Running Head: THE USE OF ICONIC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC

DICTATION









The Use of Iconic Manipulatives in Rhythmic Dictation
Maura Foley
Michigan State University
December 11, 2012








THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 2
Abstract
In elementary music classes, rhythm is an essential part of the curriculum. Though many
general music programs already include the study of rhythmic performance, introducing
rhythmic dictation, or writing down rhythms presented aurally, is a growing trend in
elementary music programs. However, students often have trouble transitioning from
performing to dictating rhythms, therefore this study explored opportunities to bridge the
gap between the two disciplines. Would the use of iconic manipulatives, which students
utilize when initially introduced to rhythm in the additive approach to rhythmic
education, improve student dictation? To test this question, two third grade classes and
two fourth grade classes participated in a study conducted within the course of their
regular elementary music class. Each grade level had a class that used icons and a class
that did not. Then, pre- and post-tests were administered to each group. Though this
result cannot be generalized past these classes as the sample size was too small, the test
data clearly showed a correlation for these students between iconic manipulatives and
greater growth from the pre-test to the post-test. Due to these results, I will incorporate
iconic manipulatives in the initial stages of learning rhythmic dictation, though the
eventual goal will be to help students transition to a phase when they no longer need the
icons.










THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 3
The use of Iconic Manipulatives in Rhythmic Dictation
Many people think of elementary music as simply singing songs and playing
games. While those are common activities in any music class, the purpose behind them is
where my concern lies. Of the most important concepts taught in third and fourth grade
music, rhythm reading and dictation rank as the most difficult skills for students to
master. Though students generally seem to have no difficulty identifying musical notation
and assigning the correct beats for each note, there is a disconnection when students are
asked to dictate a given rhythm. In music, dictation refers to the act of students listening
to a given rhythmic, harmonic, or melodic pattern and transcribing it to paper. Many
students are able to perform any rhythm correctly, even if it includes rhythms that are
considered difficult. However, these same students struggle with even the simplest
patterns of short and long sounds when asked to dictate rhythms. This disconnect began
a search for a way to bridge the gap between performing rhythms, when students use
iconic manipulatives in conjunction with musical notation, and dictating rhythms, when
students use only a pencil and paper. Iconic manipulatives, in this setting, are small
pieces of paper to represent short or long beats. Short sounds are one inch by one inch
whereas long sounds are two inches by one inch. Together, these visually show the
relationship between short and long sounds as two shorts fit into the physical, and aural,
space of one long. Additionally, the pieces are color coded, with short sounds being
yellow and long sounds being orange. During performance of rhythms students are able
to see these icons, however, during dictation students are not allowed to use them. For my
research project, I will administer pre- and post-tests to two different groups of third and
fourth grade students. Since I have two sections of each grade level, one group in each
THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 4
grade will utilize iconic manipulatives during the post-tests and one section for each
grade level will act as the baseline by not utilizing the icons. The research looks to find
what effect, if any, will the availability of iconic manipulatives during dictation exercises
have on the accuracy of rhythmic dictation for third and fourth grade music students?
Theoretical Framework
Many music classes traditionally use the subdivision approach to rhythm,
though a new theory, called the additive approach, is utilized by a growing number of
programs and teachers. The additive approach consists of using the eighth note, or other
short sound, as the basis of the beat and then adding to use a long sound, compared to the
subdivision approach that uses the long sound as the basis of the beat and divides into
two short sounds (Gauthier and Dunn, 2004). The subdivision approach was widely
viewed as the most authentic way to teach rhythm as experienced musicians do divide the
beat when playing shorter rhythms. However, addition is a skill learned much earlier in
school than division, so many agree that it makes sense to utilize a theory that is more
easily understood by younger students, which is the additive approach. Further,
proponents argue that converting from the additive approach in early training to the
subdivision approach as musicians mature does not cause confusion. In their study,
Gauthier and Dunn (2004) found that students who utilized icons and manipulatives
involved in this approach had more success sight-reading rhythms than students who only
utilized the symbolic notation, which is what is thought of as music notes, using the
subdivision approach. A similar technique was implemented by Falter (2011) with his use
of what he coined as a rhythm color worksheet. This worksheet was a series of beat
boxes, which he allowed students to color and use during dictations (Falter, 2011).
THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 5

Literature Review
Introduction
In general music, rhythm is one of the most important concepts that is taught.
Though aspects of rhythm are taught in every grade level, third and fourth grade students
do something called rhythmic dictation. Dictation occurs when students are given a
pattern aurally and must write down the pattern using correct notation. Currently,
students are expected to write the pattern with only their pencil and paper in front of
them, and many times they struggle to complete the assignment. Students often even
include an incorrect number of beats in their dictations. While searching for a solution,
iconic manipulatives, which students use in earlier grades to perform rhythms, play an
important role. Iconic manipulatives, in this setting, are small pieces of paper that
represent short or long beats. Short sounds are one inch by one inch whereas long
sounds are two inches one inch, which together visually show the relationship between
short and long sounds as two shorts fit into the physical, and aural, space of one long
(Gauthier & Dunn, 2004). During performance of rhythms students are able to see these
icons, however, during dictation they are not utilized. What effect, if any, will the
availability of iconic manipulatives for students during dictation exercises have on the
accuracy of rhythmic dictation for my third and fourth grade music students?
Though the fifteen articles used in this review all somehow relate to rhythm in
music classes, the specific topics of each article varied from relating to middle school
band (Strouse, 2007), older grades such as fifth and sixth, while others still were about
performing rhythms. In order to direct the research, topic clusters are utilized to organize
THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 6
the findings. The first main theme is research focused on students in younger grades
learning how to perform and describe rhythm. This theme includs articles about using
movement to teach rhythm among a variety of other theories (Paananen, 2009). The
second theme is about dictation specifically, though it includes dictation in all grade
levels. Most of this research group is based on the same techniques used already in many
music classes where students are given an aural pattern to write down. The third and final
theme is research about iconic manipulatives in music. These articles discussed ideas
similar to the iconic manipulatives discussed before along with other researched icons
that included balls, coloring charts (Falter, 2011), and more.
Research
Theme 1: Performing Rhythm in Elementary School. An essential skill
involved in dictating rhythms is the ability to demonstrate, or perform, given rhythms.
This performance shows an understanding of the relationships between the different types
of notations in music, and dictation will not be successful until students have that
understanding. For elementary school, it is important that a main research theme focused
on the study of rhythms by young children, primarily ages five through eleven.
This section discusses six scholarly articles that addressed the idea of rhythm as it
fits into a general music curriculum. Some of these articles used specific theories of
music education, like Dalcroze (Wang, 2008), which emphasizes the importance of
movement. The Dalcroze method, which is also called Eurythmics, was devised by Emile
Jaques Dalcroze and is the belief that by combining body movements with music
rhythms and some other rhythmic activities, children can learn and understand perception
of music rhythm efficiently, (Saetre, 2009). This article discussed a study done in China
THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 7
where students were randomly divided into two groups, one of which used movement in
accordance to the Dalcroze method when learning rhythm while the other group did not
participate in movement activities (Seatre, 2009). In all areas they studied, musical ear,
inner pulse, and steady beat, researchers found that movement helped students perform
better on assessments (Saetre, 2009, p. 35). Similar to the Dalcroze methods emphasis
on movement was a theory by Eileen Benedict discussed by Adam Perlmutter (2009)
where notated rhythm must come after students learn to show rhythms though bodily
movement (Perlmutter, 2009). By using movement in conjunction with rhythmic
exploration, both researchers found students had more success.
Another common finding was that age played an important role in the success of
students when learning rhythm in the general music setting. Two articles used non-
pitched percussion instruments to study rhythmic success for students between five and
eleven. While both studies included a wide range of participants, both found that students
under ten years old struggled to demonstrate rhythms while older students, ten and above,
had more success (Granberry-Gordon, 1995). Age was found to be a significant factor in
the development of the hierarchy of form, the amount of different rhythm patterns, the
metrical hierarchy, as well as the understanding of the relation of grouping and metre in
rhythmic improvisation (Paananen, 2007, p. 349). While Paananen (2007) focused more
on meter and grouping, Granverry-Gordon (1995) focused specifically on the topic of
dictation, and even focused on grades second through fifth. A third study furthered the
importance of age by discussing age as it relates to echo rhythms used in school music
settings (Habegger, 2010). Habegger (2010) discussed the changing ability of students to
repeat rhythms that used different amounts of sounds, and he found that the ability
THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 8
increased around nine years.
Theme 2: Dictation in Music Education. As this action research project focuses on the
action of rhythmic dictation, it was important to identify scholarly articles that examine
this process. However, for these articles it is important that the research is not limited by
age, as most techniques could be made age-appropriate with a few accommodations.
Some of the research focused on dictation of students who are in undergraduate or
graduate music programs. Leong (1998) looked at various meta-cognitive skills
employed by students during aural dictations, both rhythmic and melodic, while Beckett
(1997), on the other hand, looked at two-part dictation by undergraduate music students.
In the second study, Beckett (1997) found that students were more successful in two-part
dictation when they focused on the rhythm before the melody. This demonstrates that
once students master rhythmic dictation, they are able to more easily progress to melodic
dictation.
McGuire (2003) introduced another theory of music, contrary to the Dalcroze
method, which was pioneered by Zoltan Kodaly. This method used specific rhythmic
syllables for each rhythm, such as ta for quarter notes and ti for eighth notes
(McGuire, 2003). McGuire (2003) argues for a similar use of syllables that retains the
same sound for complex rhythms, as he argues that it will aid students during dictations
and performances of rhythms. Having this type of consistency is a vital part of any music
program, which is why researchers consider utilizing iconic manipulatives throughout the
process of learning rhythms and dictating those rhythms.
Theme 3: Iconic Manipulatives in Music Education. The third and final theme is
comprised of research about iconic manipulatives in music, which uses two scholarly
THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 9
articles that studied three different types of icons. While some studies used the same
icons as described earlier, others used varying types, demonstrating the universal
effectiveness of any sort of manipulative.
In one study, the researchers used color-coded squares and rectangles as iconic
manipulatives. The Gauthier and Dunn (2004) state that:
iconic learning in the Additive Approach is done with rhythm icons, bars that are
constructed in durational proportion to one another. Using short and long sounds,
the short sound will be the building block, and the long sound will be twice as
long. (pg. 2)
By utilizing the additive approach, as these researchers did, some hope to more
accurately relate to young students in math education. In their research, Gauthier and
Dunn (2004) found that students who utilized these manipulates and additive approach
scored higher on rhythm assessments.
In addition to small squares and rectangles as iconic manipulatives, other
researchers found success using papers divided into beat boxes (Falter, 2011). Falter
(2011) developed the rhythm color worksheet as an iconic manipulative because she
found her students were not dependent when completing rhythms. The worksheet
connects visual, aural, and kinesthetic concepts in rhythm, so it is likely to help students
with diverse learning styles, (Falter, 2011, p. 30). This type of icon allowed her students
to work out rhythms that exceeded their difficulty levels as it used a variety of learning
styles in one page. As dictation is also considered by many to be a more difficult skill
than performance, the use of iconic manipulatives should also allow students to work out
more difficult rhythms.
THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 10
III. Summary. Rhythm is one of the main concepts in general music, so rhythmic
dictation is a clear extension of that course of study. However, many students who
normally find success when performing rhythms seem to struggle when asked to dictate
that same rhythm. In order to search for a way to ameliorate this problem, it was
necessary to study research in three different themes.
The findings of the first theme, which focused on the general study of rhythm in
elementary grades, centered on the importance of the age of the students involved. Much
of the research found that students are more likely to succeed at demonstrating an
understanding of rhythm after the age of nine. Additionally, this theme brought the
conclusion that multiple intelligences should be included in the study, namely kinesthetic.
As students will be encouraged to manipulate the icons as part of my study, this
kinesthetic approach will indeed be addressed.
Dictation took the main emphasis of the findings in the second theme. Just as
writing is something that students will practice all their careers, dictation is an act that
continues throughout the study of music, so it was important to identify research from
multiple points in that study. Consistency throughout a program was an emphasis in these
findings.
Theme three narrowed the focus further by collecting findings of two major
examples of iconic manipulatives utilized in music education programs. Though the
possibilities for icons in music are endless, the two articles from this theme centered on a
rhythm box paper and shapes to represent the intangible idea of rhythm. The articles
identified and described varying types of iconic manipulatives, and researchers found
students who utilized those icons performed better on rhythm assessments. Though this
THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 11
was on rhythm performance assessments, the success should transfer to rhythmic
dictation.
There is, unfortunately, limited research that focuses on the age group of nine to
eleven that also utilized iconic manipulatives in rhythmic dictation. This is likely
because the push to work with students on dictation in these lower grades is a relatively
new idea, as in the past performance and composition of rhythms took the main focus of
teachers and students. Though a gap remains in the research, by identifying research that
each uses various aspects of the whole, there is a strong base by which to conduct the
action research project.
Methods
Research Settings and Participants
This project took place in an elementary school in rural Michigan and directly
involved third and fourth grade students in a general elementary music class. These
classes consisted of a total of 105 students, with 55 girls, and 50 boys. While some
students qualify for free and reduced lunch and come from low-income families, a small
percentage of students come from homes with two parents and sit comfortably in the
middle class. Though primarily consisting of Caucasian students, the population does
have great diversity in socio-economic status.
The school, with roughly 420 students, consists of grades kindergarten through
fourth, so those involved in the project were the oldest two grades in the building. These
classes typically meet two to three times a week for a half hour at a time.
Research Approach and Design
As I had two fourth grade classes and two third grade classes, each grade was
randomly assigned one class to acts as the control, with no iconic manipulatives, and one
THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 12
that utilized the icons. This type of research is called Group Comparison Designs
(Mertler, 2009). In this design, two or more groups, which differ on some characteristic
or have somehow been exposed to different conditions, are compared on a common
measure in order to see if the differing characteristic or condition may have resulted in
different performance, (Mertler, 2009, p. 85). In my case, the common measure was the
same pre- and post-tests and the differing condition was the use, or not, of iconic
manipulatives.
Each of the four classes took a pre-test, which required the students to both
perform a given rhythm and dictate, or write down, rhythms performed by the teacher.
For the dictation portion of the pre-test, students had to dictate four rhythms. The
instructor first established the beat, indicating that she was clapping the quarter note,
which receives one beat. Then, she counted off and performed the rhythm. Students had
roughly one minute to write down the rhythm before she performed the same rhythm one
more time. They repeated this process for the remainder of the dictation exercises. After a
week of dictation practice and lessons, students engaged in a post-test, which was
structured the same way as the pre-test, except one third and one fourth grade class had
icons with them that they were able to manipulate to check their answers before
transferring their dictations to symbolic notation on their paper.
Data Collection Methods and Trustworthiness
Quantitative data made up the majority of the data for this project, though a small
amount of qualitative data was collected in the form of observations of student
engagement and excitement during dictation practice and execution. Students participated
in rhythmic dictation assessments and the scores from pre- and post-tests were compared
THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 13
in order to assess differences between classes that use iconic manipulatives and classes
that did not utilize the icons. To maintain trustworthiness, other teachers and my principal
will observe during lessons so that I am not the only educator in charge of recording
observations and conducting tests.
Data Analysis Techniques
I analyzed my observations of student engagement by grouping data with similar
results, which is referred to as a coding scheme (Mertler, 2009, p. 141). This process,
though lengthy, allowed me to describe patterns and correlations found in this type of
data. In order to analyze the variety of quantitative data obtained from the project, I
utilized graphs of each of the four groups (third and fourth, with and without
manipulatives) in order to visualize and analyze the changes in test scores. Frequency
distribution tables (Mertler, 2009, p. 149) for each group will also aid in data analysis.
Limitations and Researcher Bias
Unfortunately, the small sample size limited my data, as I have only one of each
type of class to analyze (one third grade with manipulatives, one third grade without
manipulatives, one fourth grade with manipulatives, and one fourth grade without
manipulatives). This small sample will not allow for much generalization of my findings
beyond these specific classes. While I can determine from my findings the best way for
my to teach dictation in these specific classes, I could not say that this would be the
preferred method for other third and fourth grade music classes. In fact, the research is
biased because my students are already utilizing the additive approach, which this project
is based in, so these results would not prove helpful to a program that utilized the
subdivision approach to rhythmic education.
THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 14
0
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Scores 0%-40% Scores 41%-69% Scores 70%-100%
Fourth Grade Pre-Test
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Fourth Grade Post-Test
Without Manipulatives
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Findings
Overall, the data from the pre- and post-test scores showed a greater improvement
in scores of students who utilized the icons on the post-tests. While all categories had
students that reached proficiency, which was 70% or above, the growth was greater in the
icon group, as shown in the charts below.

Figure 1 The scores of third grade students that did not utilize iconic manipulatives.



Figure 2 The scores of fourth grade students that did not utilize iconic
manipulatives.








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Scores 0%-40% Scores 41%-69%Scores 70%-100%
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Scores 0%-40% Scores 41%-60% Scores 70%-100%
Fourth Grade Pre-Test
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Figure 3 The scores of third grade students that utilized iconic manipulatives.



Figure 4 The scores of fourth grade students that utilized iconic manipulatives












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Scores 0%-40% Scores 41%-69% Scores 70&-100%
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THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 16
In addition to higher growth overall, on the example that used syncopation, which
is when a sound happens on the off beat, students who utilized manipulatives
outperformed by far the students who did not use the icons. In fact, every student who
used icons improved by at least 10 points out of the possible 25 points while students
who did not utilize icons improved by 5 or less, and sometimes this group failed to
improve at all on that question.
In addition to growth on quantitative scores, observations of students during
rhythmic dictation supported the use of icons. In classes that did not use manipulatives,
students lacked energy and enthusiasm when beginning dictation practice. Students were
excited to pass out and use manipulates, and they were energized when they understood
that they each got their own. The manipulatives were seen by some as a reward for
working hard in class, which made some students proud.
Discussion
Due to the overall greater growth in scores, iconic manipulatives will be used in
each of my third and fourth grade classes for further rhythmic dictation practice. Third
grade students will use them through the second quarter in fourth grade, while I will work
to wean my fourth graders off of icon use by that same time. Whenever my students
perform or dictate syncopated rhythms, iconic manipulatives will be readily available for
them to utilize. Additionally, as it seemed to raise the morale in the two classes that used
the icons, I will make a point to have them available when students ask.
Finally, these students have had music classes like this since kindergarten, though
this is only their second year with me as their teacher. As the previous teacher was a
general classroom teacher that moved to music, their experiences before last year did not
THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 17
correlate to the national or state standards for music education. Because of this, I may see
very different results by the time the students who have had an actual music curriculum
beginning in kindergarten reach third and fourth grades.
Conclusion
Utilizing the additive approach, and specifically iconic manipulatives in
conjunction with that theory, seems to help students improve their scores on rhythmic
dictation examples. However, even with utilizing icons, there were still 57 students, or
roughly 54%, who failed to meet proficiency (70%) on the test. While icons did show an
improvement from the past method, it is clear that more research needs to be done on this
topic to help all students meet that proficiency. Part of the problem seems to be the lack
of practice sessions that are conducted in a similar manner to the tests. Often, students
dictate rhythms that we sing within a song, meaning they have much more experience
with the rhythm than the two times they have to hear a given rhythm on the tests. While
this action research project addressed one issue within rhythmic dictation, further rounds
are necessary to truly address the entire problem. This action research project gave me an
authentic opportunity to assess my practice of rhythmic dictation instruction, and though
I would not consider the process perfected after this first round, I have a clear vision of
what needs to be done next in order to help my students grasp this difficult concept.





THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 18
References
Beckett, C. A. (1997). Directing student attention during two-part dictation. Journal
of Research in Music Education, 45, 613-625.
Falter, H. E. (2011). The new beat spectrum. Teaching Music,
19(3), 28-31.
Gauthier, D., & Dunn, R. E. (2004). Comparing two approaches
for teaching rhythm reading skills to first-grade children: A
pilot study. Research and Issues in Music Education, 2(1). Retrieved from
http://www.stthomas.edu/rimeonline/vol2/gauthierdunn.htm
Granberry-Gordon, T. A. (1995). An investigation to determine if rhythmic dictation
improves second- and fifth grade students recognition of rhythm patterns.
Humanities and Social Sciences, 55, 2757-2758.
Habegger, L. (2010). Number concept and rhythmic response in early childhood.
Music Education Research, 12(3), 269-280.
Leong, S. (1998). Meta-cognitive processing strategies employed by tertiary music
students in rhythmic dictation. Australian Journal of Music Education, 1, 42-47.
McGuire, K. (2003). A variation on Kodalys rhythm syllable system. Teaching Music,
11(2), 58-60.
Mertler, C. A. (2009). Action research: Teachers as researchers in the classroom.
Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Paananen, P. (2007). The development of rhythm at the age of 6-11 years: Non-pitch
rhythmic improvisation. Music Education Research, 8(3), 349-368.
Perlmutter, A. (2009). The essential connection between rhythm and movement.
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Teaching Music, 17(1), 48.
Saetre, J. H. (2009). Teaching and learning music composition in primary school
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THE USE OF ICONC MANIPULATIVES IN RHYTHMIC DICTATION 20
Appendix
Parental consent form sent home for action research project participation.
______________________________________________________________________
10/29/12
Dear Parents,
My name is Maura Foley, and many of you know that I teach music at Maple Valley. In
addition to my teaching responsibilities, this year I began a masters program through
Michigan State University.
As part of this program, I am currently working on an action research project. Action
research is a process that will allow me to identify an area of weakness in my own
teaching and hopefully find a solution. You and your students will not have to do any
extra work for this project, as it will take place during the course of their regular music
class. My final report will not include student names or photographs. This project will
look at rhythmic dictation in music class, so only third and fourth grade students are
involved.
If you agree to let your student participate in this project, please sign and return the
bottom portion of this paper. Also, if you have any questions or concerns, please feel free
to contact me!
Sincerely,
Maura Foley
General Music
Maple Valley Elementary
810-648-2488
mfoley@sandusky.k12.mi.us

Please return this form to Ms. Foley by 11/5/12
Student Name:_____________________________
Classroom teacher:_________________________
My student ____________________________ may participate in the action
Student Name
research project conducted by Maura Foley at Maple Valley Elementary.
Parent/Guardian Signature:____________________________________