1

2





Table of Contents


Thesis Details 3
List of Figures 3
List of Illustrations 3
Abstract 4
Introduction 4
Methodology 5
Literature Review 6
1. Preface 6
1.1 Geography 6
1.2 Bagan Mythology 6
1.3 Significant Architecture Periods 8
1.4 Pre Bagan Kingdoms 8
2. Origin Theories 9
2.1 Vaisya Theory (Trade Theory) 9
2.2 Brahama Theory 10
2.3 Multi Period Locality Theory 10
3. Origin of Bagan Monuments 10
3.1 Origin of Bagan Temples 10
3.2 Origin of Bagan Stupa 13
3.3 Origin of Bagan monastery 17

Research Results 18
Conclusion 18
Acknowledgement 19
References 19
Appendices 21
1. Appendix 1. Glossary 21
2. Appendix 2. Information on some of the Authors 22

3





List of Figures

1.1 Geography Figure 1.1 Pyu City States shown within present boundary of Myanmar 4

1.2 Bagan Mythology Figure 1.2 Shwedagon Pagoda c.6th-10th century CE 5

1.3 Significant Architecture Periods Figure 1.3 Map of the Gupta Empire, 4
th
cen. CE 9

1.4 Pre Bagan Kingdoms Figure 1.4 The Rakhine State shown on a current map of Myanmar (Burma). 5

3. Origin of Bagan Monuments Figure 3.1 Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung, Plan 8
Figure 3.2 Corbelled Arch Vs Radiating Arch 9
Figure 3.3 Mahastupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India 9
Figure 3.4 Plan of the Sapada Pagoda 9
Figure 3.5 Ground Plan and Reconstrution of KKG3 Stupa, Beikthano 9
Figure 3.6 KKG18 east section, Beikthano, 5
th
century CE 9
Figure 3.7 Mohra Moradu stupa south section, India, 4
th
century CE 9
Figure 3.8 KKG2 Monastery, Beikthano. 4
th
century CE 9
Figure 3.9 Buddhist Monastery, Nagarjunakonda. Early 4
th
century CE 9



List of Illustrations

1.3 Significant Architecture Periods image 1.1 Terra Cotta Surya Sculpture, Gupta Period 4

3. Origin of Bagan Monuments Image 3.1 Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung Temple, West Facade 5
Image 3.2 A cinquefoil Torana (Flame Pediment) above the entrance of a later
Bagan Era Temple 9
Image 3.3 Mahastupa at Sanchi, India 9
Image 3.4 Jetavanarama Dagoba, Sri Lanka 9
Image 3.5 Nga-Kywe-Na-Daung stupa, Bagan 10th century CE. 9
Image 3.6 Baw-Baw-Gyi Stupa, Prome 9
Image 3.7 Photograph of Sapada Stupa 9
Image 3.8 Shwedagon Pagoda, Yangon, Myanmar 9
Image 3.9 Thuparamaya Dagoba, Sri Lanka 3
rd
cen. BCE 9





4


Influential factors in the design of religious monuments in
ancient Bagan









INTRODUCTION










It is evident that the historical importance of Myanmar is currently under appreciated by the historical and scientific community, as
compared to other countries in South and South East Asia such as Cambodia, Thailand, India or Vietnam, Myanmar is seemingly
the lesser known of all the countries. Historians can say with much confidence that Cambodian temple designs such as those
which were built at Angkor show connections with Indian Architecture Ideologies, but when the historian looks to Myanmar, any
clear links between the architecture of ancient Myanmar and their possible antecedents become less apparent.

The Pyu and the Burmese were talented and unique architecture, with elements of their designs rarely seen throughout
other parts of South East Asia. The appearance of the Cinquefoil Torana, otherwise known as a flame pediment, of which the
earliest extant example is found on the Hindu Temple Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung in Old Bagan, built around the 10
th
century CE., is
unique to the temples built in Myanmar. The Burmese who built the Kingdom of Bagan from the 9
th
century CE. and the preceding
Pyu architects were familiar with the scientific construction concept of the Radiating Arch and used it in their temples while their
neighbouring Kingdoms belonging to the Indians and Khmers built mostly using the less scientific Corbelled Arch. This is not to say
that the Indian builders did not know of the Radiating Arch as it is evident in some temples which will be covered later. The building
practices of the civilisations that occupied ancient Myanmar are well known, given that many examples of the thousands of
monuments that were built across the ancient landscape are still in good enough condition to be measured and researched, but
what appears to be lacking in accounts of Myanmar history is how the ancient architecture of the nation related to their surrounding
kingdoms, what solid evidence is there to explain what influenced the development of early Myanmar architecture, whether it
derived from Indian, Ceylon or other kingdoms connected to the ancient landscape by either land or sea.

Current Literature lends to several theories regarding the movement of religion and architectural ideologies from the
surrounding kingdoms (predominantly India) into Myanmar. The most common theory being that the architecture was introduced to
the region by merchants who travelled along the many land and water bound trade routes leading into and through Myanmar.
Another theory surrounds the development and expansion of the Buddhist religion, claiming that it was the sojourning Buddhist
Monks or Priests from India or Sri Lanka who brought with them the knowledge of Architectural concepts when travelling to
Myanmar. But of course both of these theories revolve around a bilateral process, in which not only would merchants or priests be
travelling to Myanmar from Sri Lanka or India, but early inhabitant of Myanmar, be they Pyu or Mon would also have been travelling
to their neighbouring countries, potentially bringing back knowledge of new religions and building practices.

This thesis will look at the plausibility of several theories that are commonly referred to as being responsible for the
development of the architecture of early Myanmar, as well as overview several monuments which show apparent scientific
reasoning behind why architectural archaeologists have chosen to link early Bagan settlements such as sites found at Beikthano in
central Myanmar, with another excavation site located in the Andhra region of India known as Nagarjunakonda. The importance of
these sites and the details behind the aforementioned Migration theories will be discussed again throughout the duration of t his
thesis.












5

1. Preface

1.1. Geography





As any current map would show, Myanmar is a nation in South East Asia bordering Bangladesh and India to the west,
China to the North, Laos and Thailand to the east and the immense Bay of Bengal to the South. As will soon be explained, the
Geographic composition of the country has played an important role in not only the influx of its trade, people and religion to the
area, but also in the movement of both religious and architectural ideologies during the nations development.




As explained by Michael Aung-Thwin and Maitrii Aung-Thwin in A History of Myanmar, Since Ancient Times the nation of
Myanmar was split both longitudinally and latterly into plains areas of which the geographical makeup of these plains make travel
across the lands from north to south (from China for example) quite possible, while lateral movement from east to west (Lateral
movement from India into the central Myanmar region) quite a difficult task (Aung-Thwin et al 2012 p. 37) . as Aung-Thwin et al
continue, This is due to the location of Myanmars mountain chains Arakan, Pegu, Chin and Shan running North to South and
sloping east to west, and the natural course of the nations largest river, the Irrawaddy (also spelled Ayeyarwady)(Aung-Thwin et al
2012, p 37). The Irrawaddy, which runs longitudinally down the centre of the nation from the Mali River (Mali Hka) and the NMai
River in the upper north of Myanmar close to the Chinese border, empties through the Irrawaddy Delta into the Andaman Sea and
thus creates a natural geographical division separating the western and eastern regions of the nation.






Source: Google Maps/ Morris 2014*
Figure 1.1: Pyu City States shown within present boundary of Myanmar. Sri Ksetra (Sri-Khit-Tra), Bagan, Halin
& Tahaung can be seen located along the Irrawaddy which runs through the
centre of the Nation




Despite this natural land separation making lateral land travel more difficult, the presence of the Irrawaddy, since ancient
times has been an ideal passage for trade passing both from north to south and from south to north, this, as explained again by
Aung-Thwin et al, is due to the natural flow of the river towards the south, and ideal winds blowing to the north to take trade ships
upstream (Aung-Thwin et al 2012, p. 41) . Not surprisingly, the nations most fertile agricultural land is also situated along the
length of the Irrawaddy(Aung-Thwin et al 2012, p. 41). The presence of trade ports, the natural fertility of the land along the
Irrawaddy and its connection with other natural river systems throughout South and South East Asia led to the Urbanization and
growth of Civilisation within ancient Myanmar mostly originating from settlements that sprouted along the Irrawaddy River including
Sri Ksetra, Halin, Bagan and Tahaung, as shown in figure 1.1 above.



6

1.2. Bagan Mythology



Bagan mythology is often closely associated with actual accounts of events which may provide clues as to what were
influential factors in the design and technology used in Bagan religious monuments. The following accounts of Buddhist
mythological events which occurred in ancient Myanmar will now be explained by professor of History and Buddhist Art at
the International Buddhist Missionary University, Yangon, Dr Khin Maung Nyunt. In some cases, these fables can often be linked
with actual accounts of historical events such as, for example, the documented visiting of the Buddha to Myanmar as recorded in
Pali scripts which still can be read in our present time as they are currently preserved in Sri Lanka. What does differ however and is
important to consider, is that typically the timeframe associated with mythological accounts of history do not reflect realistic
evidence regarding when monuments where actually built. Such as the mythological accounts of the building of Shwedagon
Pagoda would suggest its construction to be around the time of the Buddha, many centuries before actual archaeological accounts
of the Pagodas construction which is dated to much later around the 6
th
to 10
th
centuries CE.. however, to gain an appreciation of
how Buddhist mythology accounts for the construction of some early Bagan monuments, these fables will now briefly be discussed.



1.2.1 The King Dhammaceti Inscriptions



According to Buddhist Mythology as explained by Dr Khin Maung Nyunt in The Arrival of Buddhism in Myanmar, the lands
of Myanmar already had a connection with the kingdoms of India, in particular Kushinagar located in present day Uttar Pradesh in
Indias North. Texts written in Pali Scripts which are presently preserved in Sri Lanka, and Inscriptions made by 15
th
century King
Dhammaceti at Pegu describe how when the Buddha visited Burma before his death, he prophesized that in the future, one of hi s
teeth would return to that country (Burma) and be in 33 places in the Mon Empire (Snodgrass 1992, p 76). Other sources go on to
explain how after the cremation of the Buddha, one of the Arahat Khema (Arahat meaning perfect person, or in Pali Arahant
which means one who is worthy; and Khema being one of the two female chief disciples of the Buddha) took one of the holy teeth
from the Buddhas pyre and brought it to Sri Lanka upon which was built the Holy Tooth Relic Temple at Kandy. Similarly, a
Burmese Monk by the name Gavampati who had attained the status of arhatship, took another of the Buddhas teeth and brought i t
back to Burma where the single tooth proceeded to multiply into 33 teeth on which were built the 33 Tooth Relic Pagoda of Thaton
in the then Mon Kingdom.



As previously mentioned, the issue that arises here is a discrepancy in the chronology of historical accounts. According to
Akira Hirakawa in A History of Indian Buddhism: From kyamuni to Early Mahyna, the Buddha met his demise in the year of
our Christian calendar 483 BCE (Hirakawa p. 19), however archaeological evidence shows that the Tooth Relic Pagodas of
Myanmar were built many centuries later, thus, although accounts of the Buddha visiting early Myanmar may be correct, the
association between these visits and the building of later monuments in Myanmar does not prove to hold much credit.




1.2.2 The visiting of the Buddha



According to Dr Khin Maung Nyunt The Buddha visited Myanmar several times in the Maha Sakarit years 103, 111, 123,
235, and 930 of the Buddhist calendar (approximately 600 bc to 400 CE Christian calendar), spreading the religion to the early
inhabitants of the land (Khin Maung Nyunt, web). Potentially, this could mean a connection with ancient Myanmar and kingdoms of
India from where the Buddha and his priests would have traveled from may have already existed. This could potentially have led to
an introduction of building practices being introduced by traveling Buddhists priests, a concept which will be discussed shortly.



1.2.3 Shwedagon Pagoda



As explained again by Dr Khin Maung Nyunt, when the Buddha first visited Myanmar in the Buddhist year 103
(approximately 588 bce) he was visited by two merchant brothers Tapussa and Bhallika from Ramanya (the land of the Mon), who
began worship of the Buddha. The Brothers requested eight sacred hairs to be given to them by the Buddha to be used as relics,
and on returning home, the brothers built on a hill a Ceti (Pagoda) which they called Tampaguta (Khin Maung Nyunt, web). Of
course, this account of the building of a sacred ceti by merchants to house the relics of the Buddha does bare some chronological
inaccuracy, since the ceti referred to in this legend is better known by its more common name, Shwedagon Pagoda (Image x
below), which although it is believed to be the oldest Historical Pagoda in Myanmar, Archaeologists suggest that its build date
would be closer to between the 6
th
and the 10
th
centuries CE.

7



Source: Chihara 2012
Figures 1.2: Shwedagon Pagoda c.6
th
-10
th
century CE.




1.2.3 The Tooth Relic Pagodas of Thaton



Dr Khin Maung Nyunt also writes about the construction of the 33 Tooth Relic Pagodas of Thaton, explaining how
inscriptions on the Shwedagon Ceti, the Mon inscriptions of King Dhammaceti and several other inscriptions found at Thaton
recollect upon the visit of the Buddha once more to Myanmar in the Buddhist Year 111. The inscriptions speak of how the formerly
mentioned Burmese Monk Gavampati entreated the Buddha to return to Thaton, upon his return, the Buddha was welcomed
warmly and his teachings of the Dharma influenced the people of Thaton to become Buddhist. Once again the Buddha offered
hairs from his head to be used as relics to 6 hermits from Thaton, but more importantly, thirty seven years after the second coming
of the Buddha, The Buddha met his demise and was cremated in Kushinagar from where his teeth (originally one tooth) were
brought back to Thaton by Gavampati, upon which each tooth was enshrined by King Thin Nathawke in one of 33 Tooth Relic
Pagodas (Khin Maung Nyunt, web).




Considering the above mythological accounts surrounding the building of some of the Mons and early Bagans important
Tooth Relic Pagodas, it is possible to conclude that even from an early time, as is recorded in the Pali texts still available and in a
state of preservation in Sri Lanka, that the lower Irrawaddy regions of early Myanmar, mostly associated with the early Mon
Kingdoms, already had some connection with kingdoms of Northern India, namely Uttar Pradesh. Whether this connection had
stronger influences on the construction of early Mon Architecture may be a hypothesis to look into with further research that is
beyond the scope of this thesis.


1.3. Significant Architecture Periods


1.3.1 The Gupta Period



The Gupta was an Empire that emerged around 320CE in India and expanded to conquer approximately twenty one of
their surrounding Kingdoms both inside and outside of India Proper including the bordering Persian tribes of the Parasikas, the
Hunas and the Kambojas who were an Indo-Iranian tribe associated with Indias Iron Age and are often mentioned in both Sanskrit
and Pali literature. According to well known Indian archaeologist and art historian Dr Swaraj Prakash Gupta who co wrote Elements
of Indian Art, Including Temple Architecture, Iconography & Iconometry, The Gupta Period of Art in India concentrated on the
development of the fine arts which focused on everything from literature, painting, music and sculpture, just to name a few, with
everything seemingly working in such close collaboration that their mutual interaction is more than clear from their actual
products(Gupta, 2002 p, 84). Gupta explains how in the art of the Gupta period the representation of limbs in sculpture showed
softness and a subtleness, which could also be seen in similar representations portrayed in Gupta period paintings (Gupta 2002,
p.84). The importance of the Gupta period will become evident in later sections of this thesis and is mentioned by authors such as
Paul Strachan, who will be introduced properly in a later chapter.


8



Source: westmifflinmoritz.com Source:www.truelles-pixels.mom.fr
Figures 1.3: Map of the Gupta Empire, 4
th
cen. CE. Image 1.1: Terra Cotta Surya Sculpture, Gupta Period
Note the apparent softness of the texture as
described by S.P. Gupta


1.4 Pre Bagan Kingdoms



1.4.1 The Pyu & The Mon



The Bagan Kingdom is believed to have a history that goes back prior to the 8
th
century CE. Before Old Bagan was even
developed as a city. Radio Carbon dating puts the earliest human settlement in Bagan as early as 650CE Prior to the general
scholarly belief that Bagan, as a city-state, was founded in the 9
th
century CE., it is suggested by Aung Thwin in The mists of
Ramanna: The Legend that was Lower Burma, that small settlements of the ancestors of later Bagan people were likely already
inhabiting the Lower Irrawaddy region under the rule of not Kings, but Chiefs prior to the coming of King Anawrahta as the first ruler
of Bagan as a Kingdom. This coincides with historical accounts of a Nanzhao Invasion of the Upper Irrawaddy that is believed to
have begun in the mid 8
th
century and lasted until the mid 9
th
century. It is during these invasions that the Burmese are believed to
have migrated from China in the north and occupied the lands which then belonged to the Tibeto-Burmese speaking Pyu people
along the Irrawaddy. Thaw Tar Aung in his paper Architectural Aspects of Temples in Myanmar also support these claims
explaining how Pali (a Indo-Aryan language first recorded in Sri Lanka in the 1
st
century BCE. and considered the holy language of
Theravadan Buddhism), Sanskrit (another Indo-Aryan language which was used as the primary holy language of Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism and one of the most commonly used in ancient Indian culture) and Pyu inscriptions on tablets found at
Bagan are dated prior to the alleged coming of the bamars (Burmese) in the 10
th
century, Tar Aung further proposing that early
Bagan had connections with the Pyu culture as early as the 7
th
century CE (Tar Aung, p 8)




Prior to the invasion of the Pyu kingdom by the Nanzhao, The Pyu people occupied the land surrounding the Irrawaddy
from as early as the 2
nd
century BCE. building city states and urbanizing the Myanmar landscape, notably founding the northern
Pyu city-state Halin in the 1
st
century CE which would be the largest and most influential of Pyu cities until the 7
th
century when it
was superseded by the city-state of Sri Ksetra in the nations south.




While the Pyu were beginning to Urbanize the landscape of the Upper Irrawaddy towards the end of the pre Christian era,
to the south west of the nation in the Rakhine state of early Myanmar (Figure 4 below), another tribe of people known as The Mon
were developing the south western regions of the nation from as early as the 3
rd
century BCE forming themselves into a Kingdom
as early as the 2
nd
century BCE. Both the Mon and the Pyu played a key role in the emergence of the Hindu, Buddhist and Brahmin
religion on the ancient Myanmar landscape, but the events that occurred to influence the architecture that was being built by these
early civilizations of Myanmar are open to debate from scholars. This paper will now look at several theories which attempt to
explain how early Myanmar architecture may have been influenced by outside sources.

9




Source: www.voanews.com
Figures 1.4: The Rakhine State shown on a current map of Myanmar (Burma)



2. Origin Theories



2.1. Vaisya Theory (Trade Theory)


the Pyu Kingdom was connected as far west as the Persian Empire and the ancient near east, but mostly would have
traded with their closer Northern Indian and Tibetan neighbors who were spreading Buddhism, Brahmanism and Hinduism east to
China. In the South, The Mons had close ties with both Southern Indian traders and traders from Ceylon (Sri Lanka), both of whom
are believed to have had an influential role in the movement of Theravada Buddhism and Hinduism onto the landscape of the
Lower Irrawaddy, still perpetuating the development of Buddhist architecture even after the demise of the religion in India Proper.



Sree Padma, who wrote material Culture and the emergence of Urban Buddhism in Andhra, which is the first Chapter in a
book co written by A.W. Barber titled Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra, talks about how important trade was in the
spread of Buddhism from India to other parts of South East Asia. Padma writes, the literary tradition avers that the first converts of
the Buddha after his enlightenment experience were not monks, but merchants who became the first lay supporters to take refuge
(Padma, p. 26). As was read in section 1.2.3. in this thesis, it is said that when the Buddha traveled to Burma he encountered two
merchants named Tapussa and Bhallika who were the first followers of the Buddha and according to Padma were responsible for
the spread of Buddhism to Afghanistan, Burma and Sri Lanka among other countries (Padma, p. 26). Padma does state that the
legend of the two merchants is more metaphorical than factual, however she mentions the importance of trade several times in
regards to how Andhra was well connected not only through land routes to different parts of the Indian subcontinent, but also via
the sea and river trade routes which allowed increased trade contact between the kingdoms north of Andhra and other parts of the
subcontinent (Padma, p. 22). The role of the merchants in bringing not only Buddhism but also Hinduism and Brahmanism to
Myanmar is mentioned briefly by Paul Strachan in his publication Imperial Pagan: Art and Architecture of Burma, where he
mentions briefly that the temple Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung located in Old Bagan would have been the temple of the Brahmans, in the pay
of the king and court, and the Indian merchant community at Bagan (Strachan, 1989 p.39) suggesting that some early temples
erected in Myanmar, most likely were constructed for the practice of the religions brought to Myanmar by the traveling merchants.
Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung will be covered in more detail later in this thesis.




Francis D.K. Ching et al also refers to an Indian merchant influence on the city of Beikthano in their publication A Global History of
Architecture where they state that Southeast Asia, which would be inclusive of Myanmar, was influenced by both the indianisation
of its culture and its trade routes which ran from the bay of Bengal across to southern China(Ching et al, p246) which we also
know through a previous chapter ran through the centre of Myanmar along the Irrawaddy connecting various cities that developed
along the Irrawaddy with trade coming from the Bay of Bengal through to China. Ching et al go on to explain that this Indianisation
of Southeast Asia began in Burma around the 1
st
century CE. before eventually reaching the southern coast of Vietnam around the
6
th
century CE. (Ching et al, p. 246). Regarding the architecture of the early Myanmar Kingdoms, which is the main focus of this
thesis. Ching et al suggest also that with the movement of the new religions of Buddhism and Hinduism across the Kingdoms of
Southeast Asia, this also brought new concepts of temple architecture which were a mix of Indian temple concepts with local
woodworking traditions (Ching et al, p. 246), this ties in with another origin theory introduced by another author, explained below,
known as the Brahama Theory.


10




2.2. Brahama Theory


The Brahama theory is mentioned by Chihara in Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia as a theory that supposes
that the introduction of Buddhist and other religious ideologies and architectural concepts may have traveled to other countries
such as Myanmar via the presence of religious monks or priests whom spread forth their religion. This theory is similar to that of the
vaysia theory in that in both theories, it is a foreign presence that brings with it the knowledge of new ways of religion and buildings
technology, however, in the Brahama theory, it is not traders who carry the knowledge, but religious persons. The following account
as explained by several authors is a good representation of the Brahama theory.



Buddhist iconography at Beikthano is a proposal by Francis D.K. Ching et al in A Global History of Architecture that the
city was occupied by a sect of Buddhists known as Andran Buddhists, who are an earlier form of Buddhists whom did not adopt the
use of any iconic representations of the Buddha for worship (Ching et al p.247). although the spelling is different, as it can be in
most accounts of ancient names due to discrepancies in the translation of ancient sources, Ching et al may be referring to a sect of
Buddhism talked about by Sree Padma and A.W. Barber in their text Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra, more
commonly known as Andhra Buddhists. According to Padma & Barber, Andhra (referring to Andhra Pradesh, where Pradesh
basically means state) and the practices and beliefs of the people who occupied Andhra, were important precursors to what would
eventually become the backbone of the Buddhist religion. Padma & Barber explain that prior to the development of the Buddhist
religion, The people of Andhra built stupas for their dead, possibly containing relics of dead monks, which predate the stupa being
used as a built form to represent worship of The Buddha (Padma & Barber, p. 20). These megalithic burial practices which are
explained by Padma & Barber occur between the 8
th
and 13
th
centuries BCE and are focused mainly along Andhras Krishna River
Valley which include locations such as Nagarjunakonda which is a site linked with several monuments found at Beikthano in
Myanmar. In fact, Padma & Barber themselves quote another historian by the name Gregory Schopen in their text, who explains


if we look at the internal chronology of narrative time taken for granted in our Buddhist literary sources, it would appear that their
redactors also considered stupas for the local monastic dead to predate those of the Buddha. Both of the stupas mentioned in Udana and
Apadana, and that referred to in the Pali Vinaya, for example, long preceded according to the narrative time assumed by our texts
those erected for the Buddha.


This quote from Schopen suggests that the stupa was not always a symbol of the Buddha, nor was it a structure of which its
existence was dependent on or a result of the Buddhist belief, but rather, as once again Padma & Barber state, Buddhism in
Andhra was most likely developed even during the lifetime of the Buddha himself with the religion being literally built on i ndigenous
religious cults that preexisted prior to the development of the Buddhist religion (Padma & Barber, p.25), therefore the Stupa and its
symbology in regards to worship of the dead was absorbed into the Buddhist religion rather than being a product of it. Similar one
might say to how the crucifix was existent prior to the birth of the Christian faith, but it is through its use in the death of Christ that
the crucifix becomes synonymous with Christ, as the stupa became synonymous likewise with the Buddha. Once the Stupa was
solidly embedded in the symbology pertaining to the Buddhist religion, then its presence soon appeared across other regions of
South East Asia as the religion also expanded into new territories as a result of the missions of the Buddhists priests.



2.3. Multi Period Locality Theory



Elizabeth Moore in her paper Place and Space in Early Burma: A New Look at Pyu Culture, mentions the Thet as being
the most numerous and cultured people of Pyu times (Moore, p6). Moore explains how the important Pyu city-state of Beikthano
was not always only associated with the cultures of the Pyu (and later the Burmans), but existed as part of a multi period highly
localized systems (Moore, p6) meaning that the site of Beikthano had influence from several tribes throughout the Myanmar
history. One such tribe being that of the Thet.



The Thet are a lesser known but more ancient Tribe of people who still presently occupy the northern part of Rakhine
State and Southern Chin State in western Myanmar. They are considered to be the oldest tribe in Myanmar and speak a language
that is part of the Tibeto-Burman linguistic family, similar to that of the Burmans who didnt arrive in Burma until later in Myanmars
chronological history. Some historical sources claim that the Thet are the same people as those who belong to another ancient
Bangladeshi tribe known as the Chakma who are also Buddhist, but it is important to note as part of this thesis that focuses on
origins, that the Chakma speak a language that is part of the Indo-European family of languages, so the likelihood of these two
tribes being related would be quite unlikely. Given the historical importance of this early tribe located in Myanmar, it would be
logical to assume that further research on the Thet and their potential influence on the building of the early Myanmar Urban
landscape might fill some gaps in current research relating to who were the potential builders of some of Myanmars earliest
monuments, and where the design philosophies and building techniques may have originated from.


11

3. Origin of the Bagan Monuments


3.1. Origin of the Bagan Temple


The Bagan monument has probably not been studied in more depth by western researchers than by Pierre Pichard, whom
wrote an 8 volume collection titled Inventaire des monuments, Pagan or in english Inventory of Monuments at Pagan, in which
Pichard recorded every ruined mound and extant temple, stupa, monastery or other historically significant structure that could be
found in Bagan. The most ancient account of the number of monuments to be found at Bagan was calculated to exceed 4,000 in
the 15
th
century CE. by King Mohnyin of Ava (Pichard, p.3), but as Pichard explains, a devastating earthquake which hit Myanmar
on the 8
th
of July 1975 was to leave many monuments at Bagan in ruin or in even worse states of repair. Working from previously
documented photography and his own data collected on the monuments of Bagan, Pichard on completion of his study recorded just
over 2,000 extant Buddhist brick monuments present in Bagan upon completion of his research (Pichard, p.3).



Of the temples that remained following the devastating earthquake, certain clues still remained that can assist historians in
answering the question of where the architecture of Bagan took its influence from, these clues come in the form of several
monuments which still survive, known as Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung, KKG2, KKG3 and KKG18, which will soon be the focus of attention
for this thesis. Another author who has written several publications himself on the subject of the Bagan monuments, and has lived
in Myanmar studying its culture and its architecture is Paul Strachan, who compiled a noteworthy text titled Imperial Pagan: Art
and Architecture of Burma. In his publication, Strachan talks often about a potential link between several older monuments found at
Bagan and temples Be-be and Lei-myet-hna, which although were Pyu temples located in Sri Ksetra, are mentioned by several
authors studied for this thesis as being prototypes of later Pagan era monuments (Chihara, p. 63). We will now discuss the
connection between these aforementioned monuments and several other examples in detail.


3.1.1 Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung

(Alternative Spelling: Nathlaung Kyaung, Nat-Hlaung-Gyaung)
Religious Association:
Primary: Hindu
Secondary: Brahman, Buddhist
Build Date(Approx.) 931-964
Name Meaning: Shrine Confining the Devas
Former Names: Nat-daw-Kyaung (Shrine of the Sacred Divas)
Nat-hle-Kyaung (Shrine of the Reclining Deva)
Location: Anawrahta road, Bagan (located in the boundaries of Old Bagan), Myanmar.
State of Repair: Semi Restored
Notable Features: Only extant Hindu Temple to be found at Bagan
First use of the Cinquefoil Torana (Flame pediment) on a Bagan Structure
First use of the Semi-Circular Radiating Arch in a Bagan Structure


Source: Strachan 1989 Source: Strachan 1989/ Morris*
Image 3.1: Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung Temple, West Facade Figure 3.1: Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung, Plan
Note the semi circular Radiating arch hidden behind
What remains of the cinquefoil Torana (Flame Pediment)

12



According to Paul Strachan the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung temple was originally built as a Hindu Temple possibly by Indian Merchants
located in Bagan, the original naming of the temple would have been either Nat-daw-Kyaung, meaning Shrine of the Sacred
Devas, or probably more likely, the original name may have been Nat-hle-Kyaung, which means the Shrine of the Reclining Deva
relating to a former centerpiece of the temple which would have been an image of a Vishnu anantasayin (Strachan 1989, p39).



On the exterior of the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung temple are found stone reliefs of the avatar of Vishnu which would be consistent
with the original intention of the temple that it be used for the practice of the Hindu religion. Strachan suggests that the style of the
carving of these Vishnu reliefs are clearly derived from the Guptan sculptural tradition (Strachan 1989, p39) which was described
briefly at the beginning of this paper. By Strachans accounts, the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung does not conform to the same topology
found in the superstructure as became popular with later Pagan temples built from the time of King Anawratha (Strachan 1989 p.
39), however, the temples high plinth and an absence of a hall, as Strachan suggests, might indicate that a timber mandapa (a
pillared outdoor hall) may have been present on this temple as was common with many later Pagan Temples (Strachan 1989 p.39).
the presence of Kalasa mouldings (water pot mouldings) running along this high plinth also suggests that the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung
shares some association with temple design from the Gupta period of Art and Architecture in India, while also similarities between
the Stone Threshold, Lintels and Door jams on the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung suggest some association to similar South Indian temple
designs (Strachan 1989 p.39). despite Strachan previously stating that the superstructure does not conform to the typology of later
Bagan temples, he does explain that the central shrine itself with an inclusion of an eastern facing central recess does seem to
bear resemblance to the later Bagan practice of cutting an inner cella out of the central block that carries the superstructure above
(Strachan 1989 p. 41)



The Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung is an important link in the chronology of Myanmar temple design in that it is a midpoint between
Architectural styles and construction technology that can be traced to possible connections with both North and South Indian
design, such as the presence of the aforementioned Kalasa mouldings and style of the Threshold, Door jams and lintel, but it is
also a prototypical temple that shares much in common with later Pagan era temples. The plan itself of the temple is based on the
Lei-Myet-Hna temple typology, of which the Lei-Myet-Hna is both a construction typology which means four faced referring to
temples built on a square ground plan, a common plan used to construct many early Bagan temples(Strachan 1989 p.39), but also
refers to the temple by the name Lei-Myet-Hna (alternatively spelt Leimyethna) which is a Bagan temple built by the minister of
Bagan Anandathura in the 13
th
century CE.



Some elements found in the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung are the first to be found in any extant temple found in Bagan. Notably the
iconic Cinquefoil Torana, or flame pediment is for the first time seen in the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung and would become an element that
is repeated in many later built Bagan temples and monuments. Another element that is first witnessed in the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung
temple is the presence of a semi circular radiating arch, which is found concealed behind the cinquefoil torana, and can be seen
clearly on the western faade of the temple in image 3.1 above. These elements become quite unique to Bagan era temple design
and their appearance becomes even more mysterious since the cinquefoil torana is seen nowhere else throughout south or south
eastern Asia during the earlier periods of temple construction; also, the semi circular radiating arch is used rarely in Indian Temple
design, as the Corbelled arch is the most typical to be found throughout India and other South East Asian Kingdoms. These
elements and the presence of the sacred kalasa will now be discussed in greater detail.



The Cinquefoil Torana





Source: web
Image 3.2: A Cinquefoil Torana (Flame Pediment) above the entrance
of a later built Bagan Temple, Bagan
13


A notable feature Strachan draws to attention on the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung is the inclusion of the first cinquefoil arched
torana to be used as a decorative feature on any temple in Bagan (Strachan 1989, p40). The above image is of a Cinquefoil torana
belonging to a later built Bagan temple, this represents more clearly the detail of the flame pediment (which is seen often on many
temples photographed by Pichard in his Inventory), it is most unfortunate that the torana above the entry to the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung
temple, although it has been restored, like most restored temples in Bagan it does not show the previous stucco coating, which is
where the majority of temple decoration is present. In the above image, the detail of the flame pediment is still visible, and thus
shows a more accurate representation of how the original torana on Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung may have appeared). As Thaw Tar Aung
explains in his paper Architectural Aspects of Temples in Myanmar: an appreciation of spatial composition, the flame pediment is
believed by some historians to resemble a mark found on Pyu coins which is called a Srivatsa or holy house which closely
resembles the shape and profile of the flame pediment (aung, p. 98). Aung also continues to explain in his paper that the flame
pediment is also believed by some other historians to be derived from the palm leaf convention in a timber bargeboard and the
scroll ornament below the palm leaf (aung, p 98). Another explanation also is given suggesting that the flame is influenced by
symbology found in Buddhism and forms the shield of the trident (Aung p. 98).



Although in all the texts read for this thesis, there was no explanation evident for how the flame pediment came to be a
decoration on the early Pyu and most of the later built Bagan era temples and even some stupas, to break down the symbology
within the flame pediment, it is suggested by Aung, that the vertical flames are actually symbolic of banana bud s. it was not
uncommon for the banana bud to be present on some South and South East Asian temples with the more common Lotus Flower,
which is also seen often on the ceilings of some Indian temples and represents the Buddhas purity, so perhaps it might be logical
to assume that the architects of Bagan decided to adopt the Banana bud as their own symbolism, replacing the Lotus, as they did
with other aspects of their culture such as the adoption of the worship of the sacred mount Poppa in their culture. As explained by
Eric Stratton in The Evolution of Indian Stupa Architecture in East Asia, the use of Mount Poppa as a Burmese spiritual icon is
believed to be the Bagan adaptation of the worship of the sacred Mountain Meru which is present in the Buddhist, Brahman and
Hindu religions belonging to the Indians and the Khmer(Stratton p. 58). Evidently, it was not uncommon for the Burmese to alter
existing worshiping practices to form unique parts of their own culture.



Regardless of where the possible influence came from for the design of the Burmese Flame Pediment, it was present for
the first time (at least on any extant temple in Bagan) on the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung, and was to become a defining element of the
majority of all Bagan era monuments that were to be built throughout the following centuries, seemingly putting the Nat-Hlaung-
Kyaung at a turning point of a unique form of Bagan temple design which took from possible Indian origins, yet incorporated new
iconography which was an original Pyu and later Pagan creative innovation.



The Sacred Kalasa and the Hamsa



Present on both the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung (c. 931-964) and the later built Nan-Hpaya (c. 11
th
century CE.) Temples found in
Bagan are profiled kalasa, or, sacred water pots. These pot mouldings are found running in a continuous band around the base of
both of the temples is iconic of kalasa decoration first seen in early Gupta period Hindu architecture (Gupta 2002, p.12) which
emerged around the 4
th
century CE in India. The symbolic meaning of the water pot stemming from the Hindu belief that water is
the basis of all creation, also being the sustained of all that is created (Gupta 2002, p.12). On the later Nan-Hpaya temple, above
the kalasa there appears a subtle dado frieze which has been carved from stone bricks and comprises of a band of tandos. On
each tando is a framed figure of a mythical aquatic bird known as a hamsa (Strachan 1989, p. 47), which is representative of
Brahmas (the creator of the universe) mount, the swan (Hamsa) which is symbolic of the highest wisdom of the Brahma in
separating milk from water or virtue from evil, this belief being central to Hindu ideology (Gupta 2002, p.35). This portrayal of the
hamsa in carvings on the Nat-Hpaya temple shows that Hinduism was still influential in early bagan architecture possibly due to the
presence of Indian traders in old Bagan, prior to the cities adoption of later architectural styles during Bagans middle period (12
th

century CE.) which saw the end of the use of the Pyu language written on temple walls, and a reduction in the occurrence of the
early Mon language being present on Bagan architecture (Strachan 1989, p. 79).



The Semi Circular Radiating Arch


Another element of Bagan architecture which first emerges at Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung is the inclusion of a semi-circular
radiating arch (Figure 3.2 below) which according to Strachan, is not yet used as an aesthetic element in this temple, but is hidden
within the structure of the temple itself (Strachan 1989, p.40). The arch, or rather true arches, were a characteristic that is for the
most part unique to the Burmese style of temple building. Diagoro Chihara, in his text Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast
Asia explains more about the occurrence of the true arch in relation to other arches present throughout the rest of Southeast Asia.
According to Chihara, the use of vaults, and true arches which consists of genuine voussoirs is a rare occurrence in Indian temple
design, and virtually not present at all even in the richly ornate Hindu-Javanese and Khmer architecture found to the east of Burma
(Chihara 1996, p 49). This is not to say that true arches were not present in archaeological sites of India, but rather they were used
infrequently and the majority of early Indian and Khmer architecture adopted instead to use corbelled false arches

to cover
openings and corridors in their buildings (Chihara 1996, p 49).
14


Referring back to Strachan, he suggests that the emergence of the semi circular radiating arch may be controversially
associated with similar arches found in India, China, Mesopotamia or even kingdoms north of India (Strachan 1989 p. 40), which
would include possibly the influence of the Kushan Empire of even the Persian Empire which we do know had some influence on
early Indian Kingdoms. Although there are several potential origins of the semi circular arch that is present in Bagan for the first
time in the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung temple, ultimately there is still research needed to ascertain a clear antecedent to the presence of
the semi circular arch in either Pyu or Bagan era architecture.




Source: Chihara 2012
Figure 3.2: Corbelled Arch Vs Radiating Arch



3.1.2 Lei-Myet-Hna



The Lei-Myet-Hna as previously mentioned is both a temple typology which means four faces and indicative of temples
built on a square ground plan, and is also the name of a 12
th
century Bagan temple built by Bagan minister Anandathura in 13
th

century. Paul Strachan mentions a link between the Lei-Myet-Hna temple design in several monuments that are highlighted in his
book Imperial Pagan. The four sided temple becomes a common theme in Bagan temple typology and the presence of this plan in
the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung would suggest that although this temple, as Strachan suggests was built by Hindu Merchants during the
Pyu era of building construction (Strachan 1989 p.39), it may possibly be one of the first examples of traditional Bagan style temple
design, or if the temple was not built by early Burmese settlers, then the Burmese who later occupied the region seemingly adopted
much of the building concepts found in Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung for use in their own temples in the following centuries.




3.2 Origin of The Bagan Stupa




The Stupa, when traced back through its own history, emerged first in the form of a tumuli, being monuments which were
built to serve as burial mounds placed over the top of funeral pyres or the remains of monks or significant dead persons. As
previously discusses, the stupa was not originally conceived as a Buddhist structure as the first stupas predated the birth of the
Buddhist religion and were most likely associated first with the Jain religion which preceded the Buddhist religion in India. With
some authors noting that stupas were being constructed in the Andhra region of India by cults which later merged their practi ces
with that of the then emerging Buddhist religion.




With the development of the stupa across the Asian kingdoms and progressing through the centuries in which they were
constructed, the stupa took on several transformations. In its original form, the stupa was often a large dome shaped solid
construction, or may have been hollow although they would never be constructed with any orifices to lead inside the stupa shell.
These original stupas were representative of the original burial mounds from which they were fashioned, although later their domed
shape would take on other meanings depending on where, or who built them, taking on cosmological meaning such as becoming a
representation of a sacred mountain Meru which is a cosmological mountain associated with the Jain, Hindu and Buddhist
religions. Later, as the stupa was absorbed into the mainstream of Buddhist symbology, the stupa would come to represent either
the Buddha himself, or be symbolic of the teachings of the Dharma.


15


As the stupa traveled from India to Sri Lanka and on to Burma and other parts of South East Asia, its cupola, or Dome,
altered in form, first being seen as a bowl shaped dome iconic of Stupas such as Mahastupa at Sanchi (Image 3.3 below)
constructed around the 2
nd
century bc built in Madhya Pradesh in India, and the Sri Lankan dagobas Jetavanaramaya (Image 3.4
below) constructed in the 3
rd
century BCE and Ruwanweli Maha Seya constructed in the 2
nd
century BCE.. The Stupa form went
through a transformation, becoming in some cases a Long Cylindrical form with such an example being found in the Nga-Kywe-Na-
Daung stupa built during the 9
th
century CE. in Bagan, or a Bell shaped form commonly associated with the Burmese Ceti (Zedi).
Ultimately, architecturally speaking, so long as the structure is built to have no internal space, or at least a non accessible internal
space and its intent is that it be used for religious worship or to show adulation to whomevers remains shall be buried within the
mound, then the structure within reason can be classified as a stupa.



3.2.1 The Pyu Era Stupa



Bowl Shaped Stupas



According to again to Eric Stratton, the original form of the stupa was symbolic of the sacred mound, a mound that
represented many things from the mother mountain (the cosmic mountain, seen as Mount Meru in the Buddhist, Hindu and
Brahmin religions), and the Goddess, of which images of the Goddess are seen many times on the gateways at Sanchi stupa
(figure 3.3 below) (Stratton, p. 11). Stratton continues to explain that often, the Stupa would serve as a marker for a dead saint
(Stratton p. 11) similar to how a stupa was used to mark the importance of the Buddha, and they were seldom used for the
purposes of marking important dead persons to do with the Royal Palace, indicating that the stupa had far more a religious
meaning behind them than a political one.



In later chapters in his text, Stratton goes on to cover an important aspect of how the Stupa came to appear in Myanmar,
stating that from as early as the 5
th
century CE., close contact existed between India and the Mon kingdom of Dvaravati, while their
neighboring kingdom the Pyu shared a similarly close contact with Indian colonists mostly from the Indian state of Orissa (presently
Odisha) who had settlements in lower Myanmar (Stratton p. 56). The influence of Orissan architecture on the landscape of ancient
Prome was evident in the emergence of a Long Cylindrical Stupa which became unique to the Myanmar style of stupa design
(Stratton p. 56)



Source: www.nistads.res.in Source: imatraveller.livejournal.com
Image 3.3: Mahastupa at Sanchi, India Image 3.4: Jetavanarama Dagoba, Sri Lanka



Source: Chihara
Figure 3.3: Mahastupa Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh ,India
16


Cylindrical Shaped Stupas



Stratton mentions in his text that the Long Cylindrical Stupa which became unique in Myanmar was influenced by the
architecture from Orissa, due mainly to the presence of Indian settlers from the state occupying the region of ancient Myanmar
during the Pyu era. To go to the source of Strattons quote, George Coedes, a 20
th
century French scholar of southeast Asian
Archaeology, in his original text titled The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, wrote that ruins in Prome which bear the name
Bobogyi (Possibly an alternate spelling of Baw-Baw-Gyi, a very early Cylindrical shaped stupa found in Prome), Payama, and
Payagyi where 8
th
century cylindrical shaped stupas of which their origin was from the coast of Orissa in North East India (Coedes
1968 p. 87). If what Stratton and Coedes are both suggesting is correct, then as early as the 8
th
century CE., the Pyu who inhabited
early Myanmar around Prome, were gaining influence from Orissan settlers co-inhabiting Prome who brought with them
architectural styles from India which were being integrated into the Pyu culture. Some examples of Pyu era cylindrical shaped
stupas can be viewed below in images 3.5 and 3.6.





Source: Chihara Source: Myanmar-image.com
Image 3.5: Nga-Kywe-Na-Daung stupa, Bagan 10
th
century CE. Image 3.6: Baw-Baw-Gyi Pagoda, Prome



Bell Shaped Stupas

According to Donald N. Seekins who wrote the Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar), The Bell Shaped Stupa which is
a common stupa form built throughout ancient Myanmar, is traceable back to earlier stupas built in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) (Seekins, p.
350). Later in the 12
th
century, a Bagan monk by the name Sapada spent 10 years in Sri Lanka studying to be a monk, returned to
Bagan and built the Sapada Pagoda (Image 3.7 & Figure 3.4 below) which was designed in the influence of the Singhalese style Stupa
found in Sri Lanka which bears a square relic chamber atop the main bell (cummings 1999 p. 327). Going by a description of the
Sapada Stupa found on a Myanmar website source, the Sapada Zedi (Stupa) was modeled off of a Sri Lankan Zedi called Rama,
located in Anuraddha Pura (Sapada Zedi, web source) however a more credible source for this information was not attainable prior
to the publishing of this thesis. Although the Sapada stupa was built well into the Bagan era of construction and slightly later than
would be considered relevant to this thesis, it does show that even in later centuries, Bagan held a strong relationship with Sri
Lanka which was directly influencing their building design.



Source: Chihara Source: Myanmar-image.com
Figure 3.4: Plan of the Sapada Stupa, . Image 3.7: Photograph of the Sapada Stupa, Prome
17


Possibly one of the first Bell shaped Stupas built in Sri Lanka which may have been the influence of later bell shaped
Pagodas of Myanmar is the Thuparamaya Dagoba built in the 3
rd
century BCE in Sri Lanka (Image 3.9 below). To study the
transformation of stupa design across south and southeast asia, one can easily see a progression towards the bell shaped stupa
becoming more common especially in Myanmar, with more examples of the bell shaped Pagoda still existent and in use today, with
Bowl shaped and Cylindrical stupas mostly appearing to be in states of ruin and in lesser numbers.



Stratton also explains how Burmese architecture possibly also took examples of Sri Lankan temple design and merged it
into their own architecture. King Anawrahta of Bagan had a close relationship with King Vijayabahu of Ceylon, who built the temple
of Shwezigon around the relic of the famous tooth of Ceylon. The Tooth was awarded to King Anawrahta after helping King
Vijayabahu defend and rebuild his kingdom after the invasion from Chola in 1056ad (Stratton, p. 59). Again, this account is much
later than what is the desired era to research for the thesis, but again strattons accounts reinforce the strong relationshi p that early
Myanmar had with the kingdom of Ceylon (Sri Lanka).





Source: gogostartravel.com Source: gogostartravel.com
Image 3.8: Shwedagon Pagoda, Yangon, Myanmar Image 3.9: Thuparamaya Dagoba, Sri Lanka 3
rd
cen. BCE


KKG3 Stupa


KKG (Figure 3.5 below) is a cylindrical brick stupa of which the main cylindrical structure is 9.3 meters in diameter and 3
meters in height. At each cardinal point of the stupa there are present 4 near square protruding brick platforms each 3.3 met ers by
3 meters. The complete outside diameter of KKG inclusive of the circulating outer walls that surround the main stupa has an
overall diameter of 42 meters (Aung, p 95). Aung explains that while attempts have been made by scholars to compare KKG with
site at Nagarjunakonda, the comparison is unconvincing due to the stupa at site belonging to a class of southern stupa which is
highly distinctive because of its base being laid out in a pattern symbolic of spokes on a wheel (Aung, p 95).



Source: webshus.ru
Figure 3.5: Ground Plan and Reconstruction of KKG3 Stupa, Beikthano

Referring now to Adrian Snodgrass in his comprehensive text The Symbolism of the Stupa, Snodgrass explains that the
symbology of a wheel in Stupa plan is representative of the cosmos in cross section (Snodgrass 1992, p79). Snodgrass explains
further how the spokes of the wheel act as the axial radii that join beings to their principial centre (Snodgrass 1992, p79). The
wheel occurs in several religions, but most importantly for this thesis, it is symbolic in the Brahman religion of the Sun Wheel, which
is the wheel of time (Snodgrass 1992, p79), while in the Buddhist religion, the wheel can either be a representation of the Buddha
himself or symbolic of the Dharma wheel which represents different aspects of the religion (Snodgrass 1992 p. x).
18


Returning back to Aung Tar Thaws argument on the comparison of KKG and site, Aung states that there is no
representation of the wheel in the plan of KKG at Beikthano which directly associates it with site. Furthermore, Aung explains how
in similar stupas located in India and Sri Lanka, it is common for the ayaka platforms to be the focus of detailed ornamentation
typically constructed of stucco or stone but there appears to be no evidence of ornamentation constructed of any durable materials
present at KKG (Aung, p 95). Aung does go on to say that merely because there is no evidence of detailed ornamentation at
KKG, this does not rule out that ornamentation may have existed which was constructed of less durable materials such as timber
or plaster (Aung, p 95).



Considering the evidence seemingly against the possibility of Stupa KKG at Beikthano being influenced by the Stupa at
site in Nagarjunakonda, Aung does state that If a direct comparison with stupa 8 cannot be sustained, it is nonetheless true that
the Andhra school of stupa architecture to which Nagarjunakonda belongs was the inspiration of KKG (Aung, p 95). How Aung
justifies this statement is not really elaborated on, however to quote Gupta once more on his discussion on Elements of Indian Art,
(the) Stupa, as an object of veneration in its own right, as a replacement of Buddha himself, became very popular with Buddhists
(Gupta 2002, p 8), so one could argue that any stupa which preceded another could potentially be inspiration for the next as each
stupa, whether inclusive of the symbology of the wheel or not, is still representative of The Buddha himself and his teachings.



3.2.5 KKG18 Stupa


Thaw Tar Aungs paper suggests that Bagan and Pyu Architecture took much of its influence from the earlier temple
designs found in India and Sri Lanka, which Aung contends by giving some noteworthy comparisons between early Pyu stupas and
Indian stupas inclluding 5
th
century Beikthano stupa KKG18 (figure 3.6), and 4
th
century Indian stupa Mohra Moradu (figure 3.7) in
Taxial, India. Through the use of visual comparisons and data collected on the temples its easy to conclude that the similarities
between these two stupas, and other temples compared in Aungs study, show that it is most probable that earlier Indian stupas
and religious architecture might have had a direct influence on the development of later Pyu and Bagan architecture.


Source: Aung 2012/ Morris* Source: Aung 2012/ Morris*
Figure 3.6: KKG18 east section, Beikthano, 5th century CE. Figure 3.7: Mohra Moradu stupa south section, India,
4th century CE.


3.3. Origin of the Bagan Monastery



Although the later monasteries built in Bagan probably showed little association with the monastery layout associated with
site KKG2 located at Beikthano, it is important to consider the similarities between this early monastery found in the old Pyu city
and another monastery that was unearthed at Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh in India. The reason for this is that it could
provide a link which supports claims made by Ching et al and discussed further with Padma and Barber in an early chapter in this
thesis. If Buddhist colonists from Andhra Pradesh were present in the early period of Beikthanos development, then this might
explain why KKG2 monastery does share some uncanny resemblance to a similar monastery built during the same century in
Nagarjunakonda, a similarity which will below be explained in further detail



3.3.1 KKG2 Monastery, Beikthano



At an archaeological site located at Nagarjunakonda, in the Andhra Region of India, there are several examples of ancient
Indian Monastery and Stupa designs which have been likened to examples of ancient monuments also found in Bagan (aung)
including Bagan archaeological site KKG which is an early monastery dating to the 4
th
century CE., and KKG which is an early
stupa believed to have been constructed between the 4
th
and 5
th
centuries CE..

19

In Thaw Tar Aungs paper entitled Architectural Aspects of Temples in Myanmar: An Appreciation of Spatial Composition,
Aung mentions KKG (Figure 3.8 below) as showing similarity with the layout of another earlier 4
th
century monastery (Figure 3.9
Below) that is found at Nagarjunakonda known as site (Aung, p 71). KKG has a plan that is based on a long rectangle with a
separate entrance chamber located off the central hall on the east side of the main structure which is approximately 29 meters by
10 meters from the outside of the external walls. The main rectangle is divided in half by a central wall running along the north-
south axis of the monastery with the west partition being divided further into 8 cells and a long hall remaining on the east side (aung
p 96). Although Aung does not elaborate in as great a detail about the dimensions of the comparative monastery found at site in
Nagarjunakonda, by a visual comparison it is evident that similarly site is constructed in the form of a long rectangle, similarly
separated by a partition running down its longest length, this time having one partition separated into 5 smaller cel ls connected to
the long communal hall that remains on the opposite side of the central partition, as can be seen in figures below.




Source: Aung 2012 / Morris* Source: Aung 2012/ Morris*
Figure 3.8: KKG2 Monastery, Beikthano. 4
th
century CE. Figure 3.9: Buddhist Monastery, Nagarjunakonda.
Early 4
th
century CE.




Similar though these plans may be, it is important to note that the evidence present in the example for KKG is not irrefutable. The
similarities shown ideally require much further research than what Aung has provided before a truly conclusive assumption can be
made regarding the similarities between these two monuments.





RESEARCH RESULTS


The results of this research were not surprising, in that from the outset, it was anticipated that connections would be made
between the architecture of early Myanmar and its neighbouring kingdoms of Ceylon and India. What was surprising though was
the lack of a clear direction or fluidity of information that was present throughout all the literature which was reviewed for this topic.
As much as the basics of the information attained from most authors were generally following the same direction, discrepancies
arose regarding specifics of the information available. In most cases, monument names were difficult to trace as spelling may be
altered from one author to the next, one such case that could lead to misinformation is the naming of the Andran Buddhists by
Ching et al in A Global History of Architecture, where in most other sources, if we are to believe that all authors are talking about
the same tribe, then the spelling alters to Andhran Buddhists.



From the research, it is apparent that the site of excavations at Beikthano may have plausible connections with a similar
culture unearthed at the Indian Archaeological site at Nagarjunakonda in the Andhra region of India, with some authors suggesting
apparent links between several monuments found at each site, and other authors suggesting plausible connections with a sect of
Buddhist priests who originated from the Andhran region of India and settled in Beikthano. This would fall into the realm of proving
the Brahama theory as proposed by Chihara true, in that it may be very well possible that Architectural practices were brought to
Beikthano by Buddhist monks from India. But this does not disprove the Vaisya Theory that suggests that Architectural Influence
was brought to Myanmar by ancient merchants, as is most likely evident in the case of the Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung temple built most
likely by Hindu merchants who were present in Old Bagan during the Pyu era of construction. There is no reason to suggest that
the influence of early Myanmar architecture didnt come from many sources which infiltrated the region simultaneously.




It is also important to consider that influence may not only have come from the presence of foreign persons within
Myanmar, but also that through the travels of early inhabitants of Myanmar such as monks or merchants who sojourned to India,
Sri Lanka or other parts of South or Southeast Asia, they may have discovered themselves new methods of design and
construction which they brought back with them and influenced the construction of their own indigenous architecture.


20

Of all the literature read on the subject, it appears that the strongest influencers of early Myanmar architecture came from
the Andhra Pradesh region and Orissa state of India, with other connections being clearly present between Pyu sites such as
Prome , Sri Ksetra and the kingdom of Ceylon. Even the later Bagan kingdom still maintained a close relationship with Ceylon both
militarily and culturally. More connections could potentially be made between Ceylon and the early Mon kingdom than were
discussed in this paper, however as one source mentioned, the number of existent ancient Mon monuments are lesser than what
Pyu or Bagan era monuments can still be found, due to the higher rainfall in the lower Irrawaddy causing more erosion and
destruction of what Monuments may have existed in the region.



If one was to suggest a period of architecture or art in which to associate early Myanmar architecture, then the Gupta
period that emerged in 4
th
century India may still be evident in the design and architecture found in early Myanmar monuments.
This is most likely due to the influence that the Gupta period had on the religion of Hinduism itself, so it might be appropriate to say
that Hindu architecture was highly reflective of the Gupta period of Architecture. This might explain why examples of Gupta Period
design may be present in the Hindu temple Nay-Hlaung-Kyaung found in Bagan. However, to look at the influence that India had on
the Burmese stupa, might lead the observer to conclude that the influence of Indians on the design of the Burmese Stupa was less
prominent than the influence that Ceylon had on the development of the Burmese Stupa.



Ultimately this paper is an extremely brief overview of just some examples of potential influence that may have guided the
development of early Myanmar religious monument design. Nothing was discussed in this paper about any possible connections
with Chinese design considering that the Burmese who came to inhabit the Irrawaddy Plains would have originated from the north
in China. But to look at the subject superficially, there are not a lot of visual indicators to suggest any strong ties between early
Myanmar architecture and the elaborately decorative Chinese architecture. It is also apparent that from research that dates back to
early in our previous century, India and Ceylon have seemed to be the main focus for Archaeologists and historians in attempting to
draw connections between early Myanmar and their architectural antecedents.



CONCLUSION



Unfortunately, the results of this research are somewhat inconclusive. Although this paper serves as a reasonable
summary of what are the general theories that have been written about the topic of Myanmar Architectural antecedents, in some
aspects, a definitive conclusion is lacking to be able to confidently discuss irrefutable details about the development of religious
architecture across the ancient Myanmar landscape. Although there are many examples of literature that cover the subject, many
accounts of specific monument details were briefly described by the authors, and some sources seemed to lack any solid
background to how certain monuments where connected with their respective antecedents. Many examples of Myanmar
monuments that could show clear linearity between their construction and earlier prototypical designs come much later in the
chronology of Myanmar, placing them in the Bagan era of monument construction (approximately the 9
th
century CE onward),
leaving details about previous monuments built from the 1
st
century CE up to the 9
th
century CE to be based on scientific theory.

One thing to be said about the early Myanmar architects is that they were incredibly creative in adapting the religious and
architectural concepts of previous civilizations into their own form of indigenous architecture. This can clearly be seen in the
development of the Cinquefoil Torana, otherwise known as the Flame Pediment (incorporating the Banana bud) which could
potentially be an adaptation of the common Lotus bud, and the adoption of Mount Poppa as their own form of religious mountain,
taken most likely from the concept of Mount Meru which belonged to Buddhist, Hindu and Brahman mythology. Another point that is
clear, is that architectural and religious influence in ancient Southeast Asia appeared to travel East. Many authors refer to this as
the Indianization of Southeast Asia. The full extent of how Myanmar was Indianized in their culture and Architecture is briefly
discussed throughout this thesis.



In conclusion, it might be appropriate to assume that indigenous Myanmar architecture was the result of the Indianization
of the region, mixed with a creative desire that was present in the early Myanmar architects to form their own unique designs based
on concepts borrowed from previous civilisations.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Id like to acknowledge the help and support of my supervisor, Dr David Beynon, of Deakin University. His own personal
research and interest in the topics of both historical architecture and Asian architecture has guided the writing of this thesis since
our initial meetings and without his input, it would be safe to assume that the quality of the content of this thesis would be of a
lesser standard if it were not for his knowledgeable input and personal understandings regarding the development of ancient
Myanmar architecture.

I would like to also acknowledge architectural historian and archaeologist Michael W. Meister who was kind enough to
return some correspondence during the early phase of this research, making his own suggestions about where to possibly look for
clues and discussing his own personal interest in the early architecture of Myanmar.


21

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23

APPENDICES


1. Appendix 1: Glossary
Glossary of Key Terms


Ajanta Caves Built from the 2
nd
century BCE. to the 7
th
century CE., the Ajanta Caves are a UNESCO site
located in Maharashtra, India where 30 monasteries, Shrines and Chaityagrihas have been cut out of
the directly out of the rock caves. These temples, monasteries and religious caved monuments being
known as the great Rock-Cut Temples of Maharashtra, and are the predecessors to later free standing
religious monuments in India, and possibly Bagan.

Bagan Alternative name for Bagan. Bagan seizing to be used following the 19
th
century CE.
note: both naming conventions may be used interchangeably throughout the thesis.

Beikthano Also known as The Vishnu City, Beikthano is one of the original Pyu City States that still
remain in present day Myanmar. It is so far the oldest site located in the ancient Pyu kingdom to be
scientifically excavated and is believed to be dated back to around the era of the 2
nd
century BCE.
Beikthano was a fortified city, built much like similar cities found around its time in other areas of
Myanmar and India, although Beikthano was built using a rectangular wall enclosure, while other cities
of similar sizes may have adopted circular or oval shaped perimeter walls.

Brahma Brahma is one of three Trimurti, the others being the forms of Vishnu and Shiva, the three
Hindu Gods who make up the Great Trinity, each God ultimately being a different form of the one Hindu
Lord known as Krishna.

Buddha The Buddha was a real person who was born and lived in Nepal around the 6
th
to the 4
th

century BCE.. His human name being Siddhartha Gautama, he would later become known as the
enlightened one after he finally attained enlightenment following a lifetime of experimentation and
meditation in order to achieve a clearer vision and awareness about his existence and the greater
universe. His methods and teachings became the foundation for a religious movement dedicated to him
now known as Buddhism which is a belief system that still exists in our present day.

Burma the Correct naming for Burma is the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, although presently it is
acceptable to call the region of South East Asia just Myanmar. Burma is a land in South Asia which Is
located to the east of Indian and Bangladesh, South of China and Nepal and is west of Cambodi a,
Laos, Vietnam and Thailand. To the south of Burma is the vast expanse of coastline known as the Bay
of Bengal. Burma is the location for the ancient civilizations of the Mons and the Pyus, which are
covered in this thesis, with the development of a Bagan civilization coming later in the history of the
land, around the 9
th
century CE.

Ceylon Ceylon is the former name of an Island in the Northern Indian Ocean at the southern point of
the Indian land mass. Ceylon later became known as Sri Lanka after its name was changed officially in
1972. Ceylon had friendly ties with early Bagan Kings, including Anawrahta, who helped the King of
Ceylon repel an attack from Chola invaders around the 11th century CE.. to repay Anawrahta for his
help in defending and rebuilding his city, King Vijayabahu handed Anawrahta the relic of the famous
tooth of Ceylon, and built a temple known as Shwezigon around the relic in the city of Sri -Khit-Tra in his
honour.

Chaityagrihas an alternative name for Temples with its roots in Sanskrit, derived from the word Chita which
means a pyre (language unknown)

Ellora Caves Built similarly to the Ajanta Caves of Maharashtra, the Ellora Caves is another world heritage
site which is home to 34 cave temples carved out of the hillside from the 5
th
century to the 10
th
century
CE.

Gu Burmese word for Temple, meaning Cave.

Gupta A style of Indian Art & Architecture typically associated with heavy symbolic Hindu and
Brahman decoration built between the 4
th
and 6
th
century CE.

Hamsa A mythological aquatic bird, considered to be a swan, relating to Brahmas Mount, the Swan,
which symbolically represents the highest wisdom in separating milk from water or virtue from evil. A
central belief in the Hindu religious philosophy.

Irrawaddy Basin the Irrawaddy Basin is a river that flows from North to South, running through the entire length
of Myanmar. The Irrawaddy (or more correctly Ayeyarwady) River was the location for many of the
Pyus and Mons first cities, with the Pyu developing their civilisation in the upper Irrawaddy basin and
the Mons developing in the Lower Irrawaddy. The ancient Pyu cities of Halin, Bagan and Sri-Khit-Tra
were all built either along, or in close proximity to the great Irrawaddy River.

24

Kalasa the Sacred Water Pot, important to Hindu Religion as water is considered the provider and
sustainer of all creation. Kalasa are often found at the base of Gupta style temple pillars from the 4
th

century CE., were seen to be emerging from a border of kalasa in profile (Gupta pp. 12). This symbolic
representation of the kalasa later seen at Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung and Nan-Hpaya in Bagan.

Mon The Mon were possibly the first civilization to develop in ancient Myanmar and had strong
connections with both Indian and Ceylon. The Mon coexisted with their northern Pyu neighbours for
centuries prior to the emergence of the Bagan Empire around the 9
th
century CE., after which time most
of what remained of the Mon was integrated into Bagan culture. Mon people still exist today with 8
million Mons currently living in Burma and over 100,000 Mons living in Thailand.

Mount Meru the mythological cosmic mountain at the centre of Hindu belief. In Hinduism, Mount Meru is
considered to be the centre of the Universe, and all other spiritual, physical and metaphysical life, as
well as being home to the Hindu God Brahma.

Mount Poppa A dead volcano located in Burma which became central to Burmese belief, similar to how
Mount Meru is central to Hindu Belief. It is considered that the Burmese took the concept of the
Mythological Mountain from the Hindu belief when creating their own Mountain cult centred around
Mount Poppa (Stratton pp. 58)

Myanmar the accepted naming of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar located in South East Asia, also
known as Burma (See Burma)

Nagarjunakonda located in the state of Andhra Pradesh, Nagarjunakonda is a site which is home to many great
examples of Indian Buddhist Architecture. The name Nagarjunakonda means the Hill of
Nagarjunakonda, who was a Buddhist scholar who lived around the 3
rd
century CE. many sites and
ancient monuments at Nagarjunakonda have been compared to similar monuments in Myanmar,
suggesting that architecture from this site may have been possible influence for later Bagan built
Temples.


Prototypical Temple Temples which were known to be the first of their typology, the antecedents of later built
temples

Pyu The Kingdom that preceded Burma was that of the Pyu. Between the 1st century BCE. and the
9th century CE., speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages known as the Pyu established city-kingdoms in
Myanmar at Binnaka, Mongamo, Sri-khit-tra, and Halin which were the foundations for their empire
which thrived in the Irrawaddy Valley until they were later superseded by the Burmese around the 9
th

century CE, The Burmese then building upon the Pyus culture and assimilating it into their own

Sri-Ksetra one of the original Pyu city states located in central Myanmar. Sometimes alternatively spelt Srikshetra
or Sri-Khit-tra






























25

2. Appendix 2: Information on some of the Authors


2.1 Associate Professor Maitrii Aung-Thwin



National University of Singapore

B.A. (Northern Illinois University);
PhD (Michigan, 2001)


Maitrii Aung-Thwin is Associate Professor of Myanmar/Southeast Asian History and Coordinator of the Comparative Asian Studies
PhD Program. He has written on social movements, law, colonialism, nation-building, and intellectual history.
RESEARCH INTERESTS:
Dr. Aung-Thwins research has been concerned with the histories of domination, resistance, and identity in Southeast Asia during
the late colonial age. He has pursued these interests through studies on intellectual communities, historiography, and the
production of knowledge. His first monograph, The Return of the Galon King: History, Law, and Rebellion examined colonialisms
role in the historical construction of resistance in British Burma.
His approach to studying the region has been influenced by scholarship on transnationalism, colonialism, ethno-history, socio-legal
studies, oral history, and public history. These conversations have deepened his interest in the development of legal, business,
and religious networks in South and Southeast Asia.
Other Publications:
- A History of Myanmar Since Ancient Times: Traditions and Transformations, with Michael A. Aung-Thwin, Reaktion Books,
2013 (Updated and Expanded Edition).
The Return of the Galon King: History, Law, and Rebellion in Colonial Burma, (Ohio University Press, 2011).
- A New History of Southeast Asia, with M.C. Ricklefs, Bruce Lockhart, Albert Lau, and Portia Reyes, (Palgrave-Macmillan,
2010).
- Information from National University of Singapore (www.fas.nus.edu.sg)

2.2 Michael Aung-Thwin Ph.D



University of Hawaii at Manoa

B.A., Doane College, 1969
M.A., University of Illinois, 1971
Ph.D., University of Michigan, 1976


Dr. Aung-Thwin is Professor of Asian Studies and Chair of the Asian Studies Program of UH Manoa. His research specializations
are on the history of Myanmar, myth and historiography of early Myanmar, the classical states of Southeast Asia.


Distinctions:
- Paradigms, Primary Sources and Prejudices: selected for Choice List of Outstanding Academic Books of 1998
- Director of the Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois
- John D. Rockefeller III Fellowship
- Social Science Research Council/American Council of Learned Societies Fellow.
Other Publications:
A History of Myanmar Since Ancient Times: Traditions and Transformations [with Maitrii Aung-Thwin] (London, Reaktion
Books, 2012).

New Perspectives in the History and Historiography of Southeast Asia: Continuing Explorations, With - Kenneth R. Hall
(London, Routledge Press, 2011).

The Mists of Ramanna: The Legend that Was Lower Burma(Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 2005).
26


Pagan: The Origins of Modern Burma. Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 1985.
- Information from University of Hawaii at Manoa (www.manoa.hawaii.edu)



2.3 Dr Khin-Maung-NNyunt


Yangon University
B.A Degree 1952. Mandalay College
B.A (Hons.) Political Science and Modern History 1954, Yangon
M.A Constitutional History 1955, Yangon University
University Ph.D International Relations 1960, L.S.E London University
Dr Khin-Maung-NNyunt was born in 1929.
Matriculated in 1948, he joined Mandalay College the same year and obtained B.A. Degree in 1952. He was appointed Tutor in the
Department of Modern History and political Science, Yangon University where he pursued further studies leading to B.A. (Hons)
and M.A. Degrees in 1954 and 1955 respectively. He was promoted Assistant lecturer and in 1956 he won a Myanmar Government
schoarship for postgraduade studies abroad.
Admitted to the London school of economics and political science, London University he worked for the Doctorate Doctorate
Degree in International Relations, which he obtained in 1960. He returned home to rejoin his academic career at his Alma Mater.
From 1961 to 1975 he served as Senior Lecturer and Departmental Head in Mawlamyine College, Institute of Education and
Workers' Myanmar.
In 1976 he was transfered to the Ministry of Culture and promoted Director- General of fine and Performing Arts Department and
Director- General of Myanmar Historical Research Department the two Posts he held concurrently. In 1982 he was sent to
Mandalay University to take the professorial Chair of History and aslo that of International Relation.
In 1987 he was transferred to the Department of Archelogy as its Director-General. In1989 he was appointed Chairman of the
committe for the compilation of Myanmar history till 1933. He is now member of the Myanmar Historical Commission, member of
the council of University of Culture and member of the Central Executive Committee of Writer and Journalists Association,
Myanmar.
He has represented his country at a number of International Conferences and Seminars where he presentedpapers on history,
education, Buddhism, Culture, literature, Art and Archeology of his country.
He is professor of History and Buddhist Art at the International Buddhist Missionary University.
He writes college textbooks, tourist guidebooks, travelogues, short stories and articles in Myanmar in and English in the
Periodicals. He broadcasts weekly talk on Myanmar culture in the English programme of Radio Myanmar. He is the chief editor of
Myanmar perspectives, a quartely magazine on Myanmar current affairs.
- Information from Myanmarpedia.blogspot.com.au


2.4 Professor Adrian Snodgrass MSc (Arch), PhD
Australian cultural historian, philosopher and academic
Adjunct Professor with the Centre for Cultural Research, University of Western Sydney
Education:
MSc, Architecture, University of Sydney 1981;
PhD, University of Sydney 1985
Career: Adrian Snodgrass is Adjunct Professor with the Centre for Cultural Research at the University of Western Sydney. He is an
internationally renowned authority in Buddhist studies and Buddhist art. He also researches in the area of hermeneutical phil osophy
and its application to knowledge production and cross-cultural understanding. Adrian Snodgrass is co-editor of the journal
Architectural Theory Review (see url below) and Editor of Architectural Theory.
Honours and awards: Founding Member and Honorary Life Member of the Asian Arts Society of Australia
27

Publications include: The Symbolism of the Stupa 1985, Architecture, Time and Eternity, (Satapitaka Series, No. 3567, two vols)
1988, The Taima Mandala: A Descriptive Guide 1995, The Matrix and Diamond World Mandalas in Shingon Buddhism (Satapitaka
Series, No. 3545, two vols) 1997, Architettura, Tempo, Eternit 2004, Interpretation in Architecture: Design as a Way of Thinking,
Routledge 2006; numerous articles in professional journals
- Information from World Whos Who, Europa Biographical Reference (www.worldwhoswho.com)

2.5 Swaraj Prakash Gupta




Indian Archaeological Society






Dr. S.P. Gupta was born in 1931, and at the time of his death in late 2007 was Chairman, Indian Archaeological Society,
New Delhi.
Swaraj Prakash Gupta (1931 2007) was a famous Indian archaeologist and art historian.
He was a scholar, writer of great standing and an authority on Indian art history.
He has written achieves of articles and books on the subject of his interest.
Dr Gupta also undertook numerous excavations in Harappan sites.

Swaraj Prakash Gupta was a well-known Indian archaeologist and art historian.
From childhood Gupta was a member of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. He was a scholar, writer of great repute and an
authority on Indian art history. He has written scores of articles and books on the subject of his interest.
Dr Gupta also undertook several excavations in Harappan sites. Dr Gupta remained a bachelor throughout his life. At the time of
his death he was busy establishing the Indian History and Culture Society as a full-fledged research centre.

He worked and lectured in more than 30 countries of the world. He authored a number of books including Disposal of the Dead and
Physical Types in Ancient India (1971), Tourism, Museums and Monuments (1975), Archaeology of Sovi et Central Asia and the
Indian Borderlandstwo volumes (1978), The Roots of Indian Art (1980)the French edition of which was published in 1990 and
Cultural Tourism in India (2002). Dr S.P. Gupta retired as Director, Allahabad Museum.
He was also the editor of several volumes of the Puratattva, the Bulletin of the Indian Archaeological Society. He was a
distinguished archaeologist and art historian who was awarded several gold medals and the Sir Mortimer Wheeler Prize for
excellence in archaeology. The first Dr Vishnu Shridhar Wakankar National Award of Madhya Pradesh State Government was
presented to the celebrated archaeologist Dr S.P. Gupta in recognition of his devotion and contribution to archaeological research

- Information from Wikipedia and various sources.