoimplementaRenaissancePlanwhichwouldeliminatetheirdepartment'sdoctoral
program,reducethesizeofthedepartmentbyhalf,andemployparttimeandfulltimemembersofotherdepartmentstoteachentrylevel

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mathematicscourses.Thesecutswerepartofageneraldownsizingoftheuniversity'soperations.Whiletheadministrationalsointendedtoeliminategraduate
programsinchemicalengineering,comparativeliterature,andlinguistics,thefacultiesinthesedepartmentshadestablishedinterdepartmentaldoctoralprogramsin
whichtheycouldcontinuetoparticipate.Twentysevendepartmentsclaimedthedoctoralprogramofthemathematicsdepartmentwasnotessentialtotheirown
programs.Inaddition,theadministrationnotedthattherewerefewlinkagesbetweenthemathematicsfacultyandthescienceandengineeringfaculties.Fearinga
possiblerippleeffectofsuchactionatuniversitiesacrosstheUnitedStates,themathematicscommunityralliedtosupporttheRochestermathematicsfaculty,including
thecreationofaspecialAMScommittee.Thisledtounprecedentedconversationsbetweenthemathematicsfaculty,theircolleaguesinotherdepartments,andthe
administration.Subsequently,withtheaidoftheDepartmentofPhysicsandAstronomy,thedecisiontoclosethePh.D.programsinmathematicswasreversed.As
partoftherescuepackage,thedepartmentalsoagreedtoreviewcoursesitoffersundergraduateswhoarenotmajorsinmathematicsandtoforgelinkageswiththe
researchspecialtiesoffacultyinotherdepartments.Atrusteegavetheuniversityseveralmilliondollarstosetupanawardsystemforgoodundergraduateteachingat
theuniversity(Focus,February1996,p.1,andJune1996,p.1).
TheexperienceoftheMathematicsDepartmentattheUniversityofRochesterillustratesanimportantprinciplefromthescienceofchaoswhichisthat"relationships
arefundamental."Studentsofchaosarediscoveringthatnothingcanbeisolatedandstudiedasanindividual.Everythingthatexistsisfreeandyetsimultaneously
boundbyitsrelationshiptoeverythingelsethatexists.Thisinterconnectednessiscalled"sensitivedependenceoninitialconditions. "Theinterconnectednessofall
thingsisawayofthinkingaboutmathematicsthatparallelsthethinkingofethnomathematicians.Thus,animportanttaskaheadfortheISGEm'sSIGon"Conceptual
andTheoreticalFoundations"istocontinueandexpanditsuseofaninterconnectednessparadigmindevelopingthefoundationsofthisdiscipline.
A1994AMSpolicystatement(AmericanMathematicalSociety,1994)characterizesmathematicsasthestudyofmeasurement,forms,patterns,andchangewhich
evolvedfromeffortstodescribeandunderstandthenaturalworld.Further,mathematicsdevelopedarichandsophisticatedculturethatfeedsbackintothenatural
sciencesandtechnology.Nowmathematicsreachesbeyondthephysicalsciences

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andengineeringintomedicine,business,thelifesciences,andthesocialsciences.Therefore,whenD'Ambrosiocharacterizesethnomathematicsasacomparative
studyoftechniquesusedbydiverseculturestoexplainandcopewithrealityindifferentnaturalandculturalenvironments,theEurocentricnotionofmathematicsis
subsumedandrespected.Importantly,however,ethnomathematiciansrespectthenaturaltalents,knowledge,skills,techniques,tools,andpowerofpersonsinevery
identifiableculturalgroupinsuchawaythattheytoofeelchallengedtoadvancethemathematicalknowledgeofthegroup.Thisleadstoadeepenedviewofother
people'sunderstandingofwhatmathematicsis,whatitdoes,andwhocreatesit.Clearlythescopeandbreathofresearchrepresentedinthisvolumeatteststo
importantandcriticaleffortstowardachievingatheoreticalparadigmforethnomathematicsthatexpandsandconnectsthefoundationsofthefield.
Notes
1.Itisimportanttonotethat,foreighteenyears,untilthesummerof1987,ClarenceF.Stephens,anAfricanAmericanmathematician,chairedthemathematics
departmentoftheliberalartscollege,TheStateUniversityofNewYorkatPotsdam.In1985,TheStateUniversityofNewYorkatPotsdamgraduated184
undergraduatemathematicsmajors.ThiswasthethirdlargestnumberinthenationbehindonlytheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandUCLA.Overthethree
yearperiodfrom1985to1987,anaverageoftwentyfourpercentoftheentirePotsdamcollegegraduatingclassweremathematicsmajorswhereasthisisonlytrue
ofonepercentofbaccalaureatedegreesgrantedinNorthAmerica.In1981,thePotsdamStatemathematicsdepartmentwascitedbyapaneloftheCommitteeon
theUndergraduatePrograminMathematicsofMAAasasuccessfulmathematicsprogram.Inaddition,itwasnotedthatannuallyseveraldozenPotsdammathematics
graduateswerehiredbyleadingtechnologicalcompaniessuchasBellLabs,IBM,andGeneralDynamics.AfteravisittothePotsdamcampus,JohnPolandof
Ottawa'sCarletonUniversitydescribedtheundergraduatemathematicsprogramatPotsdamwithitsextraordinaryrecordofsuccessas"amodernfairytale"(Poland,
1987).StephenshadsimilarbutunheraldedaccomplishmentsdecadesbeforeatMorganStateUniversity,ahistoricallyblackinstitutionwhichispartoftheMaryland
Statesystemofhighereducation.

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References
AmericanMathematicalSociety.(1994).AMSNationalPolicyStatement9495.AmericanMathematicalSociety,Providence,RI.
Gilmer,G.F.(1983).AReportonthe1983MathematicsDelegationtothePeople'sRepublicofChina,NIEUnpublishedReport.
.(1985).SocioculturalInfluencesonLearning.InW.Page(ed.),AmericanPerspectivesontheFifthInternationalCongressonMathematical
Education,MAANotesNumber5,TheMathematicalAssociationofAmerica,pp.9596.
.(1990).AninterviewwithClarenceStephens,UMETrends,p.1.
Poland,J.(1987).Amodemfairytale?AmericanMathematicalMonthly,94(3):291295.
Devlin,K.(1996).UniversityofRochesterEliminatesPh.D.Program,FOCUS,16(1),p.1.
RochesterReinstatesPh.D.Program,FOCUS,Vol.16(3),June1996,p.1.

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CONTRIBUTORS
S.E.Anderson:IwasborninNewYorkCityandliveinHarlem.Iamaveteranactivist/educatorandhavebeeninvolvedintheBlackLiberationMovementon
manylevels.Asayoungactivist,IwasamemberoftheStudentNonviolentCoordinatingCommittee(SNCC)since1964,IhavebeenactiveintheAfrican
LiberationMovementin1966,IhelpedfoundtheBlackPantherPartyinHarlemand,in1968,IparticipatedinthehistoricBlackstudent/communitystruggleagainst
ColumbiaUniversity'sencroachmentintoHarlem.Ironically,from19861987,IwasaColumbiaUniversityRevsonFellow.In1969,IcreatedadepartmentatSarah
LawrenceCollegethatincludedmathematicsandthenaturalsciencesaspartofaBlackStudiescurriculum.IhavebeenamathematicsprofessoratRutgers
UniversityNewarkandhavetaughtmathematics,science,andBlackStudiesatQueensCollegeoftheCityUniversityofNewYork.IamalsoaSeniorEditorof
NOBO:JournalofAfricanAmericanDialogue,andafoundingmemberoftheNetworkofBlackOrganizers.In1976,IcoeditedTheThirdWorldConfronts
ScienceandTechnology(LivrosHorizonte,Portugal)alongwithFrenchphysicistMauriceBazan.Mostrecently,IwroteTheBlackHolocaustforBeginners(New
York:WritersandReaders,1995)andcoeditedInDefenseofMumia(NewYork:WritersandReaders,1996).Currently,Iamworkingontwobooks:RaceFor
BeginnersandSlaveryForBeginnersandamcollaboratingwithSriLankanscientistSusanthaGoonitilakeonaWorldScienceForBeginnersbook.
MariaAscherandRobertAscher:I(Marcia)amarecentlyretiredProfessorofMathematicsatIthacaCollegeandI(Robert)amaProfessorofAnthropologyat
CornellUniversity.OurinterestinthemathematicalideasoftraditionalpeoplesbeganwhenwecollaboratedinastudyofanIncaartifactthatwassaidtobesomehow
nu

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merical.Thestudywasinspiredsimplybythedesiretoworktogetheronaproject.Thestudybecamemoreinterestingandextensivethanweanticipatedin1981it
resultedinourbookCodeoftheQuipu:AStudyinMedia,MathematicsandCulture.Theprojectrequiredrethinkingmanypreviouslylearnedideasabout
mathematicsandabouttherelationshipofmathematicsandculture.I(Marcia)alsobecameincreasinglyconsciousoftheomissionormisrepresentationoftraditional
peoplesinthemathematicsliterature.Mycentralresearchfocusthenbecameethnomathematics.Becauseofhiscontemporaryanthropologicalknowledge,Irequested
thatRobertjoinmeinthepreliminaryexpositionofethnomathematicsputforthinthepaperreprintedhere.Ourmailingaddressis524HighlandRoad,Ithaca,New
York14850.
MartinBernal:IwasborninLondonin1937andeducatedatKingsCollegeCambridge,PekingUniversity,theUniversityofCalifornia,andHarvardUniversity.I
earnedadoctorateinChinesestudiesfromCambridgein1966andwasaFellowofKingsCollegefrom1964to1972.In1972,Ibecameaprofessorofgovernment
atCornellUniversityandanadjunctprofessorofNearEasternStudiesin1986.MymajorpublicationsareBlackAthena:TheAfroasiaticRootsofClassical
Civilization,VolumesI(1987)andII(1991),RutgersUniversityPressandCadmeanLetters,1990,Eisenbrauns.Bothoftheseworkshavebeenwidelyreviewed
andcriticizedandtwofilmshavebeenmadeabouttheacademicandpoliticalcontroversiesaroundmywork.
MarceloC.Borba:IwasborninRiodeJaneiroandgraduatedfromtheFederalUniversityofRiodeJaneiroin1983withamajorinmathematics.In1984,I
enteredamaster'sprograminmathematicseducationattheStateUniversityofRioClaro(UNESPRioClaro).Inthisprogram,Iattemptedtocombinemypolitical
involvementwithacademicworkandeducation.Consequently,Idevelopedaparticipatoryresearchinafavela(''slum"),withamultidisciplinaryteamthatincluded
someofPauloFreire'sstudents.ThiswasthefirstresearchprojectbasedonD'Ambrosio'sethnomathematicsresearchprogram.Thechapterincludedinthisbook
representsmytheoreticalreflectionsonthisexperience.
In1992,IearnedadoctorateinmathematicseducationfromCornellUniversitybasedonresearchconcerningcomputersinmathematicseducation.Whileinthe
UnitedStates,throughmyinvolvementwithcolleaguesintheInternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathemat

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icsandtheCriticalmathematicsEducatorsGroup,Ifurtherdevelopedaninternationalperspectiveonethnomathematics.Since1993,Ihavebeenanassistant
professorofmathematicseducationatUNESPRioClaro,wheremyresearchcentersontherelationshipbetweendifferentmedia(orality,computers,andsoon)and
ethnomathematics.
UbiratanD'Ambrosio:IwasborninSoPaulo,Brazil,onDecember8,1932and,in1963,earnedadoctorateinmathematicsfromtheUniversidadedeSo
Paulo.IamProfessorEmeritusattheUniversidadeEstadualdeCampinas(UNICAMP),Brazil,whereIwasprofessorofmathematicsuntilIretiredin1993and
whereIhadbeentheDirectoroftheInstituteofMathematics,StatisticsandComputerSciencefrom1972to1980andProRectorforUniversityDevelopmentfrom
1982to1990.Earlier,from1970to1980,IwasalsoavisitingprofessorintheUNESCO/UNDPprogramattheCentrePdagogiqueSuprieurdeBamako,a
graduateprogramintheRepublicofMali.From19801982,IwasheadoftheunitfortheImprovementofEducationalSystemsoftheOrganizationofAmerican
StatesinWashington,D.C.From1990to1994,IwascoordinatoroftheResearchInstitutesoftheSecretaryofHealthfortheStateofSoPaulo.IntheUnited
States,IhaveservedasthegraduatechairmanofmathematicsattheStateUniversityofNewYorkatBuffalo,onthemathematicsfacultyattheUniversityofRhode
Island,BrownUniversity,theUniverityofIllinoisinChicago,andasIdaBeamDistinguishedVisitingProfessorattheUniversityofIowa.InSwitzerland,Iwasvisiting
lecturerattheBiozenturmoftheUniversityofBasel.From19821986,IwasvicepresidentoftheInternationalCommissionforMathematicsEducationand,from
1979to1987,presidentoftheInteramericanCommitteeofMathematicsEducation.IamaFellowoftheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceand
wascited"ForimaginativeandeffectiveleadershipinLatinAmericanmathematicseducationandineffortstowardinternationalcooperation."Iamafoundingmember
ofseveralinstitutions,amongthemtheSociedadLatinoamericanadeHistoriadalasCienciasylaTecnologia,theAcademiadeCinciasdoEstadodeSoPaulo,the
CentreInternationaldeRecherchesTransdisciplinaires(CIRET),andtheInternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematics(ISGEm).
MunirFasheh:Idon'tknowwhichstartedearlier:myrebellionagainstthefragmentationofPalestiniansormyrebellionagainstthefragmentationofknowledge.
WhatIincreasinglyfeltovertheyears,

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however,wasthatthetwoarestronglylinkedandthattheywereimposedfromoutside.
Fragmentationbecamethe"virus"Istartedseeinginalmostallaspectsofmylife,shapingmythinking,myperceptions,andmywork.Mychapterinthisbookresulted
frommyreflectiononmyworkwithmatheducationduringthe1970s.ItwasoneofmyfirstattemptstoarticulatetheinterconnectednessIwasincreasinglyseeingin
lifeand,inparticular,inmyteachingofmath.
Priorto1971,Itreatedmath,andtaughtitforeightyears,asifitwerethe"queenofthesciences."However,inspiteoftheimageofitsaloofnessandtheclaimsofits
universalityandneutrality,inmylittlehomeandasalittleboyIwasintuitivelyandsecretlyrelatingmathtopartsofmyexperienceaswellastoothersubjectsin
school.Isay"secretly"becauseIdidn'tfeelfreeorconfident,atthetime,toexpressopenlymyfeelingsandwhatwasgoingoninmymind.Itwaslikecommitting
"adultery"againstmath!
WhenIstartedmixingmathwiththemessinessoflife,however,IstartedseeingnewformsandrolesofmathwhichIcouldn'tseethroughthe"pure"mathperspective.
Icouldsee,forexample,muchclearermyilliteratemother'smath,theroleofmathincreatingdangeroustrendsandmonopoliesaroundtheworld,andhowmathcan
behelpfulinhumanliberation.
Ratherthananaccumulationoffactsandskills,knowledgestarted,moreandmore,tomeantomeawayofseeingthe"wholeness"inlifesortofa"worldmap"that
hastobeconstantlyredrawninmyhead,inlightofwhatevernewexperienceorpieceofinformationIacquired.Itwasalsobecomingclearertometheroleofmathin
this"redrawing"process.Inordertoplaythisrole,however,mathhastobestudiedandtaughtwithincontext:thepolitical,social,andculturalcontextaswellasthe
contextofone'spersonalexperiences.
Thepersonalexperienceandexpressionarecrucialinmakingsenseoftheworldand,inparticular,ofseeingmeaninginmath.Theyare,however,onlyabeginningit
isalsotoseekcollectivemeaningsandtoconstructcommon"maps"whicharemorerelevantandaccuratethantheonesreachedatindividually.
Intermsofmywork,whatImentionedaboveledme"naturally"tomovefromteachingmathina"pureandrefined"wayatboththeschoolandcollegelevels(bothin
PalestineandintheUSinthe1960s)toencouragebothstudentsandteacherstoconnecttheirstudyorteachingofmathtothecontextinwhichtheylivedduringthe
1970s.Later,duringthe1980s,myinterestandworkwererelatedtowiderissuesineducationandtheirrelationshiptovariousaspectsinlife.

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And,since1989,throughmyworkattheTamerInstituteforCommunityEducation,Ihavebeenmoving"backtosquareone"andstressingtheprocessoflearningas
a"natural"processthat(justlikedigestingfoodorgrowingplants)cannotbeprogrammed.Thebestwecandoisbuildenvironmentswhichenhanceandhelpthis
naturalprocessoflearningforinstance,helpstudentsexpresstheirexperiences,workinteams,haveaccesstoinformation,buildcommonmapsoftheworldwhich
theyinhabit,dealwithpersonalproblems,andworkwithinavisionthatisbeyondtheinterestsofanyspecificindividualandanyspecificmoment.Thisstrugglewith
teachingofmath,witheducationandwithlearningwaspartiallytranslatedintofivebooks(inArabic)andintomanyarticles(bothinEnglishandinArabic).
MarilynFrankenstein:Ifirstbecameawareofracism,whenasaWhitetenyearold,workingclass,atheist,Brooklyngirl,Ioverheardaneighborrefertomy
familybysaying"Leaveittothekikestobringtheniggersaround."Atthattime,mymother,whoisneitheraleftistnoranactivist,explainedtometheinsanityof
racismandthelogicofracismundercapitalism.Thatbeganmyclimbuptheslipperyslopeofanticapitalistpoliticalawarenessandcommitment.
Inasocialistworld,Iwouldhavebeenanartist.Asitis,since1978,IhavetaughtmathtoadultsattheCollegeofPublicandCommunityService(CPCS),University
ofMassachusetts/Boston(CenterforAppliedLanguageandMathematics,Boston,MA02125).Forthepreviousdecade,Itaughtmathinvariouspublicschoolsin
NewYorkCityandNewJersey.Ihavewrittenacriticalmathematicstextbookforadults,RelearningMathematics(London:FreeAssociationBooks,1989)and
numerousarticlesaboutcriticalmathematicscurriculumandteaching.IamamemberoftheRadicalTeachereditorialcollective,andcofounderwithArthurPowell
andJohnVolminkoftheinternationalCriticalmathematicsEducatorGroup(CmEG).
Thegoalsofmymathematicsteachingaretobothdemystifythestructureofmathematicsandtousemathematicstodemystifytheinstitutionalstructuresofoursociety.
Underlyingallmyteachingisanattentiontoquestionsconcerningthepoliticsofknowledge,suchas"Whogetstodefinewhatcountsaslegitimateknowledge?"
AndIloveglitter,(stage)magic,dancing,andlisteningtoandplayingAmericanclassicalmusic,usuallyreferredtoasjazz,withmyfriends.
PaulusGerdes:IamaMozambicanmathematicianwhowasbornintheNetherlands.AsaboyIcametolikethebeautyofmathematics

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buttodislikethewayinwhichmybestfriendsathighschoolandatuniversitywere'eliminated'by'mathematics.'WhenIbecameawareintheearlyseventiesofthe
existenceoftheArmyMathematicsResearchCentersintheU.S.A.andtheirsupportingroleintheUnitedStates'waragainstVietnamandsawthatsomeofmyown
professorswereattendingmathematicalconferencesfinancedbyNATO,Iwithdrewalmostcompletelyfromstudyingmathematics.Instead,Iturnedtothestudyof
culturalanthropologytounderstandbettertheworldwearelivingin,butwasnotfindingtheanswerstomyquestions:Whatislifeallabout?,Whatismathematicsall
about?,Mathematicsbywhom,forwhom,andwhatfor?
Inthemidseventies,whilestrugglingwiththesequestions,IcametocontributetonewlyindependentMozambiquebecauseofitsshortageofmathematicsteachers.
Whatmathematicsandmathematicalcurriculadidthecountryneed?Colonialideologyandeducationhadpresentedmathematicsasanexclusivelywhiteman's
product,difficulttobemasteredbytheoppressed.InspiredbothbyFreire'sPedagogyoftheOppressedandbythereflectionsofEduardoMondlane,acultural
anthropologistandfirstPresidentofMozambique'sliberationmovementFrelimo,andSamoraMachel,firstPresidentofindependentMozambique,onthenatureof
colonialeducationandofliberatoryeducation(inparticular,theimportanceofculturalawarenessandculturalsocialselfconfidence),Iandmycolleagueswere
stimulatedtothinkaboutmathematicalideasinMozambicanculture(s)andhowtobuildmathematicscurriculaonthebaseofthem.Basedontheseefforts,in1978,
weinitiatedtheresearchproject"EmpiricalknowledgeoftheMozambicanpopulationandtheteachingofmathematics,"aforerunnerofourcurrentproject:
"Ethnomathematics/ethnoscienceinMozambique."Duringtheinitialproject,UbiratanD'AmbrosioandBeatriceLumpkinvisitedus.In1980,attheFourth
InternationalCongressonMathematicsEducation,attheUniversityofCaliforniainBerkeley,California,wemetArthurB.PowellandClaudiaZaslavsky.Also,since
ourinitialproject,wehavesharedourreflectionsinMozambiquewithcolleaguesthroughoutAfricaandwithcolleaguesinotherpartsoftheworld.Thishasbeen
extremelystimulating,andwecannowseethattheethnomathematicalmovementisbecomingeverstronger.
GloriaGilmer:IampresidentofMathTech,Inc.,aneducationalresearchanddevelopmentcorporationlocatedinMilwaukee,Wisconsin.MathTech,Inc.
specializesintranslatingresearchresultsintoef

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fectiveprogramsinmathematicsteachingandlearningespeciallyforminoritiesandfemales.IamaformerresearchassociatewiththeOfficeofEducationalResearch
andImprovementoftheUnitedStatesDepartmentofEducationandaformermathematicianinexteriorballisticswiththeUnitedStatesArmyatAberdeenProving
Grounds,Maryland.Ihaveextensiveexperienceinmathematicsteachingandlearningattheuniversity,college,school,andpreschoollevels.Ihavebeenonthe
mathematicsfacultiesofsixmajorhistoricallyBlackinstitutionsofhighereducationintheUnitedStatesHamptonUniversity,VirginiaStateUniversity,MorganState
University,AtlantaUniversity,MorehouseCollege,andCoppinStateCollegeintheMarylandStatesystem.Also,Ihavelecturedinmathematicsonthreecampuses
ofTheUniversityofWisconsinandtaughtatMilwaukeeAreaTechnicalCollegeandinpublicschoolsinMilwaukee,WIandLockport,NY.Idirectedandaman
authoroftheAddisonWesleyproject"BuildingBridgestoMathematics:CulturalConnections."Ihaveextensiveinvolvementinprofessionalorganizationsboth
nationallyandinternationally.IformerlychairedtheCommitteeonOpportunitiesinMathematicsforUnitedMinorities(COMUM)ajointcommitteeofThe
AmericanMathematicalSociety,TheMathematicalAssociationofAmerica,andTheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofSciencewhichinitiatedthe
project"MakingMathematicsWorkforMinorities"withtheMathematicalSciencesEducationBoardoftheNationalResearchCouncil.Iamalsoaformernational
directoroftheBlacksandMathematicsprojectoftheMathematicalAssociationofAmerica.Inaddition,forelevenyears,IwaspresidentofTheInternationalStudy
GrouponEthnomathematics.IholdaBachelorofSciencedegreeinmathematicsfromMorganStateUniversity,aMasterofArtsdegreeinmathematicsfromthe
UniversityofPennsylvania,andaPh.D.fromMarquetteUniversityinCurriculumandInstruction.
HerbertP.Ginsburg:IamaProfessorofPsychologyandMathematicsEducationatTeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversity.Forthepastthirtyyears,Ihavebeen
conductingresearchonthedevelopmentofchildren'smathematicalthinking,focusingonsuchquestionsasthenatureofthemathematicalthinkingofindividualsinother
cultures,thedifficultieschildrenexperiencewithschoolmathematics,andfeaturesofappropriatemethods,particularlytheclinicalinterviewmethod,usefulfor
assessingchildren'sknowledge.Myinterestinthesequestionsdevelopedfromexperiencewithpoorchildrenin

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lessthanhospitableAmericanschools.Mygoalistoachieveadeeperunderstandingofpoorchildren'sintellectualdevelopmentandeducationandtoapplythis
knowledgetothereformofAmericaneducation.
MaryHarris:IhadawartornchildhoodthattookmerightroundtheworldbythetimeIwasnineyearsold,makingmeagenuinecitizenoftheglobalvillage.My
educationinNewZealand,England,andNigeriaincludedstudyingchemistryattheuniversity,afterwhichIbecameinterestedinthebusinessoflearningmathematics
whileworkingwithoneofmychildrenwhohaslearningdifficulties.Later,whileanalyzingresearchdataonthemathematicspeopledoatwork,Inotedthatpeople
oftendenythattheydoanymathematicswhenaskedspecificallyaboutit,butrevealthattheydotheverymathematicstheydeny,whenaskedaboutsomeother
workplaceskill.Thepursuitofwhat'mathematics'meansinthesecircumstancesledmeintoethnomathematicsandthequestionofhowandwhyworkplace
mathematicscametobeignoredbyformal,Europeanfoundedsystemsofmathematicseducation.
IamcurrentlyaVisitingFellowattheDepartmentofMathematicalSciences,UniversityofLondonInstituteofEducation,20BedfordWay,LondonWC1HOAL.
Myemailaddressisteuemha@ioe.ac.uk.
GeorgeGhevergheseJoseph:IwasborninKerala,southernIndia,andlivedinIndiafornineyears.MyfamilythenmovedtoMombassa,Kenya,whereIstarted
myformalschooling.IlaterstudiedattheUniversityofLeicesterandthenworkedforsixyearsasaneducationofficerinKenyabeforereturningtoEnglandtodomy
postgraduateworkatManchester.IamcurrentlyareaderineconomicandsocialstatisticsattheUniversityofManchesterinEngland.Myteachingandresearch
haverangedoverabroadspectrumofsubjectsinappliedmathematicsandstatistics,includingmultivariateanalysis,mathematicalprogramming,demography,and
econometrics.However,inrecentyears,myresearchhasbeenmainlyinthesocialandhistoricalaspectsofmathematicswithparticularemphasisonthenonEuropean
contributionstothesubject.Ihavetravelledwidely,holdingvisitingappointmentsinTanzaniaandPapuaNewGuineaandaRoyalSocietyVisitingFellowshipinIndia.
IhavealsolecturedinseveraluniversitiesintheUnitedStates,Canada,SouthAfrica,andMexico.MypublicationsincludeWomenatWork(PhilipAllan,Oxford,
1983),TheCrestofthePeacock:NonEuropeanRootsofMathematics

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(Penguin,London,1992),andMulticulturalMathematics(OxfordUniversity,Oxford,1993).
GelsaKnijnik:IwasbornandliveinsouthernBrazil,intheregionwhere,fifteenyearsago,burgeonedamostimportantsocialmovement:theMovementof
LandlessRuralWorkers(MST).Beingawomanfromthecity,whobeganherprofessionalcareerasateacherofprimaryschool,oneofthefundamentalmarksofmy
life'strajectoryconcernstheworkIrealized,startingin1991,inmathematicseducationtogetherwithMST.Icompletedmymaster'sinmathematics,specializingin
algebra,andwrotemydoctoraldissertationineducation,theorizingwhatIbecameawareofworkingwiththeruralwomenandmenofMST.
BeforemyworkwithMST,startingaround1986,Ihadalreadybeeninvolvedwithethnomathematics,conductingstudiesinpoorcommunitieslocatedatthemargins
ofthecityinwhichIlive.Effectively,however,myworkwithMSThasprovidedmewiththepossibilityofestablishingacloserconnectionbetweenmyacademic
scholarshipandmypoliticalinvolvement,seekingtocontributetothediminutionofsocialinjustices.
BeatriceLumpkin:IamaretiredassociateprofessorofmathematicsatMalcolmXCollegeoftheChicagoCommunityColleges.Ibecameateacheraftertwenty
yearsofworkinindustrialproductionjobsandtechnicalwriting(electronics).Withadegreeinhistoryandafirmbeliefintheneedforsocialism,teachinghistory
wouldhavebeenanaturalchoice.Buthistoryteacherswithmybackgroundoflaboractivismwerebeingfired.SoIdecidedtoteachinmyotherfieldofinterest,
mathematicsandphysics.
AtMalcolmXCollegeinthelate1960s,becausestudentsweredemanding"BlackStudies"courses,IbegantostudythehistoryofmathematicsinAfrica.AlthoughI
hadlearnedthatmuchofAfricanhistoryhadbeendistortedorhiddenfromreadingW.E.B.DuBois'TheWorldandAfrica,Iwasstillsurprisedtolearnhowmuch
ofthemathematicstaughttodayhaditsstartinAfrica.AlthoughIwasteachingwhatIhadthoughtwasapoliticallyneutralsubject,myresearchforcedme,onceagain,
togoagainstthesystem.IbegantoteachwhatIhadnewlylearned,thatmathematicsbeganinAfrica,notGreece.ThegreatcontributionsoftheHellenistic
mathematicianswerebasedonthefoundationofthousandsofyearsofmathematicsinAfricaandAsia.

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Iamnowactivelydevelopingmaterialsformulticulturalmathematicsandscienceeducation.ThesematerialsincludeSenefer,YoungGeniusinOldEgypt,and
SeneferandHatshepsutforchildren,MulticulturalScienceandMathConnections(classroomactivities),AfricanCulturalMaterialsforElementary
MathematicsfortheIllinoisStateBoardofEducation,anda"BaselineEssay"forthePortland,OregonPublicSchoolson"AfricanandAfricanAmerican
ContributionstoMathematics."Mymailingaddressis7123S.Crandon,Chicago,IL60649Telephone:7736844553.
BrianMartin:IreceivedmydoctorateintheoreticalphysicsfromtheUniversityofSydneyandthenworkedfortenyearsasanappliedmathematicianatthe
AustralianNationalUniversity.InowworkintheDepartmentofScienceandTechnologyStudies,UniversityofWollongong,NSW2522,Australia
b.martin@uow.edu.au.Iwasfirstinvolvedwithradicalsciencegroupsintheearly1970s,andthisledmetothecritiqueofmathematics.Ihavepublishedonscientific
controversies,suppressionofdissent,nonviolentdefense,critiqueofexpertise,socialmovementstrategies,informationinafreesociety,andothertopics.
RikPinxten:In1975,IearnedaDoctorinPhilosophyand,in1980,aSpecialDoctorinPhilosophyfromtheUniversityofGentinBelgium.Since1980,Ihavebeen
aprofessorofanthropologyandreligiousstudiesattheUniversityofGent.Beforethen,IwasresearcherattheBelgianNationalScienceFoundation.Mybooks
includeUniversalismversusRelativism(Mouton,TheHague,1972),AtheisticReligiosity?(Story,Gent,1977),AnthropologyofSpace:NavajoNatural
PhilosophyandSemantics(withI.VanDorenandEHarveyPhiladelphia,UniversityofPennsylvania,1983),NavajoGeometry(Gent,KKI,1987),
EvolutionaryEpistemology(withW.CallebautReidel,Dordrecht,1987),andCulturenstervenlangzaam(CulturesDieHard,Antwerp,1994).Iamtheeditor
inchiefofthejournalCulturalDynamics(SagePublications).
Iamadevoteddemocratwhoiscriticallyinterestedinculturalandreligiousrootsofpeople.Thepowerinvolvedinusingandproducingknowledge,beitwithnative
peoplesorwithscientists(andmathematicsteachers)hasintriguedmethroughoutmycareer.Powercanbeandoftenisanoblething,Iclaim,butismoreandmore
turnedintodominationandviolenceinourculture.Ifeeldriventostudythisascloselyaspossibleandtomendorinfluencetheimpactofinputonothers(cultural
groupsorsocialentities)wherepossible.

Page429
ArthurB.Powell:Since1981,IhavebeenafacultymemberoftheAcademicFoundationsDepartmentontheNewarkCampusofRutgersUniversity,teaching
coursesindevelopmentalmathematicsandmethodsofteachingmathematics.Mypoliticalactivism,research,andscholarlyinterestsareinmathematicseducation,
particularlyconcerningepistemologicalandphilosophicalquestionsofmathematicslearningaswellasonsociologicalandpoliticalimplicationsofmathematics
education.Besidesworkinethnomathematics,Ihavebeendevelopingandexploringtheefficacyofaclassroombased,participatoryresearchmodel.Throughmy
teachingofmathematicsandresearchinmathematicseducation,Ilaborsothatunderrepresentedracial,ethnic,andgendergroupscanrestructureintellectual,
personal,psychological,economic,cultural,andpoliticalpowerrelationstoimprovetheirselfesteemandtobuildmorejustcommunities.Overtheyears,inpursuitof
thesegoals,asidefromworkinginvariouscommunitiesintheUnitedStates,IhavelecturedandtaughtinChina,Brazil,SouthAfrica,andMozambique.
DirkJanStruik:IamanemeritusprofessorofmathematicsattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.Asanhistorianofthisfield,Ihavelongbeeninterestedin
theoriginofmathematicalconcepts.IhavefollowedwithgreatinteresttheworkofZaslavsky,Gerdes,andothersonethnomathematics,seeinginitnotonlya
fascinatingacademicsubject,butalsoanaspectofthestruggleagainstthedamagecolonialismhasdonetothecultureofindigenouspeoples.Italsohasturnedoutto
beoneofthewaystoimprovemathematicaleducationinourown"Western"culture.
ValerieWalkerdine:IamaprofessorinthepsychologyofcommunicationinGoldsmithsCollege,UniversityofLondon,SE146NW,England.Ihaveresearched
aspectsofchildren'scognitivedevelopmentandmathematics,andgenderandmathematicsforthepasttwentyyears.MybooksonthesubjectincludeTheMasteryof
Rein(Routledge,1988/90)andCountingGirlsOut(Virago,1989,2ndedn.Falmer,1996).Asaresultofgrowingupworkingclass,Ihavealwayshadkeen
interestintherelationshipbetweenexploitation,oppression,andpsychologicalandculturalaspectsofsubjectivity.
ClaudiaZaslavsky:Ihavetaughtmathematicsatmanylevels,frommiddlegradestograduatecoursesforteachers.MyyearsofexperienceintheGreenburgh
CentralSevenschooldistrictinNewYorkState,wherebusingforintegrationwasestablishedin1951,led

Page430
toaninvestigationintotheevolutionofmathematicalideasinAfrica,whichleadtomybookAfricacounts:NumberandpatterninAfricanculture,firstpublished
in1973andnowaclassicinpaperback.Subsequently,myfieldofinterestextendedtootherculturesandtothedevelopmentofcurriculummaterialsthatwouldbring
amulticulturalperspectiveintothemathematicsclassroomatallgradelevels.Suchaperspectivecanenrichthelearningofallstudents,whatevertheirgender,ethnic,
andracialheritage,orsocioeconomicstatus.Currently,Iworkasamathematicseducationconsultant,author,andcurriculumdeveloperandmaybecontactedat45
FairviewAvenue,#13I,NewYork,NY10040,212/5694115.

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INDEX
A
Abbasidcaliphate,70
Action,18fig
educational,22
impactonreally,1718
intellectual,18societal,18
AdelardofBath,71,109
Africa:astronomicalknowledgeof,327n2
culturalpracticeandmathematics,223244
ethnomathematicalresearchin,351355
Europeandominationof,63
inhistoryofmathematics,101116
literacyratesin,224
mathematicalgamesin,316,317
selectiveunderdevelopmentof,2
sociomathematicsof,337338
womeninmathematicaldevelopment,300
AfricanAmerican,57n5,252,292,305,417
Ahmespapyrus,73,105,300
Alexander,66,67,105,106
Algebra,66,74,108,174,176,184,186,255n2,256n4,299303,302
rhetorical,107
separationfromarithmetic,295296
Algorithms,71,108,120,302
AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience,292,331
Analysis,instrumentsof,xiv
Anaxagoras,77n3
Anderson,S.E.,291306
Anthropology:cultural,6,13,21,332
indigenous,63
Western,63
Apollonius,52,108
Arabicworld,contributionstoknowledge,1,65,66,67,6971,101,103,107109
Archimedes,52,66,90,91,108
Architecture,16,34,88,93,95,103,301,315316
Aristotle,65,85,88
Ascher,Marcia,5,2544,196,227,346
Ascher,Robert,5,2544,196,227,346
Asclepius,84
Asia:Europeandominationof,63
selectiveunderdevelopmentof,2
Assyria,94,95
Astronomy,53,65,71,84,87,88,89,93,94
Automation,292
B
Babylonia,52,56,66,67,73,74,75,76,77n4,93
Baokiswahile,275n5
Bases,44n3,142,312
Behavior:cultural,17
individual,17,18
mathematicsas,333
social,17,18,275
Bernal,Martin,8395
Blackcommunity,57n5
BlackConsciousnessMovement(SouthAfrica),327
BlackElk,3436,315
BlackEnglish,131,132,140
BlackEnglishVernacular(BEV),252,255n2
Blacks,130,131,139,140,149,291,318,412
Bloor,David,157,158,162
Borba,Marcelo,261270
C
Calculation:abstract,203,209
languageof,66
reasoningby,120
forsurvival,203

Page432
Calculus,17,124,303
algebraicdifferential,182
derivative(ofafunction),124,174
differential,174,176,177,186,187
foundationsof,173,176,178
integral,174,177
mysticaldifferential,179180
overhaulingof,178
philosophyof,53
rationaldifferential,180181
Calendars,34,56,72,76,79n14,90,102
Capitalism:controlin,297,300
developmentof,303
divisionoflaborin,293
domination,205
andmathematics,125n1
productionin,56
Cardinality,xiv
Cauchy,Augustin,177,178,181,184,187,296
China,65,67,69,77n4,83,102
Christianity,xviixviii
Circles,3536
Circumscription,32
Civilizations:African,102
Arabic,12,15,65,66,67,6971,103,107109
Babylonian,52,56,67
BlackEgyptian,2
Egyptian,2,52,53,54,55,63,64,65,67
Indian,64,65
Mesopotamian,65
Namibian,112
Neolithic,102
Zimbabwean,103
Class,51
differences,140
divisions,194
ineducation,296297
elitism,296
rule,293
social,121,140,308
socioeconomic,67
Classifying,7
Cognition:basicskillsof,139
andcontext,328n3
andculture,121
deficitsin,131,133,137,148149
developmentof,121,122,201,205
differencesin,131,133,140141,148149
andmathematics,15,129,201213
inpoorchildren,130
presocialmodels,201
andrace,140
relationtoculture,14
researchon,134
schooled,142
skillsin,132
structuresof,146
stylesof,145,148149
systemsof,121
talkingaloudmethod,134
theoriesof,14,131,132
universalsof,131,137140
Colonialism,1,2,23,63,109,205,206,212,223,226,227,303,323,326,343
Communication,xv,18,119
conventionsin,277
indialogues,263
egocentric,145
intensificationof,xviii
written,119
Comparing,xiv
Competence:measuring,134,135
memory,138
andperformance,134135
inreasoning,138
relevanttasksfor,134
intraditionalcultures,133134
universalsof,137140
Consciousness,262,264
chainof,262
critical,267,288
intransitive,262
transitive,262263,269
ConstantinetheAfrican,109
Control:ofeducation,206
ofmathematics,163165,297
scientific,206
social,165
symbolic,203
Counting,xiv,6,14,16,19,27,44n3,120,139,266
Criticalmathematics,xiii,xiv
Cultural:affirmation,254
alienation,383
anthropology,6,13,21,332
authority,285
awareness,273
background,129
behavior,17
beliefs,32,276277
blockades,226
categorization,2930,196
changes,72,284
confidence,227
conflict,356n13
conscientialization,228243,354
dependency,77n1
deprivation,150
differences,131,252
differentiation,8,21
disempowerment,252
diversity,32,76,254
environment,xviii
experience,7
expressions,26
formsofmathematicalfunctions,xiv
heritages,318
imperialism,2
interaction,356n13
meanings,270n2,284,285
minorities,308
products,119
reaffirmationinmathematics,226228
research,15
Culture:andcognition,121
conceptof,17,18
continuityof,108
creationof,119
defining,18,79n13,119,270n2
democratizationof,119
differingmodesof,6
andeducation,223244
effectonmathematics,2
folklorizationof,226
humanistdimensionof,119
indigenous,225,334
influenceonconcepts,282
interactionswithmathematics,119126,273289
kinshiprelationshipsin,3943
manifestationsof,1819
marginalizationin,xv
material,323
andmathematics,5,307318
nonliterate.SeeCultures,traditional''ofsilence,"51
ofpower,253,255n1
problemsolvingmethods,140141

Page433
reasoningin,7
relationtocognition,14
school,33
synthesesof,112
world,307318
Cultures,traditional,2544
Aranda(Australia),3941
Blackfeet,28
inBotswana,352
Burundian,351
contributionstomathematics,291306
inCteD'Ivoire,138,139,351
inCteD'Ivore,120,138,139
Dogon(Mali),327n2
Guinean,351
Igbo(Nigeria),316
Inca,5,14,29,34,312
intellectualcompetencein,134
Inuit,37,311
judgmentaldescriptionsof,30,31
Kdang,31,196
Kenyan,352
Kpelle(Liberia),32,33,224,225,337
Lesotho,316
Mall256n4
Maori,5,349
mathematicalknowledgeof,196
Maya,16,34,78n7,102,312
Mende(SierraLeone),256n4,311
Mozambican,215221,223244,352,354355
NativeAmerican,33,3435,292,308,311,313,314,315,316,322,346348,373399
NewHebrides,4143
Nigerian,351
numbersetsin,28,138
numerationin,26,27
SouthPacific,3738
Tanzanian,225,226
Tshokwe,5
Tsimshian,28
inUganda,352
useofabstractconcepts,27,28
Yucatecan,33
inZaire,76,314,316
Zimbabwean,315316
Curriculum:alternative,298299
conventional256n4
creationof,223244
development,22,207,254
difficultyinchanging,269
empowermentin,223,253,326
ethnomathematicsin,226,249257
Eurocentric,2,293
institutionalized,293
andlocalculture,348
mandated,309
mathematics,75,121,256n4,307318,383399
multicultural,309,349
NewMathematics,334335
projectorganizationin,269
relevancyin,226
testdriven,309
thematizationin,269
transplantationof,224
Westernperspectivesof,224
worldmath,291306
D
D'Ambrosio,Ubiratan,5,1323,193,224,226,227,250,265,334337
DarkAges,6971,301302
Decimals,105,108,115,116,193
Defenses,210213
Democritus,77n3,103
Demography57n6
Development:cognitive,132,142,201,202,205,206
curriculum,22,207,254
economic,197
intellectual122,129,150
mapping,206
monitoring,207
pathologyof,207
ofpoorchildren,129
processes,146
psychologicalaspectsof,197,206
social,62
sociopolitical,302
stagesof,206
Dialectics,124
dialectical,119,174
Dialogue,263,267
dialogicaleducation,250
Difference,201213
cultural,252
asinferiority,205206
politicsof,326
semantic,252
syntactic,252
Diffusionism,45n6
Dinostratos,91
Diophantineequations,28
Diophantus,52,66,94
Dynamics:group,8
ofknowledge,20,157
ofmathematicalknowledge,8
E
Education:accessto,308
capitalistsystemof,293
andchildren'sexperiences,76,225
andcognition,201213
colonial226,256n4,337
compensatory,130
competitionin,296297
crisisin,292
criticalmathematics,xiii,xiv
andculture,223244
dealingwithauthorityin,275,285287
dialogical,250
asdiscursivepractice,201,206
droppingout,308
elitismin,75
andethnomathematics,261270
existingcognitivestrengthsin,121
failureof,129,143,144,225,294298
imaginaryidentityin,210
inapproriate,225
individualismin,297
lackofopportunityfor,308
mass,16
mathematics,xiii,xvii,1517,201213,223244,291306,332
motivationin,121,144,147
multicultural,xiii,267
nontraditional,3
openschoolsin,132
ofpoorchildren,129150,204205
popular,404
postindependence,224
preparationfor,130
provisionof,130
racismin,75
reformin,121,146,298
asreinforcerofpowerstructure,224
remediationin,148
scientificcontrolof,206
insocial

Page434
Education(cont.)
system,149
testingin,132
astoolofsocietalpower,292293
trackingin,308
traditional,3
Westernstyle,33
Egypt,2,52,53,54,55,57n1,57n4,63,64,65,66,67,73,83,85,87,89,93,94,102,105107,333
Elitism,15,56,75,194,224,293,296
Empedocles,77n3
Engels,Friedrich,173,174,175,176,179,184,187
Enumeration,140
Environment:conceptualizationof,120
cultural,xviii
deprived,131
experiencesin,76
explorationof,120
lackofstimulationin,131
physical,76
school,146
social,76
socialcultural,142
spatial,37,120
symbolizationof,120
Equations:Diophantine,28,158
formationofmatricesin,102103
higherdegree,176
interpretationsof,160
linear,73
quadratic,65
ofquantumtheory,160
useoffalsepositionin,73,104
Equilibration,145
Ethics,xviii
Ethnoastronomy,13
Ethnobotany,1314
Ethnolinguistics,343
Ethnomathematics:characteristicsof,336337
conceptdevelopment,13
confidencebuildingaspectsof,249250
incurrentschoolsituations,269270
currentworkin,331355
incurricula,249257
defining,xiii,5,7,332,343
developmentof,268
andeducation,261270,276281
efficiencyof,266
growthof,xiii
inhistoryofmathematics,1323
learningabout,250
methodology,261270,276281
movement,344345
normal,21
philosophicalbackground,261264
politicalpowerof,403409
problemsolvingin,266
researchin,3,321328
Ethnoscience,13,344
Euclid,15,52,53,77n4,79n10,88,92,94,106107,108,296,301,312,333
Eudoxos,65,90,91,94,95,312
Eugenics,46n19,198n1
Eurocentrism,57n5
biasin,7275,255
challengesto,xiii,13,6,7577,291306
classroomcounteringof,7577
anddestructionofcivilizations,12
durabilityof,64
foundationsof,6177
historiographicpillarsof,293
institutionalizationof,296
inmathematics,xv,6177,292294
mythof,255
asrationaleforimperialism,2
superiorityof,1
Europe:asculturaldefinition,1
aspoliticalentity,1
selectivedevelopmentof,2
Evolution:classical,26,27,30
theoriesof,68
Experience(s):children's,7
constructing,322
cultural,7
andeducation,7
environmental,7
andlogic,7
andmathematics,7
personal,273
practical,328n3
student,279
intime,7
F
Fanon,Franz,211
Fasheh,Munir,273289
Fibonacci,109
Foucault,Michel,204,206
Fractions,57n1,89,102,105
Frankenstein,Marilyn,13,59,5156,119126,193198,249257,298,321328
Freire,Paulo,51,119,262,263,267,269,321,325,345346
Freud,Sigmund,208,211
G
Games,103,120,161,266,267,316318,339340
Gender,51
andability,51
anddevelopmentofmathematics,56,216
anddominationofmathematics,165,216
Eurocentricreinforcementofinferiority,293294
andmathematics,293294
inmathematics,300
inmathematicscontributions,79n12,216
asmathematicsresource,215221
andsexistissues,52,53
Geometry,15,35,36,88,108
abstract,194
Alexandrov'sconstruction,228231
alternateaxiomaticconstructions,228231
analytic,174
andarchitecture,93
inarchitecture,103
axiomsof,279
inbasketry,235239,236fig,245n25,352,353
developmentof,95

Page435
early,77n4
Egyptian,90
Euclidean,34,228231
formulasin,104
foundingof,93
Mesopotamian,90
modelingin,90,94,95
NativeAmerican,347
nonEuclidean,108,302
ritual,348
teachingmethods,228231
thinkingin,223244
truthsin,34
inweaving,217,218,218fig,220,220fig
Gerdes,Paulus,194,215,216,217,223244,331355
Germain,Sophie,53
GherardoofCremona,71
Gillings,Richard,91,104
Gilmer,Gloria,411417
Ginsburg,Herbert,129150
Globalization,xvii
Greece,14,15,16,52,55,56,64,66,67,72,78n8,83,84,103
H
Hammurabicdynasty,73
Harris,Mary,215221
alHaytham,108
HeadStart,130
Hellonocentrism,16,78n8
Herodotus,55,65,87
Heron,52,94,107
Hieroglyphs,102,116fig
History:Alexandrian,52
Babylonian,52,56,66,67,74,75,77n4
cultural,66
Egyptian,52,53,54,55,56,57n1,57n4,66,67,73,85,102,300
Greek,15,52,55,56,66,67,72,84,301
Indian,16,66,78n8
industrialera,16
oflogic,14
ofmathematics,xiii,xvi,xvii,6,8,9,13,6375,300302
MiddleAges,15,66
mythin,51,52
oral,227
racismin,52,56,57n5
Renaissance,16,78n6
Roman,15
ofscience,19,20
sexismin,52,56
HouseofWisdom(Baghdad),70,302
Hypatia,52,107
I
ldeological:perspective,124,173
nonideologicalcharacterof,125
message,57n5
Ideology,123
Ideology:ofaptitudes,51
ofEuropeansuperiority,63
relationtoscience,23
Imperialism,xv,194
cultural,2,357n14
justificationfor,294
ofmathematics,8,254
politicsof,2
rationalefor,2
IncompletenessTheorem,198
Indeterminism,160
India,16,65,66,67,69,70,77n3,78n8,83
Inference,19
Infinitesimals,188
Inhotep,93
InteramericanCommitteeonMathematicsEducation,224
InternationalCongressonMathematicsEducation(ICME),xiii,9,413,414
InternationalNubianRescueMission,102
InternationalStudyGrouponEthnomathematics,xiii,9n1,249,339,348,356n1,411417
lshangobone,56,76,79n14,112
Islam,xviixviii,1,70,138
Italy,101,108,109,302
J
Johnson,Lyndon,130
Joseph,George,6177,194,265,293,300
K
alKhayyami,Umar,108
alKhwarizmi,MohammedibnMusa,70,108,302
Knijnik,Gelsa,403409
Knowing,stylesof,xv
Knowledge:abstract,3
academic,132,142145,146,150,403
acquisitionof,xviii,120,328n3
applicationsof,3
Arabiccontributionsto,1,15,65,66,67,6971,103,107109
assumptionof,252253
attitudestoward,277,280
authorityover,167
capabilityfor,324
commonsense,194
competitionfor,296297
creating,3
culturalinfluenceson,155169
diffusionof,xviii
distortionsof,327n2
dynamicsof,20,157
ethnomathematical,59
Eurocentrismin,61
evolutionof,157
exchangesof,108
explanationsof,157
generationof,xviii
Greekfoundationsof,2,52
informal,146
interpreting,285
legitimizationof,267
mathematical,8,6375,120,155169,193198,201213,265,322
natureof,326
nonacademicsourcesof,3
ofnumbers,77n2
ofobjectivereality,155
obliterationof,53
organizationof,xviiixix
originof,157
popular,403
positive,343
practi

Page436
Knowledge(cont.)
cal,3,201
preschool,375
productionof,206
purposesof,321
reconsidering,322
scientific,155
sociologyof,157162
ofspace,77n2
structureof,21,146,157
takenforgranted,1
theoretical,201
transmissionof,67,69fig,71,109
valid,156
Kpelle,32,33,224,225
L
Lacan,Jacques,208,210
LandlessPeopleMovement(Brazil),324,326,403409
Language:ofcalculation,66
ascode,265
common,79n13
communities,27
conventionsof,251
domination,252,253
andfacilitationoflearningmathematics,251
flexibilityof,27
Greek,301
learning,120
andmathematics,77n2,251,255n2
mathematizationof,120
numerationin,27,28,44n3
second,251252
syntacticstructuresin,251
useoflogicalconnectorsin,3132
Law,8586
Learning:centersof,302
children's,129150,225
conceptual,131
culturalactionin,321,326
andculturaldiversity,32
deficitsin,131
disabilities,147
lackofperceivedbenefits,147
models,202
noncognitivefactorsin,147148
potential,145147,150
problems,147148,250
roleofteachersin,217
rote,297298
selfdirected,132,141
spontaneous,141
style,145
theoriesof,132
throughinferences,32
LvyBrhl,Lucien,30,31,47n26,89
Lines,3536
Locating,120,266
Logic,3,25
amongpeople,280,281
axiomatic,194,293
ofclasses,39
deductive,72,194,293
defining,3
andexperience,3
ofexplanation,7
formal,32
fuzzy,32
historyof,14
ofkinshipstructures,3943,349
mathematical,198
natureof,162
ofpropositions,39
ofrelations,39
thoughtas,3
threevalued,32
Lumpkin,Beatrice,101116
M
Magic,84
alMamun(caliph),70
alMansur(caliph),70,302
Mapping,206,279
Martin,Brian,155169
Marx,Karl,xin1,22,53,57n2,123124,125n1,173189
Matching,29
Materialism:dialectical,173
historical,123
Mathematicalfunctions:addition,138,139
algebra,66,74,108,174,176,255n2,256n4,299303,302
algorithms,71,108
alternateaxiomaticconstructions,228231
applicationsof,29
area,104,195,245n25
bases,44n3,142,312
cardinality,xiv
cipherization,115116
classifying,7
comparing,xiv
conjectures,239241
continuum,178
counting,xiv,14,16,19,27,44n3,120,139,266
culturalformsof,xivdecimals,105,108,115116,116,193
derivative,124,176,179,182,185,186
differential,179,186,187
differentiation,177,179,182,185
dimension,215
Diophantineequations,28,158
enumeration,140
equations,176
equivalence,138,141
fractions,57n1,89,102,105
geometricformulas,104
geometricshapes,34,3536,38,65,215,228243
integration,177
limit,176,185,284
linearequations,73
locating,120,266
matching,29
measuring,xiv,7,14,19,34,66,103,104,107,120,198n1,266
mechanicaloperations,91
innavigation,3738
notation,93
notionofmore,138
numeration,310313
operations,145
ordering,14,19
ordinality,xiv
placevaluenotation,56,65,76
points,34
proofs,72,73,74,93,160,161,194,195
propertyandbusinessapplications,29,56,72,120,138,339,340341,406409
Pythagoreantheorem,65,87,104,235238
quadraticequations,65
ratio,215
rectangularcoordinates,113,113fig
reduction,70
regrouping,139
representation,140
restoration,70
rhetoricalalgebra,107
rotation,95,217
sequentialnotation,79n14
series,73,104,176
sets,28,138,279
sorting,xiv,14,197
spatialconcepts,37,227,373399,397n2
squareroots,105
straightlines,35,36,38

Page437
syncopation,107
translation.217
useofzero,102,108,114fig,114115
volume,90,92,104,195,245n25
Mathematicalideas,traditional,2544
Angolansanddrawings,2,349
artifactsin,2829,217,227228
calendrics,34,56,72,76,79n14,102
culturalbeliefsin.32
culturalexpressionsof,8
designsandpatterns,313314
distortionof,9
falsepositionmethod,73,104
hidden,8,5156,217
Incanstringtallies,29,346
kinshiprelationships,3943
locusof,6
logicalnumericalsystems,29,34
numberoperations,334
numeration,45n6
precolonial,6162
ratio,215
spatialconcepts,373399
strippatterns,5
variancesin,56
inweaving,217,218,218fig,220,220fig,313,313fig,314,314fig
inwomen'swork,215221
Mathematicsabstract,194,297,302
academic,2,7,8,16,17,122,123,126n2,193,194,195,208,209,225,261,265,322,335
advanced,88,89,93
African,101116
alternatetrajectoryforDarkAges,68fig,6971
alternativeconceptionsof,158
anthropological,22
anxiety,250
applied,22,159,160,163,166,167,216
Arabicinfluence,1,65,66,67,6971,101,103,107109
Babylonian,67,73,74,75,76,77n4,93,94,106
asbarrier,224
biasesin,63
andcapitalism,125n1
changing,6
andclass,51
"classical"Eurocentricdevelopmenttrajectory,6367
codes,norms,rules,andvaluesof,xivandcognition,129
compartmentalizationof,297
computational,159,163
conceptualizationsof,249
controlof,163165
creativityin,250
culturalcontextsof,14,14,119,120
culturalreaffirmationin,226228
asculturefree,332
curricula,121,256n4,261,307318,383399
defining,77n2
developmentof,xvi,xvii,22,52,6375
dialecticsof,175
differingformsof,6,14
anddiscursivepractices,205210
diversityin,75
education,223244,291306,332
effectofcultureon,2
Egyptian,52,53,54,55,56,57n1,63,64,67,73,87,88,89,90,91,93,94,95,101,102,103,105107,195,196,300,312
elitismin,15,56,75,194,224,296
Eurocentrismin,xv,6177,196,292294
everyday7,193
andexperience,157
fearof,147
folk,338
formal,195,322
frameworkdevelopment,161162
andgender,51,52,53,56,165,215217,216,293294,300
graduatedegreesin,292
Greek,14,16,52,56,64,66,67,72,78n8,79n10,84,88,90,91,93,94,95,101,103,106,293
hidden,228,239,245n25,338,354
historyof,xiii,xvi,xvii,6,8,9,13,44,52,53,6375,101116,158,300302
ashobby,106
imperialismof,8,254
Indian,16,6465,66,69,77n3
indigenous,225,337
influenceson,161162,163
informal,138,227,256n4,338
interactionswithculture,119126,273289
interactionwithlanguage,251
interpretationof,159161
lackofsensein,193,225
andlanguage,77n2,255n2
legitimate,2
logicalstructureof,3943,77n2,265
Mesopotamian,84,87,90,94,95,103
militaryapplications,163,303
modelsof,157
modifiedEurocentrictrajectory,6769
multicultural,267,307318
neutralityof,2,122,155
nonEuropean,63,68
nonlinear,198
nonstandard,338
normal,21
oppressed,338
oral,338
originsof,103
patronagesourcesin,163
potentialapplicationsof,167
practical,6,15,16,56,75,90,92,194,216,225
pragmatic,161
problemsolvingin,193
professionalizationof,163165
pure,22,164,167,297
racismin,51,57n5,196,254,291
radical,298
real,203
ofreason,198
asreinforcerofpowerstructure,224
andreligion,91
revolutionary,21
roleinsociety,xvii
roleofteachersin,217
scholarly,6,15,16
secondlanguage,251252
settheory,374
sexismin,194,254,291
andsocialclass,67,15
socialimplicationsof,xiv,155169
specializationin,165168
spontaneous,338,356n7
ofstudents,251
studychoices,159
subscientific,356n8
systems,25
teachingapplications,275276,285287,373399
theoretical,56,103,195,216
universalityof,6,8,14,30,44,226,265,332
utilitarian,79n11
world,8

Page438
Matheracy,225,335336
Matrices,102103
Meaning:cultural,284,285
making,322
ofrelationships,119
seeing,285
Measuring,xiv,6,7,14,19,34,66,103,104,107,120,198n1,266
Medicine,84,86
Menes,102
Mesopotamia,63,65,83,84,85,90,92,94,103
MillJohnSmart,157,158
Models,120,166
abstract,280
applicabilityof,196
conceptual,42
learning,202
limitstogrowth,167
mathematical,157
ofmind,205
planar,42
presocial,202
syllogismsas,48n39
useabuse,155
Montessori,Maria,207
Moscowpapyrus,53,54,73,87,88,90,91,300
Motivation,16,121,144,147
intrinsic,147
understanding,148
Mozambican,215,216,223,226,229,238,253,323
Mozambique,215,223,226,227,232,253,321
Myth(s):complexityof,53
of"DarkAges,"301302
ofdeprivedchild,129150
ofEurocentrism,2,5152,53,57n5,66,255,293
genderability,51
ofGreek"miracle,"76,103
meltingpot,307,308
onnoncontributionoftraditionalcultures,254
ofnonliteratethoughtprocesses,31
N
Navigation,3738,38fig
Neugebauer,Otto,84,86,87,88,89,90,92,93,106
Numerals:African,312
Arabic,16,71,290n6,302
Chinese,251
cipherizationof,115116
early,102,112
Egyptian,312
fingergesturesfor,311,311fig
hieratic,115116,116fig
Ionic,116
irrational,84,178
knowledgeof,77n2
naming,251
Platonic,158
practicalapplicationof,79n10
pure,79n10
Pythagorean,158
rod,76
Numeration,14,26,27,30
agricultural,56
focuson,49n47
Indiansystem,70
linear,198
notationin,93
propertyandbusinessapplications,29,56,72,120,138,339
inreligioussystems,31
substitutionsin,31,196
symbolsin,29,74,333
systems,43,44n3,65,66,76,89,310313
O
Obelisks,103
Objectivity,3,158,168
Oppression,51,202,206,207,210,308,327
Optics,108
Ordering,6,14,19
Ordinality,xiv
Organization:ofdailylife,xv
intellectual,xviii
project,269
socialxviii
theOther:discoveryof,xiv
dominationof,205
recognitionof,xiv
regulationof,207
relationswith,xv
Oware,275n5
P
PapuaNewGuinea,349
Persia,70,77n3,94
,87,91,103
Piaget,Jean,33,131,135,145,147,205,374,375
Pingree,David,8384
Pinxten,Rik,373399
Plato,15,70,88,95
PlatoofTivoli,71
Poverty,129150,206
effectsof,203,307
federalconcernwith,133
researchon,133
Powell,ArthurB.,13,59,5156,119126,193198,249257,298,321328
Problem(s):authentic,264
defining,249250,263264
designing,267
anddialogue,263
imposed,264
learning,147148,250
political,275
pseudo,249250,264,267,268,269,275
solving,140141,193,250,266,328n3
Processes:cognitive,134
developmental,145,146
dialogical,268
educational,267,277
ofliberation,327
ofmakingmeaning,322
mental,7
pedagogical,269
sharingin,277
thought,6
Proclus,65
Production:andalienation,56
capitalist,56
cultural,119
economic,159
forcesof,173
ofknowledge,206
newmodesof,xv,xvii
systemsof,162
techniques,228

Page439
Professionalization,163165
ProjectLiteracy,130
Proofs,72,73,74,77n4,160,161,194,195,300
computer,195,196
direct,93
indirect,93
Ptolemaicdynasty,66,67
Ptolemy,Claudius,52,53,71,90,94,107,108
Pyramids,56,87,88,89,93,103,104,105,113,195,245n25,300,315
Pythagoras,55,65,77n3,77n4,88,296,301,312,333
Pythagoreantheorem,65,77n4,87,104,235238,245n25,253,373
Q
Quadraticequations,65
R
Racism,51
ineducation,75,296297
Eurocentricreinforcementofinferiorityin,293294
historical,52,56,57n5
justificationfor,294
andmathematicaltradition,57n5
inmathematics,254
inresearch,52
alRashid,Harun(caliph),70
Rationality:alternative,xiv
causalityand,160
mathematical,122
natural,32
positivist,xiv,122,123
"super,"211
universal,32
Reality:andabstraction,282
assumptionof,17
copingwith,xviii
cosmic,xiv
cycleof,17
defining,270n6
oflocation,2
modificationof,18
objective,155
physical,162
social,161162
Reasoning,7
abilities,30,32,48n39
abstract,205,328n3
competenciesin,138
concrete,205
deductive,106
higherorder,203
logicomathematical,205
mathematical,157158
bymentalcalculation,120
normality,207
prelogical,205
andproblemsolving,328n3
promotionof,206
truthof,204
waysof,19
Reason'sDream,205,210
Rectangularcoordinates,113,113fig
Reduction,70
Reification,17,18
Relationships:children'sconsciousnessof,267
dialogical,262263,267
equal,267268
experience/theorems,231
family,xv
horizontal,263,267
intersubjective,263
kinship,3943
logic/experience,3
mathematical267
meaningof,119
nonintersecting,39
ordering,39
withtheOther,xv
representationsof,120
science/ideology,23
social,xv,122
student/teacher,277
symmetric,39
Religion,65
ofconversion,xviixviii
andmathematics,91,301
andmedicine,84
numbersystemsin,31
Renaissance,16,78n6,101,102,103,109
Representation,140
Research:anthropological,14
choices,159
cognitive,134,137,141142,201
crosscultural,133,138
cultural,15
current,331355
educational,130
ethnographic,256n4
ethnomathematical,3,321328
flexiblemethodologyin,137
funding,163
insensitivityin,131,133
learningpotential,145147
onmathematicalthinking,134
psychological,129150,130,133
racismin,52
sexismin,52,53
Restoration,70
Rhindpapyrus,53,54,88,90,104
RobertofChester,71
Rotation,217
Russell,Bertrand,xv
S
SamoraMachel,223,224,226,326
Science:applicationsof,155
colonial,343
conceptofparadigmsin,156
criticsof,155,156
defining,83
developmentof,xvii,61
Egyptian,6364,8695
empirical,195
Greek,103
historyof,19,20,63
Mesopotamian,8687
modemnatureof,20
originsof,8395
precolonial,6162
purityof,155
relationshiptocolonialism,23
relationtoideology,23
socialcontextsof,155156,162
socialinstitutions,159
socialsystemof,167168
teachingapplications,373399
trainingin,20
usesof,xiv
Western,8395,323
Seleuciddynasty,66,67,92
Sets,28,138,279
empty,279
intersectionof,279
Sexism,296
ineducation,296297
justificationfor,294
inmathematics,194,254,291
inresearch,5253

Page440
Slavery,79n10,109,227,303,323
rationalefor,2
Social:access,224
alienation,125n1,225
awareness,273
behavior,17
change,326
class,15,121,140,308
contract,193
control,156
development,62
divisions,194
elites,224
environment,76
expectations,149
interests,155169
law,8586
legitimacy,164
reality,161162
relations,xv,122
resources,167
stratification,193
systems,149
Society:agricultural,56
changein,21
generationofcodes,norms,rules,andvalues,xiv
liberatory,321,326
roleofmathematicsin,xvii
Sociomathematics,337338
Socrates,286
Sophists,85
Sorting,xiv,6,14,197
Space,xv
NativeAmericanconceptsof,373399
newconceptsof,xvii
orderingof,26,34,37,43
relationtotime,37
representationsof,37
Spain,69fig,70,71,101,108,109,302
Spatialconcepts,37,227,373399,397n2
Splitting,210213
StandardAmericanEnglish(SAE),252,255n2
Struik,Dirk,173189
Subjectivity,3,202,297
Surveying,65
Syllogism,32,48n39
Syncopation,107
Syria,85
Systems:belief,155,161162
mathematical,25
mathematicssociety,162168
ofmeasurement,103
numeration,29,43,65,66,70,76,89,310313
ofproduction,162
social,149
spatial,375
symbolic,29
ofthought,83
T
Taylor'stheorem,176,177
Technology:precolonial,6162
relationshiptointelligence,31
symbolic,120
Testing:achievement,142,308
clinicalinterviewin,135137
comparative,348
standardized,132,135,136,308,309
Thales,65,77n3,84,88
Theodosius,108
Theon,52,107
Theories:catastrophe,397n8
chaos,397n8
cognitive,14,21,131,132,205,206
dissipativestructure,397n8
ofdistribution,20
environmental,133
ofevolution,68,205
game,161
learning,132
mirrorstage,210
modernization,68
nativist,133
quantum,160,161
scientific,19
socialdevelopment,62
unconsciousassociation,208
ThirdWorld:curriculumdevelopmentin,22
intellectualdependencein,6162
mathematicseducationin,224226,273,285287
precolonialsciencein,6277
teachingobjectivesin,275276
Thought:abstract,6,27,30,143,144,197,198
academic,3
axiomatic,289n3
Babylonian,67,73,74,75,76,77n4
concrete,30,138,197
critical,273,285
deductive,279,280,289n3
differingmodesof,6,7,14
discursive,328n3
Egyptian,52,53,54,55,56,57n1,63,64,67,73,87,88,93,195
European,66
geometrical,223244,245n25,336
Greek,14,16,52,56,64,66,67,72,78n8,79n10,84,93
historyof,66
Indian,16,6465,66,69,77n3,78n8
indigenous,343
informalmathematical,143
intuitive,3
linear,198
logical,3,6,48n39,328n3
mathematical,121,134,138,142
andmedia,37
Mesopotamian,84,87
numerical,225
operational,138
practical,198
processesof,6
rational,198
socialpatternsof,275
subjectsof,6
systemsof,83
Time,xv
experiencein,262
newconceptsof,xvii
relationtospace,37
Translation,217
Transportation:mass,xviixviii
Trigonometry,104
alTusi,Nasir,108
U
Ummayadcaliphate,70
Universalism,humanist,1
W
Walkerdine,Valerie,201213
WaronPoverty,130
Z
Zaslavsky,Claudia,44,307318
Zero,102,108,114fig,114115