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Tinbergen Institute

The Tinbergen Institute is the institute for

economic research of the Erasmus Universiteit

Rotterdam, Universiteit van Amsterdam, and Vrije


Universiteit Amsterdam.
Tinbergen Institute Amsterdam
Roetersstraat 31

1018 WB Amsterdam
The Netherlands
Tel.:
Fax:

+31(0)20 551 3500

+31(0)20 551 3555

Tinbergen Institute Rotterdam


Burg. Oudlaan 50

3062 PA Rotterdam
The Netherlands
Tel.:
Fax:

+31(0)10 408 8900

+31(0)10 408 9031

Please send questions and/or remarks of nonscientific nature to driessen@tinbergen.nl.

Most TI discussion papers can be downloaded at


http://www.tinbergen.nl.

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Figure 1: Parametric estimate of


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30

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34

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40

50

Months in business

35

Figure 3: Parametric estimate of


the "voluntary" hazard rate

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0

30

Months in business

36

50

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