IGNOU Indian Culture - Indian Culture (A Perspective For Tourism) @folder4ias

TS-4 : Indian Culture : A Perspective for
Tourism : [31]
Block-1 Introducing Indian Culture : [4]
Unit-1 Indian Culture and Heritage : The Historical Context - I
Unit-2 Indian Culture and Heritage : Context - II
Unit-4 Tourism and Culture : Some Views
Unit-3 Conservation of Culture
Block-2 Social Structure : [4]
Unit-5 Socio Historical Perspective - I
Unit-6 Socio-Historical Perspective - II
Unit-7 Customs, Rituals and Cults
Unit-8 Fairs and Festivals
Block-3 Fine Arts : [3]
Unit-9 Dance
Unit-10 Music
Unit-11 Painting
Block-4 Popular Culture : [2]
Unit-12 Indian Theatre
Unit-13 Indian Cinema
Block-5 Architecture : [4]
Unit-14 Main Architectural Styles
Unit-15 Regional Architecture
Unit-16 Architecture Functional Categories
Unit-17 Sculpture
Block-6 Archaelogy and Antiquity : [3]
Unit-18 Archaeological Sites I (Early Harappa and Harappa)
Unit-19 Archaeological Sites-II (Post Harappa)
Unit-20 Museums and Antiquities
Block-7 Handicrafts - Continuity and Change : [4]
Unit-21 Commoditization of Handicrafts
Unit-22 Clay, Stone, Wood and Metal Crafts
Unit-23 Ivory, Gems, and Jewellery
Unit-24 Textiles and Costumes
Block-8 Tribal Cultures [4]
Unit-25 Identity Formation
Unit-26 History and Geographical Spread
Unit-27 Society and Economy
Unit-28 Tribes and Development Policy
Block-9 Policy Issues in Culture : [3]
Unit-29 Government
Unit-30 Trade
Unit-31 Media
UNIT INDIAN CZTLTURE AND
HERITAGE: THE HISTORICAL
CONTEXT I
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Culture and Heritage: Problems of Definition
Culture and its Determinants
1.3.1 Culture, Society and H~story
1.3.2 Pol ~t~cal Structures and their Impact on Culture
1 3 3 Outs~de Influences and Cultpre
1.3.4 Cultural Awareness and U~story
1.4 Historical Evolution
1.4 1 The Harappan Period
1.4.2 The Vedic C1mli7atlon
1.4.3 The Buddh~st Epoch
1.4.4 The Gupta Per~od
1.4.5 Early Med~eval Per~od
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Answers to Check YGur-Progress Exercises
After reading this Unit you shall be able to learn:
the meaning of culture and heritage and the elements they consist of,
.
the factors which contributed to the making of our culture,
how the Indian culture evolved over centuries of history, and
what are the landmarks of the development of our culture and what are their identifying
features.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Indian culture is unique in several ways. It has an uninterrupted history of evolution dating
back in the past to nearly five thousand years. During all this period it has enriched itself by
assimilating diverse kinds of influences and impacts. This has given Indian culture a certain
vibrance and has saved it from a monotonous uniformity. In fact the pulsating mosaic of this
culture is most vividly displayed as you go across the length and width of India. You will
simultaneously discern a spirit of unity that underlies this enormous diversity.
Thus when we talk of Indian culture we actually speak of a rich plurality of cultural traditions
and not a monolithic entity. This plurality in some cases is the consequence of a common
origin (as in the case of the majority of Indian languages); in other cases of shared heritage
(such as our music, architecture, many popular religious cults etc.); and in still others due to
a common struggle against the colonial rule. Equally important is the fact that we also
perceive ourselves as part of a common culture cutting across national boundaries. This
common cultural heritage is the legacy of a complex interaction of various cultures through
centuries of shared existence.
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We shal1,in the following sections, take you on a historical journey through the evolution of
Indian culture.
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Introducing Indian Culture
1.2 CULTURE AND HER1TAGE:PROBLEMS
OF DEFINITION - =
Let us begin this journcy by first arriving at a debate over what constitutes culture. The word
is often used interchangeably with civilization, and both have a history in what they have
meant at different points of time and in different societies. Both referred originally to a'
process, and in some sense this meaning is still inherent in the ways these two words are used.
The term civilization is now generally used to describe an achieved state or condition of
organized social life as well as the process whereby it has been arrived at. Through
comparative studies we today also come across terms such as western civilization, modern
civilization, industrial civilization, etc. which are descriptive.
Culture as a concept is more complicated than civilization. The word is used in various ways
denoting values of general human development which today are not easily questionable, for
example, freedom, democracy, equality, secularism: etc. The particularities of different
communities which constitute their rights and expression also are included within the
meaning of culture. There are three broad levels, with a certain overlapping, at which the
meaning of the term culture can be understood:
i)
The general process of intellectual, spiritual and aesthetic development.
ii) A particular way of life, whether of a people, period, or a group.
iii) The works of intellectual and artistic endeavour expressed through music, literature, art,
film etc.
Heritage is a similarly broad concept. It often carries the meaning of culture too. Whatever
we inherit from our past can be called our heritage. In terms of contents it includes our craft
traditions, music, dance, painling, architecture and other art forms, traditions of production
and technology, different systems of therapies, our environment with all its bio-diversity, our
systems of philosophy etc.
Our cultural heritage has a strong secular - popular content and is pluralistic in character.
But it also contains many elements which inhibit our developmen' ; a nation like caste
system, superstitions, discriminations against women and dalits. We, therefore, have to be
conscious about what aspects of our culture we should conserve and emulate and what
elements we must discard.
CULTURE AND ITS DETERMINANTS
Cullure is determined and shaped historically and socially. It, in its turn, influences the social,
economic and political development of people or nation. This Section will deal in detail
with this complex interaction of various factors which has influenced our culture over
thousands of years.
1.3.1 Culture, Society and History
To begin with, culture is the life and mind of a society at any given time in history. The
culture of a particular society or age cannot be separated from its historical context. The
continuity, change or transformation in cultural traditions is influenced by the social,
economic and political developments at any given time, and vice-versa.
To give a fcw examples, the growth and changes in agricultural production are inseparably
linked with the emergence, development and changes within the Vedic civilization in India.
The Vedic civilization which gave birth to the varnashram and the caste system has, in turn,
exerted great influence on Indian culture. The caste system - an inescapable aspect of our
society through history, has assumed changes, modifications, and flexibility to suit the
changing needs of the various ruling groups in India. The early Dravidian civilization has
been an important influence because of its cultural significance in a specific historical and
social context. The flowering of art and literature as well as the Buddhist monuments of the
Maurya and Gupta period would not have bcen possible without the prosperity and increase
Indian Culture and
in commerce during that period. The same can be said for the Chola temples or the
Heritage - The Historical
Vijaynagar structures. Context I
The Bhakti movement had as its basis the growth of trade and commerce, and the consequent
growth of towns in the 14th and 15th centuries, which motivated a questioning of the caste
restrictions in certain occupations in the name of religion. The preachings of Bhakti saints
in the peoples' languages and their compilation made possible the growth of Braj, Awadhi,
Rajasthani, Gujarati, Marathi, Panjabi, Kashmiri and other regional literatures.
The enormous expenditure involved in the magnificent architecture of the Mughals was
possible only because of the significantly increased state share in the surplus production
during Mughal rule. Development of new musical forms and their popularisation in the
courts, translation of important texts of the world, as well as growth of new techniques in
production were immensely helped by the Court patronage generated by this increased
surplus.
The concepts of equality as part of anti-caste and peasant economic struggles, the movement
for women's education and emancipation, a scientific temper, secularism, a democratic
culture and the culture of democracy took shape in the context of modernity that came with
the development of capitalism in India, as a result of the impact of British conquest.
1.3.2 Political Structures and Their Impact on Culture
Political structures have also had an impact on our culture throughout its history. For
example, the periods of political decentralization, as after the disintegration of the Gupta
Empire and, later, the Mughal Empire, resulted in the growth of regional cultures. Similarly
the periods of centralization, such as the Mughal and the modern periods,helped in the
development of a con$osite, syncretic tradition that has the semblance of a national culture.
The religion professed by a ruler can inspire the development of art forms bearing those
religious expressions. It does not, however, mean that other forms were suppressed.
Similarly a more liberal, democratic and secular rule may witness the growth of non-religious
art forms as seen in modern and contemporary India. An oppressive rule can also stimulate
cultural expressions of protest as seen during the colonial rule.
1.3.3 Outside Influences and Culture
No society has existed in isolation, or remained uninfluenced by the other societies it came
in contact with. This is as true of our country as any other, and we have had contact with the
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outside world since the eqrliest times. We have taken much from it, and given much to it.
Our entire scientific and technological heritage is a shared heritage.
f Repeated new influences as a result of trade contacts, conquests followed by settlements and
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adoption or intermixing with the native population by different tribes and races through
India's history have enriched India's culture. The Aryans brought with them forms of
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agricultural products, new gods and beliefs. With Turkish conquest came gunpowder, cavalry
and new techniques. Stitched cloth, domes, arches, paper, glass-making techniques, and
water-wheel are some of the elements of civilization which came from outside. Persian
influences after the Mughal conquest brought into being new melodies, musical forms,
musical instruments, dastan and ghazals as forms of literary expression, miniature painting,
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etc. The composite, syncretic culture, and flowering of different regional cultures came from
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the interaction that shared life gave to India. It is a culture of unity in diversity.
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1.3.4 Cultural Awareness and History
Even cultural awareness has a connection with history. For example, a scientific temper is
possible only in the context of modernity, as are secularism and an attitude of pluralim. We
cannot search for an awareness and consciousness of these values in our ancient past. The
past may contain many things of great importance. At the same time, however, there are
many things like slavery, caste system, ,discrimination against dalits and women, religious
intolerance etc which must be seen as inimical to our development today. The past and
present both must be critically examined and then the positive things be assimilated and the
negative things be discarded. In this connection, the lines of a great Sanskrit poet are
I
particularly apt:
Introducing Iudian culture
All that is old need not be good
All that is new need not be bad
Wise men decide after a tough test
The fools tread the beaten path.
I
Check Your Progress-1
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1) What are the components of our culture? Write in 50 words.
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2). What are the main factors which influence culture?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 HISTORICAL EVOLUTION b
In this Section we will discuss how our culture has evolved historically in various stages.
Starting with the Harappan Civilization from the ancient period we go into the medieval
period in search of our cultural heritage and then come to the modern and contemporary
period. We have dealt with in this Unit upto the early medieval period. The later medieval,
modern and the contemporary periods have been dealt with in the next Unit. This is not to
say that the people of the stone ages or Neolithic period had no culture. Many cave paintings
depict such art forms that demonstrate the culture of those periods.
1.4.1 The Harappan Period
The chance discovery of the Harappan civilization was made during the late 19th century.
The fact that it was the ancient most civilization of India and contemporary to Mesopotamian
(ancient Iraq) and Egyptian civilization, however, was determined only in the early 20th
century. It was a five thousand year old civilization and represented an adtranced level of
cultural development during an epoch when iron was still not discovered and bronze was used
for making tools, implements and arms.
The Harappan script has not yet been deciphered. So our knowledge about this civilization
is based'mainly on archaeological findings. These studies show that this civilization was
"mainly urbAn and was spread far and wide in what today are India and Pakistan.
: Mahenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal etc. were some of the major cities of the period.
.-'$here was a certain unity of conception among the various cities. AHarappan city was divided
' h t o two parts - the one settled bn a raised piatform and mean$ for the rulers and the lower
city meant for the common people. The houses were built, in some cases, of baked bricks
Indian Culture and
and in other cases of mud bricks. These bricks were of standard slze which showcd that the
-The
brick - making was organized on a large scale. Context I
Similar to the town-planning, the potteries made hy the Harappans were found in large areas
and showed a uniform pattern. In fact, their tradition of pottery - making can, with many
changes, be found cven today.
Art works in terracotta and sculptures in bronze and stone are othl r important remains from
the Harappan period. The Harappan potteries and seals contair, Figurcs of bull, ram, pipal
tree, fish scales etc. The Harappans also seemed to worship pipa: tree and the phallus (an
image of Shiva) which remain impertant religious symbols in today's India.
About this civilization p u will learn more in Unit 18 in Block 6 of this course.
1.4.2 The Vedic Civilization
The Vedic Civilization, associated with thc coming of the Aryans to India, is said to have
begun about 1500 I1S.C. and lasted abuut 600 B.C. Unlike the Hdrappan Civilization ~ h ~ c h
was city-based, it was an agricuitural civilization. It was during this oeriod that many features
which we associatc with what has come to be called as Hinduism originated and took shape.
It has left its imprint on our culture today in the form of settled agriculture, cattle breeding,
centrality of cow (and ln~llocks) in our economy and religious beliefs, the horse, the chariot,
the use of iron, domcstication of animals such as elephants, kinship and patriarchy as basis
of social organi~ation, the development of kingdom and large cmpires out of chieftainships.
We still have wt h us the Vedic hymns composed almost 3500 years ago whish even today are
used in many Hindu rituals, the sacredness of fire as interniediary between god and man, the
worship of gods associated with natural phenomena, the dodrinc of transmigration, animal
sacrifice etc. In tcrms of litcra~ure and philosophical thought it has given us the Vedas, the
Lipanishads, Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit languages and literature, etc.
1.4.3 The Buddhist Elpoch
During the 6th century I3 C., he opposition to the domination of the society by Brahmins
grew. New religious ideas, which were heterodox in nature, arose. The reasons for their
enlergcnce were :he following:
i )
The Vedic rituals had beccjme most elaborate and cumbersonre for most social groups.
There were meaningless cercmonizs and sacrifices leading to enormous expenses.
ii) Since the Brahmins were the executors of these rituals, their domination over the other
groups was becoming established. 'They also dcvised a hier,irchical four-tier system
callzd varnashram and claimed the highest position for themselves. This led to
resentment among many groups such as the Kshatriyas i ~nd Vaishyas who were
otherwise powerful and wealthy but lacked in social importa11c.c.
iii) The social status became linked to birth. The caste system which was earlier devised as
occupational categories became atrophied and the social nlobjlity became rare. It was
this discontent generated by the Brahminical domination and the rising political and
economic power of the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas that gave nise to and supported the
new religious ideas.
Mahavir and Gautam Buddha were the two great religious leaders of this period. By the
strength of their ideas they can he said to he among the greatest in the world. The Jain and
Buddha religions emerged as a result of teachings of Mahavir and Gautam Buddha
respectively. Whiie thc followers of the Jain religion were mostly among the Vaishyas,
Buddhism had its followers among all communities. Buddhism spread far and wide and, at
one point of time, almost the whole of Asia, which represented the pinnacle of civilization,
became influenced by Buddhism. In lndia also, Buddhism held swa) for almost one thousand
years and greatly influenced Indian culture and society Many concepts and values of this
period are among our most cherished cultural heritage today. We are listing below the most
important contributions of these religious ideas to our cultural tradition:
i)
Jainism and Buddhism represented a revolt against the concept of social inequality and
the hierarchidVarnashram system preached by the Brahmins. These reqions opened
their gates to members of all castes and groups in the society. They also gave an equal
status to women.
ii) They opposed the rituals and sacrifices prevalent in the society. Instead they put
emphasis on Karma as deciding the fate of the individuals in the next world. Non-
violence, humanism and stress on moral life were the hallmarks of these new religious
orders.
iii) One of the tools of the Brahminical domination was the stress on the language of the
Vedas, that is, Sanskrit. The new religions put more emphasis on the popular languages
like Prakrit, Pali and Ardha Magadhi. Buddhist and Jain texts were written in these
languages and nobody was debarred from reading or interpreting them. This paved the
way for the development of the vernacular literature.
This period also witnessed the rise of architecture and sculpture to new heights. The temples
at Jhandial (Taxila), Nagari (Rajasthan), Besnagar (Madhya Pradesh) and Nagarjunakonda
(Andhra Pradesh) are some of the structures found in excavations.
The Buddhist Stupas, in which the mortal remains of important personalities are to be found,
are distributed in Bodh Gaya (Bihar), Sanchi and Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Arnaravati
and Nagarjunkonda (Andhra Pradesh) and Taxila (in Pakistan).
Cave architecture and cave paintings reached new heights and the Mathura, Gandhara and
Amaravathi schools of art produced figures of great beauty during this period. All these :
places, monuments and figures are of great touristic interests even today and every year
thousands of pilgrims or tourists visit these sites.
It was during this period that South India witnessed the rise of Satavahanas, one of the greatest
Indian rulers, in the 1st century B.C. They were also called the Andhra dynasty. They held
sway in most of the Deccan and on their. collapse, other powers like the Cholas, Pandyas,
Keralaputras etc arose.
The celebrated sangam poetry in Tamil was collected and classified by an academy of
scholars. This provides us with one of our greatest literary traditions.
'1.4.4 The Gupta Period
After the collapse of the Mauryan empire in the 2nd century B.C., there was no large political
structure in India. The Kushanas ruled the North India and the Satavahanas in the South.
Many small kingdoms ruled over large parts of India. With the emergence of the Guptas in
the 4th Century A.D., there was again an attempt to build an all India empire.
Established by Chandra Gupta I in 319-20 A.D., the Gupta power reached its peak during
the reign of Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta 11. The process of decline started during
the reign of Skanda Gupta and by the middle of the 6th Century A.D. it seems to have
collapsed. In the beginning of the 7th century A.D. Harsha tried to revive the imperial
tradition but after his death by the mid-7th century his empire declined.
Gupta period is often described as representing the highest forms of Indian culture. So far
as the literary and philosophical achievements are concerned, there is truth in this statement.
The sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, though composed in earlier times, are said
to be collected during this period. This period also saw the resurgence of Hinduism and the
initiation of the great debate between Buddhism and the Brahminical religion (Hinduism in
current parlance). The codification of the Hindu social and family laws was done by Manu,
Yajnavallcya, Narada, Brihaspati and Katyayana. The caste-system, the joint family system
and the subordinate position of the women in the family and society were formalised during
this period. The Brahmins reacquired their dominant and privileged position in society.
In Hinduism the emphasis shifted from sacrifices to idol worship. The trinity of godheads
(Brahma - Vishnu - Mahesb) became established. Devotional worship (Bhakti) was
encouraged. A division between Vaishnavism and Sbaivism occurred. The Hindu thinkers
developed a cyclic theory of time according to which the Kalpa was divided into 4 ages
(Satyug, Tretayug, Dwaparyug and Kaliyug) and at the end of which the Universe is
recreated.
Indlan Culture and
This period also witnessed the composition of six great systems of Hindu philosophy - Nyaya,
Herilage - The ~ i t o r i c a ~
Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta. Context I
The Puranas (the Hindu religious texts and historical sources) were also composed in this
I period.
Great developments took place in the fields of Indian astronomy, astrology and mathematics.
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Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were some of the great astronomers of the period.
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Kalidas, the greatest of the Indian literary figures, composed his poetic and dramatic works
during this period. His epic poems, Kumarsambhava and Raghuvamsha, the lyrical poem
Meghaduta and the great drama Shakuntala are considered among the greatest of the world
literature. Later on Shudrak (Mrichchha Katika) and Banabhatta (Harsha Charita)
contributed to this great literary tradition. The fables of Panchatantra were collected and
scripted. Vatsayayan's Kamasutra, the world - famous text on sexual enjoyment was also
written during this period.
In terms of architectural or sculptural developments also the Gupta period was significant.
In Block-5 of this Course these features have been discussed in detail.
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1.4.5 The Early Medieval Period
If we take the period from the decline of the empires of Guptas and Harsha to the early 16th
century, we frnd the following developments in the cultural spheres.
i)
The period saw the decline of Buddhism and rise of Hinduism led by the great South
Indian religious figure, Shankara (788-820 A.D.). He was born in Kerala and developed
the philosophy of Advaita (Monism) which, many scholars say, assimilated many features
of Buddhism. He travelled extensively in the country, engaged the Buddhist scholars in
debates, founded a religious order and established four seats or mathas in Badrinath in
the north, Shringeri in the South, Puri in the East and Dwarka in the West to uphold his
teachings.
ii) While Shankara upheld the orthodoxy in Hidnuism, there were many streams emerging
which preached a child like devotion to God. This came to be called as Bhakti movement
and had its origins in South India. The Nayanars and Alvars, considered to be the first
Bhakti saints, were already spreading their movement in the 8th and 9th centuries at the
same time when Shankara was evolving his monistic philosophy. These saints rejected
monism, Brahmin dominance, caste system and the ritual worship. Among them were
many from the non-Brahmin castes, mostly peasants and traders, some even from among
washermen, potters, fishermen, hunters, toddy tappers etc. Right from its beginnings the
Bhakti movement was popular in its origins and conception. Hymns were composed in
the honour of Vishnu, Shiva and later Krishna.
In Maharashtra, the Bhakti movement started with Jnanesvara and Namdev (1270 -
1350). Eknath (1533-99), Tukaram (1598 - 1650) and Ramdas (1608 - 81) carried forward
this tradition and built a strong popular base for the Bhakti tradition.
In Bengal the Bhakti movement was inspired by the Vaishnavites. Jayadev, Chandidas
and Chaitanya were some of the influential figures of this region. From the Chaitanya
tradition developed the baul movement with following both among the Hindus and
muslims of the region. In North India, particularly in the Hindi land, the Bhakti tradition
was inspired by Ramanand. He was probably born and brought up in South India and
was among the followers of Ramanuja's sect. Later he travelled all over India spreading
his teachings. Kabir and Raidas were famous among his disciples.
Kabir Das, considered to be one of the greatest reformers and poets in the Hindi area,
was born in a Muslim family of Banaras. He interacted with many saints and Sufis of
his time. He was very harsh in his criticism of both the orthodox Hindu and Muslim
religious practices. He believed in Nirguna Brahma and equated Ram with
;Rahim,Krishna with Karim and Hari with Hazrat. With him the Bhakti movement not
only transcended its caste boundaries but also the religious boundaries. His verses
collected in Adi Granth, Kabir Granthawali-and Bijak are among the priceless jewels
of our anti-orthodox and syncretic traditions.
Inlroducing Indian Culture
Raidas, Nanak and Dadu were part of the tradition which Kabir represented. After them,
however, it was channelised into Saguna and non-critical streams of Mirabai, Nand Das
and Surdas and culminated with Tulsidas (1532 - 1623) whose Ramcharitmanas became
the most popular text of the Hindus in north India. He tried to synthesize the existing
trends of the "Bhakti movement and poetry. But he represented a more orthodox
tradition which was different from the anti-caste, homogenising tradition of Kabii, Nanak
and Dadu.
The Bhakti movement also gave riseto important regional literary development. Tamil,
Kannada, Marathi, Bengali, Oriya, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Awadhi and Braj were some of
the Indian languages in which Bhakti literature was composed and written. These
regional languages made the Bhakti movement even more popular and provided a vehicle
to the saints to reach the masses. It is through them, therefore, that this grcat movement
became ingrained in the popular memory.
iii) It was during this period that India came in touch with Arabs and,through them, with
Islam. Trade relations had existed since ancient times between Arabia and India. From
the 7th -8th century, Arabs had established their principality in Sindh. Since then a vital
interaction existed between the two cultures. The urban population knew both Arabic
and Sanskrit. The Quran was translated into Sindhi, while the Sanskrit works on
astronomy, medicine, ethics and administration were translated into Arabic.
It was, however, after the victory of Mohammed of Ghur on Prithviraj in 1192 and later
conqucsts by his generals that the Turkish rule was established in India. With headquarter
in Delhi, the Turkish chieftains spread in various parts of India and by the beginning of
thc 13th ccntury managed to establish a strong central kingdom called Delhi sultanate
under the suzerainty of Qutbuddi Aibak and later lltutmish (1210-36). Slowly by the
14th century the Turks reached most parts of India and forced the local rulers to accept
their suzerainty. They had settled in India and considered themselves as Indians. They
coopted many local Hindu chieftains in the ruling hierarchy and recruited Hihdus in their
armies. Theirs was as much an Indian rule as any which preceded or succeeded them.
One of the great religious movements within Islam, Sufism, camc to India during this
period. Even beforc the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate some Sufi saints had come
to India. There were three chief orders (silsila) of Sufis in India: a) Chisti which was
more popular in and around Delhi and western V.P.; b) Suhrawardi, which was popular
in Sindh and c)Firdausi, with followers in Bihar.
Sufism, like the Bhakti movement, was the popular side of religion. The Sufis opposed
the Islamic orthodoxyand kept themselves aloof from the seats of power. They respected
the original Islamic doctrine of equality of all followers and criticised the ulema for not
being loyal to Islam. They remained non-conformist both in relation to the state and
organized religion and were sometimes persecuted for heterodoxy and heresy.
Sufism and the Bhakti movement influenced each other. Both believed in spiritual guide
(guru) and in mystical union with god. The chisti Sufis and the Nathpanthi Yogis were
intermixing during the sultanate period. In fact both Sufism and the Bhakti movement
represent the popular face of religions in India. The shrines of the Sufi saints like
Muinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi are revered by people of all
religions.
iv) It was during this period, particularly between 10th and 13th centuries that the tradition
of Hindu architecture and sculpture as witnessed in temple-budding reached its ciimax.
The Kandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho (around 1002 A.D.), the Rajarajeshwara
Temple at Tanjore (around 1012 A.D.), the Udayeshvara Temple at Udaipur, Lingaraj
temple at Bhubaneshwara (around 1060 A.D.), Jagannath Temple at Puri (1135 a.D.)
and the Sun Temple at Konark (1250 A.D.) represent the best that any civilization can
have.
v)
This period also witnessed the synthesis in art forms that the sultanate period brought
about. The style of architecture that evolved is termed as Indo-Islamic and is shown in
Alai Darwaza (built in 1325) at the Qutub complex and the Jamat Khana Masjid (built
in 1325) at Nizamuddin.
Similarly in music, the popular qawwali was introduced for the first time; khayal was
developed; ragas like zilaph, sazgiri, sarparda etc. were created; and a new musical
instrument sitar was developed by combining the old Indian Veena and the Iranian
tambura.
Other important monuments from this period are Qutub Mirsar, Quwwatul Mosque,
lltutrnish Tomb, Balban's Tomb, Khirki Masjid etc in Delhi.
This period was, therefore, extremely important for the development of composite
cultural forms, achievement in architecture and sculpture, evolution of popular religious
movements and growth of regional literatures.
EIzl
1) Buddhism is considered to have originated as a religion of
Critically Examine this statement.
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protest against Hinduism.
2) List the contributions made by the Gupta period to our cultural tradition.
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3) Write short notes on the Bhakti movement and Sufism.
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Indian Culture and
Context I
1.5 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit we have discussed the various factors which had influenced our culture through
thousands of years. The cultural heritage has also been examined by tracing its development
through history. In this Unit we have limited ourselves from the Harappan period to the early
medieval period and shown that the Indian cultural tradition has advanced by internal and
external dialogues and by incorporating features from diverse religious, ethnic and regional
traditions. In the next Unit we will discuss its historical evolution from the Mughal period to
the present day.
1.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES
EEI l
1)
For answer see Sec. 1.2
2) For answer see Sec. 1.3
C I z l
1) See the Sub-sec. 1.4.3
UNIT 2 INDIAN CULTURE AND
HERITAGE:
CONTEXT I1
THE HISTONCAL
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Historical Evolution
2.2.1 Late Medieval Period
2.2.2 Modern Period
2.2.3 Contemporary Period
2.3 Science and Tcchnology Through History
2.4 Environment and Culture
2.5 Features of Indian Cultural Heritage
2.5.1 Assimilation
2.5.2 Unity in Diversity
2.5.3 Patriarchy and Women
2.5.4 Syncretic 'Tradition
2.5.5 Religious Tolerance
2.5.6 The Cultural Traditions of the Elite and the Masses
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
2.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit we will discuss the historical evolution of our culture and analyse the characteristic
features of our cultural heritage. After reading this Unit, you will learn about the:
a cultural heritage during later medieval, modern and contemporary period,
a role of science and technology in enriching our culture,
a relationship between environment and culture,
. a assimilating qualities of our culture, and the underlying unity in our visibly divetse
cultural traditions,
a syncretic trends and religious coexistence in our culture, and
a position and role of women in the cultural tradition of India.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A country is not a mere land mass. It denotes a territory with people. The people define a
country - its past, its present, its future. They have their traditions which are part of their
environment, and their interaction with each other. The identities of the different people
who constitute the generic term Indians have been achieved through their cultural and
political expressions in history. Cultural advance is a continuous process - reformulation
and redefinition in the context of the demands that history makes on human beings is its
hallmarks.
For thosc involved in tourism industry, it is significant to understand the historical context of
our cultural heritage. A part of tourism industry is 'heritage' tours, and there are invariable
cases of tourist guides at historical sites presenting a vcrsion of India's heritage that is not
truly representative of the people. This Unit aims at giving you anidea of our cultural heritage:
its secular basis and its popular character.
In this Unit, we will continue our discussion from the point where we left it in the last Unit.
In terms of historical evolution we will discuss early medieval, modern and contemporary
periods of our history. After a discussion on historical evolution we will talk about science
-
Introducing
-
Indian Culture
and technology througl~ history. environment and culture. The nature of Indian cultural
heritage will also find a place. In the last section of this Utnit, we will discuss some divisive
tendencies in our culture which though part of our heritage represent negative aspects of it.
2.2 HISTORICAL EVOLUTION
In the previous Unit, we discussed the historical evolution of our culture and heritage upto
early medieval period. In this Unit, we will talk about late medieval, modern and
contemporary period. In terms of timeframe in later medieval period we are including 16th
to 18th century, in modern we will include the period from 19th century to the independence
of India (1947) and contemporary will include post independent period of history. Let us now
begin with late medieval period.
2.2.1 - Late Medieval Period
The late medieval period witnesseu a fresh wave of foreigners descending on lndia in the
form of Mughals. Though Mughals came as invaders, they settled here and made lndia their
home. During this period, the culture and heritage of India came in contact with the new
arrivals. The Mughals brought with thcm different political, socio-cultural and economic
traditions and institutions. The contact and interaction between the two cultures contributed
significantly to Ind~an heritage and enriched the culture. During the period, the cultural
traditions of early medieval period (about which you read in the previous Unit) also gained
morc ground and reached different parts of the co~mtry.
As political masters the Mughals created a centralised and uniform political structure. It was
for the first tirne that such large parts of India followed a uniform political and administrative
system in far off regions. The Mughals also created a remarkably composite ruling class with
nobles of Irani, Turami, Afghani, Turk, local Muslims, Rajputs, Marathas and other Indians.
The laws of the state were also independent of religious laws.
In the cultural sphere, new styles of architecture, painting, literature andlanguages, and music
and dance forms were developed which are still with us today. The same is true of our food
habits and dress, social customs and religious beliefs, marriage rituals, amusements and ways
of thinking.
Literatures and languages developed in various parts of the country during this period reflect
a diverse yet unified consciousness. Rather than cataloging the entiie corpus of literary
activity, we will try to point out its main features. Our effort will be to note in what way they
advanced our cultural heritage, and to that extent they facilitated cultural interaction.
Translation was an important field for literary activity. Translations of important texts,
religions and secular, created a composite consciousness among the elite. Ramayana,
Mahabharata and the Vedas and Upanishads were translated into Persian and into regional
languages. Tutirlama was translated from Persian to Turki, Babarnama from Turki to
Persian, Rajtarangini into Persian. Works on music and dance, as well as various scientiiic
treaties of ancient India and of the Arabs were also translated.
This period also saw the growth of regional languages with the Bhakti movement. These
languages then dcveloped as vehicles for popular literary activities. There emerged a rich
literature in Bengali, Oriya, Marathi, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Braj, Awadhi, and a ncw
languagc Urdu was born. New genres were created in literary activity such as Kafi and qissas
(romance and development of the novel form) in regional languages. Poetry developed on
religious as.well as secular themes. There was inter-religious and inter- regional integration
in terms of subject matter and language of literature. Keshav, Bihari, Rahim, etc. were some
of the significant Hindi poets. Rahim and Tansen composed their lyrics around Krishna leela.
In the South, Malayalam, Tclugu, Tamil and Kannada, the older languages produced a new
kind of literature linked to Bhakti, and in the new context of mcdieval social changes. There
alsoemergcd a kind of Dakhni literature centred in Gujarat, Bijapur, Golconda, Aurangabad
and Bidar. Some of the important names in various languages, cutting across communities
and based in their regions are well known. In Hindi we have Malik Mohammad Jaisi's
Padmavat, Tulsidas' Ramcharitmanas, Surdas, Mirabai, Raskhan, Rahim. In Bengali
Chandidasa, Jayadeva, Manikdatta. In Assamese Hema Saraswati, Sankardeva, Mahadeva.
In Gujarati Narsimha Mehta, Bhalana, Akho, Premananda. In Marathi Jnandeva, Eknatha,
Tukaram, Ramadasa. In Sindhi Shah Abdul Latif. In Urdu Gesu Daraz, Mohammad Quli
Indian Culture and
Shah, Wali Dakhani. In 18th century, the tradition was followed by Mir, Sauda and Nazir
Heritage -The Historical
Akberabadi. In Puniabi Sheikh Farid, Bulhe Shah, Waris Shah. In Persian Abul Fazal, Faizi, Conte.xl 11
Utbi and Naziri. ~ r &c e Dara Shikoh was a great patron of classical Indian literature and got
it translated from Sanskrit to Persian. Moreover, contrary to popular belief the mcdieval
period was rich in the production of Sanskrit literature in the North, South and East.
Raghunath Nayak, Nilanatha Dikshit and Chakra kavi contributed significantly to Sanskrit
literature. We have detailed historical accounts and also some important travel writings,
memoirs, and political treatises: all of which are important historical sources, as well as of
literary value. Also works on astronomy, music and statecraft were written.
I
But it was the popular religious movemcnts that represented the most advanced thought, in
1
medieval India. Bhakti and Sufism were of great cultural significance. In challenging the
! religions monopoly of the Brahmans and the ulema, they also challenged social hierarchies.
They ignored traditional barriers of caste and creed and emphasized universal brotherhood.
We have already discussed it in thc previous Unit and will not go again into details here.'
Another significant features of medieval period was rise of important religious thoughts. The
most important of these was Sikhims. The foundation of Sikhism rests on the teaching and
philosophy of Guru Nakak. Nanak attcmpted to establish a true religion which could lead to
salvation. This philosophy comprised of three basic elements: a leading charismatic
personality (the Guru): ideology (Shabad) and organisation (Sangat). He opposed ritualism
and believed in universal brotherhood. After Guru Nanak his preachings were carried on by
his disciples. A total of 10 Gurus are recognised by Sikhism. The last one was Guru Gobind
Singh. Sikhism cnriched Indian society's plurality and today occupies a prominent place in
Indian culture.
Medieval architecture is the finest example of the blending of various talents and styles and
forms. In the previous Unit, we discussed the architecture of the early medicval period.
During the Mughal period, the elements of the various temple styles together with the true
domes and the arches which came with the Turks reached all parts of India with new
improvements. The best examples are Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, Kerala and other parts of
Snuth India. In the process new forms with distinct regional flavour emcrged. Under the
Mughals, the architecture reached new heights Humayun's Tomb (Delhi), Fatehpur Sikri,
Akbar's tomb at Sikandara (Agra), Red Fort, Jama Masjid (Delhi) and Taj Mahal (Agra)
are finest examples of stylc, technique and craftsmanship. We will read in detail about
architecture in Block-5 of this course. Persian and Central Asian influence can be seen in the
form of glazed tiles used for decoration in most rnedicval architecture, the motifs on them
being the designs, the flora and fauna of this country. The entire medieval Rajput architecture
- its forts and palaces - is a blend of the pre-medieval and Persian elements. Architecture of
public use such as sarais, step-wells, bridges, canals and roads showed the adoption of new
building techniques and had great implication in terms of possibilities of shared cultures.
Building technology advanced rapidly during this period.
Painting was a well developed art in ancient India as is evident from the frescoes in the Ajantha
- Ellora caves, but this was soon lost. With the Moghuls we are introduced to 3 dimensional
painting. Portrait painting becamc widespread. The paintings done at the Mughul courts
represented folk tales, stories from Ramayana, Krishnalila, and the festivals, animals and
landscapes of this country combined with the new 3 dimensional, miniature form of painting.
The Rajasthani andPahari paintings combined the themes and earlier traditions of their areas
with Moghul forms and styles. Tllustrations in manuscripts and calligraphy were significant
areas of art production. Illustrated manuscripts Babarnama, Akbarnama and
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri contain beautiful illustrations of thc flora and fauna, tools and techniques
of the period, as well as lives of the people.
In music and dance too the medieval period has given us much that constitutes our cultural
heritage today. Hindusthani music as we know it today is a fusion of Persian and folk forms
of music. New ragas were composed, new forms like the Khayal, thumari and dadra and
ghazal evolved; the singcrs belonged to all communities; the theme-words were diverse, and
audiences were not always limited to the elite. New instruments like the sitar and sarod were
invented and became part of the classical and folk repertoire. Kathak as a dance form is also
a mix of folk form adapted to court culture. In fact it is in dance and music that the older
popular traditions interact very closely to create our well known genres of classical dance and
music today. The contribution of the Bhakti and Sufi preachers has a big role in this as they
come from among the people. Carnatic music was similarly transformed, although it
remained distinct from,Hindustani classical music. We will discuss music, dance and paintings
at leneth in Block-3 of this course.
Ezzl
1)
How the Mughal style of painting contributed to Indian tradition of painting ? 1
i
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2)
In column 'A' we are listing names of some important literary figures of medieval period.
Match their names with column 'B' of languages they wrote in.
i
'A' 'B'
i) Wali Dakhani a) Persian
ii) Raghunath Nayak b) Urdu
iii) Tulsidas c) Marathi
iv) Narsimaha Mehta d) Awadhi
v) ~ a ~ a d e v a e) Gujarati
vi) Abul F a ~ l f ) Bengali
vii) Eknatha g) Sanskrit
2.2.2 Modern Period
The impact of the British rule released new, contradictory social and cultural forces,
4
impressed with the general nationalist awakening and the all-India communicational network
and market. The two fold struggle against the British and against the vested interests within
the country had its corresponding cultural aspects. At an intellectual level it resulted in
movements for social and religious reform among all the communities, as well as a revivalism
based on a search for and pride in the country's cultural roots. At a popular levelit assumed
the form of struggles for social equality, temple entry, anti-caste movements, and against
untouchability. Movements for women's education and equality was a significant aspect of
national awakening and an Indian cultural identity i.e. a national identity based on cultural
diversity. The construction of cultural heritage from the 18th century onwards took the form
of introducing modern values into our ancient and medieval heritage. These modern values
are now part of our cultural roots. Rather than artistic endeavor, the efforts of the Indian
people were geared towards re-thinking their own society, redefining their heritage, their
collective personality, and the place of every section of Indian society in the collective life. In
the 19th century this took the form of social reform expressed through campaigns aimed at
creating a critical consciousness.
The important organizations and movements through which these were expressed was the
Bengal Renaissance, Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, Derozians, the Aligarh movement and
several organizations all over the country.
A major transformation took place with the growth of mass politics. Social equality, women's
equality, religious tolerance, scientific temper, rational thought and democracy became issues
of general concern. These values found expression in anti-caste movements, popular struggles
against colonial and feudal interests, against untouchability, for protection of traditional
rights over resources. The important movements were the self-respect movement in
Tamilnadu and Andhra, the non-Brahman movements in Karnataka and Maharashtfa which
challenged the traditional social order, and projected a new collective identity for lower
castes. We will have a detailed discussion on social structure and caste in India in Block-2 of
this course. .
In formal cultural expression this took the form of growth of nationalist literatures invarious
languages, the standardization of the regional languages, the emergence of new genres and
a new context expressing anti-imperialist sentiments. Bankimchandra, Bharatendu,
Govardhanram Tripathi are pioneering novelists, whose work exposed the detrimental
effects of British rule in India and inspired patriotism. A really secular democratic
literature comes with Premchand, whose works are not only anti imperialist in sentiment, but
also pro,ject great sympathy for the rights of the peasantry and the working people in general
against feudal, vested interest within the country. Issues like poverty and exploitation formed
the content of 20th century nationalist literature inspired as it was by the Russian Revolution
and the left movements of the world. Other significant writers include Tagore, Saratchandra,
Subramaniyan Bharti etc. The formation of mass fronts of students, youth, peasants and
workers realised consciousness. The Indian Peoples Theatre Association and Progressive
Writers' Association became the cultural expression for sentiment of freedom and popular
rights. The modern values and cultural awakening found an expression in various art forms
during this period. Besides, literature the trend is visible in cinema, theatre, painting,
sculpture etc. All these have been discussed elsewhere in this course. The values and cultural
expressions of modern period which developed duringfreedom struggle provided a solid base
to Indian culture in contemporary India which we will discuss next.
In fact it would not be wrong to say that Indian cultural identity was forged in the struggle
for freedom and social justice. The national movement was a pro,ject for modernity.
Democracy, secularism and a struggle for a scientific temper bccame expressions of attempts
to foster a modern culture. It was reflected within the Bengal Renaissance, the women's
movement, the social and religious reform movements, literature, the forging of a struggle
between regional and national identity, the arena of education and family, and in the class
struggles.
All these struggles created a great churning in Indian society and growth of new values at the
popular level. The central role of the popular struggles in our national movement gave a
qualitatively new basis to nationhood; Culturally it implied not simply a territory, one country
and one civilization, but the right of the people to collectively decide their own destiny. It
becomes necessary to dcfine the nation in terms of its millions, who began their journey from
being subjects (of various rulers through history) to citizenship. This culture of citizenship
is a valuable heritage of the modern period in our collective cultural personality.
Independent 'India adopted all the modern values and accepted equality of all citizens through
the establishment of a democratic sovereign republic of India. Secularism, equality before
law, freedom of thought and expression, protection to minorities and deprived sections of
society were the salient features of independent India.
A voluntary acceptance of diversity and the right of all people to free and equal expression
in all spheres of life becomes a cardinal, consciously expressed principle of the nationhood.
The search for civilizational roots assumed the expression of regional cultural/religious forms.
National plans for development noted regional inequalities and planned on the basis of
diversity of resources.
Now the pluralism was defined in moie positive and egalitarian terms than co-existence
which has a long history in our country. Conscious respect for difference was not a value in
society. This came only with modernity, the critique of modernity and the forging of an
alternate modernity and a new dimension to the ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. It is
this new definition of pluralism which made religious tolerance a value in itself, the separation
of religion and politics a necessity, and caste and degradation of women an anathema. They
have given to us the culture of democracy and democratic rights as values, mass debates and
definition of identities. They made possible an all India platform for the articulation of
diversity as collective-life and unity, and are as much a part of our heritage as the cultural
components of our tradition created in the ancient and medieval periods.
The early independent India found significant expression of social consciousness through .
literature, theatre, film and such art forms which gained enormous popularity, acceptance
and empathy rrom the Indian people. Unfortunately this mdmentum has been lost, without
the corre~por~ding political momentum that inspires progressive cultural expression. The
contemporary India faces serious threat from caste, communal and ethnic conflicts,
discrimination against women, unequal economic development and some separatist
movements. These affect the cultural tradition and heritage and need to be tackled within a
democratic secular framework.of Indian society and polity.
Indian Culture and
Context I1
' Introducing Indian Culture
1) Write a brief note on the social concerns developed during National Movement.
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2) List four main socio-cultural movements in modern India.
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3) In what ways did modern culture fmd a place in independent India?
2.3 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY THROUGH HISTORY
Even as growth of scientific knowledge and technology and scientific temper and rational
thought are part of our cultural heritage, from antiquity to the frontiers of scientific knowledge
we are participants in a culture that constitutes the common heritage of mankind. We have
not only absorbed and transformed the knowledge that has come to us, we have alsc
transmitted the knowledge that has been generated here. There is an integral link between
development and openness. Social exchanges are central to the growth of scientific
knowledge, new techniques and processes. As in other aspects of culture 'outside' influences
have given us a great deal in scientific knowledge. With the Greeks came the Shears, the
scissors, the rotatory grain mill and the early mortar and pestle mill (200 BC) Astronomy was
in the earlier years influenced by Mesopotamia. Ayu~veda absorbed a great deal from the
Greek system of medicine. Paper, gunpowder, cannon, glass blowing, drawloom, the Persian
wheel, new techniques of metallurgy employed in brassware and bidriware, rockets employed
by Tipu Sultan in the Carnatic wars against the British troops, domes and arches and lime
mortar all came from outside. All these were adopted by Indian craftsmen and further
improved.
India also had a great deal to give: it transformed knowledge in other countries, and
contributed to cultural advance of our civilization. The first expression of scientific advance
Indian Culture and
was the systematization of Sanskrit grammar in the 4th century BC by Panini. By the 3rd
Heri(age - The
century BC mathematics, astronomy and medicine began to develop separately.
The Context II
contributions of our country include the notation system,the decimal system and the use of
zero - (2nd century BC). There were important developments in algebra and geometry,
Aryabhatta (5th century AD) and Varamihira (6th century AD) contributed to knowledge
of the lunar and solar eclipse to the world. Charaka (2nd Century AD) laid the foundations
for Indian medicine. Ayurveda, a system of medicine was developed in ancient period.
The medieval period saw great advance in textile technology - weaving, dyeing and printing.
European technology and scientific knowledge also contributed in different fields. Scientific
activity continued though not at the pace it had come to acquire in Europe, as did applications
of military technology. It manifested itself mainly in the productive field of agriculture and
- textiles. It contributed to cultural expression in precisely these fields: each region had its own
design, style, and weave in textiles. During the medieval period textiles and various other
crafts - glassware, bidriwork, brassware, carpet weaving, etc - become the soul of Indian
people's cultural artifacts. A shared heritage with the rest of mankind, produced a very
specific cultural expression, specific in relation to world civilization, diverse within itself:
every region in India had its own face to show to the world in terms of craft production.
2.4 ENVIRONMENT AND CULTURE
Environment had a major role in determining the identity and cultural personality of the
communities rooted in it. The struggle over control of environment and against nature and
then with vested interests has always been a source of cultural conflict in our land. An effort
to combine environmentalism with development has been another issue. Forests and rights
over forests have shaped cultural expression through history. The lives of the tribal
population has been specially linked with such rights.
Besides, India is rich in bio-diversity, which has provided rich resources for the development
of traditional medicine, Unani and Ayurveda. The rich flora and fauna have been an asset
in the context of the modern need for preserving the ecological balance and the self -
preservation of traditional tribal communities and their cultural expression. The rich variety
of seeds in all crops within regions is testimony to the skills and knowledge of traditional
communities. Unfortunately this entire heritage is in danger of being destroyed as a result
of lop-sided economic developments, with their undue and unequal pressures of market for
selected high - yielding crops. The cutting of forests, excessive use of chemicals and pestisides,
displacing the tribals from their natural habitats are all endangering the environment. Neem
and the controversy over patents relating to its products are the most well known examples
of denying to Indian people the fruits of their own natural wealth.
n
1) List important contributions made by India in the field of science.
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IntroduciAg Indian Culture
2)
What were the main technological devices brought to India from outside?
3)
How does environment affect culture ?
2.5 FEATURES OF INDIAN CULTURAL HERITAGE
In this section we will try to evaluate our cultural legacy in its totality. Until now, by going
through the historical account, you must have noticed many characteristic features of our
tradition. In this section, we will try to conceptualize them.
2.5.1 Assimilation
The quality for assimilation is a very strong element in Indian culture. This is evident not only
in the adoption of new cultural forms and symbols through history, but also in food habits,
particularly in North India, and dresses, building styles, marriage customs, gods and
goddesses, rituals etc. Tea and coffee have become staple drinks of north and south India
respectively. Potato, chilies, pineapple, tobacco and many other agricultural products have
come from foreign lands and become part of Indian food. Bread, chinese chow-mien and
tandoori food are quite popular. Salvar-kameez, pants and shirts are now Indian dresses. New
melodies which came from Persia with the Muslims became part of the repertoire of
Hindustani classical music. There are countless other examples, apart from the assimilation
of techniques and inventions. Older customs, rituals and cults were also not altogether
destroyed. In fact, many of themwere taken over, adapted or transformed during later periods
of the country's history. Assimilation has cut across regions, religious communities, and rules
and regulations of specific castes. Indian Muslims and Hindus have so many customs and
rituals and cultural practices of everyday life in common today that it is difficult to tell who
took what from whom. The growth of capitalism and the process of 'sanskritization' have led
to adoption and transformation of a lot of cultural practices of the tribal people and the lower
castes as well as of the upper castes. Popular religion has created its own groundwork for
assimilation of many popular cults into the religious practices of organised religion and vice
versa.
2.52 Unity in Diversity
Our cultural profile today bears testimony to the diversity and secular basis of our culture
forged by popular cultural expression through history. It underlines the central role of the
common people in determining the nature of our cultural unity as well. A great deal of
information about this has come out in the form of a survey by Anthropological survey of
India, envisaged in approximately 20 - 30 volumes of data.
According to the conclusions of this massive survey we are one of the most diverse peoples
in the wnrlrl Thprp dh?< r nmr n~ ~ ni t i ~ c in thic rnnntrv rl i f f er~nt i nt ~d nmnno themcplvec
in terms of biological traits, dress, language, forms of worship, occupation, food habits and
kinship patterns. It is all these communities who, in their essential ways of life, express our
national popular life.
Nobody is a 'foreigner' in this country and there is no pure Aryan. Most Indian communities
have a mixed ancestry, and it is today impossible to separate our roots. Genetic and
morphological traits within religious communities vary more than those between
communities. Homogeneity is along lines of region, not caste or religion, and it has been
scientifically disproved that upper and lower castes have a different racial ancestry. For
example Tamil Brahmins have little similarity of racial traits with Brahmins in the North. The
Brahmins and people of the lowest caste in the same region almost everywhere show
remarkable homogeneity in this respect.
There are few communities which do not consider themselves as migrants or 'outsiders'.
Every community recalls its migration in its folklore, history, and collective memory, and all
have, with time, accepted the regional ethics of the area they settled in, contributing to its
local traditions. Even invaders become migrants eventually, and it needs to be emphasized
that Indian culture has benefited from migrations. Many settlers professing Islam and
Christianity actually settled here earlier than many of those professing Hinduism. Many
segments of the Muslim population, in fact, do not show any characteristic that can be called
migratory, having descended mainly from the local population.
In terms of their identification 85% of the communities are rooted in their resources. Experts
say that "rootedness in the eco-cultural zone is an outstanding characteristic of our
communities, no matter what religious labels are attached to them". In fact, it is not possible
to separatc the lives and livelihood, the occupations, food habits and dress patterns, the songs
and the hut settlements of the different communities from their landscape, climate and
occupations deriving from their resources and environment. Even the migrant groups seek
to identify themselves with their local environment except in the matter of languages they
speak at home or in marriages. 71.77% of the migrants live within a single regional or
linguistic boundary and are rooted in its ethos. For example, those in Kerala and
Lakshwadeep, inspite of religious difference, share a great number of traits, while those in
Kerala and Punjab do not.
Fifty five per cent of the communities derive their names from the traditional occupations
they pursue - for example, Bhiyar (peasant), Alvan (saltmaker), Churihar (bangle maker),
Chitrakar (Scroll - painter) and also Gaddis, Gujjars, Julahas, Dhobis, Sapera, Nai etc. 14%
have their names associated with their environment i s . mountains, plains, rivers etc.; 14%
from their places of origin such as Ahluwalias, Kanpuria, Chamali, Arandan, Oswal,
Shimong. Only 3% of the communities derive their names from religious sects. The
communities are divided into various caste and sub-castes which are also derived from
occupations, and cut across religion. Many surnames also derive from occupations or offices
traditionally hcld, such as Patel, Naik, Prasad, Gupta, Sharma, Deshmukh, Chaudhary, Khan
etc. Clans bearing names of animals, plants or inanimate objccts also cut across religion,
language, region etc.
Popular cultural expression is also basically secular. Markings or identification by different
communities are mainly non- religious. In disposing of their dead 3059 communities cremate
them, approximately 2000 bury them, and many follow both practices. Marriage symbols,
food habits, dress, dance and musical forms also cut along religious lines. Our identification
of community as a religious identity primarily is thus a myth strengthened through media and
consistent wrong usage, and not rooted in objective reality.
Another interesting finding of the Anthropological Survey data is that of the 775 major traits
identified by expert - relating to ecology, settlement, identity, food habits, social
organizations, economy, and occupation, linkages, and impact of change and development -
show sharing of traits across religious categories in the following manner: Hindus share
96.77% traits with Muslims, 91.19% traits with Buddhists, 88.99% with Sikhs, 77.47% with
Jains. Language is an important source of diversity and cultural expression. There are as
many as 325 languages and 25 scripts, deriving from various linguistic families. At least 65%
of the communities are bi-lingual, most tribal communities are trilingual, and language
contact through bi-lingualism is a major instrument for social and cultural interaction.
Indian Culture and
Context I1
Introducing Indian 2.5.3 Patriarchy and Women
Our cultural heritage has not given an equal place to women. It has not been kind to them.
Women's subordination and social oppression have had strong religious and social sanction
throughout our history. Crimes against women have been perpetrated against women without
any widespread social disapproval right up to the modern times. Most of the traditional crimes
against women such as widow-burning (sati) female infanticide, child marriage, have their
roots in ancient India and have been reinforced by the modern roots of inequality.
The religious texts of the ancient period have derogatory references to women. Women
alongwith the Shudras were denied access to participation in religious ceremonies, education,
and often to many scriptures. They did not have any inheritance rights. The first instances of
Sati are in the 6th century AD. The Gupta period, otherwise rich in culture, was especially
harsh on women. As economy became complex with a division of labour women were
systematically relegated into subordinate roles. Manusmriti reflecting laws of the time, and
very cruel to women, became the b'asis for women's position in society for a long time. --
The Medieval period was a continuation in this respect, and so was the early modern period.
The fight against women's oppression and for social equality was an important component
of our national movement. The movements against sati and child marriage and for women's
education were part of the general 19th century social reform movement. The entry of women
into the national movement, their equal contribution to freedom, transformed the nature of
the women's movement as well. The women's movement began to define the ferment and
women's role in society in opposition to the revivalist aspects of the definition of Indian
identity. Pandita Ramabai, involved in pioneering education for women, was the first woman
delegate to the Congress session, and it was only in 1890 that women delegates were allowed
to speak in these sessions. Sarala Devi Ghosal, Madame Bikaji Cama, Sarojini Naidu, Annie
Besant, Aruna Asaf Ali, Kamaldevi Chattopadhyaya, Lakshrni Sehgal are well known names.
Thousands of women from all classes participated in the salt satyagraha in breaking of forest
laws, confronting the police, in 'terrorist' activities, in the civil disobedience and Quit India
Movements, in the peasant struggles, in the Telagana movement. There was hardly anywhere
or any moment in nationalist struggle where women remained unrepresented. Their
contribution to the creation of artifacts, popular cultural forms such as dance, music, crafts
of all kinds as well as in economy is equal to men.
In fact, as in the case of all working people women have contributed more to the creation of . ,
our cultural heritage than they have gained from it.
2.5.4 Syncretic Tradition
Composite culture has been the hallmark of the Indian tradition. Starting with the Aryan
migrations to India, the fusion of cultures has constantly taken place giving rise to new cultural
forms both at the elite and the popular levels. Examples of this are to be found in the
Indo-Greek styles in architecture, sculpture and painting in ancient India, Indo-Islamic
architectural styles in medieval India as witnessedin many tombs and mosques erected during
this period. In music, this tradition found expression in Qawwali, Tabla, Sitar, Khayal etc.
At thc level of language, urdu developed as a medium of literature and state-craft. This
language today represents one of the finest expressions of our syncretic tradition. At the
popular level, we have Bhakti and sufi movements. Both thesemovements had followers from
all castes and communities, although the Bhakti movement had more following among the
Hindus and sufism among the Muslims. Some of the Bhakti saints like Kabir and Dadu had
almost equal following among the adherents of both the religions. ~ n d even today we witness
people of all communities going to the urs melas, celebrated in the memories of thesufi saints.
The sufi dargahs at Ajmer and Delhi and other places are visited by members of all castes
and communities.
In fact, the compositeness of our culture has reached such heights that the most undesirable
feature of our cultural heritage - caste system - is almost equally prevalent among the followers
of all religions in India.
2.5.5 Religious Tolerance
Religious Tolerance is an important characteristic of our culture. Since ancient times, this
spirit has prevailed and the religious issues were sorted out more by debate than by violence.
The earlier theory that the Aryans destroyed the civilization and culture of the Harappans is
now discarded. In fact, the Aryans and the Harappans existed together as their specific
remains have been found from the same period. The Aryans took many features from the
Harappan mode of worship. The images of phallus (shiva), bull (cow) and pipal are used by
the Hindu religion. In fact the Vedic religion, particularly in the later period seemed to have
incorporated many features of the Harappan mode of worship.
Jainism and Buddhism were, in any case, non-violent religions. Throughout its thousand year
old history in the sub-continent Buddhism existed side by side with Hinduism. The Hindus
were present in the courts of the Buddhist rulers and the opposite was also true.
The resurgence of Hinduism occasionally witnessed acts of persecution against the
Buddhists. For example, Pushyamitra Shung, who became the king of Magadha after the fall
of the Mauryan empire, is said to have offered 100 gold coins for the head of one Buddhist
monk. Similar acts of persecution were reported from south India as well in the later period.
But these things were rare and in between. The Gupta kings never persecuted the Buddhists
and during their reign the Buddhist art forms developed apace. Similarly, Harsha, the
Buddhist king, accommodated Hindu religion and philosophy in running his kingdom. In fact,
debate was a more significant way of converting the people than violence.
During the early years of Indian contacts with the Islam, we do find some instances of either
forced conversion or destruction of the temples and the idols. Mahmud of Gazani was
perhaps the most notorious figure in this regard. But he was more interested in plunder than
religion, although he used the religious symbol of jihad to carry out his plunder. Mahmud of
Ghazani, however, was never interested in ruling India. Some of the Turkish invaders also
indulged in some activities of religious intolerance but these instances are not many. Once
they got settled in India and established their rule, they became extremely tolerant and
sensitive to Hindu and other Indian views and sensibilities. They nowhere resorted to forced
conversions.
The Mughals, particularly Akbar, consciously set new parameters of religious co-existence
and cooperation. His Din-i-Ilahi professes the worship of the supreme God without religious
sectarianism. The example set by him was followed by his successors and even Aurangzeb,
contrary to the popular perception of his as a bigoted king, with some digressions, stuck to
the basic Indian ethos of religious tolerance.
In the modern period, if we put aside some instances of the Portuguese rule in some pockets,
neither the French nor the British engaged in forced conversions. In fact, after the revolt of
1857, the British greatly restricted even the private missionary activities in India.
In the entire course of the Indian history, most of the religious conversions occurred by
consent rather than by force. The discrimination against the lower castes and strict religious
practices of Hinduism forced many to convert to other religions. There were, of course, some
exceptions to this rule. But they were extremely rare.
2.5.6 The Cultural Traditions of the Elite and the Masses
The Indian culture has been enriched by the contributions of both the elite and the masses.
The poetry of Kalidas and the Grammer of Panini, alongwith the verses of Kabir and ecstatic
dances of the Bad artiste are parts of our cultural heritage. But there has been a tendency
either to ignore the contribution of the popular culture to our national cultural heritage or to
subordinate it to the elite tradition. In fact, the popular cultural tradition has contributed
more towards the unity and upliftment of the country. The Bhakti and sufi movements
illustrate this point amply. It is important to remember that Kathakali, Madhubani paintings,
Pandavani, Nautanki, Kaliyeri - pattu, dandi dance, the folk music of Rajasthan, Khuja
pottery, paper-machie, bandhini work, patta chitra, traditional toys, are as much creations of
beauty and pleasure as cultural expressions of the elite. In fact, they also contribute much to
our national wealth. We should not forget either that the impressive architectural heritage
of our country is the gift of the work and sweat of our labouring people, or that the cultural
expressions of the elite stand on the edifice of the extraction of surplus labour of the poor.
Well known Indian festivals have their origins in the agricultural cycles of the peasantry.
Indian Culture and
Context I1
1) Give a few examples which show assimilating character of Indian culture.
2) Write a brief note on Anthropological Survey of India data.
3) Briefly comment on the tradition of religious tolerance in India.
-a
2.6 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit we discussed the historical evolution of culture during later medieval, modern
and contemporary periods. We notice that in the process of evolution of our culture we
assimilated a lot of things introduced from outisde. This process of assimilation gave rise to
new forms and enriched our cultural heritage.
In the area of science and technology also a lot of advancement was acheived during this
period which contributed to the development of culture.
We also discussed some specific features of India Culture. These include assimilation,
syncretic tradition and religious coexistence. We notice that our diverse cultural trend also
has a unifying thread running all through. Woman's role and position in Indian culture also
Ends a place in this Unit. We have also drawn your attention to the important role played by
secularism, democracy, and scientific temper in the growth of modem culture in India.
.2.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES
n
1) See Sub-sec 2.2.1.
2)
i) b, ii) g, iii) d, iv) e, v) f, vi) a, vii) c
I
1) Women's equality, reforms in Indian society, upliftment of depressed castes etc. were
some of the concerns. See Sub-sec 2.2.2.
2)
You can list reform movements of Bengal, Maharashtra or south Indian states which
were more prominent. See Sub-sec 2.2.2
3) In independent India the Indian constitution provided a base for modern culture through
democracy, secularism, equality, freedom of expression etc. See Sub-sec 2.2.3.
Check Your Progress3
I
1) See Sec. 2.3
2) Textile technology, water lifting devices and building material and military technology
were a few areas. See Sec. 2.3.
3) See Sec. 2.4
-
Indian Culture and
Context 11
2) See Sub-sec 2.52.
UNIT 3 CONSERVATION OF CULTURE
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Culture of Tourism versus Tourism of Culture
Conservation of Culture
Conservation of Natural Heritage/Resources and Environment.
Conservation of Historical Heritage, Archaeological Sites and Monuments
3.5.1 World Heritage List
3.5.2 Main Problems in Conservation of Monuments
3.5.3 Available Expertise
Conservation and Preservation of Artistic and Cultural Heritage
Conservation of Socio-Economic Heritage
Let Us Sum Up
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
3.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit we will discuss some aspects related to the conservation of culture. After reading
this Unit you will be able to :
understand the concept of preservation of culture,
appreciate the importance of conserving the culture,
' know the main areas where efforts for conservation need to be made, and
know how the conservation can be effected.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the first two Units of this Block we gave you an introduction to Indian culture and heritage
in the historical context. In this Unit we will discuss the importance of the conservation of
culture. The conservation of culture and heritage enriches a'society and helps people
appreciate its richness. In the sphere of cultural tourism also the main idea is to familiarize
people with Indian culture so that their efforts at "selling" it do not warp its content.
In the International tourism parlance India is perceived as a Cultural Destination and the
foreign tourists visiting India for the first time find it so fascinating that quite a few of them
come again and again to enjoy the "Indian Experience". No wonder India is one such
destination in the world where international tourists spend maximum days once they arrive
in the country.
India is replete with heritage resources in the form of art, architecture and archaeology
besides other cultural expressions like performing arts, dance, drama, fairs, festivals and the
like. These cultural expressions constitute potential recreation resources. These resources,
coupled with heritage, contribute to the richness of any landscape which can attract
innumerable tourists looking for the "cultur4 experience".
3.2 CULTURE OF TOURISM VERSUS TOURISM OF
CULTURE
Thanks to the launch of Jumbo Jet Air crafts and phenomenon of Organized and Mass
Tourism a very large number of travellers cross their nationaVregional boundaries annually
for the purpose of tourism and this results in the following:-
i)
Spurt in the economic activities and growth of the host countryldestina'tion.
- -
Conservation of Cullure
ii) Employment generation.
iii) Easy marketing of local arts and crafts.
iv) Image projection of host destination and 'exposure' of locals to the aliens, resulting in
cultural assimilation.
v)
Familiarising the tourists with the heritage of a regiodcountry.
The negative impact of unregulated, unchecked and increasing number of tourist arrivals
begins with the following results:-
i)
Excessive burden on the goods and services of the host destination.
!
ii) Taxing the ecological carrying capacity of the host eco- system.
0
b
iii) Rise in the cost of goods and services because of gradual increase in demand and in the
process locals who are not well to do find difficult to survive.
I
iv) Excessive dose of aliedforeign tourists in a culturally fragile society may at times result
in cultural-pollution and cultural perversions.
i
v) Once this phenomenon of cultural pollutiodperversion starts then it is extremely difficult
to check it at once because of predominance of vested commercial interests in prevailing
I socio-economic milieu.
3 3 CONSERVATION OF CULTURE
Cultural Tourism, on the one hand helps in earning foreign currency and developing tourism.
It, at the same time is also endangering the rich cultural tradition and heritage of India. The
question is being hotly debated between the people who gain through this tourism and those
who are worried about the destruction of this heritage. The people who 'tend to gain from
the development of tourism are tourists and travel agencies, the state earning foreign currency
and other taxes, the local beneficiaries and trading groups etc. The groups who are womed
with this growing tourism include conservation groups, voluntary agencies advocating
responsible tourism and the state agencies responsible for conservation in different areas.
Now a consensus is emerging that a balance has to be worked out between tourism and the
threat to culture. However, it is not an easy task to maintain the balance.
It is also felt that the conservation of one area of heritage and culture cannot be achieved in
isolation. It has to be a concerted effort. The most important aspect of conservation is the
participation of the local population. The state with vast resources is definitely in a better
position to help in conservation efforts. Besides, nongovernmental organizations, travel and
tourism industry and other local bodies can also contribute in a positive way. We will refer
to these at relevant places in the Unit.
Before moving to the efforts made to conserve the culture let us first have an idea about the
areas where conservation is needed. Indian heritage is vast and wellspread. It is difficult to
include everything in this Unit. In brief we will include environment and natural resources;
historical heritage including archaeological sites and monuments; Indian literature and
languages; Indian sculpture and painting; music, dance tradition; theatre and folk art;
handicrafts and crafts tradition; socio-economic heritage etc. For the convenience of study
we will discuss these in four broad Sections.
1) Conservation of environment and natural rehurces.
2) Conservation of historicalkeritage, archaeological sites and monuments
3) Conservation and preservation of our artistic and cultural heritage
4) Conservation of socio- economic heritage with special thrust on protecting culturally,
sociologically and economically sensitive/fragile communities like tribals and people
living in hills, deserts and coastal areas.
Now let us discuss in detail how we can promote conservation of our culture in its broad sense.
3.4 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL HERITAGE /
RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT
The kind of geographical diversity that we have in India is perhaps unique in the world. No
other country can boast of offering such a variety of landscapes as India with its beautiful
mountains, deserts, coastal areas, rivers and lakes and rich variety of fauna and flora. Goa is
one of the best known tourism destination for the sea-beach lovers in the world and the desert
of Rajathan attracts domestic and international tourists by thousands every year. Himalayan
tourism is also a unique experience but the best of our natural heritage is our National Parks
and Wild Life Sanctuaries.
Whether it is Uni-horn Rhino in Kaziranga or a Tiger in Ranthambore or Kanha National
Park; an elephant in Perriyar or a Siberian Crane in Bharatpur, the sheer number and variety
of fauna and flora available in our country is mind boggling and it is one of our major strengths
in marketing our tourism products.
But excessive interference caused by ever increasing number of domestic and foreign tourists
to our ecosystem is proving counter .productive. Large number of tourist arrivals result in
noise and air-pollution of the host eco-system which in turn affect the well being of its flora
and fauna. Hence it is essential that experts should work out the carrying capacities of thcse
host eco-systems and tourism authorities in consultation with forest authorities should work
out the number of visitors to be allowed per day. This has already been in practice in many
wild life sanctuaries of t hc world and ev& in India at places like Ranthambhore, Sawai A
Madhopur (Rajasthan) whcre thousands of tourist come annually to see the Tiger.
Eco-tourism aims at promoting that kind of responsible tourism which is eco-friendly and
which does not destroy the subtle environmental balances 1 linkages thriving between flora
and fauna of a given habitatlmicro eco-system.
If we fail to conserve our environmental heritage then we will not be able to conserve our
other heritage because these are mainly dependent on the environment for their survival. Any
imbalance in the ecological equilibrium would upset the tender linkages resulting in major
catastrophe and ecological disasters.
The managing authorities of these ecological sensitive host eco- systems should formulate
DOs and Don'ts for the visitors and the tour operators which should be enforced strictly.
There is a great need to educate the visitors about frugal natural resources of the area and
fragile carrying capacity at the destination.
Our natural and environmental heritage is such a wonderful resource which gets
regeneratedlreplenished by 'Mother-Nature' periodically and visitors can really have a once
in a life time experience provided that the influx of visitors is eco-friendly and sustainable.
Another aspect of natural heritage conservation/management is that the income generated
by charging entry fee from the visitors should be ploughed back into the system and long term
scientific methods/step~ are undertaken to preserve/conserve the landscape and all its
constituents. There is a great need to invest in R & D (Research & Development) Sector for
various eco-tourism destination to ensure their proper care, proliferation and environmental
health.
We can replicate the successful models of eco-tourism and management of National Parks
available in U.S.A., Europe and South Africa, after suitably altering them to suit our'specific
problems/needs.
We have discussed at length all aspects of environment and tourism in our course TS-5 -
Ecology, Environment and Tourism.
EIIl
1) Write three main negative impacts of unregulated growth of tourism.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Write two lines on each of the following.
i)Cultural Destination
ii)Eco-tourism
3) Write five lines on our natural heritage.
3.5 CONSERVATION OF HISTORICAL HERITAGE,
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AND MONUMENTS
India's historical heritage includes not only the secular and religious monuments dedicated
to various faiths but also archaeological sites, rock cut caves, palaces, havelieb, homes and
the living heritage developed over the centuries.
The cultural heritage in'terms of historical relics and standing monuments could be broadly
divided into following groups:
1) Prehistoric remains
2)
Prehistoric and early historic sites
3) Religious edifices
4) Megalithic remains
5) Rock-cut caves
6) Temples of different faiths
7) Mosques and tombs
8)
Palaces, Havelis, Houses and Gardens
0) Miscellaneous buildings
The above classification is by no means perfect. We have divided them into these categories
for the convenience of the present study. Most of these monuments are of visitors interest
onlywhile some of these are part of living culture and are used by people as places of worship.
Consenation of Culture
In the category of living culturc may be included Puri temple, Delhi's Jarna Masjid, tomb of
Muinuddin Chisti and Nizamuddin Aulia and many more. Need for a separate conservation
treatment in respect of these has been brilliantly pointed out by A.G.Krishna Menon in a
recent article 'The Dilemma of Cultural Tourism in India' (The Eye, Vol. 11, NoA).Efforts
are made all over the world for the protection of historical heritage. You will read in detail
about the monuments and sculpture in Block-5 and archaeological sites and antiquities in
Block-6.
France was the first country to enact a law in the year 1809 for the protection of cultural
property. India enacted Indian Treasure Trove Act in 1878. Greece enacted a law in 1887
for excavated property and Egypt for regulation of excavation in 1897.
Again in the year 1904, Ancient Monuments Preservation Act was passed in India for
preservation of monuments, excavation, protection and control of antiquities. The Indian
Legislature also passed the Antiquities (Export Control) Act in 1947 underwhich no antiquity
could be exported outside the country without permission of the Government of India.
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) was established in the year 1861. Besides other
functions, it was made responsible for the preservation of monuments, archaeological sites
and remains and other important antiquarian and artistic vestiges. The concept to declare
historical monument as of national importance was introduced by Government of India in
the year 1951.
The AS1 is also the implementing agency of two central legislations viz:
i)
Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958.
ii)
The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972.
The total number of centrally protected monuments and sites are now 3517 in India.
Archaeology being a concurrdt subject, other states of India also enacted similar legislation
based on the Central Act and protected monuments and antiquities which have been in
existence for not less than 100 years. In case of paintings and manuscripts, it is 75 years for
declaring them as an 'antiquity' under the Act.
3.5.1 World Heritage List
The general conference of UNESCO adopted a resolution in 1972 creating thereby a
convention concerning the protection of world cultural and natural heritage. The main
objective of this forum was to define the world heritage, enlist sites and monuments from the
member countries, the protection of which is the concern of mankind. The convention
defined world heritage and drew a list of world heritage which included 378 cultural
propertieslsites. In India it has identified 16 cultural sites and 4 natural sites. These sites arc
star attractions for international and domestic tourists. There is a great need to protect,
preserve and conserve these cultural propertieslsites for the posterity and allow conducted
and regulated visitors to these sites so that excessive influx.of visitorsltourists should not
endanger the survival of these relics of our glorious past.
The 1979 Tourism and Heritage Conference organized by Pacific Asia Travel Association
(PATA) reflected the concern and desire of tourism industry for co-operation in this field.
3.5.2 Main Problems in Conservation of Monuments
Some of the problems in this regard are:'
i)
Lack of awareness amongst general public about the importance of saving the
monuments and preserving them.
ii) - ~ a c k of sufficient infrastructure and manpower.
iii) Apathy of local civic authorities.
iv) Damage and defacement by visitors/tourists.
v) Lack of coordination between Governmental and Non - Governmental agencies.
3.5.3 Available Expertise
There are very few agencies avail~lble with proper technical expertise to undertake the work
of resioration,repair, maintenance, development and comprehensive management of
monuments. Leading agencies are as follows:-
i)
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
ii) State Departments of Archaeology & Musepm
iii) National Research Laboratory for Conservation (NRLCS, Lucknow
) Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH)
v) Hindustan Charitable Trust sf Birlas
vi) International Centre for the Study of Preservation and Restoration of Cultural
Properties (ICCROM) at Rome, Italy
vii) National Trust of England
Gii) National Museum, Delhi
The monume~ts/sites of cultur al and heritagr tmpor'lance have to be protected from sxcessive
burden of visitors and consequential defacement of the monuments.
The number of visitors should be worked out keeping in view the condition of
monuments/sites and their visit should be properly regulated and conducted.
Visitors and Tourists should be educated by the managers of these cultural properties and
the guides so that they behave responsibly once allowed entry inside the monuments. The
way very large number of visitors/tourists are conducted and regulated at internationally
known tourist places like Tower sf London and Palaces at Versailles (Paris). This is very
exemplary and we could devise our own methods incorporating ideas from these successfill
modelsof heritage management.
The money collected as entry fee from these monuments should be ploughed back for the
conservation activities for these monuments. There have been cases like the Fort in Jaisalmer
(Rajasthan) where excessive use of water by the inmates of the fort has caused irreparable
damage to this madcent fort popularly known as Sonar-Qila built in the year 1158 A.D.
The threat of environmental pollution to world famous Taj Mahal at Agra is also another
cxample of susceptibility of these monuments to the external polluting and damaging factors
l i e air, noise, water pollution and negative impact of a positive economic activity like tourism.
A large number of historical monuments, houses and buildings have not been declared under
the list of protected monuments by the Archaeological Survey of India or State Government
agencies. These are being regularly plundered by people and commercial interests. Their
stones, doors, decorative motifs and sculpture are taken out and sold. A case to point is of
houses, in Rajasthan and Gujarat, whose doors and windows have been taken out and are
sold as antiqucs. In the process hundreds of houses have been pulled down. Here the efforts
of local bodies, voluntary agencies and local population are urgently required to extend the
protective hand to save them from unscrupulous traders.
r
1) List two main acts passed by the Govt. of India for the protection of monuments and
antiquities.
3)
List four main agencies which undertake the restoration and preservation of monuments
in India.
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4)
How can local initiative help in the protection of heritage
3.6 CONSERVATION AND PRESERVATION OF
ARTISTIC AND CULTURAL HERITAGE
Our artistic and cultural heritage is used as a Unique Selling Point (USP) in the international
tourism market. India is known as a cultural destination and tourists coming to our country
are very keen to watch our artistic and cultural expressions in following forms:
i) Architectural relics
ii) Sculptures/temples
iii) Paintings
iv) Folk Music
vi) Fairs and Festivals
vii) Rites and Rituals
viii) Literature and Poetry
ix) Handicrafts
x) Cuisince and our life-style
While visitors are welcome to observe and understand and even participate in our
celebrations but efforts should be made to insulate our heritage from getting 'affected' by
'visitors' lifestyle or thinking.
Most of our fairs and festivals, extremely popular with international tourists, now are
gradually being exposed to these extefnal factors like excessive flow of outsiders/tourists.
Many of these fairs and festivals are already showing signs of change like the Pushkar Fair in
Rajasthan. This cattle fair with religious fervour has now almost become a tourist fair and
there are negative impacts because of large number of tourists. Spread of the prohibited
drugs is one of the negative features which has been noticed ever since it became so popular
with tourists. At the same time liberal lifestyle of these foreign tourists is adversely affecting
the sociological equations and behavior in a small place like Pushkar.
Another example of cultural pollution is distorting the authentic Indian Styles of paintings,
music and dance to tailor-made it to suit the taste of the visitors/tourists. The poor artists fall
t
prey to the lure of money and change the style of their presentation to suit the market needs
I
I
rather than keeping in view the traditional artistic considcrations. Handicrafts, under the
i
pressure of market demand are also undergoing change. Mass production and
L commoditisation have adversely affected the crafts and craftsmen. You will read more about
I
it in Block-7.
I The authorities should initiate steps to educate thevisitors about the finer points of these art
forms and allow the tourists to enjoy the art form without tampering with it.
There has been an alarming increase in the number of beggars and lepers especially around
tourist places. These elements not only conjure up a bad image of our country but also harass
the visitors/tourists for the doles and their pestering at times spoils the mood of the tourists
leading to avoidable unpleasant situations.
There is a great need to plough back atleast the part of tourism earnings for the preservation
and development of our traditional art forms and our cultural heritage.
I
i
t 3.7 CONSERVATION OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC HERITAGE
In a bid to attract large number of tourists to new areas many states are opening those areas
which are sociologically speaking very fragile and susceptible zones like:
.
i) Desert Areas
ii) HillAreas
iii) Tribal Area
iv) Coastal Areas
One glaring example of the negative impact of tourism was spread of Hippy Culture in late
seventies in Goa which was vehemently resented by the locals. Similarly, the spread of
drug-use in places like Kathmandu (Nepal), Benaras (U.P.) and Pushkar (Rajasthan) is
another phenomenon which is causing concern. Ecologically and culturally sensitive zones
like Desert of Rajasthan and in places like Jaisalmer there have been cases of AIDS reported
recently. It is believed that this virus of AIDS reached Jaisalmer because of excessive
movement and stay of foreign tourists in the countryside of Jaisalmer whilc 'enjoying' the
popular tourism activity like Camel Safari.
In places like Jaisalmer where number of tourists visiting annually is more than four times of
locals then gradually even the behavioral pattern of the new and young generation shows some
unwelcome signs of change which are causing concern amongst village elders.
Another example is of famous tribal fair at Beneshwar (Dungarpur, Rajasthan). Attracted
by the large congregation of tribals and because of wide publicity and aggressive marketing
hundreds of foreign tourists started visiting the fair. Due to lack of instructions and proper
briefing to the tourists by their travel agents some of the tourists took photos of young tribal
girls while they were bathing in the holy-river at Beneshwar. This invited criticism by the
people and in the press lot of articles appeared against encroaching upon the sanctitylprivacy
of this fair, as a result authorities stopped promoting the Beneshwar fair for the tourists.
While promoting tourism is such sensitive areas the authorities must keep in mind the
following points.
i)
Carrying capacity of host eco-system.
ii) Special nature of fair s/festivals.
iii) Sensibilities of locals.
iv) Educating the visitors about the Dos and Don'ts
v)
Discourage longer stays of foreign tourists specially in close proximity to tribals.
vi) Only special interest groups and serious tourists should be allowed to visit these areas;
proper regulation has to bc ensured.
vii) Efforts should be made to gainfully associate the locds in tourism activities so that locals
derive economic benefit of the activity without being adversely affected by it.
vii) In a sensitive tribaVdeserVcoasta1 area we should define Heritage Zones and open areas
which are open to visitors so that the influx of visitors does not disturb the normd pace
of life of the host society.
Keeping the fragile ecolou and sensitive local population in mind a number of steps have
been taken to preserve local culture. Certain remote areas have been declared
restricted areas ( in North-East and other hill region). Special permits are rquired to
visit these areas. There are restrictions in buying the property by outsiders. In
Lakshwadeep and Andaman Islands also the tourist flow is highly regulated. These steps
have certainly helped in preserving the local culture.
r
1)
Write Five lines on adverse affect of tourism on Pushkar Fair and Jaisalmer
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2)
List four main points to be kept in mind while promoting tourism in sensitive areas.
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3) What steps have been initiated to preserve ecologically fragile and sensitive areas.
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3.8 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit we discussed some aspects of tourism of culture and the significance of
conservation of culture. We also discussed various areas of our culture and heritage that
need conservation. Important of these are our natural resources, historical heritage, artistic
and cultural heritage and socio-economic heritage. You must have realized that for the
conservation of culture concerted efforts are required by piople in general, government,
voluntary agencies, tourism trade and local bodies.
Tourism like any other economic activity has positive and negative impacts in a given
arealsituation. Our efforts should be to monitor the growth of tourism and initiate steps to
regulate the activity by enforcing reasonable restrictionslcode of conduct for the tourists.
Our culturt: has survived for more than 5000 years and it has withstood the onslaught of all
types. It can certainly endure the marginal impact of movement of internationaVdomestic
tourists provided we all join hands and ensure proper and scientific management of tourism
which is eco and culture friendly and we evolve a living culture which is tourism friendly.
E I z I l
1) See Sec. 3.2
2) i)
A place which is to be visited as a place of some cultural interest
ii)
Tourism which takes into account the potential of ecology and environment to
attract people and at the sametime protects the ecosystem from harmful effects
of tourism.
3) See Sec. 3.3.
1) See Sec. 3.5.
2) See Sub-sec. 3.5.1.
3) sek sub-sec. 3.5.3.
1) See Secs. 3.6 and 3.7.
2) See Sec. 3.7.
3) See Sec. 3.7
UNIT 4 TOURISM AND CULTURE :
SOME VIEWS
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Some International Case Studies
4.2.1 Spain
4.2.2 Indonesia
4.2.3 Greece
4.2.4 Mexico
4.2.5 Summing Up
4.3 Some Indian Examples
4.4 Let Us Sum Up
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will learn:
the impact of tourism on local cultures in various countries based on some
anthropological case studies; and
the views of a few Indian writers on the relationship between culture and tourism.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The onset of mass tourism, in the nineteen eightees especially, and the institutions it has given
rise to, are producing more deterministic forms of culture. In general cases there come into
being new forms which are different from the earlier phase of tourism activities. The focus
today is on the exotic cultures which figure as key attractions. Here the approach too differs
methodologically. The effort is to satisfy the touristic demand and in the process even contrive
a cultural identity. This is continually proving to be quite troublesome for the relationship
between 'tourism' and 'culture'. Of late this relationship has been subjected to some important
anthropological scrutiny both at the international and the national levels.
In this Unit, we shall discuss the interface between culture and tourism. For this purpose,
some case studies have been selected and extensive quotations have been used from the
original articles to bring to you the fi st hand views of the authors. A list of the articles used
here is given at the end of the Unit.
4.2 SOME INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDIES
This Section contains case studies conducted from the economic- anthropological
perspective to gauge the impact of mass tourism on the indigenous people and cultures.
4.2.1 Spain
The following account is derived from a study by Davydd J Greenwood given in Valene L
Smith, (edited) Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism.
In Spain, Fuenterrabia is a town which used to celebrate a major public festival named as
Alarde. It was celebrated to comrnemmorate the town's victory over the French forces which
had laid seige to the town in 1638 A.D. It has been celebrated for hundreds of years and
involves almost all the men, women and children of the town. It was an elaborate public ritual
in which the was voluntary and general. But while the entire town participated
in it, its symbols, rituals and meanings did not usually relate to the outsiders.
In 1989, the Spanish government threw the Alarde open to the tourists in an attempt to create
an added tourist attraction and insisted that "the Alarde should be given twice in the same
day to allow everyone to see it." This move, in the words of the author, caused "a great
consternation among the people of Fuenterrabia and a vaulting sense of discomfort. Soon
this became the mask of cynicism that prefaces their attitudes toward the motives behind all
business ventures in Fuenterrabia. Little was said publicly about it. But two summers later, I
found that the town was having a great deal of difficulty in getting the participants to appear
for the Alarde. No one actively or ideologically resisted, but in an event that depends entirely
on voluntary compliance, the general lack of interest created serious organizational problems.
In the space of two years, what was a vital and exciting ritual had become an obligation to be
avoided. Recently the municipal government was considering payments to people for their
participation in the Alarde. I do not doubt that they ultimately will have to pay them, just as
the gypsies are paid to dance and sing and the symphony orchestra is paid to make music.
The ritual has become a performance for money. The meaning is gone."
This was a turning point for this festival and the intervention by the outsiders stripped the
ritual of whatever meaning it held for the local people. We are reproducing below the
conclusioa of the author :
"As an analytical perspective has finally begun to develop with regard to the socioeconomic
effects of mass tourism, it has become obvious that the increasing maldistribution of wealth
and resultant social stratification are widespread results of touristic development. Various
remedies are proposed as an attempt to counteract these problems. While these problems
are serious and must be remedied, 1 am terribly concerned that the question of cultural
commoditization involved in ethnic tourism has been blithely ignored, except for anecdotal
accounts. The massive alterations in the distribution.of wealth and power that are brought
.about by tourism are paralleled by equallymassive and perhaps equally destructive alterations
in local culture.
"The culture brokers have appropriated facets of a life-style into the tourism package to help
sales in the competitive market. This sets in motion a process of its own for which no one,
not even planners, seems to feel in the least responsible. Treating culture as a natural
resource or a commodity over which tourists have rights is not simply perverse, it is a violation
of the peoples' cultural rights. While some aspects of culture have wider ramifications than
others, what must be remembered is that culute in its very essence is something that people
believe in implicitly. By making it part of the tourism package, it is turned into an explicit
and paid performance and no longer can be believed in the way it was before. Thus,
commodization of culture in effect robs people of the very meanings by which they organize
their lives."
He further adds :
"Perhaps this is the final logic of the capitalist development of which tourism is an ideal
example. The commoditization process does not stop with land, labor, and capital but
ultimately includes the history, ethnic identity and culture of the peoples of the world.
Tourism simply packages the cultural realities of a people for sale along with their other
resources. We know that no people anywhere can live without the meanings culture provides;
thus tourism is forcing unprecedented cultural change on people already reeling from the
blows of industrialization, urbanization, and inflation. The loss of meaning through cultural
commoditization is a problem atleast as serious as the unequal distribution of wealth that
results from tourist development."
4.2.2 Indonesia
In today's Indonesia there are two tourist places which are very important cultural
destinations for the foreign tourists. These places are Toraja and Bali. Studies by Eric Crystal
and Philip Frick McKean are used in this section extensively.
Culture and Tourism:
Some views
In Indonesia, the international mass tourism started in the late 1960s but rapidly picked up
and by the mid 1970s, Indonesia had become an important tourist resort. While many tourists
visited the country to enjoy its coastlines and beaches, its importance as a cultural destination
is very marked awing to its rich, varied and syncretic traditions. In Indonesia, the fusion of
Introducing Indian Cult=
cultures exists in its richness and variety. Bali and 'Toraja are two of the most important places
of tourist attraction. Tourists from many countries flock to these places to view the local
festivals, rituds, ceremonies, dances, traditional arts and crafts and historical monuments.
Initially, the influx of the tourists did not have much negative effects. But, with the passage of
time and the increase in the number of tourists, many problems started emerging. In Toraja,
the increase in the touribt traffic was sudden and the results more alarming. Basing on his
study in 1976, Eric Crystal points out :
"Tana Toraja may be unzque, and worthy of on-going careful study, because of the dramatic
change within two years. The area has passed directly from the obscurity of elite, ethnic
tourism to hecome a target for cultural, charter tourism without passing through any of the
intermediary stages. It is too soon to fully assess the touristic impact, but some trends are
evident. 'The local T'orajas are bewildered, and uncertain as to the choices open to them, or
iheir outcome :
I) If they open their villages, and their ceremonies, to tourism for the sake of economic gain,
they are victimized by the compromise of cultural integrity;
2) If they exclude the tourists, they are victimized by the inflation accompanying the influx,
and enterprising neighbors reap the profits. Cultural conservatism does not 'pay'. During
the tourist season of 1976 it was evident that rituals were being commercialized as
'spectacles' for the foreigners, including being rescheduled at the request of foreign
guides. Further, the disappearance of antiquities into the souvenir market indicated
another potential cultural loss. My cautious optimism based on the 1974 data is strained,
and further field research is needed. If, as anthropologists, WE have the capacity to guide,
our skills should be applied here and now lest this fragile mountain community, which
has o~lly its cultllral traditions to attract tourism, !oses both its heritage and the to~rists."
1
On his subsequent visits to the area, the author recorded that while in 1975, the number of
4 1
tourists to Toraja was only about 2500, by 1985 the number had increased to almost 40,000.
This led to many changes. It has benefitted the people of the area in following ways :
i)
It has generated thousands of jobs for the locals and the infrastructural facilities in terms
I
of roads and airstrips.
ii) The economic and socio-political isolation of the region has now ended and the Torajan
Culture, "once spoken of in derogatory terms, is now featured nationally in Indonesia as
a major and important component of multicultural Indonesia."
ui) The traditional Toraja crafts of weaving, ikat dyeing and he;idvr.cark haw found new and
rich buyers and this has led to an improvement in the skills.
These are some of the positive effects brc~ught about by the growth of tourism. But the
traditional culture, life-styles and monuments have been victims of an unrestricted tourist
growth. Eric Crystal says:
"One of the sadder conseiuences of change in Toraja has bezn the accelerated loss of these
precious heirlooms and cultural artifacts. Thert: is no doubt that tourism has played a
significant role in this process. In 1969 beautiful strands of ancient beads were sold in each
Toraja market by itinerant vendors. By 1976 villagers in the marketplace and the vendors
themselves reported that such old beads were becoming increasingly scarce due to demand
by visiting French tourists. By 1983 such beads were 'effectively' gone in the sense that they
were out of the price range of the average village consumer. Tourists and itinerant
international art dealers have demonstrated an insatiable appetite for old pieces of Toraja
folk art. Newly crafted house panels, baskets, textiles, or carvings do not satisfy these most
particular appetites; only the oldest, most weathered acd most exotic-looking pieces will do
"Most devastating to the people of Toraja is the rape of ancestral statuary that continue
unabated at this writing. The carving of ancestral images is common in a numher of relative1
isolated cuiture regions of Indonesia and, indeed, was highly developed in many parts of th
ancient world. Tau tau, or funerary statues, in Tana Toraja are carved of extremely durable
jackfruit wood. Only the largest death ceremonies are embellished with a near life-sized
wooden image of the deceased. After interment of the deceased in a limestone cave vault,
the statue is placed in a gallery near the burial site. In 1969, two years before the first
depredations were recorded, Tana Toraja preserved literally thousands of such statues in
burial sites spread over much of its 3000 square kilometers of territory. When my fvst article
was written in 1975 I did not realize that the first highly selective raids on Toraja statuary were
already taking place. By 1985 Toraja tau tau were bringing USS6000 sale prices in Los
hgeles. During the past years agents with MOmm telephoto lenses have been dispatched
from Western Europe to compose albums of 'available' statuary from which potential
customers could select their desired piece. Working in league with local Toraja thieves,
toreign agents spirited the statues from Tana Toraja, and transshipped them by air and sea
tromDen Pasar, Bali, to overseas destinations. So sacred are these statues within Tana Toraja
that no one would dare to openly sell such artifacts within the region itself."
'The other tourist destination in Indonesia, Bali, about which we made a mention at the
beginning of this section, has been studied by Philip Frick McKem. He finds that the many
negative effects of tourist influx which are very noticeable in Toraja have not occurred in Bali.
His explanation is that the Balinese people have escaped this due to a process called "cultural
~nvolution". He explains this phenomenon in the following words:
'An ironic theme permeates this analysis : modernization in Bali is occuring; tourism
introduces new ideas and is a major source of funds. Yet, the tourists expect the perpetuation
of ancient traditions, especially in the performing and plastic arts, and would not visit in such
numbers if Baliwere to become a thoroughly modern island. Both consewatioa and economic
necessity encourage the Balinese to maintain their skills as carvers, musicians, and dancers
in order to have the funds for modernization."
The resilience of the Balinese culture and the strength of its artisan traditions have withstood
the impad of cultural invasion normally associated with mass tourism. The local people havk
achieved it by separating the realms of tourism and their own spiritual and social identity and
rendering unto each what is its own. As the author explores:
"In Bali the rush toward standardization and simplification of the souvenir arts exists without
the total loss of either functional fine arts or commercial fine arts, because indigenous
institutions continue to demand high quality craftsmanship as appropriate offerings for the
'divine world'. Balinese could ignore this mandate only at personal and corporate peril In
Balinese ethos, to offer inferior gifts to the divine powers, and incur their displeasure, would
be silly and shortsighted. It is one thing to sell inferior goods to tourists who do not know or
care about artistic expqrtise, but to shortchange the infinitely superior taste of the spirit realm
would be foolhardy indeed. Thus, Balinese craftsmen remain responsive to the marketplace
in their willingness to alter the themes of their carvings from wayang (shadow puppet) figures
to animal figures - and even to busts of Sophia Loren and Raquel Welch - and also responsive
to the 'market' of the 'divine world' whose tastes and expectations are believed to remain
infinitely more exquisite. Graburn reported that in other non-Balinese cases, craftsmanship
has suffered a loss in quality, because the quality of the spiritual realm evidently suffered from
degradation, and the spiritual 'audience' was no longer significantly viable. This is not true in '
Bdi, at least not yet."
But the author says by way of caution:
"Certainly there are dangers for the Balinese in embracing tourism, and as in Toraja, the
misuse of scarce resources, increased stratification with the 'rich getting richer', or
environmental and ritual erosion may be so damaging to the indigenous way of Iife that
tourism could eventually be evaluated by both social scientists and local villager as a profound
and disastrous blight. The results will depend to considerable degree on actions within the
political structures."
4.2.3 Greece
E. Wickens studies a village in Greece which has been providing "services" to both, the
domestic and foreign tourists who come in search of "sun, sea and sand. The participati"on
of the villagers in this quest has been almost total. They have willingly made available all the
facilities and created ambiences which various types ~f tourists may desire.
To start with, the name of the village was changed from Kapsochora (meaning a 'burning
place') to Pefkochori (meaning 'pinewoods'), "a name thought to be more appropriate to its
scenic location and therefore more attractive to tourists."
Cdl&e and Tourism:
Some views
Secondly, a local colour is sought to be given by serving local cuisines, traditional dances or,
for that matter, whatever was thought to be enjoyable to that variety of tourist out to seek an
encounter with the local culture. The author comments :
"Intended mainly for foreign consumption, the taverna evcning is transformed from a
mundanc social event into a spectacle, designed to make the evening exciting and memorable
for the tourist. The taverna serves a hybrid cuisine - the traditional mezedes (a variety of
salads and appetisers) bcing structured into a Western-style three-course meal with everyonc
having the same. The meal itself is a combination of Greek and Western European dishes.
'The rationale for the standardization of the content of these meals is that it allows for the
efficient processing of large numbers of coach parties, i s . a taverna can predict the number
of meals it needs to prepare and so maximise its profit.
"In addition, it offers staged performances of Greek traditional dances, which have been
hybridised, i.e. simplified and modernised, especially for tourists. For example the kbasapiko
(a butcher's dance), and its popularizedversion the syrtaki, and the zembetico (a man's solo
dance expressing a mood of melancholy and suffering) are mass-produced, to be consumed
by the tourists, just like any other product. These hybrid Greek dances are performed by a
small group of men and women, dressed in traditional native costumes. These groups are
instructed to encourage tourists to participate in these dances, which end with the traditional
smashing of plaster plates. The sound of bouzouki music played in the taverna has also been
modified, in order to appeal to the tastes of Western European visitors. Tourists thkn
consume what I call a 'hybridplayful experience' of a traditional evening entertainment which
has bcen modified to appeal to the international consumer.
"What is quite apparent about these type of pseudo-events is that they appeal to foreign
cash-customers. The 'expectation of pleasure' from a game of 'going native' seems to motivate
particularly 'the touristic consciousness' of the Cultural Heritage, the Lord Byron and the
Heliolatrous visitors. They are willing to play this game of being a tourist by day and a native
by night, because it is fun and exciting. At the same time, thcy are aware that these sites and
performances are staged, and that what they are consuming is not authentic but rather, a
hybrid product."
In addition to this "staged authenticity", we find that the western-style comforts are also
provided to those tourists who do not want to abandon their familiar home ambience and );st
want to enjoy their holidays, in a foreign land.
The eEonomic benefits derived from the tourist influx have induced the locals to stretch over
backwards to satisfy.al1 the needs and wants of the various kinds of foreign tourists. The
consequences of this has been disastrous for the local cultural tradition, although the local
people are quite unmindful of these effects in their pursuit of wealth. In the words of the
author:
"What has emerged in Pefkochori is a hybrid culture which neither reflects the normal culture
of tourists, nor the traditional culture of a Greek village. It is a cross between a heritage
museum and a pleasure-seeker's paradise. ...
"In Pefkochori the concentrated presence of tourists over a 20- year period has led to the
assimilation of the hedonistic consumer-oriented behaviour of tourists into the behaviour and
value system of the local inhabitants. Pefkochori is a paradigm- case of a farminglfishmg
community which has been undergoing a process of cultural hybridisation, of loss of
traditional cultural identity. This hybridisation has lcd to changes in the,attitudes, values and
the behaviour of the indigenous population, particularly that of the younger generation. It is
.=
in effect, a process of 'acculturation'."
4.2.4 Mexico
G Evan's study of coastal tourism in Mexico is focussed around a very important issue : the
erosion of the culture, life-styles and values of the indigenous Red Indian communities due
largely to the promotion of state-sponsored mass tourism. The state is controlled by the white
communities who have little or no regard for the tradition and culture of the native Indian
communities who were the original inhabitants of the land. The Spanish conquests and
colonisation from 16th century onwards led to the extermination and marginalisation of the
indigenous people. Their lands were confiscated in the rulers' quest for "modernisation",
particularly during the 19th century. Their traditions andvalues were eroded and their history,
Some views
because it was-based on oral tradition and had no written records, was disregarded.
The coming of mass tourism into the country during the 1950s and 1960s further intensified
these trends. The Indian lands were confiscated for building hotels and developing tourist
resorts. All the benefits derived from the tourist influx, however, went into the coffers of the
outsiders who owned hotels and shops. The local people virtually have no control over the
tourism business at any level. The suggestions made by the author in this case are given
below:
"The choice to participate in tourism should be available and where intermediaries are still
desirable, economic benefits must be retained, not just locally, but by the generators
('owners') of ethnic tourism, whether led by craft, performance or other visitor experience.
"As a corollary, tour promotion by national and international operators can ensure greater
pre-tour information and guide- training (especially of indigenous representatives),
consistently throughout the tour-hospitality system.
"The political and economic forces that will require both resistance and change, are
substantial in the case of Mexico. Indigenous populations risk being overridden by economic
imperatives and resource-exploitation, including mass and invasive tourism. The adaptation
and survival of the Indian socio-cultures to date is all the more remarkable for this, and
therefore tourism must learn from and mitigate these effects, and render meeting grounds
places of mutual respect and experience."
4.2.5 Summing Up
In the foregoing account we have basically analysed four situations brought about by the
interaction of the tourists with the local population.
i)
In case of Spain, faced with the tourist onslaught on their most cherished and popular
festival, the Alarde, the people of Fuenterrabia withdrew and the festival lost its charm
and meaning and became a purely staged event for the purpose of tourism.
ii) In Indonesia, two tourist sites have been discussed. In the case of Toraja, we find that
although the local people made and still make efforts to save their culture, they have, in
effect, been completely swamped by the tourist invasion. They have defmitely derived
economic benefits and socio- recognition; but they are very much in danger of
losing their cultural identity and traditions.
In Bali, however, the local culture has proved more resilient. It has saved itself by the
process of "cultural involution" which has reinforced the tradition just because that is
what the tourists like. Moreover, the Balinese people distinguish between the demands
of the tourists and those of their gods and have institutionalised this separation by making
different objects for the tourists (which may involve making of some compromises in their
traditional arts and crafts) from what they make for their ritual offerings.
iii) In the case of a village in Greece we see that the lure of money has been so overpowering
that the local population is willingto compromise on all aspects of their culture and
values. However, they have been the beneficiary of the economic boom brought about
by tourism.
k
iv) The red Indians of Mexico have benefitted neither economically nor culturally by the
tourist encounter. They have been the losers on all counts. In their case, it is a
phenomenon of internal and external colonialism ushered in by the state-sponsored
tourism. Their example can be true of many oppressed and marginalised communities
in the third world countries.
lnlrodueidg Indian Cullure
r
1) In what way has'tourism affected.the. local wmnni t i es in Toraja (Indonesia). and
Pefkochori (Greeee) ? Write in 100v~i ds.
:
. a
. > .
. .
,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
, ~
, -
,..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2)
Discuss "cultural involution" in the case of Bali. What significance can it have in India's
case? ,
3) What i s the significance of the experience of the Mexican Indians ? Write your own
suggestions in this regard.
4.3 SOME INDGN EXQMFLES
India is being promoted as a major tourisf destination by the planners and policy-makers. As
a spokesman of the tourism industry would say, it has everything to offer - mourltains and
seas, forests and wildlife, an ancient culture and modern facilities, avariety of festivals, fairs,
dresses and costumes, aboriginal cave-age tribals and 21st century elite; you just name it and
you have got it here.
But human beings learn by experiences - of their own and of others. So before unrestricted
and unmanaged tourism is given the green signal we must stop and critically examine its
influences and repercussions, especially on our culture.
To begin with, we can take the example of Kovalam in Kerala. The following account is based
on a study by T G Jacob.
About three decades ago Kovalam was a small coastal village growing coconuts and, on a
small scale, catching fishes. The economy was mostly sustained by selling copra, oil aqd coir
yarn products.
The development of Kovalam as a tourist resort led to the construction of hotels and influx
views
of tourists whose number has now r ~ached 65,000 per season. The arrival of the foreign
tourists has caused an increase in the number of the domestic tourists also many of whom
come just to observe the half-dressed or undressed white tourists on the beach.
Prostitution - both female and male - has accompanied the tourists and so have the drugs.
Many local youths can be seen on andaround the beach peddlingdrugs. Smack addiction has
also risen among the youth as a result of this. The traditional occupations have declined and
the land prices have increased phenomenonally, As a result the land ownership has shifted
to the outsiders who mainly use the land for speculation and not for anything productive. This
has pushed hundreds of families out of their traditional occupations. The benefits of tourism
in terms of jobs and wealth have gone mostly to the outsiders and mostly the menial and
low-paid jobs are left to the Kovdans. Many unemployed youths have found 'employment' in
peddling the dwgs. The only traditional occupation thriving "under these circumstances is
stone quarrying. Land that once provided a steady and continuous income from agriculture
has been permanently lost to quarrying which gives quick and high returns. Deep, ugly pits
scar the earth. With the growing demand for high quality Krishna shila stone, a large number
of women and children, displaced from their agricultural occupations, now work in stone
quarries, breaking rocks in scorching sun or rain. They are paid a pittance for their labour,
as compared to agricultural wages. Their poverty, it would seem, is yet another sightseeing
'attraction' for tourists."
It, therefore, becomes quite clear that tourism is not such an unmixed bl&sding as it is bade
out to be by many who plan and profit by it. The pursuit of money has led to degradation of
culture and environment. It has not helped the local people much even in terms of their
acquiring wealth by "serving" the tourists at various levels. A meaningful development of the
traditional occupations and industries might probably have done more in terms of generating
employment. In another study, A. G. Krishna Menon has addressed the problems and
dilemma faced by cultural tourism in India today. We are reproducing extracts here :
"The other part of the mindset is clearly evident in the obsession the policymakers display
for increasing foreign exchange earnings through the promotion of tourism. All the pious
concerns for 'socio-economic development' notwithstanding, the tourism policy of the
government is almost entirely predicated on this criteria. Thus, we find in practice, tourism
in India is more considerate to the welfare of the foreign tourist than the well-being of the
local population. Not surprisingly therefore, there is increasing evidence i s tourism
literature that the general social and economic well-being of society deteriorates with
increasing tourism. Effects of this phenomenon can also be gauged by the protest movements
mounted by grass-root organisations, for instance, in Goa to actively campaign against
tourism development. Thus, we are confronted with the great dilemma of cultural tourism
in our country: the most abundant tourism resource may be unexploitable. Why is this so?
There could be several readings of this situation but one reading concerns the right of the
collective - the government - to arrogate to itself the power to exploit local cultures. This
backlash of popular sentiment is, of course, part of a world-wide trend towards local
self-expression and promotion of local cultural identities. Any policy which is perceived to
threaten or compromise these local identities is fiercely resisted. Inevitably, cultural tourism
is perceived to be such a threat by local societies."
The author continues:
"With this background, the position of culture in the process of cultural tourismcan beviewid
as both protagonist and victim, at once so strong and pervasive as to have survived millennia
and yet so vulnerable t o encroaching alien forces unleashed through modern tourism. .The
greater tragedy of this situation is that tourism in a developing society such as ours is-reavy
the thin edge of the wedge of modernism. Indian society and culture need to deve)%aqd
mdernise, and must indeed recancile with the forces of modernit>, -In the absence, of:qtkr
development initiatives, tourism is often - in places 1ik~;Jaisalqc and Goa, Shib and q&y
- the prime agent for economic, social and coltural change. . I t becoxys a mgrter 9f great
concern, therefare, i;f@wism were t~accqpaplisb thisad)ustmenthy transforming t bes pqqe
of '.Indianess' I her der to a Wu e . a ~ g d g g ~ g of 4 ~ s ~ . Obviously, there i,s qged &TF$i$
i, t k pz~pmitian ind m&e, t be: : bp~r &w qfj &~a l , ~phg{e s d q t e r a e
pvpneJefq of
toutism-sltratagy4,rathr;r thasklk @her ~zg~aqggdas , & i$!&ne aPprqeni,. , *.; a ,; .- , ,, -
. .
! , . ' 1 ,
, . : J k . . f., . ' ~, , .?x-!f!.:: :,;(I , : < ;iji.*,.'?.i:l ,.:],,i-: ?,,i: -<iis ;.; .;-;.- j;;: .; :; *; ..:;3T,,; :., ;:, , > , . . .
::Sean i92!bi~;~@, ?bqf~rmylatig!p~gf thr: @$is$ pphqr&qyqes 9 4ay?,tiP,g&$alre.p~~,~!$=
that cannot be accomplished by marketing one's "cultural ,asset a t the whmapd y$ ,of a
marketing strategist (quite ofte; an advertising agency) or calibratiniits success bn tliib"i
In(roducing Indin
of economic parameters such as the quantum of foreign exchange earned. Tourism policy
must be developed with greater consideration for ground realities and its impact on local
cultures. It needs to be formulated by interdisciplinary teams of social scientists - including
economists and marketing strategists, rather than the present team of generalist
administrators relying on 'foreign' expertise.
"It is on account of such 'foreign' expertise that India's tourism policy reacts to foreign
demand rather than cater to indigenous needs. It is 'demanded', and strategists seek to
emulate 'foreign' models to meet this demand. The models they have in mind are such
'successes' like the beach resorts of Bali or Thailand, and of course, Disneyland.
Unfortunately, this overt bias to follow foreign models substitutes as tourism policy.
"This process of servicing foreign needs on their terms recreates old colonial structures in the
relationship between the visitor and the host community. ... Culturally loaded images are
casually used in tourism promotion literature to entice foreign tourists: Rajasthan is 'martial',
Khajuraho is 'romantic' and Goa is 'fun, frolic, festivals and fen?. The tragedy that such
insensitivity can result in is evident in the state of the tourism industry of South East Asia - a
'success' at a financial level, but an unmitigated disaster at the social and cultural level."
r
1) How has tourism affected the life of the local people of Kovalam ?
2) What is the basic dilemma faced by cultural tourism in India?
4.4 LET US SUM UP
The process of cultural exchange supposed to occur with the tourist interaction with the host
communities has failed to take off. This failure is now being clearly recognised the world over.
Reasons for this are many. Firstly, the lack of sufficient time at the disposal of the tourists
hardly provides them the opportunity for an in-depth knowledge of the local culture. Nor can
the locals interact with them fruitfully and understand them. Secondly, the economic
consideration creates a misunderstanding. The locals may think that the tourist is a miser
while the tourists may find the locals too greedy. Such a misunderstanding rules out any
effective cultural interaction. Thirdly, the marketing of imitation cultural productsin the form
of tourist- oriented staged festivals etc. effectively debars the tourists from the knowledge of
genuine local cultures. The locals, in any case, have no means by which they can get to know
the authentic culture of the tourists. Fourthly, the intervention of the middlemen at various
levels creates barriers between the tourists and the locals. The lack of knowledge of each
other's language also contributes to this.
he more important thing now is to devise ways to save the local culture from the tourist
Some views
invasion. The resilience which many cultures display saves them from being overwhelmed by
this mixed cross-cultural influences. But those which are more receptive very soon face the
danger of gross distortion. In a country like India with dense population and varied cultures
%
the tourism cannot really solve the problem of unemployment and may instead create severe
pressures at the social and cultural levels thereby increasing tension in many areas. The
policymakers and planners, therefore, must be wary of uncritically and unrestrainedly
extending tourism to all regions of the country. That is the only way by which the economic
benefits can co-exist with cultural conservation.
4.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES.
n
1) See Sub-sec. 4.2.2 & 4.2.3.
3) See Sub-sec 4.2.4
r
1) See Sec. 4.3.
2) See Sec. 4.3.
wegratefully acknowledge our dt bt to the following authors and their articles :
For our discussion on the Spanish town - Davydd J Greenwood, 'Culture by the Pound:
An Anthropological Perspective Jn Tourism as Cultural Commoditization' in Hosts and
Guests : The Anthropology of Tourism, edited by Valene L Smith, University of
Pennsylvania Press, 1989.
For the accounts of the Indonesian tourist resorts the following two articles from the
Valene L Smith's (ed.) aforementioned book have been used: Eric Crystal, 'Tourism in
Toraja (Sulawesi, Indonesia', and Philip Frick McKean, 'Towards a Theoretical Analysis
of Tourism: Economic Dualism and Cultural Involution in Bali'.
For an account of the impact of tourism on a Greek Village: E Wickens, 'Consumption
of the Authentic : The Hedonistic Tourist in Greece' in Khan et.al.(ed.) VNR's
Encyclopaedia on Hospitality and Tourism, New York, 1993.
The discussion of the plight of the Mexican Indians by the colonial policies of the
government and the touristic invasion has been taken from: G Evans, 'Whose Culture
is it anyway ? Tourism in Greater Mexico and the Indigena'; in Khan et:al., ibid.
The impact of tourism on the people of Kovalam in Kerala has been discussed by:
T. G. Jacob, 'From Madrigal to Dirge - The Story of Kovalam' in The Eye, Vol. 11, No.4.
For the other part of the discussion relating to cultural tourism in India in the Sec.4.3,
we have quoted from: A G Krishna Menon, 'The Dilemma of Cultural Tourism in India',
Tbe Eye, Vol. 11, No.4.
Apart from these articles, the Valene L Smith's (edited) book and the relevant issue of the
magazine The Eye can be very fruitfully scanned by those desirous to know more about the
cultural interaction between the tourists and the hosts.
t
i..
SOME USEFUL BOOKS FOR THIS BLOCK
A.L. Basham The Wonder that was India
SAA. Rimi The Wonder that was India, Vol. I1
Tara Chand Influence of Islam on Indian Culture
Y u ~ f Husain Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture
ACTIVITIES FOR THIS BLOCK
1)
Make a list of historical ruins or monuments in your city/locality/regio~i.
Activity 2
u
2)
Visit these places or gather information and write few lines on each. Pay attention to the
following aspects.
i)
Whether they are declared as protected monuments?
ii)
Historical period to which they belong.
iii) State of preservation.
iv) Does they attract tourists?
Activity 3
E l
,i : ' . $ ,,<, 9 , ;
Make a list of ten important literary works written from earliest times to the prcsent availablq
in your mother tongue. t c I , ! , A ) . a *+
Activity 4
0
List major witdlifelbird &cua&e3 ari~b~tio;la~FaPII~'f~ot~ctedfotests in panrre$bh. Also
gather information on rheb,h&poptanc"e as plakes bftofiri~k&tei6st.
ti
Do yat r , h~; ~~ni aB; bn on pr~dnent,SafVBhakti saints in ymr tegion. Write a lrote on
their , contribution - .. to_:ociety.,: i p ,, :r + I , . I
", I ,
f >c i . 3", ; 4t f l ' it 4, 4 *: , 3 , J ; - >,!- ' i. < - * $
UNIT 5 SOCIO HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIW - I
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Indian Society During the Vedic Period
5.2.1 Early Vedic Period
5.2.2 Later Vedic Period
5.3 Post Vedic Society
5.4 Gupta and Post Gupta Period
5.5 Medieval Period
5.6 Let Us Sum Up
In this unit we will discuss the structure of Indian society through the historical times. After
reading this unit you will learn about the:
the structure of Indian society during ancient period
the social structure during the medieval period
the evolution of major social institutions during the above stated periods,
the important phases of social transformation in Indian
society.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In Units 5 & 6 of this Block we have discussed a structure of Indian society in the hiktorical
perspective. Unit 5 focusses on the evolution of Indian society upto medieval period and Unit
7 will cover the subsequent period of history.
In this Unit i.e. Unit 5 you will learn about the social life during the early Rigvedic period of
ancient India and its different phases of change through the later Vedic period. You will see
how the social institutions which emerged during this period were later transformed and
became more rigid due to changes in the economy and the political organization of society.
This took place during the post-Vedic period when social codes were more rigidly defined
through the composition of the Epics and Puranas. The great epics such as the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata composed, during this period contain prescriptions about social,
cultural and political norms of society.
The social rigidity and orthodoxy w5ich developed in society during the period of the Epics
soon led to protest and reform movements in society. It gave rise to religious and cultural
movements such as Budhism and Jainism which revolted both against the Vedic cultism and
the rigid caste hierarchy. They also opposed social and cultural exploitation inherent in these
institutions. The reform movements ushered by Budhism and Jainism were, however, limited
in their spread. Their influence weakened over time and Hinduism once again revived. You
will learn about how this revival of Hinduism was introduced and how it reinforced the rigid
social norms of caste and occupation. It was about this time that Manu is attributed to have
authored Manava Dharmashashtra, the law-code of the Hindu social organization. You
will learn about the major social and economic changes taking place during this period, such
as the rise of mercantile groups, expansion in trade and its links with the growth in handicraft
and urban settlements.
This Unit will also offer you a perspective on how this period of Indian social history
underwent new phases of transformation due to regionalisation of the Indian polity and
disintegration of empires (of the Mauryas during theBudhist period and of the Guptas during
the period of Hindu revivalism). It was during this transitional period that political and
Social Structure
cultural contact with Islam began to take place. Slowly it led to the establishment of kingdoms
of the Muslims e.g. the Turks and the Mughals. You will learn about the nature of impact
that this historical development had upon the social, cultural and economic institutions of
society.
5.2 INDIAN SOCIETY DURING THE VEDIC PERIOD
We will discuss the Vedic society in two sub-sections i.e. the early Vedic and the later Vedic
society.
t 5.2.1 Early Vedic Period
The early Vedic society was largely based on pastoral economy and lineage mode of social
organization. It comprised groups of households linked by descent or kinship bonds. Sets
of different lineages comprised a social community. It represented an interdependent
network of clans. This community being a pastoral economy had to move about. In this sense
it functioned like roaming tribal bands. The key elements of social organization were:
household, lineage, and tribal band. The members of this society were of fair complexion,
skilled in the art of cattle raising and worshiped natural elements, primarily fire. They are
called Aryans. and being a migratory people, they ofteu clashed with the native inhaGtants
where they migrated. The Aryans seem to celebrate predatory power; they were prone to
attack and often decimated their enemies of the native stock whom they characterize as the
dark-complexioned Dasas. They used to capture them through warfare and used them as
slaves.
Many Indologists are of the opinion that the Dasas were descendants from the Harappan
civilization which was urbanized and consisted of urban settlements. The fear of the Aryans
drove these people to take shelter in Vindhyachal areas. The Aryans characterized the Dasas
as dwellers of caves in darkness. The social structure of the early Vedic societywhich resulted '
form this contact got divided between the Aryans and the Dasas. The Aryans during this
time did not seem to have developed internal social stratification or rigid division of labour.
The Aryan society was more egualitarin. The occupations, either of priesthood or that of
warrior or a commoner, could be adopted by choice and were inter-changeable. A priest
could become a warrior and vice versa. But rigid social gradation did appear to have existed
between the Aryans and the Dasas. It was of domineering and exploitative character.
' The Rigveda also has a mention of a people called the Pani who are portrayed as rich
cattle-breeders and traders. These were non-Aryans and are mentioned as having
dark-complexion or proto- Australoid features., They were probably of the Phoenician
(Syrian) origin. They did not observe the Aryan rituals, or sacrifices. They conducted trade
and commerce through exchange. The Aryans used to plunder the Panis and set fire to their
settlements. They used to enslave them and called them also as Dasas. They usurped Panis's
wealth and cattle. Since both Dasas and Panis are reported to have proto-Australoid
features, one could envisage similarities between the two categories of people. It seems that
the interacction between the Pani-Dasa social segment with the Aryans slowly began to give
rise to the elementary features of social stratification. it was based on distinctions of Varna
(colour), which had racial characteristics. The institution we know today as the jati system
had not yet fully emerged.
5.2.2 Later Vedic Period
Significant changes in social structure, cultural rules and division of labour came into
existence during the later-Vedic period. The four-fold division of castes (jatis): the
Brahamana (priest), the Rajanya (rulers) or Kshatriyas, the Vaisya (traders) and Sudra
(peasants) is referred to have originated from the body of the Pumsh (the great Being) in
the Purusasukta of the Rigveda which is of a much later origin. The Purusasukta says: "the
Brahamana was his (purasa's) mouth, the Rajanya was made of his two arms; his thigh
became the Vaisya. From his feet was produced the Sudra". Thus a relative differentiated
social hierarchy seems to have emerged during the later Vedic period which got further
consolidated during the Epic period. Social disabilities of the lower strata, particularly of the
Sudra in regard to the access to sacred texts or their recitation were strictly imposed. The
inter-changebilty of occupations by voluntary choice was restricted to the upper segment of
Soclo-Historical Perspective I
the social strata. The priest also lost his generic role in society, based on voluntarily
charitable roles such as exponent of military strategy, crafts or literaryworks. Their role was
confined to presiding over rituals and sacrifices. The rationalisation of the Varna hierarchy
was achieved through the sacrament of initiation or Yajnopavita (sactred thread) ceremony.
It was allowed only in cases of the first threevarnas. The codification of rigid norms of social
and ritual practices which romed the basis of discrimination by the upper Varnas of the
Sudras took place during the later-Vedic period. The composition of the Grahasutra
(household sacraments) and Dharmasutra was completed. It debarred the Sudra and
members of the lower Varnas from any privileges available to the upper Varnas. The process
of Varna-turning into Jati (caste) taking most out of the Jati feature of exclusion in respect
of social, cultural and economic domains, had thus begun.
Family and Lineage:
The Vedic society had family and lineage as the two basic elements of its social organization.
Most rituals and religious activities of tlie Aryans such as, the household sacraments related
to life cycle (birth, initiation, marriage, death etc), the sacrificial rituals to appease gods for
acquisition of magical powers to meet with challenges of nature, enemies and of rivals etc.
were centred around the household, the lineage or the clan. The Grahyasutra and
Dharmasutras prescribe and illustrate the varied rituals and sacrifices and their normative
principles. The head of the household had a very special role in performance of these rituals
over which he often used to preside.
The term used for family in the Vedas is grha, and the head of the household is called
grhapati. God Agni (fire) had a pre-eminent place in the sacramental rituals of the
household, so much so that some times Agni or the God of fire was called the grhapati, and
the sacred fire in the household was named as grhapatya. Most sacramental rituals in the
family had the god of fire as the main deity and Grahasutra illustrates this relationship.
The structure of the family during the early period was of the nuclear or 'elementary' type
having members not of more than two generations. The family had its network with the
lineage of the clan. During the later Vedic period, however, there is evidence of the existence
of the joint family. This may be indirectly related to the more settled agriculture and pastoral
economy and the changing social composition of the process of production. The authority
system in the family used to be largely partrilineal but without clear evidence of the
supremacy of patriarchy. It implies greater degree of gender equality and participation in
family rituals and processes of production.
Lineage is yet another important social institution of the Vedic times. Lineage is defined as
a corporate group of kins in unilineal relationship having a formal system of authority.
These unilineal descent groups constitute a clan when several of them come together under
a specific institution of authority. The authority can be of a 'chief, a Rajanya for whom also
the term Grhapati has been used. The lineage and clan, therefore, constituted the political
system of the Vedic society. Its constituents were: household, lineage and clan.
Upanisads and Protest Against Brahamanic Ritualism:
It is probably inherent character of society that over-emphasis on ritualism and perpetuation
of command over privileges by a closed group leads sooner or later to protest. The
Upanishads and Aranykas which were composed in-between the periods of the early and
late Vedic society exemplify protest. These texts exhort that cumbersome and expensive
sacrifices do not lead to real knowledge. They challenge the cupremacy of Brahamanas and
the Va m hierarchy. Interestingly, the authorship of the Upanishads is attributed primarily
to the kshatriyas, members of the lower Varnas and women. They are also written in
relatively simpler language and therefore, attained more popularity. Instead of ritualism they
emphasize abstract metaphysical principles and mystical meanings of reality. In some
Upanishads (e.g. Chandogya Upanishad) there are derogatory references about Brahmans
and they are portrayed as greedy self-sewing people.
The Upanisadic protest, however, was not enduring. its influence could not sustain itself and
the ritualistic Veda-ism soon re- asserted itself with the composition of the Sutras
(Grahasutra and Dharmasutra) whose intimate relationship with the household and lineage
ritualisms and sacrifices we have already analyzed.
Social Structure
- - - -
5 3 POST-VEDIC SOCIETY '3
We get historical records of the post-Vedic society from 600 B.C. onwards. It seems that by
this time lineages and clans which in the past were emerging as nascent political institutions
had assumed the forms of either republics or monarchies. The institution of hereditary
kings, who were mostly kshatriyas, was still flexible but the formation of state, as a political
body, had emerged. It soon consolidated itself into the Mauryan empire which ushered in
many si@cant changes in the social structure of society. The changes got further impetus
with the new revolutionary cultural and religious accompaniments of Buddhism and Jainism.
Both these religious movements constitute the core of the social and cultural protest against
orthodox Brahamanical emphasis on rituals ai ~d animal sacrifices. The incipient seeds of
such protest, as you have learnt already existed during the period of the Upanishads. But
both Budhism and Jainism led to a radical departure on the perspective on religion and
society as never existed before.
Exponents of both Budhism (Gautam Budha) and Janism (Mahavir) were kshatriyas. Both
placed great emphasis on nonviolence and universal piety or compassion. Both rejected the
Brahamanical orthodoxy on caste, its social and cultural discriminations and ritualism which
had assumed-expensive and exploitative propbrtions. Unlike Brahamanism both Budhism
and Janism hadatheistic worldview. The origin of these two radical religious and social
movements had its linkages with economic, political and social structural changes in the
post-Vedic society.
Social and Structural changes:
The evidence regarding the post-Vedic society suggests that by this time social structure had
already undergone changes as a result of processes of social assimilation and interaction with
a host of communities, both alien and native. The scale of integration and stratification of
the Aryan and non-Aryan groups into caste and class had very substantially been enlarged.
it was also rendered niore complex and rigid in terms of hierarchy and inequality. In addition
to the four-fold varnas a fifth category of 'untouchables' had now sprung up. The
untouchables were probably aboriginal tribals who lived by hunting and food gathering and
were treated as the lowest stratum of society. It also implies the existence of the notions of
pollution-purity in a rigid form in the caste hierarchy. The notion of Varna which was
relatively an open social system in respect of inter-varna mobility got by this time converted
into caste (jati) as a closed system (membership only by birth).
The complexity of the caste system was also accompanied by differentiation between the
agricultural and industrial mercantile economies. The surplus generated by these economies
were channeled by state into urban centers which had emerged by now. It also contributed
to differentiation among intellectual and cultural elites and groups involved into arts, crafts
and trade etc. It contributed to emergence of cultural elite which could challenge established
Brahamanical-Vedic orthodoxy. Long before the rise of Budhism and Janism which provided
this challenge to orthodoxy many philosophers and thinkers of radical dissent were spreading
their ideas. Charvaka offered an atheistic worldview supporting total materialism.
Budhism and Janism, however, had a systemic impact ideologically as well as socially. In the
fvst instance they rejected Vedic beliefs and rituals. Secondly, their exponents as well as
followers came from non-Brahamanical strata. The kshatriyas, thevaisyas, the shudras and
the untouchables comprised their following and their leadership. It is possible that the
process of economic diversification, urbanization and increased social differentiation formed
the'positiywc'ontributory factors in the growth of these dissent ideologies. The negative
factors were of course social and economic deprivations arising out of rigid caste norms,
ritualistic segregation and exploitation of non-Brahamanical segments of society and
imposition of inequalitarian norms.
Impact of these changes led to the elaboration of the occupational categories and probably
the numbers of castes and classes. We get some insight into this process through Kautilya's
Arthashastra and Megasthenes's (ambassador to Mauryan court) Indika. Megas$enes
refers to seven castes to have existed at this time. These are: philosophers, farmers, soldiers,
herdsmen, artisans, magistrates and counselors. These are of course occupational rather than
caste categories. But these give us insight into the level of social differentiation in society at
this time. Similarly, Arthashashtra also offers a variety of castes and occupational categories.
It also mentions the existence of the institution of slavery whose existence is denied by
Megasthenes. It is possible that some form of bonded relationship existed (which even now
.prevails in some parts of Indian) between master and servant quite akin to slavery. In
Arthashashtra we also get an insight into the development of corporate, administrative,
commercial, military and economic- fiscal institutions. These further reinforce the evidence
about the existence of elaborate urban centres as the hub of economic, administrative, cultural
and political activities. We also have some evidence of urban-rural migration and reciprocal
cultural and economic interaction during this period.
Family, Lineage and Caste:Some Aspects of Change:
With the increased levels of social differentiation between the rural and urban and
agricultural and industrial-mercantile occupations significant changes also took place in the
nature of caste - Varna relationship and also in the social composition of castes. This had
an inevitable impac't upon the traditional lineage-clan related social organizations both in the
rural and urban communities. In the urban centres industrial and mercantile guilds came
into being which were largely caste based. These guilds not only functioned as economic
institutions for production and trade but also as political and cultural pressure groups when
occasion arose. This had also the effect of emergence of strong business castes in cities which
were mostly followers of the Jainism. In an incipient form this period also marks the beginning
of the over-lapping relationship among the categories of caste-class and occupation in India
which continues even to this day.
In the rural areas, where still most of the population residcd, castes had begun to undergo
changes with ncw economic and political implications. Castc lineages and clans had probably
begun to take upon themselves more and more econonlic and political functions rather than
serving as units of ritual and cultural reciprocities. Here the combination of the factors of
ritual-occupational and political functions in the caste organization served the same purpose
in the rural economy as the guilds did in cities. It may be presumed possibly that caste
panchayats, in the process of formation were responding to such domains of requirement.
In this process of change lineages and clans were subsumend in caste organization or a
beginning in this direction had started. It marked a transition from tribal-segmentary mode
of social organisaiton to caste-based organic social organisaiton in which reciprocity of
functional division among castes constituted the foundation of social organisation.
The structure and function of family system did respond to these changes. Corresponding to
the rise in thc economic surplus both in the agrarian and mercantile-industrial economies the
tendency towards maintaining larger households (joint family) received reinforcement. The
land-owning peasants (formerly shudras), mercantile households, urban and rural
aristocracy came in this category. The position of women also changed particularly among
those professing Budhism and Jainiswm where the scope of their cultural and religious
participation was expanded.
Check Your Progress - 1
I
1) Write a short note on Aryans.
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2) "What was the fou; fold division in later vedic society?
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Give a brief account of social impact of Jainism and Budhism
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5.4 GUPTA AND POST GUPTA PERIOD
The period of Indian history which followed the disintegration of the Mauryan empire (200
B.C. A.D.300) brought many changes in society and culture. There was decline in the
influence of Budhism and Jainism. Budhism's preachmgs, however, got a wider reach outside
the country during this period. Within the country both Budhism and Jainism had always had
a concentration in some areas and flourished due to patronage from kings. Its decline took
place due to extreme routinization.of its cults in monastic orders and also because of the
renaissance in Hindu philosophy, epics, code-books and saintly traditions. The weakening
of the empire was marked also by incursion4 from central Asia of a host of invading groups
such as the Kushans, Indo-Greeks and Shakas etc. They established their kingdoms, though
short-lived, and were mostly followers of Budhism. This incursion of out-side groups also led
to prolzeration of new communities which had to be integrated within the caste-fold. It also
contributed to fragmentation of castes into sub-castes. Despite the fluidity of polity the
economy and its social organization through guilds and business houses in cities and the
peasant castes in villages flourished. This brought about ultimately the renaissance in
literature, architecture, art, philosophy, and Hindu thought. It also consolidated social codes
and laws governing Hindu society known as the Smritis.
This renaissance happened during the rule of the Guptas. Th ~s dynasty came to power with
the enthronement of Chandra Gupta I (about A.D.319-20) who ruled over Magadh and
eastern Uttar Pradesh. During this time and part of the period preceding it there was a spurt
of literary, architectural and philosophical contribution. For this reasons historians also
name this period as the classical period of Indian history.
Social and Economic Changes:
The Gupta period led to the consolidation and expansion of social and economic institutions.
Economically, there is evidence to suggest that revenue from land increased substantially,
and their was expanded investment in business, commerce and production of artefacts. The
social organization of-guilds and thei? function was also reinforced. Socially, encoding of
social laws through Manu's Dharmashashtra and consolidation of the positions of both
Brahamana's and Shudras created more rigid caste hierarchy. The notion of d wa
(tuiice-born) comes into vogue about this time although-its nuances did exist in the past. This
increased the caste discriminations and disabilities in society. The Budhist Sangha
(monastries) continued, although their influence shrunk more and more to some regions and
Socio-Hislor~rri Perspective I
urban centres. Also Budhist rituals, despite their frontal opposition to Hinduism began to
incorporate many of the clcments of Brahamanical religion.
Multiplicity of castes and subcastes increased because of continual migration of new
communities, proliferation of occupational categories due to expansion of administration,
intellectual activities, rise in professions and also t he t n social mobility among castes through
conversion and reconversion route between Hinduisrn and Budhism. Jainism also gave rist
to a host of caste and subcaste categorizs duc to occupationdl speciaii~ation of differznt
lineages. Prosperity in agriculture led to incrcase in thc rural division of lahour giving rise to
a number of sub-categories of caste and subcastes.
Yet another distinctive feature of this period is the renaissance in intellectual productions
such as literature, philosophy, art and architecture. Aryabhatta made his basic astronomical
contribution. Varahmihir's astrononlical work Panchsiddhantika (five schools of
astronomy), Kalidasa's famous sanskrit plays Shakuntaianl and Meghaduta and the
enunciation of six philosophical systems c.g.nyaya vaisheshika, sankhya, yoga, rnirnansa and
yedanta took place about this time. The puranas were also composcd and popularised. In
addition, this period marked the distinctive contributions in temple architecture, the
constructionof Budhist Chaitya and stupa (ihiorshipping hall ,tnd its complex) and many other
artistic creations.
In terms of social and cultural changes we witnesb durlng this period a continual interaction
bctween the people of northern and southern kingdoms. Migration of scholars. artists,
trading and banking communities increased to a very signlficdnt Icvel. This was becduse
during this period export of artefacts, agrarian products and textiles necessitated this
interaction. There was significant level of maritime trade, export and import. This also
increased interaction between north, south and western regions. The mercantile
commuilities of Shreshtins (financiers) in north which hacl already emcrged tlurir~g the
Budhist period could be compared with Chettis and Chct t i prs t,f sc;ut!i India. Brhal~lanical
dndvedic. !iterature and philosophicdl interpretations flourished in south Tndia. The southern
klngdoms of Chola, Chalukya and Satvahanas brought about new impetus to economic,
cultural and religious creativity which attracted people from other region.,. Rudhism also
travelled to the lar- east to Java, Sumatra, thailand, Chira ctc. This led to increaqed
interaction withi11 regions in lndia , ~nd also to lands bqond and outsidc India.
Not only contributions to systemiitization of philosophy and religion get impetus but also
ihcrc was resurgence i r ~ Hindu religious movements at the level of folk and peasantry. This
wss particularly so in the pcriod fo!lowing the classical Gu p t ~ era, a time markcd by rise of
regional forces and feudatories in the process of weakening octhe rule of the Cupta7s. Many
religious Hindu sects such as Vaishnavism of Ramanuja, Virashavism or Lingayat movement
founded by Basavraja and several devotional cults sprung up ~!uring the period of the rise crf
t ! ~ southern kingdoms. Vaishnavism reiterated'Rrahamanicit1 system of bcliefs and rituals
hut the Lingayats questioned the authority of theVedas and followcd rituals and bcliefs which
were non- Brahamanical in nature.. About this time Tantrism and magico- religious beliefs
and practices also developed in some parts of India. Towards r.hc end of the C:lassical period
of the Gupta's not only the southern kingdoms gained ascendancy but there was rapid
regionalsation and feudalisation of society and culture. It brought about a greater degree of
pluralimb of social customs, religious practices and political organisations, but also
weakencned the centralized polity which made the transition to the emergence of Muslim
kingdoms possible. This development brought about a new era olsocial and cultural changes
in the Indian society.
5.5 MEDIEVAL PERIOD '
Following the end of thc "Classical" period (C.3W A.D.) man): regionat hiiigdoms led by
different clans came into existence. Chauhans, Yarihars, Chsndellas etc. established their
rule in north dnd western India. There was much inter~scci~e conflict and rivalry among
them. By A.D. 977 Mahnxud of Ghasni (a principaliry 1ocde:d in Northern Afghanistan)
invaded northern India. He was fof!cured later (twelth century) by Muhammad Ghori whose
invasion evectually led to thr: cstablisbme~it % ~ f the r u1c ~f the ': srks and Afgbara. Xt sdds the
beginning of the Sultanate which lastzd upto i\.B.:526, Frc,m ;his period onwards the rule
of the Mughals increasingly settled down l~sheririg ic new rliriensians csf social change.
Changes in the Caste Structure:
Major changes in the caste structure took place during the reign of the Sultans and the
Mughals. Not only were these changes due to an expansion of economic and trade activities
or due to forces of internal differentiation but mainly due to the contact between two major
traditions and worldviews: that of Hinduism and Islam. The former legitimizing caste
hierarchy and cultural and social inequalities by Kith and karma (deeds in past life) and the
latter professing equality of all within Islamic brotherhood or umma (the commbity of the
faithfuls). Despite these differences of ideology or worldview, however, we perceive that the
institution of caste or caste-like social grouping did come into being among the Muslims in
India. This may be explained partly by the adaptive tendencies within Indian Islam to
accomodate the converts to the faith groups already having caste divisions. It may also be a
result of emergence of new social status graduation through the emphasis on exclusiveness
by Muslim aristocracy, literati and upper classes setding down in India from abroad. The
rules of endogamy were strictly practiced 'by these Muslim ruling and aristocratic classes
among themselves to the exclusion of the native Muslims or those having lower social
occupation.
Another institution which added impetus to the emergence of caste-like structure among the
Muslims and which also contributed to the differentiation of caste groups among the Hindus
was new agrarian structures. The institution of feudalism had already started coming into
vogue during the period of the Guptas but had added depth during the period of
regionalisation of the polity during the last days of this empire. During the rule of the Muslim
kings it developed in to the system of land grants to the nobility and assignments implied land
grants to the noblels by king, graded land rights differentiating between the assignee, land
lord of the land and the tenantry, obligation on the part of each to provide services to the king
by pre-determined conventions, such as tributes and taxes, providing soldiers and maintaining
them on behalf of the king and rendering such other services as demanded by the king.
Similarly, the tenants of the feudal lord had obligations towards him by way of offering gifts,
man-power for armed forces, paying rents and observing many customary taboos in life style
to show respect towards the king. This institutionalised a whole set of cultural and social
norms of inequality, with rules of reciprocity in social, economic and cultural domains. The
agrarian system contributed to many changes in the function and structure of castes. It led
to the economic and social consolidation of peasant castes in most part of the country to
protect their interests in relation to their jagirdars. There is evidence of a series of peasant
protests and revolts during the Mughal rule in which the kings had to mediate upon to
maintain social and economic peace.
Changes in Hindu and Muslim Castes:
Many changes took place in the caste system during the Muslim rule (from the Sultanate to
the end of the Mughal rule) which had far reaching implication for the society. Among the
Hindu castes the contact with the Islamic culture introduced not only adaptive new cultural
processes in belief and rituals but also led to changes in the structure of caste. One major.
structural change took place by subdivision among castes due to growth of new role or
occupational categories. It also led to emergence of new castes. The process itself gave
upper caste status to many lower castes because evidence suggests that many shudras among
Hindus and members from low Muslim occupational groups or castes were accorded offices
through land grants. Coming into prominence of the kayasthas with several sub-castes during
this period marks a significant change. Of course, they had a rclatively longer history in the
past (puranas make a mention of them) but they assumed important administrative and
clerical role during the rule of the Muslim kings. Most other Hindu castes underwent
subdivisions leading to horizontal proliferation of castes.
Among the Muslim community caste-like structured emerged through the process of
differentiation of racial or ethnic diyisions, occupational hierarchy and the presence of
converts with pre- existing caste rahking. The original migrants like warrior groups and
literati form central Asia who had distinctive racial features and constituted the ruling elite
made the upper caste rung for the Muslim community. Sayyeds, Shekhs, Pathans coming
from Turko-Afghan, Persian and Mughal origin made the upper hierarchy. It was followed
by a host of middle rank Muslim castes of artisans, weaverrs, cultivators and traders known
by many local names in different regions e.g. julaha, ansar, darzi, saifi, etc. They had middle
rank in the system of graduation. Lowest in hierarchy were those performing menial jobs
such as bhishti (water carriers), bahelia (trappers), bhands (bards) etc. There was also a
category of pirs, faquirs and dervesh etc, which emerged through growth in Muslim shrines
Socio-Historical Perspective I
of sufi saints as a result of interaction of mystical Islam with Hindu devotional traditions. This
Icd to greatcr interaction between the Islamic and Hindu traditions at the grass-root levels
as also to rapid expansion of the influence of Islam over thc Hindu population.
It is interesting to note that most of these changes which took placc in the caste systcm during
the Muslim rule have not undergone much structural alteration evcn to this day cxccpt for
the processes of rapid vertical social mobility among both the Hindu and Mmlim castes in
India.
ElIIl
1)
Give a brief account of social changes during I he Gupt a peri,.j:i.
2)
How the caste structurc was inllucnced during the ru:c of h:11~1:~11 kings?
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5.6 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit a study of Indian society during ancient and medieval period haa been undertaken.
Durine early Vedicperiod there was lineage mode of social organi~ation. During later Vcclic
pcriod significant changes in social structure took place with the coming of four fold division
of castes. Family and lineage played important role in Vedic social organisation.
During post Vedic period the social structure became more complex, rigid and hicrarchical.
During this period the rise of Budhism and Jainism influenced the social organization in many
ways.
The Gupta and post-Gupta periods of Indian history witnessed important changes in social
structure. Th e racial codes also got consolidated during this period.
With the coming of the Muslims Indian society underwent many changes. At the same time
the Muslim society which had never known any caste structure also got influenced. The
Muslims theoretically did not accept the caste structure but in practice the caste like
structures found a place.
Social Structure
In Unit 6 of this Block we will continue our discussion on social structure in colonial and
independent India.
E Z I l
1) See Sub Sec. 5.2.1.
2) See Sub Sec.5.2.2.
3) See Section 5.3.
E
1) See Sec. 5.4.
2) See Sec. 5.5.
UNIT 6 SOCIO-HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE - I1
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Society in India: A Historical Perspective
6.2.1 Colonial Period
6.2.2 Post Colonial Period
Caste and Class in India
6.3.1 Concept of Caste
6.3.2 Caste in Different Communities
6.3.3 Concept of Class
6.3.4 Classes in India
Change and Continuity in India
6.4.1 Impact of Colonial Rule
6.4.2 Rise of the Indian National Mwcment
6.4.3 Independent India and its Social Problems
Let Us Sum UP
Key Words
6.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit we have focussed attention on the socio-historical perspective of Indian society
from the colonial period, to the contemporary period. After studying this Unit you will be
able to:
describe the nature of society during the colonial period, post colonial period and the
contemporary period.
explain the. concept of caste, its structure and functioi~ing among the various religious
communities like Hindus, Muslims and Christians,
explain the concept of caste and class in India, and
outline the main aspects of continuity and change in Indian society.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The main aspects of Indian social structure, such as, castc: and class, social problems and
continuity and change in society have been broadly outlincd in this Unit. The Unit carries
forward the diiscussion we started in Unit 5. Here we will discuss the nature of society that
excited in India when th British arrived. We will take note of the changes experienced during
the colonial period. The social structure in post colonial India will also be discussed. A
diiscussion on the concept of caste and class in India will also be undertaken. TEt: influence
of national movement on social ethos and thinking will also find a place.
6.2 SOCIETY IN INDIA: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Society in India has been historically marked by several conquests and invasions. However,
prior to the British conquest, these conquests and invasions had led to a changc in the political
regimes only. As far as the basic economic structure of India was concerned, these political
changes did not penetrate to the largely agrarian village society.
India had maintained a relatively stable, more or less, stagnant socio-economic existence for
several centuries. Sociologists and social An!hropologists assign this characteristic feature
Social Structure
of Indian society to the se!f-sufficient village system which was based on:
.land possecsscl by the community,
unity of village industry and agriculture,
the vi!lage as the unit of revenue assessment. and
villagc pruthic~ior? almest exc:osivcly for use by the billage comnlunily.
This structure of society according to a leading sociologist A.R. Desai "triumphantly survived,
in its main outlines for centuries all foreign invasions, military convulsions, religious upheavals
and dynastic wars", in pre-British India.
The self-sufficient village sociei; survived successfully the most violent political storms,
religious upheavals, dynastic wars and military holocausts. This stubborn survival of the
economic structure of pre-British society, was according to Desai, due to the fact that none
of the invaders or belligerents represented a new mode of production, higher than the feudal
mode on which the Indian economy was based.
The British conquest of India, therefore, brought about tremendous change in the social,
cconomic, political and ideological framework of society. The colonial impact on the one
hand destroyed the self-sufficient village economy and society, and, on the other hand, it
introduced far reaching novel ideas of Western society like the concept of equality, liberalism,
humanism and rationality. These ideas, absorbed by a class of intellectuals belonging to
largely upper castes led to the rise of reform and revivalistic movements such as of Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati and so on.
6.2.1 Colonial Period
At the advent of the British who arrived in India and established the East India Company,
society in India was in a state of ferment. From the dcath of Aurangzeb in 1706 to 1818-19
when the Maratha power was crushed and the British hegemony was recognised all over the
sub-continent a period of all round decline had set in.
The British Mercantile interests were such that it ruined the indigenous industries and led to
widespread impoverishment of the artisans. The political tyranny of the British became
increasingly oppressive since 1757 after the battle of Plassey. The social and economic decline
continued inspite of several well meaning British administrators who attempted to reform the
system but were held back because of "home interest" on the one Rand and because they relied
on the petty European Officers and Indian agents for the exccution of their policies on the
other.
Also, till 1813, and more correctly till 1833, the East India Company was primarily interested
in its trading activities and the profits derived from the revenue thus accrued from the territory
they controlled. Another feature of Indian society which discouraged or dispirited them from
introducing social rcforms was the fear that they might be misunderstood by the people. The
strong religious basis of Indian society and culture were alien to them and to disturb it was
not in their interest.
However, for their own convenience they introduced the railway system for transport of
goods, personnel, effective communication, etc. British were also responsible for introducing
telegraph and postal system. But some of the leaders of the British Public who surveyed the
dismal scene in India during the 19th century were conscious of their responsibilities and
were concerned about its state of affairs. Therefore, we find that India was "ne of the main
issues of debate in the British Parliament and arguments centrcd around the question of how
to promote the social and cultural welfare of the peopie of India, to which British Parliament
had committed under the pressure of humanists like Edmund Burke and his followers.
During the colonial period, as a measure of economic reform the f zrmanent Settlement of
land revenue was introduced in 1793 by Lord Cornwalis. It was started with the intention of
recognizing the rights of the countrymen and also to create a class of Indian Zamindars, such
as the landed aristocracy of England, who would support the British rule in their turn. Due
to this settlement, the land which in India was never owned by individual proprietors, was not
owned by individual proprictors, was not even ever the property of the King or the Feudatory
became a marketable commodity. This led to various changes in the social structure of the
Socio-Historical Perspective I1
village community. You will learn more about this in the last sections on continuity and change
in India.
6.2.2 Post Colonial Period
The freedom struggle brought about independence in 1947 when the political reign of the
government passed over to Indians by the British Government. Free India continued with
the parliamentary democracy introduced by the British. On 26th January, 1950 India was
declared a Republic and the Constitution of India was formally adopted. The Preamble of
the Constitution which provides its aims and objectives, proclaimed India to be a Sovereign
Democratic Republic. Later on the terms "Socialist Secular" was also added. The constitution
aimed to secure to its citizens -justice, liberty, equality and fraternity.
The post colonial society was marked by an intense period of constructive changes, idealism
and optimism. The Five Year Plans were-adopted to bring about economic development
through a socialistic pattern. Thus, mixed economywas adopted which gave emphasis to both
the private sector as well as the public sector. Private Sector covered areas, such as,
agriculture, some of the industries, etc. where the individual economic initiative counted. The
public sector was controlled by the Indian Government. The largest and best example of
Public Sector in India is the Indian Railways, some of the industries, and later even banks,
came under the public sector. This was done to protect the largely poor, underdeveloped and
backward people of India, who would not have been able to survive without the government
support. Pro-poor efforts were made by giving subsidised food, electricity, education, etc. in
order to maintain the socialistic ideal of India's leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru.
The Zamindari system was abolished after Independence in 1950 in order to remove the
intermediaries from agriculture. The Land Ceiling Act was passed so that effective land
distribution could take place and land could go to the tillers. However, all these land reforms
.I made only a minor dent and people, especially of upper castes and class found ways and
means to control land and thereby power in the rural areas. Community Development
Programmes were also initiated in 1952 to bring about social economic changes in the rural
' areas. Developments in science, technology and research brought tremendous changes in
agriculture. Instead of consumption alone, now farmers started growing crops for the market
i.e. cash crops. This led to the commercialisation of agriculture. During the 1960's and 70's
all these developments led to the "Green Revolution" in areas of Haryana, Punjab, Western
U.?, Maharashtra, etc.
However, contemporary period which we may consider to be from 1980's onwards has seen
a shift from the earlier socialistic pattern with the selective opening of market and
liberalisation. There have been changes in several areas. Modern Mass Communication
technologies like radio, television, satellite television, transport systems, etc. have brought
Indian society close to the global society. Computer and Computer networking, fax and other
electronic advances are changing the very face of not only Indian society but other societies
of the world, as well.
But inspite of phenomenal change in life style, values, behaviour, etc. many of the traditional
structures and values related with them persist. One major structure which emerges time and
again is caste structure. It has changed a lot from its earlier form of being rooted in the concept
of purity and pollution. But its main persistence lies in its relationship with kinship and
marriage.
In the next section we will explain the concept of caste and class in detail.
r
1) What was the most distinctive feature of colonial period as against the pre-colonial
period?
I . Structure
2)
Who introduced the Permanent Settlement of land revenue administration in India and
when?
6 3 CASTE AND CLASS IN INDIA
To understand the rural and urban social structures of India, the understanding of the
concept of caste and class becomes very important. The importance of caste in determining
the nature of human groups and human relationships in India is self evident when we examine
the nature of Indian society. Class in India is to be understood in the historical sense as being
closely related to caste. In the pre-colonial period it overlapped with caste. Due to various
changes introduced by the British caste and class have emerged as "dissonant categories" i.e.
the upper castes may not be upper classes as well.
6.3.1 Concept of Caste
Caste is a system of social stratification which lies at the very root of Indian social structure.
-
By social structure, we mean the persistent pattern of social interaction existing within and
among social groups. These patterns of interaction are guided by the normative system of the
society.
Caste structure is thus a pattern of spcial behaviour in which groups and individuals are
guided by prescribed set of norms, values and sanctions.
The groups and individuals occupy specific statutes within and in relation to other groups. In
this system individuals are born into a certain caste and thereby occupy the associated status
and take up the role in accordance with that caste identity. Thus, caste is a closed ended
social group.
Sociologists have defined caste or 'jati' (as locally referred to) as a 'heriditary' endagarnous
group which is usually localised. It has a traditional association with an occupation and a
particular position in the local hierarchy of castes. Relations between castes are governed,
among other things, by the concepts of pollution and purity and generally maximum
commensality i.e. interdining within the caste". This definition described the ideal form of
caste system. However, in real life there are innumerable variations and permutations in
terms of structure and functioning of caste system.
Being a dynamic reality which is highly flexible, it has shown tremendous variations from one
region to another. In spite of all its variations found in different regions of India and its
persistence in other religious communities, there are some aspects which enable us to identify
it. This continuity element of caste is related to its linkage with:
i)
A 'varna' system or order which is recognised all over India. As per this model, there are
four 'varnas' which literally means colour and which are associated with certain
occupations. These are the Brahmins (priests and scholar), the Kshatriya (ruler and the
soldier, the Vaishya (merchant) and the Shudra (peasant, labourer and servant). All the
various castes and subcastes or jatis which approximately number about 4000 belong to
these four varna. The first three varnas, i.e. Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya are twice
born or 'divine' since the men of these castes are entitled to do the sacred thread at the
Vedic rite of Upanayana. The shudras were not allowed to perform this rite. The other
castes and tribal groups did not fall into this 'varna' category.
%lo-Historical Perspective 11
ii) Caste structure is closely interlinked with kinship system amongst the Hindus in India.
The sole reason for this relationship lies in the endogamous nature of caste system.
Endogamy means marriage within one's own social group or community.
Caste is basically a closed system of stratification, since members are recruited on the
basis of ascribed status. An individual becomes a member of a caste in which he or she
is born and generally marries a person belonging to the same caste. Even if there is social
mobility in the caste system through the process of sanskritisation, urbanisation, etc. it is
only a positional change in the local caste hierarchy rather than a structural change.
Kinship system in India is largely an analysis of the internal structure of the sub-caste or
jati. The sub-caste is the largest segment of caste and it performs nearly all the functions
of caste like endogamy, social control, etc. It is these segments of the main sub-caste
which form the effective functioninggroup within which social interaction, marriage, etc.
take place.
iii) Lastly, caste as mentioned earlier, had traditionally been associated with certain
occupations. These occupations were categorised into 'clean' and 'unclean' occupations
depending on the degree of pollution or purity associated with them. For example, those
castes which were associated with sweeping and scavenging i.e. dealing with dead animals
were considered to be 'unclean' occupations/castes. Those castes associated with
learning and scholarly pursuits especially of Veda, were considered to be 'clean' castes,
such as, the Brahmin. This was because learning, specially of the religious scriptures, was
associated with the concept of purity.
Each caste had its own caste panchayat which took care of the traditional socio-cultural and
territorial boundary of the caste. It had the power of excommuication or punishment like
fine, etc. to keep its members in control. There was also an economic aspect of caste which
linked different castes of a village or surrounding villages to each other. This link was of
economic and social nature where one caste served another in a 'jajmani' relationship or
patron-client relationship.
From a purely Brahmanic or sanskriticview, it appears as if, this system was rigid and closed.
However, when we examine historical data ranging back to the Vedic period we find that in
reality there existed a lot of flexibility in social mobilitywith the gain of economic and political
power. There are a number of examples from 5th century B.C. when many lower caste groups
tried to acquire the status of Kshatriyas through usurpation of political power.
Caste system should best be understood as a dynamic reality having a degree of flexibility in
terms of internal structure and functions which has adopted to the need of changing times.
For example, during colonial and post colonial period we see the emergence of caste
associations, such as, the Kshatriya Mahasabha, the Nadar Mahasangam, etc. which were
totally modern social groups. Although these associations were based on caste and
community, they functioned like model organisations aspiring to gain social, political and
economic benefits for their members.
Caste system was found not only in the Hindu communities but some features of it are present
in other religious communities as well. One major reason for this was that some of these
religious communities have large number of 'converted' Hindus, such as, amongst the
Muslims, the Christians and the Sikhs.
63.2 Caste in Different Communities
Some of the broad features of caste system of stratification have already been explained to
you. Let us now concentrate on the specific communities and features of caste system found
amongst them.
a) Caste amongst the Hindu
A Hindu is born in a jati (caste) and follows hislher dharma in this birth to improve the future
birth. As you learnt earlier, Hindus are divided into four varnas namely, Brahmin, Kshatriya,
Vaishhya and Shudra. These four categories are ranked from higher to lower in the order
mentioned here. The varna system of dividing the members of the Hindu society is an
ideological construct which is mentioned in the Hindu religious scriptures. As mentioned
earlier, each varna is associated with particular occupations and the identity of all Hindus
Soclal Structure
can be placed in terms of one of the four varnas. Most of the basic ideas onvarna system and
its links to the concepts of karma, i.e. deeds done by an individual and dharma i.e. duties of
an individual morally prescribed by religion, are generally present in the thinking of Hindus.
The life of a Hindu is considered to be divisible into four stages called Varnashrama, namely:
i) brahmacharya ashram
ii) grihastha ashram
iii) vanprastha ashram
iv) sanyasa ashram
It is the dharma of a Hindu to pass through these stages in one's life. The male members of
Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya varna are supposed to pass through these four different
ashrams in their life. However, traditionally, the fourth varna, that is the Shudra and women
were barred from the first ashram, that is, the brahmacharya ashram since learning of Vedas
was denied to them. Recently, women have raised objection to this practice. At present most
Hindus do not systematically go through these stages. Like the four varnas, the four stages
of life are models. The ultimate release from the cycle of birth and rebirth comes due to one's
good deeds or karma in life, which is by performing one's dharma or scared duty as members
of a caste, as a family member and so on. The final release or attainment of absolute knowledge
is called 'moksha'. Moksha itself is also part of a scheme of dharma, artha, kama and
moksha. -.
b) Caste amongst the Muslims
Islam is claimed by its believers to be a religion of equality. We find that the Quran
recommends the egalitarian principle but in reality there are social divisions amongst
IndianMuslims. The most popularly known division among the Muslims all over the world is
the division between shias and sunnis. They hold divergent views of and interpretations over
Islamic texts and tradition. In India, a vast majority of Muslims are Sunni. Apart from these
kind of divisions there are also other kinds of social groupings among Muslims in India, which
reflect the influence of Hindu beliefs and practices specially those relating to caste system.
Muslims in India are divided into two major sections (i) those who claim to be the descendants
of early Muslim immigrants and (ii) those of indigenous origin whose ancestors were
converted to Islam. The former section has often been called Ashraf or Shurafa (singular
sharif, Arabic word meaning honourable), while the latter section does not have any specific
name. In Bengal, it was designated as Ashraf (for clean occupational castes) and Anal (for
unclean castes).
1)
Higher Caste (Ashraf) category of Muslim
In the Muslim social hierarchy, the descendants of immigrants from Persia, Afghanistan,
Arabia and Turkistan are recognised as the highest category of Muslims in India. The Indian
Muslim castes, known as Sayyed, Sheikh, Mughal, Pathan comprise this category.
Sayyeds are considered to have descended from Fatima's line. She was the daughter of the
Prophet Muhammed. A direct descendants of the Prophet, Sayyed are accorded highest
social status among the Muslims.
In the second rank of social hierarchy come the Sheikh. They are considered to be the
descendants of early Muslim migrants of Mecca and Madina. The Mughal and Pathan
subdivisions of the Ashraf rank third in the social hierarchy of Muslims. Both are almost equal
in social status. Those who came to India with the Mughal armies and subsequently settled
here, were known as the Mughal. Their main subdivisions, based on different ethnic and tribal
origins are Chagtai, Uzbek, Tajik, Tukmans and Qizilbash.
The Pathans are descendants of those who migrated to Indian from Afghanistan or from the
Pashto speakers of the North Western Frontier Province of Pakistan. Among the Ashraf
groups are also included those pseudo - Ashrafs who claim descent from one of the Ashraf
caste. Ghaus Ansari a leading socialist has given several examples of attempts by some groups
for raising their social status through their claims to Ashraf descent. Ansari has givm a long
list of certain castes, mentioned in the 1931 census report of Uttar Pradesh. These Muslirp
castes have tried to raise their social status by claiming new surnames and also corresponding
higher status.
2)
Muslim Converts of Indian Origin
The Muslim converts of Indian origin are generally known by their caste names. In this group
are placed three distinct groups, namely, converts from high caste of the Hindus, converts
from clean occupational castes and converts from unclean occupational castes, such as,
scavengers and people working with leather (tanners).
In the social hierarchy of the Muslims in India, converts from high castes of the Hindus are
placed below the rank of Ashraf. Many of other Rajput sects (i.e. branches of a family) in
north India have Muslim branches, eg. the Bais, Bhatti, Bisen, Chandel, Bargujar, Chauhan,
Pawar, Rathore, Tomar. Sometimes these groups inter mix with higher ranking groups of
Muslims.
By and large these converts still follow some of the Hindu practices, eg. they do not marry
first cousins, either cross or parallel. Islamic law allows the marriage of near kin whereas
among the Hindus of north India, prohibition regarding marriage exteuds to distant degrees
of kinship relations both on the father's side, as well as mother's.
Unclean are those which occupy the bottom place in the Muslim social hierarchy. They are
the untouchable castes of Hindus who converted to Islam and have retained their low status
and poverty along with their occupation. These people do the menial tasks, including
scavenging and sweeping.
Castes among the Muslims also reflect the essential features of caste system amongst the
Hindus. These cultural characteristics being:
i) endogaiy
ii) occupational specialisation
iii) hierarchical ordering
iv)
restrictions on social intercourse and commensality.
Muslims in India use the term zat (equivalent of caste) to express the purity of descent. Thus,
zat is primarily an endagarpous unit of society. The households belonging to each zat in the
village conceive of themselves as a collectivity and designate themselves as bhaiband or
biradari (literally caste brotherhood). This solidarity among the members is not merely a
fictional notion, but rests on demonstrable kinship linkages.
The biradari resembles caste in the features of its inner structure, eg. membership is
determined by birth and the group boundaries are maintained through endogamy. Among
the Ashrafs, the caste brotherhoods are subdivided again into marriage circles to provide a
restricted circle in which to choose a wife, whereas the Biradari generally functions for all
ceremonial intercourse, the marriage circles within the Biradari is restricted to the choosing
of wives. The Muslim Rajputs are very endogamous but do not marry first cousins as Ashrafs
do. Occupational castes like Qasab (butcher), Manihar (bangle maker) are almost strictly
endogamous and generally do not marry outside their castes.
These various castes have a definite place in their local marriage is restricted within their
own groups. However, there are no restrictions on interdining or concept of purity and
pollution.
c) Castes among the Christians
The Christians in India, believe that when they converted from Hinduism to Christianity, they
were forced to break away from their original caste group. However, their caste status is
maintained by them because they are careful to behave in certain ways which are in keeping
with caste defined behaviour. They maintain the traditional boundaries and distances
between high and low castes, even though this is against the moral law of Christian life.
The Syrian Christians of Kerala believe that their ancestors were Brahmins who were
converted to Christianity by St. Thomas, a follower and friend of Jesus Christ. St Thomas
came to Kerala in 52 A.D. Syrian Christians enjoy high social status and marry amongst their
own community.
Like the Hindus, Christians too have faith in horoscopes, tie the tali or marriage locket and
observe death pollution and follow many of the Hindu customs and traditions.
Socio-Historical Perspective 11
21
Social Structure
Besides the Hindus, Muslims and Christians, other religions too have caste - like elements
in them such as, Sikhism, which is a religion founded by Guru Nanak and believes in the
fundamental equality of all men and women. It is against the caste system which was based
on inequality. However, in practice, we find social divisions between them which are made
evident in terms of marriage with in one's caste.
6.3.3 Concept of Class
Class has been defined as a kind of social group which is neither legally defined nor religiously
sanctioned. It is a stratum of people occupying similar social and economic position. Wealth,
education, income and occupation are some of the bas,ic determinants of class. It is relatively
open, i.e. any one who satisfies the basic criteria can become its member. There are several
classes in a society, hierarchically ranked primarily in terms of wealth and income. The
differences in wealth and income are expressed in terms of different life styles and
consumption patterns.
6.3.4 Classes in India
Social classes are the characteristic features of industrial societies. Class in India, as we see
them today had their genesis during the colonial rule. This is not to say that the class
phenomenon was absent in the pre-British Indian society. The class dimension of Indian
society was only less pronounced than it turned out to be during the British period.
The self-sufficiency of the village community, the building block of the Indian society, was
one of the reasons behind it as mentioned at the beginning of the unit. The village community
produced only what was required for the consumption needs of the village. There was hence,
little surplus and as a result very little differentiation in terms of class among the village
population.
Even when there was a marked class dimension, it was overshadowed by the caste component.
In fact, the only sphere where class dimension showed itself rather more sharply was in the
nature of interaction between the rulers and the ruled. The King and his courtiers represented
a class quite distinct from the subjects over whom they ruled. The courtiers comprised the
Zamindars, Jagirdars and so on. They alongwith the King lived on the revenue collected from
the village community under their jurisdiction.
Besides these classes there were also classes of administrative officers of various ranks,
merchants, artisans and specialists of various kinds.
The colonial rule in India proved to be a turning point in the Indian history. It introduced
new elements which led to some radical changes in the structure of Indian society. Now let
us examine the change and continuity in India which was brought about by the impact of the
colonial rule. The colonial rule led to the changes in the class formation in India; the rise of
National Movement and finally, some of the crucial social problems that India is facing today.
Check Your Progr@ss-2
n
1) Define the concept of caste.
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2) Describe the characteristics of caste amongst the Muslims.
3) Fill in the blanks:
a)
Caste is a closed system of stratification as compared with
b)
The practice of marriage within one's own social group is called
.
c)
One of the major determinants of class is
CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN INDIA
Here we will first discuss the impact of colonial period on the social structure
6.4.1 Impact of Colonial Rule
The emergence of new social classes in India was the consequence of far reaching changes
brought about by the British in the economic structure of India. The first change they brought
about was in the area of agriculture. The British administration revolutionised the existing
land revenue system. It did away with the traditional rights of the village community over the
village land. Instead it created individual ownership rights in land by introducing certain
measures during the 18th century, such as, the permanent settlement, the Ryotwari
settlement and the Mahalwari settlement. With this land became a private property, a
commodity in the market. It could be mortgaged, purchased or sold.
Till the village ownership of land existed, the village was the unit of assessment. The new land
revenue system eliminated the village as the unit. It introduced the system of individual land
assessment and revenue payment. Previously, revenue was fmed at a specific portion of the
year's actual produce. This was replaced by a system of fmed money payment irrespective of
crops. The Mughal system of revenue on crop was replaced with tax on land. The landlord
or cultivator was hence forced to meet this demand. Further, the payment of revenue in cash
gave way to production of cash crops in place of food crops.
A new class of land owners, was created whose interest in the land was confined to collection
of rents. There were several landlords who never stayed in the village but owned land. They
were called absentee landlords. A whole structure of landlords i.e. the Zamindars, tenants,
subtenants and agricultural labourers existed and depended on the land. This structure varied
from region to region depending on the owners, the intermediaries and tillers of the land
during the colonial period.
However, with the expanding railway and transport system production for market became
fairly well established. This commercialisation of agriculture, in turn, stimulated the growth
of trade a d commerce in India.
Trade and Commerce
Trade and commerce were centred around two things - i) supply of raw materials for
industries in Britain and ii) procuring British manufactured goods for consumption in India.
The latter aspect had a disastrous effect on town and village handicrafts. The indigenous
handicraft items could not face the competition from the British manufactured goods which
were machine made and products of their industries. Thus, the indigenous village and town
handicrafts got disintegrated. Artisans lost their livelihoods and some migrated to the cities,
some fell back on agriculture which in turn led to mass impoverisation.
Social Structure
The Expanding of Railways and Roads
The expansion of railways was done with a view to meet the raw material requirements of
industries in Brit.&. The construction of railways and roads also gave scope for investment
of British Capital in India. It led to better mobility of troops for establishment of law and
order. The investment of British capital found an outlet initially in such spheres as plantation
(indigo, tea), cotton, jute and mining industries. This was the beginning of the
industrialisation process in India. By then, there was accumulation of sufficient savings on
the part of Indian traders and merchants. This served as capital and made possible the
creation of industries owned by Indians in some cases.
State and Administrative System
To deal-with all these aspects of Indian social reality, the British government had organised
a huge and extensive state machinery to administer the conquered territory. The Civil
Services, which exists even today was created by the British to deal with the task of Civil
Administration. It initially had British officers but later as the numberof educated Indians
increased, it came to be manned by Indians. It was not possible for the British to secure staff
of educated people from Britain for running such a huge administrative machinery.
Therefore, they introduced Western education in India to primarily serve their own needs.
Thus, schools, colleges and universities were established to impart Western education to the
Indians. As a consequence, the Indian society experienced an uneven growth of social classes.
Uneven Growth of Social Classes in India
Social forces which developed during the colonial period spread both ir. time and tempo
unevenly giving rise to uneven growth of social classes. The reason for uneven impact of
British rule was because their political power spread unevenly. For example, it was in Bengal
that the two classes of Zamindars and tenants came into existence first. Again it was in Bengal
and Bomkiy that the first industrial enterprises started. This led to the emergence of the class
of industrialists and workers in this region. It was for this reason that the British established
. a complex administrative system and introduced modern education first in Bengal and
Bombay.
Alongwith the above developments, the rise of new social classes was also uneven in different
communities as well. This was duetothe fact that certain communities were already engaged
in definite economic, social or educational vocations in pre-British period. For example,
Baniyas were traders by vocation in our traditional social structure. Hence, they were the
first to take up modern commerce, banking and industrial enterprises. Similarly, Brahmins
were the first to take up modern education and enter professional classes. These communities
took up the new challenges and entered these spheres of activity first because they already
possessed the basic disposition towards these occupations. Thus, on the eve of Independence,
we find that Indian social structure was made up of innumerable castes and clqses. In some
cases, these coincided with each other but in some they did not.
6.4.2 Rise of the Indian National Movement
In the 19th century and the early parts of the 20th century, the middle classes began to think
in terms of reforming and modernising Indian society. The reformist attempts contained both
religious and social components. The political movement for freedom began only at the end
of the 19th century. But social reality being inter-related and complex; the rise of the new
educated middle class, the reformist and revivalist movements had a very close connection
with the later political movement for Independence from British rule.
The Reformist Movements
One of the early 19th century reformers was Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) of Bengal
who believed that Indians could become progressive if they shed the supertitious and evil
practices, such as Sati, infanticide, etc. He advanced a new kind of religion which combined
Christian teachings with Vedanta. He founded the Brahmo Samaj which was meant to be a
spiritual forum, where a monotheistic, non idolatrous worship could be conducted by its
members who had nothing to do with caste or superstition. Ram Mohw Roy's influence was
mainly confined to urban literate groups of Bengal.
Soclo-Historical Perspective I1
In the same century, Mahadev Govind Ranade, a jurist of Maharastra, founded the Prarthana
Samai in Bombav. This was broadlv modelled on the Brahmo Samaj of Bengal. The social
reactions raised the two movements were, however, quite different: The Brahmo Samaj by
its insistence on reforms was strongly opposed by orthodox Hindus led by Radha Kant Dev
and others. Here was a confrontation between tradition and modernity. By contrast, the
liberal trends initiated by Prarthana Samaj, did not create a direct conflict between tradition
and modernity. Unlike the members of Brahmo Samaj, its members did not lead a distinctive,
anit-traditionalist life style. So, there was no sharp reaction from the society in Maharashtra.
Apart from these social reform endeavours, there also existed strong movements of protests
by lower caste groups against the upper caste domination. Western and South India were
the strong holds of such protests. People l i e Jyoti Rao Govind Rao, Phule took the initiative
in leading such movements.
The Revivalist Movement
.Revivalist movements began as a measure of self-,assertion, search for identity and revival of
lost honour as perceived by its people.
The Arya Samaj launched by Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883) was based on an appeal
to people to shed the unhealthy features of Hinduism (such as, caste orthodoxy, superstitition,
ritualism, etc.) and go back to the pristine purity of Vedas. It sponsored a kind of education
which had both traditional and modern components. The DAV (Dayanand Anglo Vedic)
Colleges. spread education in north India on a wide scale.
There was another revivalist movement which became populu during the same century. This
was the Ramakrishna Mission founded by Vivekanand after his religious Guru Shri
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. This mission had two purposes.
Fi st to to make educated people in India realise their responsibility to the weaker
sections, and take steps to remove poverty and social backwardness.
Secondly, to propagate Indian Vedanta to the Westerners.
In order to achieve the first, many schools i nd hostels were founded in urban, rural and tribal
areas to improve education and employment prospects of common people. With regard to
the second, Advaita centres were established in many Western countries to bring about
spiritual awakening among the Western people.
Movement for Independence
Towards the end of the 19th century a political movement for the attainment of Independence
arose. TheIndian National Congress was founded in 1885 by A.O. Hume and its main purpose
was to establish a political forum for debates and discussions.
Most members of the Congress were drawn fromurban, literate groups. Its essentially middle
class character persisted from 1885 till 1918. With the coming of M.K. Gandhi on the political
scene, the Congress became a mass political organisation in which primary members were
drawn from urban professional groups, peasants, artisans and industrial workers.
Numerous Congress leaders and followers went to prison undzr the charge of sedition during
the Swadeshi Movement (1905), Non-Cooperation Movement (1920 - 22) Civil Disobedience
Movement (1930 - 34) and Quit India Movement (194). Several people were also executed
for their participation in terrorist activities. However, the distinctive mark of the Indian
struggle for Independence was its non-violent character.
The socio-religious movements indirectly contributed to political movements through
education and reforms. The former type of movement induced self-confidence, while the
-nts were latter type created a political consciousness. Thus, the two type of movem,
complementary developments in Indian Society.
6.43 Independent India and its Social Problems
India acquired Independence on the historic day of 15th August, 1947 and its constitution
was framed on the lines of British Constitution, except that unlike the British, Indian
Constitution is written.
Social Structure
The initial period of self-governance was tumultuons as India was socially, politically and
economically in a distraught condition. India and Pakistan had emerged as two nations.
Partition had taken place; communal riots were rampant. Society was trying to gear towards
a new meaningful existence.
The policy makers of independent India should be credited with initiating the following
measures:
abolition of untouchability through constitutional intervention,
a policy of reservation for depressed castes in the government jobs and legislatures as a
part of the policy of protective discimination, and
ensuring religious freedom and protecting the rights of various minority groups.
All these principles of social justice were guaranteed through the constitution. The efforts
of Dr. B.R. Ambedka.r, Nehru and others were noteworthy in incorporating them into the
constitution.
The kind of social problems that still persist in India, inspite of rapid changes and growth in I
its economy, technology and access to new opportunities are related to:
i)
problem of poverty - both absolute and relative; and
ii) rise in population, despite tremendous economic development.
Poverty and rise of population are inter-related phenomenon and form a vicious circle.
Government has made several attem~ts through Five Year Plans; Welfare Schemes, etc. to
remove poverty. Even today family planning schemes exist, although the focus is now being
placed on the care of mother and child rather than control of population alone. This is being
done, as research has proved a close relation between education and rise of population; and
also there is a direct relationship between infant mortality and rise of population. Thus,
education of women, care of mother and child is viewed as a way of controlling population.
There are some new problems also arising today as a result of rapid urbanisation and
industrialisation. These are the growth of slums in cities, rise of unemployment, crime inurban
areas, delinquency, dowry deaths, etc.
Thus, we see that society in India has changed in many respects yet the traditional roots of
caste and ethnic identities, social and political culture continue.
n
1) In what way are the castes and classes in India related with each other. Discuss in about
10 lines.
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2)
Who founded the Brahmo Samaj and what were its basic ideas?
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3) Match the following:
-4. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
1. Indian National Congress
B. Mahadev Govind Ranade 2. Brahmo Samaj
C. A.O. Hume
3. Arya Samai
D. Dayanand Saraswati 4. Prarthana Samaj
6.5 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit you fust learnt about the society in India from a historical perspective. You learnt
about the difference between the pre-colonial India and colonial India and learnt how prior
to the British the village autonomy was not disturbed inspite of different conquests,
socio-religious unheavals, etc. In the post- colonial period with the emergence of the middle
class, the new aspirations and opportunities for social mobility developed.
In the Section on caste and class in India we described thc concept of caste; its various features
its existence i a different religious con~munities in India. We also defined the concept of
class and described the nature of classes in India.
Finally, i? the Section on change and continuity in India, the impact of the British on Indian
society has been outlined. %' e have described the rise of National Movement in India along
with socio religious and political movements. The social problems related with poverty, rise
of population aspirations of its people have been touched upon in this Unit.
KEY WORIIS
Endogamy : It is the custom of marrying within :)nc's ow3 social group, such as
the caste group.
Permutations : 'The numbcr of ways in which a social group, like a caste group can
be arranged.
Purity and Pollution : It is an abstract notion which considers certain activities,objects
and occupations rltually purc or poliuting in the caste society. For
example, vegetarianism is cons:dered iitudlp purer than non-
vegetarianism. Both these concepts are relative to each other.
: The castes belonghg to the first t hr~r: Varna i.e., Brahmins.
Kqhatriya and Vaishya, whose malt memiws undcrgo {be thread
ccremony callcd the "Upanayana Sarnskara." They are called
"twice-born" or "dwija" because mcmbxs of these castes are con-
*,idzred to be blessed with both ph? jic;?; a\ well as spirit~:;tl birth.
Social Stratification : It is the process of differed21 ranking 8trere a socicty is divided
in segments a116 these segments are hicrarchially ranked.
Protective : It refcrs to the policy of the stat-, to saf(::~uard and promote :he
Discrimination intc:ec! oft!,!: ilackward classcs cifpopulath~rm by giving j;rotection
to them. This is expressed ;n stilk policy of rcserva1io:i of scats,
jobs in ~duca: ~on, services dnd Icr!i:ii.i~urt !'t.,r the schccinled castes,
!rii-w*c, and backward cl ass~s. T hi: t erns "affirmative action,"
"rc\.:r;e discrimination" ;rnd "c:omr?en . : .il;ry discriminalion" are
alsci uscd.
Social Mobility : TJ Y process of shifting of s:&l :r,t,it;l ,I by i~dividuals or social
ml I in the sccial llierarchy :s ral'. : .;;-ial mobility. It could be
bo:a upwdrtl :,I doivnwar d anit ,:I- . -LL r'ical o r hor17or:tal i.e. in
-- .L: i t is more from a %oc:a! po5itic tn nnolhel which has equai
! ' i ; l j k. .
27
r
1) The most distinctive feature of colonial period as against the pre-colonial period was that
for once the self- sufficiency of the village unit was disturbed. Due to the introduction of
a new kind of land revenue collection system, the British turned land into a commodity
which could be bought, mortgaged or sold in the market. Also see Sub-sec. 6.2.1.
2) Lord Cornwalis introduced the Permanent settlement in the region of Bengal, United
Provinces and some other regions in 1'793.
n
1) Caste is a system of social stratification which is close ended where membership is
restricted to those born in that social group. It is hereditary, endogamous group which
is usually localised and has a traditional association with an occupation. Also see Sub-sec.
6.3.1.
2) The various castes, both of the immigrants called Ashrafs and clean and unclean castes
of Indian converts reflect the main characteristic of caste. These caste groups are ordered
hierarchially, endogamous, maximum social intercourse takes place within the social
group. Also see Sub-sec. 6.3.2.
3) a. class
b. eodogamy
c wealth and income
1) In the pre-colonial period the upper castes were generally speaking also the upper classes
in terms of wealth, income, power and status. After the arrival of British and the impact
of their rule this overlap of caste and classes in India became comparatively less.
Education, income, status became disassociated from caste position. But still, it has been
found that those castes which had a traditional inclination towards an occupation, such
as, learning and professions of Brahmins entered it first. Also see Section 6.4
2) Brahmo Samaj was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1722-1833) and it tried to combine
Christian teachings with Vedanta. It was against supertitious worship of idols and
believed in one God. It tried to abolish sati (practice of burning the widow along with
her husbands corpse), infanticide, etc.
3) A. 2
B. 4
C. 1
D. 3
UNIT 7 CUSTOMS, RITUALS AND CULTS ,.
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Customs and Rituals
7.2.1 Role and Functions of Rituals,
Customs and Cerempnies
7.2.2 Types of Rituals and Customs
7.2.3 Customs and Rituals Related to Life Cycle
7.2.4 * Other Customs and Rituals
7.3 Cults
7.4 Sects
7A:l Hindu Sects
7.4.2 Muslim Sects
7.4.3 Sikh Sects
7.4.4 Budhist Sects
7.4.5 Jain Sects
7.4.6 Christian Sects
7.5 Let Us Sum UP
7.6 Answers to ~h k c k Your Progress Exercises
A Traditions1 Pqja st Tdacauvery, Kerala
In this Unit we will discuss some important aspects of Indian society: Customs, rituals, cults
and sects in India. After going through this unit you would know about:
* .,
significance of rituals and customs in Indian society
the main rituals and customs followed among the various religious groups and
communities in India
important cults and sects in!ndia
7.1 . INTRODUCTION )
In Units 5 and 6 of this Block on society we discussed the structure of Indian society.
Continying our discussion in this Unit we will discuss some other features of Indian society.
Here we have included social and religious customs, rituals, cults and sects.
To begin with we will try to define customs and rituals. Following this we will throw some
light on the nature of rituals and customs. Next we will familiarize you with some rituals and
customs practiced in diverse religious groups and communities in India.
- From'earliest times there have emerged a number of cults and sects in India. We will throw
light on some of the important cults and sects. Many ofthese cults and sects have had religious
and social basis. These cults and sects are spread in different regions and religions. We will
discuss their origins and growth. It would not be possible for us to include all the sects and
cults. We will therefore confine our discussion to a few important ones. Let us begin with
customs and rituals.
.
7.2 CUSTOMS AND RITUALS 2
Customs and rituals are important components of all religious beliefs. Sociologists and
Anthropologists have defined them from various viewpoints. In this unit we would not go
into the detailed technicalitiee or complexities of defining, rituals. We would confme
ourselves to a functional definition for the present discussion. There are a number of social
and religious practices we sbaerve every day. Are they customs or traditions or rituals? Lct
Social Slmclure
us take a few examples.
In many communities people are supposed to touch the feet of elders or teachers as a
social norm.
Married women put vermilion in the parting of hair.
Many people when meet each other shake hands.
The head of a new born is shaved in many communities.
In many Hindu communities at the time of marriage the bride and bridegroom are
supposed to circumambulate the fire 3,4, or 7 times.
What do the above acts signify? Are they customs or religious practices or rituals or a mix
of these? Do they .have any rational basis? Are there some expected specific results of these
actions?
You would notice that many of the above listed acts are accepted as traditions and customs.
b
Shaking hands or touching the feet are most of the times instinctive actions. The custom of
shaving the head may be a religious practice. But it does not stop only at shaving the head.
It is to be done in a prescribed manner which varies from cominunhy to commuility. Similarly
'
putting vermilion may be a symbol of signifying the marital status but doing it in a specified
manner signifies more than a custom. When we come to the aspect of shaving the head or
putting the vermilion in a specified manner we enLer into the realm of ritual practice. Similarly
circumambulating the fire at the time of marriage involves more details like whether it would
be clockwise or anti clockwise? Bride is to be in front or bridegroom is lo be ahead of bride?
You would notice that in the above examples socio-religious practices or customs or rituals
have very little differentiation. Many a time it is the learned observer who defines them. Many
a time they are used interchangeably. Now coming back to the definitioz, Edmund Leach, a
renowned anthropologist suggests that the words rite (ritual), ceremony and custom "are
used interchangeably to denote any non-instinctive predictable ~ct i on or series of actions that
cannot be justified by a 'rational' means- to-ends type of explanation. In this sense the English
custom of shaking hands is a ritual, but the act of planting potaLoes with a view to harvest is
not. The other trend of usage has been to distinguish the three categories: ritual, ceremony
and custom" (Encyclopedia of Social Sciences vol. 13, pp520-21). Taking the example from
India Leach says that, "a high caste Hindu is required by his religion to engage in elaborate
washing procedures to ensure his personal purity and cleanliness', the rationality or otherwise
of such actions is a matter of cultural viewpoint". Here according to Leach the experts who
distinguish between ritual cleanliress and actual cleanliness are separating two aspects of a
single state rather than two separate states.
Some experts define rituals as "stylized repetitive behaviour that is explicitly religious" and
ceremony as "merely social even in explicit meaning".
7.2.1 Role and Functions of Rituals, Customs and Ceremonies
In India rituals and custolns are closely knit in social and religious life of people. Have you
ever thought why people follow or perform all these seemingly complex rituals and customs?
Do they serve an!. useful purpose Som the point of utility in day-to-day life? You might have
noticed that at times some priest or religious guru asks the followers to perform these rituals
for some reason or the other. Often people perform them on their own withgreat enthusiasm.
Let us pay some attention to the role and functions of these rituals and customs. There are
a whole range of functions. Here we will discuss a few functions considered important k-
sociologists.
i)
Socialization: Rituals, ceremonies, etc. act as a socializing force. They bring the
individuals within the defined societv and integrates them.
ii) Social Control: They act as instrun,,nts of sosial conlrol. They are linked with worldly
rewards and punishmc.nts. The piiest often conti,ls society by askine followers to
perform t5ese for some reason or the other. Many a ,ime members of a particular
commrnity or caste are asked to perffirm these to correct thc wrongs (sins) committed
or else face exc~mn~un~~at i on. In such a situation they becom ,.capon of social control.
Customs, Ri'uals and Cults
iif) Merit and Status: At times they are performed with a view to get social prestige and
status. Like performing some sacrifice or conducting yagna etc.
iv)
Identification: Certain rituals are performed to have a specific identity.
Putting
vermilion by married women or circumcision among Muslims or piercing of earlobes in
some communities are a few examples.
v)
Spiritual Advancement: Performance of customs and rituals is closely linked with
people's desire to achieve spiritual satisfaction and advancement. Prayers, pdgrimage,
fasting, sacrifices and various forms of worship are followed for this purpose. It applies
to all the religions and communities.
vi) Systems of Healing or Therapy: One of the most widespread functions of ceremonies
and rituals have been to use these for healing purposes. This takes various forms in
different religions, social groups and tribes.
The above list is not exhaustive and merely suggestive. Our purpose here is neither to provide
a justification or reject the rituals and customs. We wish to give you only a perspective from
the sociologists' or anthropologists' observations. One may argue that many of these are
irrational illogical and pushes one into superstitions. As suggested by Leach, if "Non
-rationality is made a criterion of ritual, it must be remembered that the judge of what is
rational is the observer and not the actor".
The continuance of rituals and their performance have an economic basis also. There are a
host of priests & ritual experts in all commurities who follow performance of these rituals as
their occupation. Similarly, for the performers or individuals following these they have
become the very essence of religion and a way of life. One important thing to note here is
that customs, rituals and ceremonies are not confined to the realm of religion only. There
are a number of customs or rituals which are part of social and secular life.
7.2.2 Qpes of Rituals and Customs
The rituals and customs can be classified into various categories depending on the criterion
we adopt. One way of classifylng can be to link them with the functions they are supposed to
perform. Another way of classifylng may be according to its nature like religious, social, etc.
Yet another system of classification can be on the lines of community or religion. We do not
intend to enter into technical details of sociological or anthropological studies. Here we
would like to give you a broad idea of diverse customs and rituals practiced by people of
different faiths and communities in India. Instead of listing them religion-wise we would
discuss them in terms of day-to-day life, and special occasions and festivals across the
communities and religious groups. In almost all religious groups most of the customs and
rituals take place in the following stages of life cycle:
i) birth
ii) initiation into reliiious fold
iii) marriage
iv) death
Other occasions are related to succzss in economic ventures,well being, initiating a work,
warding off illness, pilgrimages and festivals.
We will discuss these in two parts:
i)
Rituals & Customs related to life cycle
ii) Other Customs and Rituals
We will not be providing you all the details of each ritual because there are great variations
within religious groups, their communities, castes and even families. We will leave these
details for you to find out with your observation.
Social Structare
7.23 Customs and Rituals Related to Lifecycle
Almost all the communities or religious groups in India have some customs or rituals assigned
to various stages of lifecycle. We will not go into the details of each of these and would provide
a brief account of some of these.
Birth and Childhood
Rituals related to birth start as soon as a women conceives a child. In fact there are a number
of them which are observed if conception does not take place for some time. The preference
for the male child is widespread. There are a number of rituals to edsure the birth of a male
child. There are a number of restrictions on the pregnant women for the items of food to be
taken. There are restriction on her movements also.
In some communities women are
supposed to give birth to first child in her parents house.
When a child is born the mother is considered polluted. In a survey conducted in around .
4600 communities it was found that 4189 communities observe post delivery pollution. A
ritual bath is required for cleanliness. This is to take place in some cases on the 10th or 30th
or 40th day of the birth. The child after birth is given a bath and some familiarity with the
faith is introduced. Among Muslims the azan (call for prayer) is read into child's ear.
Similarly in Syrian Christians the message 'Jesus Christ is Lord' is whispered in child's ear.
Among some Hindu communities also some scriptures is read to the child. Among Sikhs
also mother is supposed to take the child to Gurudwara as soon as she recovers after delivery.
Here the path (reading) of Guru Granth Saheb is done.
The most widespread ritual practice among Hindus and Muslims is to shave off the head of
the new born child. It is called mundan (tonsuring) ceremony. Generally it is done under
the supervision of a priest. Among Muslims male goats are sacrificed on this occasion (two
for male child and one for female). Other important childhood ceremony is namkarana
(naming the child). Around 3426 communites are reported to have this practice. In most of
the cases help of priests and holy scriptures is taken for naming the child. First eating of
cereals (annaprashan) by the child is also an occasion which is celebrated widely.
Initiation
A new born child is supposed to undergo some rituals and ceremonies before hetshe is
initiated and adopted into religious or social fold of the community. In most cases such
customs are rituals related to religious rites. One important aspect of initiation is that they
particularly concentrate on male child. Among high caste Hindus the thread ceremony
(wearing of the sacred thread) for boys takes place during childhood (if not in childhood it
, must take place before marriage). Among Muslims the male child is to undergo circumcision
(cutting off of a small foreskin of the male sexual organ). Among devout Sikhs child is given
amrit (prepared with sugar crystals and water) to taste with elaborate rituals. Among
Christians also the baptism in Church takes place.
Initialing a child into learning also constitutes an important ceremony and ritual in large
number of communites. In most of the cases this is done by first making the child read the
holy scriptures.
In a number of communites puberty rites for girls, piercing of ears and nose (for both male
and female child) are widely prevalent customs.
Marriage
Marriage in most of communities is a religious and social affair. Elaborate customs and
rituals are associated with it. Beginning with the selection of bride or groom, furing the date
for marriage and performance of marriage all have detailed procedures and rituals. In some
communites there are even laid down rules for corisummating the marriage. In India the
involvement of a priest is almost universal (option of civil marriage in a court is of course
available). In many communities the marriage takes place in the place of worship. This also
shows the religious sanction. This is most common among Christians, Sikhs, and many other
communities.
Among Hindus the rituals are most elaborate. Giving of dowry by the bride's family is
customary in a large number of communites in India. However, in some communities the
Customs, Rituals and Culls
bride's family charges a price from the bridegroom. It is popularly believed that in lndia
divorce, widow marriage and remarriage of female divorcee are taboos.
A recent survey conducted among 4600 communites shatters this myth. *~ccor di n~ to this
survey divorce is permitted in 3794 communites, widow marriage in 3771 communities and
remarriage of a divorcee female in 3474 communites. Polygamy and polyandry are also
prevalent among many communities.
In many cases there are specified symbols for married status of a woman. The above referred
survey had identified forty one such symbols. Of these, wearing vermilion is most common
followed by toe-ring, bangles; talilmangalsutra, bindi, nose stud etc.
Death and After
The rituals and ceremonies associated with death in most cases depend on the philosophy
of life and death in different communities. Hindus believe that after death a person is reborn
(in other human or animal form). Muslims, Christians and many others do not believe in
rebirth. In almost all the communities it is assumed that at death only the body dies and the
soul survives. The concept of life after death is also quite prevalent. Death is also a sad and
fearful thing which is to be avoided. Most of rituals and ceremonies associated with death
are performed with a view to give peace to the departed soul, a happy life after death
(reaching the heaven) and ward off the fear of death.
Observance of pollution on death is almost a universal concept in India. Cleaning and
purifying the dead body through elaborate rituals under the supervision of priests is most
widespread. Prayer for the peace of the soul of the dead person is also universal. This is
always done by a priest or a person well versed in religious practices. Among Hindus a
Brahmin performs the prayers. Among Muslims the prayer is called namaz-i janaza (prayer
for the dead body). Among the Sikhs the birth of Guru Granth Saheb takes place. There
is avariation in the methods of disposing the dead body. Cremation and burial with detailed
rituals are the most common modes. Many communities follow both with detailed laid down
religious rules. In large number of Hindu communities the ashes collected after cremations
are immersed in the Ganges or other rivers. Among few communites the dead bodies are
exposed (Parsees place their dead bodies in the tower of silence where flesh is eaten by
vultures and the bones are disposed off separately) In many communites food is not cooked
in the home on the day of the death or for a few days.
In different communities the rituals continue even after the cremation and burial. Special
prayers are organized on the 3rd, loth, 13th, 40th day or sucli other days and -after a year. In
many cases the prayers for the departed soul are organized every year.
72.4 Other Customs and Rituals
As already stated besides the life cyclic rituals a number of rituals and customs take place in
day-toaday life. We are not analyzing specific rituals and would provide a brief comments
categorywise.
One of the occasions for rituals is at the time of initiating any activity like sowing or harvesting
of crops, starting construction, starting any business venture, etc. Entering a new house for
living (grahapravesh) is also very common. Auspicious dates are chosen and prayers
accompanied with some rituals are performed.
Most y-idespread rituals are for warding off illness and for general well being. These are
more common in tribal society where modern medicines are not easily available. Most of the
people in general follow modern medical treatments but alongwith these the special prayers
and rituals are organized. These rituals are performed by special category of people and
include priests, ojhas (shamans), sorcerers, tantriks etc. Another common practice on such
occasions is ritual recital of holy scriptures and verses on rosaries or \organizing congregation.
Ritual animal sacrifice is also common practice in some communities.
Pilgrimages are occasions for indulging in rituals. Almost all cornmunites in India have their
pilgrimage centres spread in the country or outside. People visit them round the year or on
special days fmed for the purpose. .4&ng Hindus bathing in sacred rivers at specific s e t s
is a common practice. At these places priests supervise the observance of rituals. ~ains, ~ikhs,
, Christians and others also have their pilgrimage centres. Muslimsgo to Mecca for performing
Social Structure
Haj every year. Here, shaving of head, wearing non - stitched cloths, circumambulating the
Kaaba (in Mecca) are some of specific rituals.
Festivals also have their specific rituals. Fasting, specific prayers to specific gods and
goddesses, immersion of idols in rivers, animal sacrifices, ritual mourning and other such
activities are main ritualistic components of different festivals cutting across religious groups
and communities.
m
1) Briefly comment on the following roles of rituals and customs:
i) Social Control
- I
1
ii) Identification
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) What are the main customs and rituals performed at the time of birth among Hind&.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) Discuss some rituals related to marriage in India.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Customs, Rituals and Colts
7.3 CULTS
A cult is often individual based and loosely organised group which is transient in nature. It
often possesses a highly fluctuating membership. Many of its members can also be parts of
other religious groups.
The cult is often a voluntary organisation with low level of discipline. Its membership is
generally open to all. It, however, possesses a doctrine and a set of well-defined rituals in
which all members are required to participate. In cases of secretive cults, the membership is
extremely restrictive. The cults generally find a fertile ground in the urban centres where
the uprooted people from diverse cultural backgrounds find the pace of life too dacult to
adjust. The rural areas also throw up various kinds of cultic movements centred around
individuals or mythical or legendary personalities. Here we are going to discuss two ~ i g ~ c a n t
. Indians cults of modern times.
Satya Sai Baba
This cult revolves around the personality of Satya Sai Baba. He was born in Andhra Pradesh
and considers himself (and is considered by his followers) as the reincarnation of Sai Baba
of Shirdi in Maharashtra. He is also considered an Avatar who combines Shiva and Shakti in
one soul. This assertion of divine status is made by himself boldly and repeatedly.
His teachings include non-violence, abstinence from alcohol and smoking and non-vegetarian
food. He talks of unity of all religious communities. He considers the modern ideas and
culture as inimical to India and focusses on the importance of Indian folk traditions. Social
services of various kinds such as feeding the poor, assisting authorities in the relief work,
expansion of edu'cation, child development etc. are undertaken by this cult.
Satya Sai Baba has a lot of followers and devotees and uses his charisma repeatedly to attract
men and women from all over the country. His followers come from both the urban and rurd
areas and include both Hindus and Muslims. It is largely believed by his followers as well as
many others that his charisma and the miracles performed by him are divine attributes.
International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON)
Popularly known as Hare Krishna cult, this movement is more famous internationally,
particularly in the English-speaking countries l i e United States, Canada and United
Kingdom. This society was founded by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. He went to
USA in 1%5 to spread his devotional message. He attracted many followers in New York,
Los Angeles, Berkeley, Boston and Montreal. Various centres of ISKCON were established
in these places with its headquarters at Los Angeles. By now it has established many branches
in various parts of the world.
The followers of this cult wear saffron dresses and the men also shave their heads. Chanting
of the name of Lord Krishna is an essential ritual and public chanting5 of Hare Krishna, Hare
Krishna are performed by the followers of this cult. They basically believe in devotional form
of worship and seek salvation through it.
7.4 SECTS .
The term sect is used in the sociology of religions to designate a particular kind of a religious
group. It can be distinguished from religion in the sense that it is formed within a religion and
operates as a protest group. A sect is a voluntary society of strict believers who live apart from
the world in some ways. Whereas the membership to a religion is on the basis of birth or
baptism, membership of a sect is a voluntary act.
Sects were formed, within particular religious traditions, as a product of the specificity of
attitudes towards four major aspects of human civilization. These are:
family life,
economic activity, "
politics and power, and
intellectual endeavours
Social Structure
Different attitudes or positions on any or all of them often lead to the formation of a sect. All
the sects represented at the initial stage at least, a defiance of the religious tradition, within
which they were located. This defiance or protest was expressed mainly in two ways:
1)
in a militant and active oppositionist manner, and
2) in a passive and withdrawn manner.
Within the Islamic tradition the rise of Wahabis represented an active oppositionist sect
whereas the Bahais were more of a passive and withdrawing kind.
An important characteristic of sects has been their not too infrequent transformation to the
status of formal religions. Although starting as an expression of protest against the world,
many sects adjusted and got accommodated into the world. This often happened as a result
of birth of children in sects (as against voluntary membership at the beginning), better
adjustment to conditions of life, increasing prosperity and the passage of time. All of them,.
put together, created conditions of compatibilitybetween the sects and the world and initiated
the process of the sects converting into religious orders.
Sects were originally conceived as cohesive social groups and their cohesion was maintained
by a series of measures and rituals which differentiated one sect from the other, l i e
endogamy, restricted participation in social events and certain military s e ~ c e s also. Apart
from this, peculiar habits of eating and abstinence and peculiarities of dress also helped to
set a sect apart from the other.
To sum up, sects were essentially protest groups located within particular religious traditions.
They stood for a defiance of the world. This defiance was expressed in militant and passive
manner. Sects were based on a voluntary membership of people brought together by a
similarity of ideas. If the sects rurvived beyond the founding generation, they often tended to
get transformed into religions, though all the sects did not necessarily become religions.
'
Having learnt about sects in general, it is now time for you to get some information about
some of the sects within the main Indian religions.
India has a large number of sects and cults and subsects. These have originated from
different religions. It would be difficult for us to give details of all these sects and subsects.
'I
Here we will confine our discussion to a few sects and cults of prominent religious groups of
India viz. Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Jainism, Buddhism and Christianity.
I
7.4.1 Hindu Sects
The biggest number of sects and subsects can be traced to Hinduism. Among Hindus Siva,
'
Vishnu and the Mother Goddess (worshipped as Durga, Kali and many other names) are the
most important deities. Origin of most of the cults, sects and subsects can be traced to these
three. 4
Of these the cults of Siva and Parvati can be traced to the earliest period of Indian History,
while the cults of Krishna are comparatively later development.
Vaishnava Sects
The list of Vaishnava sects is long. These sects worship Vishnu, as Krishna or as Rama. The
important sects and subsects are:
i)
Sri Sampradaya (followers of Ramanuja)
ii) Ramanandis
iii) Kabir Panthis
iv) Dadu Panthis
v) Maluk Dasis
vi) Raya Dasis
vii) Vallabhacharya Sampradaya
viii) Mira Bais
ix) Madhavacharis
x) Chaitanya sect
) Charan Dasis
xii) Sadhna Panthis
xiii) Radha Vallabhis etc.
Cusloms, Rituals and Cults
The list is very long. Here we have given a few names only. We will givc.brief comments'on
few of these.
Sri Sampradaya: The sect was founded by Ramanuja a great scholar of Indian philosophy
from South India. The sect is popular in South India. The followers have a strictly regulated
life and rules for eating. They wear distinguishing marks on the forehead.
Ramanandis: Founder of this sect was Ramananda. The followers of this sect are spread
mainly in the Gangetic plain of North India. The main emphasis of the sect is on deviation
to Rarna the incarnation of.Vishnu. Men of all caste were taken into the sect. Ramanand
had a number of disciples many of whom came from lower castes. A number of subsects
were developed by the disciples of Ramanand. Kabir and Dadu were twomost important
whose sects are Kabir panth and Dadu Panth.
Sects of Vallabhacharya and Chaitanya
These two sects were most popular in Western India (Vallabhacha~ya) and Eastern India
(Chaitanya). Vallabhacharya sect was founded by Vallabha a Telugu Brahmin. He taught
his disciples not to turn their backs to worldly pleasures. He opposed fasts and self
mortification. Their gurus also lead a comfortable life. The followers of Chaitanya were to
lead a simple and humble life. They believed in singing'devotional songs and dancing as a
way of worship.
4
Shaiva Sects
1)Dashnami Sampradaya: In the eighth century Shankracharya gave a new turn to
Shaivism. He established a very important cult called Dashnami Sampradaya. Dashnamis
are also known as Vedic Saivas. Before the establishment of Dashnami order, Tantrik
Shaivas such as Kanphatas, Aghoris, Kalamukhis and Kapaliks dominated the Shaiva cult.
Shankaracharya organized the Dashnami okder which includes the following ten categories
of Sanyasis: 1) Giri 2) Puri 3)Bharti 4)Vana 5)Parvati 6) Aranya 7) Sagara 8) Tirtha 9)
Ashram 10) Saraswati.
Shankaracharya established four seg monastic centres namely, Jyotir Peeth, Shringeri Peeth,
Govardhan Peeth and Dwarka or Sharda Peeth in North, South, East and West respectively.
For the smooth functioning of the Mathas, area, direction, sampradaya, Dashnami order,
dcities to be worshipped, pilgrimage, Veda, Mahasakya (great saying), Gotra and jurisdiction
of each monastic centre was fixed.
Dashnami sanyasis are divided into two broad sections namely Dandadharis (staff holders)
and pammhansas (holding no staff). Out of the ten subsects of Dashnami order, Sanyasis
of only three that is, Tirtha, Ashram and Saraswati are allowed to hold staff and the rest called
Paramhansas are not allowed to do so.
Dashnami ascetics are graded according to their spiritual attainment into four categories as
follows:
i)
Kutichaka: He is an ascetic who has renounced the world and lives in a hut engaged in
contemplation and worship. He subsists on alms given to him by others.'
ii) Bahudeeka: Such ascetics collect alms in kind but never in cash.
iii) Hansa: Such ascetics are well versed in vedanta and pursue the aim of attaining full
knowledge of the supreme being.
iv) Paramhansa: Such ascetics represent the stage of heights spiritual evolutions.
Dashnami Sanyasis are further divided into two sections namely, Astradharis (weapon
holders) and Shastradhris (scripture holders). Astradharis are fighter ascetics and
Shastradharis are learned ascetics. The former Known as Nagar Sanyasis are organised
Social Structure
through various Akharas. The Dashnami Akharas were originally centres of military training
for the fighter Nagas. Following are the seven Dashnami Akharas.
i) Maha Ni a n i Akhara
ii) Niranjani Akhara
iii) Juna or Bhairo Akhara
iv) Atal Akhara
v) Awahan Akhara
vi) Anand Akhara
vii) Nha ni Akhara
2) Kanphata or Nath Panthi: This sect forms the part of Tantrik Shaivism. Kanphatas
pierce their ears and insert ear-rings in them. Gorakh Nath is regarded to be the re-organise;
of this cult. This cult is believed to have been founded by Sati Nath.
The chief scripture of this cult is "Hath Yoga Pradipika" Kanphatas regard Shiva as the
supreme reality. Salvation lies in the union with Shiva. In Nath Sampradaya, Nath yoga and
Tantra are recommended as the most appropriate means of salvation.
3) Aghori Panth: The sect is also known as Aghor Panth or Augar Panth and the followers
are call Aghoris or Aughars. This cult was founded by Bhrama Giri, a disciple of
Gorakhnath. The name of the cult is derived from the word 'Aghor' meaning non-terrifying
the epithet Aghor is usually used for Shiva. Thus, it is clear that Aghor Panthi means an
ascetic who worships Shiva. Aghoris are found all over India and move about all the year
round.
The Aghori smears himself with the ashes of the funeral pyre. He wears the frontal mark
denoting the unity of the Hindu triad. He also wears a Rudraksha rosary and a necklace of
stone. Some wear rosary of human teeth too.
4) Vir Shaiva or Lingayat SampradayxLingayats are mostly found in southern India. The
name of this cult has been derived from the word linga (Phallus symbol). A true lingayat
wears on his body a small silver box containing a stone linga which is a symbol of his faith and
the loss of which means spiritual death. It is worn by both male and female members of the
sect.
Of the Hindu sects, Lingayats or Vir Shaivas acknowledge Shiva whose symbol, the linga
they wear on their person. They are against caste system. All wearers of the lingas are
proclaimed equal in the eyes of the God. They prohibit child marriage and stand for widow
remarriage. They bury their dead.
The Lingayat sect was started in the twelfth century. The most important ceremony of the
Lingayats is Ashta Varna which includes eight rituals called Guru, Linga, Vibhuti,
Rudraksha, Mantra, Jangam, Tirtha and Prasad. Lingayatas are not permitted to touch
meat or liquour. The founder saint of this sect was Basara. There are three sub-sects of
Lingayats. (1) Pancham Salis with full Ashta Varna rites (2) Non-Pancham Salis with full
Ashta Varna rites (3) Non-Pancham Salis without Ashta varna rites. Lingayats or Vir
Shaivas draw slack sectarian mark on their foreheads.
5) Kapalika Panth: Though almost dying now this sect was widely prevalent in Ancient India.
Kapaliks are expert Tantriks. They wear some-rosaries and live naked near ghats. They take
their food from the human skull. They eat meat and drink wine without hesitation. The deity
of kapaliks is Kal Bhairaw. Though the number of Kapaliks is very small, they are spread all
over India.
Shakta ~ a m ~ k d a ~ a
In the system of Shakta yoga philosophy, Shakti (female power) is regarded as the supreme
reality. Shiava is chitta (conscious) Shakti is Chidroopini (pure consciousness). Brahma,
Vishnu and Shiva do their work of creation, preservation and destruction respectively in
obedience to Shakti. Shakti is endowed with Ichcha (will), Gyan (Knowledge), Kriya
(action). Shakti is embodiment of power. She maintains the sportive play or the leela of the
Lord. She is Universal Mother. She is manifested in the form of Dwga, Kali, Bhagvati,
Chamundi, Tripura, Sundari, Rajrajeshwari, Parvati, Sita, Radha and so on. Shakti is pure
-.
Customs, Rituals and Cults
blissful consciousness. Shakti is full of three gunas (qualities namely) Satya, Rajas and
Tamas. He who worships such a shakti or Divine Mother is called Shakta. Worship of shakti
is one of the oldest and most widely spread practice of Hinduism The Vedas form the
philosophical background of Shaktism.
Shaktism is not merely a philosophy or theory. It prescribes systematic yoga to the devotees.
It helps the aspirants to rouse the Kundalini (mystic serpent power) and unite it with Lord
Shiva and enjoy the supreme bliss.
The Shaktas are divided into three groups which are as follows:
1)
Dakshnachari : They are completely free from sensuality and do not offer blood sacrifice
to their deities.
2)
Bamachari: They follow the Teachings of Tantrikas and freely offer blood sacrifices to
their deities.
3) Kaulik: They follow Kaul Upanishad. Their object of veneration is the great power of
Nature which they call 'Jagdamba' (the mother of the world.)
Ganpatya Sampradaya: The followers of this sect consider Ganesh as the fust cause of the
Universe. According to Ganpatyas, Ganpati is the god who exists eternally and through
whose Maya, Brahma and other divine principles are created. There are six sub-sects of
Ganpati Sampradaya.
These differ mainly in the form or title under which the god Ganesh is adored.
7.4.2 Muslim Sects
The Muslims are divided into a large number of sects and subsects. In India the Sunnis, the
Shias, the Bohras, the Ahmediyas are a few bigger sects. Within these sec$s there are sub
sects. The Wahabis are considered subsect of Sunnis. Ismaili Bohras of the Bohra sect.
Many of these started as cults around some individuals but in due course the? developed into
sects. We will give brief account of Sunnis and Shias'the two main sects spt'ead throughout
the world.
Sunnis claim to be the followers of the Sunna (the tradition of prophet). They mainly follow
fqur major schools of Islamic thought put forward by great scholars - Abu Hianifa, Malik Abu
Anas, Ash-Shafi and Ahmed Ibu Hamfal. The Sunnis also consider the sucaession of Caliphs
Hanat Abu Bakr, Umar, Usman and Ali as proper and just. They do not recognize any
spritual leader or Imam other than prophet. They mainly depend on Qurah and the Hadith
(sayings or actions of the prophet) for their beliefs Shias differ from Sunnib on the question
of succession after the prophet. Shias consider that Hanat Ali should have succeeded the
prophet as his only heir. The Shias also believe in the tradition of Imams as religious and
spiritual leader after the prophet. Beginning with Ali as the first imam the Shias believe in
a series of 128 imams (the twelfth is yet to come). Apart from this basic difference a number
of matters of interpretation also crept in and Shialsm developed as a major sect within Islam.
7.43 Sikh Sects
I
The rise of sects in Sikhism was more in the form of religious reform and movements. Many
of these sects had both Sikhs and Hindus as members. The Nirankaris, Radha Soamis of
Beas and the Namdharis are some prominent sects.
I
I
The Nirankari sect was started by Dyal Das, a merchant of Peshawar. He opposed idol
!
worship and disapproved of going on piligrirnages and performing Brahminical rituals. He
saw the God as formless - nirankar. To begin with his followers came from Khatri,'Arora
and Bania castes. In due course they acquired the system of Gurus and developed their own
t
,
places of worship. They recognized many gurus other than ten Sikh Gurus.
Radha Soami sect was founded by Shiv Dayal a Hindu banker of Agra. He included doctrines
i
of both Hinduism and Sikhism. The main difference with Sikhism is that they believe in a
I living guru. The sect was divided into a number of sub sects like Radha Soamis of Dayal
Bagh (Agra) and of Beas (Punjab). They also have separate religious places. Their discourse
continues to draw heavily from the Adi Granth of Sikhs.
Social Structure
Namdhari sect was founded by Balak Singh of village Hazro in North West Frontier region.
They developed different forms of worship, and dress code. The followers of the sect chanted
hymns and worked themselves into a state of frenzy and emitted loud shrieks (Kuks) and
therefore came to be known as Kukas.
7.4.4 Budhist Sects
After the Gautam Budha several Budhist councils were held to debate the questions of faith
and religious order. These gave rise to two main schools of thought. Later on a third one
also emerged. These are Hinayana, Mahayana and the Vajrayana.
The followers of Hinayana believe in the original traditions of Budha. They recognized only
a fured body of canonical literature. Their main literature was limited to tripitaka (three
baskets). There are Vinay Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
The Mahayana claimed their own doctrines and practices as belonging to Bodhisatva
(enlightened being). They called themselves Mahayana. Bodhisatva according to them was
potential Budha and everybody could achieve it. They believed that accumulated merit of
.
bodhisatva could be transferred to help those who wanted to achieve salvation. The
Hinayana do not accept deity worship while the Mahayana introduced the idea of deity
worship.
The Tantrayana or Vajrayana sect incorporates mystic and magical dimension. They
believed that salvation can be achieved by acquiring magical powers called Vajra
(thunderbolt)
After Mahavira there emerged differences among his followers over many religious questions.
As a result two main sects - the Digarnbara (sky clad) and Swetambara (white clad) emerged.
The Digambara believed that the monks should not wear cloth, while Swetambara believed
in wearing white cloth. The Digambara also believed that the women cannot attain salvation.
A number of subsects also emerged in due course. Many of these rejected the practice of
image worship of the Jina or Mahavira.
7.4.6 Christian Sects
Christians also have a number of denominations and sects. However, a major divisions came
in the 16th century during the reformation movement in Europe. A section of the community
felt that the Church and society are in a state of crisis. They demanded reforms in such a
situation and came to be called as Protestants. They organized themselves under a separate
Church. The Protestant Churches recognize the authority of Bible alone, whereas the Roman
Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches also recognize their church tradition as
authoritative besides the Bible. In India most of the Christian sect and subsects exist under
the two major denominations the Catholics and the Protestants.
I
1) What do you understand by sects?
2)
Corpment on following Vaishnava and Shaiva sects:
i) Ramanandis
ii) Chaitanya sect
iii) Lingayats
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) Briefly describe the following:
i) Sikh sects
ii) Budhist sects
Customs. Rituals and Culls
7.5 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, we have discussed the traditions, customs and rituals in Indian society. You must
have observed that the customs and rituals are part of everyday life in India. There is a large
variation in the observance of these customs and rituals in different religious groups,
communities and regions. In many cases even in divide.d families, they have their own set of
customs and rituals. Most of the rituals take place at different points in one's life cycle,
seasons, festivals etc. There are even similarities in rituals across the religions.
The role and functions of rituals as also the types of rituals were also discussed.
..
Cults and Sects also came under discussion. Cults many a times develop into sects. In this
Unit, more attention has been paid to sects. The important sects of all the major religions
have been listed with brief notes. It was not possible to give an exhaustive l i t of al l the sects,
this list, therefore, be treated as suggestive only.
Check Your Progress. - 1
a
I
1) See Sec. 7.4.
3) See Sub-sea. 7.4.3 and 7.4.4
UNIT 8 FAIRS AND FESTIVALS
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Festivals and Fairs of India:
Some Important Features
Major Festivals of India
Fairs of India
Tourism and Festivals and Fairs
Let Us Sum Up
Answers to Check Yeur Progress Exercises
- -
. 8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you will know about the:
major festivals and fairs of India,
chief characteristic features of various festivals and fairs of India,
potential of fairs and festivals for tourists, and
role of tour operator, guide, etc. to attract tourists towards Indian fairs and festivals.
8.1 INTRODUCTION .
Fairs and festivals are an important part of social activity and are observed all over the world
in avariety of ways. In India, traditional fairs md festivals are connected with religious beliefs,
folk-lore, local customs, changing seasons, harvests, etc. Not only does India have many
different festivities connected with its various religions, our numerous cultural traditions
influence the manner of celebrating them.
Indian fairs and festivals are as varied in origin as they are in number. Many of them are
observed in a particular manner in different parts of the country. Some celebrations are
specific to certain areas; some are celebrated by different sects and communities in an
especially noteworthy way in certain villages, cities, or even states. This gives fairs and
festivals their P.*LL local flavour.
Sometimes it is difficult to separate fairs and festivals. In many cases they are interconnected.
Many fairs (melas or utsava) are held in India usually at religious places or to celebrate
religious occasions.
In recent years, many cultural fairs and festivals meant for carrying the music, dances, arts
and crafts into the lives of people have also been introduced Tkis-fatter category is usually
tourism-oriented. Examples of this are the Jaisalmer Desert Festival (Rajasthan) held in
_/---
-
-
-
winter, and the Khajuraho Dance Festival (Madhya Pradesh) where renowned Chisski1 - -
Indian dancers perform against the backdrop of the famous Khajuraho temples complex.
(For further details see Course TS-2, Block- 05).
To recapitulate, you must have already read about fairs and festivals in our Course TS-2,
Block-5. But our emphasis in TS-2 was entirely different than what we are planning to discuss
in the present Unit. In our Course TS-2 our objective was to tell you how festivals and fairs
could be used as an important component of tourism development. Therefore, we did not
/ .
ditional socio-religious festivals of India which form the very heart
- i f e l In6tead our discussion was co_n@ed to non-traditional festivals
which are started comparatively quite reccudy By tourism department. Our purposalm--
Unit is to familiarise you with Tndian culture, its social structure, etc. keeping iR view the
'Tourism' campanent as well. A discussion on an t h ~ fa6ilyritualq p4- witbin a family,
is beyond tbe purview of this Unit for we have already covered this aspect in Unit 7 of the
present Block.
43
Social Structure
8.2 FESTIVALS AND FAIRS OF INDLA:
SOME IMPORTANT FEATURES -
Festivals and fairs are significant parts of the Indian cultural 1ife.h the present Section our
purpose is to explore the 'spirit' behind Indian fairs and festivals.
Festivals are very 'heart' of Indian socio-cultural milieu. In fact, Indian cultural life revolves
round the festivals and fairs. As for the socio-religious content of the festivals and fairs is
ccncern, it is very difficult to differentiate them into water-tight compartments. However.
for convenience we have attempted to put them into one or the other category. But these
divisions are i-terchangeable and barring few festivals and fairs most of them fall into more
than one head.
Festivals and fairs are extremely significant parts of Indian cultural life. They have a history
which goes back to centuries in our past. They are aspects of our ccmmon culture and are
celebrated by both the elite and the masses. Some of the important characteristics of our
festivals and fairs are discussed below:
1)
Most of the traditional Indian festivals are socio-religious in content. Almost all of them
&re accompanied by religious rituals of one kind or the other. Every traditional festival
has two aspects. One is the worship which is performed according to the specific
r cligious norms. For example in Holi, Diwali or Ram Navami the Hindus worship their
gods and goddesses at the individual or family level. In Id thi: Muslims go to the mosques
to offer namaz because the coliective worship is an important aspect of their religion.
Similarly, on Christmas the Christians go to their Churclles for religious services.
But all the festivals have another aspect also and this represents our composite culture.
Participation in most of our festivals are not restricted to a particular community.
Members of all the communities participate in the festivities attached to a festival. Roli,
P)iwa!i, Id, Muharram, Raisakhi and Christmas involve all thc pcople at one level or the
cbther . Therefore, despite having strong religious content, our festivals represent our
-cnlmonness, forge our unity and encourage a social bond.
h~vst of the festivals specific to the Hindus are seasonal in nature. They announce the
-i,.rnq;: in season and mark the harvesting seasons.
A11 the seasonal festivals are celebrated during two harvesting seasons kharif
' 4ugust-October) and rabi (March- April). Besides, spring season is another period of
*?c.isonal festivities.
Mid-January
Nonetheless the base of all seasonal festivals is 'Agriculture.' Festivals are observed
bccause either the new crop is sown or crop is harvested. In Punjab, from Lohri onwards
peasants start cutting their winter crop. Pongal, Bihu and Onam celebrations mark the
harvesting of paddy crop. On the day of Pongal with the new crop 'Shankarai Pongal'
(rice cooked in milk and jaggery) is prepared and distributed as 'Prasadam.' Sugarcane,
which is another crop harvested at this time is also distributed as part of 'Prasadam.'
Similarly, tender turmeric plants (another new crop harvested during this period) are
tied around the neck of the pots (kalash) in which Shankarai Pongal is cooked. In
Assam, during Bihu celebrations, 'rice' reparations chiava (pressed rice) is eaten and
dictributed. Ricc dishes are also the c w
-- -
nent in the Onam feasts.
Similarly, Holi and Vaisakhi, are primarily celebrated to mark the harvesting of new
rabi crop. Here wheat forms the centre of all rituals. When the Holi fire is lit tradition
is to roast wheat and barley plants in that fire.
. .
their necks. For fun, some pcoplc tie money around the neck of ths oxen and the brave
try to snatch that out of their necks. Cattle-sport organised during Pone1 festivals have
become more a part of Indian Cultural life rathcr than that of religion. Cattle sport
Jellihttu of Madurai, rhanjavvr and Tiruchirapalli have acquired all India fame in
which bundles of money, etc. are tied to the horns of bulls and young men try to snatch
them. Bullock-cart race is organised on this day in Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu in
which everyone takes part irrespective of age and religion. Its couderpart in North- India
is Govardhan Pouja which falls on the third day following 1)ipawali.
Fire worship is
important feature of sea~ollal fc~tivals- We get references fire,
wonhip as eXly as the Harappan period (at Kalibangan). Magh Bihv (mid- January)
celebrations are around bhelaghars (specially constructed structures of
thatched grass and green bamboos): Mcli and women spend whole ilight in thesc
structures. Bonfire is arranged. In thc niorning these bhelaghrrs are hornt as symbol of
fire worship. First day of Pongal, called L.i Pungal is cclcbrated by lilting bonfire.
Boys beat drums called Bogi Kottu. Thia Bogi is dedicated to the god of rains, indm. I1
haralds the coming of new season (Spring). Bonfire celebratiolls ofLohri and Holi needs --
-
no introduction. On the day of Luhri bonfire is lit to worship Sun God to get protection
for worshippcrs and thcir crop from t he severe cold of Paush month
(December-January). Thus bollfire is thc symbol of collective security and bafciy.
We have also talkcd about linkages ofdifferent rcgons as an important feature of Indian
festivals as well as cultural tradition. Thcre are some festivdls celebrated at a particular
time hut with different name,s all over India. The most prominent of such fcstival is
Makara Sankranti (January 14th ). It is celebratcd ill 'Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradssh
as thc three day long Pongal fcstival, and in Karnataka and Northern India (January 13)
as Makar Sankranti. Lohri (January 13) cclcbratcd primarily in Punjab also coincides
with Makara Saiakranti. Baisakhi in Punjab and Holi in Northen India and Bollag Riho
in Assam marks the coming of new year, From Lohri onwards starts the economic ycar
of zamiadars. From Nauroz (21st March) starts the Parsi new year.
3)
As we have pointed out earlier all these festivals have socio-cultural aspects also and
involve all t,he people in an area or rcgion irrespective of casle and co~nmunity in thc
festivities. Kite flying is a special feature (specially in Ahmedabad and Jaipur) of Makam
Saohnl i celebralions in which everyone participa~es wish full zeal,
Cultural significance of Bihu dances urganised during Bohag Bihu celebrations ocsds
no elaboration. I t is not only the very life 01 Assamese but has attained a place among
the national heritage. During Bihu celebrations Bihu dance is the biggest altraction. On
this day whole Assan1 comes lo life. People sing and ddnce on the beat of drum, peps
kind of instrument made of buffaloes' horn), QI. gagna (mrangi), ere. In i h i ~ dance both
Young men and Women take part. On this day another dance Husori iSbalso organIsed.
The dsference between the two is that the former one is danced on the tunes of love
while the ktter is played on reli@ous themes. Latter is generally organised in
groups by men.
a t h a h l i dance, which is among the classical d&ca ol India, is the die= attraction of
Onam festival Boat races or "Vallumkali also marks Onam festivities ~~~~.~q, a(
Armmulai a d Kotta~am &re 'Odde' boats are rowed by about 1m oarsmen lo
a c ~m~a ni me nt of songs and drums. These i a e r *re no 1;s important to an ~ ~ d i ~ ~ ~ .
thaa (0 a Kerallte irrespective of c~s t e a ~ d crded.
Daring the h h n f r ~i val the wii.hulc Punjab comes lo i:
Bhangra.
'fe and dance to the tune of
nt l pi nm f~~~ f - ~f i Gt L= of Na~mstri C~i;arq+ pn,,t6,c f,, ,if6,
Wn m~ n danrc, ass-h- ~r ml nd an
a'so
equal zeal. Earlier when zarnindars used to organise these
drum beaters and Shabnai players were
invariably Muslims, In
Fairs and Festivals
in
and fields and in every corner of streets
are constructed,
and decoration with
lights is done. Huge processions are
organised on the fourth day
(Vijayadnshmi) to immerse the Durga statues in the river/pondslsea
amidst drum
Throughout the route People
dance and sing. cultural programmes and feasts,
'lays' etc- are Organised.
conveys the message of collective unity and love
without which life becomes colourless,
PrOCeSsior~ are
Organired On the tenth-day of nUrga Puja, known as Rjaya
Dashmi Or
throughout India. Ramlila precedes t he
Vijayadashami in
ever). city community hmlilas are enacted and on
tenth day
huge
processions are taken Out. Statues of Ravana, ~ ~ ~ ~ b h ~ k ~ ~ ~ ~ and
Meghnath are
burnt with
bursting Of crackers s~mbolisin~ the destruction of evil.
These cultural gathering acquired specid
colour in specific regions. In Himachal Pradesh, at
Kulu-Mandi' Dashehra
are chief tourists attraction. Dashchra of Cwalior,
under the aegis Of Cwalior Maharaja
till date attracts not only the tourists but is the chief
attraction for the people of Gwalior as well. similarly, ~ ~ ~ h ~ h ~ ~ ofMysore is known for
its Pageantry and splendor.
Braj region (Mathura-~rindavan region of uttar pradesh)
traditionally
with Krishna is famous for its unique way of Holi
On the
day hf Holi the
of Barsana throw coloured water and gola] powder on the
men
Of Nandgaon and strike them with sticks in a mock-fight. The
can defend themselves
with the leather shields. The next day it is the turn of
the women of ~~d~~~~ to
throw guIa1 and loured water on the men of Barsana and attack them in the same
Iashion. *his mock- fight (called4athmaar Holi) is considered auspicious and is meant
as harmless fun.
Deepawali brings the joy all over. Practically every village, town and city is illuminated
with earthen lamps, candles and electric bulbs to welcome I.akshmi, the goddess of
prosperity and wealth. On this day people visit each others house, exchange sweets, and
fire- works are oraganised. These celebrations are enjoyed by cveryone irrespective of
community and dtrengthen the feeling of love, prosperity and brotherhood in the society.
Id, Muharram and Milad-un Nabi celebrations in India acquires a distinct colour and
cultural tradition. Id celebrations in India no more confined to recitation of Narnaz and
wearing of new clothes only. In India, from the very start of the p~ous month of Ramzan,
festivities are organised. People organise huge iftar parties. Sometimes such parties are
organised by their Hindu compatriots and at other time Hindus ~oi n iftar parties of
Muslims conveying the message of equal participation in their festivities. On the day of
Id huge mmas are organised at various places. The live description of Id celebrations in
his story 'Idgah' by Munshi Premchand reflects the very spirit of Id celebrations.
Interestingly, Muharram processions are also the distinct characteristics of 1ndian
culture and Maqialis are organised during the forty day mourning, tazias are taken out
on the tenth day throughout India in processions.
~ ~ d d h ~ purnima, rhough exclusively celebrated by Buddhist, taking hO1i dip On the
day of
is very much part of Hindu religion. Baisam Purnima
is Of 'pecial
in
the life of a Buddhist. Its on this day that Buddha, founder
Buddhism
,, born,
attained enlightenment and nirvana. Buddhist way
" Buddha
Purnima is not very
different from other Indian fes
Canesha, the elephant headed ~ ~ d , considered piou"~ every Hindu
is worshiped first
on all the auspicious Hindu ceremonies, But ~a ne s ha chaturthi is
and fervour in mharashtra that it has acquired a distinct 'lace here'
Though'
it is reli.ous festiVd but Bai ~angadhar "Iak used it as a vehlc"
Ndionalist
Hi used it as a P~~~~~~~ for "cia' reformi's and
.-
i
I
I
soew SL~UCIW
4) Indian fairs, in most cases, are devoid of thr religious content. They are (exepting the
Kumbh meh which is mainly a religious congregation) the secular pxts of Indian cultural
life. Buying and selling of cattle, goats, handicrdts and various other things take place
durbg the faLs. We can say that they represent the cultural - me r c i a l life of
I
F
traditional India. Although in some fairs, some religious rites take place, they Pre mostly
subordinate to the commercial side of it.
I
i
1
B
1) halyse the chief charlderistic features of seasonal festivals of India in h lines.
2) Find out the relationship among Pongal, Lnhrl and Makar Sankranti festivals.
3) Discuss the cattle festivals of India and find out the similrrlity and dissimilarily in the
.
manner they are celebrated all over India.
4) Match the foflowiag:
8.3 MAJOR FESTNALS OF INDIA
In this sectionwe will discuss some major festivals of India. We have tried to give mythological
origins of the festivals wherever possible. Most of the festivals are related to the region, season
and religion of the people.
Bihu: People of Assam, irrespective of caste and creed celebrate three Bihus. All these three
Bihus are connected with each other. Bohag Bihu is celebrated in mid-April; second in line
is Magh Bihu observed in mid-January; and the third one Kati Bihu is commemorated in
mid-October. But, the most celebrated one is Bohag Bihu. Bohag Bihu heralds the coming
of the New Year in the Assamese calendar. Magh Bihu is basically related with agriculture.
It is observed when the paddy crop is harvested. Kati Bihu is celebrated on the last day of
the Ahin month of Assamese calendar. This is also known as Kangali Bihu for this is the time
when almost all the granaries are empty. On this day people perform rituals in the midst of
paddy fields to wish for good paddy crop.
Makar Sankranti: It is celebrated on January 14. This marks the beginning of 'Uttarayana'
or* the half year long northern sojourn of the Sun. It is celebrated in Tamilnadu and Andhra
Pradesh as the three-day long Pongal festival, and in Karnataka and Northern India as Makar
Sankranti. Kite flying is a special feature of the cities of Ahmedabad and Jaipur on this day.
Lohri: It is celebrated on the last day of the Paush month (12-13 January). It coincides with
Pongal and Makar Sankranti marking the culmipation of winter. It is believed that this is
the coldest day of the year. Community bonfues are lit. Traditionally, any family having a
wedding or any happy occasion to celebrate plays host to the rest of the village on this festival.
Rice-flakes, popcorns and sweets made from jaggery (gur) and sesame seed (til) like "Gajak"
and "Revadi" are tossed into the bonfire.
Onam: It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Sravana on the day of Sravana Nakshatra
(September-October). Onam is Kerala's major festival. According to legend, king Mahabali
I practiced great penance and became all-powerful. Vishnu took the incarnation of a Brahmin
I
i
dwarf, Vamana and asked the king to give him all the land he could cover in three steps as
alms. The king agreed. At this Vamana grew to super-human proportions. Covering the
earth and heaven in two steps, Vamana asked where he should place his third step. Mahabali
offered his own head and was pushed into the nether world (or Patalam). In recognition of
his piety, Mahabali was made King of Patalam. He is allowed to return to his former kingdom
once a year in an invisible form. Onam is celebrated to assure King Mahabali that all remains
well in his land, and that his people are happy and prosperous.
On the eve of Tiruonam, the second and the most important day of the 4-day Onam festival,
everything is cleaned and decorated in preparation for king Mahabali's visit. Auspicious
saffron colour cloths are presented to friends and relatives.
Pongal: It is celebrated on the 1st day of the Tamil month of Tai i.e. mid-January. Its a
three-day festival. The first day is called Bhogi-Pongal. On this day people clean and
white-wash their houses and in the evening community bonfire is conducted. Surya-Pongal,
the second day, is marked by women preparing 'pongal' (rice cooked in milk and jaggery)
and offering it to the sun (Surya). The third day, Mattu-Pongal, is dedicated to cattle (matu).
'Pongal' offered to deities is given to the cattle to eat. Their horns are polished, and flowers
hung around their necks. Coloured balls of 'pongal' are left for birds.
Raksha Bandhan: It is celebrated on the Purnima day in the month of Sravana (July-August)
all over India. Girls tie colourful 'rakhis' or thread of silk and amulets, around the wrists of
their brothers, including cousins. In return, the brothers offer gifts and pledge to protect
their sisters. On this day Brahmans and Purohibs also tie Rakhis on the wrists of their Yajman.
Navratri Durga Pooja, Dashehra: These are celebrated in the month of Ashvin
&eptember-~ctober). These are important tenday festivals for the Hindus in most of India.
First nine days are celebrated as Navratri. The Navratri festivities of Gujarat, with its music
abd dance (garba) are of exceptional appeal. Saptami, Ashtami and Navmi forms famous
Durga Pooja celebrations of Bengal; while the tenth day, known asVijaya Dashmi is observed
as Dashehra in various parts of India. People in Bengal immerse Durga statue on this day,
thus ends the Durga Pooja festivities. Though, Dashehra is celebrated in various parts of
India in different ways, the concept behind these celebrations is the same i.e. victory of good
I
Fairs and Festivals
Social Slruclun
Holi: Holi is the festival of colour. On this day coloured powder and coloured water are
sprinkled by people on each other. This spring festival, falls in the month of Phagun on the ,
day of Purnima (February-March), was known in ancient times as 'Madan-Utsav.' One story
about Holi concerns Prahlad, son of evil King Hiranyakasipu. Hiranyakasipu demanded that
every one should worship him as a God. When Hiranyakasipu's own son, Prahlad, continued
to worship Vishnu, Hiranyakasipu persecuted Prahlad. Ultimately, Prahlad's aunt Holika,
who was immune to fire because of divine boon, entered a blazing fire with Prahlad with the
intention of burning the prince. However, it was Holikawho was burnt to ashes, whileprahlad
came out unscathed due to Divine intervention. Thus, even today, on the evening preceding
the colour festival, bonfires are lit to symbolise the burning of Holika - the destruction of evil.
The Holi of Braj (the Mathura-Brindavan region of Uttar Pradesh traditionally associated
with Krishna's childhood, and with stories of Radha-krishna), is marked by several days of
festivals. At Anandpur Sahib, in Punjab, the day following Holi is marked by festivities,
mock-battles, archery and fencing contests by a sect of the Sikh community.
Dipawali: India's 'Festival of Light' (Dipawali) falls 20 days after .Dashehra on the Amavasya
or 'New Moon' night of the Hindu month of Kartik (October-November). Coinciding with
.
the approach of winter, and the sowing of the winter-crop in many parts of India, people
celebrate the return of Rama to Ayodhya, after 14 years of exile, and after slaying Ravana.
For many in South India, Dipawali commemorates the slaying of Naraka by Krishna. In
Bengal and some other parts of Eastern India, Kali is worshipped on this occasion. Dipawali
marks the beginning of new commercial year for many and businessmen finalize their old
account books and open new accounts.
Practically every village, town and city is illuminated with earthen lamps, candles and even
electric bulbs to welcome Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity and wealth. Jains also celebrate
Deep-Dipawali ten days after Dipawali as part of Moksha celebrations of their 24th
Tirthankar, Mahavir.
Id-ul Fib: Id-ul Fitr marks the end of the holy month of Ramzan, during which pious Muslims
have fasted from dawn to sunset. It is celebrated on the 1st Rabi-ul Awwal of Arabic
calendar. This festival is commonly referred to as 'sweet Id' by children, as vermicelli or
'seveyian' are offered to all. It is a day of celebrations, feasting and wearing new clothes.
People offer prayers at Idgahs. Alms are given to the poor and children receive gifts (idi).
Id-ul Zuha (Id-ul Azha): Its also called Bakr Id. This commemorates the sacrifice of Ibrahim
(Abraham of the Bible and of the Jewish tradition). Ibrahim was ordered by God to offer his
son Ismail as a sacrifice. Ibrahim blindfolded himself and devotedly carried out God's
instructions. However, when he removed the cloth from his eyes he found his son alive by his
side, and instead a ram, lying on the sacrificial altar. God then commended Ibrahim's trust.
A sacrifice of a goat or ram is made by each Muslim family symbolizing Ibrahim's offering
and faith in God. Id prayers follow, along with feasting and rejoicing. It follows around 2
months 10 days after Id-ul fitr.
Muharram: Muharram is a solemn occasion commemorating the martyrdom of Imam
Hussain (grandson of the holy Prophet Mohammed), along with his followers at Kerbala. It
is a ten-days observance of intense mourning by sections of the Muslim community. 'Tazias'
made of paper and bamboo (symbolizing the tomb at Kerbala), are carried in procession. A
horse, representing Imam Hussain's horse, Dul Dul, accompanies the procession.
1
Christmas: The birth anniversary of Jesus Christ (25th December) is celebrated by
Christians in India amidst Church services on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day, singing of
carols (religious songs), exchange of gifts and feasting. The day after Christmas is observed
1
by giving alms to the needy. (Thus the name Boxing Day, because money and gifts were put
into boxes meant for the poor). Churches, Cathedrals and homes are decorated, and scenes
E
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depicting the infant Christ are put up.
Good Friday: Christians observe Good Friday (March-April) with Church services and the
singing of hymns in memory of the crucificaion of Jesus Christ on this day. A long period 6f
fasting and prayer, known as Lent, precedes Good Friday. This comes to an end on Easter
Day.
Easter: The Sunday after Good Friday (March-April) is a day of celebrations for Christians.
It is believed that Jesus Christ, who was crucified on Good Friday, resurrected on this day.
UP then ~ n n t ; n n m ~ T I tn nr~3r-L tn KC f n l I n . x ~ ~ r c fnr An A- xr r Lf nr o c n c ~ c - n A ; n n tn UPI ~P~
Christians hold Church-services and celebrate the occasion with feasts and visiting friends
and relatives. Easter processions are also taken out.
Nauroz: This is a Parsi (or Zoroastrian) festival. Linked to the spring equinox (21 March),
it is believed to date from the time when King Jamshed ruled Persia. Worship at the Parsi
fire- temples is followed by visits to friends and relatives to'exchange greetings.
Buddha Jayanti (Budddha Purnima): It is a celebration of the anniversary of the birth,
enlightenment and 'Nirvana' (death) of Gautama Buddha - all of which occurred on the same
day according to Buddhist tradition. Buddha Purnima (April-May) is marked by chanting
of verses from dawn to late-night, and ceremonial offerings at Buddhist shrines. The
celebrations are noteworthy at Sarnath near Varanasi (where Buddha preached his very first
sermon), at Bodhgaya in Bihar (where he became the 'Enlightened One' - i.e. Buddha), and
in Sikkim and Ladakh.
r
Ganeshotsava: Its observed in the honour of Ganesh, the elephant headed God, son of Siva
[
and Parvati. It is celebrated in the month of Bhadrapada (August-September). Ganapati is
worshipped on this day in other parts of India as well but it is celebrated with special zeal and
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fervour in Western India. Clay images of Ganesh are made and sold to worshippers. The
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images are sanctified and worshipped for ten days after which they are immersed in a tank
or river.
b t
t
Besides these socio-religious festivals some of the modern-day festivals have been introduced
by the Tourism planners and the Tourist Department as attractions for the tourists. The
f major among them are the Jaisalmer Desert Festival, Music and Dance Festivals at many
' places in the country, Mango Festivals in Delhi, Haryana and U.P., Garden Festivals in Delhi
and Sikkim, and Elephant Festival in Kerala. All these festivals are non- religious. They have
been discussed in detail in our Course Ts-.2, Block-5, Unit-18.
Fairs and Festivals
1
8.4 FAIRS OF INDIA
I
As we have pointed out earlier, the Indian fairs encompass the cultural, social, commercial
i
and occasionally even religious aspects of Indian life. Large or small fairs have always been
attached to many festivals in India. Thus during Dushera, Ganeshotsava, Id, Makar
Sankranti and even Muharram fairs of substantial size are held during the celebrations.
Some fairs are independent and exist in their own right. In terms of their scope the Indian
fairs are huge and cover many aspects of our life. Thus we find some people engaged in
trading their commodities, some involved in religious rites like taking dip in the holy water
etc., some indulging in religious debates while at some other corner we can find singing of
folk songs going on; loudspeakers can be heard blaring the latest filmi songs from another
side while some can be seen indulging in leisurely chat; wrestling bouts are not uncommon
and sometimes even the local level leaders can be seen giving lectures.
Kumbhmela is unique in the respect that it does not exhibit the features associated with a
traditional Indian fair. It is basically a religious congregation which is held once every 12
years (Maha Kumbha) at one of the four holy places (Allahabad, Ujjain, Nasik, Haridwar)
in turn. An "ardha" or half Kumbha occurs every 6 years. According to mythology, when
the "devas" or gods and the "asuras" or demons together churned the waters of the primeval
ocean many priceless things floated up from the ocean. Among these was a pot (kumbha)
of "amrit" - the nectar of immortality. During the struggle for the possession of the "amrit"
between the demons and the gods, some drops of the precious nectar got spilt. These fell at
twelve places including nether world called "patala." Four of these twelve places, namely
Haridwar, Ujjain, Allahabad and Nasik, are in India, and a great fair is held at each of these
places in a 12 years cycle. Ujjain is also visited by many pilgrims during eclipses when a holi
bath is considered meritorious.
The famous Pushkar Mela is held on the day of Karthik Purnima (in October - November).
Devotees gather around Pushkar lake and take a ceremonious bath in it. Pushkar, one of
the holy pilgrimage places of India, is said to possess the only temple where Brahma is still
worshipped. According to legend, when Brahma was reflecting on a suitable place to perform
'Yagna" (sacrifice), a lotus fell from his hand. That spot became renowned as Pushkar. An
annual fair marks the occasion. This Pushkar fair, characterized among other things by its
cattle market, has now become very well known to the tourists - both domestic as well as
foreign. Traditionally a religious occasion, that was accompanied by the exchange of camels
and cattle between agriculturalists and animal breeders from far and near, it has now gained
a "tourist attraction" status!.
Among the non-religious fairs Saliana, (Palampur) is noted for its wrestling matches, while
at Sonepur mela (in Bihar) selling of elephants adds extra colour to the occasion. Garh
Murktesar fair's (60 km. from Delhi) antiquity one can well trace to Mughal period. This
fair is held every year at Garh Murktesar where besides ritual bathing in the Ganges brisk
economic activities also take place.
India has developed a unique tradition of Urs (birth or death anniversary celebrations at a
dargah) celebrations. Urs are held annually at the dargah of famous sufi saints. Unique
character of these celebrations is that people visit in large number to take the blessings of the
revered saints irrespective of caste and creed (both the Hindus and the Muslims attend the
celebrations with equal zeal). We have already discussed Ajmer Sharif as famous pilgrimage
centre in our Unit 17, Block 5 of our Course TS-2. Ajmer Sharif is the dargah of Shaikh
Muinuddin Chishti, the founder of Chishti sufi order in India. Delhi Sultans and Mughal
Emperors all used to make pilgrimage to this shrine. Annual Urs celebrations continues here
for seven days. The chief attraction here are the sessions of qawwali (a genere of music and
poetry sung in a specific way). Food is distributed to the destitute. The manner of food
cooked here also has its own attraction. Inside the dargah there are two massive iron cooking
pots (degs). The capacity of the larger deg is such that it can cook 70 mounds of rice at one
go while in the smaller pot 28 mounds of rice can be cooked at a time. Here people come
with a desire to get their wishes fulfilled in lieu they present chadar at the mausoleum.
Similar Urs are commemorated at other places too. In April, annual Urs is held at Gwalior
to honour the Great Mughal singer Tansen by singing traditional and newly composed Music.
Urs celebrations of famous saint Shah Hamadam (he visited Kashmir in 14th century) are
held every year at Srinagar in August- September.
Urs celebrations are observed at many places in Delhi - at Qadam Sharif, at the tombs of
Shaikh Bakhtiyar Kaki, Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia, Shaikh Nasiruddin Chirag-i Delhi, Hazrat
Amir Khusrau and many other sun saints. On this occasion tylng of thread on the screens
and seeking the fulfillment of one's desires was most sought after. These ceremonies also
provide occasion for people of different faith and from all sections of the society to gather,
mingle and interact with one another. Organisation of Mehfil-i-Qamvali or sama was the
most important feature in all these Urs. These activities during the Mughal period and even
now incorporate within them the mela concept, People bring their beddings and tents along
and shopkeepers erect stalls alongwith the gamekeepers.
At the dargah of sufi saint Qutbudin Bakhtiar kaki another unique festival sair-i gulfaroshan
or phoolwalon ki sair is held every year. This unique festival of flowers, known as the
procession of flowers and flower-sellers, dates back to the Mughal period. Hindus, Muslims
and others participate whole-heartedly in it. Huge fans (pankhas) made of palm leaves and
decoratedwith flowers and tinsel, alongwith floral offerings are carried in procession through
the streets of Mehrauli. Fire dancers join the "Sair." The procession starts from the Hauz-i
Shamsi, a sacred tank dating from the time of Iltutmish (13th century), and continues to the
dargah of Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar kaki, popularly known as Khawaja Qutub Sahib (the
second of the Sufi saints of the Chishti tradition), and then to the Jog-Maya temple. Hindus
and Muslims jointly offer prayers at these two religious places. An associated function takes
place at Jahaz Mahal, north-east of the Hauz-i Shamsi.
Trade fairs are our modern-day addition to the tradition of Indian fairs. They are held
intermittently throughout the year in different parts of the country. Pragati Maidan in Delhi
is a prominent place for such trade fairs throughout the year. Book Fairs are also held in
various cities to interest the readers and to develop a reading culture.
8.5 TOURISM AND FESTIVALS AND FAIRS 4
The question arises about the relevance of festivals and fairs for tourism. Important point is
how we, as tourist guide, tour operator, etc., should present Indian festivals and fairs to attract
tourists. Here comes your role to attract tourists to these famous events of cultural tradition
of India. Needless to say that both, festivals and fairs have tremendous tourism potentials
both domestic as well as foreign. Your role is to present unique aspects of Indian Cultural
tradition to the tourists in a proper perspective. The famous processions at the time of Durga
- - - - --
Fairs and Festivals
Pooja (Calcutta), Ganeshotsav (Bombay), Dashehra (Mysore, Kullu, etc.) are too famous as
centre of tourists attractions. Similar, is the case with BihulAssam), and Garba (Gujarat)
dance traditions. There are many aspects related to Indian festivals and fairs which have a
potential to attract the tourists. Balus and Ramas organising dances in the evening in groups
at the time of Ganeshotsava is equally interesting a feature of Ganeshotsava celebrations as
do the Ganeshotsava processions. Similarly, at the time of Bihu celebrations local Assamese
sport of playing with eggs can attract tourists.
On Pongal day when people in every street and mohullah tie money on the neck of bulls and
the manner in which brave men try to snatch them could be an equally attractive sight for a
tourist. Manner of constructing thatched houses on the occasion of Magh Bihu and liting
bonfires whole night and dancing on the tune of Bihu dances and in the morning puting these
houses at fire are fascinating. Similarly, intersting sight would be to see the lathmar holi of
Barsana and Nandgaon in Mathura.
I '
As a person associated with tourist trade it would be of use to you to learn more about the
fairs and festivals of your region.
1) How is Id-ul Fitr celebrated in India? Write in 50 words
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Write five lines on the Onam festival
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) Write a note on Kumbha melas in 60 words.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4) What are Urs and why are they celebrated?
Social Structure
8.6 LET US SUM UP
In the present Unit we have discussed the characteristic features of various festivals and fairs
of India. It is very difficult to classify various festivals and fairs of India into water-tight
compartments of religious, social or economic. They are inter- religious and possess
cross-cultural, intra-regional character. But whether it is celebrated by one community or
another, in one region or another, all seem to have inspired by the Indian cultural tradition
in one way or the other. Chief featurk of Indian fairs and festivals which is also the chief
feature of Indian Culture is unity in diversity. Primarily Indian festivals and fairs have rural
base. Peasant and agriculture are the focal points of Indian festivals and fairs. F i e worship
which is an important feature of Indian cultural tradition is also an important feature of Indian
festivals. They also convey the message of victory of good over evil. Thus, most common
message conveyed by socio-cultural festival is that good deeds always prevail.
8.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES ,.
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1) See Sec. 8.2
All such festivals are celebrated after the harvesting seasons are over. They are based
,on agricultural cycles and are the hallmarks of our rural life.
2) See Sec. 8.2
Discuss that linkages is the chief feature of Indian festivals. Mention how during the
same period various festivals are celebrated in various parts of India.
3) See Sec. 8.2
Mention that 'cattle' plays an important role in the rural life of an Indian, all over India
since time immemorial they were worshipped. Also mention that cattle worship in the
!
of festivals is prevalent throughout India, though it differs in name and manner of
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celebration. !
4) i) Bengal
ii) Maharashtra
iii) Kerala
iv) Assam
v) Punjab
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1) See Sec. 8.3.
2) See Sec. 8.3.
3) See Sec. 8.3.
4) See Sec.8.3 Define Urs. Discuss its importance in the life of an Indian. Also mention that
they are not just the religious gatherings but its a social affair where people of all caste
and creed assemble.
UNIT 10 MUSIC
lob! O b j e h .
l02i Mwicinhdia-S
10.22 No& Indian and Camat& Styles
103 Music - Essential Elemeats
103.1 Sound (!jwara) ,
103.2 Beat (Tael)
t&. Thus music has brdtngt&@ ,m
I
. r'3.
/ . I ..,...
Music
:;eetam, Vaadyarn, Nrityam, Trayam, Sangeet, Muchyate.
i.c. the music is composed of three. basic parts - the vocal, the instrument anci the dance.
It is true that all these three forms of art are interrelated though all have also grown and
developed somewhat independently. Since sound is the common feature of all, it is generally
understood that music comprises all the three .
10.2.1 Marg and Desi Music:
It is an interesting fact that Indian music, since very beginning develuped along two parallel
4treams. One ol , ' I C stream used masic a1)undantly in the religious ceremonies while the other
equally rich tradition is that of recourse to music during popular festivals or on occasions for
public entertainment. The fcrmer is known as marg music ::lid the latter is called desi.
'The two streams, we may like you to understand. did not remain independent of each other.
The truth is that the fonthead of both has been popular music and therefore there is no
diffcrcncc in thcir parentage. Since rcllgious ceremonies gradually became the monopoly of
a specialized group, the marg strcam in some ways distanced itself from the multitudes of
pcoplc and latcr came to be designated as classical. Unlike this the other strcam viz. desi
remaincd in the domain of people and gained great popularity in a variety of forms in all
regions of Ind'a,
To further clarify the difference we would iikc to cquate marg music with the rather quiet
soulful flow of the water of a river like Ganga or Godavari. In today's context the musical
styles such as Dhrupad and Iihayal will be known as marg music. Unlike this the desi genre
is like the free flowing, sonorous streams in the hills. The only controlling features in this
kind of music are the regulations of popular tastc. One of tile significant markings on desi
music is the variety of sounds that it incorporates. Modern singing of GhazaSs and Thumaris
may be classified as falling under desi music.
It is today an acceptable fact ihat marg and ciesi music stylcs are inter-re!ated. Both are
esserltially based on popular music. It is only when a particular kind of refinements begin to
inrrude and such a strearn acquires the interest of thc clitcs of a society that elen~ents
classicism get imbued in it and make it marg music. It soon gets a grammar and finds avid
followers among thc more disciplined practitioners of this art form. it is also a much
ack~iowledged fact ihat the life line of this classical form is always connected with popular
music, from where all kinds of new and fresh elements are continually integrated into it to
makc if a throbbing, lively genre. The ragas and raginis, reiated musical instruments and
even the other elements of fine arts such as dance are all generous contributions of the
evcrgrccn popular musical forms. We must remember that for classical forms to grow and
reach greater heights it is absolutely essential that they kecp a livewire contact with the
popular forms and tastes and also occasionally mould their contours accordingly. any laxity
on this count is always at the risk of becoming static and soulless. Some of the known classical
forms of Indian music owe their gcnesis to specific. regiona.1 styles that were in vogue is not
so a distant part now. Thus, for instance, the Khayal style, during the era of Dhrupad music
was rated as a form semi-ciasaical or cven non-classical in character. Gradually, and with the
inclusion of newer elements, as also under great popular pressure, Khayal got elevated to the
status of a full-fledged classical musical form. Similar, if not identical, histories cail be traced
for categories like Ghazal, and Thumri and Dadra. The acceptability of these different styles
or sub-styles in the classical division is best gauged by the fact that most highly rated artists
today used them in their performanccs with great clan. Some of the most popular forms such
as Chaiti, Kajri or Rasiya, are today equally acceptable to these artists and hence find a place
in the classical stylc. We would, infact, like to suggest that no iormationls in the realm of fine
arts may be considered eternal. there has to be a continuous interaction between classical
md popular forms for the former to survive and move onwards. The inclusion of ragas like
Khamaj, Wlambhavati, Kafi, Piloo, Maand, Malavi or Sarang in the category of classical
music is sufficient supporting evidence in favour of this contention.
Wc have, on the basis of above discussion, if given you the impression that the interaction
between the two styles - marg and desi - is one way, we may immediately rectify the defect.
The truth is that this exchange is a two way process. Even desi music cannot remain aloof
from an unaffected by the deveiopments in the marg style. 'I'his give - and - take is much
more intense than what we would have thought about. In many ways the popular musical
forms today may be seen to borrow the elements of classical music so as to sustain and enliven
Dasopant, a Marathi
musician and Poet
16thCentury AD.
refers to Carnatic or
South Indian styles as ,,
distinct from North
Indian style.
Hemadri, the famous
minister of Devgiri
(later Daulatabad) in
the 13th century AD.
demarcates the region
of South Indian style as
lying to the South of
Krishna and Vaishya
rivers.
the interest of the populace in general. It is probably for this reason that a grammatical
codification of desi music has not been seriously attempted. Perhaps we should not try to
locate the popular styles within such parametres. The emergence and tremendous popular
support enjoyed by the Indian music (discussed at some length in Unit 13, Block-4) is a good
illustration. In its use of words and the application of swar f i b music has travelled quite a
path and thus presents a fine amalgam of popular and classical forms.
10.2.2 North Indian and Carnatic Styles:
Apart from this distinction, based essentially on the content, in Indian music, we find another
stylistic classification. Today two main divisions are noticeable based on such variations.
These are known as North Indian and Carnatic styles. The main distinguishing feature of
the two styles is the preponderance of local colours in each. This argument is sustained on
the strength of an ancient text - Brihaddeshi - authored by Matang Muni wherein specific
mention of the regional varieties being classified under North and South (Carnatic) is
available.
The North Indian and Carnatic styles owe their origin to essentially the same source. The
difference that becomes apparent in these styles is caused by regional or local colour. A quick
glance on the development of music over a long period of history reveals that atleast from
the seventh century A.D. several regional variations begin to seep in. The mainstream music,
if at all there wonld have been any, was now influenced in a large measure by these new local
or regional developments. Between seventh and thirteenth century A.D. the Indian music
also came in contact with muscial styles of other countries. This was an important period,
especially from the point of view of the enrichment of Indian musical tration. One particular
influence, and the one that probably resulted in the further growth of North Indian and
Carnatic as distinct styles, needs to be mentioned - this was the contact of Irani music and
related treatises with Indian musical tradition. Naresh Haripal of Saurashtra (Gujarat)
clearly mentions these two styles of distinct streams of Indian music in his 4th century (A.D.)
treatise called Sangeet Sudhahr.
We shall now give you the distinctive and identifying features of the two styles of music. This
is based on the application of different raags, Srutis, thaats and the instruments in these two
styles. One major and most noticeable difference is the purity of Srutis in Carnatic style
unlike the North Indian music where the Srutis tend to merge into each other at the time of
rendering a raag. By the purity of Srutis is meant the rendering of the minutest sound related
with a certain swara in its pure form. As against this, the practitioners of North Indian or
Hindustani music often shift to lower or in some cases to upper contours of these pure
Swaras, which are called as Komal (soft) or teenra (shrill) respectively. In the following table
we have given a comparative detail of the placement of Swaras in the two styles.
The other major difference in discernible in thc composition of raagas in the two systems.
Carnatic style follows purity of swaras as the principal determining element in these
compositions. Hindustani style on the other hand practices the merger of raagas as the
central element in such compositions. Thus in some cases there are common names for
raagas in the two systems while in other cases though being similar in their rendering the
raagas bava different names. We list these features below.
Raagas having similar names but different renderings:
Hindol, Sohani, Shree
Raagas with different names but similar renderings:
Carnatic Hindustani
Mohanam Bhupali
Malkauns Hindolam
Durga Sowari
In Hindustani style the main forms of music are Dhrupad, Khayal, Thumri, and Tarana etc.
Carnatic style is dominated by Kirtanam, Kruti, Jawali and Tillana. Moreover in Carnatic
style the performer gives equal importance to Swara and Shabd while the Hindustani style
gives precedence to Swara over Shabd.
During the past one century or so the two styles have also come closer to each other. Both
have adopted the raag compositions of the other after introducing suitable adjustments.
Some of the important Carnatic raagas adopted & now freely rendered by practitioners of
Hindustani music are Hamsdhwani, Shreeranjani, Aabhogi, Kimani, and Saraswati. Late
Ustad Abdul Karim Khan's famous sargam was definitely influenced by similar features
found in Carnatic music. Similarly famous violin makes too Gopal Krishnan synthesised the
two styles beautifully in hisviolin playing of Late Pandit Bal Murali Krishna and Ustad Amjad
Ali Khan have become famous for beautifully merging the features of the two styles in their
vocal and Sarod performances respectively.
Exzl
1) Describc the difference betwcen marg and desi music.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Write four main forms in each of the following:
Hindustani Music Carnatic Music
Music
3) How are the following raags in Carnatic s1g.1~ called?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a) Aabhogi
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) Bhupati
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) Hindolam
-
10.3 MUSIC - ESf3EN'FibM-J ELEMENTS
-
We have seen in earlier secticns how did the musical tradition of Mi a develop. Wc also
discussed the development of the two main styles of Indian music. An important question
with which we are faced now pertains to the elements which make a certain composition
musical in character. You will appreciate that all the poetical renderings do not automatically
qualify to be called musical. Therefore there musf he, some basic character which would make
a rendering musical which we should now understand.
A composition becomcs or qualifies to helong to the category of musical composition when
it rests on the following three conerstones: viz.
a) Swara or sound
b) Taal Lay or beatltune
c) Raag or melody
These thrce are the fundamental constituents of music, We shall discuss them in some detail
in the following sub-sections.
10.3.1 Sound (Swara)
Swara is that s0ur.d which has some meaning and which possesses a distinct identity. Sound
becomes music only when it holds a specific connotation anlong other sounds a l o ~g with
rhythm. Music, be it Indian or Western, is based on Swans. it is composed of different
configurations of Swapas.
The basic Swara in lndian music is called Shadaj. It is also known as the basic swara. Since
the literal meaning of the word shadaj is six, it can be easily understood that this basic swara
is always related to s k other swaras. The spectrum of swaras in Indian music is thus
composed of seven bands also known as saptak.
In Indian music the swaras are not related with a fmed pitch unlike the Western music. It is
the musician here who defines the pitch of shadaj and accordingly other sixswaras get located
on the musical spectrum. Western music, however, has the concept of an "absolute pitch".
This means specific pitch for different swaras. Likewi+e the musical instruments are created
according to fmed pitches.
We have to now answer another basic question that comes to our mind - how are swaras
created? This question also brings us to discuss a related connotation of swarn thus helping
us undertstand the character of Indian music in a better fashion. A shruti is a micsotone
which creates a swra by adhering to a particular pitch. It is necessary for a shout to have
the following two characteristics to become a swara:
e it should be audible,
e it should have an echo.
There are countless shrutis in the Indian musical system, but it is a maxim to have only 22 of
these in any saptak (i.e. a particular spectrum of swaras).
1.0.3.2 Beat (Taal)
The second important element in Indian music is the beat or hal . Traditionally taal is
considered as integral feature of Indian music. it is a process t hr ~ugh which rhythm gets
depricted in musical compositions. The taal is further measured in terms of the numerical
content of the pulse in each composition. Thus when the pulse is slow, the composition is
called vilambit. A medium pulse count makes it madhyam; and the faster counts are called
as drut pulse. Innumerable combinations of these pulse counts provide such a tremendous
variety in Indian music.
The taals bestowed by the musical tradition from ancient past were further elaborated during
the medieval period to make a total count of 1008. Most of the raag formations use taals
from this same repertoire.
The taals are generally played through percussion instruments such as jhaqjh, manjira
(metallic) etc and mridang, pakhavaj, tabla, (drums) etc. The music exponents who play
taal instruments also practice a vocabulary of their own during the performances. Some of
these words are: theka, bol, gat, tutra, tihai, palta etc. the two main percussion instruments,
tabla and mridang, used m North Indian and South Indian music systems respectively, use
the same words.
103.3 Melody (Raag)
The third chief element of music is melody (raag) which is also the characteristic feature of
Indian music. Whereas Western music is known for its harmony, the Indian music is famous
for its melody. Interestingly melody is not confined to India. but is the main element of the
musical traditions in such countries as Iran, Arabia, Afghanistan, China etc.
The central manifestation of a raag is delightfulness. It is still possible to have a composition
of sound which may not delight - we shall not call it mag. There are, in addition to the quality
of delightfulness, ten other features that make a mag. The various permutations and
combinations of these features give Kith to the whole repertoire of raag music. Another
significant quality ofa raag is that it should also be imbibed with sentiments. The melody, it
is believed in Indian music, becomes mechanical if it is devoid of the sensuousness. The
raagini, a sub-division of the raag, owes its genesis to the integration of this very element -
the sensuousness. It will not be out of place here to tell you that the famous Raagmala series
of paintings in India are in fact based on this element as they depict the various moods of
raag and raagini in their pictorial representation.
'I
1) Write below the qualities which shrutis should possess to become a swara.
2) Give names of four percussion instruments in the space given below.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Music
-10.4 MUSIC : GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT '
Music has always been a companion to culture. The sequence of growth visible in music
traverses the same sequence as the culture. Thus, in the early stages of its development music
and its manifestations - the swara, musical instruments, and to some extent forms of dance -
appear to be in a process of growth. Folk music, as we all know, definitely preceded the
classical forms. In this section we shall be tracing the historical development of Indian music.
10.4.1 Ancient
We know very little about the form of music that might have been practised during the earliest
phase of Indian civilization, i.e., the Harappa culture. Contrary to this the Vedic culture
abounds in references pertaining to music. All the three forms - the vocal, the instrumental,
and the dance music - were prevalent in a fairly developed shape during the Vedic period.
The recitation of Vedic humns was essentially a musical exercise. The following references
from Rigveda will certainly interest you and add to your information.
Variety of songs
Geer
Gaatu
Gaatha
Gaayan
Saam; etc.
Variety of Instruments
Veena
Vaan
Tunva
Dundubhi
a Venu
Karkati
Ping etc.
It must, however, be noted that any text or reatise detailing the tenets of music does not
become available to us till the very end of the Vedic period. In the period following the Vedic
period, we find a continuously ascending graph of the growth of music. Musical traditions
had now come to be firmly established in the society. As a consequence of an uncleasing
refinement and hence change in the presentation of music a classical tradition had now come
into being. By way of concrete historical evidence to buttress the contention made above, we
may cite the famous gold coin from the Gupta period. This coin has, on one side, embossed
a figure of Samudra Gupta playing Veena. We are also fortunate in having an extensive
musical treatise from around the same period - the Natyashastra prepared by the sage Bharat.
Another significant feature of the music of this period is that it made a deep impact on the
cultures of the other regions of Asia e.g. eastern and Central Asia. The Indonesian ballet
depicting Ramayana is clearly influenced by Indian musical traditions.
10.4.2 Medieval
Music is the least documented of all the fine arts of medieval India. Whatever little
information we get about the music and its development in the Delhi Sultanate is from the
works of Amir Khusru. There is not much change in this situation in respect of provincial
kingdoms. Historical information is scanty and at times it becomes difficult to sift history
from legend. We shall, however, prepare a narrative account on the basis of piecemeal
records handed down to us by history.
The earliest known treatise on music in the medieval period is Sangeet Ratnakar. The text
has not been lost and is referred to by the practitioners of musiceveri today. It was composed
by Sharangdevsometime between 1210-47at the court of the Yadavruler of Devagiri. Besides
being a treatise on music - vocal as well as instrument - Sangeet Ratnakar also delves into
the details of the contemporary dance forms. It describes as many as 264 ragas classified into
major and minor categories, though the basic of this classification remains obscure. The
chief merit of this text lies in its being the first systematic exposition of the various elements
of music. From the court of Vijaynagar, we get a Sanskrit commentary on Sharangdev's
Sangeet Ratnakar written by Kallinath, a courtier under king Malliiarjun (1446-65). There
are two other Sanskrit commentaries of the same kind, by Keshav and by Singhbhoopal, but
it is not known as to when and where they were written.
In the 15th century we come across two interesting musical treatises from Gujarat. The first
one is called Sangeet Sudhakar, and is attributed to Haripal Dev, the ruler of Saurashtra. It
is here for the first time that the Indian musical form is divided into the Hindustani and the
Karnatak styles. The other text is a Persian work called Ghunyat-ul Munya, meaning literally
'pleasure of desire'. Unfortunately, the manuscript copy of this text is incomplete with its
first folio and the last four Sub-sections missing. Thus the name of the author, it at all was
given in the missing portions, is lost forever. We, however, know that the text was compiled
at the instance of Malik Shamsuddin Abu Raja, the governor of the province of Gujarat under
Feroz Tughluq. Ghunyat, as its author claims, aimed at being a compendium on the art of
sangeet in India, for the avowed purpose of educating the taste of the elite of the time and
also to cater to the demands of the Mu'tabiran (the authorities) and Na'rif (the adept).
(Ghunyat-ul Munya: The earliest known Persian work on Indian Music, ed. Shahab
Sarmadee, Asia Publishing House, New Delhi, 1978).
This text has been of great value in several respects. It is the earliest treatise and commentary
in Persian on music and some of the Sanskrit texts on music respectively. Besides that
Ghunyat extensively uses some such Sanskrit works on music which have become extinct now.
In the 15th century, we come across a text called Raag Tarangini ascribed popularly to
Lochan Kavi. It contains illustrations from both Jaidev (of Geet Govind) and Vidyapati, and
may thus be safely placedin the 15th century. Raag Tarangini is important for having initiated
an alternative system of the division of rags - the that - system. AUthe various forms of music
described here are practiced today.
Music got an impetus under the Sharqui rulers of Jaunpur in the second half of the 15th
century. A connoisseur and an expert in his own right, Sultan Hussain Sharqi (1458-99)
promoted vocal music by introducing a variant form of rendering khayal the Kalawanti
khayal. He is also credited with some new rag, such as Jaunpuri Todi, Sindhu Bhairavi,
Sindura and Rasuli Todi.
We have noted earlier that the court at Vijaynagar had become a centre off music under its
more prominent rulers. The most significant treatise on the South Indian style is the Swarmel
Kalanidhi, written by Ramamatya, the foremost of the exponents of the South Indian style.
It is considered as the most authentic treatise of its kind and is frequently referred to by the
music lovers today.
It is evident from the description given above that music in the 13th-15th centuries had grown
even if its development seemed located in specific places and was not indicative of any
coordinated attempt to bring all the various forms at one place. The development of music
had attained the take-off stage when Mughals intervened and gave it greater heights.
Centres of musical study and practice, as stated above, were located in regional kingdoms.
In the South, a system of parent and derivative modes, i.e., Janaka and Janya ragas. existed
around the middle of the 16th century. The earliest treatise which deals with this system is
titled Swaramela Kalanidhi. it was written by Ramarnatya of Kondavidu (Andhra Pradesh)
in 1550. It describes 20 janak and 64 janya ragas. Later, in 1609, one Somanatha wrote
Ragavibodha in which he incorporated some concepts of the North Indian style. It was
sometimes in the middle of the 17th century that a famous treatise on music, called
Caturdandi-pradasika was composed by Venkatamakhin in Thanjavur (c.1650). The system
propounded in the text hascome to form the bedrock of the Carnatic system of music.
The dcvelopn~ent of music in North India was largely inspired and sustained by the bhakti
movcmcnt. The compositions of the 16th and 17th century saint poets were invariably set to
music. In Vrindavan, Swami Haridas promoted music in a big way. He is also considered to
be the tcachcr of Tansen the famous musician of Akbar's court. Tansen himself is considered
one of the great exponents of North Indian system of music. He is given credit for introducing
some famous raagas viz., Miyan ki Malhar, Miyan ki Todi and Darbari. Raja Mansingh of
Gwaliar (1486-1517) played a distinguished part in the growth and perfection of Dhrupad, a
variant style of the North Indian music.
In the 18th ccntury, music in North Indian style received great encouragement at the court
of the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah. Sadaranga and Adaranga were two great
composers of lil~ayill gapki at his court. Several new forms of music such as Tarana, Dadra
and Ghazal also came into existence at this time. Moreover, some folk forms of music were
also incorporated in the courtly music. In this category mention may be made of Tbumri,
employ~ng folk scales, and to Tappa developed from the songs of camel drivers of Punjab.
In passing, it should be noted that while in the South the texts of music enforced a stricter
science, in the North thc absence of texts permitted greater liberty. Thcrc were thus several
experiments in mixing the raagas carried out in the North. A loose code of North Indian style
of music is a featurc that has continued to the present day.
It w;ds around the closing years of the 19th century and the early years of 20th century that
a resurgence of Indian music, especially classical music, took place. The credit for this
stupendous task goes to Pandit Vishnu Digambar Paluskar and Pandit Vishnu Narayan
Bhatkhandc, These two avowed lovers of music dedicated their lives to fighting a general
apathy as alsr~ a feeling of disrespect among the common folk about music. they travelled
extensively and wrotc profusely, and succeeded in reviving that wading interest of the public
in Indian classical music.
At the same time sotne rnore music devotees were trying to susta~n the tradition of music
training in thc gharanas. Prominent among these was llstad Alauddin Khan, who came to
live and practlcc music in Maihar, a small state in Madhya Pradesh. He gave to Indian music
two O! the hrightcst stars - LJstad Ali Akbar Khan (Sarod player) and Pandit Ravi Shankar
(Sitar playcr). The glrarana system of music has contributed immensely to the resurgence
of classical tradition. We give below some related information in a tabular form:
1- .!.No. 1 Name of Ghatanas
---+
Prominent Artists
--
Genre Practiced
P'
Ustad Falyyas Khan
Ustad Sharafat Husaln
I Ustad Abdul Kaem Khan Vocal
Pandit Bhimsen Joshi Vocal I
I
1 i Ustad Sadiq Ali Khan
1 veena 1
- I - - - - I
61) 1 J a i y r Pandit Mallika j u n Mansur 1 vocal
I
Ustad Ali Akbar Khan
I
Sarod
Pandit Ravi Shankar Sitar I
1
Some other famous artists are lbted below:
----- I
4
1) I & Ustad Amir Kbiln Vocal
Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali
Khan
I
1' 3: 1 Ust;idAmjad Ali
i&.--.
--
I Sarod
I
I' Zi Pandil Jasraj
i-
Sitar
r - ,
------
--I
Vocal
Vocal
Ustad Asad All Khan 1 Vlch~tra Veena 1
L
C.--L_-\ 1 I
" 7) 1 ST. T.V. Mahalingam mute
L-: -.--2 I
1)
Wri ~e four lines on music in the Vedic age.
I
2)
Match the contents of List A with List B:
I
A B
i) Geer a) Instrument
ii) Venu b) Instrument
iii) Veena c) Song
iv) Gargar d) Instrument
v) Gaatha c) Song
3)
Identify the instruments which the following artists play.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) Pandit Ravi Shankar . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b) Ustad Amjad Ali
c) Sri.'I'.V.Mahalingam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d) Ustad Asad Ali
10.5 LET US SUM UP
We recapitulate the main fcatures of music as a fine art thus:
e Indian ~riusical tradition goes as far back as 2nd millenium before Christ.
0 The two main styles of Indian classical music in existence now are North Indian and
Carnatic stylcs.
e The essential elements of music are swarna, taal, and raag. The Indian classical music
recognises a spectrum seven swaras of which the permanent one is called shadaj. All
other swaras relate essentially to shadaj For dctcsmining their position on the spectrum.
e The Indian classical music is today flourishing under the patronage of different
traditional families called gharana.
Music
10.7
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES
r -
1) See Sub.Sec.lO.2.1
2) a) Dhrupad Kirtanarn
b) Khayal Kruti
c) Thurnri Jawali
d) Tarana Tillana
3) a) Aabhogi
b) Mohanam
c) Malkauns
r
1) It should be audible
It should have an echo.
2) Manjira, Mridang, Pakhawaj, Tabla.
EzI l
1) See Sub.Sec.lO.4.1
2)
i) c, ii) a, iii) b, iv) d, v) e
3) a) Sitar
b) Sarod
c) Flute
d) Vichitra Veena
UNIT
PAINTING
Objectives
Introduction
Aesthetics
11.2.1 DeFStion
112.2
Indim and European Aesthetic Scm'bility
Indian Painting
11.3.1 The Context
11.32 Thdory of Aesthetic Flavour
11.3.3 General Characteristie8
Spatial Distribution
lL4.l Pre-historic
11.42 Classical
11.4.3 M a d i d
Modem Paintings
114.1 European in India
1152 Modern Indian Painting
Co~l~emtion
Let Us Sum. Up
11.8 . Keywords
11.9 Answers to C h a Your Progress Ex!?$&Ses
I
In this unit we will dhuss the art of painting h t flourished in India f r a p&t c r i c b.
After going-through this unit you will be:
able to Imderstand the -aesthetic point of view oif Indian pikting. . I
better p l a d to undtw&md the principle;' the theme and historid context etc. of Idiitn
paintings.
able to familiarise yomlfwitb di mof the miain schools and 0entwi af
in different parts of our country,
. 1 . 1 INTRODUCTION
India has a very rich tradition of paintings. In tbc earlier period p-
concerned with religious myths though society was alm amply presentad. Later
mostly concerned with a w t life. In both the wse~ court or rehgisus ioatiWw wdto
patronise the artists. You will notice as yau pnxeed through the W, tgolt.-lier wxks
were collecthe efforts and usually wall pain*. It was quite late that we eoald e
practice of illustration of nmwscripts. It wing the Sultanate and post- e
period &at referen- of portrait i nWual pht ers were avttihbk.
I
Our main objective in thisunit is to high&&t disWv:e features of painting+ ia dHmmt
parts of the country. It would not be possible for us to take account of d t h e scb&/mtres
1
of pain* which flourished in India.
I
I
I
As 'we a i i l ~ ~ in the following p w the Indian paintings are dBkrent k~rn
WesWEuropeiur paintings in h t b wz&mt.iw cuent . The d&n&$s of hikin
p&t& attracts a large number d d t d Pouri%t$.. I - ,
! . -
-
. .
11.2 AESTHETICS
Thatart of painting is the expression of ideas and emotions with the creation of certain
at het i c qualities in a two-cbensional visual.language. The dements of this language - its
shape, l bs, enbur4 tom and textures - are used in various ways to produce sensations
of wlumq spa% -t and light on a flat surface. These elements are combined into
resent real or supernatural phenomena to interpret a
ct visual relationships. The artist communicates
and expressive possiWties as also limitations of a
,<" . 'I .
d r t of tribes, religions, guilds, royal cowls and states largely
controbd W &&, bag& and subject matter of painting. These also deltermined its
hdion, whether ritualistic, devstional, decorative, entertslining, or educationd. Painters
ww& en@l@ more as skiIed artisans than as creative genius. Later on the Far East and
Renakance Europe saw the emergence of the fine artist, with the social status of scholar
cou3 cowt@.WLEO Signed his work, who decided its designs and often its subjects and imagery.
The d&l %l so establighed? @re persona if not sdways amicable, relationshtp with their
p4tmllS. 5
7
through ckmmrcial
Irk&nce also. He &ay dm be
from industry d tbe &ate. He ha4 k v e r ,
to +sperbmt with n a a k and
- --- .. -
2
. -
i
d *-is tP_
probims of a
i ta~l bc~cl pcol i fwe~dtdi ae~sab
and m e of the term aesthetics.
1 ' 8
h t works d art ~ o t ~ ~
by tk
to perform. Where they function .purely as works of art, thPrg also
etion - &tend& a n d ~ t i n r c m~ d . I% tltis & d o n is di d, art
t h e g e n e t e r l i s e d ~ b f ~ ~ ~ t h ~ c e o f ~ ~ d
nevertheless need+) pqdd~w hd0JUi . '
'
If its very essence arises from performing unrecgonised functions, art must be a less
self-conscious, a less "nationalised" and indeed a less professionalised activity than any
other in the cultural sphere.
Since it must be ready to perform unrecognised functions as they unpredictably arise,
the system of the arts cannot be a specialised one, adapted to a particular set of
circumstances. It must remain generalised, to some extent maladapted to the existing
state of society, and able to function in a wide range of areas of ambiguity.
The survival over times and perhaps the aesthetic quality, of works of art, depends on
how a range of unintended and unrecognised functions they can effectively perform.
It is because they have a wide aesthetic range, in this sense, that great works of art function
for us even when it is not known precisely what they have meant for their producers, as
is ihe case with pre-historic art. The latent functioning of a work of art is not dependent
on the grasp of its intended meanings.
L
If aesthetic value depends on co~ciously unrecognised functions, does an explanation of'
!
these functions erase the aesthetic experience? Not necessarily if the work of art, after one
of its functions has been explicated can still function effectively in other unrecognised and
r
unintended ways. The interpretation of art could be viewed as a struggle against its
inexhaustibility, but the functions that have been fully explicated would seem to become more
cognitive than aesthetic.
11.2.2 Indian and European Aesthetic Sensibility
It is in terms of aesthetic values that Indian painting possesses a very distinct nature.
Symbolism in Eastern painting - intended to deepen the experience of a picture's mood and
spirituality - is more generalised and poetic than in Western art. Much of Indian symbolism
is visually emotive, images such as snakes, plantain leaves, twining creepers and rippling water
being overtly less sexual. And although symbolic attributes and colour codes identify Indian
mythological characters (for example, the four arms of the terrible form of Kali and the blue
skin of the divine lover Krishna), the formal character and colour scheme of settings generally
reflect the narrative's emotional mood. As an example we can cite vibrant, dark blue, cloudy
skies and embracing, purple-black glades evoking amourous anticipation and red grounds
expressing the passions of love or war.
Western symbolic systems, however, are more intellectually directed, their imagery having
precise literary meanings and their colour codes intended primarily for narrative or
devotional identifiption. The iconographic programmes of the early Christian churches, fm
example, laid down complex formulas for the viewpoints, gestures, facial expressions and
positions of arms, hand and feet for religious figures. An el abat e CWstian iconographic
system was followed until v&y recently. Elsewhere also tradtiohd methods survive of
idenbfylng archangels and saints by their attributes and by their symbols of martrydom that
they display; distingukhiag white Wd e d %.Peter tkom black bearded St.Paul Christian
iconography adopted gmdelaborated Cireco-Roman and Jewish symbolic,^, the pagan
signs of viae and the fish fur e]~~p1&, a d the image of Christ as the Good Shepherd based
on Greek themes are other symhk & this kin&. Medieval and Renaissance writings define
an-em dsymbalio hagps SWA adthe crescent and owl signifying heresy etc.
.C
n
+ .
1) What is the relevance of paintings for Tourism?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
la
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) De h e Aesthetics.
3) Di s t hpd between European and the Indian Aesthetic SeWJi ty.
Ag a Zackx, the religious a d philosophic thought in thc: d mtextbf art at any moment
mWm o f ~ ~ b ~ s i d r u ~ m m ahri ti es have h a that '
mimy YJf these religim went though a primitive stage of Aninbarn. magic and sadistic
pulytbkq & witb it's legacy of expressive haggry, before passing w to monotheism and
pmtkisrn. 'I%& is the context in which Indian paintings
be seea
.
1
rta.~x *#24.m~ rj
-
I '
a-
Czwident in fie:
. < (
amaafhm myths mdlegends representact as aSbjeet matkwr, mch BIE stories of the mebnt
hem IkbBncr and the cow- @Is;
m s of artists, rulers and public to accept fantastic representations of the
, &pa-mhual as iq the case of several arms of Siva, a majar Hindu deietr, and
1c placed upon mystic symbism in the errs, indudhg
On thc whole, within an extensive culture such as the Greek or Indian, the arts tended to
develop first partly for magical and religious purposes. Theoretical discussions of the same
came later. Philosophic discussion of their aims and standards of value tended to come
relatively late.
Though it has been said by some historians and contested by others that all Indian art is
religious, it is true that most Indian art can be given a religious interpretation by persons of
a strongly theistic attitude. This was not necessarily the intention of the artist or of his public.
Religious interpretations can be applied to the most humble, utilitarian products as to the
most magnificent palaces. A work of art can be appreciated on various levels by the educated
observer, and one of these levels or attitudes may be super-naturalistic, another naturalistic.
Indian theories of aesthetics disparage the realm of sensory experience as mere illusion,
Indian artists continue to employ sensory materials and to display them for others. In trying
to explain the arts, super-naturalists tend to feel that they reflect a divine creator, whereas
naturalists regard them as reflecting man alone.
Another basic concept of Oriental art is mystic symbolism. In its ordinary usage, the word
symbolism, refers to the practice of using a familiar image, such as a lion, to mean something
very different, such as the abstract quality of courage. In India the figure of the dancing Siva
is well-known as a symbol of that God. a figure that signifies the cosmic rhythm of creation
and destruction as symbolized by a drum - especially its destructive aspect, through an
emphasis on fire.
11.3.2 Theory of Rasa: Aesthetic Flavour
In the psychology of art, an integral part of'modern Western aesthetics, lndia has much to
offer, especially in its theory of rasa, or aesthetic flavour. Recent Western psychologists have
so strongly emphasised behaviourism and externally observable phenomena, that they have
almost ignored the inner world of individual subjective experience. Indian philosophers wll
attention to the importance of rasa in the total experience of creating and appreciating the
arts, especially visual arts. The many kinds of rasa and ingredients in rasa which as they are
felt and cultivated are thus enhanced in value.
The theory of rasa was first proclaimed by a mythical sage-priest Bharata (around A.D.500)
and developed by Abinavagupta (C.lOOO A.D). It was used in explaining the forms,
techniques, and varieties of poetry and visual arts. Bharata listed the principal feelings of
human nature as delight, laughter, sorrow, anger, heroism, fear, disgust and astonishment.
These are transformcd by arts into rasas: erotic, comic, pathetic, furious, terrible, odious,
marvellous and calm - qualities into which ordinary feelings can be analysed. Psychological
studies of this sort were not purely mystical. Bharata interpreted the power to feel and
understand beauty (to taste rasa) as a reward for merit in a previous life.
On seeing the richly carved and painted ornamentation of Hindu temples, Western travellers
are often puzzled by what they regard as obscenities, sometimes involving complete nudity
and extremely erotic scenes carved and painted in full detail. At times they fail to understand
the claim of Indian scholars that such art is "religious" and "spiritual". The same may be said
of erotic Indian literaturc, such as that of Kama Sutra. It also presents a realistic account of
amorous relations between the sexcs in ancient India. Sensuous pleasure is not proposed as
the highest good, nor it is morally disparaged. It is a psychological and cultural fact that
Orientals do not regard their erotic art as pornographic in the Western popular sense. Sex
as a means to love and joy is regarded as a basic fact of life, religious in that it carries on the
divinely established rhythm of creation and destruction. It can be and has been transformed
into fine art by capable artists.
11.3.3 General Characteristics
Moved by the charm of nature around him, man has expressed his appreciation of it in works
of art produced by him. This goes back to time when he was still a primitive. Art has had a
softening influence on him. The earliest paintings of the pre- historic age in the caves all over
the world give us magnificent examples of the observant eye and the trained hand even in
man's savage state. The colours chosen, the movement penetrated and the expression
suffercd in the pictures really make us marvel even if all of them are not of the standard of
the paintings at Ajanta. The pre-historic cave paintings in India give us a picture of life in
those far-off days pf early man in India.
Painting
31
The Vishnudharmottara
elucidates the process of
painting, and the strong
points in painting are
narrated The line
sketch, the most
imporlanl, fumly and
gracefully drawn, k
considered the highest
achievement by the
masters. Feminine taste
appreciates decoration in
art (striyo bhushnam
ishshhanti); but Ule
common taste is for the
splendor and glory of
colour (barnadhyamilare
jaoah). This virluness is
of three kinds -
vindujavnrtana,
puiravartana and
raikhikavarlana The
first is tippling, the
second cross-hatching
and the third fi i e line
shading.
It is a great and true experience that Kalidas expresses, when he feels that even the happiest
man is elated when he sees beautiful things or hears melodious notes. Though music, like
art, deeply stirs the heart, it is the impression of beautiful form on the eye that has an cven
greater effect.
While in Chinese art, the delineation is as the eye sees, in Indian art, it is both as the eye
perceives and as the touch feels. The depth of the figure is thus indicated. The pictures in
India show an attempt at modelling.
This is corroborated by the fact that the concept of portrayal at its best in India is in terms of
the figure in the round styled chitra. The figure in relief, high or !ow, is ardhchitra; and the
painiing resembling sculpture 1schitrabhasa. The tcrm chitrabhasa itself indicates that the
aim is to portray some kind of modelling to suggest depth.
In the six limbs of painting or Shadanga described in Vatsyayan in Kamasutra, modelling is
given as an important limb; others are variety of form (rupabhedaj, proportion (pramanaj,
on the infusion of emotions (bhava yojana) creation of lustre and bid essence (lawanya
yojana), portrayal of likeness (sadrisya), colour mixing to produce the effect of modelling
(varnikabhangj.
Emotions portrayed in pictures are best illustrated in such master pieces as the mother and
child before Buddha or the subjugation of Nalagiri from Ajanta. The former effec~ively
presents karunarasa, while the latter shows first bhayanak rasa in the stampede of the
elephant Nalagir, and santarasa where the furious animal lies humble at the feet of the
Master. The Vishnudharmottara has specially stressed suggestion as an important element
in art. Different methods for suggesting various aspects of nature are here enumerated:
e portraying lotuses in bloom and rishis hurrying for a bath to suggest day break,
e prowling thieves and amorous damsels going to the place of their tryst far indicating
night, lotuses and aquatic beings for the sensation of water,
e overcast sky and white cranes flying in the sky to signify the rainy season,
pleasant flower decked forests and gardens to recall spring,
a travellers oppressed by heat and greatly fatigued to suggest summer.
All these devices are carefully fellowed in paintings and are to be understood in order to fully
appreciate the meaning of a picture, specially in the later-day miniature painting from
Rajasthan, Raramasa paintings and those portraying the loves of the nayakas and nayikas.
1)
How many rasas are there in Indian aesthetics?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2)
Define general characteristics of Indian paintings.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i Painling
11.4 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION
Literary evidence proves that painting was a highly developed art in ancient India. Palaces
and the homes of the rich were adorned with beautiful murals and smaller paintings were
made on prepared boards. Not only were there professional artists. bui many men and women
of the educated classes could ably handle a brush. Though now all invery bad condition the
surviving rcmains of ancicnt Indian painting are sufficient to show its achievement. They
consist almost entirely of murals in certain of the cave temples.
The earliest paintings in India have becn found in primitive caves and rock-shelters in:
Mirzapur and Banda in Uttdr Pradesh,
Mahadeo hills of the Vindhyan range in Bundelkhand,
Larimur hills in the area of Baghelkhand,
Singanpur in Raigarh district of Central India, and
Bcllary in the South.
These paintings are mainly hunting scenes representing man in his encounter with wild
animals. The paintings, though in a crude technique, represent vivid pictures of hunt. Red
pigment has been frcely uscd. Some of the figures have got washed off. In a well prcserved
scenc thcrc is thc hunt of a bison and a sambhar. Thc human figures are conventionalized.
The torso is sometimes drawn as almost a ladder composed of steps. Sometimes it is a
qilhouetted figure with the head dominat~ng the rest of the body, the hands and feet in all
cases appearing as just straight or bent lines. Thcir handling (if pikes and javelins, in their
effort to attack the animal, is indced most lively. One of the animals at Singanpur represents
a barking dog, rushing forward at a terrific pace, the tail stretched out and the leg indicating
the speed of its motion. This is in contrast with the stylizcd form in many of the human figures.
As these paintings are not ornated, very small numbcr of tourists
are attracted towards
them. As a result these sites lack tou~ist infrastructural facilities. 'These are also not bcing
promoted for tourism. Only historians and archaeologists arc primarily interestcd in thcm.
These sites are located in mountain ranges and poorly connected with metropolitan towns
of India. Since prc-historic paintings have thc potential of becoming a major tourist
attraction, the sitcs need to be developed for this purpose.
11.4.2 Classical
Ajanta
The earliest historical paintings in India belong to the Satavahana period (2nd century A.D)
in the Dcccan. During this period some of the most glorious Buddhist caves were excavated
in thc living rock, many of thcm in Western India; Nasik, Bedsa, Rhaja, Karla, Kondane caves
are famous. The earliest caves at Ajanta are also of the Satavahana period. The paintings
are concentrated in caves - 9 and 10.
The paintings cover the walls, pillars, and ceilings to illustrate sccnes from the life of the
Master (Buddha) and his previous livcs, comprising thc jatakas and avadanas. There are
dso floral and animal motifs dexterously created. Cave I) is a chaitya hall with a fine facade,
11s nave, apse and aislcs composed by a colonnade of pillars running the entire length. The
cave has two layers of paintings, the earliest is contemporary with the structure and the later
7s of the 5th Century A.D. The paintings here show the worship of the Bodhi tree, the Sama
.lataka and the Chhadanta Jataka.
'The Vakatakas succeeded the Satavahanas in the Deccan. Some df the caves at Ajanta have
inscriptions of thc Vakatalia period. Now the paintings comp!etcly cover the walls, pillars
and ceilings. They constitute a grcat gallery of Buddhist art illustrating scenes from the lifc
of Buddha.
The mode of paintings at Ajanta is the tempera and thc materials used are very simple. The
five colours usually described in all the siIpa texts are feud herc - red ochre, ycllow ochre,
lamp black, lapis-lazuli and white. The first coating on the rock was of clay mixed with rice
husk and gum. A coat of lime was done over this which was carefully smoothed and polished.
On this ground paintings were created. The outline drawing was in dark brown or black and
subsequently colours were added. Effects of light and shade were achieved by the process
of streaks and dots illustrating the methods of patravartana, t stippling and hatching
mentioned in the silpa tegs. The lines composing the fi gres painted at Ajanta are sure, rich
in form and depth and recall the iines in praise of the effective line drawing in theviddhasala
bhanjita where by a few lines sketched, the maximum effect of form is produced.
The painter at Ajanta had studied life around him and natural scenes of great beauty with
intense sympathy and apprcciation. Plant and animal life had interested him considerably.
He had lovingly treated such themcs of flora and fauna as he had chosen to depict. The
elephants under the banyan tree in cave 10, the geese in the Hamsa Jataka from cave 17, the
deer in the Miga Jataka, also from the same cave, may be cited as a few examples of the tender
approach of the painter to the themes of animals and birds. He had been equally at home
in ably representing the dazzling magnificence of the royal court, the simplicity of rural life
and the hermits' tranquil life anlidst sylvan surroundings.
There are excellent illustrations in these paintings at Ajanata of the six limbs of painting,
(shadanga). The diversity of form at Ajanta is indeed incredible. The painters here mastered
the vast complex of human, animal and plant form in addition to giving free shapes to their
imaginations and were creating designs galore. The master at Ajanta has control over not
only the proportions of individual figures but also has the ability to group them and he has
designed excellent compositions. Emotion is at its best in the narration of scenes from the
legends.
These cave paintings achieved fame because of which they have become an important tourist
attraction. The tourist infrastructural facilities have developed and it is quite convenient to
reach the place. Numerous conducted tours are being operated mainly from Aurangabad
which is the nearest district headquarter.
Ellora
In the eighth century, the early Western Chalukya power came to an end and the Rashtrakutas
under Dantidurga asserted themselves. Dantidurga was followed by his uncle Krishna - I,
who was not only a great ruler but was also the creator of unique monument in the Decean,
the Kailasnarha temple at Ellora, carved out of living rock. The paintings at Ellora covered
the ceilings and walls of the mandapas and represent not only the iconographic forms but
also the lovely floral designs and animals and birds entwining in the patters. The Natraja
here is a spIendid example of the Chalukya type. The figure is multiarmed and the dance is
in the chatgra pose. The anatomy of figure, the details and the ornamentation closely follow
that of sculpture, including such minute details as the pattern of thc jatamakuta, the
elaboration of decoration and so forth. It is one of the most beautifully preserved panels at
Ellora.
The Jain cave towards the end of the group of caves at Ellora has its entire surface of ceiling
and wall covered with paintings with a wealth of detail. There are scenes illustrating Jain
texts and decorative patters with floral, animal and bird designs.
The tourist infrastructural facilities are well developed as it is situated near Ajanta.
Bagh Caves
The Gupta emperors were great patrons of art and literature. The aesthetic qualities of
Samudra Gupta are very well known. This phase of art is amply illustrated in the caves, close
to the village Bagh near Gwalior, which are excavated on the slopes of the Vindhya Hills at
a height of 150 feet above the river Bagh in the vicinity. There are nine caves in all but the
most important are eaves 2,4 and 5.
The paintings in the Bagh caves are mostly lost, but the best preserved of the remains are
found on the outer wall of the continuous,verandah of caves 4 & 5. The subject illustrated is
clearly a jataka or avadana. The first scene shows a princess and her companion, one in great
grief and the other consoling her; the second, two divine and two princely figurea seated in
conversation. Composed of cavalry and foot soldiers with bows and arrows in the hands and
with the umbrella held over at least two stately figures, with princes on tuskers and high
ranking women on cow-elephants close to the royal gateway, probably in the vicinity of the
palace, it suggests an important event in this royal household and the procession associated
with that. It is one of thc most magnificent representations of a royal procession in al l its
glory. On other walls and on the ceiling in this cave, there are floral decorations most pleasing
to the eye, the long wandering length of the lotus-stalk with a wealth of flowers, half-blown
and in full bloom, and pairs of birds in flight particularly geese.
Painting
! Others
I
The tradition of painting specially cave-temple painting continued till vcry latc. It was
primarily preserved in Southern India. Usually a part of the building was so painted as to
D
arrest the attention of appreciative and aesthetic minded connoisseurs of art.
At
t
Mahabalipuram, a fervent of painting may be noted in the upper cells of the Dharmarajaratha.
Similarly they occur in other Pallava cave temples and the Kailashnatha temple at
1
Kanchipuram. At Badami, Hampi, too this decorative factor is present. The paintings in
* the Brihadisvara temple constitute the most valuable document on the state of the painters'
art during the time of the Cholas.
b
At Lepakshi (Andhra Pradesh), there is one of the most remarkable paintings of the
Vijayanagara period, a colossal one of Virabhadra painted on the ceiling of the mandapa.
The scenes depicted here are from the Mahabharata, the Ramayana cave and the Puranas.
!
The coronation of Rama, Arjuna fighting Kirat, and Krishna as vatapatrasayi are charming
portraits of this series.
11.4.3 Medieval
Miniatures
.
Medieval painting is distinctive but Indian. It has the flavour of the Persian but the inborn
charm of Indian tradition. The study of Mughal painting in India may be said to begin with
Khwaja Abdus Samad of Shiraz who was patronized by Humayun and continued in the time
of Akbar. The practice of signing pictures in this period gives us names of artists at Akbar7s
court. The Babur-Nama, Akbar-Nama, Humza-Nama, Razm-Nama and other beautifully
illustrated manuscripts of the period have a great artistic achievement. Still in this period,
the Persian treatment of the background and the landscape is obvious. The Mughalpaintings
are aristocratic, individualistic, strong in theirtharacter of portraiture, being fostered by and
for nobility. Mughal art peeped into the inner revelry of the harem, the magnificance of the
court, the delightful wild bouts, depicting elephants and camels fights that appealed to the
emperor, scenes of hunting, toilet dress and decoration of coquettish damsels.
Rajasthani
The Rajasthani School of Art is a natural outcome of a long sequence of art tradition. The
miniatures that comprise the Rajasthani School found in such profusion in several art galleries
of India and the world, did not, strangely enough, originate as miniatures. In the palaces at
Jaipur and Udaipur, there are wall paintings which show how wonderfully the painter of this
school produced large murals. The Raslila and the love of Radha Krishna form a happy
theme.
The Rajput paintings were more in tune with the throbbing life around, simple, with a direct
appeal to the peasant and the common folk. Universal in appeal, deeply religious and mystic,
true interprctcrs of phases of nature in her different moods, Rajasthani paintings evoke
themes whose appeal goes direct to the heart.
11.5 MODERN PAINTINGS
11.5.1 European Artists in India
18th century India was a melting pot politically, with diverse forces crossing swords and
intriguing against one another for supremacy. Art cannot flourish when life is unstable. In
the foregoing state of instability Indian painting followed a path of decline and finally
degenerated into soulless imitative skill of artisans only. The craft and techniques of fresco
and miniature painting, unique in the history of art, were lost. What still remained was
degenerate copies of the old art form. .
Folk traditions in art, however, were yet alive with some measure of vitality even under early
British rule, but the lingering traits of Ifidian art gave into new fashions brought by foreigners.
Miniatures werc ousted by European oil painting. Ultimately, with the British conquest of
the country, art and architectural styles of 19th century Earope found access in India and the
prosperous section of Indian society came very much under the influence of Victorian
concepts of living.
The British. during their rule, founded art schools in the capitals of the provinces. The art
schools were mainly required to produce painters and draughtsmen for the Railway and
Survey departmcnts. Patronagc of paintcrs of the then popular genre painting was confined
to the landed aristocracy and wealthy merchants and to some extent to British bureaucrats
in India. Mention must, however, be made here of the small group of enlightened Enghshmen
who camc to learn and appreciate the aesthetic values of Indian art and save it from decay
and oblivion. Best known among them are Cunnigham, Fergusson, Cousins, Have11 and Percy
Brown.
11.5.2 Modern Indian Painting
Towards the end of the 19th century a positive reaction commenccd against the stallions of
the degenerate school of painting and time was ripe for the rise of truly Indian painting. Quite
!
a few talented Indians, however, became adepts in the current style of European painting
and in the techniques of oil and water colour. Raja Ra\l Verma of Kcrala gained much
reputation in the period through his paintings of mythological subjects and portraiture. The
pioneers looked back into the heritage for inspiration. Abanindranath, conscientiously tried
to re-create a national style in painting. He and his worthy pupils assidcously experimented
in techniques of Indian miniature, frescos, scroll and pata paintings.
This new artistic faith spread far and wide in the country. It was known as Bengal school of
painting. Naturally enough, the exponents of the school, charged with the newly awakened
sense of nationalism tried to copy andirnitate old water pieces of Indian art, aiming at revival.
But no sooner the romantic rcnaissance phase came to an end than the school readily yielded
to stronger modern inspirations. As early as in the early twenties, Rabindra Nath Tagore
dissociated himself from the entire revivalist thought.
For the first time we began to hear 'painterly paintings'. It is almost impossible to explain
what is understood by the term painterly, but it is safe to assume that it lays accent on the
manner of pigment is handled and on the fact that colour by itself is an important elcrnent in
modern painting, independent of subject matter if any. Stale traditionalism was rejected in
preference to progressivism. Modcrn Indian painting is a complete reversal and final break
away from the past.
What is modern painting? It is not easy to explain in words what belongs to shape, colour
and form. Secing is learning in the visual art and we must look at a work of art with eyes and
heart and head. Modern Indian paintings reflect the complexity of modern life. Modern
Indian painters are city dwellers and not free from the complexities of modern life. Moreover,
intellectually they accept the tenets of modern art, as much as they share the experience of
modern man.
Rabindranath's credo thus provides Indian modernism with a character for expressionistic '
art of all types. Gaganendranath, studied the pictorial possibilities of light, especially in
interior scenes. He experimented with cubism and coalescence of forms. There was nothing
specifically Indian about it. He used his art for social comment, often with a pleasant satire.
In her heredity as well as her art, Amrita Shergil symbolizes the interaction of Indian and
European tradition that is visible in the bulk of modern Indian painting. it can be scen in her
works that the preference for forms is reduced to their essential planes, suggestions of
volumes through colour modulation, seizure of effects of light, even in open air scenes, lcss
by play of light and shade than by the brilliance of the pigment itself.
Jamini Roy returned to the far more vigorous tradition of folk art, of the pat and the scroll,
the clay dolls and pottery decorations. The positive achievement of this period was the
creation of a ferment rather than a precise definition of aesthetic objectives and stylistic
canons.
This format has led to the trying out of cverv conceivable manner of expression. A quick
scanning should be enough to show the rdnvc
V.S. Gaitnde - abstracts
Shabbir Husain - optical qualities
e Bimal Dasgupta and Manu Parekh - modalities and recombined forms
M.F. Hussain and Ram Kurnar - earthly
Bhupen Khakhar - curious reality
a Gulam Sheikh - colour sensitive
Rajeev Lochan - a peep into the past.
The number is not exhaustive, nor the artists mentioned form a merit list; but they should give
an idea of the variety of expression now available on the Indian scene.
Ezxl
1) Explain general characteristics of Classical Indian paintings.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) What are the major themes of Medieval Indian paintings?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 6 CONSERVATION
The close relationship between tourism and the environment is also a source of problem for
thc conservation of environment. Tourism is often developed in environmentally fragile and
vulnerable settings, such as paintings in Ajanta, Ellora or Bagh caves, because these are
important resources or attraction for tourists.
We should keep in mind the fragile state of existence of painting in cave-temples. Due to use
of floodlights to illuminate the interior paintings of caves, the brightness of paintings is
diminishing. Had these been paintings on paper, these would have been framed behind the
glass, as is the normal practice elsewhere. Paintings of movable article are being and can be
preserved in museums which are usually air-conditioned now. The old practice of putting
varnish over paintings, though retain the brightness leads to the growth of yellowishness over
pictures, over a period of time.
It is not that touris& leads only negatively as far as conservation is concerned. Tourism
provides the incentive and helps pay for the conservation of sites, that might otherwisebe
Painting
allowed to deteriorate or disappear, thus resultingin the loss of the cultural heritage. Touri5m
also helps provide the incentive for 'cleaning up' the overall environment through control of
air, water and pollution, littering and other environmenta! probjems and for improving
environmental aesthetics through landscape programmes.
11.7 LET US SUM UP
This unit has introduced you to several aspects of paintings in India. The treatment of subject
matter was on two levels - (a) heo ore tical orientation of paintings (b) details of same selected
sites. We discussed the main differences in Indian and European aesthetics. We also gave
details of the textual references on the genre from India. The sites of important paintings
were discussed in an order than conformed to their historical growth. You were also
introduced to the main features of modern Indian painting. It also explained why paintings
in India are a major attraction for foreign tourists. With the help of this Unit you can
introduce the viewerltourist to the finer nuances of Indian paintings.
. .
1 1 . KEYWORDS
Aesthetics : Study of bcau~y and the philosophy of taste.
'Rasa' : Emotions
Conservation : Preservation
Sultante : The period of Indian history when Turkish conquerers were
ruling over India, beforc the coming of Mughals. (1206 - 1526A.D.)
Pre-Sultanate : It signifies the period of Indian history from 7th century upto the
coming of the Turkish conquerers. (7th to 12th century)
Renaissance : It means rebirth. In history Renaissance defines the period of
European history in 15th century A.D. when an attempt was made
to review thc ancient culture and past.
Iconography : Study of meanings conventionally attached to pictorial repre-
sentations.
Pagan : Ancient Christians used to call the believers of other religions as
pagan.
Greco-Roman : It signifies that era of European history when whole of Europe and
larger part of central Asia was ruled by the rulers of Rome.
Cartography : It is the technique of drawing maps
Occidental : Since ancient times Europeans have tried to identify themselves by
juxtaposing to the Eastem (Asian) Societics.
In this attempt
Europe has been termed as occidental.
Oriental : Ancient Europeans used to fantasize about the Eastern (Asian)
Societics, and in this attempt they coined the term Oriental for all
the societies east of Black Sea.
Animism : Societies where even animals arc ascribed a special position in
their rituals lo protect them are know as practicing Animism.
Pantheism : Ancient societies, when they could not control natural forczs they
t e n ~c d to worship them. It gives rise to the belief that God and
Giverse (the whole world) are identical. Hence on earth every-
thing is part of God.
KarunaRasa : It is feeling of piety, according to Indian Rasa theory.
Ja taka
:
Extremely popular stories of former lives of the Buddha that are
preserved in all branches of Buddhism.
Tempera
:
A tempera medium is dry pigment tempered with an emulsion and
third with water. It is a very ancient medium. Traditional tempera
painting is a lengthy process. Ciesso, mixture of plaster of paris (or
gypsum) with size, is the traditional ground which after laborious
preparations, results, however, in an cpaque brilliant white light
reflecting surf ace, similar in texture to hard flat icing sugar.
Colours were applied with sable brushes in successive broad
sweeps or washes of semi transparent tempera.
The luminous gesso base of a tempera painting combined with the
accumulative effects of overlaid colour washes, produces a unique
dcpth and intensity of colour.
Lapis-lazuli : It is a mineral which provides a unique colour of violet-blue. It was
an expensive mineral hence reserved for focal accents and impor-
tant symbolic features in design.
Altarnira : Prehistoric cave towers famous for its magnificent paintings and
engravings. It is in northern spain.
Fresco : Fresco (Italian; 'fresh') is the traditional method for painting
directly on to wall or ceiling. It is the oldest known painting
medium, surviving in the pre-historic mural decorations.
Mural : Mural painting has its origins in the primal instrincts of people to
decorate their surroundings and to use wall surfaces 2s means for
expressing ideas, emotions and beliefs. Their universal manifesta-
tion is in the form of graffiti. But in more disciplined attempts to
symbolise the importance and function of particular buildings
through their interior decoration, murals have been designed for
the restricted framework of specific surface areas.
I
11.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES 3
!
r
1) See Sec.ll.2.
2) See sub.Sec.ll.2.1.
r
1) See silb.Sec.11.3.2.
r
Painting
Popular Culture
. UNIT INDIAN CINEMA
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Introducing Indian Cinema
13.2.1 Era of Silent Films
13.2.2 Pre-Independence Talkies
13.2.3 Post Independence Cinema
Indian Cinema as an Industry
Indian Cinema : Fantasy or Reality
Indian Cinema in Political Perspective
Image of Hero
Image of Woman
Music And Dance in Indian Cinema
Achievements of Indian Cinema
Let Us Sum Up
A 13.0 OBJECTIVES
This Unit discusses about Indian cinema. Indian cinema has been a very powerful medium
for the popular expression of India's cultural identity. After reading this Unit you will be able
to:
familiarize yourself with the achievements of about a hundred years of Indian cinema,
trace the development of Indian cinema as an industry,
spell out the various ways in which social reality has been portrayed in Indian cinema,
place Indian cinema in a political perspective,
define the specificities of the images of men and women in Indian cinema,
.
outline the importance of music in cinema, and
get an idea of the main achievements of Indian cinema.
13.1 INTRODUCTION .p
It is not possible to fully comprehend the various facets of modern Indan culture without
understanding Indian cinema. Although primarily a source of entertainment, Indian cinema
has nonetheless played an important role in carving out areas of unity between various groups
and communities based on caste, religion and language. Indian cinema is almost as old as
world cinema. On the one hand it has gdted to the world great film makers like Satyajit Ray, ,
it has also, on the other hand, evolved melodramatic forms of popular films which have gone
beyond the Indian frontiers to create an impact in regions of South west Asia.
In this Unit we will familiarize you with those characteristics of Indian cinema which enable
a better and fuller understanding of modern India. Although it is not possible to include all
the aspects of Indian cinema in one Unit, we would nevertheless try to introduce you to those
aspects which would provide a background to y~ur~activities in relation to tourism. This Unit,
therefore, focuses on those aspects of Indian cinema which will prove useful in your pursuits
e.g. an overview of hundred years of Indian cinema, its development as an industry,
identifymg Indian social reality as expressed in cinema, and the political context of Indian
cinema. This Unit will also looks at cinema as an art form and highlights those factors, like
Indian film music and dance, which have contributed to its popularity.
13.2 INTRODUCING INDIAN CINEMA
8
When Lumiere brothers invented cinema in the last decade of the 19th century, they did not
quite realize the fact that their invention would, in years to come, entertain millions across
the world in an unprecedented manner. India may have lagged behindother countries in many
fields but has maintained near parity in the field of cinema. Only seven months after its
inauguration (premier show) in France, Lumiere brothers' films were shown in Bombay for
the first time on 7 July 1896. In 1899, Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatwadekar made a film on
a wrestling match in Bombay. In 1901 Bhatwadekar made the first news reel. The honour of
making the first feature fdm goes to Dada Saheb (Dhundiraj Govind ) Phalke who made the
first silent film Raja Harishchandra in 1913. Indian cinema has thus completed about a
hundred years and feature Glms have completed a span of more than 80 years. The history of
Indian cinema caa be broadly divided into three phases:
1. The era of silent films: 1913-31.
2. Pre-independence talkies: 1931-47.
3. Post independence films: 1947 till today.
We will now study all these phases separately.
132.1 The Era of Silent Films
The era of silent films lasted for almost two decades. To begin with in only three silent iilms
were made in 1913. This number kept increasing every year. By the end of silent era in 1934
around 1300 films were made. 1931 was a year of climax for silent films. When a total of 200
silent films were made it was also the time of the making of first talkie. This number declined
to 64 the next year. In 1934, the last year of silent cinema, only seven silent films were made.
1
In 1916, three years after the making of Raja Harishchandra, R.Natraj Mudliar made
'Keechak Vadham' (The killing of Keechak a character from the epic Mahabharat) in south
India. The very next year J.F.Madan made 'Satyavadi Harishchandra' in Calcutta. In the
same year Babu Rao Painter, a famous film maker and Dada Saheb Falke's disciple, started
aMaharashtriagfilm company. The same year Dada Saheb Phalke made a short film on movie
making itself, called,How Films are Made. Film Censor Boards were established in Bombay,
Calcutta and Madras in 1920. The first film magazine 'Bijoli' was published in bengali from
Calcutta the same year. A film Nal Damyanti was made with Italian collaboration, again in
1920. This was the first Indian film made with foreign collaboration.
'The themes of silent films were invariably religious and mythological and sometimes social.
Sawkari Pash, a film made by Baburao Painter in 1925, is rated by many film critics as the
first Indian art film. V. Shantaram played the role of a peasant whose land is appropriated
by a greedy moneylender. The peasant is forced to become a mill worker in a city. Sawkari
Pash was the first realistic cinema in an era of religious films based on a melodramatic
formula. Both the trends in film making were to culminate^ later into very very different
traditions of film making, broadly classified as art films and commercial films. The
melodramatic and theatrical tradition of film making owed itself to Parsi theatres which were
quite popular among the people when cinema made its entry. (You must have read about it
in Unit-12.)
13.2.2 Pre-Independence Talkies
Foreign talkie films had been screened in India before the first Indian talkie was made. These
films inspired Ardeshir M. Irani to make the first Indian sound feature film (talkie) Alam
Ara. The film was in hindi and had twelve songs in it. It was from here that songs and music
became an integral part of Indian cinema. The year 1931 witnessed the making of 28 talkies
, of which there were 23 in hindi, four in bengali and one in tamil. The first tamil talkie Kalidas,
directed by H.M. Reddy, was also made in 1931. The number of talkies increased to 84 the
next year and kept increasing in subsequent years. In 1947 alone a total of 280 films were
screened in as many as 15 languages. Of these 33 in bengali, 11 in Gujrati, 183 in hindi,'five
in kannada, six in marathi, three in oriya, 29 in tamil and six in telugu were screened.
The traditions of realistic and melodramatic cinema ran parallel to each other in the era of
talkies also. But the dividing line between them was not as strong and clear as it became after
Indian Cinema
popular Culture independence and particularly in the era of new cinema in the 1970s. Today films are known
for their heroes and heroinesbut the films of 1930s and 1940s were known for their ~roduction
companies. Bombay Talkies, Prabhat Films, New Theatres and Filmistan were some of the
famous film companies. In south India A.V.M. (A. V. Meiyappan) f i company and Gemini
Pictures were established. Although Bombay was the centre of film making, ~alcutta, ~ a d r a s
and Pune were also important places for such activity.
The films, to begin with, were not only silent but also devoid of any colours. ~ v e n talkies
continued to be made only in black and white although attempts were made to impart colours
to filfns. In 1933, Prabhat Films, Pune got their film sairandhri processed Germany and
this was the first coloured indian film. But coloured films did not catch on and during the first
two decades after 1933 films continued to be made in black and white only- The decade after
that witnessed both coloured and black and white films. It was not until 1970 that the making
of black and white film virtually came to an end.
During the pre-independence period the Indian cinema did not directly contribute to the
struggle for freedom for fear of being censored. But the ideas of freedom continued to be
expressed indirectly through religious and historical cinema. Often such films had to face
bans and censorship. The second major contribution of cinema during this period was in the
field of social reform. ~c hhut Kanya, made in 1936 by Bombay Talkies, focused on the
question of social justice. Similarly Sant Tukaram (marathi, 1936) became a classic in the
history of Indian cinema. The year 1936 witnessed the emergence of leftist movements and
this was reflected in the cinema as well. Duniya Na Mane (hindi, 1937), Pukar (hindi, 1939),
Tyagbhumi (tamil, 1939), Roti (hindi, 1942), Ramshastri (hindilmarathi, 1944), Dharti Ke
La1 (hindi, 1946), Doctor Kotnis Ki Amar Kahani (hindi, 1946), Neechanagar (hindi, 1946)
were important films in this direction.
All of them were artistic attempts at portraying existing social contradictions in a ~ealistic
form (manner). Among the main film makers of this era were V.Shantaram. Nitin Bose,
P.C.Barua, Dhiren Ganguli, Himanshu Roy, Sohrab Modi, Chetan Anand, Mehboob Khan,
K.Subramanyam, V.Damle, S.Fattelal and Khwaja Ahmad Abbas.
I
t13.2.3 Post-Independence Cinema
Attempts at combining entertainment and social relevance in the cinema continued even after
independence. Although the censor boards, created during the British period, remained,
movie makers now enjoyed greater liberty in making political and social films than they bad
before. Technically the world of cinema had advanced quite a bit and this was reflected in
Indian cinema too. The movie makers, active during this phase, displayed an acute awareness
of the changes taking place in world cinema. Combined with this was an optimism,
-
determination and a resolve to do something new. Satyajit Ray, Bimal Roy, Ritwik Ghat&,
Guru Dutt, Rishikesh Mukerjee, Raja Paranjpe, L.V.Prasad, K.Balchander, Raj Kapur,
Rajender Singh Bedi, Mrinal Sen, Dutta Dharmadhikari, Anant Mane, Dinkar Patil, B.Naga
Reddy and C.P.Sridhar etc. were the main movie makers of the post independence period
who based their cinema on social realism, aesthetic sophistication (excellence)and healthy
entertainment. Many films of this period were acknowledged and awarded nationally and
internationally. Pather Panchali (bengali, 1955), Charulata (bengali, 1964), Chemmin
(mala~alam, 1965), Jagte Raho (hindi, 1956) and Do Bigha Zameen (hindi, 1953) were
distinguished films of this period. Kismat (hindi, 1943) had already created a record for the
longest running at a cinema hall in Calcutta- three and a half years! Similarly Mughal-i-Azam
( urdu, 1960), Mother India (hindi, 1958) and Ganga Jamuna (hindi, 1%2) credM new
standard in popular cinema. Awara (hindi, 1951) extended the popularity of Indian cinemr
beyond Indian frontiers to U.S.S.R. and West Asia. In South India, N.T.Ramarao (telugu),
Shivaji Ganeshan and M.G.Ramchandran (tamil), Prem Nazir (malayalam) and Rajkumar
(kannada) achieved popularity with their hero centred (hero oriented) films and captured
popular imagination as regional heroes.
Hope, faith and optimism reigned supreme in the Indian society and people in the first two
Satyajit Ray
decades of the post-independence India. The newly won freedom had ushered in an era of
hope among the people. They believed that in independent India old promises would be
fulfilled and new changes will bring about prosperity, equality and a better life for the common
people. This romanticism was reflected fairly clearly in contemporary cinema. Dukh Bhare
Din Beete Re Bhaiya, Ab Sukh Aayo Re ( Gone are the days of sorrow, it's happiness ever
after, a song from the hindi fdmMother India) was really the voice of this cinema. Expressions
26
of pain and agony were also tinged with a hope for a better tomorrow- Woh-Subah Kabhi To
Aayegi (better days will be here some day, a song from the hindi film Phir Subah Hogi). But
hopes began turning into despair by the seventh decade of the century. Culture of self
aggrandizement and consumerism began to dominate the Indian cinema. The technical
excellence acquired by the cinema during the 1970s was also accompanied by a certain moral
degeneration in the theme selection.
Parallel to this ran another k i d of cinema. Deteriorating social situation motivated people
into collective popular political action. This popular urge for social action found its voice in
the new cinema also. It was called the new cinema or the parallel cinema. As you are aware,
a tradition of realistic cinema had always existed, but now it became a very significant trend
and also created a space for new experiments. This cinema was made possible by
contributions from N.F.F.C. (National Film Financing Corporation) and financial assistance
from stategovernments. This new cinema was of two kinds- the experimental cinema of Mani
Kaul and Kumar Sahni on the one hand, and the 'committed' cinema of Shyam Benegal,
Adoor Gopal Krishnan, Gautam Ghosh, Govind Nihlani, Syed Akhtar Mirza, Ketan Mehta
and Jabbar Patel, on the other. The second category of cinema was essentially an expression I
of social protest. Indian cinema in this phase benefitted immensely by the entry of actors,
directors and technicians trained in the Film Institute of Pune. Bhuwan Shome (hindi, Mrinal
Sen), Uski Roti (hindi, Mani Kaul), Sanskar (kannada, Girish Kasarvalli), Swayamwaram
(Malydam, Adoor Gopal krishnan), Ankur (hindi, Shyam Benegal), Pasi (tamil, Durai),
Umbartha (marathi, Jabbar Patel), Bhawani Bhawai (gujarati, Ketan Mehta), Sadgati (hindi,
Satyajit Ray), Paar (hindi, Gautam Ghosh), Maya Miriga (oriya, Nirad Mahapatra), Aakrosh
(hiidi, Govind Nihlani), etc.were some of the important films of this phase.
The new cinema did not flourish for long and had a somewhat premature end in the 1980s.
'Popular cinema also began changing its complexion. The romance of the 1960s gave way to
sexandviolence. But it should be admitted that the number and influence of socially relevant
films, although on a decline, has not disappeared altogether.
-- -
133 INDIAN CINEMA AS AN INDUSTRY
i
India tops the list in the number of films made every year. Approximately 800 films in about
25 languages are made every year. In the last eight decades India has made about 25000 films
in about 50 languages. It did look at some point that the expansion of the television might
send the cinema into oblivion. On the contrary, the number of films has increased with the
I
television boom. In 1990 only, a total of 948 films were screened.
The maximum number of films are made in hindi, tamil, telugu and malayalam. Apart from
these Karnataka, Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Orissa and Assam have a long tradition of
good film making. India has a total of 13000'cinema halls catering to a population of 900
million people. Of these, 8000 are permanent cinema halls. They entertain a total of 15 million
b movie goers every week. More than half the cinema halls are located in the four states of
South India whereas the seven hindi states, put together, have only 2400 cinema halls. The
single state of Andhra Pradesh has more cinema halls (2600) than all the hindi states put
together.
I
The cinema as a medium has been used, ever since the beginning, for making feature films
mainly. This has been partly because of the ability of this medium to portray a story in its
totality. But this must be borne in mind that makinga feature film is very different fin- writing
a story, novel or poetry. The latter are primarily individual ventures. Film, on the contrary, is
a collective effort which requires investments at a very large plane, both at the level of making
and screening. It is for this reason that film making, distribution and screening have taken the
form of an industry. A total of sixlakh people are involved andemployed, in various capacities,
i a the industry. According to an estimate, approximately seven billion rupees have been
invested in the making of the films, four billion in distribution network, 13 billion in the form
of cinema halls, 400 million in laboratories and the same amount in recording studios. A total
of three billion rupees are invested every year in movie making and the expenditure on an
average frlm comes to more than ten million rupees.
The government receives eleven billion rupees annually as tax from the sale of tickets. In the
year 1988-89 the total income from the film industry was to the tune of six and a half billion
rupees after paying all the taxes. Hence, cinema is an important source of governmerit
revenue.
Indian Cinema
Shyam Benegal
Gaulam Ghosh
Popular Culture
Cinema has also played an important role in earning money through exports. Indian films are
exported to 50 countries. This includes countries which do not have Indian population. During
1978-80, National Film Development Corporation (N.F.D.C.) received 120 million rupees
from the export of Indian films. In a decade's time this increased to 750 million. The exact
import figures are not available, but the income of N.F.D.C., active in this field, has been on
an increase. Strangely enough, in such a huge industry churning out 800 films every year, the
proportion of commercially successful films is not more that ten percent. Another ten percent
manage to break even and the remaining 80 percent end up commercially unsucessful. This
does not, however, deter movie makers in their ventures. In hindi only, the making of about
300 films is declared every year, although only half of them are made and barely one third
manage to get a screening.
In spite of such losses for a majority of the films, it is the incentive of huge profits which
explains the investment of billions of rupees every year in the Indian cinema. The successful
films at the box office normally return five to ten times the original cost of the film. The
successful film of 1994, Hum Aapke Hain Kaun, with an estimated investment of about
seventy million, earned one and a half billion rupees in one year only.
I
1. a. Social relevance and aesthetic sophistication being the criteria, which Indian film
can be called the first art film?
b. Which was the first coloured Indian film?
c. Which was the first talkie made in tamil?
d. Who directed the above mentioned film?
e. Which talkie was the first to acquire the status of a classic?
2.
a)
Name the four languages in which maximum films are made.
...
i) U ) ill)_ iv)-
b)
Which are the four states with maximum number of cinema halls?
i) ii) iii) iv)
c)
What makes following persons famous?
i) Dada Saheb Falke
ii) Babu Rao Painter
iii) Ardeshir M. Irani
3. 80 percent of the films flop at the box office. Why is there so much of investment in the
cinema?
INDIAN CINEMA : FANTASY OR REALITY
Like other art forms cinema is both a part of existing social reality and also a medium of
portraying it. But the way in which the reality is portrayed in cinema is different from other
art forms. This aspect is often ignored while analysing Indian cinema. A great motivating force
behind movie making is the huge ocean of audiences, drawn from the middle and lower middle
Indian Cinema
classes, located in big cities and small towns. Although not more than one fourth of the
population, it still forms a great bulk of the people. This bulk consists of groups with diverse
habits, priorities, expectations and life styles. The Indian cinema has to, necessarily, cater to
these diverse groups and represent their variety.
The long span of popular Indian cinema over the last 80 years has rested on certain formulae
which have also undergone periodic changes. Films revolving around love story, song and
dance, comic interludes and sex and violence are also a reflection of the time and social
surroundings. Cinema uses various contradictions inherent in our society l i e raw materials.
A central contradiction, used by the cinema, is the one between the rich and the poor. Apart
from this, the rural and the urban, different generations, Hindus and Muslims, upper caste
and lower caste, man and woman often form the core of the films' story. Situations of conflict,
harmony and struggle are created out of these contradictions. Also, an attempt to transcend
differences of religion, caste, language and region to adopt a humanitarian view and position
has also been central to Indian cinema. This is, however, not to imply that popular cinema
provides any meaningful and socially creative alternative to the real contradictions of our
society. On the contrary, popular cinema, in its ideological moorings, does not posit any
radical solutions to societal problems.
There is also a sense in which hiidi cinema is different from their regional counterparts. hindi
films try to express forms of pan-Indianism in their stylistic representations. Regional films,
on the other hand, are able to portray their specific regional cultural flavour without diluting
it in anyway. In spite of this difference, popular films in all languages use social contradictions
like raw material. Reality is moulded to such an extent that.it acquires the+,hape of a fantasy,
in harmony with middle class aspirations and fantasies. Popular cinema, thus, on the one
hand, becomes contextual and credible by establishing a link with reality, and, on the other,
constructs a world of fantasy, providing the audiences a certain release (escape) from their
'real' world, full of sorrow and agony.
i 13.5 INDIAN CINEMA IN POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE
Indian cinema has developed primarily as a source of entertainment and has, therefore, been
unable to play an important role in bringing about basic political transformation. On the
contrary, popular cinema has tended to avoid political tension to be able to establish a larger
social base. But it is generally not possible for any source of entertainment to make itself
popular without taking into cognition the existing social reality. Therefore, Indian popular
cinema has, paradoxically enough, used the existing social reality and sought to escape it, at
the same time. Cinema before independence, maintained a safe distance from the freedom
struggle and avoided echoing, after independence, popular aspirations. Although, on the one
hand, Indian films expressed and upheld positive values of democracy, nationalism and
communal harmony; on the other hand, t h y also lent legitimacy, directly or indirectly, to the
feudal structure of the family, deep religiosity and male domination in the society. If hindi
cinema tended to promote national chauvinism, regional cinema promoted, though
unconsciously, regionalism. Quite often, a condemnation of westernisation also became, in
popular cinema, an attempted resurrection of the rotten feudal structure.
Along with being a source of entertainment, India's popular cinema has also acted like opium
for the people, thus tranquilising their consciousness into deep slumber. The politics of
cinema has always been a supporter of status quo. Through a fantasisation of the social reality,
.
the popular cinema has prevented the exposure of the popular consciousness towards the
naked truth of their own lives and has often trapped them into an unreal, fantastic world.
Admittedly, cinema is not the only medium to be doing this and not every cinema is misleading
the popular consciousness in this manner. B.R.Painter, V.Shantaram, Satyajit Ray, Bimal
Roy, Guru Dutt, Shyam Benegal and Adoor Gopal Krishnan etc. have provided a better
alternative to Indian cinema by making pro-people films.
Popular Culture
EIIl
1)
What is the identity of the audiences of the Indian films?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2)
'Give one important difference between hindi cinema and regional cinema?
3. What kind of a value system has been portrayed in the popular Indian cinema?
13.6 IMAGE OF HERO ,
The prevalence of hero centred cinema is merely a reflection of the male dominated society
of ours. The pre-independence hero was well aware of his social responsibility and fully
committed to change the society. But his own life had nothing but pain and sorrow. The
post-independence hero, by contrast, was a romantic who nurtured softer emotions. He
dreamt of setting up a home with the beautiful girl he loved. This was interrupted by the entry
of the villain who was a bad man, with dubious morality and motivated by greed. His singular
mission was to capture and win the heroin by hook or crook. The hero- villain conflict reached
its climax in the fight between the two and the film ended with the defeat of the villain. The
fight between the hero and the villain provided the only instance of violence in film full of
romantic scenes, softer emotions and a musical environment. Such were the films of Dilip
Kumar, Raj Kapur, Guru Dutt and Ashok Kumar.
The films from south followed more or iess the same pattern expect that their hero behaved
in a more heroic fashion than their counterpart in the hindi films. He also had strong regional
roots unlike heroes from the hindi films. M.G.Ramachandran, Shivaji Ganeshan,
N.T.Ramarao and Prem Nazir etc. represented this regional hero. This was the product of
the optimism generated during the Nehru era.
The 1970s came up with crude versions of this romantic hero. The romance became shallow,
almost verging on consumerism. By now the optimism of Nehru era had begun evaporating
in thin air. It was this c1ima:e which productd a new hero. This was a rough, tough and angry
man motivated by vengeance. His motto in life was an eve for an eve. Needless to sav this was
Indian Cinema
Amitabh Bachchan era. In regional cinema this image was carried mainly by Rajnikant. In
their hasic attributes these heroes were so different from their predecessors that they were
called anti-heroes.
The crisis of the Indian society deepened in the decades of 1980s and 1990s. Greed for wealth
increased among the middle and upper classes. Idealism became a thing of the past.
Degeneration in values became rampant. Distinction between good and bad got blurred.
Violence and intolerance were on an ascent. Increasing communalism, separatism,
regionalism and consumerism were indicators of the decay that had set in the society.
Indian cinema was merely the reflection of the increasing violence in the society. The
anti-hero of the earlier decade became a proper Khalnayak (villain) now. The distinctions
between the hero and the villain almost disappeared. Sanjay Dutt, Shahrukh Khan and
Nagarjun are the heroes of this villain era. A challenge to this 'villain' era is the unprecedented
success of the heroine centred, romantic musical Hum Aapke Hain Kaun which perhaps
shows that it is still possible for the society to overcome its degeneration of social values.
13.7 IMAGEOF WOMAN ,
The image of woman, like that of the hero, has been constantly changing in the Indian cinema.
This is also related to the changing roles of woman in the society. During the silent cinema
the movie makers had questioned the feudal restrictions on a woman's life. Dhiren Ganguli,
Baburao Painter and V.Shantaram opposed child marriage through their films and promoted
widow remarriage, women's education, freedom to choose their own husbands, and working
along with men outside the house.
Indian cinema continued to embrace and espouse this reformative attitude towards woman
but also glorified motherhood, and fidelity among women. An ideal woman was a devoted
wife and a loving mother who would make any sacrifice for the family. Even now it is virtually
impossible to show the ideal woman resorting to divorce, remarriage or marriage with a man
of other religion.
In order to highlight the orthodox image of the devoted wifE, the Indian films have
counterposed this image with that of the vamp who is just the opposite. She is a westernised
woman, smokes and drinks, and is cruel, selfish and unscrupulous. In other words, she is the
anti-thesis of the 'womanly' attributes- soft, polite and sacrificing. Needless to say the real
woman's image did not correspond to any of these extremities. The real picture of the woman
has been portrayed very powerfully by movie makers endowed with a strong sense of social
awakening. They have also posited the alternative of woman's liberation in a commendable
manner. V.Shantaram, Ritwik Ghatak, Guru Dutt, Satyajit Ray, Bimal Roy, Shyam Benegal
and Jabbar Pate1 etc. have emphasised the real plight of the woman through some of their
important films. Simultaneously she has also been upheld for her courage and the capacity
to struggle.
Whether it is the traditional woman or the modern liberated one, Indian actresses have
enacted these roles and images very powerfully. Devika Ran;, Durga Khote, Nargis, Meena
Kumari, Nutan, Waheeda Rehman, Sharda, Smita Patil and Shabana Azmi are some of India's
,
all time greats.
13.8 MUSIC IN INDIAN CINEMA ,'
During he days of silent cinema, the cinema halls used to keep an orchestra in front of the
screen facing the audience. The orchestra would provide the viewers an outline of the story
and background music along with the film. In between the scenes they would also entertain
the viewers with songs. Music, song and dances had been the integral part of the popular
theatres, and so it was assumed that cinema, too, should be accompanied by songs and music.
In the Parsi theatres the dialogues, too, used to be delivered in a lyrical manner. Indian cinema
inherited this tradition. Whereas the first talkie Alam Ara (1931) had twelve songs in it,
Indrasabha had 70. Films in other languages maintained this tradition. The non theatrical
(realistic) films, in which songs were avoided owing to respect for realism, were invariably
rejected by the people. Even today films with as many as fourteen songs are box office hits.
Pop& Culture
In fact, music has been a major factor in the recent hits Roja, Bombay and Mum Aapke Main
Kaun.
The 60 years' march of filmy music has gone through many stages. In the initial days when
dubbing was not possible, songs had to be recoided along with shooting. The entire orchestra
used to be present at the shooting sight. The actual singing had to be done by the actors and
actresses themselves, as background sicging was not possible. Noorjahan, Suraiya, Surendra,
Ashok Kumar, M.S.Subbalakshmi and K.L.Sehga1 were all actors/actresses cum singers. With
dubbing came a new tradition of playback singers.
Music in Indian films is generally not conceived as an autonomous entity within itself, but has
Lo be intimately connected to the storyline. Songs and music are created in accordance with
the requirements of the film and are woven into the various situations of the film. In spite of
these limitations, the melodious music produced by the Indian cinema is an example in itself
and has few parallels.
Film music has derived its melodies from three diverse sources- Indian classical music, folk
music from different regions and western classical and popular music. Initial music directors
did not copy this music but adapted and modified it to create a music tradition suitable to the
common man.
In the fourth and the fifth decades, the use of the orchestra was minimal and the music director
displayed his musical abilities with the help of very few musical instruments. This did not,
however, take away from the music its melody and charm. R.C.Bora1, Pankaj Malik,
K.L.Sehga1, Kanan Devi, K.C.Dey, Pahari Sanyal, Saraswati Devi and Khem Chandra
Prakash were some of the greatest singers and music directors of this period whose melodious
voices and lyrical music is very popular even today,
Many new and promising music directors emerged during the 1950s. Anil Biswas, Vasant
Desai, Naushad, C.Ramchandra, S.D.Burman, Jaidev, Madan Mohan, Roshan,
M.S.Baburaj, S.Bal Chander, Salil Choudhry, Bhupen Mazarika, Hemant Kumar,
P Nageshwar Rao and Sudhir Phadke were some of them. Part of the credit for their success
should also go to a whole generation of immensely talented lyrists, dfawn from the world of
poetry and literature. Sahir Ludhianvi, Majrooh Sultanpuri, Shailendra, Ka5 Azmi, Pradeep
and Gopal Das Neeraj were some of the leading lyrists of the 1950s. Apart from these, Lata
Mangeshkar, Geeta Dutt, Asha Bhonsle, Mohamrnad Rafi, Talat Mehmood, Mukesh,
Kishore Kumar, Manna Dey and Hemant Kumar were great singers who, in company with
the music directors and the lyrists, produced ever lasting melodies. These singers sang not
only in hindi and urdu but in various other Indian languages. Lata Mangeshkar alone is
credited to have sung about 25000 songs in fifteen different languages. Not only that, the magic
of her voice has completely mesmerised and captivated the Indian people for five full decades.
This duration must be a record in the history of singing.
The golden phase of film music began fading by the 1970s when violence began to dominate
the Indian films. Romance and soft emotions, fodder for good music in the films, received a
set back in the popular films of the 1970s and 1980s. In trying to keep pace with life, softness
and subtle nuances of music gave way to fast, loud and orchestral forms. R.D.Burman, Ilia
Raja, Laxmikant Pyarelal and Bappi Lahiri were some of the popular music directors of this
period though occasionally they gave pleasing music also. The cacophonic tradition of music
continues even today but the 1990s has brought reminders of the golden period of film music.
A.R.Rahman, the.famous young director from south, and some budding music directors from
hindi films are trying to revive the glorious past.
Like music dance has also been an integral part of Indian films. Music and its strong presence
in the films is actually rooted in India's rich cultural tradition. Classical dance forms like
Bharat Natyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kuchipuri and Manipuri etc. are a part of this tradition.
Apart from these , the tradition of folk dances is no less rich and diverse. It is indeed a truism
to say that the dance and music form an important part of Indian life.
The dance forms in Indian cinema have borrowed very heavily from Indian classical tradition,
folk tradition and the western dance tradition. But film dances do not use them in their
original, pure form. Thematically speaking, dances are used in films in three ways. Fi st is a
solo performance by the heroine or the vamp on the stage or at a party. The dance form
employed here is often a classical one. Second is a chorus at a festival or some big occasion.
Sit~lations for these dances are somehow woven into the theme of the film. These are often a
combination of folk and western dance traditions. The third form is often employed by the
hero and the heroine to express their love for each other. The mod intimate moments between
the hero and the heroine are portrayed through songs and music in the films. No specific
dance form is resorted to, by the hero or the heroine.
The combination of songs and music is generally used to convey a sense of happiness, elation
or sorrow. The focus is generally not on its pure and classical form but on its popular
manifestations. Sometimes it becomes quite difficult to decipher the exact dance form in the
films. Of late, there has been an increase in vulgarity in film dances which is nothing but a
part of increasing vulgarity in Indian cinema in general. There is not much to distinguish
regional films from their hind counterparts, as far as dance is concerned. The regional cinema
generally does not use the specific dance form and music of that particular region.
Nonetheless, it can not be denied that dance and music have played a very crucial role in
popularising Indian cinema.
13.9 ACHIEVEMENTS OF'INDIAN CINEMA
Indian cinema may not have played a revolutionary role but has definitely contributed to the
welding together of 900 million Indians from different languages, religions and cultures.
,
Different parts of the country have contributed to the development of the film industry.
Interestingly, people from the non hindi areas have contributed to popular hindi cinema,
more than the hindi speaking people. Paradoxically Tamilnadu, where hindi as a language
has never been popular, has played an important role in the promotion of hindi films. Film
produc~ng units A.V.M., Gemini Films, Vijaya pictures and Prasad Productions from
Madras have constantly made films in hindi and thereby provided the much needed bridge
between north and south. South has also given a number of famous heroines to hindi cinema.
Waheeda Rahman, Vyjayanti Mala, Hema Malimi, Jaya Prada, Shri Devi and Rekha have
dominated the silver screen for a long time. Great film makers like Dada Saheb Phalke,
Hiralal Sen and Baburao Painter of the silent era and V.Shantaram, Himanshu Roy, Nitin
Bose, Guru Dutt, Bimal Roy, Rishikesh Mukerjee, SohrabModi, Mrinal Sen, ShyamBenegal,
Ketan Mehta, Raj Kapur and Jabbar Pate1 have all come from non-hindi areas. Even today
Mani Ratnam's films, A.R.Rehman's music, S.P.Bala Subramanyam's voice and Sridevi's
acting have brought together millions from across the regions. This contribution from
non-hind areas in the development of hindi cinema has not only helped popularise hindi all
over the country but has also helped in creating a pan indian scenario which has been equally
acceptable to people from different religions, regions and languages.
The other major contribution of Indian cinema has been towards developing and preserving
a composite culture for India.
Indian cinema has always espoused love and good will among hindus, muslims, sikhs and
christians. Even while upholding religious faith Indian cinema has always condemned
religious bigotry and communal animosity. Themes in popular cinema have been replete with
instances of inter-religious friendships particularly those between Hindus and Muslims. This
has resulted in both Hindu and non-Hindu actors becoming the idols of cinema lovers. The
dt of non-Hindu idols is very long and stretches from Dilip Kumar (YusufKhan) to Shahrukh
Khan, Naushad to A.R.Rehman, Nargis to Shabana Azmi, Sahir Ludhianvi to Kaifi Azmi,
Noorjahan to Mohammad Rafi and K.Asif to Jabbar Patel. The importance of this
contribution of Indian cinema, in providing idols cutting across cultures and religions, should
not be under estimated.
Yet another contribution of Indian cinema is its music about which you have read in Section
13.7. Indian cinema has also given to the worldsatyajit Ray whose films have been appreciated
the world over and who has been honoured with a special Oscar award.
Apart from making the maximum number of films in the world, India has other records also.
Lata Mangeshkar (for singing 25000 songs in fifteen languages), famous malayalam actor
Prem Nazir (for playing the leading role in 600 films) and hindi actor Jagdish Raj (for
maximum roles as a police officer) have all figured in the Gueniss Book of World Records.
lndian cinema has retained its popularity even in the age of television. The number of film
watchers has increased manifold thanks to dish antenna. Television channels like movie club,
zee cinema and other regional frlm channels show films round the clock. It is thus that Indian
cinema-has become the most popular medium of India's popular cultural expression.
Indian Cinema
CzzI l
What are the dominant characteristics of the hero in the Indian cinema after 1970?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How has the woman been portrayed in popular Indian cinema?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Which different sources did the film music derive itself from?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
- 13.10 LET US SUM UP b
In this Unit you have learnt about the main achievements of a hundred years of Indian cinema.
You also know how Indian cinema entertains million by making 800 to 900 films in more than
25 languages every year. Cinema has been portraying contemporary reality and fantasy
through silent films and then through talkies over decades. It has also protected the composite
culture of the country and played an important role in establishing unity among Indian people.
However the political perspect~ve of popular cinema has been that of the ruling classes of the
country. That Indian cinema has reflected and responded to the societal changes becomes
evident when we see the changing image of its heroes and their changing attitudes towards
women. The most outstanding feature of Indian cinema has been its music. It is virtually
impossible to imagine Indian cinema without music, songs and dances. This symbolises the
vitality, not only of popular Indian cinema, but also of different Indian cultures and
communalities and their deep faith in life. Lata Mangeshkar is a product of this great
tradition. Finally the contribution of Indian cinema should be seen not only in the field of
entertainment but also in achieving excellence in the field of popular art. All the glory and
greatness of Indian cinema issymbolised in the contributions of Satyajit Ray.
Check Your .Progress-1
.I
I)
a) Sawkari Pash b) Sairandhri c) Kalidas d) H.M.Reddy e) Sant Tukaram.
2)
a) i) tamil ii) telugu iii) hindi iv) malayalarn
b) i) Andhra Pradesh ii) Tamilnadu iii) Karnataka iv) Kerala
c) i) For making the first feature film k j a ~arishchindra
ii) For making the first realistic art film, iii) For making the first
See Sec. 13.3.
n
See Sec. 13.4.
See Sec. 13.5.
See Sec. 13.5.
I
1) See Sec. 13.6.
2) See.+Skc. 13.7.
3)
Indian classical music, folk music from different
regions and western classic and popular music
have all influenced film music.
talkie
Indian Cinema
Smilq Patiie A versatile actress
IUtwik GhaIPk: A legend in 8engd Cinema
UNIT 14 MAIN ARCHITECHTURAL STYLES
Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Harappan Civilization
14.3 Ancient India
14.3.1 Residential Architecture
14.3.2 Religious Monuments
14.4 Medieval India
14.4.1 Indo-lslamic
14.4.2 Mughal
14.5 Colonial Period
14.6 Let Us Sum Up
14.7 Keywords
14.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you will be able to:
a familiarise yourself with important architectural trends in India from an=ient to the
British period.
a learn about the techniques and styles adopted in the field of architecture, and
a learn about the relationship between society and the architecture produced by that
society.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Art and architecture are true manifestations of the culture of a period as they reflect the mind
and approach of that society. It is here that the ideas and techniques of a society find visual
expression. In some of the earlier units, we have seen how artistic forms had started emerging
and to what extent they reflected the culture of a period. Works of art which were related to
work -processes of daily life and were not exclusively produced for a privileged goup of
society were many. They are found in the forms of rock paintings, terracotta figurines, toys
etc. Gradually specialization of works took place. This specialization is related to the ready
availability of an affordable surplus which could channelize the labour into more aesthetic
pursuits.
The availability of architectural edifices depends to a great extent on the material used in it.
If construction is of perishable material like wood then the chances of long term survival are
very thin but if material used is non-perishable, like stone, then it can last for longer period.
In India, the earliest architectural remains are available from the civilisational settlements of
Harappa. Here baked bricks were used in most cases as medium of construction. We have
very limited architectural remains for Vedic and Mauryan period. Later periods however
provide a great number of architectural remains and styles.
Thanks to the unprecedented number of excavations siice independence, a great deal is
known about the material advancement of ancient Indian societies and their links with ancient
cultures in Iran and Turkmenistan. The one major component so far discovered comprises
the cities and settlements of the Indus or Harappan Civilization (c.2500-1500 B.C) now known
to have extended over an area of at least 2000 by 1100 kms. from west of the Indus to the
longitude of Bombay, and so far north as the sub-Himalayan Punjab and the environs of New
Delhi.
It was during the Mauryan period that architecture reached a developed stage. The Asokan
pillars, the animals and carving on the pillars all represent mature art forms. In the period
between 200 B.C. - 600 A.D. the art activities were mostly related to religions practiced in
this period and symbols and units associated with it. Initially the construction of stupas,
chaityas viharas and later on temples became popular. Because of regular interactions with
other cultures in this period we also find elements of nowIndian art in the artistic creations
of this period.
The major shift in architectural styles came with the advent of Islam which introduced a totally
new technique for architectural creations.
The architecture of the period can be broadly divided in three main categories:
1) Residential structures,
2) Religious architecture, and
3) Public works.
Under the first category we have very few surviving monuments since during the initial phase
they were built of perishable materials like wood. However, a number of monuments have
survived and have been unearthed through excavations which come under the second
category. Some of the works of third category are still in use. We shall, therefore, take an
account of this architectural activity in a historical context.
14.2 HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
The civilization of the Indus valley is known to the archaeologists as the Harappan culture,
from the modern name of the site of one of its two great cities, both of which are now in
Pakistan (the other being Mohenjodaro). Recently excavations have been carried out at
various site in India and Pakistan. Each Harappan city had a well fortified citadel. The largely
regular planning of the streets and a certain uniformity throughout the area of Harappan
culture in such features as weights and measures, the size of bricks and even the layout of the.
great cities are noticeable characteristics.
Probably the most striking feature of this culture was its intense conservatism. At
Mohenjodaro nine strata of building have been revealed. As the level of the earth rose from
the periodic flooding of the Indus new houses were built almost exactly on the sites of the
old, with only minor variations in ground plan; for nearly a millennium at least, the street
plans of the cities remained the same. In neither of the cities has any stone building been
found; standardized burnt bricks of good quality were the usual building material. The
houses, often double storeyed, were all based on much the same plan - a square courtyard,
round which were a number of rooms. The entrances were usually inside alleys, and no
windows were found on the side of the streets.
The cities possessed unique sewage system where bathrooms were provided with drains,
which flowed into sewers under the main streets, leading to soak-pits. The sewers were
covered throughout their lengths by large slabs. The other important public utility buildings
were the Great Bath and Granary. We have discussed them in detail in Block 6, Unit 18.
143 ANCIENT INDIA
The architecture of Ancient India can be broadly divided into two catego;ies:
1) Residential
2) Religious monuments
14.3.1 Residential Architecture
Residential architecture in this period is basically associated with urban centres byause only
in cities non-perishable materials were used. We have literary and archaeological sources
to support this claim. For example the Milind Panha describes a city with moats, ramparts,
gate houses, towers, well laid out streets, markets, parks, lakes and temples. There are
references to building of several storeys with wagon - vaulted roofs and verandahs mostly
constructed of wood. This description to an extent is corroborated by other literarv sources
Main Architectural
such as Megasthenese's Indica etc. and archaeological sources. However, in the countryside
Styles
not much change was noticed in architectural styles or types of hutments.
143.2 Religious Monuments
The practice of preserving the remains of an important personality
under a heap of accumulated earth had been in existence for long.
Buddhists adopted this practice and the structure built over such a
site was known as stupa. According to Buddhist sources the remains
of Buddha's body were divided into eight parts and placed under the '
stupas. These, during the time of Ashoka, were dug out and
redistributed which led to the construction of other stupas, the sacred
places of Buddhism. The worship of stupas l ed t o t hei r
ornamentation and a specific type of architecture developed for their
construction.
The stupas had the shape of a bowl turned upside down. At the top,
which was a bit flat, used to be its harmika i.c. the abode of the Gods.
It was here that the urns containing the remains of Buddha or a great
personality connected with thc rcligion was placed in a gold or silver
casket. wooden rod was placedin its middle and thebottom of the rod was fmed on the
top of the stupa. On thc top of this rod were placed three small umbrella -type discs
symbolizing respect, veneration and magnanimity. The main stupas in India are located at
Bodhgaya, Sanchi, Bharhut, Amravati, and Nagarjunkonda.
Rock cut Architecture
Both the Buddhists and the Jains built chaityas and viharas as places of worship. A chaitya
is a shrine cell with a votive stupa placed in the centre. The general characteristics of the
chaityas are as follows:
They have a long rectangular hall ending in a semi-circle at the rear end.
This long hall is internally divided into a nave, an apse and two side aisles.
The aisles are separated from the nave by two rows of pillars.
The pillars come round the votive stupa placed in the centre of the apsidal part of the
nave.
The hall has a barrel-vaulted ceiling
The doorway is usually placed facing the votive stupa.
The facade has a horse-shoe shaped window called the chaitya window.
Viharas were primarily cut out of rocks for the residence of monks. The general features of
viharas are:
They have a square or oblong hall in the centre.
This is preceded in front by a pillared veranda.
They have a number of small square cells.
The cells and halls are usually provided with raised benches for the use of monks.
The earliest of the viharas of western India are located at such sites as Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajanta,
Pitallrhora, Nasik and Karle.
Temples
The earliest free standing religious building of which traces remain is a small round hall,
probably containing a Buddhist Stupa, at Bairat near Jaipur. There are no remains of free-
standing Hindu temples erected before the Gupta period, though by this time they must long
have been built in wood, clay and brick. All the Gupta temples were small, and most had
flat roofs. Their masonary was held together without mortar, and was far larger and thickdr
than was necessary for the comparatively small buildings. The portal veranda was continued
all round the building, making a covered walk.
,
The standard type of Hindu temple, which has persisted from the 6th century to the present
day, was not fundamentally different from that of the ancient Greeks. The heart of the temple
was a small dark shrine-room (garbha griha), containing the chief icon. This opened into a
hall for the worshippers (mandapa), originally a separate building, but usually joined to the
shrine- room by a vestibule. The hall was approached by a porch. The shrine room was
generally surmounted by a tower while smaller towers rose from other parts of the building.
The whole was set in a rectangular courtyard (which might contain lesser shrines) and was
often placed on a raised platform.
Check Your Progress- 1
n
1) Explain the salient features of ancient Indian architecture?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) What is the signScance of non-perishable material in architecture?
14.4 MEDIEVAL INDIA
The advent of the Turkish rule in India is signiscant not only politically but it a k ~ marked
the beginning of a new expression in the building art. The style of architecture that evolved
during this time is called Indo-Islamic.
14.4.1 Indo-Islamic
On a careful reading of the reports prepared by General Alexander Chmingham on
archaeological sites and remains (Reports of the Arghaeological Survey of In
I-XXIII, Simla, Calcutta, 1865-77) iaworth India we observe that the incidence of z n $
buildings including civilian housing in towns increases sigdcantly aECer the 13th oentury.
This was primarily possible due to the use of lime mor$ar as the basic cement& terial.
The building of true arch required stones or bricks to be laid as vksoi rs in the g e of a
curve and bound together firmly by a good binding material. This material was lime: mortar.
The result of the introduction of the new technique was that the pre-Turkish forms, lintel and
beam and corbelling, were replaced by trues arches and vaults and the spired roofs (&War)
by domes (Gumbad). Arches are made in a variety of shapes but in India the pointed form
of the Islamic world was directly inherited. The four-centred arch was introduced by the
T~ghluqs in their buildings.
The pointed arch was adopted in the Islamic world qtlite early due to its durability and ease
' of construction. The usual method of raising a pointed arch was to erect a light Wtering
and place one layer of bricks over it. This layer supported another thin layer of flat bricks
,
over which radiating voussoirs of the arch were fixed in mortar. It may be noted here that
,
the employment of bricks instead of an all-wood centering was a typical feature of regions
deficient in reserves of wood such as West Asia.
The construction of dome demanded special techniques. The problem was to hnd a suitable
method for connecting the square or rectangular top of the walls of the room into a circular
base for raising a spherical dome. The best way to overcome this problem was to convert the
square plan into a polygon by the use of squinches across the corners.
It is a curious fact that there are very few instances of early Turkish buildings in India where
newly quarried material has been employed by the architects. The fashion was to use richly
carved capitals, columns, shafts and lintels from pre-Turkish buildings. It is only towards the
beginning of the 14th century that buildings were raised by using originally quarried or
manufactured material.
In the masonry work, stone has been used abundantly. The foundations are mostly of rough
and small rubble or wherever it is possible of river boulders, while the superstructure is of
dressed stone or roughly shaped coarsed stonework. However, in either case, the buildings
were plastered all over.
r
The material commonly used for plastering building was gypsum. Apparently lime-plaster
.
was reserved for places that needed to be secured against the leakage of water, such as roofs,
,
indigo-vats, canals, drains etc. Later on gypsum mortar was preferred for plaster work on
the walls and the ceiling.
Decorative art in the Islamic buildings served the purpose of concealing the structure behind
motifs rather than revealing it. S k the depiction of living beings was generally frowned
upon, the elements of decoration were in most cases limited to:
a) Calligraphy
b) Geometry and
c) Foliation
Calligraphy was an important element of the decorative art in the buildings of this period.
The Quranic sayings are inscribed on buildings in an angular, sober and monumental script
known as Kuli. They may be found in any part of the building-frames of the doors, ceilings,
wall panels, niches etc., and in variety of materials-stone stucco and painting.
*--
*--
c o g
Of the foliations, the dominant form of decoration
employed in buildings, is the arabesque. It is characterized -
by a continuous stem which splits regularly, producing a
series of leafy secondary stems, which can in turn split again
or reintegrate into the main stem. The repetition of this
pattern produces a beautifully balanced design with a three
dimensional effect.
n
1) What are the main architectural~features
introduced by Islamic Culture in India?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Explain the difference between ancient Indian and Islamic styles of architecture.
14.4.2 Mughal
The Mughal rulers were men of acute aesthetic awareness and, as patron of art and culture,
they built beautiful cities and buildings in India. The foundation of a new style of architecture
in India had already been laid in 13th century with the introduction of the arcuate technique,
where spaces were covered with domes and entrances were made with the help of arches.
The Mughals carried this tradition and created a synthesis of the pre-Turkish technique, viz.,
trabeate with the arcuate. The final resylt, however, of all this blending was the emergence
of a disticnt style of their own.
Babar did not have enough time to devote to big architectural projects. He, nevertheless,
laid out several gardens in India on the pattern of his culture-area. In his memoirs (Babar
Nama) he claims credit for some pavilions also. Unfortunately very few of his buildings
survive today. The buildings during the period of Humayun do not show any distinctiveness.
However, the impact of a long contact with the Persian culture can be seen in the designing
and execution of his mausoleum under the supervision of his wife Hamida Banu Begum.
The Mughal rule in India was interrupted by Shershah Sur in 1540. For the next 15 years the
Empire came under the sway of the Surs who worked on profound architectural projects.
Their buildings, in fact, laid the groundwork on which the Mughals built subsequently. The
major representative of this group is the tomb of Sher Shah (in Sasaram), an architectural
masterpiece. Here the architect considerably enlargezthe normal proportions of the earlier
buildings and set it in a beautiful tank approached by a causeway. In addition to this he
increased the number of storeys thus producing a beautiful pyramidical structure in five
distinct stages.
Sher Shah's tomb stands on a stepped square plinth on a terrace approached through a
gateway via a bridge placed across the tank. There is an error in orienting the lower platform
of the tomb on the main axis. But it is corrected by skewing the axis of the super structure
built over the lower platform. The main building comprises of an octagonal chamber
surrounded by an arcade. There are domed canopies in each corner of the platform. The
proportion of diminishing stages and the harmonious transition from square to octagon and
to sphere are elements which speak rightly of the capabilities of the Indian architects.
One notable feature of Sur architecture was the shape of the arches. There is a slight drop
or flatness in the curve towards the crown. It is indicative of the last stage before the
development of the four-centred Tudor arch of the Mughals.
The flowering of the Mughal architecture in reality took place under Akbar. He encouraged
a hybrid style containing foreign as well as indigenous elements. It represents the fine
examples of the fusion of Indo-Islamic architectur~ with pre-Turkish architectural elements.
The chief elements of the style are listed thus:
use of red sandstone as the principal building material,
a widespread use of the trabeated construction, '
use of arches mainly in decorative form rather than in structural form,
'Lodhi' type domes, sometimes built hollow but never technically of the true double
order,
multifaceted shafts of the pillars and the capitals of these pillars in the form of bracket
supports, and
a decoration of boldly carved or inlaid patterns complemented by brighly coloured
patterns on the interiors.
It was whilk designing the new ceremonial capital at Sikri, nearly forty kilometers west of
Agra, that we witness Akbar's architectural ideals at their maximum. It is one of the most
remarkable monuments in India. In its design and layout Fatehpur Sikri is a city where the
public areas like the courtyards, Diwan-i Am and Jami Masjid form a coherent group around
the private palace apartments.
The buildings in Fatehpur Sikri may be divided into two categories; religious and secular.
The religious buildings comprise (a) the Jami Masjid; (b) Buland Damaza; and (c) The tomb
of Shaikh Salirn Chisti. The secular buildings are basically palaces and administrative
buildings.
The tomb of Salim Chisti stands in the courtyard of the Jami Masjid in the north -western
quarter. It is an architectural masterpiece as it exhibits one of the finest specimens of marble
work in India. The structure was completed in 1581 and was originally faced only partly in
marble. Two serpentine brackets supporting the eaves and the carved lattice screens are
remarkable features of this structure.
A unique building of the palace complex is the Panch Mahal - five storeyed structure,
located south-east of the Diwan-i-khas. The size of the five storeys successively diminishes
as one goes upwards. At the top is a small domed kiosk. Some of the sides in this building
were originally enclosed by screens of red sandstone. But none remain intact now. An
interesting feature is that the columns on which the five storeys have been raised are all
dissimilar in design.
In the sphere of building art, Jahangir's and Shah Jahan's reigns were an age of marble. The
place of red stones was soon taken over by marble in its most refined form. This dictated
significant stylistic changes which have been listed below:
The arch adopted a distinctive form with foliated curves, usually with nine cusps,
Marble arcades of engrailed arches became a common feature,
The dome developed a bulbous form with stifled neck. Double domes became very
common,
Inlaid pattern in coloured stones became the dominant decorative form, and
In the buildings a new device of inlaid decoration called pietra-dura was adopted. In
this method, semi-precious stones such as lapis-lazuli, onyx, jasper, topaz and carnelian
were embedded in the marble in graceful foliations.
The
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The earliest surviving specimen of a European style church in India is located in Cochin. It
was built in 1510 along with the establishment of a factory by Albuguerque. This church was
used in inter the body of Vasco Da Gama in 1524. Later under the British it became an
Anghn church.
From the last decades of the 18th century the company's principal seat, Calcutta, was
stamped with the hall-mark of authority. The metropolitan power found the picturesque,
flexible, medieval English styles to be practical, as well as appropriate, for the celebration of
its achievements in the ever widening diversity of building types in the industrial age.
In the prevaiiing eclecticism of the age, English design reformers, disgusted with the prevalent
si t xdm ofthe classical and medieval styles of Europe's past thought it fit to produce the so
called - Free style hybrid architecture. On the other hand the hybrid evolved for Bombay,
though sti l l essentially foreign was away from a narrow cultural chauvinism towards Indian
traditions. To that extent it was reformative. However the synthesis that the Anglo-Indians
were to evolve added a resounding new dimension to British architecture in India.
I
1) Fka mh the contribution of Akbar to the evolutim of Indo- Islamicstyle of kchitecture
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) How is the architecture of Shahjahin's reign different from that of ~kba r ' s i
3)
Summarise the architectural styles of the colonial era.
LET US SUM UP
The above pages make you aware of therich tradition of architectural art as practiced from
1
ancient times upto the colonial period. The above survey makes it clear that Indian
architecture is peculiar in nature as it has incorporated various architectural styles of world.
Main among them are Islamic style of arch and dome. The assimilation provided the famous
Indo-Islamic styles of architecture. Later on during the Colonial period the features of
Gothic and medieval English architecture were freely used. The assimilation of those styles
1
is presented in the creation of New Delhi.
We have also discussed a few buildings especially to make you more comfortable while
explaining the sources to the tourists.
i
14.7 KEYWORDS -
I Alcove : a vast arched recess
Arcade : a range of roofed arches
Arch : a self supporting structure made of bricks or of stone blocks and
capable of carrying a superimposed load over an opening
: Bay : depressions
!
Bevel : a sloping surface
Bracket : a support projecting from a wall
Cenotaph : commemorative building
Convoluted arch : an arch that is cusped inside
i Colonnade : a row of columns
I Causeways : passage across a water body
Cupola : a domical roof over a polygonal space
Main Architectural
Styles
Dome
Eaves
: a convex roof built over a square octagonal or circular space
: slight projection of roof
Engrailed arches : foliated arch
Facade : a course of bricks or stones projecing from a wall as a continuous
structure
Finial : the top of a domical roof
Kiosk : an open pavilion having roof supported by pillars.
Pier : a mass of stone or brick which supports a vertical load
Pietra Dura : an ornamental mosaic of Lapis lazuli marble etc.
Post : long timber supporting vertical thrust of some part of a building
Portal : frontage
Stucco : ornamentation done by carving lime plaster
Trabeate : an architectural form in which the main openings are made by
beams supported on pillars
Turrets : sleek minarets attached with the building
E
1) See Sec.14.3.
2) See Secs.14.1 and 14.2.
n
1) See Sub-sec. 14,4.1.
2) See Secs .14.3 and 14.4.
n
1) See Sub-sec. 14.4.2.
2) The main difference Lies in the use of building material. Akbar used redsand stone while.
Shahjahan's buildings have mostly marble as the building material. See Sub-sec. 14.4.2.
3) See Sec. 14.5.
UNIT 15 REGIONAL ARCHITECTURE
Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Ancient Period
. 15.2.1 Stupas
15.2.2 Rock Cut Architecture
15.2.3 Temples
15.3 Medieval Period
15.3.1 Eastern India
15.3.2 Western India
15.3.3 Central India
15.3.4 Deccan
15.35 Vijaynagar
15.4 Colonial Period
15.4.1 Princely Buildings
15.4.2 British Architecture
15.5 Let Us Sum Up
Appendix
The present Unit oversteps the political boundaries of the North Indian cultures and attempts
a study of the development of architecture in regions outside these areas. Its purpose is to:
emphasize the character and development of architectural styles in the buildings in
regional states,
highlight the influences which were exerted by these regions over central area and
vice-versa, and
accoupt for some of the major developments in the architecture during the colonial
period.
15.1 - INTRODUCTION
The development of art and architecture in the regional states f ol l m diverse course. The
evolution of any archi t ect 4 style greatly depends upon the nature of available building
material. It determines the evolution of a particular type of technology and its application.
The regions where wood is available in plenty, for instance, abounds in buildinge constructed
of wood using lintel and beam technology. Areas where big rocks are available in plenty, we
find very fine kind of rock cut architecture. It must be understood that this mQtiplicity of
form does not conform to any set geographical pattern. Rather, at times, it takes a cross -
regional course.
The different sections of this Unit take into account the developments in architecture in
Eastern, Western and Central India, the Deccan and the Vijaynqar kingdom, as also in the
colonial period.
-
15.2 ANCIENT PERIOD
- ,
The architecture of this period can be broadly divided into two categories:
' i) Residential structures
ii) Religious monuments
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Under the first category we have very few surviving monuments since they were built of
perishable mate* like wood. Mowever, a number of monuments have survived or been
unearthed th~cqijh eicdvatbf which axhe mder the second categw. It included stupai,
folfowed by rock-cut temples and free standing temples.
In the precedhg Unit we have already discussed the conckpt behind the construction of the
sbpas and their architectural design. Here we will discuss some of the prominent structures
of this category.
1) Sanchi Stup (Madhya Pradesh)
Etiswlrrrsf-t famow stnpf dtes in b&. It has fhree stupqs all with gateways around
was originally ltlaide d&& in'hhdui'i
'ne&Iy doubled ixicirderence (ih 150
kan'timewe r e p h ~ @ b m a &06088md
around it. Four gates, qnk in each direction were added to beautify it. Prom the southern
gate we get an inscription which tells us that it was donated by ICingSatkad and theincision.
was done by those cxafpen who worked in ivory.
Regional Architcctun
The northern gate rmd the pan& depict strla born the Ja1.lu. the^ k ~ o f 8 a n & quite
prominently display the following:
1) The four great events of the Buddha's life i.~,biih, attabment d , hcddg%7
d b s r mr c w- p m- d mp - . .
2) ~ e ~ f d s c h t d ~ l b ~ of minds like lion, elephant, &a, ete, are r k d u C of lbq.
animals are shown with riders in heavy coats and boots.
. , ..
. .
I .
4) A unique r e p e n t a t i ~ d forest anbud& in s mannerwhich boll as if ths .\whole
world turned out8to worship the Bu*. . . . .
s , L
The Na p j wo u d a sta~w was built in a styie Merent fiom that
circular walls, one at the hub and the other at the auter end, were
and the intervening space was filled with mud m 4. stones. LW
diameter of this stupa was 30 meters and the height was 18
drum consisted of richly camd marble slabs. The hemis
decorated with lime and mortar&rk. The four rec&ngular projections, one at each cardinal
point, ~19pgmtd a row of* frte standing pillars.
'
The importance of this Saap is due to the beautiful p e l s which illustrate epMes &trm the
life of the Buddha. The &it important scents are:
v
: 4
1) Gods prayingto, to take b i i on the earth.
2) BudWs mttry into mmb in 'rhe follntl of a white elephant.
tree.
A number of other stupas have been found in many parts of the &mtry. For example, two
stupas were found inMathura. ,In fact, this was a period when stupa architecture developed
mto pclrdcwlar style and the presence &&nil& features in stupas of various regbm s w t s
the mobility of and interaction between artisans who 'built the s6qms and works of
art w&ciaBd with* stupas.
- '.
- . L
1522 Mk t h t A r e Mt e c t ~ ~ ~ I
- -
and^^
purposes. Early spe
Hills near Bihar, dedicated by Ashoh to Aivika mods, a? in the form of a plain rectangutar
outer hall, at one end of which is an inner c mm a m wall and over- caves.
Similar depend*= on wooden models is eGWt in maoypther fa- ofdwi p the
Guptapeaiod. - , . . ;... -;
i
Later cave temples and momtries are to be found in many parts of India, but it was in the
western Deccan under the Satavahana empire and its successors, that the lchrgat Bnd ddtf
famoth ficial caves were excavated. The oldest Deccan cave is at Bhaja near Poona wldch
' is very siaapb. The finat &@lo &ple is, th-gctat &@a . hd dl. K&,' pebbly r t ~ &3
around tke begha& of the QhrMm era. .lMi P.d&.EZ feetJddegp.into && r ~ & a d ibwf
the smae&gcmeid pattern wtBaaat Bhe~lul$,many o&d-Clwe$ of tlwwe;stbm IkdcawW
much $webpad ib dizc axid s$lendga. ThcebIii.h* laager pkia a$b adsterer'bqt War
process which can be traced through earlier stages, they have become heavy and o d e . kB-
is set on a square stepped plinth, and rises from a bulbous base, which is carved to represent
a large pat ~4t h base end e w . EaGh p h && a coarpli& gr dp 'df kwh.+ '
elephants wifh fiders to support the r&f, svhi6h ie brim? in Matian'sf W&bf r&Qi%f
bmelmldring. ~ h e d t y e o t ~ a t & e & o f ' ~ h i a t t L m d h ~ ~ & ~ ~
.. .
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withthodeiif'othermes. .
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The simple facadts of the:e8t'&x caves were dm&@ ibtbiehbr- dr
e a c h ~ Wi t b a h g c ~ m; t b f u Us i e c o f d t e fpbbe9d,urhicfrb~e~itdotfreM
The b l i cave has three entrances, and splendid relief panels of dampati (couples), with
small carved gable-end above.
F emn more impressive are the later cave temples of Ellora, near Amangabad. There
-
are no less than thirty - four caves construded from 5th to 8th centuries A.D., most of them
I
Hindu but wwu: Buddbi6t and Jaina. The crowning achievement of Ellora is the great
Kdilasaaatha Tern*, made out of a asonoEt&c rock on the hfni dops of the Rashbdtuta
Emperor Krisbna (C.756-775 AD)
The d t roclf thee was cut away and a splendid temple was carved like a statue from the
hill side,complete with shrine - room, hall, gateway, votive pillars, lesser shrines and cloisfers,
tht ~rl e. t &bd witb divine figures and scenes large and small of a grace and strength
rarely seen again in Indian art. The g r o d plan of Kdmamth is of aZrout the same she as
the Parthenom, and it is half as high. The labour necessary to consbud it, however, was less
thtrn that which was required to build a camparable temple of masonry.
Kaiiasanath is not the earliest temple hewn from solid rock. Others are to be found at
*-"f:
puram, on the sea-coast where seventeen temples, none wry large in size, were
carvkd ommtcropping hillocks of granite under the patronage of 9th century Palklva kings.
They stin show the iduence of wood congtruction, and are of a distinctive style. pckibly
looking barto Dravidian prototypes. ' . -. .
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The
cave-temples of importance are those of Elephanta, a beautiful little island off
Bombay. It is famous for the sculpture, especially for the great Trimurti figure of Siva.
'IQ Z ~ F nl , , . l 5 :*a i$?; .!,at '!t* .
153.3 T ~ ~ l ~ ~ d ; . h ! i @ & ~ ~ C * : ? ~ p *n. ClhDt&#L)b' * . ! a . .d :-
bi ue-9h: di a~ : r a w k?h!:),<if 1 ' ; b ~ , t k h 3 1 T* ~2 t; o L A>? 21
The first major landmark in temple architecture is the gcp~ple generally known, from the
modern name of the site, as that ofJandial, Taxila. It waltdned a square inner samtmry, a
=ting hadl and a courtyard, and its outer and innet entrances were each h l c d by two
large pi hs of orthodox pattern. The J g n U temple was probably a Zor oa &j ma ~ous
P&.
I . .: !an ! . ;<;h
Frw tber 0-a period several examples s u n h d , chi* in western India, all shDwing the
pama1 pattern. Fi ars were usually ornate, with heavy bell shaped capitals
surmounted by animal motifs, aad the cmtrmc-es w e &en carved with mythologid scenes'
and figures. AU the Gupta temples were s d and most had flat roofs. The finest Gupta
temple, that of Deogarh near Jhansii probably of the 6th century marks a great advance. Here
hu h b were wed to hold the masonry together, and a small tower rose above the
d. The lportd veranda was amtinwed ad round th buil&g.rnaking a covered walk.
Regbnal Arch1teclure
The temples were ornately decorated, often even to the dark shrine rooms lighted only by
flickering oil-lamps. Despite this ornateness, the apprenticeship of this tradition in rock
architecture gave the architect a strong sense of mass. Heavy cornices, strong pillars, wide
in proportion to their height and the broad base of the sikbara or tower, give to Indian temple
architecture a feeling of strength and solidity, only in part counteracted by the delicately ,
ornate friezes.
Considering the size of the land, Indian temple architecture is remarkably uniform, but
authorities distinguish two chief styles and numerous schools. The Northern or Indo-Aryan
style prefers a tower with rounded top and curvilinear outline, while the tower of the
Southern or Dravidian style is usually in the shape of a rectangular truncated pyramid.
The temple building gained much from the patronage of the Pallava and Chalukya kings in
the 6th - 8th centuries. These are situated in Mamallapuram, Kanchi & Badarni. These styles
show the gradual emancipation of the ar&tect from the techniques of carpentry and cave
architecture. The apogee of the Pallava style was reached in the shore temple of Kanchi which
has a pyramidal tower formed of two courses of small barrel vaults, surrounded by a solid
cupola suggesting a Buddhist stupa.
The style of the Pallavas was developed further under the Chola dynasty (10 - 12th centuries);
their finest products are the temple of Shiva at Tanjavur built by Rajaraja the Great (985 -
1014 A.D.) and a temple built by Rajendra I at Kondacholapuram. The former was probably
the largest temple built in India up to that time, a great tower in the shape of a pyr dd, rising
from a tall upright base and crowned with a domed fnial, the whole being nearly 60 metres
high.
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In the next phase of Dravidian architecture the emphasis shifted from the tower above the
.
chief shrine to the entrance gateway of the surrounding wall. From the 12th century onwltrds
it became usual to fortify the temple often with three square cocentric walls, with gates on
the four sides. The gates were surrounded by watch-towers or gatehomes, and these
developed into soaring towers (gopuram), generally much taller than the modest sUrbara
over the central shrine. The entrance tower was usually in the form of an oblong pyramid,
with its broadest side parallel to the wall.
-
' ;
The new style is often called Pandyan. The great temple of Madurai is the most famous and
beautiful of Pandyan temples.
1) What are the characteristics of Stupa Architecture?
. ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) What are the features of rock cut architecture?
a
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
153 MEDIEVAL PERIOD
The regional styles of architecture came into vogue usually after the provinces had thrown
off the allegiance to Delhi Sultanate and proceded to develop a form suiting their individual
I
requirements. These were distinct from the Indo-Islamic style practiced at Delhi (cfiscussed
in Unit-14) and often displayed definitely original qualities. In the areas which had a strong
indigenous tradition of workmanship in masonry, regional styles of Islamic architecture
paduced the most elegant structures On the other hand where these traditions are not so
pronounced, the buildings constructed for the regional states were less distinctive. In some
cases totally novel tendencies, independent of both the indigenous and the imperial Sultanate
traditions, are also visible.
,
l t a interesting that the development of the, earliest r e@d&yl e in architecture should have
t&n place at the other end of the subcontinent, in eastern India. In fact there did emerge
two major strands of architectural style in this region viz., in Bengal and in Jaunpur, both of
which witnessed the rise of regional states.
153.1 Eastern India
Bengal: The establishment of an independent Muslim power in Bengal took platz within a
!
gap of five years since the capture of Delhi by the Turks. But an independent building style,
&tinct from the one prevalent at Delhi, developed at the begizlning of the 14th century and
i
4
la&d fm marly 250 years.
?
Beqdstyle spreadin all parts of the region, but most of the prominent buildings were located
with& the boundary of the Malda district which had been the strategic centre of the region
due. to the confluence of the two rivers, the Ganga and the Mahananda. Here lie the remains
of the two principal cities - Gaur & Pandua - which, in turn, enjoyed the status of'the capital
seat of the regional ruling power. In our effort to understand the distinctive features of the
The data in the form of extaut buildiigs%m the &st phase is scanty. Even where two or three
structurds survive they are in a badly ruined state. It is,aonetheless, evident that thq buil&qp
raised during the period were wholesale wmwz&oii pf the exist* kin-1s- dr&w1f&.
Similarly, the second phase is also deficient In-data a8lt is repfc%eate&Vy a s#taiy w*.
But this building -.AdidzWjid ate8adm @nEt l364) - s u r p ~ i & ~ 1 i h m i c ~ k ~ i e
in Bengal in size. It introd& two new features in thq architect@ s*: - .
. . . . ( , . j ' .'
a the 'drop' ~ c h , havi&t span great& thin its radii - & , . . ce'ntres at i l i e d m p o ~ a n d
. ,
I . . >
*.* * ".- a-
m the method of raking the roof intasyatem & bayt&~erai
by bridr-pendentives in over- siding courses were raised over each bay. The b+ks in
&a~ndcnt i we were s e & h g ~ i &'em emre h~eh~~t mmer t t $a; t &
wms projeu d help+ the &&I fma r@ a b&? .jU' ,d
,- , .
, ,:, . , 1 -!.!
'-
The ohird p h ~ i s the d-ble as it dqnp(rsWmefgam'd% se:
in trme with. the p a s k &Q~Q&:&W'-~B hi Bbigal: Thefes~&k&tb
translate the ,native b d h e ' ~ ~ & ( 5 W&. J hr &%aut& of We t&%ped& f f h' bf
curved roof became a fixed convention. In most of these buildings, moreover, an indig8nous
form of decoratiok-i.e., terracotta tiles, was adopted.
i
The best examples can be seen in the Atala Masjid (built in 1408) and the Jami Masjid.
Evidently the propylon was the keynote at Jampur style and occurs in no other manifestation
of Indo-Islamic architecture.
153.2 Western India
The regional style of architecture that came into being in western India towards the beginning
of the 14th century is almost exclusively confined to Gujarat.
Gujarat: The regional style flourished for a period of some 250 years beginning early in the
14th century. The founders of Gujarat style of Indo-Islamic architecture were infact the
governors of the Khalji Sultans of Delhi.
,
There were three different phases of the Gujarat style.
1) The first phase.lasting for the first half of the 14th century was marked by the demolition
of the temples, and their reconversion into Muslim buildings.
2) The second phase prevailing mostly during the first half of the 15th century and showing
signs of hesitant maturity of a distinctive style.
3) Finally the phase beginning in the latter half of the 15th century when Gujarat style
emerges in its own magnificent form. Most of the typical examples relate to this period
of Gujarat style.
! 3
.'& ,
Here it is important to remember that the Gujarat kyle of architectureis the most indigenom .
in character. In some of the finer examples of this style considerabk portions of the buildhip
are in fact adaptations from either Hindu or Jain temples. The essence of Gujidtsfyb will
be easily understood if you envisage a scheme of construction where the gtructure of a temple
is fitted into the sanctuary of the mosque in the form of a central compartment. Almasf all
the mosques from the second and third phase are composed in this manner.
- '-9
: V
Ahmedabad
1533 Central India
In-Central India the development of Indo-Islamic architecture remained confined within
Malwa region which became an independent kingdom at the turn of the 15th century. But,
unlike other regions, the Muslim rulers of Malwa did not jnherit any strong tradition of visual
art. The result was that to carry out their bulilding projects skilled and experienced artisans
..-....-.. F-,.,... .,- A:~+,,..+ ., . . I , . . . - .,- mall.: ...I., :-,,,,rn+,~ ...,-:A..~ ,h.ls, ,-a..ri,-+ . . +
Arehl t ec1~ .n~.crr .
Delhi. It was only in the later period that original elements of architecture were developed
and decorative motifs on their own were adopted in the buildings of the Malwa rulers which
I V ! ?f.**: 4 t!,jJs<
gave them a distinctive appearance, ' ""!7:M" ..
. *
8 . .. .--- ., .>: -4 $
.) 1.
Mahva - Dhar & Mmdu: The regional manifestations of I ndo- I s l 4 .&chiteceure in
Malwa are located essentially within the confines of two cities, Dhar and Mandu though some
buildings may also be seen at Chanderi. The buildings at Dhar and Mandu derive many
features from the Tughluq architecture such as the battered walls, fringed arch and the
arch-beam combination. Most prominent features are:
a f e i h c a l systems of the arch and the lintel have been combined +d
Lyle developed.
The construction of stately flights of steps of considerable length leading to &eir
entrances. It became necessary due to the use of unusually high plinths on which mogl
of the buildings were raised.,
- .b The element of colour assumes a. signillcant role. We notice the use of two sep~~jlate
methods for obtaining this colour effed. The first is.the use of various coloured stones
and marble, and the second is by means of encaustic tiles. Jahaz Mahal at M'mdu b a
' ?$representative buildiig.
.;=<.t,
,$&.a ; , , ,,: ;5$;,q
! dk2 ! r r b & l c , . kt ?;iVi)~:" :;: .. .. I 7 ,
...*1 _-- I 2 , . 4 2 - .:.... .
Regionnl Archllecture
153.4 Deccan
The architecture in Deccan seems to have ignored to a large extent the pre-Islamic traditions
of the region. It consisted basically of the fusion oE
The architectural systems in vogue at Delhi under the Sultans, particularly the Tughlaq
form, and
an entirely extraneous source, that is, the architecture of Persia.
The architecture of Deccan can be divided into three phases, Gulbarga - (1347 - 1425), Bidar
(1425-1512), and Golconda (1512- 1687).
Gulbarga: The early structures did not represent a distinctive style of Deccan Islamic
architecture. For the most part they followed the contempory TughEuq architecture. The
Jami Masjid (1367) inside the Gulbarga fort was, however, different and unique. The central
designing idea lay in reversing all the architectural principles of mosques with a courtyard.
.
Thus, in the Jami Masjid of Gulbarga the conventional design of the courtyard was ~ ~ t h
,
small cupolas supported by arches placed close together. But this des' i was never repsad.
Possibly the unorthodox plan of this mosque did not find favour with the traditimah8t.a.
Bidar: The city of Bidar i s f u l h n -
- --
------ :
a madarsa and royal tombs. The buildings show a strong contemporary Irankb in&wms., .I
The Indo-Islamic style of Dehi was also assimilated in &e new style.
I" ' '
[.a
Since eolour was the characteristic feature of Iranian architecture, palaces at Bidu sholJv;t, .
a brilliant scheme of the use of coloured tiles and the mural painting. The glaadtiles
which -red the exteriors were imported by sea from Iran.
There is a distinctive change in the shape of some of the domes in the buildings En Bidw,
' hey are slightly conitricted in the lower contour and thus be-~om the fore m s of
the famous bulbous domes of the Mughds. The drums of &ow d v are made tatl srr
as to project the domes in full view.
The uakdtima of Mahmud Gausan is a fine specima of Thi s style.
'
Architdure
153.5 Vijayanagar
, is now deserted. 1t is one of the most import& b t o r h l -
only Hiadu city from W b p
period, d
extenswe remp~
g r o 4 . The city, h fad, W . a @& advaaeagg rr .IL-
for lar@-oals ~ d i n g d i n g d ~ ~ in that it atk,m& gr a de and a Bpk grswcblerhe sttihe, ,
W d
material. The use 9f nmmhhc
. .
d p l e piws in* the
templea at fact. , ,
I I
I
4.; hi'
Vdaynagar Palace
I
The expanse of the city of Vijaynagar at the height o:f its glory measured some :?6 sq.Km.,
and it was enclosed with a stonewall. Besides palaces and temples, the city had extensive
water works and many secular buildings such as elephant stables and the Lotus N.[ahal. The
basic elements of Vijayanagar style are:
The use of pillars for architectural as well as decorative purpose is on an unprecedented
scale. i
Numerous compositidns are used in raising the pillars, but the most striking and also the
most frequent is one in which the shaft becomes a central core with which is attached an
I
upraised animal of a supernatural kind resembling a horse or a hippogryph
Another distinguishing feature is the use of huge reverse- curve eaves at the cornice. This
feature has been borrowed into the style from the Deccan and gives the pavillions a
dignified appearance.
Pillars have ornamental brackets as capitals. Usually this bracket is a pendant known as
bodegai in local parlance. This pendant, in Vijayaaagar style, is elaborated into the volute
terminating in an inverted lotus band
The glory of Vijayanagar empire ended in A.D. 1565 at the battle of Talikota and with that
ended the architectural activity.
Regional Archltecturc
r
1) How many major architectural styles developed after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2)
In which region foreign architectural influence is evident on the buildings, and what was
this influence.
15.4 COLONIAL PERIOD
The state of confusion created by the contending forces, after the decline of Mughal Empires,
within the subcontinent, left India vulnerable to an external power. The British after many
battles, gained supremacy in India in the last quarter of 18th century.
15.4.1 Princely Buildings
During the period of Mughal domination client princes, enlarged their seats in a manner
befitting the new dignity bestowed upon them by the Emperor. During the period of Mughal
decline, especially, the independent Muslim rulers like the Nkam of Hyderabad, the Sultan
of Mysore, the Nawabs of Bhopal and Oudh endowed their capitals and dynastieswith lavish
mosques and palaces.
Hindu princes, who had learnt from the Muslims to erect monuments to the dead, constructed
increasingly elaborate cenotaphs - chattris, and even imitation temples.
Most spectacular by far are the palaces of the Rajputs. Atleast three zones, varied in their
differentiation but invariably stiU knit together by a network of easily defensible companion
corridors and galleries are the hallmark of these palaces. An outer service court led to the
principal court of public audience with a grand darbar hall. The ruler's personal apartments,
with a hall for private audience, treasury, and sumptous pavilions of retreat, preceded the last
zone.
The advent of muslims
on the porls of India, not
as invaders, but as
traders much earlier
than the invasions of
m d h warriors saw the
introducllon of a new
kind of religious
cuchltecturc called
mosques.
The trend of imitatiodassirnilation of different architectural styles continued. On a still
larger and often even coarser scale native rulers adopted western palace types in whole or in
part with state rooms incorporating ante-chambers, salons, and halls designed to cater for
westernized manners and European guests. Notable examples are Falaknuma of Hyderabad,
Jai-vilas commissioned by the Maharaja of Gwalior, and 'La-Martinere' at Lucknow.
15.42 British Architecture
You have already read (in Unit-14) the about process of British architectural development
in India and must be aware of its basic features. Here we shall try to analyse the styles evolved
at Bombay, Madras and Calcutta, as they represent the longer course of interaction between -
British authority and Indian people.
There were two main axes of architecture in Calcutta. The first was military buildings and
the second civil buildings like the Council House, and Town Hall. There were other major
buildings too. Most distinguished, was the "English Palladian" Town Hall. In general the
colonial expression of the English Georgian styles was adopted to lend the appropriate
decorum to the accommodation of the company's principals in India.
The Madras Government house was adopted for Lord Clive in 1790s from an earlier one,
after the pattern set at Pondicherry by the residence built for Duplex, some fdty years ago.
Quite different is the Bombay Town Hall of Colonel Thomas Lower of Bombay Engineers.
It is hardly inferior to many of the works of the masters of French Neo-classicism.
From the 1840s it was the norm for the architect to follow the precedent with greater
assimilation of indigenous styles. It was a reformative approach towards architecture. These
developments may be traced primarily in the great public building campaign in Bombay. The
campaign opened with the decorated Gothic Scheme for the rebuilding of St.Thomas
Cathedral.
Following the lead, an Anglo-Indian synthesis for the Pince of Wales Museum was achieved
in 1905 and for the Gateway of India. The Museum, classic in plan and purpose, prefers a
full blooded Adil-Shahi revival. The Gateway recalls the Roman form of triumphal arches
as much as Ahmedabad's Tin Da~waza.
I
1) Describe the features of princely state's architecture.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Describe the characteristics of British Indian architecture.
czI3
Check Your Progress -2
r
I l I I I I
15.5 LET US SUM UP
A notable fact about the regional architectural style is that their most interesting structures
Ire to be found in areas previously known for a thriving building activity, and where
~ndigenous masonry traditions were strongest. In brief the following may be noted:
Different kinds of building material generally introduced technical differences in
architectural styles in different regions.
The unusual climatic conditions in certain parts of the country necessitated special
treatment for the corresponding regional styles.
It also represented the process of gradual assimilating of foreign architectural styles with
the indigenous styles with regional variations.
1) See Sub-sec. 15.2.1
2) See Sub-sec.15.2.2
Bidar and
21 See Sub-sec. 15.3.4.
1) See Sub-sec.15.4.1.
2) See Sub-sec.15.4.3.
JABALPUR
( A Legacy of Marble Rocks)
Dr. S.K. Sullerey
Head Dept. of Ancient Indian History
R.D.V.V. Jabalpur.
Jabalpur is an important historical and cultural city of Madhya Pradesh, literally
the central provinces of the country. A visit to this city is fascinating. Its diversity,
history, history, divinity, serendipity, wild life, art and architecture have combined
together to make a rich experience for the visitors.
Jabalpur envelops you, giving you a sense of great past, stories of empires and
,
kingdoms, of warriors, of builders, of poets and musicians, of saints and
philosophers. The city resounds with various memories of the city-state of Tripuri,
Emperor Ashoka, the Satavahanas, the Guptas, the Kdchuris, the Gonds, and the
memory of the famous and valient queen Durgavati who took on the might of the
great moghul Emperor Akbar. This was followed by the Maratha domination
under the Bhonsles of Nagpur and later in the British period, the notorious 'Thugs'
and the phenomenon of 'thugee' and the brave Col. Sleeman who vanquished them.
The city also played a prominent role in the freedom movement of the country.
The city has had a deep association with Rajarshi Pandit Dwarika Prasad Mishrii,
theindomitable fighter for the cause of the national language Seth Govind Das and
the grand old man of Madhya Pradesh and its Chief Minister Pt. Ravi Shankar
Shukla. The people of Jabalpur have always been very proud of their association
with Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose.
Jabalpur is steeped in divinity and has been an eminent centre of learning. Through
the ages, there has been a mingling of diverse religions. Veidic sages have blessed
the soil and Hindu, Jain, Boudha and Moslem sants and their teachings have give
a spiritual aura to the place. In more recent times, this city has been associated
with the activities of the great Osho on one hand and Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on
theother. All these traditions have added a distinct colour to the vibrant art and
architectural forms in this area.
Jabalpur is also a city of natural grandeur. Its vast plateau is broken up by the migh~y
Vindhya and Satpura ranges and is streaked by the meandering Narmadi~,
Vanganga and Hiran rivers, three of the more prominent ones in this area. These
intersections of plateau, hills and the rivers have provided spectacular scenic
splendour. Jabalpur is a town for the pleasure seeking as well as for those who are
looking for solitude and tranquility.
Places to visit. There are many beautiful sots around Jabalpur for outings and
picnics. More prominent of these are:
1)
Beraghat: ( A dream in the marbale rocks). This is a small town on the bank
of Narmada and is famous for its marble rocks. It is at a distance of about 21
Kms. from Jabalpur by road. The holy river Narmada flows between the
marble rocks which rise up to more than 100 feet on each side. Boating
facilities are available here and boating in moon light is a thrilling experience.
These rocks have recently beenf lood lit, ading new dimension to their beauty.
\ J
The rich architectural heritage of our country give us ample opportunities to be inquisilivc
about it. Such acts are quite significant in that they help document local monuments or
sculptures and thus save them from obliteration - We are appending here two such brochures
which reflect the role of local enterprise. We are grateful to Prof. S.K Sullerey for permitting
us to use this material.
f
2)
~huandhar falls: The life lime of Madhya Pradesh, river Narmada, before
cutting through the marble rocks, narrows down and then plunge in a waterfall
known as Dhuandhar or the smoke cascade. So powerful is the plunge that
its roar is heard from a distance of more than a kilometer. The fall and
breaking of the volume of water of the river at the crest presents an awesome
spectacle of nature's power unleashed.
3)
Chausatb Yogini Temple: Situated on a hill and approached by steps, the
chaunsath yogini temple commands a singularly beautiful sight of the whole
area around and also of the river flowing through the marble rocks. Dedi-
I
cated to Lord Shiva, this 10th century Kalchuri temple has exquisitely carved,
sixty four sculptures of various goddess froms of Durga, besides a Shiva
temple.
1
4)
Madan Mahal or the Palace of Love: This palace was built by the Gond King
Raja Madan Shah. The palace dominates the skuyline and provides a
panaromic view of the city and area around it. The famous balancing rocks
I
are located slightly off the path that leads to this palace.
5)
Rani Duqpvati Museum: Dedicated to the memory of othe great Gond
queen Durgavhti, this is one of the more famous museums of Madhya
Pradesh. A vasst colledion of sculptures, inscriptions and other artefacts of
great historid and cultural importance are preserved in this museum.
6)
Tripuri (Tiwar): This ancient town is situated 13 Kms. to the west of Jabalpur
i '
on the Bheraghat road. Archeological remains of the ancient city of Tripuri
are spread extensively over a vast area covering serveral kilometers. Ar-
cheological excavations carried out here have thrown much light on the
ancient history of this area in general and Jabalpur in particular. This village
was also the site of 1939 session of All India Congress, where Netaji Subhash
Chandra Bose was elected president. A monument in the form of a gate
(Kamania) was erected in the city to commemmorate the event.
Regional Archllcelun!
Besides the above,JabaIpur hasverypleasant pic& spots at Waterworks (6 Kms.),
Pariyat resersior (8 Kms.) and Katao (35 Kms.).
The city is also the headquarters of two Universities Rani Durgavati University
and Jawahar La1 Nehru University of Agricultural Sciences. A Medical college
and an Engineering college, besides a very large number of Arts, Science and
Commerce colleges have been functioningin the city Robertson College which was
established way back in 1835 is now functioning as Government Science College
and Mahakoshal Arts and Commerce College, two of the several autonomous
colleges of Rani Durgavati University.
.&
a;.
.. . . . . .- L. -
UNIT 16 ARCHITECTURE. FUNCTIONAL
CATEGORIES
Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Residential
16.3 Religious
16.4 Ceremonial
16.5 Strategic
16.6 Public Utility
16.7 Let Us Sum UP
16.8 Answers' to Check Your Progress Exercises '
16.0 OBJECTIVES
Architecture basically deals with building activity, which is carried out for some particular
purpose. In this Unit we shall try to understand the functional aspect of various monumel1ts,
which are traceable from ancient times. After reading this Unit you will be aware of the:
functional utility of numerous monuments spread over time,
a relevand of a monument for its society, and
a importance of a particular kind of architecture prevalent in a particular region.
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Architecture is an art and science of building construction. As a science k &whp d o u s
n .
methods and technique by which open space can be covered far Merent pwpaws. It is a
science which deals with space. Architecture is also conclitiotled by the adable Wkliqg
.*
material, because it is the kind of building material which determines the durabilityofbuildiq
and cost factor. The other aspect of architecture is the art invotved. Building activity to a
-
great extent is influenced by the aesthetic of the region also.
An important factor in any architectural activity + its utility. It is this feature which provides
an Insight into the functional use of the construction. It is the purpose, whieh determines the
use. The purpose also plays a crucial role in the determination of a particular kind of style
for a building. In the previous two units we have discussed the art and science of architectural
activity. In this unit tve shall make an endeavor to understand the architectural activity,
through its utility.
It should be kept in mind while identifying the particular building that it can be c W In
different categories as any building can perform one or more than one functions. We have
classified architectural activities in the following five categories, in the Unit.
1) Residential
2) Religious
3) Ceremonial
4) Strategic
5) Public Utility.
16.2 RESIDENTIAL
7 ..%is; 7
. The construction of houses of non-perishable material was confined mainly to the cities in
ancient times. Even in cities perishaple material like wood was extensively used. We hiwe
4 .
&$ ''
very few examples of residential architecture from ancient period, but we have enough textual
. - references available from the medieval period.
::A .
,. 4 f# !
'*t.'rr-
Apart from the caves used by Hunters and Gatherers, the first information about residential -
,architecture in India comes from Harappan civilization.
The settlements of Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan show certain uniformity in their
planning. These cities were divided into a citadel on the west side and a lower town on the
eastern side of the settlement. The average citizen seems to have lived in the blocks of ho~vses
in the lower city. Here too there were variations in the sizes of houses. It could be a single
room tenement meant for slaves. There were other houses complete with courtyards and
having upto twelve rooms. The bigger houses were provided with private wells and toilets.
These houses had much the same plan - a square courtyard around which were a number of
rooms. The entrances to the houses were from the narrow lanes which cut the streets at r ght
angles. No windows faced the street. This meant that the roadward facing of the hoirses
would be like a row of brick walls.
The surviving specimens of residential hours for the period following the decline of the
Harappan civilization are almost none. In fact, the eaant buildings under this category clate
only from about the 13th century A.D. These are mostly the palaces of the kings and their
nosles.
The most spectacular palace architecture is that of the Rajputs. They achieve a picturesque
contrast between the exercises of defence and the excesses of retreat. Perhaps due to long
familiarity with the grand scale of the imperial court and certainly in conscious rivalry with
one and then as prodigal builders, most Rajput rulers had extended their establishments to
provide grand palaces.
i . -
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.>&
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the traditional Hindu manner.
Storeys proliferate ill the' .later hous' d-h' so tm do baltxhh, j@&w'.&ply
bangkbm .@ arche&* a d nor pan !i+
mlwr: -,as ?+&a. h,. -,. . , f i ~ . ;
.
' ! . . , ' - 1 ,
religious architecture in India.
:
. - . ,.
The Harappan town of Mohenjodgra provida w with thee usb building^ pi,
. . .
r . ..
. , ,;,'$- , '?
Harappan civilization has been deciphered only through the sdc&&architectural ariddW
. . ,
: . I
q -
remains.
Among these architectural remains is the famous Great Bath of Mohenj-, , . ~
,.;.: ,, . ,. . . , . . . ..~ .r.
This brick built structure measures 12m by 7m. and is about 3m. deep. It is approache$ I , . - . . . -: \ - ; +;! :; i t , ?i .j
-, . , '
. p either end by fl@t of steps. The bed of the bath was made watertight by the w of
, . :. -.:; . .-L&A.::-,;., . , : ,
. . / ., .-t:. . < ,
.
Water was supplied by a large well in an adjacent room. There was corbelled drain* .. . :. , . -. . - - A?- -?:;
A
' disgorging water too. The bath was surrounded by porticos and sets of rooms. Sc hoh
.
.. . i?
. generally believe that the place was used for ritual bathing of kings, or priests. It appears to
-'7T..- " ~'CT--."- -- . - . -.>-
* I *
- . . 7
. . .. ,&' , * f ... -. .'
: t . .. *
: 41
have been a part of the ritual of city life. It did not function as ordinary bathroom but must
have had a sanctity provided by rituals.
Almost the at i re a&&c expression of the pre-Gupta period, whether architecture or
sculpture, centred on Buddhism, and most of it was made possible through the patronage of
wealthy merchants, guilds and royal donatibns. Remains of the religious architecture of this
phase are the -pa, which traces its origin to pre- Buddhist burial mounds. A stupa is a
hemispherical dome or mound built over a sacred relic either of the Buddha himself or of a
pct@ed mnkor saint or a sacred text. The relic was generally kept in a casket in a smaller
chamber in the.centre of the base of the stupa. Encircling the stupa was a forced path. At
th f9\1r points of the compass there was a beak in the railing with agateway which gave the
sculptor scope to show his skill.
In their f unct i onai onai ~t stupa worked as a focal point wherg believers of the sect gathered
and shared the docttvle of the religion. As mentioned in Unit 14,these were constructed with
the help of individual or royal donations which explains that such an activity provided an
avenue to invest in. The construction, and later on maintenance, of such monuments were
taken care by the donation of nearby 1andJvillages to the monument. Hence such monuments
functioned as local self-governed institutions. This explains not the religious but also scxio-
economic function of such monuments.
It must be remembered in discussing the digbus &ecture that it must first and foremost
be regarded from its metaphysical aspect, that is as a kind of magic replica of some unseen
sacred b e i i The temple is therefore at once the house and body of the deity, its fabric the
very substance of the divinity. UnliKe the christian cathedral or the Buddhist chaitym, the
Hindu temple was never designed for congregational worship. Like the Greek temple, it was
itself a concrete object of devotion and the dwelling place of the gods.
In its functional utility the temple hag played a crucial role. Temple itself was a
concrete object of devotion It was a symbol through which common man identified
himself with the religion, be it a vaishnavite, or a shaivaite. The temple also sometimes
functioned as a tool to implement and demonstrate the differentiation based on
castes. We have references that temples also functioned as akind of a bank, a treasury,
Where common man could deposit the money for safety and security. The attack on
1 the temple of Somanatha by Mahmud of G W is famous because of the wealth
temple possessed.
I
Mosques are religious places for the followers of Islam. Islam beiig a wmmunity
b a d religion expected a meeting of everybody atleast once in a week. It is the Friday
when followers of Islam offer namaztprayer in the mosque. Hence mosque in its
functional aspect is a place for congregation.
In Islam, since religious authority was also the guardian of political authority, a political
functional utility mosque also served. There had been a practice of pronouncing khatba. It
was a practice by which the name of the king was pronounced by the Maulvi during the Friday
prayers. f i e purpose was to spread the name of the king even in the countryside. Khutba
had religious sanctily too as it was read by a Maulvi and from the pulpit of th.e Mosque itself.
In the b e e of low communication this practice functioned as information and broaticasting
.
facility.
Among different kinds of religious architecture in India the church hds a place of
pramhence. It was constrncted by a well organized authority. For Catholics it was the holy
Rmmn CEmpite and for Protestants it was the organized Protestant church. The earliest
church buildings in India are located in Goa. Later, however, the urban landscape of the
country came to be dotted with a number of church buildings.
Tl w~ei khi al arehitecutre in India, intersetinrgy, has been dominated by tombs and
manmlemnsdwhich heavily outnumber all-other types. We have,-therefare, discussed in some
det d the tomb and mausolemn architecture below. Tombs in addition to being ceremonial,
adso oecupyim~mportmt place in the category of religious architecture. Since Delhi was the
&@it&, hrg&number of tombs were built in add around OelIii. Some of these structures are
42 imprtmt fiom'kfchitectural point of view and can be considetea as heralding a distinct style.
'bcwtctw: Puwlsl
The more immrtant of these tomb . =- took two separate forms,&
cmiqpdeu
features of which are given below.
. . ,&j. r 7 . t 7
, - 7 -.
' :& -j!'h.$$ ; ! . . . .
a) Mausoleums designed cw an octogbnal plan incorporating the .
following elementic i-
. Main tomb chamber surrounded by an orched veran
'-1 One storey high,
--$a V e r d with projecting eaves supportala brackets.
.a
b) The other type was built on square plan. These were characterised by the
. jfollo-ele-
. 8 Absence of verandah around the main tomb chambers,
8 Exterior comprised of two and sometime three storeys,
. ,
s ..
Absence of avmand supporting brackets. . ,.
P
Later on during the Moghd period the s a me envisaged the location of tomb in the midst
of an enclosed garden with gateway in the centre of each side of the enclosingwall. Gelterdy
the site and the designing of the proposed tomb was decided by the king himself. It S h - 0 ~
the functional importance of the building as it was supposed robe amonument throu& which
s
by Shahjahan in the memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal is a world famous tomb.
the wne/fame of the king could survive over a long period of time. Taj Mahal c om~c t e d
The practice of laying out gardens had started quite early. The Lodis made it a practice p
place their tombs in the midst of gardens in an attempt perhaps to place their remains in a
peaceful natural surrounding. This trend continued during the Mughul period too. Babur
-*arted laying out gardens for recreational purposes. In one of the miniatures he has been
~picted inspecting the lay out plan of a garden at Dholpur. Today, only the excavated ruins 1
'
of this garden are visible. Two more gardens, Ram Bagh and Zuhra Bagh at Agra, are also
attriiuted to him.
The great grandson of Babur, Jahaqk was a far greater pat
love of flowers and animals as reflected in the miniature p '
great lover of the art of laying out gardens rather than buil
the famous Mughal gardens of Kashmir su
as testimony to Jahangir's passion.
16.5 STRATEGIC
Since ancient past kings and rulers were fighting with each other to expand1thtir territory.
This quest for war necessiated defence mechanism. In Harappan culture we have evidence
of cities with surrounding walls, to protect against invaders. The practice of construction of
fortification continued later too without many survivals of actual buildings. It wqs however,
the coming of the Turks in 13th century h m which time we have architectural references of
forts.
Fortifiations built hy the Turkish and the Mughal powers reflect developments in the west
- notably in the Holyland of the crusaders. The isolation of a citadel from a more i xpcdw
outwork was highly char-
. A, . . .
. I . . . . , .
However the use of art&e&-in the 15th
fundamentally. The height 9nd thickn
gradually realized that they had to be br
target and to give their c~llons
forward from a great height,
improvement in the range and accuracy of fire-arms, bastions covering one another had to
be pushed further out. Thickness was greatly increased, often by massive bat t ern - but the
curved forms were replaced by @ar ones to deflect shots. Some of the famous forts in
b
India are:
43
AgraFort
a Delhi Fort
Ahhabad Fmt
Chimwll .1. .
G%lmkrF&
hl. .:l '. 7 r r'(L&u '?&> g 1 3 cr, h
16.6 PUBLIC UTILITY :
The historical evidence on the construction of public b u i l w for the welfare of the people
comes from a very eady period in Indian history. The earliest rehrence, of course, comes
from the excavated remains of Harappa culture.
The lndus cities - whether Harappa or Mehenj~daro
India - show town planning of a truly amwing &are.
importa~t feature of town p l a was sewage system. The bathrooms of the houses were
connected by a drainage chamel t a the sewers in the main streets, leading to soak pi@. The
sewers in the streets were covered through their length by bricks or sometimes stone slabs.
We have no referew about any public authority who manolged the sys
much evident from uniformity and specifimtions that a central authority must have man
the system.
, Another importsurt, mtuCNe, though not specifically a public -
I
Gnanaries have been discovered at Moheajodaro and Hara
Harappa is comparatively less well known where within 91
I .
rows of sixgranaries each with a central passage 7 meters wid
, i $
The combined floor space of the twelve granaries was
the south of the granaries are situated lines of circular platforms which suggest the occupation
'
of the barracks by those who poured the grain. The flow of grain, the principal source of civic
I
wealth, was most probably regulated and distributed by government officials. In both
I'
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, the granaries we
1
They fulfilled in the state economy the functio
moneyless age, their condition at any given moment, must have
the national credit and the efficiency or good fortune of the administration.
Sarah are perhaps the most conspicious of the
br
Turks in the 13th century. The earliest mention
'
time (c.1266). Among later rulers both Muhammed Tughluq an
I
to have built a large number of samb in Delhi as also along the majnr land
Sultanate. The main features of these SBHI& may be listed thus:
If
. .
Square or rectangular disposition, endosed on all four sides by masonar).
through one or gometimes two gateways.
,
Series of rooms fronted by small va&d spaces along all the h
I+
enclosure warehouses in the corners of the endosure.
Existence of a mosque
enclosure.
and . one
, I LC
- \
or more
. . . .
wells in t.hs own SQ~M& &+tbb;.
- 1.
. ;.,:. ,.
e
F- -
< .&-
. h m saraia were basically hotels locat&along the highways t o promote the trade. ~ h &e 1 id.;
were managed by the local offi* who were supposed to maintain the basic amenities timi . . :
5,
&rlidgscl~nenothsr
i mp n F t P B t ~ o t
W e b -
provide safety asd security. As far as our sources go, there was no bar on any traveller from
using this facility on the basis of his religion or faith.
The &wmy bridges of medieval India were basically structures earn of arches resting
oa pie&, atmiss d whit& carried the mad across a stream of water. w@h the exception sf
few brird&s srvi vi ng from the pre-Tutkish priad, in which the spans are raised on the
principle of 6 0 r m almost all other extani stl l pchms of: the ~ d i e v a l period are known
to have used true arches, with voussoirs and key stones. In tern of their load-bearing
strength a s h &e width covered by their spans, h i i with ar c h pomwd an inherent
adwxtage bver athm architectural forms p4d hmasonry and d d the dolllinanf
type tboughdit the nledieval period to be suppImted eventualEy in the nineteenth centmy
with the replamlent of stone with iron- the principal building ma@*.
It is an iate&mtbg @ct t b t these bridga are d-built aan me di um4 d &zed rivers. Thq
also rlWb~gwgea, di- grid moats. hqp rivers such as Gangs d Y a m b in the
North and Gdmwi and Krishna in South did not possess slrch bridges until late in thm 1%
century.
. 2
Some;d"rhe. mant s e s ~ u c ~ deserving a visit by any imrbtme listed t ~ b w
1) 4 b m&i Widg~ ai Jauqm, a medim &id to* in U W Pdesh. The bridge dates
. Ma r p &a d (latter halt d s i ] E f d century).
3) Atham& E&dge, near Pwi, Orissh dating back b the early decaddof 11th century.
n
terms and in its relationship with the society. . -.. --. --
rs:,-i;j bsr; ,r%,>\~* : ;itjjttjI+Z i.t.1
16.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK
1) There are five main function categories
2) See Sec. l6.2.
. . -. . . . . - . . .
UNIT 17 SCULPTURE -
Structure
i )3 fFOJ,
.?'Y&: .,
LA- .WUb', a
.frnn.L
17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Sculpture : Types and Forms
17.3 The EglSPeriod
. 193.1 ThaHampp~~u
17.3.2 The Mauryuu
1733 TheSunga6
173.4 The Kurhanr
17.4 The Gupta Period
17.5 Medieval Period
17.6 South Indian Stream
17.7 Let Us Sum Up.
17.8 Keywords
17.9 Ansmrs to Check Your Progress Exercises
bt er reading this Unit you will be able to:
know the rich sculptural heritage of India,
m understand its importance in the tourism industry,
understand the sense of continuity as far as the sculptures are concerned.
17.1 INTRODUCTION
-
Indims have made a contribution to world art in their sculptupe w W can only be paralleled
by the Greeks. Throughout the centuries sculpture in India has been a dominant expression
of W p p l e &their land. The sculptural ;ultists h India had attrrined a high dc:grec of
excelknce at a very early period and specimens produced by them are ;world renowried and
objects of international recognition today.
It has often been commented by European scholars of history that Indians are not history
conscious and there is no written record of the history of ancient India. If history is not merely
a jumble of dates, names of kings and the& wars, but means a record of the life of the people
and their environment, there is no b~ hktodadamd than what we frnd in ancient
sculptures and paintings. Like a vast c&wd pktm b&, the d e f s of Bharhut and Sanchi
illustrate vividly the everyday existence of the ar ci hq peq&s. Furthermore, they are
priceless artktie pieces that attract connoisseurs from d ovcr the globe. That is why it is
important far d students d tourism to have kmx$sdge of the sculptural legacies of our
country.
It is true &at the creation a d interpretation of a work of art d e p d s primarily on a nation's
rituals, beliefs and culture. But there can be no doubt about the universal appeal that lies in
the silent beauty and craftsmanship of sculptutes.
17.2 SCULPTURE : TYPES AND FORMS
Sculpture is the action or at of creating three di ma s h&& of art out of malleable or
.
. hard material by carving, modelling, casting etc. There.is a widespread belief that Indian
sculpture is architecture. Although, this is true of the bulk, yet, varieties of metal, ivory and
wood were useti for sculpture. Examples abound from the level of primitive tribalr, to folk
cultures and the sophisticdted ones. Then there is the terracotta of which there are enough
sculotures. The whole range of South Indian bronze is also non-architectonic. These: famous
and exquisite sculptures are technically superb examples of aesthetic sense. The art of
sculpture thus remained deeply rooted in the tradition of Indian art and architecture and
had more or less an uninterrupted evolution. From the time of the Hatappm d ~ t 5 o n to
the end of the Mughal rule masterpieces of Indian sculpture kept coming by. As shcknts of
tourism, it is imperative to get familiaried to all major sculptural forms that are of importance
in highlighting the cultural heritage of India and are of interest to visitors. Broadly we can
divide sculptural art in the Indian subcontinent i ~ t o four main streams.
e The Early Period
The Gupta Period
Medieval Period
South Indian stream
All these sculptural f m are e q d y rich in tkk matent and exhibit the cultural diversity
of India. Let us now see how they differ Erom each other a d still hold a d u i t y .
1173 THE EXRLY PEWD '
173.1 The Harappans
Mat--L
stmctmed to wmpdred
tat-oiulruu4 PI-1,
Pninul and homsn Me.
EEcbisanupeelollst
0-9 =PC- fw
appcrv rs -*n; Yct,
at. &pa level, the
s ~ - t k n p t n ~ - " .nirrml e l e ~ t s nynrrcnt
ampects of tbs humm
pqeh, Mr(Pmorpbls .
dtmlsmldellonb
logkdd-nirl
The early period begins with the Harappa culture and may be said to have lasted until the
*' advent of the Gupta Kings.
The earliest scul pt m~ come h the Harappa culture. The human and tinhdmes
and figures excavated in this region show r high degree of finish and excellence and Wos e
an advanced stage of dwelogment of the art. A wide variety of impressive terracotta fi pi ues
of animals such as dog, baa14 monkey, squirrel, rhinoceros, crocodile etc show that the
artist had a close stlldy of Wuhabits as wll as consummate abiity to represent them with
realistic effect. The of ani uds caved on seals in naturalistic detail umvey a high
degree of technical sSU cmdartistic ability of the sculptor.
.- .
- -v
r-2
- P
% 4
L= -
- *-
Samc z~marluMc f i gures in bronze have also been discovered from the valley. A dancing girl
is .c&&xeif to be a work of great beauty. AAwild buffalo with head lifted . up and . a ponderous
&e~th(ir &nmimpai of artistic
w:., .* IT,, .
. .
- .- . .
. -
c-- -.- .- J
w'
remnants of its railings and gateways are now prekhed in the indian
.- in a number of European and Amedean deccions. The sculptured panels an tite gateamd
a 7
railings present a vast panorama of life. Amongst the historical scenes, thc ntost bateresting
%I
are the royal processions of Ajatshatru and Prenjit and their visits to Buddha. ka&
" invaluable sculpture is the representation dP the faaraus Jet pvd mowteq &av& with
'5 its mango trees and the rich banker Amt hpdh
. .
mbptyinggold to co;vertb grand of the
large 6gures. There are more than thirty statues of Ya l t s h and YabW, dmtps &rodas.
.'i$ The representations of animals and trees are alsovery numerous. The other objects areboats,
horses, chariots and bullock carts, besides several Linds of musical bshaments a d a geat
-'%&is
;- -
k in the history of 1ndianktis thekdptured railings round tha
temple at Bodh Gaya. The h e r side of the rail is ornamented &h long
of anirrasln,
. . ; elephants, deer, bulls, winged horses, laalenms, centam etc. and scenes from evtryday He;
,,q?$ and the outer fa= are carved with circular low flowers on both sides, some of them
- % . . 4 containing busts of animals. The sculptures ate well designed, laboriously chided and
-.- " &,j&&. - * - -
& -dLc& . .
* 3 if rl f i -a
The most marmifictnt of the early Buddhist monuments is t
. .-
. . -,
n the four gateways which are ~8~ediH&trti&ig'&e i
52 ' ".-.'. ' ~... i
'. . .
b. . -"_, r .:;
.- 4
. .
. - . . -
. .
=.< ' F.-
1 1
. >There were thircy calumas and out af h s e ten are in more or less perfect state of
!, ; - ,a preservation. Two with lion capital are at Basarh - Bakhira and at Lauriya Nandangarh, both
,
in Champarm district of Bihar. However, the mastqiece of Mauryan sculpture is the
- - -c Swmth column. It once stood in Deer Park in Sarnath. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang
:?I who visited the site in the seventh century k i b e d it thus: A stone pillar about seventy feet
;w high. The stone is altogether as bright as jade. It is glistening and sparkles like light.
1 ; >. "
1 . ,;j, .* Besides the pillars, there exist a host of YaLsha and Yakshi figures such as Besnagar Yakshi
(Indian Museum, Calcutta), Parkham Yaksha (Mathura Museum),,Didarganj Yakshi (Patna
I F:.
~. .
Museum) - Jain Tithankqas (Lohahipur Torras) and portrait heads. These bear distinctive
&:,- -.. - . < .
Mauryan polish and are, therefore, ascribed to this period. The figures of Yaksha and Yakshi
'
- are huge in proportions, are stately a d show the artist's technical
I . ; .
The Yahbi h Didarganj is adi t i dl y the best nf thew fipr?..
. .
-
p w . - :27'J,!rl ',q,&! . *UI I . ~ Y,'?'. . <I 3 t i l ~. - 4 r
1 ~S;IS-!~D J ; n . t . t ~ , ' l ~ ! , m t yg}~, ~ A; & .
& c:. ;;k&r.= srfi' &j.,*;*;ki_ -jeud:*&m
~ w . R . r ; ~ . '.-
I
TJLC8t ImfhrarerrlPbd
b another group of lenmk
w-5, the y.IfShhi, .long
with their msle
c o u n t e ~ the yakshpg
T h c y l o o ~ ~ ( h c
fcrlllity of water a d cPrtk
They srsnd against (rsg,
embrace them, and thus
becorm Im aspect of the
tr#, uUeulP*Ihe
intcrpe~etrsllon of (h
pbnt and thc hw-
The Lne is dependent
upon the woman lor ils
fcWty, .s is (hc wo-
m(hc(m.
d ~ h e Sunga dynasty replaced the Maury &i?
marked development in Indian form of sculpture and ornamentation.
Susgaperiod depicted life in its true form and reality. This is to be see
which stood round the stupa at Bharhut in central India. the s
In the 1st - 2nd century A.D.,
sclllp(are "
picture of Indian life and thought. Men, animals, foliage, gods and goddesses are portrayed
with great vigour and dramatic intensity. The human figures are elegantly carved and shown
in various difficult poses. The northern gateway of the stupa is the best specimen as a work
of art.
173.4 The Kushans
Under the patronage of the Kushan kings, a new school of art known as the Gandhara school
i
came into existence in north-western India. The Gandharan artist adopted the Greek custom
of representing gods in sculpture and the Buddha was first represented in art. The
appearance of the image of the Buddhawas an event of utmost importance because till then
stupa was the object of worship. The images of the Buddha'and Bodhisattva are carved out
in a realistic manner with great attention to accuracy of physical details, especially by the
delineation of muscles and addition of moustaches etc. The representation of the thick
drapery with large and bold fold lines also form a distinct characteristic of the art. The
Gandhara art reached its summit under the rule of Kanishka but this school gave an
effeminate and listless gesture to the Buddha f wr es that barely expressed the spiritual energy
of the Buddhist thought.
another school of art flourished at
Mathura which was a centre of
early indigenous art. The Mathura
sculptqres are distinguished by the
use of spotted red sandstone. The
noteworthy specimens of Mathura
art are thoseaofYaksha and Yakshi.
These figures exhibit artist's skill in
designing and carving of exquisite
fi gures, ful l of char m and
expressi on. Apar t from t he
Yakshis, a few royal statues of the
Kushan kings have been found near
Mathura. The statue of Vima
Kadphisis and a headless figure of
Kanishka of this period are now in
Mathura museum. The greatest
achievement of Mathura sculptor is
the carving of the earliest entirely
Indi an represent at i on of t he
I
t
Buddha.
It is t he yakshis, essent i al l y
representing the water and earth
principle, which culminate in the
i mage of t he ri ver goddess,
principally Ganga, Yamuna and
Sarasvati. In geographical terms,
these are three important rivers of
t he I ndo- Ganget i c pl ai n; i n
mythical t er ms t hey a r e t he
principle of eternal subtenance.
Throughout the subcontinent,
Indian shrines portray mighty
figures of Ganga and Yamuna
st andi ng on t hei r respect i ve
vehicles guarding the sanctuaries
and preparing the devotee for the
inner journey. Sarasvati, the third
river, has now run dry, but is
remembered as the goddess of
speech and learning and also of
music.
Young Girl I
The myths of Vishnu and
Shiva are fundamental. In the
case of Vishnu, the
evolutionary process Is the
model The primeval waters of
the universe arc churned; the
elixir 01 We Is obtained, but
w t before the deadly poison
(kalaknta) surfaces and the
dross Is destroyed. Many
sculptures and Innumerable
paintings depict this episode of
the churning of the ocean for
;the e l m (amrita-manthaua),
when a column is shown as
the &urnins rod, symbolizing
the centre of the earth.
17.4 THE GUPTA PERIOD
With the rise of the Gupta dynasty in the fourth century A.D. the Indian sculpture entered a
new epoch. During this period, Buddhism was still influential and inspired images, which
must be recognized as outstanding works of art as well as powerful expressions of faith. But
Hindu places of worship were increasing in number and needed images. Mathura, for
centuries a major centre for the sculpture of Buddhist icons, now started providing images
of Hindu deities. The forms were different but the high standards of sculpture were
maintained.
The Gupta sculpture is at its best both in Buddhist and Hindu images. Preaching Buddha
at Sarnath is the peak of perfection where he is represented seated in a yoga posture, his
hands on the wheel turning the preaching. The eiegant image of Vishnu, too, has the
perfection of form and of the techniques of carving stone expected from Mathura. In the
characteristic red sandstone of the region, sensitively fashioned, it remains imposing despite
the damage it has sustained. The image wears a cloven profusely ornamented. The torso is
bare and a lower garment textured with tucks, falls from the belt. Long earrings and two
necklaces frame the face which reveals a serene spiritual beauty.
. adminationis a
. - . . . ' " ~. . - , . **., ,+t.- j .:.. Y.;:
-.. .
. .
-. figures are found at the raps at DcMimori in Gujrat.
EE
0 . '
. .
S h is (he symbol al
s e x d bi-anlty, and
therefore beyond the
duallly of S h h nnd
Shakti, eemwpondiag (4
mimandne(erc(purushp
.ndprclhltl),Lrbalhsrr :
Sttcs in the n@ghborh& d BiLnner in Rajas* have poduccd a nmber d imamsting
ni(hinhlm.
I
temwta plaques of thjs perid, now in the El& gum. Excavatiolls. at hhi&chhatra
.reveal a lwge coUecth of terrmtaplaqws aad large relief 6gwegfroan a na lbqpr extant 5s:
. .
temple dab$ Beid or late fifth century. A considerable number of terracotta heads, in most
. . .
style axme from Akhw in. Ka&mk. Nwneraus, h e tqracottas of this period
M.aft M a . A poignant seated @we &a 'a1 and SCvr from Sahet - Mahet
have dm bem kitad that are uuparded in style
of aMnallbqtimpcKtantnhr d r o c k ~ i n c e n b d
wry considerable number of individud b g a , Buddbist orland
hashrines. The Gust large dpturd compositions, a feature of the later
in the Gwpta period. % - u s m e made but very few have
~ ~ k . a s e ~ t ot het hpt aphd.
' . -
I
..
Sculpture
17.5 MEDIEVAL PERIOD
The ruined Buddhist stupa near Gyaraspur (Vidisha) in Malwa has four majestic Buddhas
and can be dated to the eighth century. The Buddha on the southern side is accompanied by
the bodhisattvas Avalokiteswara and Vajrapani.
The surviving structural temples of the eighth and the ninth centuries in Central India and
Rajasthan belong to the Pratihara style. This style is derived from the Gupta style albeit with
some regional variations. The Pratihara temple walls are decorated with a single band of
sculpted niches, pillars with lotus designs and elephants on walls carved beneath luxuriant
scrol work.
Architecture
The late ninth and the early tenth century saw the Mahiigurjara style with tall shilbaras,
sparsely decorated door frames and mandapas. The mandapas, shikharas and the *ails are
extensively sculpted.
During the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Chandellas were the greatest power in Central
India. They were great builders of temples and tanks, forts and palaces etc. The capital
Khajuraho was a principal site of sculptural activity and was a high point of building activity.
The Khajuraho temples are famous for their erotic relief panels which may illustrate the
tantrik practices of certain medieval cults. In these temples the many charms of the female
body are revealed in most contorted and provocative poses. Geometric and floral designs,
too, are abundant.
With the coming of the Turks the sculptural activity, atleasl. that carried on by the rulers and
nobles, came to a temporary halt. Keeping in view the Islamic ruling on not indul;$ng in
replicating animate objects, there was a sudden decline in sculptured artifacts. The walls of
tombs and palaces, if at all decorated, were by calligraphy or by geometrical, denatu::alized
vegetal ornamentation called arabesque.
It was, however, different with the Mughals, particularly, as far as Akbar was concerned. He
invited guilds (salats) of indigenous artisans and gave them freedom to experiment. It is in
this way that a unity and continuity in the art of India was maintained.
The depiction of animate motifs -birds, beasts, human or cclestial
beings - constituted the chief mode of the art of ancient Hindus
as well as Jainas and Buddhists. Similar animate motifs in carved
and sculpturesque decor in red sandstone are found in within
large numbers in the monuments of Akbar at Agra and Fatehpur
Sikri. Beautiful brackets having el ephant mouths with
unmistakable tusks and trunk are used in the dalans of the Delhi
gate of the Agra fort. The Hehimgiri rnahal in the same fcrt has
a large number of carved elephants, parrots, makara, hamaa and
peacock.
Apart from these motifs, the Mayura - Mandapa of the Agra fort
is treated with essentially Hindu designs and motifs like the
chakra, svastika, srivatsa, lotus, harnsa and parrot.
The subsequent Mughal emperors, though using all these rnotifs
in one way or another did not try and improve upon them as the
stress was on paintings during the time of Jahangir and on
architecture during the time of Shahjahan. However, frorn the
time of Shahjahan onwards, sculpted pieces of marble in the
shape of mini-monuments, jalis and miniature animals do appear,
though they are not prolific.
With the coming of Aurangzeb, this whole activity saw a reversal
of sorts with the emperor enforcing prohibition on image making
- carving or otherwise.
17.6 SOUTH INDIAN STREAM
* The art of South India got a ncw impetus in the hands 01' the
Pallavas who ruled for a fairly long period starting from thr: 4th
I
century A.D. to the 9th century A.D. The Pallava artists used
metal as a medium of expression and this period is remarkable
for excellent sculptures in bronze. The subject matter is mainly
saivite. Over thirty - five bronzes of the Pallava age and idiom are
now identified in various t em~l es. Siva has been shown in various
moods, somewhere he appears in the act of granting, somewllere
destroying and in others caressing his consort. In the Nataraia
image; ofVSiva which is the most fakous form we find some of t i e
, b e s t examples of South Indian metal art.
kc-
The Cholas were the much celebrated rulers of the Sangam age who gave extensive patronage
to arts. Nearly 23 Chola rulers reigned for over 400 years from 850 A.D. to 1275 A.D. The
Pallava images have their characteristic features in ornamentation and drapery while in the
hands of the Chola artists there is a roundness of form and a disciplined strength about these
figures. The image of Parvati from Tanjavur now in Tanjavur Art Gallery is an example of
classical Chola art. The artistic ideal of the classical Chola art of the eleventh century finds
fullest expression in the Nataraja image from Triuvalangadu now in the Government
Musewi, Madras.
The movement in art under the Cholas continued for a longer period through fruitfirl pursuit
of experimentation. Some of the late Chola images are squally remarkable like the
Balakrishnan in the Prince of Wales Museum and the IZ;ankala Murti from Tirukkalar now
in the Government Museum, Madras.
Metal art in the south is not confined to the depictionof gods and goddesses only. Kumerous
sculptures appear which display Saiva and Vaishnava saints, kings and queens, lamp bearers,
animal figures, metal boxes etc. They give an idea of the secular art form. Thus, the
!
Sun-rti from Kilayur datable to 12th century A.D. now in the Tanjavur Art Gallery
i
closely resembles the figures of the Chola deities. The A i e on elephant from Togur
datable to 12th century A.D. now in Government Museum Madras, also helps to form an idea
of the human as well as animal figures of the Chola period.
1) What were the various sculptural f~rm8 ia medieval I&?
%
17.8 KEYWORDS
Connoisseurs : an expert in matters of taste
Malleable : adaptable
Carving
: giving shape to stone
mtins ag h P e t h m ~ ~ ~
. Mo d e m h giving shape to clay
. Ivory . , : made of the t ~ k - o f elephants
1 .
Non-arcbl-nic 3 not rd&ng t;idicbitecture
3
Terracotta : unghmd earthenware
Figarines : asmdlstrrtue ,
Consummate : make pr
'Ponderous
: made of one piece
: calculation frame
Lustrous : with a shine
Yaksha : mythological figure of a male
*ah& . mythological figure of a female % 2
Centaurs Greek mythological figures with he ,
the body and legs of a horse
Ihvtas.. -: the gods
3 I
-74
?!.'
Raias , & t h e m
, .
,; f . , s
the fish >, %
'gataka the stories of several birth
rastika and
B
L4t7.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES
2) See Sec.17.2.
2) Ske Sub.b.17.3.l.
3) See Sub.Sec.17.3.2.
.. .,
' 4) See Sec.17.4.
Architecture
Check Your Progass-2
I
1) See Sec.17.5.
2) ' See $ec.X?.6.
UNIT 18 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES - I
(EARLY HARAPPA AND
HARAPPA)
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
What is an Archaeological Site
Discovery and Naming of the Harappan Civilization
Geographical Spread
The Period of the IIarappan Civilization
The Early Harappan Settlements
18.6.1 Origins
18.6.2 GhaggarIHakra - lndus Axis
18.6.3 Punjab, Rajasthan and Havana
Mature Harappan Sites
18.7.1 Shortughai
18.7.2 Sutkagendor
18.7.3 Mohenjodaro
18.7.4 Harappa
18.7.5 Kalibangaa
18.7.6 Banawali
18.7.7 Lothal
Some Common Features
Let Us Sum Up
Keywords
Answers to Check your Progress Exercises
18.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to learn:
how the Harappan Civilization was discovered and why it was named 'so,
what an archaeological site is,
where the Early Harappan and Harappan sites are located,
about the characteristic features of the Harappan civilization, and
how this civilization was connected with other contemporary civilizations in the world.
18.1 INTRODUCTION
You may have heard the names of Mohenjodaro and Harappa in your middle-class history
books. What do these signify to you? Scholars tell us that they were the cities existing
four-and-a- half thousand years ago and were parts of a forgotten civilization. Although they
were the most important, these cities were not the only ones existing during those times within
the boundaries of what is called the Harappan civilisation. There were a large number of
other urban settlements about which you will learn in the course of this Unit. At its peak, this
civilization covered a very wide area measuring around 1.8 million square kilometres. Its
mature phase lasted for about 800 years and it maintained trade contacts with far-flung areas
such as Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) and Egypt. This Unit discusses the various aspects of
Harappan Civilization.
Archaeology and Antiquity
You should see the videos
Unearthing the Past and
Reconstruction of the
Past made in our history
course EHI-02 to know
more ahout excavation
and archaeological sites.
18.2 WHAT IS AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE
Archaeology, simply stated, is the study of human antiquities. An archaeologist is one who
is involved in such studies. An archaeological site is a place where the remains of an old
civilization exist, sometimes visibly but mostly under the cover of the earth. It needs a lot of
careful digging and sifting which in archaeological terms is called "excavation". After
excavation the site reveals the existence of a human settlement with houses, streets, potteries,
tools and other implements, sculpture, painting, writing etc. This ancient human settlement
discovered or unearthed during the modern times is called an archaeological site.
Knowledge about archaeology and archaeological sites adds to the expertise of those tourism
professinals who package tour or work as guides and escorts. There has been an increased
interest in cultural and heritage tourism. In some countries tour operators package
archaeological sites as tourism products and offer arhaeological tours as special interest
tours.
18.3 DISCOVERY AND NAMING OF THE HARAPPAN
CIVILIZATION
Nothing definitive was known about this civilization until in 1921an archaeologist, Daya Ram
Sahni visited a village named Harappa in Western Punjab (now in Pakistan). It was believed
by the villagers and some earlier archaeologists that it was a one- thousnad year-old city which
was ruined because of the wickedness of the king. After excavation it was established that it
was a long-forgotten civilization almost five thousand years old and contemporary with the
ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Unlike in Mesopotamia and Egypt, the script in which the Harappan people wrote is still not
deciphered. So we do not know what those people called themselves and their civilization.
We also do not know the ancient names of the various Harappan cities discovered so far.
We are, therefore, forced to name them after the names of the modern places where these
sites are located. Since Harappa was the first site to be discovered, the entire epoch was
termed as the "Harappan Civilization" following a convention among the archaeologist to
name it after the first- discovered site.
18.4 GEOGRAPHICAL SPREAD
As stated earlier, this civilization, at its peak, covered an area as wide as 1.8 million square
kilometres. Its northern border reached Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, while the
southern limits dipped down to Bhagatrar in Gujarat; Suktagendor in Baluchistan formed
the western border and the eastern zone spread out to Bargaon, Manpur and Alamgirpur in
U.P. But the main concentration of Harappan settlements are to be found along the Harappa
- Ghaggar - Mohenjodaro axis. Most of the Harappan sites are to be found in the present-day
Pakistan including the two most important sites - Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
This civilization also covered a wide variety of land and climate. While the settlements in
Baluchistan developed and survived in inhospitable dry climates and unapproachable hilly
terrains, the settlements in the Ganga-Yamuna doab enjoyed all the bounties of the nature.
Hundreds of kilometres of desert- land separated the Harappan settlements in Rajasthan
and Gujarat. The premier Harappan settlements in the Ghaggar - Hakra - Indus region,
however, were situated in the flood plains and the land was fertile making it possible for the
cities to procure food from the adjoining villages.
18.5 THE PERIOD OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
So far as the timing of the Harappan civilization is concerned, there is no unanimity of opinion
among various archaeologists and scholars. In this Section, you will find the different'
viewpoints of some of the archaeologists.
Archaeological Sites - I
John Marshall placed Mohenjodaro, one of the most important sites, between 3250 and 2750
(Ear,y Harappaand
B.C. Harappa)
Mackay, in 1938, thought that Mohenjodaro existed between 2800 and 2500 B.C
Martimer Wheeler, in 1947, put the age of Harappan civilization between 2500 and 1500 B.C.
In the early 1960s, D.P. Agrawal used the radio-carbon dating and chronologically situated
this civilization between 2300 and 1700 B.C. After calibrating these dates for possible errors,
some scholars have now put the dates of the rise and fall of the Harappan civilization between
2700 B.C. and 1400 B.C respectively.
This shows that the Harappan civilization was spread widely both in terms of space as well
as time.
Main Sites of the Harappan Civilization
r
1)
Why is this Civilization called Harappan?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Archaeology and Antiquity .,
2)
Write in about 50 words on the periodization of the Harappan Civilization.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3)
What is an archaeological site?
18.6 THE EARLY HARAPPAN SE'ITLEMENTS
The Early Harappan period was, to some extent, a distinct phase leading towards the mature
Harappan period. In this Section we will discuss the origins and various characteristics of
this period where there was progression towards cultural homogeneity.
18.6.1 Origins
There is an increasing homogeneity of opinion among the scholars that the Harappan
Civilization had indigenous roots. By this we mean to say that although trade and commerce
might have played some role, this civilization originated in the Indian sub-continent and
evolved out of a long process of development. The first phase of this process was the
transformation of the hunting-gathering tribes into settled agriculturists. The following sites
show how the Early Harappan phase originated and took shape.
Mehrgarh
The earliest evidence for this development comes from a place called Mehrgarh in
Baluchistan. In its earliest phase the people in Mehrgarh used stone tools but no potteries
are found. During the second phase, stone tools were refined and potteries were made.
During the third phase, there was greater use of pottery and copper tools were introduced.
The villages were getting larger, the houses bigger and agriculture more developed.
Similar settlements are reported from Mundigak in Afghanistan and Cholistan desert in the
Ghaggar-Hakra valley. It was from these settled agricultural communities that the early
phase of the Harappan civilization developed, which was marked by incipient urbanism.
Mundigak
One of the important early Harappan sites, Mundigak is situated in southern Afghanistan.
Located on the distance trade route the place seemed t s have passed through four phases
of development. Phase I was marked by incipient urbanism. The township was more firmly
established during phase 11. The houses were larger, well-constructed and many rooms had
hearth in the centre. During Phase 111, the use of both copper and bronze increased.
Terracotta figurines of humped bulls and women are also found.
During Phasc I\;, Mundigak bccame a developed township with defcnsivc walls and square,
bastions of sun-dried bricks. A palace and a temple are also found. Potteries were more
rcfincd and decorated with a red slip and black paint showing birds, bulls and pipal trees.
All thcsc: dzvc.lopn~enls took place duriag thc middle of the fourth and the beginning of' thc
third millcnniurn J3.i:.
5itu.ilcd i l l ~ h l : Quetta vallcy 01 Haluci~ihtdn Province, this place shows yarzlic.1 dtvelopmcnts
witncsscd at Mundlgak. During thc cnd oCthc fourrh and thc beginning of thc third millennia
B.C., the houses were getting increasingly larger and bricks were used for their construction.
Clay button-seals, copper daggcr- blades, bone tools and iarietirs of painted potteries have
hecn discovcrcd from this site.
18.6.2 GhaggarIHakra-Indus Axis
It wa5 in this region that th:: Harappan civili~stion developetl full blovm i'he Early
lidrappan set t l ~m~nt s played a major role in thesc futurc dcve'oprneots. Around 40 Early
Flarappan sitcs havc heen diwovered in this region, some of which are given below.
Amri
11 was thc first Early Harappan site discovered in 1929. It was located ncar the Indus river
on rhc fertile dlltlvial land. In vdrious phases Amri shows the development of Indus pottery
tr,iditlon from hard made, monochrome potteries to nicely painted, wheei-made potteries
t1ccr1rntt.d with hunlpcd Indian bull% The use of cc)pljci and bronze also increased. The
houses also qhowed imprcvcmcnt and were made of stones and mudbricks in the later phase.
h a l l ~ranaries havc also hecn t,>und in thcse hcnses. Thr later period also reveals the
cxistrucc of a walIed enclosure which might have been ustcl as a mrans of defence.
Kot Diji
'This was a very important Earlv Harappan site. It is located on the left bank of river Indus
opposiic Mnhenjodaro and about 1.60 kilomctrcs to the north-casi of Arnri. Two features
of this sitc arc important in relation to the future developments. One is the existence of a
massive and solid defensive wall of mud resting on stone and supported wilh mud bricks
revetment at some place from outside. The second important feature is the diverse forms of
whccl-made potteries decorated with plain dark brown stripes. The paintings are of
fish-scales, pipal lcaves and sometimes horned deity. This hind of p0tte.y has been named
as th? Kot Dijian Pottery and was widely spread in the Indus area. It has also been ieported
frc)m t'ar-flung areas like Kalibaligan in Rajasthan and Mehrj?.rrrh in Baluchistan. The motifs
such as horned bull, scaled fish and pipal leaves, used in the Amri and Kot Diji potteries,
[lave bccn ft~ued extensively even during thc maturc Harappan period.
Situated in Ciomal valley, this Early Harappan sitc reveals the existence of Kot Dijian pottery
in its later stages. Semi- precious stoneleaves, bangles and tearacolta female figurines have
alco bcen reported from this site.
Rehman Dheri
Archaeological Siles -
(Karly Hnrappa and
Harappa)
Lt iq a large Early Harappan site (1700 ft. X 1500 ft. X 15ft.) It had a wailed enclosure 4 ft.
wide resting on 6 ft. wide foundation. It was constructed by packed mud, brick-shaped clay
slabs and dressed clay blocks. The houses were mud-built with fire-places and grain silos of
dilfei-rcni . &a. Kot Diji-typ: pottzries with ieci paints a.ld fish-scale, pipal leaves and
pcdcock tigurcs werc made Pre~inub stones Itkc inAqmo;se acd lapis la7uli have also been
found. home scholars think that the graffiti found on the pots could he conside:ed as the
forerunners of the Harappan script.
Situated in the Bannu area of north west frontier province the sites at Lewan and Tarakai
Qila reveal the existencc of mud- brick structures and a large number of stone tools. Tarkai
Qila also shows the evidence of fortification. Precious stoness like turquoise and lapis lazuli
are also found. Grains such as wheat, barley, lentil and field-pea have also been found.
18.6.3 Punjab, Rajasthan and Haryana
Harappa
This site reveals the existence of a Early Harappan phase. Kot Diji-type of potteries have
been found. Lapis lazuli, steatite, carmelion and terracotta human figurines are reported
from these levels.
Apart from Harappa, Khadinwala is another Early Harappansitc discovered in western
Punjab.
Kalibangan
Situated in north Rajasthan on the now dried-up Ghaggar bank, Kalibangan shows evidences
of both the Early Harappan and Harappan cultures. During its Early Harappan period,
people lived in houses made of mud bricks of standard sizes. The township was Fortified with
a 3 - 4 metre-thick wall. Copper axes, terracotta bangles shell, carnelian etc. have been found.
Existence of Kot Dijian pottery is also reported. Evidences about the use of plough for
agricultural purposes are found.
B
Kalibangan: A) Early Harappan copper objects and B) Early Harappan trracota objects
AIX~IICO~O~ and An(lqulty BanawBli
This Early Harappan site was located at the now dried-up course of Ghaggar and Saraswati
in the Hissar district of Haryana. Material objects found at the site comprise potteries,
terracotta bangles, terracotta animal figurines, shell etc. Potteries were marked by graftiti
and at one place a depiction of a covered cart with spoked wheels had been found. Houses
were made of mud bricks.
Kunal
This site k found at the dried-up course of the Ghaggar - Saraswati in the Hissar district of
Haryana. The houses were made of mud bricks of standard sizes. Unpainted black-and-red
ware, terracotta beads, lapis lazuli etc. are found.
Other Early Harappan sites in Haryana are Siswal, Balu, Sothi Bara etc. From these sites
also similar potteries as those found at Kalibangan are reported.
r
1)
List the archaeological sites where the Early Harappan Civilization originated
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2)
Write five lines on the Characteristic features of the potteries found in Amri and Kot
Diji.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.7 MATURE HARAPPAN SITES
Although the trade and outside influences seem to have played a part, the Harappan
Civilization developed mostly indigenously. This development was not confined to any
particular date but was a long process which may have taken centuries to give shape to the
cities which were the hallmarks of the mature Harappan Civilization.
Movements of population and settlements in the flood plains of the Ghaggar-Hakra valley
seemed to have heralded the process of this development. Growing technological
sophistication and the cultivation of fertile plains created more surplus and led to an increase
in population. The increasing surplus liberated a section of the population from farming
activities and turned them towards crafts. Specialisation in pottery-making, metallurgy etc.
were achieved during the Early Harappan period and these skills were communicated
through various channels to faraway places. That is why the Kot Dijian potteries are
8 12
discovered in the entire Indus area and even to places as distant as Kalibangan.
Tradc links with far-flung areas were established by the groups interested in acquiring
precious commmodities such as lapis lazuli, silver, gold etc. which were not locally available.
Organised groups of priests also emerged who indulged in religious activities. The growth
of elite groups liketraders, priests and statesmen led towards increasing distinction among
the population leading ultimately to class-division. The need to communicate with distant
lands as well as for continuationof specialised knowledge may have led to the invention of
a writing script and hence the birth of civilization.
18.7.1 Shortughai
Situated in North Afghanistan, it represented the northernmost boundary of the Harappan
civilization. Both dry and wet farming was done in this region. Houses and other structures
were built with bricks of Harappan size (32 X 16 X 8 Cms). The discoverj, of precious stones,
ceramic designs and other objects put it firmly within the orbit of Harappan civilization.
18.7.2 Sutkagendor
Located near the Makran coast close to Pakistan-Iran border in Baluchistan, this Harappan :
town was surrounded by a defensive walled enclosure. Its position was that of a trading
post near sea-port.
18.7.3 Mohenjodaro
This was, according to some scholars, the most representative and the largest of all the cities
in Harappan Civilization. In modern times, it is located in the Larkana district of Sind
Province in Pakistan. In the beginning of the 20th Century this area was considered to be the
most fertile and one of the biggest grain marts in the entire region. During pre-historic times,
it was situated on the bank of river Indus which now flows three miles to the east of the site.
According to Jansen,a leading archaeologist, Mohenjodaro was built "according to a highly
sophisticated planning concept most probably based on cosmological principles". But we do
not know who these planners and architects were.
The city was divided into two parts: a citadel on the western side and the lower city on the
eastern one. The citadel was built on a massive man-made platform measuring 400 X 200
metres and was seven metres high. A six-metre thick brick wall was filled with sand and silt
in order to make this platform. The area surrounding the citadel was dug and filled with
water providing it further protection.
On this platform other smaller platforms were constructed for making structures of special
importance. The famous 'Great Bath' of Mohenjodaro is one of them. It measures 12 X 7
metres and is 3 metres deep. It was constructed very carefully with bricks covered with
gypsum mortar, a binding material, and a thin layer of bitumen, a water proofing compound
being applied to make it water tight. A wellin the adjoining roomis supposed to have supplied
it with water. Scholars believe that it was used for ritual bath.
On one side of the Great Bath is a long building (70.31 X 23.92 metres) which some scholars
believe to have been the residence of a very high official, possibly the high priest.
Another large structure on the citadel was the granary. It consisted of twenty seven
rectangular blocks measuring 45.72 metres from east to west and 22.36 metres from north to
south.
Assembly hall was another important structure. Squate built, it has twenty rectangular
brick-pillars arranged in four rows of five each.
In fact the entire structure of the citadel was so imposing that the highest building must have
been at a height of 20 metres above the ground level and could be seen from a long distance.
Another important feature of Mohenjodaro was the existence of a well developed drainage
system. The water from the houses passed through chutes into the covered drains on the
sides of the streets.
I
Archaeological SLks - 1
(Early Harappa and
Harappa)
Trinkeb made of beads ofcornelian shell, etc. found at
Mobenjadaro
Potteries found at Moheqjodaro
18.7.4 Harappa
It was the second largest city of the Harappan civilization covering an area of 370 acres
compared to Mohenjodaro's 500 acres. Located on the bank of Ravi in Western Punjab (now
in Pakistan), it was the first site to be discovered. It, therefore, lends its name to the entire
civilization.
The city, like Mohenjodaro, was divided into citadel and the lower city. The citadel was a
raised structure surrounded by a brick wall. On the platform of the citadel other high rise
structures were erected.
An important structure identified as the "Great Granary" by the scholars is found below the
citadel and consists of two blocks each 150 X 56 ft. in size. Each of the blocks is made of six
halls divided by five corridors. The structure also suggests that water-transport was used for
carrying grains to the granary.
To the south of the granary . there is a row of circular brick platforms for threshing grains.
Just below the citadel there are two rows of barrack - like structures possibly for
accommodating the poorer people or even slaves.
18.7.5 Kalibangan
Situated in Rajasthan, this site is on the south bank of the dried-up Ghaggar. It is a smaller
site compared to Mohenjodaro and Harappa and covers an area of one square kilometre.
It also consists of two separate mounds signifying the citadel and the lower city. The entire
city was fortified with a wall of mud bricks. The houses were also constructed with mud bricks
and not baked bricks as was the case in ~ohenj odar o and Harappa. The construction was
poorer in quality, although the planning was similar.
A significant aspect of this site is the discovery of fue-altars with remains of animals in its
ashes. These altars were made of burnt bricks and were situated on the top of five or six
differently sized mud brick platforms and could be approached by flight of steps.
The eastern sector represents the habitation of the lower order of people. The houses were
smaller in size and most of them had fue-altars. It seems that they served a major religious
purpose. The system of street drainage,so conspicuous in Mohenjodaro. is absent here, but
soakage jars were used occasionally to collect the waste water from the wooden house drains.
Archaeological Sites - I
Kalibangan is an extensively excavated Harappan site in India and a view of the fire-altars,
(Early Harappa and
defensive walls and the citadel is of tourist interest.
Harappa)
Kalibangan: Entrance of a house showing the corridor and flanking room.
Kalibangan: Howe drain discharging into a soakage jar in the street.
18.7.6 Banawali
This site is in the Hissar district of Haryana and is situated on the dried - up course of
Saraswati river. This city had an enclosure wall measuring 300 X 150 metres. Although it
was divided into the citadel and the lower city, the citadel was not placed on a raised platform.
It was, however, separated from the lower city by a 5 - 7 metre thick wall. This settlement
also does not seem to have a regular drainage system and, like Kalibangan, soakage jars were
used to collect the waste water.
Archaeo1og)i and Antiquity 18.7.7 ~ ~ t ~ ~ l
This Harappan site is found m thc lich wheat and ~ot t on growing area of Gujarat. It could
have playcd the role of a sea-port for establishing trade contacts with the contemporary west
4aan c.imllzations l:kc Mesopotamia and Egypt.
This city, unlike Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalihangan and Banawali, was not divided into the
citadel and the lower city, although the entire city had a walled enclosurz. It had a r :,~tangular
design and burnt bricks were used more than at Kaiibangan, though mud bricks were also
e~nensiv~ly used. A dock vard - like structure has also been discove~ed by the excavators.
Iall~al: Painted Pollcry
18.8 SOME COMMON FEATURES
The Harappans !ived in an age when long-distance communication took months, if not years.
The road-transport could only hr used for covering short distances and even that took a long
Archaeological Sites - 1
time because the slow-moving bullock-carts were the only means of land transport. The
(Farly Harappa and
water-transport was faster but even then it was not possible togovern the distant areas. Thus Harappa)
any idea of a centralized Harappan government has to be discounted completely.
The ideas, however, did travel and were manifested in various common features of
town-planning, pottery-production, tool designs and craftsmanship. It means that various
Harappan cities must have evolved at differrent times borrowing ideas but transforming them
LO suit the local conditions. Thus, we find that the division of the city into the citadel and the
lower city was found in Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan and Banawali besides other
settlements but the use of baked bricks and regular drainage system were not to be found in
Kalibangan and Banawali. On the other hand, while Lothal used the baked bricks, it does
not show evidences of internal division of the city into the citadel and the lower city. Similarly,
while the idea of fortification was a common one, Kalibangan, Lothal a d Banawali reveal
I he existence of a common city enclosure, whereas in Mohenjodaro and Harappa the
lortificalion was mainly around the citadel.
The potteries, tools and other products of craftsmanship show more evidences of a unified
coltural pattern, though again with regional variations. The red-and-black potteries showing
motifs of bulls, pipal leaves, fishes, horned deities and birds etc. have been found in almost
all the scttlements. The Harappan seals wearing the pictographic script, are also discoverred
at many places. Tools made of copper, bronze and stone show uniformity in design and
technique of production.
All these facts show that the Harappan civilization, though distributed over a wide area,
manifested certain common cultural traits.
1)
How is the town planning of Mohenjodaro arid Harappa different from that of
Kalibangan or Banawali?
2)
How did the transition from Early Harappan to mature Harappan civilization take
place?
18.9 LET US SUM UP
The Harappan Civilization evolved out of a long process of development spread over
hundreds of years. In the beginning of this process, the nomadic tribes settled down to
agricultural life. Slowly, the agricultural communities formed villages which became larger
with the development of agriculture. The harnessing of flood water increased the agricultural
surplus thereby freeing a section of population from farming activities. The accumulation
of surplus and development of various skills and craftsmanship led towards differentiation in
kchaeolog~ and Anuquify
population and towards incipient urbanism. Slowly the local character of craftsmanship gave
way to a more homogeneous style, particularly in pottery-making. This style was called Kot
Dijian style and was found at most Early Harppan sites. This homogeneity was also witnessed
in the realm of religious ideology. Painted horned bull deities, terracotta mother goddesses
and representations of various other artistic motifs point towards this process. Internal and
long-distance trade flourished and trade and cultural contacts were established with faraway
regions. The mature Harappan civilization arose out of these developments, particularly in
the Indus region and grew out to spread its wings far and wide. In terms of territory, this
seems to be the largest civilization among its contemporaries.
18.10 KEY WORDS
Citadel : The fortress in the city
.
Dry Farming : A system of tillage in which the surface soil is kept loose so as to
retain scanty rain and reduce evaporation.
Gramti : Decorative scribbling found on the earthen pots.
Granary : The store house for grain
Mound :
Remains left by the people of the past which look like heaped-up
embankment.
Seal ' : A piece of wax or stone or some other material in which some
design is carved. It was used as a means of authentication.
Terracotta :
A composition of clay and sand used for making statues. It is baked
in fire.
Wet Farming : Farming which is done with the help of artificial watering.
Check Your Progress-l
E I I
1) See Section 18.3.
. .
n
1) See sub-section 18.6.1.
2) See sub-section 18.6.2.
I Check Your Progress-3 I
1)
See sub-section 18.7.3,18.7.4,18.7.5 and 18.7.6.
2)
Your answer should include the generation of surplus, increase in population and the
diversion of a section of the population for farming activities towards other non-
agricultural activities. See section 18.7.
UNIT 19 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES-I1
(POST HARAPPA)
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
The Importance of the Archaeology of the Gangetic Civilization
19.2.1 Gangetic Civilization and the Ganga Valley
19.2.2 The Archaeology of the Ganga Valley
19.2.3 A HistoIyof Settlements in the Ganga Valley
The Importance of Pottery
Pottery in the Ganga Valley
19.4.1 The Ochre Coloured PotteIy
19.4.2 The Painted Grey ware and the Black and Red Ware
19.4.3 The Northern Black Polished Ware
19.4.4 The North Indian Menu 3000 Years ago
Some of the Important Cities of North India in the 6th Century B.C.
Central India
South India
Let Us Sum Up
Keywords
19.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you should be able to:
understand why the study of the archaeology of the Gangetic Civilization is important,
know how the settlements in the Ganga Valley were different from those in other parts
of India,
learn about the various kinds of potteries which distinguish the different phases of
settlements,
know about the crops which the farmers raised in these settlements, and
learn about some of the major cities which came up during the period under study.
19.1 INTRODUCTION
We have already explained the term archaeology in the preceding Unit. In the following
sections we shall be dealing with the archaeology of the period between the end of the
Harappan civilization and the beginning of the Vedic civilization in the Indian sub-continent.
This period can be roughly dated from around 1500 B.C. to 300 B.C. This period has been
called the formative phase of the classical Indian civilization. This is called the classical
Indian civilization because scholars have attributed the origins of many modern institutions
to the first flowering of civilization in the Ganga valley about 2500 years ago.
19.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF
THE GANGETIC CIVILIZATION
The study of the archaeological finds of the formative phase of the Indian civilization is
important because the historians have unduly emphasised the information found in the
'
literature of this period. This Vedic literature has been extensively used for recreating the
j
history of this period. This has led to a belief that the classical Indian civilization was the
I
exclusive creation of the Vedic Aryans. The study of archaeology will correct this error
because we shall be able to understand contributions made by people of different regions and
Archaeol o~ and Antiquity
cultures in India in developing this civilization. The Aryans were confined to Punjab in the
early Vedic period. This period is roughly dated to 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C. If we find
archaeological evidence for the presence of villages in other parts of the sub continent in the
same time bracket we can safely call them non-Aryan communities. Thus, the study of
archaeology will help us redress the imbalance in the understanding of the classical
civilization which is believed to be the handiwork of the Aryans by many.
19.2.1 Gangetic Civilization and the Ganga Valley
We nced to differentiate between the Gangetic civilization and the Ganga valley. The
Gangetic civilization refers to the civilization which emerged in the Ganga valley around the
s i i h century B.C. and spread to other parts of the Indian subcontinent. In the process of
expansion in to areas outside the Ganga valley the Gangetic civilization picked up several
elements from Central India and South India. So, what is called the Gangetic civilization is
an amalgam of developments in the entire sub-continent. The Ganga valley refers to the area
watered by the river Ganga and its tributaries like the Yamuna, Sarayu and Kosi. Ganga
descends from the Himalayas in the famous Hindu pilgrim centre of Haridwar and after a
long journey through the provinces of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Bengal goes in to the Bay of
Bengal. In the course of its long journey it is joined by many tributary streams. The plains
formed by the alluvial soil of the Ganga river system is home to some of the densest clusters
of agriculturists in the world. In this valley are located famous cities like Delhi, Allahabad,
Banaras, Patna and Calcutta.
The Ganga valley has a very special place in the Indian tradition. It was in this area that the
imperial dynasties of the Mauryas and Guptas emerged. It was also in this area that the great
religious teachers like the Buddha and Mahavira delivered their message of non violence and
love. This happened after the sixth century B.C.
19.2.2 The Archaelogy of Ganga Valley
1
The Archaeology of the Ganga Valley is still in its infancy and corelation between its material
culture and linguistic and literary factors may be deferred for the moment. No part of India
has been changed as drastically as the Ganga valley by the encroachment of tillage on the
forest. To be able to visualise the situation about 3000 years ago we shall have to imagine the
dense forests in which the Pandavas roamed or the forests not very far away from Delhi where
the Mughals hunted rhinoceroses. This is by no means an easy task, because it requires
mapping out the history of settlements in the entire region. This has not been possible as yet
because of the lack of resources and commitment for the past. So any amateur can discover
an unknown settlement or a city in the wide expanse of the Ganga valley. There are thousands
of such settlements waiting to be discovered, explored and excavated.
19.2.3 A History of Settlements in the Ganga Valley
In the post Harappan period what were the settlers of the Gangavalley doing? The evidence,
though limited provides us some clues. Remains of many villages and towns have been found
in this area. Villages of agriculturists dating back to the second millennium B.C. have been
found in palaces like Mahagara and Koldihawa (near Allahabad on the banks of the Belan
river). What is interesting is that the inhabitants show a clear continuity from the preceding
hunting gathering mode of life. This very clearly indicates that these settlers were not Vedic
Aryans who are believed to have come to the upper Gangetic valley in the first millennium
B.C. Evidences for the presence of agriculturists have also been found in Purana Qila (Delhi),
Atranjikhera (Etah distlict, upper Ganga valley) and Chirand (district Saran, middle Ganga
valley).
r
1)
Write in 100 words the importance of the archaeology in the study of the Gangetic
Civilization.
2)
Name three places in Ganga valley where archeologists have found evidence regarding
the presence of agriculturists.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE IMPORTANCE OF POTTERY
Archaeologists seemingly devote a lot of time collecting pieces of broken pots long discarded
by its users. This dialogue with the broken sherds of the past has mystified many people. Let
us try to understand why archaeologists are obsessed with pots. In ancient societies metal
was in short supply. So, most of the people used utensils made of clay. It was convenient,
cheap andvirtually non-repairable when broken. So people discarded them. The shapes and
sizes, the technique of manufacture and the designs'on the pots kept changing. When
historians discover them in old settlements they study the designs and shapes of pots. It gives
them an idea of the food habits and the changes in the design. This helps them arrive at the
relative dating of the period of the use of pottery. This in turn gives them a clue to the period
of the settlement. Pottery is also the most visible sign of the presence of old settlement in an
area. After the rains mud is washed and sherds of pots are visible on the surface. Any amateur
can look for them while passing through some old town or village.
POTTERY IN THE GANGA VALLEY
The settlements in the Ganga valley have primarily been dated on the basis of the kind of
pottery found. The pottery could be dated on the basis of thermoluminiscent dating. Also
their location in well-stratified contexts helped archaeologists arrive at relative dating for the
pottery and the settlement. This means that when a pottery is found at the lowest level of
occupation it is believed to have been used by the earliest settlers. That is why it is primarily
on the basis of the finds of distinct kinds of potteries that archaeologists have dated the
settlements in the Ganga valley. These potteries used as time markers are as follows.
19.4.1 The Ochre Coloured Pottery
The Ochre Coloured Pottery has been found at the earliest level of settlement in upper
Gangetic valley. This pottery is made of medium grained clay, underfired and has a orange
- red colour. The Orchre Coloured Pottery has been found at places like Hastinapur (in the
Meerut district Uttar Pradesh). At Hastinapur, the legendary capitalof the Kurus, the Ochre
Archaeological Sites - I1
(Post Harappa)
Coloured Pottery is associated with the earliest evidence for habitation. It has been dated to
1800 B.C. This pottery has been reported from several other sites like Bahadurabad eight
miles west of Haridwar on the upper Ganges and at Saipai in the Etawah district.
The people using the Ochre Coloured Pottery did not know the use of iron. Some of these
settlements also yielded hoards of copper tools. The copper tools found in the hoards are
axes, chisels, rings, harpoons, spearheads and strange anthropomorphic objects. Axes upto
a foot in length were excellent woodmen's tools. The barbed harpoons proclaim extensive
food gathering near the fishful rivers near which they have been found. The rings were
probably used as ornaments. The evidence from the Ochre Coloured Pottery levels found in
several sites indicates that the settlements were occupied for short durations. People lived
in mud houses. They survived by a combination of farming and hunting. They cultivated rice,
barley, gram and Khesari (a pulse).
Most of the scholars believe that the people who used the Ochre Coloured Pottery were not
Aryans.
19.4.2 The Painted Grey Ware and the Black and Red Ware
The Painted Grey Ware (called the P.G.W. in abbreviation) refers to a pottery grey to ash
grey in colour. It is painted in black and sometimes in a deep chocolate colour. It is found
in many shapes and sizes but the most common types are bowls and dishes. This pottery came
in use at time when the Ochre Coloured Pottery had already gone out of use. The P.G.W.
has been provisionally dated between the 10th - 7th centuries B.C. Some of the well known
settlements belonging to this period are Hastinapur (Meerut district in Uttar Pradesh),
Purana Qila (Delhi), Ropar (Punjab), Bhagwanpur (Haryana) and Mathura. The Black and
Red Ware (called the B.R.W. in short) pottery refers to a pottery black in colour inside and
on the rim. The rest of its body was red in colour. It has been found in association with the
P.G.W. in the Upper Ganga Valley. In the sites of the middle and lower Ganga Valley this
pottery was more popular.
Many of the people using the P.G.W. and the B.R.W. were the first settlers of those sites.
This proves that they succeeded in creating village settlements in many new areas. They lived
in small villages. The houses were made of wattle and daub. Thisis indicated by the finds of
mud platforms and mud plaster pieces with reed and bamboo impressions. One reason why
they were able to settle agricultural villages was possibly the use of iron. Iron spearheads,
sickle and hoe have been reported from excavations. However, most of the tools continued
to be made of copper and bone.
19.43 The Northern Black Polished Ware
The Northern Black Polished Ware (called N.B.P.W. in short) refers to a pottery with glossy
surface. The core of the pottery is extremely thin. In addition to black colour it is also found
golden, silver, white, pinkish, steel blue, chocolate and brown colours. The discovery of some
pots made by joining broken pieces indicates that it was an expensive pottery. This use of
this pottery has been dated to the period between the sixth century B.C. to the early centuries
of the Christian era.
The pottery of the earlier period was confined to some well defined geographical region. The
N.B.P.W. was the first pan Indian pottery. It has been discovered in more than 1500 sites.
The find spots include Taxila in Pakistan, Tamluk in Bengal and Amravati in the Andhra
Pradesh. In the later phases of its use it was associated with the use of coins, houses of burnt
brick and fortified settlements. It is called the pottery of the rich people.
With regard to the growing of new crops subsistence base no significant changes took place.
Only urad was added to the list of cultivated crops. These people used iron on a larger scale.
In fact if we compare their range of tools with that of the modern day farmers there does not
seem to be much difference between the two. The nature of agricultural implements did not
change much until the beginning of the 20th century. The presence of coinage and the use
of many kinds of semi precious stones like lapis lazuli brought from as far as Badakshan in
Afghanistan indicates long distance trade.
- (Post Harappa)
19.4.4 The North Indian Menu 3000 Years ago.
What is significant from our point of view is that already in the beginning of the 1st millennium
B.C. today's principal crops were grown. Remains of rice, barley, wheat, gram, sesame and
cotton were found in various sites. We may infer crop rotation with wheat and barley
dominating the winter harvest and rice the rainy season as today. The presence of cattle,
sheep, goat, dog, horse and pig likewise indicate that only few additions were made in the
menu in subsequent periods; In fact the evidence of the bones of deer, turtle, fish, leopard,
fowl hippopotamus and elephant might indicate that the farmers of those times had a richer
variety of non Vegetarian diet than that of their modern day counterparts.
The time bracket for the P.G.W. - and the B.R.W. - using village settlements is the same as
the one for the later Vedic tradition. Scholars believe that the P.G.W. and the B.R.W. using
people represented a mixture of the farming population of the previous period and the Aryans
of the Vedic literature.
EI z l
1)
Why is the study of potteries important?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2)
Write a note on the Ochre Coloured Pottery in 50 words.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3)
Why is the N.B.P.W. important? Write a description of this pottery in 50 words.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.5 SOME OF THE IMPORTANT CITIES OF NORTH
INDIA IN THE 6TH CENTURY B.C.
In this section we shall survey the archaeology of some of the great urban sites which came
into being in the first millenium B.C. we shall also try to find out whether the evidences found
form a sufficiently homogeneous whole to justify the name the Ganges civilization.
Main Urban Centres in India (600 B.C.)
Hastinapur
This famed capital of the ancient dynasty of the Kurus, the famous dynasty described in the
epic Mahabharata, started of as an small settlement in about 1800 B.C. This settlement in
the Mawana tehsil of the Meerut district is now about five miles away from the Ganga. The
literary references mention it as being located on the bank of the river. The earliest settlers
seem to have used the Ochre Coloured Pottery. The area of settlement was very small. The
succeeding period is characterised by the use of the Painted Grey Ware Pottery (P.G.W.).
This pottery is important because people living in a large number of settlements in the Upper
Gangetic valley were using the P.G.W. It is interesting to know that the bowls and plates used
by modern Indians are similar in shape to the ones found in the P.G.W. pottery. So, although
LL_ T_. l : ___ ___-_.1A L_ _ _ - : _ _ _ _ L _ I _.&---:I,. 11 ---. --- -l..-:--+l.-:- -.-t- -.-.-I ---- :- +I-,.
way determined by our ancestors almost three thousand years ago. The people of Hastinapur
lived in houses made with mud or mud bricks. They were unfamiliar with the use of iron. Many
copper arrowheads, nail parers, antimony rods have been found. To a modern day visitor
Hastinapur a thousand years ago would have looked lie a small baekward village of upper
Gangetic valley.
Kausambi
Kausambi the famed capital of the Vatsas whose king Udayana is famous for his romances
and escapedes, is now a small settlement called Kosam. But in the sixth Century B.C. it was
a very large city. It had ramparts over 30 feet high. They were armed with bastions at regular
intervals. After the original construction rectangular towers of baked bricks were imposed
upon bastions. The remains of a large palace have been discovered. The most interesting
find is that of the Ghositarama monastery. The Buddhist literature tells us that it was the
favourite haunt of the Buddha and his disciple Anand.
Archaeological Sites -
(Post Harappa)
Kausamhi: A rkrrnsive Wall
Kausambi: A) Tenncotta f l guhes and b) Iron objects
Rajghat
Rajghat, the earliest settlement in the city of Varanasi, has been excavated by archaeologists.
It is an extensive table land rising about sixty feet above the surrounding ground level. It is
located on the north eastern outskirts of modern Banaras. The place was first settled by a
group of agriculturists somewhere in the 9th-8th century B.C. By the sixth century B.C. it had
evolved into a settlement defended by a mud rampart measuring 20 metres at the base and 6
metres in height. It was protected by a moat on the western side where the city was not
protected by the Ganga and Varuna streams. The defences protected a space of 40 hectares,
while another 100 hectares was outside the fortification. However, the ma@cence of the
fortification is not matched by the other fmds. This might be related to the limited scale of
excavation. The excavated evidence seems to indicate that people were living in wattle and
daub hutments. They used many iron tools supplemented by tools made of bone. Their luxury
objects consisted of beads and bangles of terracotta, copper, glass and semi-precious stones.
The city of Rajghat supported the monastic community of Sarnatha where the Buddha
preached his &st sermon.
Rajgir
The site of Rajgir south east of Patna was the largest of all the early historic cities. It was the
capital of Magadha until superseded by Pataliputra in the 4th century B.C. Rajgriha is
ensconsed in a beautiful hill girt valley. It was enclosed by a high wall girding the hills which
provided an excellent natural defence. The walls extend upto a length of 40 Kms. It is 5 metres
broad at the base and reaches a height of 3 metres. The inner line of the mud rampart
extending over a length of 4.5 miles represents the heart of old Rajgir. One interesting find
of the inner fortification is the monastery of Jivakadrmanravana. It consisted of four large
Archaeological Sites - I[
(Post Harappa)
A B
R&hat: A) Pottery Spouts and b) Sherds of Decorated Pottery
A Rqjghak Terracotta Figurines
B
1
elliptical halls within a large ellipitical enclosure. This was the monastery which had been
donated to the Buddha. It is believed to be one of the earliest preserved monastic complexes
because of its design, shared facilities and the finds of a coarse red pottery which is believed
to be earlier than the N.B.P.W.
27
Archaeology and Antiquity Pafaliputra
Pataliputra, the imperial capital of Ashoka and many other famous kings, emerged on the
historical scene later than other famous historic cities described here. According to the
literary sources it succeeded Rajgir as the capital of the powerful Magadhan empire in the
4th century B.C. Its magnificence has been described by Megasthenese, the famous Greek
ambassador in the court of the Mauryan king Chandragupta in 302 B.C. Unfortunately the
ancient city could not be explored properly because the modern city is right on top of the
early historic settlement. Archaeological explorations suggest that the fortification of the city
might have enclosed 1350 hectares.
Pottery found at Palaliputra
Kapilvastu
Kapilvastu, the birth place of Gautam Buddha, has been identified only recently. Earlier it
was believed to have been located in the Himalayan foothills of Nepal. Now it has been
conclusively identified with Ganwaria and Piparahwa in the Basti district of Uttar Pradesh.
The discovery of a monastic sealing of Kapilvastu at Piparahwa has convincingly established
the identity of Kapilvastu. The mound of the town site has accumulated ruins 21 feet in height.
Its occupation went back to the period before the 6th century B.C. The coming of the
N.B.P.W. saw the use of burnt bricks here. Remains of many monasteries have been found
here.
Mathura
Mathura was one of the most important cities of ancient India. Apart from its association
with Krishna it has been associated with Buddhism and Jabism too. The sculptures of
Mathura school are famous. Despite intermittent explorations spread over a century Mathura
remains one of the least explored cities of ancient India. The reason is that most of Modern
Mathura is built over the ancient city. There are at least nine separate mounds. Each of them
has been a treasure hunter's delight. Mathura seems to have begun as an humble settlement
in the 8th century B.C. By about 600 B.C. it had grown into a city of massive proportions. It
covered an area of about 360 hectares. It was fortified Gt h a mud wal1,which in turn seems
to have been ringed by a moat. Many houses were made of baked bricks. The presence of
soakage pits shows some kind of planning for the disposal of waste.
Archaeological Siles - I1
Conclusion (Post Harappa)
Our survey of some of the settlements of the Ganga valley is by no means comprehensive.
What it does indicate is that the period of the emergence of the cities was the same as that of
the Buddha and large kingdoms. Most of these places remain unexcavated and unexplored.
19.6 CENTRAL INDIA
The archeaology of Central India broadly comprising the areas of Madhya Pradesh and
Maharastra presents a pattern different in many ways from the Ganga valley. Central India
has a prehistory of agriculture which was generally unclear in the Ganga valley.
In their long history of development, the inhabitants of this region used many ki ds of pottery.
Some of them invented Lota shaped pottery which remains popular to this day. The farmers
of Central India used whole range of tools made of stone. A few of their tools were made of
copper. They did not know the use of iron.
The Menu of a Central Indian 3500 Years Ago
The farmers grew crops like barley, wheat, rice, bajra, jowar, lentil, horsegram, hyacinth, grass
pea, pea, black gram and green gram. They were also consuming Jamun, Behada, wild Date,
Ber and myrobalan. The finds of bones cattle, sheep, goat, dog, pig, etc. indicate the range
of domesticated animals. The cut and chop marks on the bones of these animals indicate that
they were slaughtered for food. The bones of wild animals like black buck, Nilgai, Barasinga,
Chital, buffalo and rhinoceros indicate that they supplemented their diet with wild animals
too.
Ujjain
In thc period around 1000 B.C. iron tools were found in the places like Ujjain, Eran, Nagda,
etc. The people also used weapons of iron. The evolution of the cities in this period was
based on the discovery of iron. The premier city of this area in the historic period was Ujjain.
Located on the bank of river Shipra it was surrounded by a very large rampart in the 6th
century B.C. The rampart had a height of 15 metres which enclosed an area of 190 hectares.
Iron smelting and the manufacture of iron tools seems to have been one of the important
activities of the craftsmen in the city. Houses were brick built. Some kind of planning is evident
from thc presence of metalled roads, brick tank, wells and drains. According to one estimate
building the fort in Ujjain would have required a manpower of 20,000 people. Organising
such a large labour force would have required a developed state apparatus. Since those who
would build the rampart would require food and wages. If the king forced people to work he
would require an army to control such a large work force. That is why the evidence of
fortification is taken as proof of the fact that a society based on coercion and concentration
of wealth had come into being. This was also the period when evidences from Ujjain indicate
that it had established active links with the Ganga valley. This is proved by the presence of
the Northern Black Polished Ware. This pottery came in use in the Ujjain area too, in the
sixth century B.C. This is a clear case of the Gangavallcy influences coming to this area. The
early historic period as documented in ancicnt Indian literature shows that the area around
Ujjain was called Avanti. Its powerful king Pradyota is believed to have conquered Kausambi.
All this indicates that ccntral India had become part of the ambit of the Gangetic civilization.
Evidences for the presence of large townships have been found in places like Nagda in the
Ujjain district. Located on the river Chambal, theuppermost part of a partially natural mound
90 feet high rkpresents three periods. In the ~ar l y half of the first millennium the place was
surrounded by a rampart. Maheshwar 70 miles south of Ujjain is the famous Mahishmati of
the ancient texts. Located on the bank of the Narmada the historic mound rises to a height
of 200 feet. Except for somc exploratory excavations the site still awaits the spade of a
discerning archacologist.
Archaeolo~ and Anliquily
- --
I hain: Iron objects
19.7 SOUTH INDLA
By the term South India we refer to the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
and Kerala. These areas arc watered by the Godavari, Krishna, Tungbhadra, Penneru and
Kaveri river systems.
Farming Communities in the ~ i u t h
Farming communities emerged in this area in the third millennium B.C. In the post Hardppan
period evidences have been found for the presence of strong farming communities.
Nagarjunakonda (on the mouth of the river Krishna) Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Sangankallu,
Tekkalakota, Hallur (on the Tungbhadra) and T. Narsipur (at the confluence of the Kaveri
and Kapila) show the presence of farmers from very early times. On the basis of parallels with
Central Indian pottery and Radio Carbori dates these settlements have been dated to 1800 -
1050 B.C.
What did the farmers eat
Millets and pulses were the main cultivated crops. Various kinds of millet, horse gram, green
gram and black gram have been found in the remains. Hyacinth bean and barley too have
been discovered in some of these sites. These farmcrs had domesticated cattle, buffalo, sheep,
goat, pig and dog. In addition to the domesticated species, these settlements have also yielded
the remains of wild game like porcupine, black naped hare, Nilgai, Chinkara, blackbuck,
Sambar and Chital. This would indicate that the villagers hunted and ate these animals.
Pottery and Tools In the Southern Village 3500 years ago
People in these villages used various kinds of pottery. What is interesting is that they were
using vessels with spouts. In the subsequent phases of evolution they showed use of pottery
similar to those of Central India. The range in the shapes and sizes of pots had increased.
Archaeological Sites - I1
They were using bowls withlips lugs and spouts, handled and hollow footed bowls, jars, dishes
(Poet Harappa)
on stand and perforated vessels. What is interesting is the fact that the shapes of their pots
virtually anticipate all the shapes of the pots used by the modern day villagers in South India.
These villagers used a large number of tools made of stone. They used copper bangles and
-ear rings.
mergence of Cities in the South
Although they started using iron tools earlier than the Ganga valley, cities emerged in South
almost four to five centuries later. The core region for the emergence of civilization in the
South was the modern Tamilnadu area. In the centuries preceding the Christian era the
Tamils composed their most beautiful poems to date. These are called the Sangam poems.
In these poems they refer to prosperous towns and cities. Unfortunately, the lack of proper
exploration and excavation in this area leaves many gaps in our knowledge about the process
of the emergence of the urban centres in this area. Excavations have been conducted in places
like Urayur (modern Tiruchanapally in Tamilnadu), Kaveripattinam (mouth of the river
Kaveri) and Korkai (on the bank of the Tamraparni river near Madras), Arikamedu (in
Pondicherry), Amaravati (60 miles from the mouth of the river Krishna), Nagarjunakonda in
the Guntur district in Andhra. The urban centres seem to have emerged in the beginning of
the Christian era.
Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda
Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda have yielded ruins of a large number of Buddhist
monasteries. The magnificent bas reliefs found on the Stupas is perhaps the most brilliant
exposition of the art of contemporary India. Excavations have also yielded the N.B.P.W. Thus
the finds from Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati indicate that the influences from the Ganga
valley reached this area in the centuries preceding the Christian era.
Amaravati: Salavahana Structures
Korkai, Urayur and Kaveripattinam
The ancient site of Urayur, the capital of the Colas is believed to be located within the city
limits of modern Trichinapally. The earliest occupation of the site dates back to 300 B.C. -
100 A.D. It is marked by the use of Black and Red pottery. Along with this has been found
the Roman pottery known as Rouletted and Arretine wares. A few potsherds bear Tamil
32
NagarJunakonda: Fragments of terracotta figures
inscriptions in the Brahmi script of the early centuries of the Christian era. Kaveripattinam
(Post Harappal
was the sea port capital of the Colas. It was located on the mouth of the river Kaveri.
Excavations have shown the presence of a massive brick platform built on natural sand and
perhaps a wharf for tying the boats. A water reservoir made of an earthen bund with brick
facade has also been discovered. Another structural complex found in this area is the remains
of a Buddhist monastery. Korkai was the capital of the ancient dynasty of the Pandyas. It has
been idcntified with a modern village on the bank of the Tanlraparni river near Madras. The
discnwry of innumerable pearl oysters in different levels indicates that the site was an
important centre of pearl fishery.
liaveripattinsnl: Excakated remains of Huddhiat Vihara
Archaeology end Antiquity Arikamedu
The site of Arikamedu in Pondicherry has shown the presence of a Roman warehouse. It was
a brick built commercial town. It seems that this place functioned as a trading station for the
Roman traders. Finds of Amphora (a particular pottery used by the Romans for exporting
wine) are specially interesting as it indicates that the Indians had developed a taste for foreign
wine. The warehouse was used for working precious and semi precious stones and exporting
it to Rome. Many Roman coins have also,been found in the excavations.
The presence of Roman influence along with the influences from the Ganga valley in the form
of Buddhism indicate the nature of urbanisation in the South. The spread of Buddhism was
related to the expansion of trade networks which together created the cities of South. But the
ethos of these cities remained very different from those of the Ganga valley.
r
1)
Read the following statements and mark right ( 4) or wrong ( x ).
i) Rahghat is situated in Rajasthan. [ ]
ii) Rajgir was the earlier capital of the Magadh state. [ ]
iii) Udayan was the king of Hastinapur. [ ]
iv) Archaeological findings show that Mathura was an ancient city. [ ]
2)
Write short notes on the following:
a) Hastinapur b) Nagm~unkonda.
19.8 LET US SUM UP
The survey of the settlements in the post Harappan period is by no means comprehensive.
Indian archaeology is still in its formative stage. So much remains undiscovered that any
aspiring archaeologist can discover a settlement in his backyard. Virtually every corner and
every settlement hides some secret of the past. India needs a very large number of amateur
and professional archaeologists to discover its rich heritage.
19.9 KEYWORDS
Aryans : The group of people who spoke the Indo-European languages like
Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, etc.
Brahmi Script : The earliest known script of post-Harappan India. Most of
modern Indian scripts such as Tamil, Devanagari, etc. are derived .
from it.
Double cropping : TO grow two crops on one piece of land in one year.
Lower Ganga Valley : The areas covered by the river Ganga and its tributories in Bengal.
ArchaeoIogical Sites - I1
Middle Ganga Valley:
The areas covered by the rivers Ganga, Sarayu, Kosi, etc. in Eastern
(Post
U.P. and Bihar.
Upper Ganga Valley :
The areas covered by the rivers Ganga and Yamuna in the plains
of western U.P., Delhi, etc.
Thermoluminiscent : A scientific method of dating ceramic materials.
Dating
Wattle and : A house or hut made of interlaced twigs plastered with mud or lay.
Daub House
r
I ) See Section 19.2.
I
2) See Sub-sec. 19.2.3.
r
1)
See Section 19.3 and 19.4.
2) See Sub-sec. 19.4.1.
3) See Sub-sec. 19.4.3.
r
1)
i) X, ii) 4, iii) X, iv) 4
2) See relevant parts of Secs. 19.5 and 19.7.
UNIT 20 MUSEUMS AND ANTIQUITIES
structure
Objectives
~ntroduction
Museums - A Historical Account
20.2.1 The Western World
20.2.2 India
Phases of Development
Types of Museums
Museums: Roles and Responsibilities
20.5.1 Socio-Cultural
20.5.2 Educational
20.5.3 Enterta~nment
Museum Organization
How the Museum Objects are Acquired?
Antiquities
Museums and Tourism
Let Us Sum Up
Keywords
-?
20.0 OBJECTIVES ,
After reading this Unit you shall be able to know:
how the museums developed historically,
the variety of museums and their roles in society,
the factors determining the acquisition of museum objects; and
the relationship between museums and tourism.
20.1 INTRODUCTION .
Museums today are an important source of tourist attraction. Objects and artefacts revealing
the genesis of a country, its cultural expanse, landmarks of its industrial and technological
development, etc. are housed in the museums. Now concepts in museology have emphasized
the social responsibilities of the museums towards educating and entertaining the public.
All over the world the number of museums as well as the number of the people visiting them
have gone up substantially. The attraction of the museums for the public has increased. It
is, therefore, necessary for everyone involved in promoting tourism in the country to know
about the museums. In TS-2, Unit 8 you were familiarised with the role of a guide in the
museum through the case study of Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. In this Unit we shall
tell you about various aspects of a museum and its roles and responsibilities towards the
society in general and towards the promotion of tourism in particular.
20.2 MUSEUMS - A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
Since ancient times museum - like institutions have been part of the social life of humankind.
Although the concept of the modern museum as primarily a collection and exhibition centre
for antiquities, artefacts and other historical and cultural objects has developed in Europe,
institutions with some resemblance to them have been found in India too. In this Section we
shall discuss the historical progression of the museums in two parts:
for the western world mainly taking Europe and United States of America into account;
and
for India.
Museums and Antiquities
20.2.1 The Western World
The earliest organized museum was established at Alexandria, Egypt in about 3rd century
R.C. by Ptolemy Soter, a ruler of Egypt in the post-Alexander era. But it was more like a
university than a collection house for artefacts. It was a state-supported institution and was
a place for advanced studies. It was functional for about six centuries when it was destroyed
during the civil disturbances.
For a long time after this, no proper museum development took place. In the 14th century,
the period immediately preceding the Renaissance in Europe, there was a revival in the
interest for museums. In the 15th century, the term 'museum' was used to describe the
collections of the Medici family in Florence in Italy at the time of Lorenzo the magnificient.
The re-emergence of the museums as institutions of human enlightenment coincided with the
vigorous developments in the fields of arts, sciences and humanities.
But even during the Renaissance the museums were not open to the public. Infact, they were
more of private collections of artefacts. The first public museum opened in Odord in 1683
using the collections of Mr. Elias Ashmole. It was followed by the British Museum in 1753.
The admission to these museums, however, was limited to only a few individuals everyday.
In France also, the Louvre museum allowed limited entry to the people until thc French
Revolution in 1789 opened it fully for the public. It, therefore, took about two centuries for
the private museums to be transformed into public museums in Europe. Moreover, the
gradual handing over of the private collections for public use is "generally considered to be
a European concept of museum evolution."
In the United States the development of museums is comparatively recent. The museums,
threfore, started with the idea of public service and education from the very beginning.
Charleston Library Society of Carolina in the U.S.A. was established in 1773. From then on
upto the establishment of the National Museum in 1846 "the museum development in the U.S.
was a public affair."
; 20.2.2 India
Various methods were evolved in our country to preserve our heritage. In ancient India there
were painting galleries (chitrashalas) and art galleries (chitravithis). During the medieval
period the kings and nobles had their impressive private collections. Thc bcginnings of the
first modern museum in India can be traced back to the year 1796. The Asiatic Society of
Rengal, established in 1784, decided in that year that several artefacts it had collected over
the years should be housed properly in Calcutta. The plan, however, did not succeed and it
was only in 1814 that the society could establish a proper museum. It had two divisions - the
first dealing with archaeology, ethnology and technology and the second dealing with geology
and zoology. By 1857 there were twelve various types of museums in India. But the first
important museum was the Indian Museum in Calcutta founded in 1875. By 1936 the number
of museums was around one hundred. The most important development was the
establishment of the National Museum in Delhi in 1949. By 1995, the number of museums in
India had increased to around 360.
203 PHASES OF DEVELOPNIENT
The museums as we know them today emerged during the Renaissance and expanded during
thc Age of Enlightenment in Europe. Until now we have four phases of museum
development.:
i)
Initially they mainly served the function of storing the objects of artistic and scientific
interests. This was the first phase starting from the 14th century upto around the 17th
century.
ii) The second phase was during the 18th and 19th Centuries when many of the museums
were taken over by the state which turned them into public institutions. The effort was
to project the glory of newly industrializing nations and expanding imperial powers.
iii) During its third phase in the 20th century the museum assumed an educational role.
Thtough the selection of objects, their arrangement and exhibitions, the museums
endeavoured to educate the public about their history, culture, scientific and technologi-
cal traditions, etc.
iv) Recently, since 1970s with the onset of the phenomenon of mass tourism, the orientation 1
of the museums have changed yet again. They are now "more concerned with entertain-
ment, tourism and income generation". Their educational role has declined somewhat
in favour of generating more finances.
The move has increasingly been towards more egalitatianism. The public has become a major
factor now and the museums are endeavouring more and more to cater to the public interests.
20.4 TYPES OF MUSEUMS
The International Council of Museums (ICOM) defines the museum as "a non-profit making,
permanent institution in the service of society and of its development, and open to the public,
which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits for the purposes of study,
education and employment, material evidence of man and his environment."
Apart from the museums the other institutions which conform to this definition are:
a) Conservation institutes and exhibition galleries permanently maintained by libraries and
archive centres.
b) Natural, archaeological and ethnographical monuments and sites and historical monu-
ments and sites of a museum nature, for the acquisition, conservation and communication
activities.
c) Institutions displaying live specimens such as botanic and zoological gardens, aquaria,
vivaria, etc.
d) Nature reserves.
e) Science centres and planetariums.
The museums can be categorized as follows on the basis of grants received and the control
exercised:
1) Central Government Museum, such as National Museum, New Delhi.
2) State Museums such as Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneshwar, and Assam State
Museum, Guwahati, etc.
3) University, College and School Museums such as Folklore Museum, University of
~ ~ s o r e , ' ~ h a r a t Kala Bhavan, B.H.U., Varanasi, etc.
4) Private Museums, such as Maharaja Sawai Madho Singh Museum, Jaipur, Birla
Academy of Art, Calcutta etc.
Museums can also be classified based upon the nature of their collection.
1) General Museums
Most of the Museums come under this category. Their collections include articles of
various types ranging from ancient to modern times, encompassing sculpture, painting,
jewellery, pottery, technological implements etc. They have something or the other for
almost everyone. Some important museums of this category are:
National Museum, New Delhi: This museum possesses a very large number of objects
which include sculptures of terracotta and bronze as well as potteries and jewellery from
the Harappan, Mauryan and Gupta periods; scultures, manuscripts, paintings from the
medieval period,
a collection of antiquities from Central Asia and the America;
a large collection of te$iles, jewellery and coins from different ages and regions.
Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay: We have given a detailed description of this
museum in TS-2, Block-2, Unit- 8. It has sculptures, painting, textiles, a natural
history section, etc. from various periods of Indian History.
Indian Museum, Calcutta: Its most notable collections are 2nd century B.C.
railings containing Buddhist sculptures from Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh. Apart
from these, it has a collection of textiles and sections on mineralogy, zoology and
anthropology.
Archaelogical Museums
Such museums mostly contain articles discovered from the local excavations. Many of
them are site museums maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India. Some
important museums include Archaeological Museum at Red Fort, Delhi, at Bodh Gaya
and Nalanda in Bihar, at Sanchi, Khajuraho and 'Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh and at
Mathura and Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh, etc.
Art Museums
These museums mostly possess works of arts which include sculpture, painting etc., the
important among them are the Ashutosh Museum of Art (Calcutta) and National Gallery
of Modern Art (New Delhi).
Crafts Museums
Here we can find the live crafts traditions of India with craftsmen exhibiting their skills
as well as selling their products. These museums endeavour to popularize the crafts
traditions of india and provide the craftsmen direct access to the consumers. National
Crafts Museum in Pragati Maidan, New Delhi is the most prominent example.
Children's Museum
Objects mainly of children's interests are housed here. Bal Bhawan and International
Dolls Museum are two such museums.
Defence Museums
Their collections comprise of the objects relating to national defence. National Defence
Academy Museum, Pune and Air Force Museum, Palam, New Delhi are important
examples.
Personality based Museums
These contain articles used by or related to some important persons. Gandhi Memorial
Museum and Nehru Memorial Museum in Delhi are two such institutions.
Natural History Museums
Flora and fauna of the world, objects showing the major landmarks in the development
of the earth and ils inhabitants, etc. form parts of their collection. ~at i onal Museum of
Natural History in New Delhi is the most important museum of this kind.
Science and Technology Museums
For example, Central Museum, Pilani (Rajasthan), Visvesvaraya Museum, Bangalore
and Rail Transport Museum, New Delhi.
Specialised Museums
These museums mostly keep specialized collections. Calico Museum (having a collec-
tion of Indian textiles) and Utensils Museum (with a collection of Indian utensils) in
Ahmedabad (Gujarat) are two such examples.
- -- - -
20.5 MUSEUMS - ROLES AND RESPONSIBTLITTES
Museums have many roles to play in modern times. They utilize the national resources and
exist for public benefit. Preservation, educating the public and entertainment arc somc of
the functions a museum performs.
20.5.1 Socio-Cultural
Museums are meant to shoulder the cultural responsibilities of a nation. Tht:? functicn as
custodians of the natural, cultural, scientific and technological heritage of a peoplc. Thc
material remains of the development of the earth and of human society, the arts and crafts of
a country, etc. are housed in the museums. In India, the Archaeological Survey of India and
the State Departments of Archaeology have the responsibility for excavation and preservation
of historical sites in rural as well as urban areas. The Anthropological Survey of India collccts
and provides informations about the aboriginal and senii aboriginal people of lndia thereby
contributing to the cultural enrichment of the country.
hluseums also testify to the composite cultural ethos of our country Their collect~ons inLludc
artefacts from various periods and regions and make them part of our common cultural
heritagc Apart from this nluseums organize cxhibltions on themes of socio-religioui
significance. For example, the Salar Jung Museum, Hydcrabad holds various cxhibilion.. on
v ,
themes like 'Lord Krishns in lndian Art', 'Christianity and Art' and 'I\lamic Contribution nf
Indian Art'. Such activities mdke people aware of the cultural heritage of the11 own countrv
This also encourages people to visit the museums.
The reason of a museum's exlstencc is the public. They cxist for the benefit of the society.
They are also the "medium For expression of new - or at least newly discovered - democratic
cultural values."
The new museums take upon theniselves the rcspolisibilities of democrati~ing their collection.
1
Their role includes providing the public a wide range of aesthetic, cultural and emotional
1
experiences as well as the knowledge about liuman past. As the ~irnerican Association of
Museums has formulated:
'The ethical duty of museums is to transfer to our successors, when possible in enhanced
form, the material record of human culture and the natural world."
20.5.2 Educational
The museums also play an educative role through the collection, conservation and
interpretation of the objects of historical and cultural interests. By exhlhiting their
collections ranging from mundane to exotic, the! attract and entertain peoplc and drou4e
their curiosity. This stimulates the imagination of the visitors and induces them to ash
questions thereby promoting learning. The educational role of thc museums are enormous.
particularly with regard to the. children. The museums arc ideal p!aces to impart eiiucation
to people of all age-groups, interests. capabilities and backgrounds. The Inuseurns are ottcn
situated in attractive and spacious buildings; the objccts are normally arranged systematic ally
and attractively; everyone is free to approach thc displayed articlt s freely and without
interference. The visitors gain knowlcdgc about innumerable things about theit past. Seeing
things in their actual form is much rnorc instructional rhan reading about them in books.
Frank Oppenheimer opmes:
"The whole point of education is to transmit culture, and museums can play an ircreasingly
important role in this process. It is a mistake to think that preserving culture is distinct
from transmitting it through education."
The ICOM also recognizes the contribution of the museunls in educating the public by:
increasing the awareness of cultural heritage,
transmitting the essence of the evolving culture to new generations,
raising the awareness of other cultures.
In our country, many museums, apart from educating the public by displaying their collections
and organizing special exhibits, also give practical training courses on the ancient arts and
crafts of the country. For example:
The Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad conducts courses on bronze casting, lapidary
work, woodwork, Bidri artwork and tribal embroidery.
Archaeology Museum at Baroda organizes temporary exhibitions whenever a new
excavation is done in order to educate the trainee teachers and higher level students.
Birla Industrial and Technology Museum, Calcutta and Visveshriya Industrial and
Technology Museum, Bangalore conduct short term training courses for school teachers
in science and technology and museums.
In Bal Bhavan, New Delhi, children are given instructions in arts, painting and dance.
20.5.3 Entertainment
In the modern period another responsibility of the museums is to entertain public in order
to augment the domestic and foreign tourism. The exoticism and the attractive arrangement
of museum objects fascinate the visitors and also satisfy their urge for knowing about their
past in case of domestic tourists and about host cultures in the case of foreign tourists. Later
in this Unit we shall discuss the role of the museums with regard to tourism.
E z z l
1) Narrate the phases of museum development in 100 words. ._.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) What is the educational role of the museum? Write in 100 words.
3) What is the different between the archaeological museum and crafts museum ? Write
in 100 words.
20.6 MUSEUM ORGANISATION
At the level of organisation there are three functions in a museum:
1)
Administrative which includes personnel management, financial management, general
services, fund-raising and public relations;
2) Curatorial which involves collection registration, collection care, conservation and
research;
3) Operations involving exhibitions, public education, technical services and security.
The major decision-making staff of the museum consist of the following personnel: r
Director: Director is the topmost decision-making person in a museum responsible for policy
making, planning, organizing, staffing and coordinating activities.
Curator: Curator is the academic decision maker in a museum. It is primarily on hidher
recommendations that the objects are acquired and accessioned. The curator is also
responsible for research and publication.
Museum Educator: Museum's educational and training programmes are the responsibilities
of the museum educator. These include organization of classes, tours, films, lectures, training
programmes etc.
Museum Registrar: The Museum Registrar is responsible for the preparation and
maintenance of legal documents, files and forms for acquisition, accession, cataloguing, loans,
etc.
Conservator:. The conservator's duty is to see that the museum objects are kept in good
condition and no damage is done to them.
Exhibit Designer: The exhibit designer plays an important role in designing the exhibitions
along the lines suggested by the curator and eduational staff.
Collections Manager: Supervision, numbering, cataloguing and storage of the objects ii. each
division are the responsibilities of the collections manager.
20.7 HOW THE MUSEUM OBJECTS ARE ACQUIRED?
The acquisition of the museum articles takes place mainly in five ways:
1) Field Work: The most important way to acquire the objects is through research and
fieldwork. Items gained from excavations, regional and local tours, etc. are gathered to
bring them to the museums. These include objects of historical importance both in
geographical and cultural terms.
2)
Gift or Donations: The museums also get their collections through gifts or donations
from private sources. These objects are works of arts and artefacts of historical and
ethnological value. In India many traditional rulers donated their private collections to
the museums.
3) Purchase: Another way of collecting the objects for museums is through purchase. It,
however, is subject to the availability of finances. Most of the objects which are worth
collecting for the museums command high prices for which the museums have to compete
in the open market.
4) Transfer: Sometimes the museums receive objects through transfer from one museum
to another. The criteria for doing so can be various. For example, some of the objects
acquired by the British museums from India during the colonial period were returned
after independence. Some objects are transferred from State to the National Museums
and vice versa depending upon the nature of the objects.
5)
Loan: Museums regularly use this channel to augment their collections. It, however,
does not involve the transfer of title and the lender museum gets its objects back after a
definite period. It is a two way process and benefits all the museums.
After the acquisition the objects are accessioned on the advice of the curator. While the
I acquisition is an indiscriminate process, accession is done on the basis of set standards.
Accession involves "the transfer of the titles of objects, through defined procedures, to the
museums or the registration of objects held-in-trust for governmental agencies." After
accessioning, that is, acceptance of ownership and responsibility, the museum is obliged to
securely manage the objects.
20.8 ANTIQUITIES
The museums collect, preserve and display the antiquities found at various archaeological
sites as well as recovered from other sources. The antiquities of India are covered under
Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972. The following items come under the category of
antiquities and art treasures:
L a) Sculpture
b) Painting
c) ~theriworks of art and craftsmanship illustrative of science, art, crafts and religion and
of historical interest.
But these items should be at least one hundred years old in order to become antiquities.
Antiquities in Ashulosh Museum, Calcr~tla
43
urs [ &us i s ~n~! ~ uroij s@i qs~ l ~ u o i g (a
pus aloqn moij s s ~qpue ' d %u!iu qj!m ainjdln~s auojs (V :!q[aa MaN ' m n ) ~ " ~ ~ U O ! ~ E N
- --
Mathura Wuw~rni, Vnlhura: A) Sandstone image of Surya and B) Dasavalara panel
Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay: A) Terracotta mother-goddess and B) Moulded Brick.
20.9 MUSEUMS AND TOURISM
Museums have the potential to play an important role in tourism sector. The touring children
can perhaps be the largest clientele group because the museums offer both education and
entertainment. Even for the adults they are a great source of information about the history,
culture and tradition of a locality or country. People can discover their past through the
museums. To the foreign visitors the museums offer detailed informations about their
destination country. They can be supportive to the service sectors as the people visiting the
museums use conveyances and visit the restaurants and shops nearby.
The promotion of tourism through museums, however, has to be a concerted effort. The
museum management should bring out brochures and handbooks listing their collections and
giving some information about them. In addition, photographs of the objects should be sold
to the visiting tourists so as to leave them with a memory of the visit. The tourist agencies
should give the museums a proper and prominent place in their itineraries for the tourists
emphasiiring the educational and entertainment roles of the museums. The tourist guides
shduld be knowledgeable about the museum colleclions. They should also possess some
information about the history and organization of the museums themselves.
It is only through the joint efforts of all concerned that a meaningful and frequent interaction
9
can develop between the tourists and museums.
!
r
1) What are the main ways in which the museum articles are acquired ? Give your answer
in 100 words.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Write in 100 words about the role which the museums can play in the development of
tourism.
20.10 LET US SUM UP
The modern museum is a product of the European Renaissance, although institutions
resembling it have existed since a long time before that. It evolved through various phases
and in contemporary period it is conceived as an institution for education and entertainment.
Acquisition, conservation and exhibition of its collections are its main functions. By proper
management and display of its collection, the museum endeavours to attract more and more
visitors and play an important role in the growth of tourism. However, concerted efforts are
required on the part of all those wanting to promote tourism to make the museum an
important element on the tourist map.
Museums and Antiquilies
20.11 KEYWORDS
Aquisition
The act of gaining physical possession of an object for the museum.
Accession : The proceis of transfering title or ownership from the providing
source (fieldwork, purchase, gift, etc.) to the museum.
Artefact :
An object that has been selected, altered, used or made by human
effort.
Age of :
The period during the 18th century in Europe, particularly France
Enlightenment when some thinkers and writers believed that reason and science,
not religion, would advance human progress.
Cataloguing : Assigning an object to an established classification system and
initiating a record of the nomenclature, provenance, number and
location of that object in the collection storage area.
Renaissance :
The period of the revival of art and literature based on classical
forms in tfie 15th and 16th centuries in Europe, particularly in Italy.
For the meanings of some of the keywords and all the quotations in the text, we acknowledge
our debt to Gary Edson and David Dean, The Handbook for Museums, Routledge, 1994.
r
1) See Sec.20.3.
2) See Sub-sec. 20.5.2.
3) See Sec.20.4.
r
1) See Sec. 20.7.
2) See Sec. 20.9.
SOME USEFUL BOOKS FOR THIS BLOCK
Dilip K Chakrabarty
The Archaeology of Ancient Indian Cities,
OUP. 1995.
Bridget and Raymond Allchin : The Rise of Civilization i n India and Pakistan,
Select Book Service Syndicate, 1983.
Gary Edson and Davin Dean : The Handbook for Museums, Routledge, 1994.
Gaynor Kavanagh (ed.) The Museums Profession, Leicester University
Press, 1991
Shobita Punja Museums of India, Guidebook Co. Ltd., 1990.
UNIT COMMODITIZATION OF
HANDICRAFTS
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Commodity and Commoditization
Indian Handicrafts: A Historical Perspective
21.3.1 Pre-British Period
21.3.2 Under Colonial Rule
21.3.3 Post Independence Period
Tourism and Handicrafts: Two Case Studies
21.4.1 United States
21.4.2 Thailand
Marketing of Handicrafts in India
Weaknesses of Handicrafts Sector
Let Us Sum Up
OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you shall be able to learn about the:
concepts of commodity and commoditization;
growth and decline of Indian handicrafts historically;
role of tourism in promotion of handicrafts illustrated by two case studies;
growth potential of Indian handicrafts in international and domestic markets, and
problems related to the growth of this sector.
21.1 INTRODUCTION ,
The artisanal production was the only form of industrial production until the mill industries
were established in India during the 19th Century. There were broadly two types of goods
produced in this sector:
1) Articles of mass consumption which were used in everyday life and were cheaper and.
could be produced with much less skill.
2) On the other hand, there were refined and sophisticated items for the use'of moneyed
classes. The production of these articles required skills of very high standard and they
could not be produced in bulk Their clientele was restricted and only the affluent could
afford their high prices. These goods also had an international market. Among these
items were fine muslins, silks, jewellery, traditional shoes, decorative swords and
weapons, etc.
Both types of handicrafts faced decline during the British rule as a result of colonial policies
and the onslaught of the mill industry. The decline has continued even in the independent
India for lack of adequate support and the invasion of the machine made goods even in the
rural areas. Support from the Government, development of marketing strategies and growth
in tourism can help to reinvigorate the traditional arts and crafts of India. This Unit starts
with explaining commoditization. It then gives you a historical perspepctive of the Indian
Handicrafts. Finally, the Unit deals with two case studies regarding the relationship between
tourism and handicrafts along with the issues related to the marketing of handicrafts in India.
Handicrafts
HandicraMs - Continuity
and Change 21.2 COMMODITY AND COMMODITIZATION
Any product of labour intended for exchange through buying and selling is a commodity.
Everything is produced by combining the factors of production, that is, land, labour and
capital. However, only those things which are produced for the purpose of sale are called
commodities. This means that those things which are produced for direct consumption are
not commodities. Any commodity has a use value and an exchange value. For example, a
basket, which is a handicraft item, can be used at home or anywhere for storing grain, fruit,
etc. This is its use value. The same basket can also be exchanged for grain or a pot or tooth
paste, soap or sugar or simply for money. That is its exchange value.
The process of turning a useful thing into a thing for sale, that is, into a commodity, is called
commoditization. The extent of commoditization was limited in pre-capitalist economies
where the market system was not fully developed. For example, in a barter economy, goods
are exchanged in lieu of each other and consumed more or less immediately. In a money
based economy, however, the consumption is not immediate but is mediated at various levels.
For example, a shawl produced by a Kashmiri weaver is purchased by a middleman/merchant
who sells it to a wholesaler in Delhi who, in turn, sells it to a retailer from whom it is purchased
by a consumer. The commoditization in this case has developed full blown and the exchange
vdue of the commodity is enhanced.
The majority of the handicrafts items are also produced for exchange or sale. Production of
handicrafts requires raw materials and labour. It is only by selling the products that the
artisans can purchase these factors of production and perpetuate the tradition. The
handicrafts items, therefore, have always been commodities in one form or the other. In fact,
unless complete patronage from some source is provided, commoditization is the only
channel through which the craft traditions can be maintained. Excessive commoditization
can, however, have two different impacts on the traditional handicrafts:
i)
On the positive side, it can motivate the artisans to refine their skills, introduce innma;.
tions in design and techniques and train more manpower to increase the production.
This way the arts and crafts traditions can be maintained, revived and enriched. They
can provide more employment and generate more skilled manpower.
ii) On the contrary, if care is not taken, excessive commoditization can also lead to the
devaluation of the artistic content of particular crafts. In a rush to meet demands the
quality can be lowered which can ultimately lead to the loss of consumers'interest in the
products leading thereby to their decline.
Thus, while the commoditization of handicrafts is not unwelcome, it must be carefully ,
handled in order to avoid its negative impacts.
213 INDIAN HANDICRAFTS: A HISTORICAL
d
PERSPECTIVE
India has an ancient tradition of arts and crafts (See the next three Units). In this section we
will discuss the development and decline of the Indian handicrafts over the centuries.
213.1 Pre-British India
Most of India's crafts have a long ancestry reaching back to hundreds of years. There is at
least one of them, namely, pottery-making, whose continuity can be traced as far back as the
Harappan Civilization. India's most famous artisanal product, the textiles, reached the zenith
of refinement during the Mugha1 period. Many other artisanal crafts also flourished under
the patronage extended to them by the state and the nobility. During Gupta period, crafts
like metal works, ivory work, jewellery, etc. were much in demand even outside the country.
Under the Mughals all kinds of weaving and silk spinning were brought to perfection.
The artisanal production in pre-British India was organised mainly in four ways:
i)
The largest volume of artisanal production was integrated with thevillage economy under
the jqjmani system. In Deccan and Maharashtra this was termed as balutedari system.
ii)
3 Commodl(lzatlon of
The production included the articles of daily use, agricultural impltments, commodities
Handicrafts
for local fairs, etc. The most crucial services were those of blacksmiths, carpenters,
potters, weavers and shoemakers. The payments were generally made in kind sometimes
immediately but mostly at the harvest time.
Slowly, however, money economy penetrated into the rural areas and, in the 17th century,
we find some instances of payment in cash in the rural areas. By the mid 18th century,
some of the rural artisans started producing for the urban markets also.
The second category of artisanal production was done in the urban areas by individual
artisans mostly independently. This production was mainly for sale and almost every
craft had specialized artisans who manufactured articles for the market. In the medieval
period this specialization was very marked in the textile production. There were area
specializations also. Thus we find that Masulipatnam, Banaras and Qasimbazar emerged
as specialised centres for Saris or Kashmir for carpets and shawls.
The individual artisan organized the entire production process. Procuring of raw
materials and tools and manufacturing by involving the family labour were paprt of this
process along with the selling of the finished product. But the individual artisan did not
have much capital and the output was small. The quality also differed from artisan to
artisan and from region to region.
iii) In many parts of India during the 1'7th Century, they also developed some sort of
putting-out system of artisanal production. It was called dadni. In this system:
I
the merchants advanced cash to the artisans for production,
t
the artisans had to produce goods according to the specifications given to them by
the merchants, and
k
i
they had to deliver goods within the given time.
In this way, the artisans lost control over the quality, quantity and duration of production.
iv) Another form of artisanal production which catered to the demands of the kings and
nobles during the medieval period was through the karkhanas. The ownership of the
karkhanas vested in the kings and high nobles. Skilled artisans were employed there to
produce expensive luxury items for the nobility. Since the capital required to produce
such articles was huge, the individual artisans could not afford to produce them on their
own. The production from these karkhanas was not for the market but for the personal
use of kings and nobles.
India's crafts were traditionally produced by individual caste groups. Thus while the weavers
(Julahas, Bunkars) made clothes, shoes were made by Mochis (leather workers); Sunars
(goldsmiths) were adept at making jewellery while Luhars (ironsmiths) made iron tools,
implements etc. and carpenters (Barhais) worked with wood. This tradition still continues
in most parts of India today. These artisan castes are endogamous groups and have their
places in the caste hierarchy. This closed nature of crafts production, on the one hand, stifled
the possibilities of innovation and intermixture, but, on the other hand, it kept alive the
traditions through centuries of economic and political vicissitudes.
The urban artisans were organized in guilds. We find accounts of various craft guilds from
literary sources in ancient India. By the early medieval period, that is, 9th to 12th centuries
the guilds appear to have become less important. But during the late medieval period we
fmd two types of guilds in existence. On the one hand, there were craft guilds which were
basically associations of the craftsmen from a particular caste group. On the other hand,
there were merchant guilds which were loose organizations of traders and merchants.
In the pre-British India, the artisanal production was very important, both in terms of
providing employment and its contribution to the economy. It was the second biggest source
of employment and its proportion to the national income was approximately 6.5% in the 18th
century.
213.2 Under Colonial Rule
Under the rule of the British the Indian artisanal production declined rather sharply. This
APnl:..- ..&...---A :-. nnm.l -L.-.c-c
Handicrafts - Continuity
1)
The first phase started with the British East India Company acquiring political power in
and Change
Bengal after the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Bcfore 1757 the Company brought gold and
silver into India in exchange for.Indian hand-made textiles and other goods. In this
exchange India benefited as there was no market for British made goods in India and the
Indian goods could only be purchased by money.
After 1757, however, the situation changed at three levels.
i)
Firstly, the East India Company financed its trade in India by the money acquired
through plunder and Diwani rights in Bengal. Now it was not very hard pressed
to bring much bullion from Britain.
ii)
Secondly, it established monopoly over the produce of thc Bengal artisans who
were forced to supply goods at low prices to the Company. The prices were kept
frxed at 15 to 40% less than that of the market prices of these goods. This created
grcat hardship to the weavers and other artisans of Bengal and other parts of India. '
iii) Thirdly, the British rule, by eliminating most of the Indian princes and nobles,
destroyed the main market for the artisanal luxury products.
Thus during the first phase which covered the period from 1757 to 1813 and has
been termcd as the period of monopolistic trade, the artisanal productions in
India, particularly in the area of textiles, were adversely affected.
The second phase which started from 1813 when other British companies were also
allowed to trade in India and the English machine made cotton goods started arriving in
bulk in India. Indian nationalist economists showed that the import of English cotton
goods increased in value from 156 in 1794 to 108824 in 1813. In the coming decades this
import increased phenomenally. These machine-made goods were cheaper compared
to the handmade Indian textiles. This caused a rapid decline in the production of Indlan
textiles thereby causing great misery to the weavers. One contemporary authority
remarked: "The misery hardly finds a parallel in the history of commerce. The bones of
the cottonweavers are bleaching the plains of India."
3) The third phase started in the 1850s and 1860s and continued upto 1947. During this
pcriod, Indian handicrafts were subjected to thc combined onslaught of the British as
well as the Indian mills. While the Indian cotton mill industry was fightingits own battles
against the discriminatory colonial policies, they further eroded the already declining
handicrafts market. The impact was most notable on the hand made cotton goods.
21.3.3 Post-Independence India
Some attention was paid in the direction of development of Indian handicrafts after
independence. The All India Handicrafts Board was established in November, 1952 to
investigate the problems and suggest the promotional avenues for the development of
handicrafts. In 1958, the Handicrafts and Handloom Export Corporation of India Ltd. was
set up to promote handicrafts cxports. Various state emporia were opencd to make the
artisanal products accessible to the buyers. Crafts Museum was opened up in 1953 in Delhi
to popularize the Indian hand made goods. In the cooperative sector, the Central Cottage
Industries Emporium in Delhi is a major marketing body. Apart from this, the Government
of India has also established Zonal Cultural Centres in the form of Shilpagram in Udaipur
(Rajasthan), Calico Museum and Utensils Museum in Ahmedabad (Gujarat), Raja Dinkar
Kelkar Museum in Pune (Maharashtra) etc. Details of these Museums have already becn
given in TS-2, Block-5, Unit-20.
I
1)
Explain the terms commodity and commoditization in 50 words.
2)
Discuss the organization of artisanal production in pre-British India in 100 words.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TOURISM AND HANDICRAFTS: TWO CASE STUDIES
What is the relationship between tourism and the development of handicrafts? In this
Section you will find the intricate yet positive relationship between tourism and handicrafts.
This is elucidated by means of two case studies - one from the South Western Region of the
United States of America and the other one from Thailand.
21.4.1 United States
(The following discussion is derived from Lewis I. Deitch's article entitled 'The Impact of
Tourism on the Arts and Crafts of the Indiansof the South Western United States' in Hosts
and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism (ed.) Valene L. Smith, University of Pensylvania
Press, 1990.)
The South Western part of the USA is inhabited mostly by the original inhabitants of the
region - the American Indians. They passed through various phases in their long history.
Their multi ethnic stock consisted of the Pueblos, the Apaches, the Navajos etc. The Pueblos
were more advanced and by the early 1600, when they came into contact with the spaniards,
they already knew the arts of pottery, baskets, cotton cloths, jewellery etc.
The Navajo Indians were less artistically developed but were quick to learn both from the
Pueblos and the Spanish. The Spanish introduced sheep in this area and the Navajos took to
the domestication of sheep at a large scale. The wool weaving developed as a consequence
and by the mid 19th century their weaving skills reached a high level of excellence.
Apart from the jewellery made from silver, those made of turquoiuse, coral and shell were
also developed among the Navajos and Pueblos. But the more traditional crafts like
pottery-making and basketry faced extinction when the metal pots were introduced by the
white people.
The development of tourism in this region heralded a new era in manyways for the inhabitants
of this region. It had a great effect on their crafts tradition as well. The sale of the existing
handicrafts increased and it encouraged them to go for further refinement to establish their
products. We shall dis~uss now some of their handicrafts and the changes brought in by the
growing contacts with the tourists.
Commoditization of
Handicrafts
Handicrafts -
a d Change
Continuity
a) Navajo Rugs . ,
These rugs were woven by the Navajo Indians, particularly their women folk, from the
sheep and goat wool. Initially, with the increasing tourist traffic, the demand for them
increased phenomenally leading to the increased volume of production. This led to a
decline in the quality of craftsmanship and production of inferior rugs. Due to this their
popularity began to decline and the genuine buyers started to lose interest. This brought
the'realization among the craftsmen and the merchants that this over-production of
substandard goods was doing more harm thangood to their trade. Innovationsin designs,
use of quality taw materials and introduction of new colour patterns infused this
traditional handicraft with new vigour and vitality. The prices increased but so did the
buyers willing to purchase it at a higher price.
As happened with the rugs, the increased demand for various items of jeweLlery due to
tourism caused a deterioration in their quality. At the same time, however, it also
promoted distinctive regional styles which led to their nation-wide recognition. The
problem of quality was also overcome later on after the stabilization of the market.
c) Pottery and Basketry
These dying crafts of the American Indians were revived under the impact of tourism.
Although they never became as famous as their rugs or jewellery, their demands in-
creased and small pottery pieces became tourist items
The impact of tourism on the arts and crafts of the American Indians has been quite
positive. It has not only increased their earnings but also has led to artistic refinement.
The quality of today's products is much higher than those in the 19th century. This ,,
impetus has been provided by the growing tourist market. It is true that in some cases it
has also given boost to imitation products which are sometimes sold as genuine items.
But the overall impact of tourism on the local handicrafts production has been positive. .
21.4.2 Thailand
(The following discussion is derived from Eric Cohen, 'Tourism Craft Ribbon in Thailand'
in Tourism Management vol. 16, no.3, May 1995.)
In Thailand tourism has developed rapidly. ~et ween 1960 and 1990 the number of tourists
coming to Thailand increased more than sixty time;. While in 1960 only 80,000 foreign tourists
came to that country, in 1973 there were one million tourists and by 1990 the number reached
5.3 millions. This phenomenal growth in international tourism was accompanied by equally
significant development of domestic tourism. The improvement in road system prompted
the tourists to move around in cars to various tourist resorts. This increasing touristic
activities in various areas induced the Thai Government to promote Thai arts and crafts.
The main traditional craft producing areas in Thailand are located away from the tourist
centres and the craftsmen, therefore, were forced to deal with the intermediaries in order to
reach the tourist markets. The development of road network, increase in tourist traftic,
growing motorization and the helping hand of the government led to the emergence of;
touristic craft ribbons. These ribbons consist of shops along the roads selling mostly tourist
crafts. Although specialization has not developed to that extent as to exclude the non-tourists,
the crafts pieces sold from these shops on the ribbon are mostly oriented towards the tourists.
Two types of ribbon development has taken place in Thailand. One is the localized ribbon
which develop simply and on a single road. It is, initially, quite short and offers one type of
products. This type of ribbon normally links a village to a small town on the main road. The
shops along such ribbon are mostly locally owned. With further development some
heterogeneity is introduced in the variety of products offered. The shops also show some
kind of heterogeneous composition with the outsiders setting up some establishments which
are larger in size.
Another type of ribbon is the ramified ribbon. It is longer stretching to several kilometres
and more complex consisting of several roads linking many craft producing villages to the
major artery road leadug into an urban centre. Such craft ribbons contain variety of shops
having heterogeneous products. The shops near the villages are mostly owned by the locals
Codt i pnl i i en of
H P n d i c ~
while those on the highway are owned by outsiders.
The growth of these craft ribbons has given tremendous fillip to the production of crafts in
Thailand. The volume of production and sale has increased tremendously. Moreover, the
craftsmen hade benefited from direct interaction with the tourists. The r de of the
intermediaries has been reduced to some extent. The tourists have also derived beneits from
such interaction. They can now observe the process of craft production first hand and this
has.made these ribbons as centres of tourist attraction. The arts and crafts of Thailand have
b e d international reputation and nra~y declining traditional crafts haw revived due to the
availability of both national and international markets.
It is true that the role of the middlemen is still important and a large part of the benefit
accruing from the increased production and sale of the crafts has gone to them. Nevertheless,
the craftsmen and their crafts have alsogreatly benefited from these developments.
21.5 MARKEX'ING OF INDIAN HANDICRAFTS
In India, in the last fifty years, the handicrafts are basically produced for the export market.
The domestic market is very small, Nine broad categories of articles have dominated the
exports: hand printed textiles, art metalware, woodware, hand-knotted carpets, imitation
jewellery, shawls, zari, embroidered goods and miscellaneous handicrafts. Out ~f these the
share of hand printed textiles, woolen wpets, art metalware and woodware are the largest.
Theii proportion has been the same throughout this period.
. In the period between 1960-61 to 1992-93, the exports of Indian handicrafts grew at the rate
of 13.7% while the total Indian exports increased only by 9.1%. Its share in the total Indian
exports has risen from 1.5% in 1960-61 to 4.8% in 1993-94.
The total value of handicrafts exports in terms of dollars has been as follows:
". - ..,,j:.-
Handicrafts Exports (excluding Gems and JeweIlery) ,, J&
$23.0 million
S 107l.1 million
For Gems and Jewellery, the export growth has been phenomenal:'
. .
GEMS AND JEWELLERY EXPORTS
-
(Both figures from Nisha Taneja and Pooja Shatma, Handicrafts Exports Global Wends
1%1-62
1971-72
1981-82
\
1992-93
-
and Future Prospects, 1995)'
Tourism has also helped in the promotion of traditional crafts in 1ndia. In Kaahmir which,till
recently, has been attraoting a large number of both the domestic and foreign tourists, the
1
S 18.98 MILLION
S 64.70 MILLION
$899.99 MILLION
S3052.M)MlLLION .
value of handicraft production has gone up from 20 more rupees in 197475 to 154 crore
rupees in 1988- 89. Besides, the emplopent in handicrafts sector has also registered agowth
from 80,000 in 1974-75 to 2,00,000 in 1988-89. Those areas which are most export-oriented
the employment has increased more than the average figures:
-
Shopping in bdhl
,
EMPLOYMENT FIGURE (NO. OF PERSONS) .- -
1 -
carpet 4,'300 -. b 64,500
f I Numdah I 2,000 I 3,500
Papier Mache' 900
wood Carving 2,C'Oo 4,600'
I
aazoor Ahmed Shah, Export Marketing of Kashmir HandIcdb).
growth has been witnessed in m y areas of Rajasthan, Kerala and the stam where
traffic has been substantial. Traditional handicrafts items from Orissa,
t region, Gujarat, Maharashtra etc. have been popularized among bath the
aamest i c and foreign tourists. . . +
'i? 21.6 WEAKNESSES OF HANDICWS SECTOR
Despite this potential we find that India's actual share in world's handicrafts exports has not
'%an upto the mark. In Wl'while the newly iddusrk&ed countries (Hong Kong, Taiwan,
South h a and Singapore) share 11.0% of world market and China shares 9.5%, India's
s share increased frm3.6SQ in 1!XOto 9.5% in .W1, India's
ofProperInfrastructure -
r leuel, infrastructural problems include problems in procurement of proper
and skill in marketing. Tliere are also
mat s in traditional designs which
ny in the quality of product.
se of Outdated Tools
vements in tools and design have helped the traditional handicrafts to gain
competitive edge in the international market.
I-
'I
artisans lack the capital for-investment in their own production. hey have,
from the market at high rater, of interests. This not only d u c e s
but also takes the quality control and timing of their ~~ out
rices are also pitched high thereby making the prod- less
, I
ck of Market Research
,
dumping of goods in one area while they are unavailable in another. This ultimately leads
to drop in production and losses to both the merchants and craftsmen.
e ) Middlemen
A verylarge number of middlemen are thriving at the expense of both the consumers and
the artisans. They not only artificially hike the prices but also sell fake products in the
name of the originals. The artisans normally lack avenues to directly approach the
customers. If the facilities are created whereby the producers can have direct access to
the market, this will not only benefit the artisans but will make available the genuine and
cheaper products to the customers.
The Government is trying, at its own level, to improve the situation. There are also many
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as SEWA (Self-Employed Women's
Association) etc. which are working to set these things right.
r
1)
Discuss the role of tourism in the growth of handicrafts with special reference to
Thailand.
2)
What are the weaknesses of the handicrafts sector in India?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.7 LET US SUM UP
Artisanal productions in India have had a very long history stretching back to our ancient
most i.e., the Harappan, Civilization. It continued to prosper and grow during the ancient
and medieval periods reaching great heights under the Mughal rule. It branched out into
new areas and developed new specializations. Under the colonial rule, however, it declined
due to following four factors:
a)
The colonial rule removed the old nobility. This led to the decline in the demand for
luxury products.
b) The monopoly control exercised by the British East India Company forced the artisans
to either produce at low prices or abandon their trades.
c) The arrival of the machine made and cheaper Britishgoods into the Indianmarkets edged
out the hand made Indian goods.
Commoditization of
Handicrafls
d) The plunder and extortionist policies of the colonial rulers made the people so pobr that
the market for Indian handicrafts became further restricted.
In the post-independence India, the importance of handicrafts has been well reco
the government which has made many efforts to promote it. There are, however,
such as lack of transport facilities, capital, literacy, market research, new
non-governmental organizations has become necessary.'
are inhibiting its fast growth. It is in these areas that the support from
21.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERqISES
E I I l
1) See Sec. 21.2.
2) See Sub-Sec. 21.3.1.
EI I
1) .See Sub-Sec. 21.4.2.
2) See Sec. 21.6.
--. . q. + ~. "
1 ..'
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,-
A 4
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UNIT' 22 CLAY, STONE, WOOD AND :--. .r. . ,, . .
.:<.a
I. - :
. . .:: -*; - 5 ,
METAL C m S ;
, .
. -
L
-
. .
Structure -
.
. .
22.2.1 Earthenware
. .
2222 Ceramic
22.23 Main Centres
22.3 Stone Works
. 22.3.1 The VarictyoPistsVe W6.IQ
223.2 Mah~Cknhes
2 4 Woodcraft
22.4.1 Varieties of Wood and Cam Work
22.4.2 Main Centras
22.5 Metal Craft
" .
4 - +; .
225.1 VarictyofMctd iCraW i
225.2 Main Centrer i-219
22.6 Artisans and Craftsmen
22.7 Let US sum u p
kh-. 1 ~ - &~ u :
22.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises '
- -'C?
. . I
22.0 OBJECTIVES .
In this Unit, WL will discuss the craft traditions in India specific to dav. stone. wood
crafts. After going through this Unit you would know about
a brief history of cw, stme, wa d and metal crafts in In&
a the present state of the above stated crafts,
~ 9 2 ~ A. S
the main centres of production of these cr*
m?ie% m 2
the organisation of production, and we wJt.; y g
the artisans and craftsmen engaged
it $
&
In Unit 21 of this Block, we have discussed about the commoditization of crafts. We &@
talked in general terms about the rich crafts tradition in India. Now in Units 22,23 and 2&
we will discuss some specific crafts of India. In the present Unit we will specificaUy tlisaw
clav. stone. wood and metal crafts. We will also ixiclude some other smaller crafts related to
. ,
these &. :. . . ..: y 1 n 4 At,i;> , . :g!...? . . .krj g:zaJ-d .,-. :, ,7L!~-8 ; L: !! .:.: :,.. 73ar, ,%: a -:,
. .
-
, . . . : . .+ , . .., , , ; , .? t'; 2 &:,.<>&+
p.. . ,,;- .+ei , ; , . ?, . b::;;*+
India has a rich tradition of crafts and artisan production. Prior i d h e industrial prodaction
through machines all production was done through individual artisan production. With the
coming of the machines and establishment of factories mass production of articles of daily
use started. Even after the introduction of machines the tradition of production by artisans
and craftsmen continued. At present, this production is of two types, i.e. (i) the common
articles made for functional use, and (5) the articles made for decorative purpases. In'both
these, we witness the skills and art of craftsmen. At times even the items of daily use are made
with great skill and serve both fundona1 and decorative purposes. We will be mainly
concentrating on the crafts where the skills and creativity of craftsmen is more evicl,ent. In a
large country like India every region has its specific crafts where the skills and creativity of
craftsmen provides a distinct colour to handicrap
In this Unit we will give yon a brief history and developnknt of each of these craft tradition
Present state of development of these crafts wdi also be analyzed. We will try to identify th
Handkrafls - Continuity
main centres of production of the crafts under discussion. We would also like to familiarise
and Change
you with some techniques and arganisation of production of the crafts included in this Unit.
Let us begin with claycraft.
22.2 CLAY CRAFT AND POTTERY
' *
In India like elsewhere in the world clay craft is perhaps the earliest of craft forms. Clay
pottery unearthed by excavations has greatly helped archaeologists and historians in
reconstructing the history and society dating back to earliest times (You must have read about
it in Block 6).
22.2.1 Earthenware
Harappan pottery is generally plain with some black painted decoration. Large number of
terracotta figurines have been found here. They were mainly used as toys or cult figures. A
variety of buds animals and male and female figurines are also found. Various models of
tcrracotta carts are remarkable,
In Hindu mythology it is said that Brahma, the creator of life made man from clay
name of potter community as mapati.
In India simple eafthenware and glazed pottery made with superior cluality of clay
or ceramic have been in use for centuries. Potters have traditionally been an
integral part of village society.
The simple earthenware and utensils of daily use even today are made in almost
every bigvillage and towns in India. They are made with simple clay on traditional
potter's wheel and are baked by them in their traditional ways. The items
commonly include pitchers and pots for storing water, cooking vessels, earthen
mugs plates and cups for drinking and eating objects for religious and ritual
purposes and pots for growing .,x~ts. There is a great variation in shapes and
forms in diierent regions. The craft is so widespread that it is difficult to list the
places, forms and shapes. Here he will give more space to artistic products made
with plain clay and glazed ceramic pottery made by craftsmen in sp:cific regions.
, The clay figurines or terracotta found in Harappan excavations are probably the
earliest. Following it there is a long tradition of terracotta flouriqhing even today.
These terracotta objects include figumes of gods, goddesses, items of daily use
and decorative pieces. They have a dark red colour. The pots are getierally shaped
--, on potter's wheel and after that other art works and decorations are done. The
figurines were made by hand. In some areas of Assam and Manipur even shaping of the clay
for all earthenware is done by hand without the help of the wheel. In some places the size of
- - 1i s amazingly large exhibiting the skills of the workmen. In Gujarat
pots as high as five feet are made. Around 1880 ~irdwood~epOKedm-o~clay f c r i s
of 27 feet in height in and around Dacca.
The eGihen pottery hrs for centuries been glazed through various indigenous ~nethods. They
are also made in bright colours. Especially the W e s of gods and goddesses are made in
multi colours. The pots and utensils are also decorated with flowers, figures and geometrical
patterns in brtght colours.
22.2.2 Ceramic
Potteries made with porcelain and ceramic also have a large variety. Unlike earthenware
where al l the stages of manufacture are performed purely by hand or traditional means, in
ceramic pottery the help of machines is also taken. In some cases it is made with hand, painted
and decorated by craftsmen but finally baked in modem furnaces. In some cases the shape
is given through moulds but painting is done by hand and again baked in modern furnaces.
There are a number of famous centres of this sort of pottery. In Rajasthim, Jaipur is an
important centre. Here the pottery made with quarts has a blue colour. They are decorated
with arabesque pattern arid animals and birds. In U.P., Khurja is renowned for its gla@
pottery with bright colours. A
Hnndicrcllb - Continuity
22.23 Main Centres
As already stated the pottery making is widespread in India. Here we will enumerate the
centres making s p e d kinds of pottery.
In U.P. (Nizamabad and Chinhat) pottqwith lustrous body is made. Ni i a ba d has a dark
Waclr pottery. These g l d potteries have beautiful designs. Khmja specialists in ceramic
!
p o w with bright colours. In Gorakhpur terradta horses and elephants are a spwdity.
Here @ues of gods and godiiesses arc made for festivals.
1
.- -
1
For Durga Puja festival in Bengal large figures of gods, goddesses especially of goddess Durga
are made. Wall panels and plaques in terrmtta are feahes of this region.
Orissa and Madhya Pradesh have a rich tradition of terracotta roof tiles. In Madhya Pradesh
laand moulded figures are also made.
In Kashmi. special glazed pottery is made in Srinagar. The use of deep green, blue aMS brawn
colours is prevalent. Tableware of all shapes and uses has a large variety. In this region other
i mwant centres are Ladakh and Jammu Large storage jars of Jammu are famous. All
addas of daily use, images and icons for Budhhkt monasteries are made in bright colours
, inhdakh.
In Gujwat, especially Kutch region is renowned for its e&nware. Toys, festival objects,
ritual pots, and figures are made here. The unique feature is the pale creamy calour and
richness of decoration.
Maharashtra has a long tradition of making Gpnesha, the main deity ofthis r ~ o q in& forms
and shapes. Rajaathan has a special black coloured pottq. T h e are both p o W and
porous.
In Karnataka also the black pottery is made. Here clay toys are a speciality. In T d Nadu
the images of deities are very popular. These are made in almost all parts. Ve h e and
dampat t i ake famous for using black and red colours. Ker* is Earnous for ritual pots made
there. , .
r 4
In the Ntxth-East, Manipur is famous far its pottery. H m t h We r y is made d b l y by
m e a d without the potter's wheel. &fore baking, the pds &e polished with stmes.
The earthenware made at Goa have a rich reci,$veQ surface.
Y
.z . ;
1) What are the main articEs made with clay other than articles of daily use?
Give a brief cbaiption of clay works md c in ~arhmir'and Gujarat.
3) i)
In what parts of lddia clay pottee idaade by women without the wheel
:
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. . .
. . . .
- -.
ii) Khuja is famous for
iv)
Large number df Durga idols of clay are made in
. . . . .
_ , < - , .
Stone is perhaps the earliest companion of'& in the'btory of h& civilida& The
earlia tools available are of stone. A whole epoch of human civilisation is4enm.d as stme
age. Stones of all wuieties have been worked u p far arti&-&w we, MIS;.
houses, decorative objects, sculptures and even j a wky. . . .
4 . .
- - . A , . -
223.1 Varieties of Stare Warlr
. -
. .
- . .
As already stated, the tools and articles of daily use were the first ~bjeas 9th spse.
The Harappan c x a v a t i mh yielded a number of such articles. These idu&jam&tt+I
bowls, saddle querns (for &dhg grain) and weights. O e tradition !ms w T + i i & u e
1
then. In all parts of indiat&ese objects are made frdm a wiety of stones f d in specific
regions. We will discuss these in detail a little later.
. .
- - ---.-. ----..
Use of stone for building purposes and sculptare also dates back to &&llgands sf yews; The .
statues found in Harappan excavations are made from steatite alabder,. ~e $tbBg-fep
F
sandstone and dark grey. stone. The most b o u s of these is ti 'b%&d &&d fain
Mobjodaro. Many d w s t a m are also faun4 Stone. sculp-tar@ d H m t h ~ W ~ region
(Gandhara tradition) me famous. A famous statue of YaLBbi of DidarM (in Bi k)
back to Maurya Per;od and is a finest pieoe of sculpture. The temples ad'BmW&t
monasteries all m r India boasts d storre sculptures dating back to almast two rlr-d five
hundred years.
useof stme for making houses and temples ~~ back to more than two dyems.
We have a large number of structures surviving to this day. Beautiful palaw, forts and 0 t h
structures made from stone during the medieval period are part of rick kdh heritage.
Famous rock cut temples of Elleraand Hi maId Pradesh are beautiful specimc;8s. In these
temples, the whole structure is made from a single roclr. Many temples display ari& tradition
'd - ~on(indty
of stone works. Sun temple at Konark, Jagannath temple at Puri, group of temples in
dChsPlCc
Khajuraho, Meenakshipuram and Rameshwararn temples in the South are only a few
examples.
Qutb Minar in Delhi, mapiticent forts at Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, Delhi, Jaipur and many other
places are-examples of stone craft. In Taj Mahal the craft reached its zenith. Here in this
Unit we will not go into details of stone craft used in architecture and sculpture aathcse have
already been-discussed in Block 5 of this Course. Here we will mainly focus on the sto-
works and centres of stone craft in contemporary India.
1
2232 Main Centres
The large variety of stones available in Rajasthan xlaakes it a prominent place for stone works.
, .
Presently it is tihe most important place for marble statues. These are supplied to aU parts of
India. The grinding stones of all types are supplied to the whole of North India by Rajasthan.
However, the most delikate and famous work done at Rajasthan are screen and lattice (jali)
K
work (perforated screens). Beautiful screens in red sandstone and marble are cut hcre. The
finest samples of these are available in various forts, palaces, and houses. Besides these,
bowls, containers suid stone boxes are also made.
In Tamil Nadu, Salem district is a centre of stone work. Here vessels, dishes, lamps
and grinding stones are made in large numbers from soft grey and hard black stones.
In Tamil Nadu icons of stone are also made at Ramanathpuram and Tirunelveli:
These are also polished.
I
I
Taj Mahal with its magnificent decorative stone work has inspired stone cutters in
Agra for centuries. Here, mainly marble is used for making models of the Taj and '
other buildings, wall plates, jewellery baxes and other decorative pieces. Different
coloured scones are inlaid in marble with a smooth finish. Floral patterns and
won= wo e or Orisse
geometrical designs are inlaid.
In Bihar, Gaya is the main centre of stone works. Besides statues d gods and goddesses in
stone, a host of other articles like bowls, glasses and d boxes are made. Here dhe can
find a whole village of stone cutters (Patharkatti) dating back to almost four hundred years.
The stone cutters of Orissa also have a long history. Beautiful temples of Konark, Puri and
Bhubaneshwar (there are many but most outstanding is L i i J temple) are testimony of
skills of stone workers. Sandstone and soap'stoae (a type of soft stone) are the main varieties
of stones used here. Models of temples, vessels, statues of gods and goddesses are the main
articles.
Gthiawar region in Gujaraa -0th important centre of stme work. The stone cutters
here live in close knit social structures. These crafts~ilea were also employed for
reco-g the famous temple of Somnath. Here, again vessels and statues are the main
it-. Keralahas a long tradition of granite stone works; Here grinding stones, ritual objects
and decorative pieces are made.
In Kashmir cups and plates of a stone called sang- inahvat are made. These are grey, yellow
and green. Cooking vessels, jugs and lamps etc. are also made. A variety of stone called
. serpenthe was also used for- jugs and bowls which were quite popular.
1) Write a brief note on stones and stone works of Rajasthan.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...............................................
. --
clay, stout, wood and
MeWC-.
I
Floral Paneme on Mubk, UP.
.
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, .. .
. . 23
2) What is special feature of stone works at Agra and Kashmir?
House facade in Wood
~andi er~rts - Conlinutty
Hoshiarpw, Jdandhar and Amritsar in Punjab are known for furnitures and the caJving in
d Change
low relief d t in geometric ~atterns. Ra i d a n is also famous for bowls aud plates made with
Robida wood. h e s e objicts are pap& thin. Here some folk figures and deities are also
- made. ,
)
Goiillso has agood d d tradition of rich use of wood in demratiqg houses a d making elegant
Mt P r e .
r
.
The tribal reghas in India aIso have their specificwood works. S m , bowls, molcing.pias
r-
a d ; O ~ N hbns&oM items are made in abutiboe.. Naghdi s ofre of the prominent p k s
where h e mod-wmk is done. Assam also has this craft widely practiced.
An:othsr impaftant skill in the area af wood c& is the wood lacquer work done in Bi,
d
O h a and maay parts of the South especially Karnataka.
Barasbsod-
l'he tribal ~odefies with rncjr'dePcndagc tb h s t pduc f a have developed the art of .
sing bamboos In various f c r m In the North East region of Inch, kssam is the biggest centre
r f fumhm. H-ere the chairs, baskets, garden wings and household items are made
A& crane. A variety af baskets with diffefent 'tygeps of cane are mdde. Mats of bamboo
hrvpsare quite common. In Mi zom 10% baskets aith broad tops and narrow tapering
ottem are made. Workers in tea plantations of Assam use bamboo huts. ShiWpatT mats
d e an exquisite variety of mats made in Assam. These are made with reeds. Bengal also
I
makes good miety of mats. In Tripura the h e . lp+mboo . straps are woven in DM@ \wiPh the
W p d aWin4hreads.
Itt W 8 . a pb.calle?d Pi%ma&i is faugous f&,& quality ofmtts.. Here thin s t r d of
J
&iiw strgwoyea with cotton thread. Another fEne variety of mada in &erala is made with the
lf%am.of wrewpine plant. The dining table mats and coasters in bright colours are also mde
here. ;.
The baskets, hand fans and grain separators of sikki grass and bamboo are
I
\. '
...
. .
. .(
. . . . .
H-cmfiS - Conllnuit~
2) Which regions in India have the entire houses made of wood?
d Ch n n g c
I * 5) i) Wbi$region is famous for s a n m d : . . - -
wood carving is done maMy ak
adai in bral a is famum for:
22.5 '- !@ETAL CRAFT
Like o4hw crafts, metals of all types are worked upon ialndk. In* Section we &&cuss
different %ypes of objects made with various d s in d Wia. We **ever,
he. 'l'k.se WWM b discussed in.$@zwxt Unit
- . & ; $
Excavations at Harappa have yielded objects naadc of h ceafler aad ?&@a@. 'They date
back to around 2500 B.C. The copper was the most wideiy w&d'metal in India before the
introduction of iron. Harappan finds include utensils, bangles, other jewellery items, statues,
axe heads, arrow heads and daggers etc. made of copper. There is evidence to suggest that
moulds were used for cgsting many copper objects. The polishing is also evident.
Brome is an alloy of copper and tin and Harappan excavations have yielded a few bronze
objects also, though very few as compared to copper. The best example of bronze work is
the statue or of a dancing girl found at Mohenjodaro. Bronze saw, some figurines a d few
other objects haw been found from various sites of Harappan civilisation.
Clay, Stonc, Wood and
The tradition of metal crafts has continued thro@ the histaical the. Mare than two Metal CrPfle
'
thousand pars old capper statue of Budha from Sultanganj is me of its m kind. Amt hr
example is the iron pillars& DeIhi (near Qutb hllinat) from F o d Centmy A.D. 'This iron
pillar is 23 feet high. It is h from rust even &er Wing exposed to wmt k fen IBtI y&ars.
A large number of Chon guns, huge iron gates and fine o b j a of d8erent mpW
manufactured during 16th and 17th centuries also speak highly of the h o w ~ e of metalkrt-gy
i
and sldls of the craftsmen. Except the mi~UEdcture' of arms all the traditions of metal CT&S
continue in Indian towns and villages.
22.5.1 Variety of Metal Crafts . ,
Like other craft traditions the metal crafts also have two aspects. The meis thendchg
of the articles of every day we and the objects of art for decorative and other uses. The
first category of metal work we prevalent in &mist all t m anmldkqp. Of the
most common is ironsmith or lohar prodding took and implements tu rural aaas. Tb
utensils for every day use such as kadbais (frying p w) and tawa are alma~t almymde
of iron. Cooking pam and storage vessels are made mostly with kcin, copper, br m&
brass (the latter two are alloys). Metals play a rob in the religious life of pegde a h .
The idols of gods and goddesses and almost all the pots used for rituals and wcmhip are
'
made of metals of different t y p s in different rcgiotls. Hcmrrerpots, s t a m o m n 4
,
decor& pieces and toys bf'tii%rmt types are made in all puts of the camtry. With
the coming of the madim% and industry the work of artism has become sim@fM to
some extent. Now the met& and their alloys mailable to craftmen in varim sizes
and shapes, although in some regiom e m preparation of raw material k don& by the
Bmnse dmr at City Palace,
a r t k m themselves.
The skills of craftsmen in their work on metak is of various types. A few we l&d b l m
i) The respousse or embabg is the m&hd of raking Phe designs in relid'
ii) The art of engraving i s used to thasEufiwed&emetd. are^
through cutting, etching and s pUefns a d designs, ,
iii) By making patterns or designs for dewrating one metal surfamwith the uhc of w b cm
i
pattern of other metd andfllSfixhg in the surf& of base metd.
iv) Artistic shapes given to objects with h e help of moulds or h d s .
v) The use of colours on eagraved surfaces. -
-
V;) M&hg of vabus
of +lap with d x b g walsin d&te p~~ to @
them s'trenlph, parti* Ilne awl polished s u t h . In miaiytwes ~~~ di5k
(alloy of copper atrd t h g and b m (doy of copper and zinc). The pnzsence of bmaze
objects in Harappa is esfabhbd while brass k i~ use for almost two thowsd years.
~stetoesvcrslluderhhktplhya.TheQ.liat&~plradmb~*abmre . ,
The other two important alloys were IbddkL (five metal alloys) and AshWhm. A
(eight metal alloys). In case of PanehaBPla the metals used were tppperi zinc, gold,
silver.andlea8. ~hea~ol dhat t a hadzinc, copper,pM, ~p~d,r,iron, tin, leada&dkmry,
Let us a m s m y the main ceWw of metal & m amtempomy India a d the& qdl3c
features.
Like other crafts metal work ;rlso h8s hahai r and hdakh as two oftbe impmaat cmweg.
Srinirgar is the main ceutte in Ihdunk w b copper vessels and.t#& for tw
are made. These vedsels hvespecific shapes. TLcy include omLiqB pots, &ma p w ,
{
hubbbbubble (huLka) bas% water jugs, p k , ba&s d lotm.(w-atm ph), They me
decorated with floral carviagrf and cdigrapQ. In Zamka fegt8n
the iron stones and huge locks are made. Besides being ehiegJ af everyday use: these iye highly
1 -
ornameaal aad &bit god cr-p. The capper objwts made in Zslagkar itre great
pieces of azt. Tea bowls, ket&ks, jugs and othw articles of copper are decorated with flaral
Brese-of-EQU
patterns i&d de@p made in silver aaha bras.
pndcpb.
Ham&mt@ - Continuity
.snd-
1 '
In Uttar Radesh, Moradabad, Aligarh and Varanasi are the main centres of metal craft.
Moradabd has a tradition of almost 400 years of brass work. Here flower pots, ashtrays,
.h, bow&+ plates, lotas, wdle stands and aU sorts of dwixatiae items are made. The
and f Bhg of brighr d u r s in
s not only hwpper
1 '
, 7
i
' : desigu M bass sheets which are used fw malcing various dcles. Among ritu;Mc items
3 .
I , ,
* temple bek are a h made here.
, A'.
bL. - ~8 , .4
4
,
In MorthBastern region, Assam and Manjpur h m a 1~ng tradition of making large? plates,
i - ; '"st
_ 1 vtssdd.ritual pots.
7- x:: ' I
, - -?,, . >; . ..
- i
.; .'. ,, .: CMmI k
weill kwm far its mtt wmks
7 ' .
in!hx.
C
i
I
f
a). Here water Wels,,
W e t pami are made. M a w of rit and temple lamps dvwious.
h i s - to &d& Table lanrps, at h lh k t ttigtr, with mirror like s l he MI bell-
metal made in Aranmalk olit the bank of river h&ba itre fanous. Here the poIls%g is a
s p d
skill and crafttiman-. T d Nadu also has a few
q:
Iran where it came to
I
are made by tribals with their primitive t&ques. En Bustar region of Madhya Pra&sh
use like toys, images of deities, lanaps and tools are
, .
2 '
4 . . '
As & ~ # y aohd India has ~ & & h ~ ) r u ~ y ~ ~
.-I .
regim &mrycx;i~ have their viahim.
wtying different names
T
Sbianiog Copper and lksss wwe ia a shop
A coppersmith at work.
. .
- '
. ;, .,, ,
e, ' +k&, 3 . . 6 - ,& -.T_
. !
... , . &! ~~; l ' * ' " . t - ; : . $. ... .:>&<- if: ..
%**d**y- . "
P. r G. 3z, , , &
*! .-q: \ A .- ""--. & ..
< Ti.+
&J -. -
:A
, kb&.
-
.@'*%~4 &-..UP 4 . 4 .
2 g4- .-- I - ; -. \A. p44 ..Jq-q?%
---......
I
. - .
;rod Change
initiative in klping
withcapitalandalso
1) Write a note on techniques used for decorating metal objects.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......,,..,.
The most famous statue of dancing girl found at Mohenjodaro is made oE
ii)
The iron .pillar near W b in Dehi is almost
22.7 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit we have discussed four main craft traditions of India i.e. clay,stone, wood and
metal crafts. Potteries made of clay are the most widely practiced craft. All these crafts are
of two types. One is making of objects and articles for every day use across the land. Second
is the artistic and decorative articles aesthetically made. The former remains mainly as a form
of production with limited skills while the latter exhibits a high level of skill and mastery on
the part of the craftsmen. Kashmir, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Kerala and some pockets of U.P.
and Bengal have emerged as important centres of the crafts discussed here.
We also noticed that the craft traditions continue to be family and caste based. The craftsmen
with all their skills remain at the lower rung of social hierarchy. We also discussed the efforts
made to help craftsmen in marketing their crafts and getting their share of the profit for their
skills and labour.
I
1) See Sub-sections 22.2.1 and 22.2.2
2) See Sub-section 22.2.3
3) (i) Manipur (ii) Ceramic Pottery
(iii) Maharashtra (iv) Bengal
!
'Check Your Progress3
I
,1.2) See Sub-section 22.3.2
3) (i) Ellora (ii) Konark in Orissa (iii) Patharkatti (iv) Cups and Plates
a
1) Plough and bullock carts.
3) See Sub-section 22.4.2 (wood)
I
1) See Sub-section 22.4.2 (bamboo)
5) (i) Karnalaka (ii) Saharanpur (iii) Mats (iv) Kangris
I
3) See Subsection 22.5.2
'* \. .
4) (i) Bronze (ii) 15 hundred (iii) Kerala (iv) Tamil Nadu
Clay, Stone, Wood am'
Metal Crafts
Handicrafls - Conlinuity
andchange . UNIT 23 IVORY, GEMS AND
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Ivory
23.2.1 Variety of Articles
23.2.2 Ivory through the Ages
Gems and Precious Stones
Gold and Silver Works
Ornaments and Jewellery
23.5. P Materials Used
23.5.2 Variety of Ornaments
23.5.3 Jewellely through the Ages
23.5.4 Main Centres of Production
Other Crafts
23.6.1 Horn Work
23.6.2 Shell Work
23.6.3 Papier Mache
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
This Unit will mainly ccver the craft of ivory, gems and ornament making. After going
through this unit you will know about:
ivory craft through the historical times
the precious and semi precious stones
gold and silver works
different aspects of ornament making including the materials used, variety of objects and
main centres of production
some minor crafts like papier mache, horn and shell works etc.
23.1 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier units of this Block we discussed a number of crafts in India. Here in this uni,
we will focus on the crafts of ivory, gold and silver works, gems and jewellery or ornam:nl
making in India.
Ivory craft has been practised in India for thousands of years. However, in recent years the
Government of India has put a complete ban on the practice of this craft as well as trade in
ivory objects. Therefore, our main focus would be on the historical perspective of this cratt
in India.
Precious stones have always been considered a form of wealth and prosperity. In this Unit
we will take not.; cti their availability and use in various types of objects and ornaments. Gems
occupy an ;xportant place in Indian system of astrology.
While discussing metal craft in Unit-22 we had kept gold and silver works out of our
discussion. Now in this Unit we will briefly discuss gold and silver works before moving to
jewelIery and ornaments. Gems and jewellery have a long history in Indian subcontinent
The Stone Age excavations have yielded a number of items of jewelley mad:: of s:c>rir, -
:erra-cota, bones, beads of various types and other such articles. The statues and figuri-:e\
3.- . .
* .
excavated from Harappan sites have yielded various types of jewellery. All the literary and
fmy,G#BBIund ;
J-rp
religious literature from earliest times attach importance to gold, silver and jewels. These
... . .
have, through historical times, been considered a form of wealth. Variow objects and
jewellery made with these precious items find mention in texts as being used by royalty and
rich people. The common folks also used jewellery made of copper, bronze, bones, horns,
stones, semi precious stones, shells, glass, etc. The ~ u r o ~ e ' a travellers coming to India in
the medieval period were amazed to see the large amount of jewellery worn by Indian women.
In our section on jewellery we will discuss the variety of jewellery as also the main centres of
production of various rypes of jewellery. We will also take notice of the material 4 for
making jewellery in India.
In the last section of this unit we will also discuss some smaller crafts practised in India. These
will indude papier mache, horn works and shell works.
Let us start with ivory.
23.2 NORY
Ivory cwsists of the tooth structure of elephant, walrus (sea caw), hippopotamus, whale etc.
At one time India had a flourishing craft in ivory. Presently India has banned.the practbg
of this craft, its trade and tramaction in al l forms. This has been done in view of proteaiag
a
the elephants whose number is grad* dechhg Unscrupuloas poachers were kWq the
. animal for its tusks. A ban on hunting did not yield result, therefore, a tot91 ban on ivory hac
been imposed.
I
Here in this section we will mainly discuss the craft in historical cuntcxt.
A
- 232,l Variety of Articles
We get references to ivory works throughout the Indian history. A large nrrmber of ivory
articles have been excavated from various Bites in India.
-
himodern India the state of this craft in 19th and 20th unhuy has been r e c ~ ~ d d . Combs 3
'
were one of the common articles ma& with ivory. These are avail&& in varioucl rhapas and
sizts in different museums. Hair pins, dices, chessmen, stab, buttons, k a t i m p h a and
~ f o r j e w c U c r y ~ ~ ~ v a r i o n s o t h c r ~ . ~ l i k e ~ c a r s c r o l l s a a d ~ w m c
made. Household f - e like legs d tables 4 chairs, hrlay work on table top, pabeaqflins
etc. were prized exorbitantly. Ivory handles of swords, hilts, guns and other such ittmil were
quite popular.
- -
2323 Ivory Through the Ages
w km*mlvmy.
The earliest ivory objects adabl e to us have come from Harappan c x c a v b . Ivory plaque
showing a male figure and another with a deer like animal are e a r W figures frm Harappa.
Hair combs and hairpias are also available from Harappa. Dices, scab a d ivory ha dl a
have also becn found here. Tberc are no refere- to ivory iiL the v d k ~~, Howcw,
the epics have a numbtr of rsferencer to ivory. Wa y work on be6, pdaqub, cbariou ad
furniture is referred to, in &may~na and IbWni-. Buddhbt litcram aLo fialrH
reference to ivory objects. Arthaslsastra (around 3rd Ctntury B.C.) a h mcatioer ivory
objects and gives its price dm. Kalidasa too referred to ornaments of ivory. A nttmbcr of
ivory pieces have been unearthed in cncavatha at Uthur, FMhal (So& I&), Ckaad
(Bi), Ahas (warthan), Tapti Valley, ~~a (U.P) Birbholai (Bar&# Erm aad
Avra (Ma* pradcsh), Kauaambi (UP), Saqmr (Bihar), Rlrgar (Punjab) T d n (nou in
PaListan) awl P r a (Gnjeaat).
During Medieval period a h the ivory work was considered a delicate craft. J attan& spakc
very highly about the craftsmn! working with ivory in the royal edablishmem. A m m k d
-
boxes, powderhorn, dagger h d k s a d cbcsrmen are available from the Mughal Prrbd I'n
16th and 17th Centmy rhc aaft reached its zenith. m Orirra We get throne, legs a d fi garb
4
of Radha, and Ganab from Orism. In #mtb V'iagnagar had ivory bed st& md
the palace had an ivory room where inlay work on doors dc. was done. Mysure has a h
33
pravidcd b e a W palanquins. Figures of a number of saints 4 mother Mary are availpble
fromrGae '
-6 .dm ~ C S
bjeamhy, cards, p h u c frames, pa~er oa#ers, d e , ink & d s etc. were made.
In Wuat, Wuva in B h m a p Met was another im- mntm. Ha hmrum w e s ,
nws matqwhldtrs, elephants, camela etc. were made with ivory.
wrk amritm wiw Ei pwf or annbs, flwd and
& y m k O f i V O l t y i a L ~ ~ o f ~ d d s i a r l i n
bad was famous for ivory work. Here fumhm was highly prkd
# - d d o b j a w a r ~ & ~ ~ l & .
Ivory, Gems and
mehicine also specific stones are prescribedfor different ailments. These stones are generally
JeweUery
worn in rings or as prescribed.
EzI l
1) Write a small note on ivory in Ancient India.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2)
Why the craft of ivory has been banned in India ?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) List 4 places in India where precious stones are found?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4) Write one line answers to the following questions :
i)
Which Mughal emperor praised ivory work ?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii)
Where is pearl fishery carried out in India ?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii) Name two buildings where ivory inlay work has been done on doors.
Handicmfts - Continuity
and Change 23.4 GQED AND SIT~WJIQ WQRKS
Gold and silver have always been considered precious metals across the world. In India also
from the earliest times these were considered of great value. Gold and silver objects have
been found in the excavations at Harappa, Mohanjodaro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Rehman Dehn
and other ancient sites.
Both the metals are found in India. The main source of gold has been the Kolar gold mines
in Karnataka. Besides, the gold was extractcd from the river beds in Kashnair. Punjab,
Gujarat, Bengal, hills of U.P. and Assam. Rajasthan was the main source of the supply of
silver. Hills of Kumayun, Himachal and Assam also yielded some amounts of silver. Indians
had their own techniques of extracting gold and silver from the ore.
The gold and silver were used mainly in following ways:
Making jewellery (we will discuss it in Section 23.5).
Articles of daily use for the people of means.
o Statues of gods and goddesses
Objects for decorative purposes
Use of gold and silver thread for making textiles
e Making coins (before the advent of the paper currency).
Harappan excavating have yielded some silver vasses. A number of bowls, goblets and flasks
of silver are preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi, dating back to 1st century A.D.
The earliest ones are from Taxila region. The silver coins dating back to 6th ccntury and gold
coins from 1st century are available in various museums. The gold and silver coins and other
objects reached their zenith during the medieval period. We get references to the use of gold
and silver utensils by the royalty during this period. A number of finer samples are available
for all to see in various collections in India and abroad. The Mughals patronised the craft in
a big way. During this period l age scale use of gold and silver wire in making costumes aiso
took placc.
In contcmporary India the silver and gold objects are made all over the country by goldsmiths.
Kashmir provides good quality of silver ware especially kettles, water vessels. cups, glasses
and Hukkas with deep cut ornamentation with motifs. Kettles here are made with copper
while lid base and handles are of silver. The designs of Kashmir are exquisite. In U.P some
silverware is made in Moradabad. Lucknow also had an old tradition of good silver ware.
The actual production is now diminishing here. Another important place in U.P. is Varminasi.
For centuries gold and silver wire was made here and woven with silk to make fine sarees and
dress material. The textiles thus made with scroll patterns, dots and stars in silver are called
brocade. Kutch region and Ahmedabad in Gujarat are prominent centres for silver and gold
work. Trays and cups with delicate floral work from Ahmedabad are specially noteworthy
while Kutch region specialises in decorative items with superior designs and deep carving.
Bengal also has a limited amount of silver work. Gujarat also has brocade work. Silver filigree
work of Orissa and Gujarat are outstanding. Rajasthan too has a rich tradition of silver
scrcens and other silver wires. South Tamilnadii has a tradition of icon making in silver. In
Madura repousse work in silver is done. In Tamilnadu and Keraka some ritual pots and
temple lamps are aiso made. Mysore als; has an age old tradition of makingvessels, glasses,
cups and trays in silver and gold. Hyderabad and Bidar in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
are two important centres. Hyderabad is famous for producing betel cases (pandan) and
other decorative items. These have a delicate cutwork in silver. In Bidar famous bidri work
with silver wire is made (we have already discussed it in Unit-22).
23.5 QRNAMENTS AND JEWELLERY
India has a great variety of ornaments and jewellery. From grass jewellery of western ghats
in Maharashtra to the best quality of gold and diamond jewellery made by finest craftsmen
is worn by women and men. In terms of antiquity also India has a tradition of more than 5000
years of jewellery of gold and other materials.
Hendicrh -Contindty
In a large number of communities a thick waist enament is worn. It is called kardhani
I
and Change
(kamardhani). Generally, married women wear it.
i
The ornaments for the leg are of two types - the anklets and toe rings. Anklets come in various
1
shapes. Some cling to the ankles while others are loose like bangles.
There is a specific type called payal which is worn around ankles by women and makes a
musical sound when women move around. The toe rings are worn in the fingers of feet. In
most of the communities these are traditionally worn by married women only.
23.53 Jewellery Through the Ages
As already indicated jewllery has a long history in India. The existence of jewellery is known
even in the prehistoric t&s but here we will give a brief description of jewellery in five
thousand years of Indian civilization.
The Harappan excavations have yielded a number of ornaments. These
include ear rings. bangles, strings of beeds, necklace, rings, hair phs and
such other ite& ~e i d s o f allvarieties are most
these are
of gold, silver, copper, bronze, different types of stones, shells, clay and
semi-precious stones. Among stones steatite is most popular. Other
semi precious stones used are agatt:, carnelian, faience, quartz etc.
Ornaments of ivory and bone are also found. The famous statue of
dancing girl. discovered at Mohanjodaro is wearing large number of
bangles.
There are large number of references of jewellery in the earliest known ,
text - the Rig Ved. Other Vedas and sources for vedic period makt2
constant references to ornaments of gold, silver and precious gems.
These are worn by the gods, goddesses, men and women of all sorts.
Rings, necklaces, ear rings, bangles etc. are mentioned as popular
ornaments.
Ramayana and Mahabharat also provide enumerable references to
ornaments and gold as precious objects. Buddhist ant1 Mauryan
literature also refer to large number of ornments. Description of
ornaments by Sudraka in his celebrated play Mrichhkatikaw (toy cart)
written around 1st century B.C. or A.D. is worth quoting here.
Describing the making of ornaments by a jeweller attached to
courtesan's house Sudraka writes "where skillful artists were examining
pearls, topazes, emeralds, sapphires, lapis lazuli, coral and other jewels.
some set rubies in gold, some stling gold beads in colored thread, some
string pearls, some grind lapis-lazuli, some cut shells, and some turn and
pierce coral".
1
The sculptures of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amravati, paintings of Ajanta
caves and sculpture of later period at Puri, Konark and Khajuraho show
the variety of ornaments worn in India. Ornaments of hair, ear rings,
necklaces, armlets, bangles, girdles for the waist, anklets and toe rings
in all shapes and sizes are visible in the sculptures and paintings, dating
A ~ e f a s wwo ma n in tt~ditionaljewe~cry. back to thousands of years, with remarkable continuity.
Medieval period and especially during the Mughals the ornament and jewellery making
reached new heights. A dumber of beautiful specimens of this period are preserved even to
this day. The European travellers visitbg India in 16th and 17th were dazzled by the large
variety and amount of jewellery used by the royalty and common folks. Sir Tho~nas Roe (early
17th century) described the Mughal court as the "treasury of the world". By amestimate the
Mughad emperors spent almost 24% and nobilityU)% dtkirineorne on jewellery and gems.
The MOS~ signifiGant feature of jewellely during the Mghal period was the use of jewels.
Beautiful pieces of j-llery studded with diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls are best
example.. of craftsmanship and skills of goldsmiths.
This tradition continued during the 18th and 19th centuries. During this period European
iduence on ornament making is also visible.
National Museum in Delhi has a very good collection of jewellery from Harappan period to
the present (See Masterpieces from the National Museum Collection, ed. S.P. Gupta,
National Museum, New Delhi, 1985). Victoria and Albert Museum has also brought out an
excellent book on the jewellery collection in England - A Golden Treasury : Jewellery from
the Indian Subcontinent, Susang Stronge, Nina Smith and J.C. Harle, London, 1988
233.4 Main Centres of Production
As % tbe case with other crfts, jewellery is also made in almost every townbjg or s-&. Gold
smiths are the craftsmen associated with making ornaments. Now a days some artifkdal
jewellery is made throu& machines also. Beads, gold and silver wire and chaias are made
with machines also which are shaped into jewellev by craftsmen. These goldsmiths Mill the
day to day needs of people in general. Here we will discuss some specific types of jewehry
making which involves greater skills and diverse materials. At Matheran and We&mghats
in Maharashtra are made grass ornaments. Necklaces, bracelets, armlets atxd &dl& md o
b~ beautiful patterns are used mainly by the thakurs and katharis of we%tern ghats. The
tradition of these ornaments is hundreds of years old. Other specific ormuiwnts of
Mahmhtra are gathla or patalima1 (necklace consisting of gold coins) and &s (rime
ornament) made in bea~1t2d shapes. The .mli women in the region h e ti& a p d '
jewellery. Gathes (ear rin& and kanthis (multi string necklaces) are of &erest.
Gujamt and Rajasthan have awry tich tradition of jewellery. Gold and &amond orname
dominate Ahmedabad and Surat jewellery. Kutch region of Gujar* and Erjasthan
specialises in silver jmllery. There is a large variety of these. Use of colbrfd threads in
jewellcry i s noticeable in Kutch. Shekhawati in Rajasthan specialises in silver ordmca.ts.
In nofthm India kashmir has the most exquisite jewellery. Beads made by vatich~ types of
.stare made into str* for neck. Halqaband, a necklace very populac in Kishmir, is
dtli gold or sil*. They are studded with precious stones. Within Kashpir Dogtas
h m t bi r epxific ornaments. Anklets of various types and Chaunkphool (a
a &e had) are the speciality of Jammu. Kanavajl (a bunch of silver
ear rhtgs join&$'-with b h k thread) are worn by rural women. Balti women wear beautiful
hall m m +shape= rhgs made with silver wires and beeds of silver. In Ladakh kndenb
a d h o e h with godand turquoise ammade. The most striking work of Ladakh is per&
an ornamental headdress. It is shaped like a serpent with a spread hood. It is made with a
leather piece on which a cloth is fixed. On the cloth piece are stitched uncut turquoise stones
along with corals, agate and cornelian. These are stitched and arranged in a number ofrows,
Silver or gold strips and at time a silver charm box is also attached.
Awadh, Varanasi and parts of western U.P. have gold studded jewellery. Firozabad in U.P.
has a rich tradition of glass bangles. The whole of India gets the supply of bangles from here.
Garhwal and Kumaon hills in UB. as also Himachal Pradesh have a rich tradition of silver
ornaments. Kinnaur and Chamba in Himachal Pradesh have kach and i t a d as neck
ornaments, necklaces madzJaar4d silver coins, large nose rings and chak, a head omment
made in delicate aad e.
In the east, Baa, B e e Orissa and Assam have their own style. the lac bangles made in
these regions are domful In Bihar Madhubad and Muzaffarpur are famous. In Orissa
Cuttack is famous for -work. Filigree is a precess in which silver wires are pleated and
flattened very thin and beaten into various sizes and shapes. These silver @weads of varying
thickness are used for making rings, necklaces, bracelets and ear rings. The t r a e ma l
craftsman cxpert hr filigree also use beautiPal floral patterns to give shape to a number of
objects. Gold and s h r blligree work iji dose is s d mounts in Bengal a h .
In Assam jewellery ia gold, silver and stones set in metals is quite popular. A spccial ban&
called gamkholro with a clasp tvopen it is popular. A special big type of ear rbgs called rsoeaa'
or hona are made here. $
In South Indig the ornaments are ma& mainly with pure solid gold with little or no stwe
work. Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh is an a,mption 8
Ivory, Gems and
JeweUery
art.
-
Handicrafts - ('ontinuity
and Change
Iftad Ornunlenb
Ornaments l or foot.
- ~~
Traditional Kodava jmellcry 01 Coorg.
. -
t , "'. ' P
Marriage n-ce or tbsU h mpdsin O&SS forms and shapa hroaghout .ox&. hhr@
cp
popular are gold bea ds, work in regollsse or stamped sheet gold with appW wires
?;&.
i
stamped motifs. Many of thme are inscribed or decorated with figures of gods an8 goddesses,
Shiva, Parvati, Nandi s n k and mythological
are quite faJmite. Use afthick black&
. A
thread to hold pieces together is ammon. in Coorg region of Karnataka, gold- with
beads of stones are woven together. The necklaces with sm
are very common. In Miilabar aad some other parts of Ker
thoda, a variety of large ear rings. The nom studin south also comes m miaay
shapes. Besides, traditional South Indian je&llery Hyderzbad is home to h d a n warlc
li(undan is setting of pr&m or semi prwiow s&ms within a frame d gdd. .Yhese stonm
are set in beautiful floral patterns. At times, the reverse side is ornamented with enamel work
of bright coIours. The Kudan and M e e d wark is don9 in Rajasthm also. Hydexabad
also produces large amounts of glass bangles. .
rn w: . -S
I
India has a large population. of nomadic and pastoral tribes spread
over the length and breadth of the country. These tribes have a rich
tradition of ornaments. The materials used bmost of the cases are
silver, brass, bronze, bone, beads, of stones and a large variety of
sundry materials. Here we dose our &%-on with a passage on
tribal ornaments by Jaya Jaitly
. ,
. d .. ...
. 4
"It is a characteristic fi& of tribd and semi maled
to wear most of the ornaments they possess both tas
security and status. The r es ul t 3 dbdnant and profuse 7
amamentation with ear rings ofnuyhg sksgoing all the way up the ~ 4 g ~
ear, two or more nose rings and bangles of cow:hshell, bone or ivory,
A
whi& extend from the wrist to the tdww and upper arm along with ' ,'r~z
arm lets and wrhtkts. kIegvy &ts in snwoth, plain or indented
designs arc worn even at ni@, while thick n&huxi or chokers adorn lae neck a~ all &,
~ f m t h e - n e c k , ~ , h t h e ~ a n d ~ ~ f o r t h e a n k l e s , k a r d h o t r r i h t h e ~
nrrth or boff fbr t&e nose &&@car for $ue ems, are soale of the standard pieces worn
-6r 4 t ~ ( ~ ~ g l ~ n + q ~ i ~ i i r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , lhditiom d indis, ~.93).
' I
. . . ,
t i s Section we give you a brief account of &ee craf-
, .
2 . . L! MJ, . l &- Ll LA&. # ? = -
8 variety of ;&ad b#e&s"&Zm aumaf"horns are mad% &i?znt parts of Indi. Horn of
tit'
oceros was used for some medicinal purposes and making charms. This has n m been
I mpletelybanned to protect the species. Horns of other animals are used for makingcombs,
#XI S, small animals, birds, toys, buttons, small trays, cigarette wes, boxes, ashtrays, pen
" stands and lamps etc. Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, Honever and Belgaum in
Kamataka, Trivendrum (Kerala), Cuttack and Parlakimedi in Orissa, and Sarai Taran in U.P.
are the important places where this craft is practised. In Orissa animals, bids, bangles etc.
are specific objects made. While U.P. is famous for making combs, cutlery himdles and toys.
In Savantvadi and Ratnagiri districts of Maharashua, are made some ritual objects for
pouring water on deities.
23.62 Shell Work
Sea shells and conch shells have for centuries been used for avariety of objects. Conch
shells have religious and social significance also. These are wed through out the country for
blowing on religioy occasions. The statues of Durga show her holding a conch in one hand.
A large number of shell objects nave been found in Harappan excavations. ~esities' f&ara~~a
a number of ancient sites have provided shell objects wbich were used as ornameafs pr small
decorative items.
I , (L
' %I a number of coastal areas these ahM1*%& &made in present dayyhQa. In
Vishakhapatnam tortoise shell is used for making trinklet boxes with designs ia geometrical
pattern and floral designs etc. In Bengal different types of bangles are made. mdren' s
bangles called ginibala are beautiful with various patterns. In Neyyatidcera near Trimdrum
(Kerala) small items of daily use are made. Here whole conch shells are shaped in to various .
forms. Small shells or cowries are also used for making a variety of items like necklaces for
animal strings with large coloured beads, as trappings especially for horses, camels and cows '
etc. Cowries are also used for decoration as trinklet boxes, bags, stalls and shawls etc.
In Orissa are made small toys, figures by sticking together small shells. In some coastal
:ions pendants and necklaces are made from shelk.
I>.
--
23.63 Papier Mache
The Centrql Asian craft technique of using paper pulp as a base to manufacture finely painted
and decorated objects was brought to India around the 16th century. This craft flomished
especially in Kashrnir. The craft reached great perfection during the Mughal rule. The
Mughal emperors were great patrons of the craft and brought craftsmen from Kgshmir to
Delhi and Agra. However, Kashmir remains to be the main centre of this craft, Besides
Kashmir the craft is practised in a limited way at Gauhati, Ujiain, Jaipur and a few places in ,--:--
south.
The technique of papier made craft involves two steps. The first is making
the object from the raw material called sakhtasazi. The second stage is
painting and decorating the object called muphi.
a
The raw material is produced by grinding paper, cloth, rice straw and copper
A
sulphate in a pulp. This raw material is made in to various shapes with the
help of moulds of clay, wood or metal. After dryin& the shapes are cut and
seperated from moulds. These pieces are again joined with a special glue
A
made from gypsum and glue. The object is rubed to get a smooth surface.
Sometimes objects are made with a light timber also.
I
For painting and decorating gold, white, black and red colours are commonly
used. The artists prefer their own eolours by xnixing various herbal and
chemical substances. The articles are hand painted with beautiful designs and
flor J patterns, scenes with human figures and anigds etc.
1
1
The range of articles made is wide. The most popular articles are pen stands,
trays, jewcllery chests, bowls, table tops, small and bigboxes, candle stands,
decoration pieces and eggs of various sizes and shapes. The ornamental work
done on objects is intricate and done with great skill.
1) List a few articles made with horn.
y -
2) List the shell work done ateBengal, Orissa and Vishalchapatnam,
3) Write a small note on papier-mache work of Kashmir.
23.7 LET-US SUM UP
In this Unit you read about the crafts of ivory, gold and silver works, gem, and jewellery and
someother crafts. Craft'of ivory is no longer practised as there is a ban on it. The bail has
been imposed byrthe government to protect the elephant population in the country. The
tradition of a& is centuries old and some excellent pieces are preserved in various museums.
Gold and silver have already been considered precious metals. In India we have it lo&
tradition of these all over the country. Precious stones and jewels are used as wealth and are
used in jewellery and decoration in various objects. In India these are also used for
astrological considerations for favourable planetary situations. These are considered to
possess medicinal properties also. Jewellery and ornament making is a widely practised
crafts. We discussed the materials used, variety of ornaments and main centres of ornament
making. Hand crafted jewellery and setting of s t ow are delicate works done by skillful
craftsmen. The Kundan work of Hyderabad and filigree works of Orissa are outstiinding
foams of craftsmahip. Large scale use of ornaments by nomadic tribes are unique features.
We also devoted a small section on horn work, shell work and papier mache. The shell works
are mainly confined to coastal areas while papier mache in all its glory is practised chiefly in
Kashmir.
: ~ r t of fixing &d stows or qtha & 'in the gromg of
plaip surface.
I
: Rearing of shell fishes to make pearls atifiMy.
'wbsimsm : A work of 4th century B.C. by Kautilya or Chanakya.
kpwsse work : The Repousse is the method of raking the in relief on t$in
metal sheet.
: T d made with intern- goad a d &ver Unread.
~ d m w k : The colouring of metals or wood with lac or paints for decorating
the surfaces or making designs.
-
23.9 ANSWERS-TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES
1) See Sec.23.2.
2) See Sec.23.2.
3) See Sec.23.3
4) i) Jahangir
ii) Coastal regions of Gujarat, Orissa and South In&.
iii) Golden Temple, Amritsar and Gaj Mandir, Bikaner.
Ivory, Gems and '
Jewellery
1) Gold is found at Kolar in Karnataka and silver in Rajasthan.
2) a) ii b) i) c) iv d) iii
3) See Sub-sec. 23.5.1.
4) i) tika ii) nath iii) bazuband iv) guluband v) toe rings.
5) See Sub-sec. 23.5.4.
-
1) See Sub-sec. 23.6.1.
2) See sub-sec. 23.6.2.
3) See sub-sec. 23.6.3.
and Change UNIT 24 TEXTILES AND COST.UMES
Structure
24.0 Objectives
24.1 Introduction
24.2 History of Textiles in India
24.3 Textile Technology
24.3.1 Material Base of Indian Textiles
24.3.2 Weavers' Loom
24.3.3 Patterns
24.3.4 Naqshabandhas
24.3.5 Silk Technology
24.3.6 Wool Weaving Technology
24.3.7 Organisatron of Textile Production
24.4 Indian Costumes
24.5 Textile Policy and Future Prospects
24.6 Textiles, Costumes and Tourism
24.7 Let Us Sum Up
24.8 Keywords
24.10 Appendix
OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you will know about:
the textile tradition of India,
present day Indian textiles with regional variations,
various techniques used by Indian weavers in the process of weaving, printing, dyeing,
embroidery, etc.,
present day Indian costumes and their history,
attempts made by Indian government to protect the interests of Indian handloom sector,
and
Indian textiles as source of tourist attraction.
24.1 INTRODUCTIQN
India has one of the richest traditions of woven textiles made from different materials using
various techniques. Indian textiles are closely knitted with Indian culture to the extent that
one can find various socio-cultural activities reflected through that. Textiles even have
specific roles in the religious activities performed in India. Specific textiles are used for
specific worship purposes, marriages and rituals, etc. In Andhra Pradesh there is a tradition
of temple cloth (kalarnkari), used as a part of temple ritual. The episodes from Ramayana
and Mahabharata are woven or printed on these clothes. In some regions women are
expected to wear only silk sarees to perform puja as a part of ritual, because it is considered
pure. Certain sarees are produced for the consumption of particular community only, e.g.
the Kodalikuenppur sarees developed for the consumption of, Thanjavur royal family;
similarly, sungardhi sarees are made for the consumption of Saurastrian community in
Tamilnadu. It is a custom in Assam (among the Bodos) to offer a scarf (gamcha), woven by
young women to the elders of the family. It is said that in Tripura a rebellious tribe was
forbidden to use colour in weaving as a punishment. The costumes have a significant place
in the life of people. In almost all parts of the country there are well deftned and prescribed
costumes (in some cases even the type of cloth) to be worn on social and religious occassions
(marriage performances rituals, birth, death etc.). One may notice that India has the ancient
tradition of wearing unstitched costumes. However, the weaving techniques, quality of textiles
and variety of costumes have undergone many changes over a period of time. The pace of
change was fast after the coming of the Turks, the Mughals and later, the Europeans.
In the present Unit our focus is on hand-woven fabrics of India. We are excluding any
discussion on textiles produced by industrial sector or by power-loom sector. In this Unit we
will familiarize you with the famous textile tradition of India with its regional variations. We
will also introduce you to the technology used by the craftsmen in the manufacturing process.
Besides, importance of textile sector as one of the prominent areas of tourist interest in India
! is also dealt with.
24.2 HISTORY OF TEXTILES IN INDIA
History of textiles in India is, perhaps, as old as Indian civilization. The earliest example of
cotton fabric comes from Harappan excavations, c.2500 B.C. It is dyed cotton with the use of
mordant technique. RigVeda (c.1500 - 1000 B.C) refers to golden woven fabric hiranyadrapi;
Epic literature (Mahabharata and Ramayan, c.1000-600 B.C.) mentions pearl-fringed fabric
manichira; while Jain Bhandaras provide ample examples of Indian patto silk. Greek
records are also full of references on gorgeous paithani fabric from Paithan - the ancient
Pratishthan. The author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (A.D. 60-100) mentions the
presence of Indian dyed cotton in Rome. The Roman word carbasina for cotton is derived
from Sanskrit karpasa. Kautilya refers to the superintendents (adhyakshas) of weaving
during the Mauryan period (c.300 B.C.).
Bengal was the chief centre of fine cotton production. We get references of cotton trading
in this region for almost 2000 years. Buddhist, Jain and Hindu text refer to the flourishing
trade of the port town Tamralipti (in Bengal). Similarly, 'Periplus' mentions the port town
at the mouth of the Ganges. We also get references of fine Muslin of Bengal in Greek and
Roman records. Dacca Muslin in 16th-17th centuries is said to be the best cotton textiles
made in India. Gujarat was another centre of cotton production. The earliest references to
printed fabric in India comes from Gujarat (13-17 century).
With the coming of the Turks and Mughals many new features were introduced in the field
of textile production with the fusion of new culture and new technology. Turks brought with
them many new techniques. They exposed Indian craftsman to spinning wheel. Earlier
women used to spin the yarn with single spindle (takali). With the introduction of spinning
wheel not only the productivity increased sixfold; but also the wheel attached to it greatly
reduced the physical labour involved in it. Many new varieties of cloth were also introduced
during this period. Fine quality velvets belong to the Mughal period. We get earliest
reference to it by an Arab geographer, Ibn Khurdazabah (A.D. 826-912). It seems that velvets
were at first introduced in Western India by the Arabs through the Tiraz factories (Central
Asia) but the art reached its climax upder the Mughals. Mashru and himroo, a mixed fabric
also appears to be the contribution of Muslim weavers who must have derived the weaving
tradition of the Tiraz factories of the Caliphates during the Sultanate period. Kalamkari of
Golconda has a very strong Persian influence (of Isphahan and Iran). The rich weaving
tradition of Kashmiri shawls with its twill-tapestry weaving seems to have been introduced in
India by the Central Asian weavers during the reign of Zain-ul Abidin (A.D. 1420-70).
Carpet weaving also reached new heights under the Mughals. It was Mughal Emperor Akbar
who brought Persian carpet weavers from Persia to India and set up the royal workshop
(karkhana). This gave birth to the art of pile carpet weaving in silk and wool in India. Soon
Indian carpet Industry picked up so well that Abul Fazl records that, "The carpets of Iran
and Turan are no more thought of. All kinds of carpet weavers are settled here and drive a
flourishing trade. These are found in every town but especially in Agra, Fatehpur and
Lahore". By 1615 Surat became the chief centre of carpet export to Central Asia and Europe.
Russian carpet weavers also settled in Masulipatnam. Later they moved to Eluru in the
mid-16th century.
Similarly, tanchoi was introduced in Swat by three Parsi brothers who brought the art from
China. Since then Parsi community continued this profession until recently. European
travellers Ralph Fitch (A.D. 1583-91) and Manucci (A.D. 1656-1712) refer to fine gold and
silver brocades of Varanasi. Earliest references to famous jamdani fabric are available in
Periplus, Indica (B.C. 2C.) and Majjhima Nikaya (Buddhist text). Abul Fazl, court
chronicler of Akbar, in his Ain-i Akbari also refers to taneb (coat) made from fine jamdani.
Special jamdanis were woven at Dacca for the personal use of emperor Aurangazeb. Indian
b
Textiles and Costumes
Handicrafls - continuity
cotton textile also occupied the chief place among the items of exports of the European
and Change
trading companies during the 17 - 19th centuries.
24.3 TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY
In the present Section we will discuss various processes involved in the production of textiles.
f
24.3.1 Material Base of Indian Textiles
i
i a
. *
The most common and known textile fabrics are cotton, silk and wool. After the cotton balls
are picked from the fields, it has to pass through various stages before cotton could be used
for weaving - i)ginning or seed extrction, ii)carding or fibre loosening done by dhunia
(cotton carder), and iii)spinning or making yarn. Spinning was traditionally doqe with the
spindlc to which a whorl was attached to stabilize it. Later, during the Medieval period
spinning wheel was introduced resulting in the six-fold increase in the yarn production.
Credit for silk production goes to the Turks. It were they who introduced technique of
hatching silkworms (cocoons) on the mulberry trees in India. India is the only country which
prgduces all the four known varieties of silk known in the world namely - mulberry, tasar,
.
munga, and eri.
The silk whose silk worms are hatched on mulberry tree / creeper is known as mulberry silk;
while non-mulberry silk is that whose silk worms are hatched on other variety of trees.
Mulberry is widely grown as bush crop in the plain'regions and as trees in the hilly regions.
It takes six months to mature and afterwards 6 crops can be hatched. Even its leaves can be
sold to silkworm hatchers. Best quality tasar is produced on oak plantation. But Arjun
plantation are also raised for tasar silk wormehatching. It takes four years to mature and
stands for twenty years. Eri or eudi, or erandi silk is produced by a worm known as muga.
It is exclusively produced in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam on Some, Soalu and Champa
plants. Its worm takes 25 to 45 days to mature from hatching to cocooning.
Woollen textile is known in India ever. since the ancient period. Wool was gatheredfrom
sheep. The best quality wool (pashmina, etc.) was procured from the lower coat of the sheep
which is much more softer than the wool extracted from the upper part of the sheep.
For carpet weaving both wool and cotton are used; the woollen pile gives thickness and
warmth and a cotton slide back to which tufts of wool could be attached. The pile carpets
are mostly made in wool, some in silk and a few in cotton. Later other materials such as sun
hemp and coir are also used. The warp is always cotton except in a few special carpets like
those of Bokhara which has a wool warp. The wool for the pile varies from the short rough
used in inferior carpets to the best grades like pashrnina, Bikaneri, Fazilka and Joria
varieties.
24.3.2 Weavers' Loom
The Indian loom is horizontal loom of throw-shuttle type and is said to resemble thafr of
ancient Egypt. In the famous picture of Kabir spinning the yarn one can clearly make out the
use of pit loom with treadles. In the most crude form of pit-loom four bamboo posts are
firmly fmed on the ground for making the loom 'over which warp and wefts are framed.
Sometimes loom is raised high on the ground and treadles are placed below the loom instead
of a pit. Other instruments used for weaving are - lay or batten; treadles, shuttle, temple or
instrument for keeping cloth on the stretch during the process of weaving. The weaver sits,
- with right leg bent, upon a board or mat placed close to the edge of the pit, depressing one
Horizontal Loom: Orissa
of the treadles with the great toe of the left foot.
The loom used for wool weaving is the same used by other weavers across the country. For
carpet weaving the loom is a huge embroidery frame. The frame is set upright on the ground
against a wall or laid flat on the earth with movable horizontal timbers. The warps run
vertically and the wefts horizontally. The knots are tied in rows. The knots used in carpet
weaving are the Persian or Sehna, and the Turkish or Ghiordes. In the ghiordes the two ends
of the thread are twisted, each round a warp thread, whereas in the sehna knot only one end
circle a warp thread completely. The average knots per inch vary from 64 to 400. On a big
carpet 20 to 30 persons can work simultaneously.
' " Texffles aid Costumes
The other kind of carpet madkin India is kilim, meaning a woven fabric. The technique of !
we- like that of tapestry. "Tht kilim is without a pile (loop), with a fl&i sdrface, and is
reversible.
a) VarUbd Weavers at work b) Kumaun
HmldteralCs - Continuity
dc-
The hilly tribes of North-Eastern region but the Garos use back strap or loin loom. Its used
solely by women (except Manipur) while in the plains frame loom is used by both men and
women. But highly organized commercial weaving is solely done by men. The back strap
(loom) comprises of a series of bamboo sticks which separate the continuous warp threads,
thus creating the two sheds for wea-g. One of the sticks is attached to the strap which
attaches the warp to the body, the other end of the con@mus warp is tied to a wall, a tree
ar to two stackes driven into the ground. By pressing her feet against a-piece of waQlri or a
wall, the weaver creates the tension id the warp. A f m w d & b ~ m t locwm the tension
and enables her to lift one of the Weads. The wooden
beater is inserted in between the d through which the weft is
J w h at& Jain, Jyotindra, Handwoven Fabrics of J d a , $.
Nagalaad, iW[snipur,(~riPura, Mizoraun and krunachal Prah& are the most hportant
centres for buck strap weaving. Since the body is used for c~wlting the tension, maving is
cfuite strenuous. Besides, cloth's width is also &My rc&ctad (it can not go beyond 50-60
1) Define the mulberry and non-m
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "W.
4 -
. A 2433 Patterns
. I
' The. third most important component of the textile t e Mq g . i i pakerning. Since time
imammi4 for pattemiug three techniques are usedfn India - i) the patterns are made in
the proass of weaving itself; ii) patterning is done after the dath is prepared by ~lsing various
dyes; and i31) embroidery is used for patterning the cloth.
i) WEAVING PAlTJUtNS
7 .
; +r ,,.2
For patterning during the weave two different techniques are used - OLat and brocade.
a) . Ikat
: 7 .
' ..
: 8 "l-JT.\: . -
.? v ,..
.. . -
The most ingenious xwthod used for patterning during the weave'ia k t . It can
. a \
be differentiated on the basis of whether onlv wam or weft or both are tiedved.
,'-. In the patola of Patan and Orissa both warp &d w k are so resist-dyed that ;hen
woven, the patterns on the warp and weft mesh to create the desired inclines df
. . figurelpattern. It is called the double ikat (both warp and weft are resist-dyed).
- t
In the ikat of Patan sharp grain of patterns emerged due to the matching of the
d" 6
elements of the motifs used in the resist-dyed warp and weft; while ikat of Orissa
c
grain is often not sharp, but in half-tone because here also, though, the warp and
.,d. tiiv weft are resist-dyed, the designs of the two threads do not cover each other.
.qii:g~ Besides, in some cases pallav and two border are created by not using ikat alone
but by weaving, very often with extra weft.
-
P - *.:, .
I B) . Brocaded Textile
I .
- df i ? , , *"
. - ''-2 Amopng the brocaded textile jamdanl textile is most important. Th~'wor4fera-
. .
.-.
dani is derived from jama or coat. It means loom embroidered or figure&
T ,?:;.,:
t-. ."< w
Weavers wove floral, animal or bird ornaments on the loom. The warp is, as a
,( $:f?
'. .;
% rl rf . $
rule, unbleached grey yarn, the motifs be'tng woven in bleached white yarn. Its
c*-
.t?h ' p@:k. :
woven both, on cotton @well as on wool. The most important centres of jamdani
L !,..'
4 . 7 II . ; ,i, ;<I -
. - . , .
weaving in the Gangetic plain are Dacca in Bengal and Tan& and Banaras in U.P.
, . ..
..- Banaras weavers use gold thread also. Dacca weavers use coloured cotton thread
, a- . ;. .*f?;'
along with gold and white but the finest Tanda jamdani is woven only with white .
: .
i
.. 3 '
yarn. The ~rnamental figures are woven by two threads of yarn of the same count
. ,
. .
as in the background. The threads lifted up by the weaver with his h e r s . The . .
.' "
weaver directly works on the loom and no naqshas are used nor the design is ti* .!.'&.
: . u
F K . ,
, . on the loom. Brocade t
Sub-section F.3.6).
i , . '
3 '
. ,
, . .
..
' ; $<!.>$L :, -., , . ,i:. ~ . ; , 2'::. ,
\
'#,,A?!? > ."::.,J&:;:JF , <.!.l , ; ; i * ~ ( ; . :
11. , .. ' . , . , , I -:;:: * , !,&>>.::,, ..!:< ;
~ - -
, ' ..
. . .
. & .
.' * I
-. . I
, .
, 8
. ..
-
'f.
, .$
The most indigenous method used by th
que for print. There are eight different
t
1) fold resi~t~dyeing
2) .stitch resist-dyeing
6) paste or wax resist-dyeing
r
;*
7) mcsrdant resist-dyeing , - . , . -L &. - .
~ j ; Yirqy rt l j -A ( 7 1 3 I >
:T r -;: 8) resist dyeing of yarn to be woven after pa~er&
-
can b e d y h e grouped lnto two categories y k n resist
rat and Rajasthan. In this tech&-
plucked up in the finger nails of
d or starched string, anti then
immersed in the dye which does not penetrate the tied parts. Beginning with the
lightest coloui, this process is repeated one or more times accoiding to the design.
. , :: ,i.
resist printed cotton -
Pakistan). However,
ar and Khanda in Kutch are the chief centres of mrak'
he printing of azarak involves several stages that continues for
days. At first white cotton cloth is imyersed into water and soda, then
bleached, again dipped into oil tillit achieve beige colour. Then the firtit print
(asnl) is done with a mixture of gum, lime and water. The motif thus printed is
white or pale red or red after dyeing it with k i n e . The Second print (kot) is
done with a solution of ferrous sulphate, thickened with earth, gum or grounded
print turns black aftei being dyed in alizarine. The third print (kher)
sist made of a mixture of earth, flour, Ithum, aluminium sulphate and
water. Sometimes molasses and @rare also added. This resist covers'all the parts
receive a d o u r other than blue. Then its dyed in indigo. The cloth
is now dyed in a b r h e .
We get the earliest references of printed cottonfrom-Gujarat at Fostat. T&-
tionally Pethapur in Gujarat was well known for its mud-resist prints, known;as
sodagiri made for export to the Far East. wooden blocks with intricate
'
using four colours, are prepared at Pethapur even today. The Persianised prin@5d
patterns, produced for export in the 17th century, are not seen any more in Gujarat
tday. Perhaps it is absorbed in the traditional de$p. During the medieval.
period there was alarge demand in the European market Eor Indian printed cotton
cloth, commonly called chintz. It formed the major item of Indian exports to
European markets.
EMBROIDERED TEXTILES
The kantha, patched cloth, was mainly hade out o f d out rwl disused -ees
and dhotis. Borders of these used saris, etc. were cut, patched and embroidered.
Women of all castes, but Brahman including Muslim women do this embraidery.
The stitches 'wed are of simplest kind. The running, stitch is the main. Red and
blue colours are generally used. The design is mostly in the square or rtxtangle,
at .the centre space is occupied by a lotus flower and its petals which d e s t s .
rse. Four trees mark the corners symbolising four-
enriched textile version of the art of the alpona
om ancient mythology and legends are taken. In
as only the figures of animals are wed. However, Muslim kanthas
lack figures, etc. instead they use scroll. -
#*,, qPw, :
The art of kantha died after the first quarter of the 20th century. It is not known
when it began again, the new kantha, thbugh same in technique, with widely
b) Cikan
TexUles and Costumes
.~
It is done mainly in white cotton thread on white cotton. The embroidery is
-
composed of large or small, simple or inverted satin-stitch, button holing, darn-
stitch, knot-stitch, netting and applique. The art developed at Lucknow unaer
the patronage of the rulers of Avadh. Both, Hindu and Muslim craftsmen are
skilled in the craft. At present five diierent styles of cikan work are common:
taipchi, kbatwa, bakhia, mumi and phanda, and jali.
The traditional homes of applique and patchwork are Kutch, Saurashtra, Orissa
(Pipli), Bengal, Bihar, U.P., Andhra Pradesh andTamilnadu. The people of Badni
in Kutch make a variet); of dhadki, spread-cum-quilt by using the applique work
technique. Similarly, Kathis, Rajputs, Mers, Kunbis, Vania, etc. of Saurashtra use
60th applique and patchwork technique.
In applique technique motifs are cut out from coloured fabric and applied to a
plain ground, normally white, to create, a range of patterned spreads, quilts,
costumes, etc. Motifs like human figures, animals, and flowers are also cut out and
applied to the ground/plain cloth.
d) Phu&ari (flower work)
It is a form of embroidery of Punjab done in darn-stitch over counted threads by
using floss-sii thread on a coarse madder red or indigo blue homespun cotton.
It is traditionally done by Hindu Jat women on odhnis, skirts and blouses.
Now-a-days, besides the traditional phulkari (in which pattern is sparsely spread)
'bagh' (garden) technique in which dense silk embroidery is d, patterns in
. which only edges are covered; and sbader or mirror work (started f or her i can
exports) embroidery are also common.
Handicrafts - Continuily
and Change
It is a b i n stitch embroideq .&me p r b d y by Gq@at women. In this floral
1
, snddions and peacocks predominates. The Me&&, Ahirs, Rabaris, Kathis,
, aaad Gara&& use figutative mdifsP local aarratives wdPuranic legencls d i k e
th& punterparts the Islamic B&.
. ,
. , ..
$-- 1): " a%@ double b t .
,h
@a@pe4 weaving de&m are transferred to the weme by h BHQPLIS~ through Wrn or
tachnique. Thq naqash draws the actual d d p s on a pl& piece of m, then
i~ red, each square expected to represent five &&es. Usually the patterns
orre reprsdwd in the full size. Then the colourist marks down each cdour on ttri9. graph.
oductiw of gaph paper, the designer uses adc s@m as a stitch' this makes
mare aprate. An Aliph separates me &fram other. (Set Kmdadevi
$ Ck p t s a d Flaw Cmerhga of pg 33-61).
1 + . .
. u 11 .
+. 4 '
we cfjdclasared hmslfb-&m %A.PT%W -m~cedmvs#oiplstypes
Qf tmes 4 the variety of ~o~ hatched% pr
. - -
iwiW% 0t"silks. YOU have
also seen that e o u s kinds of silk are prodwed- by extracting raw silk from djfferent vatic@
of cocoons. B e a d reeling of s-rm are done in tEss early &age o f h RrtW
sth he part of unwinding t he f i l ame nt of l r f ~~~~Si l khmm~~~l ~gdj f kdane mWy
collstructed nxt&&es of great simplicity. R s h m d d b e b ~ h 8 $ ~ p i ~ a t r t
of the cocoon. Generally moth pierce- out of ths cumon on the 943th day of m
formation. Reeling' of tiwar cocoon is quite hard. To sort a d m 1 Ehe& a && is
moistened and thrown round the pitara, a rough circular bamboo q e . Raw silk is sorted,
reeled and twisted by women. In w&hg ~amssitiit together with curds aiiti4h &einPfdk
is thrown over the COT&. Ab r reel@ it is then dyed by the weam hkm& d&&e part
&ended for the warp is sent to the warper.
' ,
243.6 Wool Wea* Technologyfi
We have already seen in Sub-section 24.3.1 haw the wool is exhedf k-
But it involves a t h u g process to mmert sheep aaQ@mls' hair itat? d. ,
For cleaning and separating a wqol (from hair) husked rice is ste~pied .in dean cokl'mtir
for a day and n@t or longer, until it becomes soft; then it is grounded or btaised u p n a stone
slab, to fine flour. Thin layers of this and of the picked wool are laid dtern~t-c:Py and s q d
with hand until they are completely intermixed. Soap is never used as it makes the wool harsh.
After this Wing treated for m hour the flout is shaken out, the wool opened and fain to pi.ece$
chiefly by the nails and made into sonmvbt square, thin, elastic pads d e d tamlre.
In this pro- pbW or smnds' -1 is exthted. The hmbn is thm worl~&ot.into a thin,
flat roving called mala. The mJlla is folded i~ta the sjze of the tumbo a d is &pa&& in a
deep pot of red earthenware called t r r s b till it required for I -
Ka&miri woollen industry ued altogether a &rent technique not oh& f o H d in
India but in Central Ada and Persia. Therefore, it is conjectured hit Wkisb
immigrmts must have started dxtwlweavingindustryin ~tlshmir. I n s h r n v i w e m h g ~ ,
. .
use twill-tapestry technique in which we& me insetted bPy m e m of floating woodm bobbins
*; ' wat phser , wq- t bader , the pattern draw, the cdourist d thc fdbwi ter. The
master weaver controllled the loom The admil weaving of one &awl is done on tea looms,
each loom working on a p;nticular section of the shawL Thesre sections are hdl y hdkd
over to a group of specialist (ratwgxm) to find out the defects in the design and to Eebjoin
the pieces so that joints would be hi si i e.
The combination of the 'woven and mbraidered shawl tectmiqme is ddo pe d ia the Eaite WI
- century. Here larger are99 were w m in t wi l l - t am behniqm while
afmswre
embroidered by the TheyaresUGSlanexpertthatthepmbrderinmeha~n
that the shad could e i h r side. It is to the aedit d Mmqja Ymafwh-d
the expertise of Woogars for imhtbg flne weaving shawls through embi d 19th
century. These shawls costed much less. Today, Kd mh i shawl indmtrg ts dkY
these &broidered rather than of woven dumb.
-.
I - - : , j j , ' ,
w l r m ~ ( ~ ) ~ c E s t h t s e e d s m d
@y women. Then comes ?he obasa d wsavw
na ( ~ ~ +bz &&a i s ~ ~ i f r ~ & w m h
L b juiGe has 1 - beB wed far bhddbg i hdla WeacM . . are gm&@jWhW+@f
ahobr caste).
. _ - _ L " - .
~ a d k a ~ s - Continuity
Then there me nnrdeeahs who arrange the threads that is to be displaced during bleaching.
d Ch . l g c
RaFoogars are employed to repair cloth that has been injured during bleaching; in removing
-: b k' # o;. - $; .; wssvers' knots fro& threads, joining broken threads and forming gotd and silver headings on
.-
.y :- 3% A$$,:>
t., .;,I c . .
lthe cloth. h g h Dhobis (washermen) remove spots and st ab. Kopndegners are workers
6 j:. .f%, :
3 who beat cloth. Special ironers iron the cloth. Cloth are folded by murdeeahs and f me d
. , bustabands. r:
u
:?' .*> 3
' . . $
* i
,? .
. , 1 i
. . ' ,
> woolen shawls also a large machinery of craftsmen got involved. Nakata adjusts
' 3 *
;>? 8b ,
the yarn for the warp and weft; taaabguru determines the proportion of yarn of
. . .- . q?< . -1 - &ours to be employed. The pattern drawer draws the pattern, naqqa~h fills the carhwrs
,-#-t& - into it; talim-writer annote the designs by written short hand indicating the numb= of warp
, " : h,., ..,: ,
threads to be covered with different colours: work of ~urusmw is that of cleaner. He bees
the shawl from dis
- employees.
8 - F.
.'. it
.
1) Who are Naqshabandhas? What role do they play in the textile production?
w,,, ,,,, { r ~ , c ~ , ! , l l t ! t $1 , I&,,:!:.>?ih,.Nr ~ z ~ b l p n i , . , , , - ~* &. l f '
, k ~ , g j a ~ . ~ ,& a;, . * r~ltl; $.A3 2 i&t:&.6;1'J.'J.'aq :. .:.:. : ::$i&.&'~ : -
.ppwu~tq, I\,??;.. i r t ! ) ~ > ! ti Ui l & $ b i ~ ' ' & W d f ~ ~ '
1~8t: fp, t b
, . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...a , .* ; i i .!.# . . i . . . . . . . . .
. ,
9 . 1
Rig Veda, the earliest Indian literature,refets to two garments vasa (the lower garmenf) and
adhivasa (the upper garment). Kalidasa mentions to various kinds of dresses worn on
various occasions - hunting dresses, dresses worn by repentant and love-stricken persons,
by abhisarikas, etc. Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese traveller (A.D. 7@ century) refers that, "their
(Indians') clothing is not cut or fashioned... . The men wind their garments round their middle,
then gather them under the armpits,.and let them fall down across the body, hanging to the
rqht. The robes of weplen fall to the ground; they completely cover their shoulders ....."
Alberuni, wrhmenting during the 11th century, says, They (the Hindus) use turbans for
I . trousers ... those who like much dress, wear trousers bined with so much cotton as would
'
suffice to make a number of counterpanes and saddle-bags. These trousers have no (visible)
'*
openings, and they are so huge that the feet are not visible. The string by which the trousers
I Saree
#
are fastened is at the back ..." . , - , . - - I > . L ~ ~ & , ~ : ,
-:. ' Y E 8
8 .
8 I,,. , I:.. .. .
8 . 6 . .:,.*:,~ '.
3 ' : .
I
(, ,-.2'.
. .
: . ,?-' .
\? --
- i
. .
.~ .
, L .,
' !
. ,
. z
." P. ,
d.. . .
?
T ~ . o d C o s ~
!
Thus very little stitded garments &re used by the Indians prior to the coming-of the
1
Muslims. The use of scissors and the needle to cut aid sew up pieces of cloth to make dresses
I
come probablywith the Muslims. One finds great change in the style ofIndian costumeS under
i
Persian influence ever since. Abul Fazl in his A@-i ALbari refers to long bt of costqnes
prepared in the Mughal karksanas. He sap, "His Majesty (Akbar) has dmngd the nmes
i
of several ghrments, and invented new and pb terms. Akbar afE&ed change d f d o n
by ordering court dress to be made with a round skirt to be tied qn the right sidede~Thrcmghbut
the Mughal period, one of the most fancied svticlesof costume was a path (girdle) into WE*
the ceremonial da@a (sword) was slippqd."
! ! yT1.3 ~7" .
Today, modern Indip is filled with diversity of dresses. Rajput women wear voluminous
gbgara, brief chdi and orhna;the tight pyjamas and long kurta is worn by U.P. Muslim
I
women, sPhrrarandLamaez by Punjabi women. But saree is the traditional andmost common
of the hdian dress worn by a peasant woman to a most modem urban My. Its worn in almost
all parts of India. But specific regions have their own style of tying it - Coorg womes will
.
,
tie it in an entirely different manner than a Maharashtrian women. Similar is the We with .I
Gujdirati, Bengali orasamRse w e of tyingsames a r d . In Bihp and W.P. d e d wg mc 9
wear a veil over the head as a sign of modesty. One hn$be. wt d y &onal variations in the
'
style d tying sarees aroun$ but the length of the sarees too differed from place to phw. ''
Maharashtra women weax nine gaz s a r ~ while mees of South India varies from seven ta ten ;
yards in length. In the North saree wvies from 5 to 6 yards. Generally in MaBrrr85htr;a and
South India (except Kyala) mapn draw pl e d h the rear h u g h the iqp. Ih indhra
Pradeish for the wedding rituals the pleats are &m Behind and tacked ifl st Wg svalrit. The,
1
Beqerli women displays the decorative eros$wke border, half in front and W&i the'Erip.
. In North India and Gujarat the border shows wholly ort tke f i on~. The b t
- - i n t o t h e p e t i ~ ~ t . T h e S a o ~ ~ ~ m e ~ a f g i h a r ~ ~ ~ y a r d s e r e e ~ d ~ t o f r r I I j w t ~ m
I
the knee. The saree d m not go dver the and p q fl the right b a t 6 expied.
m
Generally speaking, bride wear red c u i d ~ ~ s ~ , prefer&lyBim=asi. Now-a-days gb&ma
- is also in fashion and lirben girk like EO wear richly adorned gbgba and &mi
I
brides wear bright wlour rishly embroidered sahr-kam- with embroidtx
Similarly, M& ?xide &o p r h
Handk* - ContinW
Ka s M women wear salwar and long tunic (pk&n). A deemless jacket of embroidered
and Change
velvet of a dark shade is d o n a l l y used over Lhe pheraa. A scarf similar to the oralna
c ~ m p h ~ ~ o u e f i t . W o r n ~ ~ ~ ~ t a c l f ~ " d ~ o ~ ~ $ . Abkc apwl t 8' h
embi&rykithetypi;calbread-dress. I t i s i r , o~f ot a bdc t e towedaveilatherwedding.
c r f ~ M + a n d % d o W a r e ~ ~ , b t r ~ & h d ~ & e s s ~ a ~ t
The Hindu bridai % l r t w c c i m m Ww h t h e M ~ a p
. The 10s ghe m an b i ~ a f p t a ; l s a p p u l a r i n ~
. ,
Costumes of India:
c) GPrbmPli Girl
b)K~mnuntFormcr .
. . Costumes of India: a) Wo w n frbm Spin b) KnmP@ F-r c) Gprhrr.U Oirl
Traditionally men wear dboti, kurta and c-r gathered pyj-, short m, himgis,
sherwani, acbakan, pugree (turban), cap, etc. But under Western influence both men and
women's fashions have undergone a change. Suit* and English coat has taken place of Indian
shemanis. For casual wear bush-shirt is a frrm favourite. Guls too like to wear'dkirts and
trousers.
24.5 TEXTILE POLICY AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
Today handloom industry is the largest sector. It accounts for nearly 30 per cent of the total
textile production in the country. There are about 3.8 million handlooms and about 10 million
people depend on them. Tbus, with such vast stakes involved, naturally, this sector has to
attract the prime attention of the Government of India. Today, handloom sector is an
important component of the policy of 'self sufficiency.'
In 1949, for tht first time systematic attempts are taken by the government to develop the
handloom sect01 with the aim i) to provide economic stability to the artisans, and ii) to make
the handloom products available for export to earn foreign exchange. As a result All India
Handloom Board, the Handicrafts Board and the Khadi and Village Industries Commission
are set up. Cooperative Units we also set up in which membership is extended to the
craftsmen. Modern research and design laboratories are established to supplement the work
of the craftsmen. In almost all the prime cities Central Handicraft Emporium and
Emporiums of state governments ara set up.
Successive five year plans provided support to the handloom sector. As a result the plan
outlay has gone from Rs. 11.10 crores, during the 1st plan to Rs. 168 crores for the seventh
plan. In the textile policy 1978,1981,1985 handlooms got the primary importance. The 1981
textile policy aimed at (i) to achieve the maximum possible growth of the handloom sector,
and (ii) employment generation and raising the standard of living of small weavers and revival
of dormant looms as well as their modernisation. The 1985 policy further added (i)
introduction of technical innovations in the looms used by the weavers to improve the
productivity and the quality of production, and (ii) transfer of technology from research
institutions to the actual weavers.
Parliament has passed the handlooms act in 1985. It resulted in the establishment of three
regional enforcement offices at Delhi, Pune, and Coimbatore. It also launched an intensive
programme for publicity and promotion. As a result of these policies in 1992-93 38 lakh
working looms produced 47180 lakh metres of cloth while exports wen1 to 1033.27 crores in
1992-93 as against 841 crores in 1990-91.
For the promotion and development of silk industry separate Central Silk Board (CSB) was
constituted in 1949. Uptil now CSB has established two research instiiutes for mulberry in
Mysore and Berhampur and one for tasar at Ranchi. Besides, in almost all the silk producing
states regional research stations are set up along with the extension centres to transtate the
fruits of the research into the fields. To accelerate the silk production a National multi-crore
seri-culture project with the aid of World Bank and Swiss government is presently working
(1989-90 to 1995- 96). As a result of governments' efforts silk production increased from
10653 metric tons in 1988-89 to 11863 metric tons in 1991-92.
But still lot more is to be done to protect and develop this sector. Research shows that minor
modifications in machines and processes can increase the productivity upto 50 per cent.
Therefore, there is need to concentrate on research to improve the quality and productivity
I
of handlooms. Besides, in spite of the fact that number of Cooperatives and Corporations
have emerged, weavers have to largely depend on brokers/middlemen for marketing their
goods and obtaining raw material. Sericulturists face more problems in marketing their
I cocoons for they are forced to sell the cocoons at the prevailing prices, as the moth emerges
piercing out of the cocoon on the ninth or tenth day of the cocoon formation thus rendering
the cocoon useless. Still more is to be done to ensure that the real profit be reaching the
weavers. Weavers also face credit problems. They need to get, both, short term and long
term loans on easy terms. For this purpose though in 1983 NABARD is set up. But, these
schemes have yet to reach the weavers. Even the proper costing of their products need to be
scientifically done. For sericulture there is need to get better foreign variety seeds to improve
the quality of the silk.
24.6 TEXTILES, COSTUMES AND TOURISM
Today, tourism, textiles and costumes are closely linked. One can not separate cultural
tourism and textiles. You will find special visits of tourists are arranged to famous textile
centres to give them first hand knowledge about the traditional methods of weaving and
I
printing in India.
Besides, special interest tourlpackages are also organised to traditional weaving centres.
and Chauge
Specific crafts museums (for details see Unit-20, one such is in Delhi) are established where
the artefacts are displayed. The famous Calico museum of Ahmedabad, where rare art
pieces relating to costumes, textiles, and textile technology, artisans' tools, etc. are preserved,
is an important place of tourist attraction.
Handloom is the present day craze. In each tourism promotional brochures textiles of the
particular region forms the foremost place. Even the foreign tourist who come to visit India
love to buy Indian handwoven textiles. Increasing demand of Indian handwoven textiles in
the world market is an ample proof of the interest taken by foreign tourists in Indian textiles.
When a tourist visits a place, the first thing helshe would like to do is to roam in the market
and enjoy watching local costumes and textiles. You can see foreigners (specially women)
attempting to fold sarees around. The increase in the textile demand during the tourist season
is the clear indicator that tourist is attracted towards the local costumes and textiles. You
must have, as a tourist, shown interest in the regional and local costumes and cloth at the
places visited. Tourist love to take textile pieceslgarments, etc. as souvenir for their friends
and relatives.
Check Your Pogress-4
r
1) Examine the changes brought about in the Indian costumes during the medieval period.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Discuss the problems faced by handloom sector.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) What role can the textile industry play for the promotion of tourism?
LET US SUM UP
India is perhaps one of the most ancient civilizations with a tradition of textile production.
India is famous for her ikat (Orissa, Andhra Pradesh), bandhani (Gujarat, Rajasthan),
Masoria (Rajasthan), jamdani (U.P., Bengal) fabrics., The most ancient techniques used by
the Indian weavers is resist dye. Both yarn resist (ikat) and tie-dye (bandhani) were known
to them. Besides, block printing was also done. Indian jamdanis can also be traced back to
ancient period. With Turkish and Iranian contact certain new features were introduced in
the Indian textiles. Kashmiri woollen industry with its twill-tapestry owes entirely to the
Turkish immigrants. Kalarnkari too has great Persian influences. These outride contacts
- influenced the style of designs too. India is also rich in its embroidered clothing. One would
find large variety of embroidery done in various parts of India from fine cikan of Lucknow
to applique of Kutch, etc. In spite of such rich tradition of textile production one would still
find the weavers' loom used is very primitive in technique (pit loom). In the North-East back
strap loom is prevalent which makes the weaving highly uneconomical. Government is taking
special interest to develop handloom sector. Many research laboratories, corporative, etc.
are set up; credit facilities on easy terms are made available; but still lot more is to be done.
As for Indian costumes, interestingly Indians continued to show their preference for
unstitched costumes for long. A change is, however, visible when Indians came in direct
contact of the Muslims during the medieval period. Another phase of change in the costume
style came with the coming of the Europeans.
24.8 KEYWORDS
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - -
Azarak : resist printed fabric from Kutch and Sind; see Sub-sec. 24.3.3
Ashwali : Silk sarees woven,in Ahmedabad and Surat
Bandhani : tie-and-dye fabric; see Sub-sec. 24.3.3
Bakhia. : embroidery on fine muslin by the short inverted satin stitch so as
to create a shadow of opaque on the face of the fabric
andh ha : ikat of Orissa
: lit. garden - an all over darn stitch embroidery from Punjab
Chope : holbein stitch embroidery of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan
Gajji : satin
Garad : natural colour silk
Himroo : a similar variety of mashru of mixed silk and cotton but with a
I texture that is almost as fine as muslin
yo,
Ikat
Jali
Jamewar
Kani
Kimkhab
Murri and Phande :
Mashru . .
Moga
tie-and-dye yarn woven to make a pattern; see Sub-sec. 24.3.3
embroidery done on netting created by pushing aside the warp and
the weft of the material by needle
woven woollen Kashmir shawl with an all over pattern; see Sub-Sec.
24.3.3
embroidery done on calico by a combination of fine applique and
taipchi
multiple weft patterned Kashmir.shaw1
patterning of cloth with dyes and use of pen
gold brocade
embroidery on muslin by means of extremely fine knots created
minute satin stitches
r-r
a mixed variety of striped cotton and silk weave. The basic warp
is of silk and the woof or weft is of various coloured cottons. Lit.
share (legal). The wearing of pure silk fabric at prayers is
prohibited among Muslims. Hence this fabrick was introduced
golden coloured silk of Assam
Mordant : Dyeing technique in which the design is applied to the cloth in
and Change
chemicals which, when immersed in other chemicals bring out the
desired colour
Masoria : fine net like cotton cloth of Kota, Rajasthan
Pashmina : fine quality sheep wool extracted from pashm sheep
Patola : double ikat of Patan, see Sub sec. 24.3.3
Pachedi : long cotton dhoti with coloured cross border worn in Saurashtra
Pile Carpets : technique of carpet making with the help of loops made on the
surface of the fabric
Sarong :
a shorter length of cotton (or silk) cloth worn around the breast
below the arm pits, raching halfway between knee and ankle
Shahtoosh : kind of quality wool, from the undercoat of mountain goats
tanchoi : silk brocade, orignally woven in Surat
tantair : cotton
taipchi : embroidery done on muslin in the simple darn stitch
n
1)
Differentiate between two different varity of silks. See Sub-Sec.24.3.1
2) See Sub-Sec.24.3.2 I
n
1) See Sub-Sec.24.3.3 i(a)
2) See Sub-Sec.24.3.3 ii(c)
3) i) Punjab ii) Lucknow iii) Kashmir iv) Bengal v) Hyderabad and Aurangabad
rIIIl
1) See Sub-Sec.24.3.4
2) Discuss the process involved in making wool from sheeps' hair. See Sub-Sec.24.3.6.
APPENDIX
-
TEXTILES ACROSS THE COUNTRY
Appplique and :
Rampur (U.P.); Kutch, ~aurashtra (Gujarat); Pipli (Orissa); Bengal; Bihar, Andhra
patch work Pradesh; and Tamilnadu
Ari Bharat : Gujarat
(Embroidery)
Ashwali : Ahmedabad Sarees
Bagh : Punjab
(Embroidery)
Baluchari : Baluchar (Bengal)
Sarees
Bandhani : Jamnagar,.Bhuj, and Mandvi (in Kutch); Jodhpur, Jaipur, and Sikar (in Rajasthan)
(tie and dye)
Bedspreadsand : Haryana
rough coarse cloth
Blankets : Garhwal and Kumaun (in U.P; gudma and thulma variety of blankets are produced here);
Amritsar (Punjab)
Carpets : Darjeeling (West Bengal); Chamba and Sangla (Himachal Pradesh); Warangal and Eluru
(Andhra Pradesh); Obra (Bihar); Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh);Panipat (Haryana);
Palampur, Amritsar (Punjab); Srinagar (Kashmir); Mirzapur (U.P.)
Cikankari : Lucknow (U.P)
Chope (Embroidery) : Haryana
Dhanekhel : BengalSarees
Garad : Murshidabad (Bengal silk) sarees
Himroo : Aurangabad (Maharashtra); Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh)
Jamdani : Tanda and Banaras (U.P.); Dacca (Bengal)
(Brocade)
Kalamkari : Masulipatnam (Andhra Pradesh)
Kantha : Bihar and Bengal
(Embroidery)
Karalakudi : Kerala
(silk sarees)
Kota sarees : Village Kaithon (Kota, Rajasthan)
Kodalikuruppur :
Thanjavur (Tamilnadu); it is specially produced for the consumption of Thanjavur royal
sarees family
Moga Silk : Assam (Sualkonchi is the major centre of moga silk production)
~oi ka l mur u : Karnataka (with ikat patterns)
sarees
Pachedis (Lungis) : Saurashtra and North Gujarat
and Change
Patola : Patan
(ikat Patterns)
Pochampalli :
Pochampalli village (today the whole Nalgonda district expertise in ikat weaving)
(ikat patterns)
Phulkari : Punjab
(Embroidery)
Sarongs : North-East (Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh)
Saugandhi sarees :
Madurai (Tamilnadu ; produced for the consumption of Saurashtratrian community
settled at Tamilnadu)
Shantipur : Bengal
Sodagiri : Pethapur (Gujarat)
Prints
South Cotton.sams : Nagercoil, Coimbatore, Salem and Madurai (in Tamilnadu); Ar i , Puddukottai,
Armur, Narayanpet, Siddipet, Sangareddy, Peddapuram, Wanaparti, Oadwal, and
Ponduru (in Andhra Pradesh)
Tanchoi : Surat (Gujarat now its production is closed down here); Banaras (U.P.)
Tantair : Bengal
Sarees
Telia rumals : Andhra Pradesh (it has great demand in Gulf Countries)
(with ikat patterns)
i
WOOLLEN SHAWLS
Shahtoosh : Kashmir
Pashmina : Kashmir (Dhusa)
Pankhis : Garhwal and long PashminaKurnaun (U.P) shawl)
Jamewar ' : Kashmir, Amritsar (Punjab)
Tie-and-dye : Saurashtra and Kutch (Gujarat)
shawl
Checked and : Kinnaur, Lahul, Spiti and Kulu in Himachal Pradesh
plains shawls
Thick Weed : Garhwal and Kumaun (U.P.)
Shawls
- IDENTITY FORMATION
Structure:
0 bjectives
Introduction
What is a Tribe ?
What is Identityl
Types of Identity
Formation of Tribal Identity
Tourism's Need To Understand Identity
Let Us Sum Up
Answers to Check Your progress Exercises
A Kaqjar Tribal
25.1 OBJECTIVES i.
The objective of this Unit is to make you aware'of the following:
what is identitj? ,
the dynamics of identity formation,
the appreciatibn of difference,
respect for the others, sense of 'identity', and
- 0
learning to handle the complications arising out of identity differences.
251 INTRODUCTION ?
Our understanding of ourselves and our notions of others affect our every day interaction
with people at a11 levels. A sense of the self and of the other based on national, linguistic,
religious, tribal or family identities is ofgreat importance in the field ofTourism, a profession
which deals with people rather than machines or abstract ideas.
I
We take our identities, ourssense of the self for granted. We knowwhere we come from, what
language we speak, what our customs are, in other words all our social actions stem from our
I
ability to know ourselves in relation to others..
However, this apparent simplicity of identitycan lead to enormouscomplioationsof historical
magnitude. In many ways, one of history's major contradictions or propelling forces have
been the fight for identity. Witnessall the conflicts between religiousgroups, linguistic groups
and even caste groups in India alone. Extended to the world, this problem is compounded.
Thus,a sense of identity is also an extremely sensitive issue. It is this sensitivity we must show
in our dealings with people ofdifferent regions in our countryand with visitors to our country.
This is what is important for anyone involved in the field of Tourism.
'' 252 WHAT IS A TRIBE?
,
Etymologically, the term tribe deriws it origin from the Roman word 'tribuzWmeaning three
divisions. .In the Western world, as also in India, the term tribe had totally different
connotation than what is prevalent now. The tribe was the highest political unit comprising
several districts which in turn were composed of clans. It occupied a definite geographical
area and exercised effective control over its people. It is believed that India derived its name
"Bharat" from the mighty Bharata tribe. With the growth of nationalism in Europe the term
tribe came to denote a race of people within a giwn temtory. Western writers on India,
genetally known as Orientalists, followed by some anthropologists andsociologists in India
now use the term tribe in that connotation.
- --
The popular name used for the t ri bal ~ in India are i Vaniati (castes of forest), Vanvasi
(inhabitants of forest), Pahari (Hill dwellers), Adivasi (first settlers), Anusuchit Jaqjati
(scheduled tribe),and so on.The term Anusuchit J qj at i is the constitutional name covering
all of them.
Tribal Cultures
An important question which follows - what exactly are the criteria for considering a human
group, a tribe ? Interestingly but sadly the anthropologists, sociologists, social workers,
administrators and such other people who have been involved with the tribes and their
problems are still not on the same wavelength on this matter. Lucy Mair calls it I h
independent political divison of a population with a common culture", while G.W.B.
Huntingford regards it as a "group united by a common name in which the members take
pride by a common language, by a common territory, and by a feeling that all who do not
share this nmeareoutSider!'Some Western writers even regard them "as an ethnicgroup,
geographically isolated or semi-isolated, identified with one particular temtory and having
distinct social, economic and cultural traditions and practices". However, by far the most
accepted definition in the Indian context has been offered by D.N. Majumdar. According to
him, "a tribe is a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous,with no specialisacon
of function, ruled by tribal oficers, hereditary or otherwise, united in language or dialect,
recognising social distances with other tribes orcastes,without any social obloquy attaching
to them, as it does in the caste structure, following tribal traditions, beliefs and customs,
illiberal of naturalization of ideas from alien sources, above all conscious of homogenity of
ethnic and territorial integration."
Another very important problem is - what should be the criteria and indices of tribal life ?
Scholars differ in their opinion in this regard. In the Indian context the best model is offered
by T.B. Naik. According to him,
1)
A tribe to be a "tribe" should have the least functional independence within.the
community.
2) It should be economically backward which means :
a) the full impact of monetary economyshould not be understood by its members,
b) primitive means of exploiting natural resources should be used, !
c) the tribe's economy should be at an under-developed stage, and
d) it should have multifarious economic pursuits.
3) There should be a comparative geographic isolation of its people from others.
4) Culturally, member of a tribe should have a common dialect, which may be subject to
regional variations.
5) A tribe should be politically organised and its community Panchayat should be an
influential institution.
6) The tribe's members should have the least desire to change. They should have a sort of
psychological conservatism making them stick to their old customs.
7) A tirbe generally has customary l aw and systemlr of dispensing justice.
?( 253 WHAT IS IDENTITY ? ,&-
What are the markers of identitfl How do we understand the concept of identit9 There are
several broad categories which are used normally in social science literature. We speak of
cultural identities,political identities, linguistic identities, gender identities, ethnic identities,
individual identities, professional identities,etc. These will be briefly explained hrther in the
next Section.
These groupmarkings, within which an individual normally defines himself, can and do
change over different historical periods or as societies evolve in relation to each other. For
example, the industrial revolution in England changed the way people identified themselves.
From being farmers, yeoman or serfs and nobility, modem England created the worker, the
industrialist and other professional identities.
Similarly, two hundred years of English colonialism created a modem Indian identity quite
separate from its traditional variant. When cultures come in contact with each other, they
also come in contact with a different value system and a different way of viewing the world.
.This implies that above all identity is not unchangeable. Identity formation must be viewed
as a dynamic process which changes with historical changes.
One significant way in which identity formation underwent a change historically was in the I
relationship between the individual and the society. In traditional, pre-industrial societies, it I
I '
was the community (whether based on cast;, religion or anyother identity) which formed:the
basic unit of identity in the society. A person was known primarily by his membership of the
community that he belonged to. Individual identities did not acquire a position ofeentrality.
But the modem industrialised world has led to the creating ofan atomisd society, where the
individuals constitute the basic units of identity, though other forms of identities also persist.
Another important aspect of understanding identity is relational. One is aware of one's
identity only in relationship to the other. This operates at all levels of identity. Be it national
or individual. For example, Indian identity exists only in relation to British or French or some
other national identity. Similarly religion's identity exist mainly in relation to each other.
Identity is, therefore, not just a simple sense of the self. A study of identity formation means
examining the different processes through which this sense of the self is arrived at and how
it manifests itself.
Thus, we may take the following as a working definition: By identity we mean a tenera1
consensus based on commonly accepted social customs, taboos and wa ~ s of life that bind
together and mark groups of people and individuals therein.
EI I
1. Define tribes in 60 words.
4
, Writ6 a short paragraph about your understaning of identity in 50 words.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
: 25A TYPES OF IDENTITY ' J?
To complete our picture of wh,at is identity other aspects of identity need to be explored.
This is the multi-layered nature of identity. Each individual is a sum-total of the many layers
of his identity. Sometimes, the different layers can come in conflict with each other. And at
other times, one type may predominate. It would be safe to look upon identities as inherant,
inherited and acquired. Certain identities are inherent in us (like those based on gender and
ethnicity); we inherit certain others (like those based on language, religion, caste and
nationality). Inherited identites are not chosen by us, but they were chosen by our ancestors,
we simply inherit them. Unlike inherent identities, it is alwappossible for us to change them
: we can change our language, religion, or nationality. Apart from these, we also acquire
certain identities (like those related to profession and political associations), these are
voluntary identities and we choose them.
Let us look briefly upon some of these identities.
Identity Fomatio
~ri bal Cu~hrres National Identity
Our sense of belonging to one nation state with certain common characteristics forms o"r
.
national identity. When we meet a French, Dutch or Chinese person, we identify ourselws '
as Indian. Thisability to call ourselves Indian in relation to people of other~countriesjs our .'
National Identity. Thus, when we introduce ourselves as Indian, the other may assume
several things about us. For example, that we come from Asia, that we speak Hindi or some
other regional language, that we may be Hindustani and vegetarian. These are then our '
national markers by which other nationals identify us.
I
-
Religious and Ethnic Identity
The system of religious beliefs with its accompanying norms and values, its customs and
taboos, forms our religious identity. Membes of a religion are tied together through a
common set of beliefs, social practices, rituals and even superstitions. Sometimes, in
multi-religious societies, different religious identites can be a source of clash and conflic!.
Although the power ofreligion has declined with the onset of industrialisation, the religious
identity continues to contend with other forms of modem identities for the allegiance of the
people.
Closely related to religious identity is ethnic identity. Ethnicity is a broad form and may be
defined as an identity related to races on large number of people grouped together based on
common traits and customs.The Kurds in Iraq or Red Indians in America can be called ethnic
groups.
The relationship between religious and ethnic identity is complex and overlapping. Though
by and large they coincide with each other but not always. An Indian Muslim or a black
Muslim (or an Indian Christian and a white Christian) belong to the same religion but
different ethnic identities. Similarly followers of different religions may be a part of the same,
ethnic stock.
Gender Identity
+
Gender identity is based fundamentally on biological differences but historically, issues of '
labour, morality and value systems have also become crucial in assigning roles to the gender
groups in the society. Apart from our individual identities, we also carry with us a sense of
our being male or female. It is important to remember that gender identity is not just a
biological one but has also been shaped by social and historical conditions. For example, a
modem Indian women today has far greater freedom than she enjoyed in traditional times.
Today a woman can also be a pilot or a mountaineer. Men and mme n are also learning to
respect each other on equal basis.
Family Identity ,
So far we focussed on identities based on gender, territoryand ethnicity. It is time now to
move from larger to smaller level of identity formation. Family identity is a personal identity
which is formed within the familyunit. One's surname is not the only thing one inherits from
the family. We also inherit value systems and cultural habits which determine our place in the
society, and shape our identity.
Professional Identity
The mode world is ofteli described as a professional world. When we chose our disciplines
7 of study or he manner in which we are going to support ourselves in life, we are essentially
choosing for ourselves one or the other identity. This is an important marker of people.
People introduce themselves as lawyers, doctors, textile worker, tourist guide, e t c Our
professions to a large extent determine the routines of our lives, our social interactions, and
our life styles.
Individual Identity
Despite the fact that each individual's identity is made up of different layers, as explained
above, each one of us also carries a sense of oneself as individuals. This individuality
determines our persoqalities and identifies us by our distinct character, traits. This can also
be called one's Persomlity. It is often the individual identity which faces the most conflicts
in relation to other social identities. The individual identity can face a conflict with his
religious or his family identity vis-a- vis his national identity.
Thus, we see that we can not really speak of identity in the singular. Instead identity must be
seen as a merging of different layers of identification.
?. ! '
Identity ~ormni c
255 FORMATION OF TRIBAL IDENTITY k-
B
The formation of identity is essentially a question of perception by the other. Our identity lies
in a manner in which we are percieved by others. This implies, when applied to tribes, that 1
the formation of tribal identity is dependent upon their perception by the non-tribals. The
Issue of the formation of tribal identity, therefore, involves mainly three questions :
what is the process through which tribes are formed ?
what are the constitutive elements which shape the identity formation of the tribes?,and
What is the relationship between the {ribis and the mainstream 'civilisation? In other
words, what are the significant marker which distinguish the tribal identity from the
mainstream 'civilisation' zones? In this Section we will focus on these questions.
Tribal identity is a focus of ethnic identity. This means that ethnic homogeneity, along with
other factors, characterises a tribe. Tribe represent a historical continuity and exclusiveness.
Groups which had been living together without losing or diluting their specific charateristics
were formed into tribe. The formaion of the tribal identity, as indeed that of tribes, was a
product of economic, ecological and technological isolation. In other words, human groups
of a similar ethnicity which remained isolated than the rest of the world through geography,
or the use of a specific primitive technology or through economic specificity were formed into
a tribe and came to acquire a tribal identity.
Before we take up the other question, it is important to remember that tribes are a distinct
category at two levels. The first level of demarcation is with the 'civilisational zones' or the
mainstream. But tribes can also be distinguished from each other. The 400 Indian tribes,
covering a population of about 50 million people, are different not only from the tribal
universe but also within themselves. There can be many parameters for classify~ng tribes and
distinguishing one from the other. The administrative constitutional classification is based
on the criteria of educational attainment and economic and social status. Likewise,
anthropologists would seek to classify on the basis of :
mode of production
extent of distance from mainstream civilisation
geographical spread
I language
r ethnic roots
i
i
religion
i kinship network, and ,
i occupational structure.
I
f
It is on the basis of either oft he above criteria that a tribe can be distinguished from the other.
For instance, N.K. ~ o s e , a prominant scholar,divides various tribal sockties into hunters and
gatherers, animal herders, shifting cultivators and settled agriculturists. Similarly, other
i
divisions can be made on ecological, social, linguistic or religious basis. It is, therefore,
important to remember that the tribal identity does not preclude the'existence of various
other identitieswitbin.The tribaluniverse isa plural universe and one tribe can be as different
from the other tribe as from the non-tribal zones.
However, in spite of the fact that tribes in India represented an assortment c.f communities,
different in s i x, mode of livelihood and social organisation, certain features characterised
almost all tribal societies. For instance, all tribes are marked by a survival and durability of
collective identities. AU the tribes have been generally homogeneous, undifferentiated and
unstratified societies compared to the mainstrem zones. There has also been the absence of
a marked division of labour. The tribes have also had a relatively low level of technological
and material base. These are some of the specific features which have shaped the formation
of tribal identity. These elements have also survived long periods of interaction with the
mainstream.
--
Tribal Cultures
The relationship between the tribes and the mainstream has taken mainly three forms :
isolation, interpretation and absorption. The tribes located at the periphery and not
surrounded by a non- tribal presence in any proximity, remained untouched by any kind'of
interaction with mainland. Their relationship with others was marked by an almost complete
isolation. Onge, Jarawa and other indigenous tribes of the Andaman islands were some of
these tribes.
Various oth'er tribes survived their basic features but incoporated some ofthe social practices
of the mainstream cultures as a result of long period of interaction. For instance, it has been
demonstrated by anthropologists that Baiga and Kond tribes of peninsular India share the
same structure of kinshiplas the present day Tamilnadu, the centre of an ancient civilisation
with one of the oldest literary languages in the world. Similarly, it has been found that many
tribes of Rajasthan and Gujarat have no separate language of their own, but speak the
language of the region where they are located. These tribes obviously lost their languages
and adopted the lanbwage of the region as a result of interaction with the mainstream. But
the adoption of new language did not lead to the loss of their tribal id.entity. Likewise,
adhering rigidly to endogamy has been a feature of almost all Indian tribes, though it is not a
universal characteristic of tribes elsewhere. Endogamy is a trait which Indian Tribes share
with the Indian non - tribal mainland, though it will be difficult to argue that this common
trait has removed their diff&ences. But it does demonstrate the interpretration of the two
identities.
Yet another model of interaction has produced the absorption for the fusion of the tribal
identity into the dominant religion or culture. This has happened through the assimilation of
the tribes into mainly the Hindu religion and has been called by anthropologists as the 'Hindu
method of tribal absorption'. The tribes affected by this form of interaction are the ones in
the interior hills and forests where the influence of civilisations other than Hindiusm was
absent. The Bhil, Munda, Santhal, Juang and various other tribes fall into this category.,This
fusion took place in a variety ofways - both socio-economic and political. When the material '
base of a tribe was endangered because of increase in populati~n or any other reason, the
tribe tended to move closer to the mainstream society in proximity in order to a-quire
economic security. This often led to the placement of much tribes at the lowest rank of the
caste hierarchy. Similarly, the adoption of Hindu belief and practices by some tribes brought
them into the orbit of the Hindu order. Likewise, the rise of tribal dynasties to political power .
(like the Chandela tribe) invariablyled to the 'Hinduisation'of the top layer of the tribesman.
This integration into the Hindu order, which occurred at the top, also in due course of time
penetrated to the bottom of the tribe. It is important to note that these absorptions did not
completely efface the tribal identity but altered and redefined it significantly.
The formation of tribal identity has acquired a new impetus in modem times. Speciallyafier
1950 when the Indian constitution was adopted. It included a list of the scheduled tribes
which was revised in 1976. With the offic-11 acknowledgement provided by the constitution,
the tribal identity ha's acquired a definiteness and a cohesion which it did not possess earlier.
Also, the dividing line between certain tribes and caste groups which was quite blurred in the
past has now become sharp and clear. Moreover, the constitutional initiatives, the legal order
and the political incentives (reservaion in jobs, etc.) have also helped in the revolution of all
India tribal indentity of various tribal groups geographically distant from one another. In
other words, tribesas far apart asNaga,Baiga and Toda have nowacquired a common interest
in' maintaining and strengthening an all India tribal identity. Finally there have also been
attempts at a retribalisation i.e. efforts at regaining the tribal identity. For example, the
Mahato tribe ofchhotanagpur was classified asa tribe in 1921 but moved closer to the Hindu
order and consequently got declassified in the census of 1931. But they are again trying to
get themselves classified !s a tribe. It is indeed a paradox that with the modemisation of
India after independence, the proportion of tribal population to total population has gone
from 5.30 per cent in 1951 to 7.76 per cent in 1981.
Tribal communities perceive their identification at local or regional level i.e. within the
existing boundary of statelunion territory; at the inter-regional level - across the adjoining
state boundaries; at the national level i.e. over a large part of the country; while a few identify
themselves trans-nationally (for further details see Unit 26 of this Block).
The following table clearly shows that most of the tribals identify themselves locally; while
few have affiliation with the tribals of other regions; and very few tribals have their identity
at transnational level.
TRIBAL COMMLTNITIES PERCEIVING IDENTIFl[CATION
Tribal communities also identify themselves by various markers. Each tribal community in
general has one identification marker or other. North-East India stands out in this respect,
compared to other areas. A flag is the identification marker of Khasi Khperian of
Meghalaya; Naga-Kabui of Nagaland, and Dalua communities of Orissa. Central India uses
taSbeing more frequently as a marker. Tattoeing of males is reported among Nahal of
Madhya Pradesh, Gond-Maria, Gond-Rajgond of Maharashtra, Naga of Nagaland; while
tribal communities of Gond, Bhil- Bhilala, Oraon, Pasi Nahal of Maharashtra, Lavana of
Orissa, etc. follow practice of tattoeing females. North-East India has a large number of
communities with female dress as the identification marker. Male and female shawls in
Manipur and Nagaland are important identification markers. Male and female shawls of
various patterns and colours as identification markers are common among the Naga groups
of Manipur-Naga-Maram, Naga- Kabui, Naga-Mao, Hmar ofManipur; Khasi ofMeghalaya;
Naga sub-groups of Nagaland; Kami of Sikkim, etc.
AtLocalIavel
Gond-Bada Maria
of Maharashtra
Naga - Maram and
Tarao of Manipur
Dalu, Man of
Meghalaya
Naga-Angami
Naga-Ao of
Nagaland
Bagota of Orissa
Lepcha, Newar of
Si kkh
Jarawa, Ongeaof
Andaman and Nicobar
Islands
Tangsa-Lungphi,
Tangsa-Yongkuk of
Arunachal Pradesh
Manikfan, Thakrufan
of Lakshdweep
MagMagh, Mizo-
Hualngo of Mizoram
4 25.6 TOURISM'S NEED TO UNDERSTAND IDENTITY2
Tourism is an industry which is both service oriented and deals with a vast number ofdifferent
people From diverse backgrounds and regions. This very nature ofTourism as a profession
demands the ability to deal adequatelywith any situation wbich may arise. A conflict caused
by identity problems can lead to irreparable damage to any Tourism outlet.
At Regional b e 1
Keot of Assam
Gangle of Manipur .
Mizo-Biate of
Meghalaya
Bhotia, Bhujel of
Warli of Dada Na par
Haveli
MagMagh. M:7c
Lushar of M r - .
I
Tourism as an industry has to pay attention to the differences between people of different
cultures and regions. For example, the habits of an Arab tourist will be quite different from
that of an European or an Indian. Theu eating habits, their forms of greeting, their language,
all of which identify them as one nationality, or one regional group, will be different. India
alone is a diwrse microcosm and the languages, food and dress of people from one region is
very different from the other.
At Trans-National Level
Mims
Tribes of Meghalaya
Tribes of Sikkim
Tribes of Tripura
,
Thus by understanding the markers of identity, we will be better equipped to handle our
clients. Sensitivity towards the cultural and religious practices and a respect of difference is
an essential ingredient towards providing a high quality of service.
1
1)
Name different type of identities.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
2)
Discuss the chief identity markers of North- eastern tribals.
25.7 LET US SUM UP 3
We can trace the existence of tribal communities as early as vedic period. However, at that
time tribe had larger connotation. Earlier it was a highest political unit occupying a difinite 'If
geographical area. During the later period it started denoting a race ofpeople within a given
territory. To sum up identity formation, identityis not a pre-given unchangable essence, it is
a dpamic process and change over different historical and social periods. Secondly, identity
is relational and help us form social ties. Thirdly, a sense of identity is multi-layered and can
be broken down into several macro levels. We can broadlyassociate tribal identitywith ethnic
identity. Tribal communities perceive identification at loca1,regional and transnational level.
There are many parameters of classifying tribes and distinguishing one from the oth6r on the
basis of mode of producation, geographical spread, occupational structure, ethnic roots,etc.
25.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES '&
Check Your Progress -1
r
1) See Section 25.2
2) Identity can be understood as a complex process through which the individual arrives at
herhis sense of self. See further Section 25.3
1) See Section. 25.4
2) See Section 25.5
UNIT-26 HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHICAL
SPREAD .
Structure
26.0 Objectives
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Cultural Pattern
. 26.3 Geographical Spread:Tribal Zones
263.1, Northern and North-Eastern
2633' _ Central
2633 . South-Western
263.4 . Scattered
26.4 History, Language and Ethnicity
26.4.1 Northern and North-eakern Tribes
26.42 Central Indian Tribes
26.43 South-Western Tribes
26.4.4 Scattered Tribes
265 Let Us Sum Up
A DaMa Tribal Girl, Gqjarat.
Appendix
( 26.0 OBJECTIVES ;
i,
This Unit attempts to analyse history and geographical spread of tribes. After reading this
/
unit you uould know about :
cultural spread of tribes, and
,
the tribal culture with respect to its history and geographical spread in the Northern,
NorthiEastem, Central, South-Westem, and scattered zones, and
1 languhges and ethnicity of a few tribes.
{ 26.1 INTRODUCTION -+
The tribal groups are presumed to form the oldest ethnological sector of the national
population. Tribal population of India is spread all over the country. However, in Haryana,
Punjab,Chandigarh, DeUli,Goa and Pondicherry there exist very little tribal population.The
rest of the states and union territories possess fairly good number of tribal population. You
wiU find that forest and hilly areas possess greater concentration of tribal population; while
in the plains their number isquite less. Madhya Pradesh registers the largest number oftribes
(73) followed by Anrnachal Pradesh (62), Orissa (56), Maharashtra (52), Andhra Pradesh
(43), etc. The vast variety and numbers of Indian tribes and tribal groups have\ always been
a matter of great social and literary discourse for the past several decades.
In this Unit our ainiis to have an in-depth studyofonlya fewdistinct and historically important
tribes. Here our purpose is to acquaint you with various tribes found in India with respect to
its history and geographical spread.
( 262 CULTURAL PATIERN '
The tribes in India broadly belong to three stocks namely, the Negritos, the Mongoloids,and
the Mediterranean. The Negritos are believed to be the earliest inhabitants of the Indian
peninsula who were unable to defend themselves and were gradually forced to recede before
I the invading bordes of Indo-Aryans, Mongoloids, etc. coming horn the North-West and
I North-East. These tribes were not only superior to them in numerical strength but also in
mechanical equipment. These tribals took shelter in the mountains and thick forests where a
considerable number ofthem are still found and haw beenestimated to beabout ten million.
Those who were left behind in the plains gradually disappeared either by absorption or by
acculturation. Some tracts of them are still found among the tribals of the Andaman and
Nicnhar Islands known as the O n ~ e - the Great Andamane-se. the Sentinelese and the Jarwas
~ r i b d Cultures
and also in Kerala among the Kadars, the Irulars and the Paniyans. Theu identifyiogfeatures
t
Tibeto-Burman
i
f
6
iamese Chinese
The Mongoloid race is represented by the tribal people ofsub- Himalayan region. They may
be divided into t m categories, namely -the Palaeo MongoIoids and the Tibeto -Mongoloids.
The Palaeo Mongoloids are represented by the tribes living in Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland and Manipur. The Tibeto - Mongoloids are represented by the tribals living in
~11
Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. They are believed to have migrated from Tibet. They have
typical eyes and facial features. They speak Mon-Khmer and Tibeto-Burmese dialects.
The Mediterranean people form the bulk of the tribal population and are generally known
as the Dravidians. Dravidian is, however, the name of the language group spoken by these
people and has no ethnic significance. The tribes believed to be belonging to the Dravidian
race are found in the Chhotanagpur Plateau, Rajmahal Hills region,Arawlli ranges, Central
Vindhyachal, Deccan Plateau region and Nilgiri Hills. Dravidian language still survives not
only in Southern India where Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada are its leading
representatives, but also in Central India where its traces are found in the dialects spoken by
the Oraons,Gonds, Mundas,Malers,Khonds and other tribes. The Dravidiansare presumed
to be of two stocks, the Kolarians who speak a dialect called Mundari and the Dravidian
proper whose languages are represented by Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada. The
Mundas, Santhals, Oraons and other tribes inhabiting Chhotanagpur Plateau region are
considered to be of the Kolarian stock. The Gonds, Kondhs, and other tribes belonging to
the Dravidian stock are found in Central Vindhyachal and the Deccan Plateau regions.
f 263 GEOGRAPHICAL SPREAD: TRIBAL ZONES 3
In India there is almost a continuous belt of high tribal concentration starting from the
Western coast -from Thane district in Maharashtra passing through Surat and Dangdistricts
in Gujarat to Mayurbhanj in Orissa on the Eastern coast and Bihar. The chief concentration
is in Dhulia in Maharashtra; West Nimar, Betul, Chhindwara, Seeni, Mandla, Shahdol and
Sarguja in Madhya Pradesh; and Ranchi, Santhal Parganas-and Singhbhum district in Bihar.
Another long range of tribal belt is found in the North-East spreading over Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizo Hills, United Mikir and North Cachar Hills of Assam
and hilly regions of Manipur and Tripura. These belts are also linked up by a chain of pockets
7
of tribal concentration at Taluk or subdivisional levels. Tribal concentrations are also found
in Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh, Korapur, Bauch- Khandenals, and Agency tracts of
Orissa and Andhra Pradesh which are linked up with the Central belt by a chain of small
pockets oftribal concentration. The scheduled tribes live in exclusive pocketsof the territory,
upon which they have traditional ownership rights. In fact infringements of this traditional
right had led to many warfares in the past.
We can broadly categorise tribes into three major zones; while the fourth Sub-section cowrs
the miscellaneous tribes spread owr the scattered areas.
263.1 Northern and North-Eastern -3
In the mountain valleys and other areas of North-East, Indian tribes largely belong to
Mongolian social stock. The tribal people are distr~buted all over the sub-Himalayan region
,
and the mountain valleys in the North-East from Simla in the West to the Lushai hills and the
'
Mishmi track in the East which merge imperceptibly with those of Burma in the Sauth-East.
It covers Assam,Arunachal Pradesh,Meghalaya, Nagaland,Tripura, Manipur and Mizoram,
Eastern Jammu and Kashmu, Himachal Pradesh, Tarai areas of Uttar Pradesh and the .
mountaineous West Bengal.
14
History and Geographical Spmd
An Idu woman of Lohit ( No r t ha t ) A Khowa woman of KameG (North-East)
'
An Aqa couple, Kameng (North-East) An Adi woman of Siyang (North-East)
~ r i b d Ci~ltures Baro-Barokachari is numerically the strongest tribe in Assam then comes Miri and Mizo.
:
The hill districts, i.e., Mikir Hills and North Cachar Hills are predominantly inhabited by
scheduled tribes. In the plains Goalpara, Lakhimpur, Darrang and Kamrupdistricts possess
,<.,F <- , - 2 ',
fairly large number of scheduled tribes.
. V , .
, . . . .
. l i, i-.'
In Manipur, the highest distribution of scheduled tribes is found in Manipur west districts
followed by Manipur east'districts. The third highest position goes to ma nip,^ south districts.
North Manipur contains the lowest number of scheduled tribe population. The major tribes
inhabiting the region are Anal, Kabui, Gangte, Zarao, Moyan-Mansang, etc; In Meghalaya
the most important tribes are the Khasis, Garos and Jaintias. Mizos, Pawis-and Lakhers-are
of importance in Mizoram.
I
Nagaland, basically a tribal state, is inhabited by Nagas. In Himachal Pradesh Gaddi, Kinner,
Pangwaland Lahuli tribes are important. Gaddisseside exclusively on the snowyrange which
divides Chamba from Kangra. Kinners are settled in the frontier district of Kinnaur in
Himachal Pradesh. The Pangwals are the aboriginals of the Pangi region of the Chamba
district in Himachal Pradesh. The Lahulis inhabit the Lahul-Spiti region of Himachal
Pradesh. In Jammu and Kashmir there are a number of tribes specially in the region of
Ladakh (see appendix).
In U .P. declared scheduled areas are hills, Tarai Bhabar, and Southern U.P. The hill mne
is represented by the Jaunsari, Bhotia, and Raji tribes. Bhotias are a late introduction in the
scheduled tribes following the set back they suffered after Indo-China war. The eastern and
northern parts of Tarai Bhabar tract are inhabited by Tharu and Bu n tribes.
2632 Central )
In the Chhotanagpur Plateau, along the dividing line between peninsular India and
Indo-Gangetic basin, live many tribal communities like the Bhumij, Gond, Ho, Oraon,
.,
Munda, Santhal, Bhil, etc. They belong to Proto-Australoid group. This group occupy the
L ,,-/ mountain belt between Narbada and the Godavari - the central barrier that divides the north
. I ,, 3
from the Peninsular India has provided a shelter for these tribes from very ancient times. It
includes West Bengal, Southern Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and ~aharasht ra.
This region further extends to the Santhal Pargana (Bihar) in theeast,Hyderabad in the South
A Muria girl from Bastar
and Rajasthan and Gujarat with a strong Bhil population in the West.
In ~i har ' or aon, ~ u n d a , Chero, Parchaiya, Santhaland Asuras are very dominant. Banjaras,
Moghias and Sathiyas are important tribes of Rajasthan. They mostly inhabit the Thar desert.
Bhil is the most important tribe in Gujarat. Anal; Chiru-and Konkanas-are important tribes
; inhabiting Maharashtra.
Group of Bhils
The important tribes of Madhya Pradesh include Murias, Dorlas-and Bhils. The word ~ i r i a .
is used in Bastar for a tribesman. Murias reside in the Muria Hill and Abujhmar mountains.
Dorla is a tribe of south Bastar in Madhya Pradesh. The word Dorla, appears to have been
deriwd from the Telugu word Dora meaning Lord. The Koitars or Dorlas who reside in
south Bastar are very much influenced by Telugu Kojas ofGodavari area,who are generally
A woman : Orissa considered to be a sub-tribe of Gond. j
!
Mala and Savara tribes inhabit West Wngal. In Orissa,out ofthe 62Scheduled tribes,Bhuiya,
Baiga, Dharua, Gaaro, Ho, Koli, h d h a , etc. are more populous. The Baiga appears to be
a branch of the great Bhuiya tribe of Madhya Pradesh. Baiga means a sorcerer or medicine_
History and Geographical Sprea
man. The name Baiga also applies to anyone who serves as a village priest in the Central
Provinces.
i; ' *tP $-&. ..
- , a
;:
I * J w . h . C
b 2633 South-Western
I r - t
' j
In the hills and conwrging line of the western Ghats live the Chenchus, l a s , Kadars, K t , ! ' ! 4
li
Kurumbas, Jedas, etc. having Negrito, Caucasoid, arld proto-Australoid features. This C .i
group ischieflyconcentrated in the southern-most partsofthe Western Ghatsstretchingfrom
; .
).!
Vindhyas to Cape Cornorin. From the hct that they occupy the marginal areas and also from fJ
the records in the oldest Tamil literature of the Sangarn period, they appear to be one of the
F : ?
most ancient and primitive inhabitants of present day India. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kerala, and Tamilnadu hl l within this zone. Chenchus-and Lambadi are important tribes of
Andhra Pradesh. The Koragas are prominent in Karnataka and Kerala states. In Karnataka
Kuruba is another important tribe.
.- ? TS* .
Kurichiyas of WWynad, Malabar
*ma,
C Badaga Men (Nilgiri Hills)
C
Toda Men (Nilgiri hills)
Kota men (Nilgiri hills)
, 2634 Scattered Tribes j
here are various scattered tribal groups like the Andamanese and such other tribes af
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and other Union territories. The aborigines of the Andaman
Islands may be described as a race by themselves, and can be divided into two groups, i.e.,
Negrito stock which includes the Andamanese, the Onges and the Sentinelese. This group
is found in the Andaman group of Islands. The second group is Mongoloid in origin, includes
the inhabitants of Nicobar group of islands, i.e., the Shom Pens and the Nicobarese. The
aboriginal population belong to the Negrito stock and therefore has an affinity with the
Semangos and Sakais of Malaya, the Vedas of. Sri Lanka and other Negrito groups of
South-East Asia. It is believed that these aborigines migrated from the lower regions of
Burma. On their arrival at these islands, they moved to different part of the islands and very
likelyon account ofthe different types ofphysical environment theydeveloped,different traits.
The Jarawas are confined to the western part of the south, middle and north Andamans. The
Andamanese, who are extremely limited in number, live along the coastal areas. The Onges
inhabit the little Andaman and Rutland island; while the Sentinelese are found in the
Sentinel island.
The second group of islands lying south of the Andaman Islands is known as the Nicobar
islands inhabited by the Nicobarese and the Shom Pens. The Shom Pens of Nicobar islands
are confined along the eastern and south-eastem coast of Great Nicobar island. They are
also reported from the banks of Dagmar, Alexandra and Galathoa rivers respectively. Shom
Pens are divided into a number of small communities or septs. The Nicobarese inhabiting
these small islands are highlyunevenly distributed and only in the two islands, the Car Nicobar
and Chowra that the density of population is considerable. Nicobarese have Mongoloid
characters. They are also known as Holchu.
Check Your Progress- 1
n
1. Mention the important tribes of the Central zone. 1n what ways they are different from
thk tribals of the North-Eastern zone.
2. ,Write a note on the Shom Pens.
26.4 HISTORY, LANGUAGE AND ETHNICITY 4
In this Section we will trace the histroy of few major tribes inhabiting various regions.
26A.1 Northern and North-Eastern Tribes \
KOCH
Kochs are mostly settled in Garo hills of Meghalaya and neighbouring Assam. Kochs w r e
a dominant political force in ancient days. The very word Koochbehar derives from the word
Koch. Linguistically Kochs belong to Bodo group of tribes who speak the languages
belonging to Tibeto-Burman group. Racially, Koch belong to Mongoloid, Negrito, and
Dravidian stock. Kochs trace their origin to Rasan Mukprak Tari. From here they migrated
to Hajo. Hence they followed the course of Sonapur, Kersumbala and Garo Hills. During
the ancient period there were inall 18 clans, their number has now swelled to 132.
.
BOD0
It is the largest and major plain tribe of Assam. 1t is belie&d that theywere actually the ruling
sovereigns of India alongwith the Dravidians during pre-Aryan era and subsequently pushed
to the North-Eastem region by the Aryans. We get frequent references of these people in
all ancient Hindu Scriptures either as Kiratas, Danavas or Asuras.
They live in Khasi and Jaintia hills. They belong to Mon-Khmer group of languages of
Austro-Asiatic linguistic group. The most interesting feature of their dialect is that they
retained their linguistic purity and it has no influence of neighbouring dialects. Prior to the
British domination they ruled over the powerful Jaintia kingdom.
The homeland of the Garos is the Garo hills districts of Meghalaya. They have a belief that
before settling in the present habitat they settled in the Brahmaputra valley and owing to the
miseries they had to suffer at the hands of the people of the plains they were forced to take
refuge in the hills. They speak language of the Bddo groupof the Tibeto-Burman family.
They are divided into nine sub-tribes out of which Megam sub- tribe is totally different from
the rest. These Megams usually settled very close to Khasi hills and speak dialect more akin
to Khasis.
The Mizos inhabit what is now called the Miwram which forms the southern extremity of
Assam. They are not a single tribe but have in their fold five major tribes - Lushei, Ralte,
Hmar, Paitee, Pawi and 11 minor tribes commonly known as Awzia. The term mizo means
men who live on the hills-They belong to Mongoloid group and migrated from the East. Their
original homeland was Mekong valley. They claim that they migrated from Sanghai around
10th century. At first they settled down at the viklage Selesih near Aijwal under their powerful
chief of Sailo clan. From here, they gradually spread to all parts of Mizoram. They speak a
dialect of Tibeto-Burman origin. Linguistically they are close to Kuki-chin group of tribes.
What is known a Mizo language today is Lushei dialect.
DIMASA KACHARI
Dimasa tribals claim themselves as the son of great Bhima. 'They originally inhabited the hills
and slopes to the north of the Brahmaputra and then extended through Central Assam to
Mymensingh district. From here they were driven out by the powerhl Kochs towards
Dimapur. During the 13-14th century their kingdom was again threatened by the Ahoms.
This time, they could successfully drive them out (A.D. 1526), but in 1536 they were again
overpowered by the Ahoms and their king Khunkhira fled.
NAGA
1 ,
The whole tract of Nagaland is named after the main tribe of the region the Nagas. There
are in all 16 Naga tribes inhabiting the region (see appendix). They primarily belong to
Mongoloid group. Their language belong to Tibeto-Burman and Tibeto-Chinese group.
They are believed to have been migrated from far Eastern countries (Upper Burma, China,
etc.). Most of the present Naga tribes are Christian. Nagas are further sub-divided into
number of clans. Lotha Nagas, unlike other Naga tribes do not have any script. Among all
the Naga tribes Ao Nagas dominate Nagaland, both in politics and bureaucracy. They
possess the highest literacy rate ammgst Nagas and frequently referred to as Naga Bengali.
Tangkhul Nagas come next to Ao. In politics too they have some dominance. Konyak Nagas
are termed as Naked Nagas. But,now,gradually they have also started wearinga blue appron.
They have the lowest literacy rate amongst all the Naga tribes.
m u
~ h a r b s of U.P. Tarai are believed to have migrated from Rajputana (Rajasthan) after the
invasion of the Turks. Their tradition says that they were driven from Chittor by Alauddin
Khalji. They all descended from the Autar Kshatrias. They derive their present name from
d'arai. Thar'in the tribal dialect means a jungle. The name Tharu is also derived from Thar'
desert in Rajputana from where they trace their ancestory. They belong to Mongoloid race.
. History and GeopphicaJ Spread
Rengma Naga
hags youth in his traditional dress
Tribal Cultures
./
They broadly divide themselves into two big sections -the Purbi (Eastern) and the Puchhami
(Western). In all they are divided into 73 sub-tribes.
BHOTIA
The tribal territories of Munsiary and Dharchula tehsils of Pithoragarh district are known as
'Bhote'. Thereafter the famous Trans- Himalayan traders - the Bhotias. They are divided
into two sub-groups : i) mlgrated from Tibet and speak Tibetan dialect (Bhotias of Byans,
Chaundans and Darma valleys in the upper part of Dhauli and Kali rivers), and ii) Bhotias
of Johar valley who speak Pahari dialect. They belong to Mongoloid group. Generally they
are bilingual sometimes they are trilingual as well. They were good traders engaged in
trading activitieson Indo-Tibbetan border. After the 1962 Indo-China war their economy
I suffered a great set back.
626.42 Central Indian Tribes
S ANTHAL
They are the third largest tribe in India. They are Austri~speaking people.' Their largest
concentration is in Bihar (Santhal Pargana) and Bengal. They trace their origin to Central
Asia. They are closelyallied to the Munda groups. Mayurbhanj (Orissa) Santhals have now
adopted Oriya as their second language due to their contact with the Oriya speaking people
of Mayurbhanj. They were divided into twelve clans - Hansda, Kisku, Soren, Murmu,
Marandi, Tudu, Hembram, Baske, Besra, Pauria, Chore and Bedia. The last three clans do
not survive today. Each clan is sub-divided into 13 to 28 sub-clans. Each sub-clan is further
divided into number of patrilineal groups of kinsmen (Mitkhand).
A Santhal tribal drummer
MUNDAS
I
They are described in the Sanskrit texts as people of the Eastern region. They are identical
with the Hos and the Bhumijas as well as closely allied to the Santhals. They belong to
Australoid stock. They are spread over Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa. They are also known
as Larka or fighting Kols. The Kol tribe has given its name to the territory *ere it has made
its home (Kolhan) and to the Kolarian family of tribes and languages. Bhumijas, Khangar, -
Kharia, Mahali, Oraon and Savar tribes are believed to be a branch of the Mundas. They
speak Mundari language which belongs to Austro-Asiatic linguistic sub-family of Austric
linguistic family. They are bilingual groups. They also speak the languages of the region like
Bengali, Oriya, Hindi and Sadani. They claim that they migrated from the southern part of
North India to modem Bundelkhand, Central India, Rajasthan and North-Westem India,
and finally entered into Chhotanagpur via Rohilkhand and Oudh. It has 13 sub-tribes and aS
many as 106 clans (kilis).
Group of Kolams
Groupof Kol women
KHONDS
It is a Dravidian tribe largely found in Bihar, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. Their principal
homeland is Khondmals (mal: plateau). They have twd main divisions : 1)KutialHill Khonds,
and 2) Plains' Khonds. The latter have copied Hindu customs. Khonds have several
sub-tribes-Kuttia, Dongaria, Penda and Desia or Sasi Kandha. In M.P. they are also known
as Kandh. The Raj Khonds occupy a higher strata than the common Khonds. dal Khonds are
descendants of soldiers. Gauria Khonds are graziers, while Nagla or naked Khonds are so
called because of their scarce clothing. Khonds have 32 exogamous septs most ofwhich are
now extinct.
TheSaura tribe isone ofthe oldest primitive tribes ofthe world. n hey are the archaic sections
of the great Savara tribe.' They live in the Eastern Ghat region of Ganjam and Koraput
districts of Orissa and Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. It consists of many sub-tribal
communities.
S AVARA
The Savara tribe is considered to be a branch of the great Munda or Kolarian tribe. Savaras
described in the early texts as a tribe of the Southern region (Dakshinapatha). Epigraphic
records suggest that they are spread over a vast area on either side ofthe Vindhyas upto the
Ganges in the North and the Godavari in the South. They also made their movement as far
South as Golkonda and Srikurman in the Vishakhapatanam district. They also had their
settlements in the Dandaka forests of Central India. The modern Savars, variously known
as Sabar,Sahar, Sour, Sar,Sayar, Serir,Sirvir,Soria, may be the survivinggroups ofthe ancient
Savaras. They are mainly distributed in the Ganjam (Tamilnadu), Vishakhapatanam
' (Andhra Pradesh), Orissa and also in Central India specially in Chhattisgarh, Saugar and
Damoh districts. In Central India there are' two different groups named Savar and Sahar.
Those who came into contact with the Hindus and have adopted the Hindu customsare called
Sahar and others as Savar. In M.P. they speak local dialects.
Savara youths with their battle-axes
The Malas were people of the eastern and of the northern regions, their territory being
Malbhum in Midnapur and Chhattisgarh. The origin of the Malas has been described in
different Sanskrit texts as resulting from unions of Vaisya father and Sudra mother; Sudra
father and Suta mother, Karmakara father and Teli mother. There are at present two
Dravidian tribes - Males (Mala) and Mal Paharias -residing in the Rajmahal and Ramgarh
hills in Bengal. In fact, the word Mala is derived from the Dravidian root meaning 'mountain'.
Malas are concentrated in two localities in Bengal-Birbhum, and Murshidabad to the West
and Mymensingh to the east. On the basis of similarity ofnames and localities of settlements
(in Bengal) the origin of the present Malas and Mal Paharias may possibly be traced to the
ancient Malas.
History and Geographical Spread
Tribal Cultures
ORAON
Linguistically and ethlonogically they appear-to be a Dravidian tribe. They mostly inhabit in
the west, north-west and centre of Ranchi district, Palamau, adjoining areas of Joshpw,
Surguja and Gangpur in Bihar. They are also settled in the neighbouring states of Orissa and
Madhya Pradesh . They are commonly known as Dhangar in Madhya Pradesh which means
a farm senrant. They call themselves Kurukh. They trace their origin to mythical hero- kings
called karakh and to their original homeland Karus-Des. There are few Oraons who have
embraced Christianity.
They are also known as Savara or Lodha Savara. They belong to Australoid group having
close similarities with the tribes like Kheria and Chenchu. They are mainly distributed in
West Bengal, Bihar (here they do not enjoy the status of a scheduled tribe) and Orissa. They
are sub-divided into 9 sub-clans.
MAHALI
Racially they belong to Australoid group having close resemblance with the Santhals. They
are spread over in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. They speak Mahali language which belongs to
Mundari category of Austro-Asiatic linguistic branch of Austric linguistic family which is
having close similarity with Santhali language. They are divided into five sub-groups -
Bansphor, Sulunkhi, Tanti, Patar and Mahali Mundas. They are in all divided into 13 clans.
Each clan is divided into number of sub- clans.
KORA
Racially they belong to Australoid group. They are distributed in West Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa. They migrated to West Bengal from Chhotanagpur region of South Bihar. Though
their language isderived from Mundari,it differs in different regions. For example,in Purulia
their language is a h to Oraon language, but in Midnapur their language is similar to the
Santhali language.
GOND
' Y
Numerically it is the largest tribal group not only in Madhya Pradesh but in the whole ofIndia.
The whole tract of Gondwana is named after the tribe. They live mainly in the Vindhyas and
the Satpura rangeson either side ofthe river Narmada. In Orissa they inhabit the ~ a ~ u r b h a n j
tract. They belong to Dravidian stock. There are various sub-tribesof the Gonds. The dialect
spoken by them in Madhya Pradesh belongs to the Dravidian family; while Gonds of Orissa
have abandoned their old tribal dialect and' adopted Oriya as mother tongue.
BHIL
It is the third largest tribe in India. Their name is derived from the Dravidian w r d 'bil'or
vil meaning a bowwhich is the characteristic weapon of the tribe. In the Sanskrit text, names
like Bhil and the Nisadas are used synonymously. The habitat of the Nisadas corresponds to
the teiritory from Satpura to the coastal areas of Gujarat. Their original home is the hilly
country between Abu and Asirgarh, from where they spread westward and southward into
the plains ofGujarat and the Northern Deccan. They are also found in considerable numbers
in Rajputana and Central ~ndia. There are a number of groupings of the Bhil tribe, each
forming a number ofexogamous clans. The Nisadas, another name ofancient Bhils, have been
described as early as in the Vedic literature as the fifth caste in the Hindu social structure.
They speak the tribal language known as Bhili.
They are an offshoot of the Munda or Kolarian tribe. They betang to the Dravidian stock.
Their homeland in Madhya Pradesh i s Satpura and the wnhadeloWs. They are divided into
two groups: Raj Korku and the Potharia. Raj Korku comprises opland owners and believed
to be akin to ruling chieftains. These two sub-divisions are hrtherr divided into four sub-
castes - Muwasi, Bawari, Ruma, and Pondoya.
:
@ 4 . .
i History and Geographical Sprea
Korkus of Melghat Hills
Korku women in full dress
KORWA -.
.
They belong" to Kdlarian family. Their dialect is closely related to Asuri and resembles
'
Mundari an& Santhali. The principal subdivisions of the- tribe are the Diharia or Kisan
Korwas and the Paharia Korwas of the hills. The latter are also called Bewaria since the11
practice bewar or shifting cultivation. Their two minor groups are Yorku and Birjias.
In the early Sanskrit texts the Konkanas have been described as the people of the Southern
region (Dakshinapatha) and are said to have been associated with the Abhiras, a well known
tribe of the Rajputana desert. The territoryof the Konkanas has been identified with modem
Konkan, the Marathi-speaking low-land strip between the Western Ghats and the sea from
Bombay southwards. Konkani is a territorial or linguistic term, meaning a dweller in the
Konkan (Canara) country or a person speaking Konkani dialect of Marathi. The modem
Konkani dwellers in the Konkan country may, therefore, be considered as the descendants
of the ancient Konkanas. Their original habitat is b e l i e d to be the bank of the ancient
Saraswati river, which is said to have lost its course in the sandy desert of Rajputana.
( 26A3 South-%tern Tribes 7
CHENCHU Y
They are mostly found in the districts of Kurnool, Mahboobnagar and Guntur in Andhra
Pradesh. Their main concentration is in the Nalhalai forest - located mostly in Cuddapah .
and Kurnool districts.There isa reference to Chunchus.(Chenchus) in Manusmriti. It means
a person who lives under a tree (chettu). They are divided into four branches - i) Koya
p-CC' ;p-y---"
Chenchu, ii) Konda Chenchu, iii) Chenchu Dasaris, and iv) Ura Chenchu. Earlier Ura
Chenchus were known as Konda Chenchus. They are further sub- divided into as many as
. . ?*g;*: $$?
26 gotras (exogamous clans).
i ,&;,:- 2
* - r
LAMBADI
They inhabit the Telingana region. Theyare also found in other states like'Bihar, West Bengal,
Delhi, Hivachal Pradesh, Mysore and Orissa where they are called Banjam. The Lambadis
of Mahboob Nagar and Khammam (Telingana Tract) call themselves 'Sanjaras and they ;
believe that Banjara, Lambada and Sugali are one and the same, rather thbyare synonymous,
whereas many Lambadis of Chittoor, Anantapur and Kurnool districts are not aware of the
name of Banjara and the existence of their counterparts in ather parts of India. Ptolemy, in
his list of Indian castes, has made a mention of a caste Lamht ai which is considered to be
same as Lambadi, Ferishta, a 16th centurychronicler, also records Lambadis of Deccan. It
is a general belief that Banjaras came to Soutkor Deccan alongwith the Mughals. They are
divided into four main branches: i) Mathuria Banjaras, ii) Lambana Banjaras, iii) Charan
Banjaras, and iv) Chori Banjaras. They are further subdivided intsthree exogamous groups:
i) Rathods (7 gotras), ii) Pamhar (6 gotras), and iii) Chawhan (12 gotras).
A I mb a d i woman
, They speak Lambani or Lambadi language. In Telingana they call it Banjari. Different
dialects of Lambanis are said to have been derived from Western Rajasthani group of
Tnihal Cultures
languages. The Banjari dialect of Southern India is, however, mixed with the surrounding
Dravidian language. The most important subsidiary language spoken by t he n is Telugu.
KORAGA
Korga tribe is found in Malabar area of Kerala state and throughout Tamilnadu except
Kanyakumari and Shenocotta Taluk of Tirunelveli district. The Koragas are regarded as one
of the most backkrd communities of South-India. Until recently they led the life ofagrestic
slaves - bought and sold with land. It seems that earlier they were rulers but were later
reduced to the status of a slaves on being subdued by other communities in South Kanara.
They are sub-divided into a number of sub-tribes: i) Sappu Koraga - wearing grass skirts, ii)
p
Kuntu Koraga -use kapalas or vastra (clothes), iii) Tippi Koraga -wear ornamentsof bones,
and iv) Vanti Koraga - wear large circular earing in their dilated ear-lobe. v) Kapputus
Koraga- descendants of the army of Habashika, vi) Bangaranna Koraga - it is looked upon
as a superior sub-tribe to others, vii) Kumarama Koraga viii) Munglanna Koraga, etc. They
are further sub-divided into 17 exogamous clans known as bali.
In the early Sanskrit texts the Kurumbas or Kurubas, variously known a; Pallavas, Kusumas,
Kumanas and the Kupathas, have been described as the people of the Southern region
(Daksinapatha). They were once a very powerful tribe in South India and occupied the
territory which comprised the modem districts of Madras, Chingleput, North and South
Arcot, Salem and south-eastern portion of Mysore with Kanchi (Canjevaram) as capital. But
after their downfall in about eighth century A.D., they dispersed in many directions. Many of
them fled to the hills of Malabar, Nilgiris, Coorg, Liyanad and Mysore. In the Madras
Presidency, Mysore and in the Nilgiri Plateau there is a community of people under the name
of Khumbaser Kurubas. One of their branches, known as Kadu Kurumba, lives in the forests
of the Nilgiri Plateau and speak a Tamil dialect. Another branch of the Kurumbas, known
as U ru-Kurumbas, lives in the plains (the eastern districtsof Madrasand Mysore).Theyspeak
Canarese. Kadu Kurumbas are more akin to-the Australoid group and their characteristic
traits are mostly found among the wild and forest tribes of the Southern region. It seems that
the modem Kadu Kurumbas are the descendants of the ancient Kurumbas.
26.4.4 Scattered Tribes
AND AMANESE
The Great Andamanese were in realityten tribes - the Cari,Kora, Jeru,Bo, Kade,Kol,Juwai,
Pucikwar or Bojigyab, Bea,and Balawa. Each has its distinct dialect. Out of these ten tribes
6 have become extinct now. The four existing tribesare also facing threat ofextinction. These
tribes can be broadly divided into two groups, viz. the Norhtern and the Southern. The
Northern group includes tribes like - Aka-Chariar or Aka-Cari, Aka-Kora, Aka-Tobo or
Aka-Bo, and Aka Yere or Aka-Jeru. The Southern groups known as Aka Bojigugiji included
Aka Juwai, Aka Kol, Aka Bojigyab or Aka Pucikwar, Aka Balawa or Aka Bale and Aka Bea
tribes.
TRIBES OF LAKSHADWEEP
They were known as Tarwadi or the Karnavar and claimed their descent from the
Namboodari and Nair communities of Indian subcontinent. Around A.D. 663 the entire ,
population was said to be converted to Islam by Hazart Ubaidullah. Presently, the Koya are
distributed all over the island except Minicoy. The language spoken by them is Laccadive,
i.e. D w p Bhasha (a local variation of Malayalam). The script used is Arabic.
MALMI
It is said that Malmi caste evolved from the Mukkuvans, the fisher-caste of Malabar, but
Mukkuvans rank below Tiyyars on the mainland whilst Malmis rank above Melacheris in the
Laccadives. They, as a rule, practise navigation and astrology. They are sub- divided into
two sub-groups, Odam-captains, and ordinary boatmen. They inhabit the entire island except
Minicoy, Chetlat, Kiltan and Kadmat. They converse in D w p Bhashaand use Arabic script.
The term Melacheri means high climbers. They were agricultural serfs of the Koya, and were
engaged in coconut plucking and toddy tapping. They inhabit the entire island except
Minicoy. The language spoken by them is Dmep Bhasha and the script used is Arabic.
WWKFAN AND THAKRUFAN
They inhabit the Minicoy island. Ibn Battuta (14th century) records that the people of
Mulook (Minicoy island) are devout Muslims. It seems that process of conversion must have
started between AD. 1153 (when their Buddhist king Buvana Datta embraced Islam) to A.D.
1346 (arrival of Ibn Battuta). They speak Mahl (Diwhi) language and used Thana script.
Some anthropologists beliew that Thakrus were descendants of At01 Addu of Maldives. But
others &el that they migsated from Gali islands and settled down in Minicoy around A.D.
1000. Like Qeir counterparts Thakrufan and Manikfan they have also embraced Islam when
Minicoy fell under the hegemony of Buvana Datta who embraced Islam in AD. 1153. They
also use Mahl (Divehi) language and Thana script.
Thiyyir of Malayalam who are settled in Minicoy came to be known as Raveri. Major
migration of this tribe happened around AD. 1000. The people were the Thiyyar fiom
Kerala, Buddhist from Sri Lanka and Muslims from Maldiws. They speak Raveri language
of Divehi group and use Thana script.
1. W~i t e a note on the following tribes :
a) Garo
bj Bhotia
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
- c) Santhal
d) Andamanese
. ( .
i
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
* . ~ .
. ,
Tribal collnm
.2) Match the following :
1) Thakru i) Bihar
2) Aka-Bo ii) Andhra Pradesh
3) Chenchu iii) Andaman
4) Santhal iv) U.P
5) Bhotia v) Minicoy
265 LET US SUM UP 2
The tribal groups in India are the oldest ethnological sector of the national population. When
the Aryans came to India they found that manyofthe aboriginal groups were largelybackward
in terms of economic development and were at hunting -gathering stage. Most of these
aboriginals were pushed in different directions as forest clearence and extension ofcultivation
got underway. As a result now the chief abode of the tribes is in the barren and sparsely
populated tracts of hills and jungles corresponding in extent fairly closely to east Satapuras
but encroaching eastwards and westwards along the Vindhya ranges through the south of
Madhya Pradesh Plateau on the eastern extremity of Gujarat. The only other tract where
they are numerous are the outlying parts of Greater Assam range and the hilly country that
divides Assam from Burma. The geographical distribution of aboriginals in India is reported
as falling into three main regions in which they are concentrated - i.e. northeastern zone,
central zone and south-western zone. In addition to these three major zones, there are small
groups dispersed in differrent parts of the country. Of these the Andamanese and the
Nicobarese who live in the Isjgnds bearing their names are separated from the mainland.
These are also ethn'ically connected with many of the tribes on the main land. In this Unit '
we have examiped geographical distribution ofvarious tribes in India. You must have noticed
4
the migration of various tr!bes from one region to another. A detailed study also reveals
branches of one tribe moved into different directions. Common traits in these different
branches are quite evident. A brief history, ethnographic roots, languages and dialects of
the tribes were also proirided. The tribes with all their diversities have a number of common
threads in their way of life, social struoture, religious beliefs and mode of production. Their
interaction with the rmiirtstream society is at various levels.
' a
n
. .
1. Base your answer on Section 26.3.2
2. See Sub-sec. 26.3.4
1. a) See Sub-sec. 26.4.1 b)See Sub-sec. 26.4.1 c) See Sub-sec. 26.4.2 +
d) See Sub-sec. 26.4.4 2)
2. '1) Minicoy 2) Andaman 3) Andhra Pradesh 4) Bihar 5) U.P.
APPENDIX ,
'u
History and Geographical
-
A)
MAJOR TRIBES INHABITING THE NORTHERNqAND
1 NORTH-EASTERN ZONE
ARUNACHAL PRADESB ASSAM MANIPUR
I. Adi 1. Chakma I . Aimol
i. Ashing 2. Dimasa Kachari 2. Anal
ii. Bogum 3. Garo
3. Angami
iii. Bokar 4. Hajong 4. Chiru
iv. Bori 5. Hmar 5. Chothe (Purum)
v. Botng 6. Khasi, Jaintia, Synteng, 6. Gangte
vi. Gallong Pnar, War, Bhoi, Lyngnpm 7. Hmar
vii. Komkar 7. Any Kuki Tribes 8. Kabui I
viii. Karka
i n Lodunn
8. Lakher
9. Man (Tai menkind
n ~ i l a n g 10. ~n~ ~ i u , ( ~ushai ) tribe
xi. Mi npng 1 I . Mikir
. Padam 12. Any Na p tribe
xiii. Pailibo 13. Pawi
xiv. Pangi 14. Syntheng
m. , Pasi
xvi. Ramo
IS. Barmans in Cachar
16. Boro. Borokachari
9. Kacha Naga
10. . Koirao
11. Koireng
12. Kom
13. Lamgang
14. Mao
15. Maram
16. Maring
17. Mim (Lushai)
avii. Shimong 17. Deori 18. Monsang
miii. Ta npm 18. Hojai 19. Moyon
2. Aka 19. Kachari, Sonowl 20. Paite
Apatani
- Banpi
Khamba
Khampti
Khow
Memba
Miji
Hill Miri
MishinglMiri
Mishmi
Monpa
Na
20. Lalungfliw)
21. Mech
22. Miri (Miming)
23. Rabha
HIMACHAL PRADESH
1. Baradh
2. Gaddi
3. Kinnaur
4. Khampa
5. Khas
21. Ralte
22. Sema
23. Simtea
24. Sahte
25. Tangkhul
26. Thadou
27. Vaiphai
28. Zou
JAMMU AND KASHMIR
I 1 15. Nishi (Dana) 6. Lahuli 1. Bakanvdl 1
Nocte
Sherdukpen
Sulung
Singpho
Tagin
Tangsa
Wancho
23. Yobin (Lieu)
24. Zakhring (Mepr)
2. Beda
3. Bodh
4. Broq-Pa
5. DokhpaIDrokpa
6. GaraIGarba
7. Gujar Muslim
8. Haione
9. ~ a i a k h i
10. Mon
1. Bhil
I 2. Bhutip
~ h a i A l
Chakma
Garo
6.. Halam
8. Khasia
9. Kuki tribes
Lepcha
Lushai
MaghMog
Munda
IS.
-16.
17.
18.
: 19.
OrangIOraon
Riang
Santhal
Tripura,Tripuri or Tippera
UchaiIOchoi
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
IS.
16.
17.
IS.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Bhoi
Born
Chakma
D i n (Kachrri)
oa r 0
Haiono
Hmrr
Jainth
Karbi (Mikir)
Kh88i
Kocb
Kuti
h k h c r
Lpenl pm
Man (Tai apeakiag)
M h (Lul ai )
Nagr
Pavi
Pnar
Rabha, Raba
Spt eng
War
Adi
A h
D i m (Kircluni
Qalong
G aro
Khasi and Jaintu
Khom
Kuki
h r b i (Mikir)
M izo
Any Na p tribe
1. A0
ii. Anpmi
iii. Cbakhcmng
iv. Chaw
v. Chiru
vi. Khiamnuopa
vii. Konpk
viii. l o h a
ix. MaLwrri
X Phom
1, Rollgnu
i . S ~ n p a m
mi. Semr
xiv. Tildrir
m. Yimchungce
mi. Zeliang
syntens
Momba
Chakma
D i n Gchar i
oa r 0
Hajong
H mar
Khari. Jainth, Spteng,
h a t . War, Bhoi.
L Y ~ P P ~
Any kuki tribe
i. Biate, Biete
ii . a w n
iii. Choaglai
iv. Dounel
v. Qamrlhou
vi. Gangte
vii. Quite
viii. Hameng
i r Haokip, Haupir
x. Haolai
1. Hengna
&i. Hongsungh
xiii. Hrangkhml,
Rangkhol
Jongbe
m. Khawchung
mi. Khamthlang,
Khotbalong
mii. Khelmr
miii. Kholbo
xi r Ki ppn
xn Kuki
m. kngt hang
mi . e n g u m
- mii. Lhoujem
mv. Lhouwn
xxv. Lupheng
d. Mangjel
d i . Mimo
xuviii. Riangl
mr Sairhem
xxrr. Sclnam
xwi. Singtion
xwii. Sitlhou
a i . Sukte
axiv. Thado
arxv. Thangngeu
xxavi. Uibuh
mi. Vaiphei
Lekher
Man (Tai speaking)
Any Mizo (Lulhai) tribe
Karbi
Any Naga tribe
Pawi
I WEST BENCAL ORlSSA MAHAlUSHTRA
Bhutia
Bhumij
C h a h a
Garo
Ho
Kora
Lepcha
ham or Lohrh
Lorha
Lodhas
i. Bugla or Bhaha
ii. Malik
iii. Kotal
iv. Laik,Layek
or Nayek
v. Digar
vi. Paramanik
vii. Dandapat or Bagh
viii. An or Ahari
i n Bhui p or Bhump
Mahl i Mahel i r hal i
I. Ba s h
ii. Beshra
iii. Hansda
iv. Hembram
v. Kishku
vi. Maradi or Marandi
vii. Murmu
viii. Soren
i n Tudu
n Chore
xi. Samah
xii. Pi i r i
xiii. Khangar
Mech
Munda
Nagesia
Oraon
Rabha
Santhal
BIHAR
Aeur
Bhumij
Bi j i a
Bedia
Binjhia
Birhor
Bathudi
Chik Baraik
Chem
Gond
G omit
Ho
Kora
Khana
Kharwar
Ksrmali
Koma
Khond
Kinan
Lohara or Lohrh
Munda
MahliMaheli
Mal Paharia
Mru
Oraon
Parhai p
S a n r
Sauna Paharia
Santhal
1. Bagata
2. Bhunp
3. Bhui p
4. Bhumij
5. Banjari
6. Binjhia
7. Bhottoda
8. Bhumia
9. Bathudi
10. Bondo Poraja
11. Dal
12. Didayi
13. Dhams
14. Gond
15. Gadaba
16. Juang
17. Jatapus
18. Ho
19. Kol
m. Ko p
21. Konda Dhoras
22. Kulia
23. Kondhs
24. Kotia Bethorip
25. Kolha
26. Kharia
27. Koma
28. Kora
29. Kiean
30. Lodha
31. Munda
32. Mirdhae
33. Mahali
34. Ma t p
35. Mundari
36. Omant p
37. Oraon
38. Pentia
39. Parenga
40. Porja
41. Rajnar
42. Santhal
43. Sounti
44. Savar
45. Shabar or Lodha
1. Bavacha
2. Bhil
3. Barda
4. Chaudhri
5. Damor
6. Dubla
7. Garasia
8. Kokna
9. Kunbi
10. Koli Mahadev
11. Koli Malhar
12. Mina
13. Pardhi
14. Pomla
15. Patelia
16. Rathawa
17. Saharia
18. Thakur
19. Vitolia
20. Varli
1. Andh
2. Bhil
3. Baiga
4. Bhunjia
5. Gond
6. Ksinvar
7. Kol
8. Konva
9. Ksmar
10. Kolam
11. Nihal
12. Oraon
13. Pardhan
14. Saharia
15. Sawar
MADHYA PRADESH
Agaria
Abujhmarhia
Baiga
Bhaina
Bharia
Bhat n
Bhil
Bhilal
Binjhwar
Bhui p
Bhunjia
Dhanwar
Dholea
Dhunva
Dorla
Gadba
Gond
Halba
Kalanga
Ksmar
Kawar
Khainvar
Kharia
Khond
Kol
Korku
Konva
Majhwar
Munda
Muria
Nagarchi
Nagesia
Ni a l
Ojha
Oraon
Pa0
Pardhan
Saharia
S a n r
CUJARAT
1. Bhil
2. Dhamkn
3. Gamit
4. Koli Dhor
5. Knthodi
6. Naikda
History and CeqpphicaI Spmd
Tribal Cultures
22. Kunrmans 42. Muthuvan
23. Kurichan 43. Marati Maratho
24. Kadar 44. Mal apKandi
25. Kattunayakan 45. Maleru
26. Kurambas
27. Kudiya
28. Koraga
29. Kadu Kunrba 49. Palliyan
10. Hill Maria 30. Keralas 50. Paniyan
31. Karnataka 51. Palliyan
32. Konda Kapus 52. Reddi Dhoras
33. Munda
34. Mukha Dhora
35. Malis 55. SGga1ii Lambadis
36. Malya Aryan 56. Tamilnadu
17. Konda Reddis 37. Malayan 57. Ulladan
18. Kammara 38. Mannam
19. Kondhs 39. Malayali
40. Malay Arayar
61. Yeniadis
MAJOR TRIBES INHABITING SCATI'ERED ZONE
ANDAMAN AM) NlCOBAR
ISLANDS
Bea
Balawa
Cari
Kora
Jeru
Bo
Keda
Kol
Juwai .
Pucikwar or Bojigyab
DADRA AND NAGAR IIAVELl LAKSHAD WEEP
Agri
Bharwad
Chamar
B*
2 : ~
Dhodia .!: $+&;:
Dubla 5. * Tpakrufan
Kahar 6. Thakru
Kapadia 7. Raveri
Kathodi
Kokna DAMAN AND DIU
Koli Dhor
Makrana 1. Dhodia
Mauri Rajput 2. Dubla
Parsi 3. Siddi
VarlilWarli
'UNIT 27
B
SOCIETY AND ECONOMY 9
structure
27.0 Objectives
27.1 Introduction
272 Tribal Society
272.1 Social Organisation
2722 Institution of Marriage
2723 Family Stnrcture
272.4 Position of Women
2725 Village Structure
273 Tribal Religion
27.4 Tribal cono om^
275 Let Us Sum Up
bal
After studying this Unit, you d b e able to know about :
social structure of the tribals,
their economy, and
their social as well as religious customs.
27.1 INTRODUCTION, .'
In. the earlier two Units of this Block (Units 25 and 26) we have discussed the identity
formation and history and geographical spread of tribes in India. In the present Unit, we will
discuss tribal society and economy. It is very difficult to find a uniform social and economic
structure for the large number of tribes spread over different regions of the country. Each
tribe has its own distinct social structure, institutions, customs and religion. We will not be
going into the details of each tribe separately. We will focus on some common features of
tribal social structures and religious practices. Individual tribes would be referred as
illustrations wherever necessary. You would notice that in spite of the diversities, there are
common threads running through various tribal groups and societies. In social structure and
institutions, we will discuss clans, family, marriage, position of women, etc. While discussing
tribal religion, we will focus on religious practices, deities and forms of worship. You would
notice that interaction with non-tribal religions has influenced religious practice sand customs
of tribal religions. Here we are not covering tribal folk-lore, dance and music as they have
already been discussed in Block-3.
In the sphere ofeconomyalso we notice great diversities. Huntingand food gathering,settled
and not so settled agriculture, craft production and trading are all present in varying degrees
among different tribes. Here, again, ue will not go into details of the economic activities of
individual tribes. We will focus on some basic characteristics of tribal economy. The most
striking feature of tribal economy is self-reliance and a balanced exploitation of natural
resources for subsistence. The economy is generally less complex and spirit of cooperation
'.-rather than competition dominant. We notice that both economic and social practices are
@vemed by natural environment and local conditions. We do not intend to enter into any
debate of meritsldemerits or critical appraisal of tribal and non-tribal societies. Our main
aim in this Unit is to familiarise you with the tribal society and economy at a general level.
Let us beghwith tribal society.
L27.2 TRIBAL SOCIETY 'i
Tribals, though,.possess certain common characteristics which cut across the geographical
regions, yet there are some strong local variations. The factors which form the matrix of
thr social Life are :
!
i) geographical environment,
i ii) human resources
31
--
. -
iii) techniques of production and economy, and *
iv) kinship network.
These factors constitute the parameters for organised social life. Based on these factors,
we now examine the social set up of the Indian tribes.
272.1 Social Organisation
a) HIMALAYAN TRIBES
i) North-Eas tern Himalayan Tribes
Among the tribes inhabiting the North-Eastern Himalayan region (Garos, Khasis, Janitias,
etc.) basic unit of society is the 'michong' meaning 'motherland'. In some ways it is different
from a family. All members of a 'michong' claim descent from common ancestors. Michong .
is affiliated with a larger group known as Chatchi. Another social unit is the 'mahari'which
is the effective unit within the clan-lineage type. Sometimes, the tribe is divided into
exogamous clans and further to exogamous matrilineal families (as among the Garos).
Assam tribals also have a somewhat similar pattern. The Lutungs are divided into a number
ofexogamous clans which are grouped into a number of clusters of clan-mahari. The Dimasa
Kacharis of Assam have different clans for different sexes. There are in all 40 male and 40
female clans. They follow the system of double descent. The male child follows the clanship
of father and the female child acquires the name of her mother's clan.
Among the Naga tribals clan is a continuation of the family unit on the paternal side. Several
families united on paternal basis, form a clan (sangao). Two or more such clans form a village.
Clans belonging to the same tribe may be spread over several villages. A village is divided
into a number ofunits (sang), one clan constituting one unit.The boundaryof the clan (sang)
is fixed and in the old days there were even walls separating them. The head of the clan is
generally the head of the original familywhose sons and paternal cousins constitute the clan. v
The principle of primogeniture is observed with regard to succession. The head of the clan
which settled first in a village automatically becomes the first head of the village.
ii) Central Himalayan Tribes
The primaryunit among the Tharus is family. The number of families constitute a kuri (clan).
The clans are grouped together into two groups to create higher and lower moiety which
finally form the whole group - the tribe.
b) CENTRAL INDIAN TRIBES
The Central Indian tribes present a notable common pattern with a few radically different
types. In Bihar and West Bengal, Santhals are divided into 12 clans called paris. Each pari
is divided into sub-clans or sub-groups. The Mundas, Oraons and Hos of chhotanagpur have
more or less the same pattern. They are divided into exogamous clans. For example,Mundas
and Hos are sub-divided into 'kilis'and Oraons into Gotar.
In Orissa Khond is the most popular tribe. The Khonds are divided into three territorial
divisions. Each of these divisions is regarded as a sub-tribe.
c) WESTERN INDIAN TRIBES
In Western India, the major tribes are Bhil, Gond, Kokna, Dhondia and so on. The Bhils
occupya large area in Central as well as Western India. Theu social system maybe described;
as polysegmentary with a number of successive narrow segments dividing the entue
community into several kindred groups. The basic principle of alignment is patrilineal:
descent.
d) SOUTH INDIAN TRIBES
In South India the popular social units are clan and family. The clans are mostlynamed after
the settlement or the territory and it is an exogamous group for all.
2722 1nstihiGon of Marriage
The institution of marriage is a point on which the tribal people throughout the world follow
different practices. There is some degree of differentiation with many mainstream societies
as far as institution of mamage is concerned. Indian tribes like tribes in other parts of the
world practise several forms of marriages as a matter of convenience and social
acclimatization in their respective cultural ecological setting. Marriage patterns differ from
community to community. Mainly three forms of marriages are known to exist among them
namely, monogamy, polygamy and polyandry.
In large parts of the Himalayas, polyandry and polygamy both existed as in Spiti, Jaunsar
Bawar;Nagaland, etc. In some tribes wife is considered as belonging to all the brothers in the
family and all offsprings belong collectively to the family. This form of marriage is described
as fraternal polyandry by anthropologists. This custom may be explained by high incidences
of extreme economic hardship, infant mortality and also the need to maintain small
landholdings together. Fraternal polyandry ensured that property remained undivided. This
custom ofpolyandry has been discouraged over the past decades and is now said to be slowly
dying out and being replaced by monogomy.
Most of the Naga marriages are love marriages. The young choose their partners and then
marriage negotiations are conducted through an elderly lady. A girl is free to choose her life
partner and rarely is there any pressure brought upon her in this matter. Among the Nagas
(Tangkhuls) marriage within the clan is forbidden by the law of exogamy. Practice of incest
and marriage within the clan is a serious crime. Child or infant marriage is very rare among
the Tangkhuls. Finding a spinster or a bachelor is also rare. Divorce is also rare among
Tangkhuls. Separation may come about either through consent or by an appeal to the village
council. The reason for divorce are several - barrenness, adultery, etc.
f
In the past, the custom of procuring wife through capture and purchase was prevalent among
Tharus. Presently three types of marriages are' prevalent among them- Dola or Brahma (the
I
conventional marriages as among Hindus; most of the Tharus prefer this type of marriage),
L
Badala (exchange), and Urahan (by capture). In the sphere of marriage, Tharus are
now-adays influenced by rural Hindu customs.
Among the Gonds, marriage between brothers and sisters are prohibited. Unmarried boys
and girls assemble at Gotulgarh of the village where theychoose their own partners. Marriage
- by capture and widow remarriage are freely permitted.
The practice of payment of bride price during marriage is in vogue among the Lodhds. Men
among Santhals and Bhils do not marry in the sept or paris of their father. Besides, they are
also not allowed to marry in the khunt or the sub-sept of his mother. Among the Khonds it
-,
is the bride and her party that go to the bride-groom's place.
) 2723 Family Structure ' !.,
Tribal India exhibit diverse structures of families because ofvaried rules and customs among
different tribes. Two types of families may be distinguished on the basis of the number of
family members : i) simple or nuclear family, and ii) extended or joint family.
L The first type represents the basic grouping of the mates and the children. Such families have
wry limited number ofmembers. Many Indian tribes like Birhor,Pariya,Korwa,etc. maintain
this type of family. If this nucleus is extended by the addition of other closely related kins,
then it is called amextended family. If it is further extended by the principle of kinship, then
we get a family like the Hindu joint family.
A form of family may also be distinguished on the basis of marriage pattern. Although most
of the tribes have monogamous families i.e. families consisting of a husband, a wife and
children but polygamous families are also not very uncommon. Among all the Naga tribals
family is strictly patriarchal. They follow nuclear family system. Their head of the family is
also the family priest and performs religious rites during festivals and other ceremonies.
272.4 Position of Women -
In the tribal society, the status of women is on the whole high. They participate actively in
both the local economy and in religious and political affairs.
'Society end Eronomy
Tribal Cultures
Aqa mmen bringing mod from forest
Gelang women bringing water
Bhil woman pounding rice
Among almost all the Gibeswomen play key role in running the household. Besides,she helps
her husband in chopping wood in the jungle, transplanting paddy, etc. She also weaves the
cloth for the entire family. Women enjoy considerable freedom. She participates freely in
singing and dancing during festivals and entertains the guests. Among Bhotias women enjoy
a greater freedom.
h 2715 Village Structure b
b
Villages are often isolated firom one another, at least from the known enemy villages. Some
villages live in a constant state of feud. Most of the Naga villages are placed on hill-tops for
reasons of security. The smallest village may have from 5-10 households. Each Naga
household in the village belongs to a particular clan and occupies a particular area in the
village called sangao. In every sang, there used to be a bachelors' house known as morung.
Nagas always keep one pig in the enclosure so that the familvcan provide a feast at the shodest
\ Ba i g village, Balaghat (Orissa)
Villages are generally headed by village headmen, who are vested with a great deal of
authority. These chiefs or headmen holdaffice either by heredity or by selection for life time.
Tabgkhul Naga village chief is called Ansunga appointed bythe heads ofthe families residing
in a village bya unanimous choice.The village headman is prominent at all social and religious
gatherings and festivals of the village. As the headman and the first man in the village, he
'.opens the village festivals; he is the first to sow seeds; first to plant; and the first to harvest.
He is responsible for the defence of the village. He parcels out cultivable land among the
villagers in consultation with the village councillors. But the powers of headman in most
villages are controlled by the village council. In every village, there is a council (hangva).
Members of the council are either elected or appointed. Each clan usually sends one
representative to the council. Any married person is eligible to hold the office ofa councillor.
The head of the clan normally is the ex-officio member of the council.
.
The village council decides disputes. It punishes those who are found guilty of breaching any
time honoured law of the land. It is also the custodian of the village funds. Each family is to
make a voluntary contribution of one-tenth of its paddy to be kept in the village granaries for
contingencies.
The Tharu have a strongpanchayat organisation. During f i e medieval period Mahto (village
headman) was the chief judge. Its nomenclature changed to Choudhari during the British
period. AAer independence, they were replaced by village Pradhans. Still large number of
disputes are settled bythe internal caste Panchayat. Lodhs'community council is also known
as Panchayat. Itshead iscalled Mukhiaor Malik. It decides cases ofdisputes and can impose
penalty or sooialhycott. Mahali tribal council is called bichar sabha: The headman of the
council is known as maqihi haram.
z
1. 'Write a note on the clan organisation among tribes of North- East India.
Society and Economy
2. Discuss various types of marriages practised by the tribals.
3. Define the following :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sangao:
.................................................
Moidy: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
273 TRIBAL RELIGION b
Tribal India presents a colourful panorama of religious hiths and practices ivhich is the
manifestation of adjustments with their cultural and ecological conditions. Till date forty
tribal religions in India were termed as animism in various census reports and literatures.
Animism carries with it a belief in benevolent as well as malevolent spirits tvhich aresupposed
to influence the destiny of men. Some tribal communities follow shamanism (a religion
characterised by the belief that the unseen wr l d of gods, demons, and ancestral spirits is
responsive only to the shamans (monk, ascetic) seeking protections from evil spirits and the
curing of diseases through the medium of shamans. Few tribals haw now attempted to
institutionalize their religion. The Adis of Arunachal Pradesh have revived and
institutionalized their religion of the Sun and the Moon called Donyi Polo. The Munda and
Santhal tribes also revived and institutionalized their religion which related to sacred grave
- -- .*- -
called Sarua or Jahera. It has become the symbol of solidarity of the tribes who were not Society and Economy
converted to Christianity.
Although most tribal communities have their own gods and goddesses and their own legends
and folk heroes, over the ages Hinduism and Buddhism have become important influences
on tribal religions. The tribal belts of South Eastern Himalayas such as Sikkim, Meghalaya
and even Western Himalayas such as Spiti, Kinnaur, Ladakh are predominantly Buddhist
areas. Whereas the Khasis of Garhwal and the tribes of Central India are strongly influenced
by Hinduism. Many anthropologists have explained that there was an age old process of
culturalassimilation,especially in regionssuch as Orissa among tribes like the Bhuiyan,Gond,
Kond,etc.Tribes like the Jaunsar Bawar,some tribes ofGarhwaland the tribesofKullu claim
descent from the Pandavas. Along with local gods (deotas), they also worship major Hindu
gods. Festivals also play a major role in the lives ofthe people; local legends, music and dances
are kept alive during festivals.
Most of the tribes in India believe in the conversion of soul of the deceased into a potential
spiritual force. It is believed that after the death of a person the soul continues to remain in
contact with the relatives of the deceased. Ancestral worship among many tribes seems to be
the logical result of such beliefs. It is also believed by many tribes that certain objects are
possessed by some spiritual powers and thus a sort of fetishism appears to be the guiding
principle among such tribes. Worship of such objects contains an element of magic wbich is
hrther extended to the belief and practices of religio-magical nature.
Yenadi village priest
(Andhra Pradesh)
.. . _.
Wooden mask used in sorcery Wooden tribal masks representing tribal deities of
Manipur
.Customs and rituals also play a very important role in religious practices. There are specific
rituals for various occasions. Rituals performed at birth, puberty, death, etc. relate to life
cycles. There are a number of rituals which are performed at the time of marriage, festivals,
onset of seasons and at sowing and harvesting times. The rituals are generally performed by
the priests or headmen of tribes. Here we will discuss the religious practices of some tribes
only.
,. Bhotias are a complex amalgam of Tibetan-Buddhism and Hinduism in their religious
practices. Tharus are originally Hindu. They follow religion and customs of Hindus. They
- worship Mahadeva and Bhavani, and at times Brahma is worshipped to ward off sickness or
any calamity, etc. There is a strong belief among Tharus in invisible powers which help in
,
. - . _-
-
i" . .. . - , .
Tribal Cultures
controlling an epidemic, making rain, curing an ill person, etc. They also practise sorceryand
witchcraft.
Among the Orissa tribals, the pantheon consist of the supreme Sun God, Mother-Earth,
presiding deities, nature spirits, ancestral spirits and the village tutelary saints. Supernatural
rites are directed towards happiness and security in this world, natural resources, crops and
avoidance of sickness. They believe in reincarnation and transmigration of souls into various
-
forms of life : trees, birds, animals, etc. The Khond tribals of Orissa performed Meriah
(human sacrifice) sacrifices on the new moon days for the Earth Goddess with
the offer of blood to ensure the prosperity and happiness. This practice of Meriah has now
been abolished by persuasive and regulative measures of the Indian government.The Bondos
of Orissa worship a particular sword in the belief that it connects them with the mighty Rajput
warriors of yester years.
Bodos are mostly influenced by Hinduism. Shakt., Shaiva and Vaishnava cults are present
in various forms. Their important deities Bathou and His consort Mainao are equated with
Lord Shiva and, His consort ParvatiDurga. Ahoms are influenced by Buddhism. Although
earlier they were animist, they never used to go for animal sacrifice particularly at the
Phura-Lung pqja.
Garos believe in a number of spirits which act and behave like human beings but have no
shape. Their spirits fall into two categories :
i)
Spirits embodying natural forces : spirit of thunderboltlpower (Goera); spirit of wealth
(Susime) , etc.
ii) Spirits which causes illness : causing body ache (Delwa), causing illness of children
(Moila), etc. The disease is supposed to be cured by keeping the spirits happy by animal .
sacrifices.
Mizos believe that they are looked after by a good spirit khuavang, while Lasi looked
after the animals. They also believed in some evil spirits called Ramhuai who are
responsible for the ills in the world.
Chakmas are predominantly Buddhist. But they are also influenced by Hinduism and
Animism in their rituals. Theyworship Hindu gods and goddesses like Shiva, Kali,Durga,
Laxrni, etc. They appease harmful spirits by sacrificing animals.
. 27.4 TRIBAL ECONOMY
Tribal societies, in general, have very simple economic activities. The tribal population is
characterised by a heterogeneous cultural patterns with variegated economic conditions and
activities depending largely on ecology. Their socio-economic structure is markedly different
from that of the non-tribals. They have a very simple technological base which fits well with
their ecological surroundings.
It is very difficult to characterise tribal economy. Large number of tribes residing in India
have diverse economic activities. In terms of the economic activities, the tribes may be
classified into following categories :
i) Food gathering - hunting,
ii) Pastoral,
iii) Agriculturists, and
6
iv) Craft production and trading.
Many tribal groups have more than one economic activity and these divisions are not always
verywell marked. A common feature ofall these is the simple technological base which allows
for limited generation of surplus.
.\ -
The economic relations among the tribals themselws are mostly based on barter and '\
exchange. Money as a store and measurement of value and medium ofexchange is not widely ss
used. Institutions like banking and credit are used only in dealingwith non-tribal groupswhich
depends upon the nature and frequencyofcontacts with them. The profit motive in economic
deahgs is generallyabsent.The role ofan incentive is fulfilled bya sense ofmutualobligation,
sharing and solidarity. Co-operative and collective endeavour is a unique feature of their
economy. The regular market as an institution alongwith its conditions of market like perfect Society and Economy
competition and monopoly isabsent. What comes nearest to it is the weekly market or festival
and seasonal meets. The manufacture of consumer rather than capital goods is common and
the same are consumed, nothing being saved or exchanged in trade.
The notion of property is closely related to display and expenditure of wealth.rather than to
its accumulation. Material goods, movable and immovable may be referred to as property
and this entails the existence of some rule of inheritance.
Some of the tribal societies are still hunting and food gethering societies in economic terms.
A few of these are found in Central India and on islands such as the Lakshwadeep. Their
main source of survival depends on their immediate natural environment. If forest based,
their economydepends on hunting, rearing ofcattle and cultivation based on forest clearings.
Forests also supplement the needs of predominantly agricultural tribes. Forest produce such
as firewood, leaves, h i t s , honey, grasses, etc. also help in generating extra income.
. .
A Bhil tribal hunter
Yerukala couple making ropes
Aqa ~uman of Kameng weaving cloth Ladakhi wman with her spinning wheel
39
Tribal Cultures
Hill based tribes are famous for their terraced agriculture Cjhum or shiftingcultivation). Here
-
hill sides are terraced vertically upwards and sown with wheat, hill rice, corn and potato.
There are also several gaddi or shepherd tribes whose economies are based on grazing cattle
and sheep. Today, however, tribes in Kashmir, Garhwal and Himachal have taken to
commercial cropping of apples and potatoes which has greatly improved their economic
,
position.
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF THE TRIBALS
Food Gatherers Pastoral Economy Cultivation in plains TradeMandicrafts
in plains1
Shifting
Cultivation
Andamanese Bhutias of North India Abor Bhil Agaries
Birhor
Chenchu Todas of South India Baiga Khumij Abor
Juang Gujars Caro Gond Baiga
Kadar Khasi Ho Munda Gond
Kurumba Cond Oraon Kota Bishore o f
Chhotanagpur
Mismi Oraon Charis of Andaman Islands
Naga Santhal
Broadly speaking the tribes of the North-East follow shifting cultivation; those of Central
zone are engaged in agriculture; and a number of tribes in the South-Eastern zone are food- ,
gatherers.
I
The ownership of land amongst tribes is normally governed by customary rights. Although
individual ownership is predominant, collective ownership of lands managed by the village
Panchayat or the chief is also found. Land grabbing by non-tribals through the indebtedness
of the tribals has been one of the major problems of these areas.
.-
The basic unit of labour and social life is the family but the notion of the collectiveness is also
verystronglyassociated with tribal identity.There is a great dealof interdependence amongst
the different members of the community. Traditions such as Pagyali (a form of collective
labour where every village family contributes to the labour needs of each other - both in the
fields and in cattle raising) is prevalent not only among the Khasas but also found among
other tribal communities.
Tribal regions are also famous for their traditional handicrafts and artisanal skills. Weavers
and other craftsmen have always occupied a special position in these societies. Wood and
cane works, metal crafts and stone works are also pursued by many tribal communities. Each
of these skills is taught to the younger generation through apprenticeship. While in some
communities there is a division between the sexes in terms of tasks performed, the practice
varies from tribe to tribe. For example, whereas in Jaunsar Bawar in Garhwal, the weaving
i
and the colourful painting of houses is done by women, in the Kinnauri tribes of Himachal
Pradesh,weaving is largely done by men who form a special caste within the community.Some
I
tribal communities (like Bhotias ofTarai region of U.P.) are also involved in tradingactivities.
The industrialisation and economic changes have greatly influenced the traditional tribal
economy. Deforestation, grabbing of tribal land, lack of infrastructure and technology has
increased pressure on limited resources. The traditional and self-sufficient economy dvas
greatly disturbed. As a result, large number of tribals were forced to look for livelihood
outside. Now they are available for mines, factories and agricultural farms as labourers.
I
The Bhotias were good traders and craftsmen. But they suffered a lot after 1%2India-China
war. Consequently, they shifted from their traditional occupation to government job, etc.
Most of the tribes of southern U.P. are agricultural labourers, wage earners in forests, mines
and construction sites.
Society and Economy
Tribal handicrafts from Manipur, Nagaland and Tripura
A detailed survey of the tribal economy and social organisation reveals that diverse forms
exist but there are some fundamental characteristic of tribal economy. These can be outlined
as follows :
1. Dependence on forests and natural environs,
2. Unit of production, consumption and input of labour being the family,
3. Simple technological base,
4. Small profit base in economic dealings,
5. The community working as a cooperative unit,
6. Periodical markets and fairs at local and regional level, and
7. Interdependence among various tribal groups.
n
1. Write a note on the religious practices of the Garos.
,
2. Describe the chief characteristics of tribal economy.
27.5 LET US SUM UP
Tribals are generally considered backward in socioeconomic institutions and religious
practices. They, nevertheless, possess their distinct lifestyle i nd have their own &t of ideas
which may be distinct from the developed world. In their lifestyle priharily they are
influenced and governed by their natural environment. Their social organisation is based on
exogamous and endogamous clans. Family being the basic unit. They follow both the nuclear
as well as joint family system. Among all the tribal communities, women enjoy a high status.
They participate in almost all the activities of tribal life on equal footing with their male
counterparts. Tribal villages have their own village councils where all the major decisions are
taken and disputes settled. Tribals have their distinct religious practices. Many of the tribes
are influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism and Christianity. Banevolent and malevolent spirits
also occupy an important place in their belief systems. In contrast to the non-tribal economy,
tribal economic structure is very simple and is governed by their ecological surroundings and
environment. Accordingly, some tribes practise jhum (shifting) cultivation,and some subsist
on pastoral economy. A few indulge in trading activities; while some are engaged in
handicrafts production. A fewtribes still followhuntingand food gathering as basic economic
activity.
I~heek your ~ o g r e q s - 1 I
3. See Sub-sec. 27.2
1. See Sec. 27.3
2. See Sec. 27.4
UNIT 28 TRIBES AND DEVELOPMENT
POLICY
Structure
28.0 Objectives
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Planning and Programmes for Tribal Development: British India
28.3 Planning and Programmes for Tribal Deve1opment:Post Independence India
283.1 The Concept of Scheduled Tribe
283.2 Constitutional Safeguartls
2833 Various Programmes for Tribal Development
28.4 Government Policies: A Review
285 Tourism and Tribal Areas
28.6 Let Us Sum UD
28.0 OBJECTIVES ,-
After reading this Unit you will:
know legal status of tribes,
know about the legal difference between a scheduled and a non-Scheduled Tribe,
learn about the protection provided to Scheduled Tribes by the constitution of India,
know about the attitude of government towards the tribals,
be familiar with the policies followed by the Indian Government for the betterment of
, , the tribals, and
L
be aware of the perspective of tourism in tribal aieas.
i 28.1 INTRODUCTION '-
'
We haw already discussed tribal identities, their geographical spread and socio-economic
I
structure in the previous three Units of the present Block. In the present Unit, as the title
itself suggests, we will discuss tribal problems and the efforts made by the Government for
the development of the tribes and the tribal areas.
Immediately after the transfer of power from the British East India Company to the British
:
Crown British policy makers showed keen interest in the tribal areas. British government
followed a policy of maintaining tribal culture and their distinct identities. This policy
resulted in the isolation ofthe tribals from the mainstream ofIndian life. After independence,
our policy makers attempted to safeguard the special interests of the tribal communities.
Various provisions were incorporated in the constitution to take care of certain 'interests' of
the tribal communities.
6
In the present Unit we will acquaint you with the constitutiorial safeguards provided for the
protection of tribals. Besides, we will also assess the efforts made through the Indian
planning process to improve the conditions of the tribal regions. A critical evaluation of
Government initiatives and policies for the development of these areas has also been done.
The gap between the policy formulation and implementation has also been examined. Some
issues related to tourism and tribal areas have also been touched upon.
282 PLANNING AND PROGRAMMES FOR TRIBAL
DEVEL0PMENT:BRITISH INDIA
The establishment ofthe rule ofBritish East India Company in the 2nd halfofthe 18th century
disturbed the existing land revenue system and laws. The new system adverselyaffected, both
the tribal and non-tribal regions. The main thrust of British policies was to extract maximum
possible economic benefits from the tribal regions. No attempt was made to understand their
way of life and economic organisation. As a result their moves were resis!ed by the tribals
A Bhil tribal girl, Gujarat
leading to a number of rebellions. The most famous of these were Kol rebellion (1820-37)
and Santhal rebellion of Chhotanagpur region of Bihar (1855-56).
After 1857 when India passed from the British East India Company to the British Crown
several attempts to codifythe lawsand structure the administration of tribalareas were made.
The British came into contact with tribal areas through the efforts spearheaded by
missionaries in the early nineteenth century. The British government created administrative
zones called excluded and partially excluded areas and gave them separate political
representation. These Scheduled tracts were largely in the Himalayan region - the then
Assam, Darjeeling, Garhwal, Kumaon, Jaunsar Bawar, Lahul-Spiti; in Central. India,
Chhotanagpur and Santhal Pargana, Angul Mahal, Chanda, Chhattisgarh, Chhindawara,
Manpur (Indore), Jhansi, Mirzapur; in Western India - Panch Mahals, Mewasi (Khandesh);
and in South India, Vizagaptam, Godavari, and Lakshadweep. These above mentioned areas
remained the basic tracts identified for special protection despite several amendments being
passed until 1935.
The problems of the tribes during the British period increased as a result of the expansion
of the British system of law and revenue in the tribal regions. The specific problems were
related to new forest laws, and from the loss of their land as the combined result of the British
policies and the rapacity of money lending classes.
There are some tribes(Birhors,Korwas,Baigas,Khonds,etc.) who pursue shiftingcultivation.
But no attention was paid by the British Government to reserve some areas for the tribals
pursuing shifting cultivation, nor was any attempt made to induce them to take to plough
culture. Instead, tribal land used for shifting cultivation was prohibited in most areas. The
people, thus, were forced to take to the kind of agriculture Zlnsuited to them."
British system oflawand administration proved disastrous to the aboriginals. It failed to take
account of any 'special' needs. British introduced such notions of land tenure that it made r
possible for easy transfer of land. The land was now, for the first time, to be regarded as
,
transferable commodity. It resulted in loss of land to and supplanting of the tribal village
headmen by people from outside particularly in Assam and hilly regions by people from the
plains. These outsiders included cultivators, money lenders, traders and even land grabbers.
Forest laws were very stringent. They were passed keeping in mind the British interests and
did not suit these tribes. Excise laws made it illegal to brewrice-beer or any kind ofspirituous
drink to protect earnings. The tribals were now offered highly intoxicating liquor made in
British territories. As a result they had to substitute distilled liquor for their rice-beer, which
was a relatively harmless beverage. Opium and other drugs replaced liquor on occasions. It
led to increased drunkenness and became a drain on meagre resources of tribesmen.
The judicial officers were not conversant with the language, customs, and attitudes of the
people and failed to provide satisfactory judicial system. The new laws adversely affected
the family and social life. Certain forms of marriages were declared illegal and even
punishable. There were large number of tribals who'could not afford to marry on account of
the practice of the payment of heavy bride price. Similarly, the fairs and weekly markets;
which were begun to attract the tribals have ruined them financiallybecause ofthe domination
of the moneylenders, traders, etc. from outside.
*
On the whole, the British followed a policyofisolating tribal areas from the rest ofthe country.
The result of these exclusionist policies was that the tribal tracts of India lagged behind the
rest of the country. The freedom movemedt in the country also left these areas largely
untouched. It was only after independece and not till the making of the Constitution in 1950
that the attempts were made to integrate tribal population into the mainstream.
283 PLANNING AND PROGRAMMES FOR TRIBAL
. i
DEVELOPMENT: POST-INDEPENDENCE INDIA .
I
In this Section we will discuss about the concept of Scheduled Tribes; various constitutionalm
safegguards provided for the development of Scheduled Tribes; and Indian Government's
policies and programmes for the advancement and growth of tribals and tribal regions.
I
I
, 283.1 The Concept of Schedule Tribe
Under the constitution of India certain tribes have been ht ed as the Scheduled Tribes. Only
those tribes which have been included in the list ofscheduled Tribes are extended the facility
of reservations in legislatures and government jobs. Certain tribes, for instance, some
nomadic tribes are not specified as Scheduled Tribes. The constitution neither defines nor
lays down any criteria for specifying the Scheduled Tribes. As per Article 366 (25) of the
constitution, t e Scheduled Tribe means such tribes or tribal communities or parts of or
groups within \ uch tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be
Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this constitution. The Scheduled Tribes are declared
specified by the President under Article 342through public notification.The parliament may,
by law, include or exclude from the list of Scheduled Tribes any tribal community or part
thereof in any State or Union Territory.
There is no religious bar for specifying a tribe as a Scheduled Tribe. The main criteria
adopted for specifying communities as the Scheduled Tribes include (i) traditional
occupational economy and pattern of a tribe in a delinite geographical area (ii) distinctive
culture which includeswhole spectrum of tribal way of life i.e., languages,customs, traditions,
religious beliefs, arts and crafts, etc., and (iii) lack of educational and techno- economic
P development.
i
,
In post independence period grouping together of a number of tribal communities as the
Scheduled Tribes in the constitution is a significant achievement. It h'as helped in
consolidatian'of their position as a distinct ethnic, linguistic and cultural entity.
,
All the tribeswhich exist in our country are not acknowledged as Scheduled Tribe. Our policy
makers have laid down some criteria for declaring a tribe asa Scheduled Tribe.Though, there
is a provision in the constitution that new names could be added or deleted from this list
depending on satisfjmg these norms. However, this facility has not been used effectively so
far. This has resulted to a situation where some deserving tribes are stiU not getting their
s h a ~ of protection and incentives.
1
2832 Constitutional Safeguards
'
Our constitution provides a number of provisions to ensure development and protection to
tribal culture and society.. The basic idea behind these was to ensure state support for less
privileged wctions of society. By providing reservations in legislatures and government jobs
their participation in the affiirs of the state was ensured. The constitutional provisions for
the uplifiment of tribes may be divided into two parts 1) Protective, and 2) Developmental.
Provisions for the administration of the tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and
Mizoram are made in the VIthscheddeofthe constitution. While scheduled tribesinhabiting
other states other than Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram are dealt with in the Vth
Schedule.
The provisions made in the Vth Schedule are :
i)
Tri bes Advisory Councils are to be constituted to give advice on welfare and.
advancement of the Scheduled Tribes in the States as may be refered to them by the
Governor". [Schedule V, Para 41
'ii) The Governor is also authorised to make regulations to prohibit or restrict the transfer
of land by or amodg members of, the Scheduled Tribes, regulate the allotment of land,
and regulate the business of money lending." [Schedule V, para 51
The VIth Schedule provides, Tribal areas [of Assam, Meghalaya, Mimram and Tripura] are
to be administered as autonomous districts ..... Provision is made for the creation of District
Councils and Regional Councils for the exercise ofcertain legislative and judicial functions.
These councils are primarily representative bodies and they have got the power oflaw-making
in certain specified fields ...." [Schedule M]
Article 15(4): Promotion of Social, Economic and Educational interests : This article
empowers Zhe state to make any special provision for the advancement of socially and
educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes". This clause has been especially incorporated to prevent any special provisioh made
by a state for the advancement of socially or educationally backward classes of citizens From
being challenged in the law courts on the ground of discrimination.
Tribes and Development ,
Policy
Tribal Cultures
Article 16(4) : Reservation in Posts and Services: This clause empowers the state to "reserve
any post or appointment in favour of any backward class or citizens, who in the opinion of
the state are not adequately represented in the services under the state."The state isexpected
to reserve reasonable percentage of available jobs for the backward classes. However, there
is nothing to pre\rent a member of a backward class for competing with general category
people and to be appointed to non-reserved posts if selected.
Article 19(5): Safquard of Tribal Interests: While the rights of Free movement and
residence throughout the territory of India and of acquisition and disposition of property are
guaranteed to every citizen, special restrictions may be imposed by 'the state for the
protection of the interests of any Scheduled Tribe". (For example state may impose
restrictions on owning property by non tribals in tribal areas.)
Article 23: 'Traffic in human beings, begar and other similar forms of forced labour are
prohibited ". This is a very significant provision so far as Scheduled Tribes are concerned.
Article29: Cultural and Educational Rights: According to this article a cultural or linguistic
minority has right to conserve its language or culture. The state shall not impose upon it
any culture other than the community's own culture."
Article 164: It provides for a Minister-in-charge of tribal welfare in the states of Bihar, Orissa
and Madhya Pradesh. These states have substantial tribal population and special provision
of a Minister looking after tribal welfare is an evidence of the concern of the fra8mers of the
constitution for safeguarding the interests of Scheduled Tribes.
Articles 330,332 and 334: According to these articles seats shall be reserved for Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes in legislative bodies. There are provisions for reservattions of
seats in the parliament as well as legislative Assembly of every state (~rticle330,33$. Such
reservations were cease to be effective after a period of 10 years from the commencement of
the constitution (Article 334) but after every ten years its being extended through
constitutional amendments. L
Article 335: 'The claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes shall
be taken into consideration in making the appointments to services and posts in connection
with the affiirs of the Union or of a State."
Article338: It says that there shall be a special officer for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes to be appointed by the President. It shall be the duty of the specialefficer (designated
Commissioner) to investigate all matters relating to the sa9guards provided to them under
the constitution and to report to the President upon the &Wing of those sakguards at such
intervals as the President may direct, and the President shall cause all reports to be laid
before each House of Parliament.
Article339(1): The President may at any time and shall at the expiration of 10 years from the'
commencement of the constitution by order appoint a Commission to report on the '
administration ofScheduled areas and the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in the states.
1
Article 371(A, B, C) : Provides for the special measures and provisions with respect to the
states of Maharashtra and Gujarat (371), Nagaland (371 A), Assam (371 B), and Manipur
I
1
(371 C). Besides, provisions are also made (as discussed above) in the fifth and the six*
"!
Schedule of the constitution regarding the administration of the tribal areas.
:
r
1)
Examine the British policy for the tribal development.
C
2)
What are the criteria adopted for declaring a tribe a Schedule Tribe?
3)
Discuss various constitutional safeguards of protective nature in favour of Scheduled
Tribes.
1, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2833. Various Programmes for Tribal Development
The Constitution of 1950 under the provision of Article 343 specifies certain tribes and tribal
communitiesas Scheduled Tribes. This list has been revised numerous times but the essential
areas first specified by the British are still operational.
The general understanding of the Indian leadership ofthe period was that tribal India needed
to be brought into mainstream ofdevelopment. They were at the same time concerned about
protecting tribal regions from exploitation. A policy of providing jobs in government services
for niernbers of the tribal community through reservations was also followed (See Sub sec
28.3.3). In 1958, the then Prime Minister, Jawahar La1 Nehru laid emphasis on tribal
development and suggested that:
Tribal people be encouraged to develop their owncultural patterns rather than imposing
outside culture upon them.
Tribal rights to lands and forests should be respected and protected.
EfForts should be made to prepare and train local people to take over the regions'
administrative tasks rather than assigning the responsibility to outside officers and
agencies.
The financial needsof these tribalareas w r e incorporated into India's various five p a r plans.
Until the fifth five p a r plan, tribal grants were located separately from the general budget
but after the fifth plan, they were included in the general allocations. It was also proposed
that the tribal regions be placed under a special minister who would be responsible for
implementing di fi rent special schemes for these areas.
The First Plan concentrated on educational, health and economic development'and the
I building of roads and other communication services in the tribal areas. The Second Plan
emphasised on their economic development by specifying the sectors of agriculture, cottage
industries, forest,cooperativesand special development Blocks. The Third Plan did not alter
the priorities. The Fourth and Fifth Plans, however, introduced the Area Development
Approach where special areas were identified and selected for intensive development.
The various programmes and schemes adopted by the government for tribal welfare can be
divided into five broad categories, viz. economic, educational, health and sanitation,
communication and housing, sociocultural and political. Special Tribal Development
Blocks have been created by the government at the State level to slipenbe tribal policy and
programmes.
The State Development Boards are also responsible for introducing more productive strains
of cattle into tribal areas. Minor irrigation schemes like digging of wells and small canals
which are extremely suitable for hilly tribal areas also fall under these Boards. Traditional
handicrafts are also encouraged by the government and often grants and loans are available
for setting up cottage industries in tribal areas. There are also special provisions for starting
handicraft cooperatives in tribal areas. Expenditure on education and health is also rooted
Tribes and ~evelopmGi
Policy
, .
Tribal Cultum
through State Development Boards. The special emphasis is given to universalising primary
education among tribal populations.
The following table shows the overall budget allocated for development oftribal areas in the
past seven five year plans :
Besides, Welfare Ministry of Government of India has provided Rs. 186.76 crores in the 5th
plan, Rs. 486 crores in 6th Plan and Rs. 296 crores in first two years of seventh plan (from a
total provision of Rs. 756 crores) to the tribals as Special Central Assistance.
So far 184 Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDP), 277 Packages of ~o d i f i e h Area
Development Approach (MADA) for intensive Scheduled Tribe Areas,and 73 micro projects
for doomed Scheduled Tribe groups have been established.
Financial help has also been provided through ITDP and other programmes to help the
Schedule Tribes to increase their earnings. In 6th plan 39.67 lakh Scheduled Tribe families
were provided financial help. The aim of the seventh plan is to provide financial help to 40
lakh Scheduled Tribe families. The literacy rate among the Scheduled ~ r i b e i has also gofie
up from 8.54 per cent (according to 1961 census) to 16.35 per cent in 1%8181:
Efforts are being made to increase health facilities in the tribal areas. By an estimate around
1542 Primary Health Centres and 10489 sub-centres are opera60nal providing medical
services into the tribal regions.
To connect the area with the distant places, various electronic medias are being used. In the
6th plan 128 tribal districts are covered, and work started in 119 districts; 105 Radio stations
were also established to cover 46 tribal areas in 7th five year plan. Likewise, 119 tribal districts
were to be covered by television programmes in the 7th plan. Cooperatives were formed to
save the tribals from exploitation. For this purpose Tribal Cooperative Marketing
Development Federation of India (TRIFED) was established in August, 1987 to help them
selling out their forest products. Seventh and Eighth Finance Commissions have
recommended special provisions to improve and develop the forest areas. The New Forest
Policy, 1988 is commendable because it recognises for the first time the importance of the
people dependent on forests. Instead of regarding them destroyers of forests, they are,
accepted as the protectors for their lives depend on them. So instead of barring their entry
into forests, the new policy has laid down that tribals and forest dwellers be allowed to gather
their basic domestic requirements of fuel wood, fodder, minor forest produce and
construction timber from forests. Tribals will also be associated with the protection,
regeneration and development of forests.
On the basis of the above it is clear that considerable resources have been allocated by the
government for the betterment of tribal areas. However, due to historical factors of isolation
and lack of infrastructural development, more work needs to be done in tribal areas if they
are to attain the level of development of the rest of the country.
'
Several voluntary agencies, social workers and social welfare agenciesare also involved in the
uplifiment of tribal areas. One such federation of social service agencies for doing tribal
welfare work in different parts of the country is Bhartiya Adirqjati Sewak Sang, started in
1948 under the presidentship of Dr. Rajendra Prasad (India's first President). These
organisations concentrate on solving the immediate problemsof tribals and providing income
earning and educational opportunities to tribal people. Several other organisations such as
the All India Backward Classes Federation and Indian Red Cross Society also desene
mention.
28A GOVERNMENT POLICIES : A REVIEW )
The government of India through a number of legislations and policies has reiterated its
commitment to the tribal development. A number of schemes and programmes have been
I
L - ..
I
launched from time to time to achieve this goal. In spite of all these efforts tribal areas still Tribes and Development '
f remain relatively backward and need more attention. Policy
I
Government policy has suffered, both, from lack of research and perspective. Many times
the goals are clearly stated but the resources and infrastructure lag behind. Policy is often
devised at the top level with little participation of the local tribal communities. As a result,
most of the times they are passive partners. Further, policies are at times devised without
keeping in mind the significant differences that exist between tribal areas and tribes, Thus,
a policy suitable for Central India may be detrimental to hill areas. Anthropological data
have generally suggested that the understanding of tribal organisation needs to be carried out
scientifically so that the problems of tribes at different levels of technological, economic and
cultural development can be identified. Besides, tribal life can be well preserved without
reducing the tribals to museum pieces. In recent years government has started involving
non-governmental organisations, in a big way, for tribal development. The situation has since
improved in certain ways.
,Another major problem with government sponsored programmes has been the lack of
adequately qualified personnel. Often officers and members of the government or of
voluntary agencies lack in indepth knowledge about ground realities. It results in serious
differences in the perspectives. This, at times, leads to problems at the implementation stage
of projects which may otherwise be well designed and sensitive to the needs of the local
population. Proper training in customs, language of the people and a regular dialogue
between the local population and development agencies are essential if programmes are to
-be successfully implemented. Further, more tribals should be encouraged and trained to
directly participate in development programmes and administration of their own areas.
Government of India's efforts have had mixed results. Significant improvement has been
made in the entry of tribal people into the wider socio-political structure of the country
through reservations in legislatures and government jobs. Nevertheless, problems of
illiteracy, ill-health, inequality, unemployment, poverty and lack of infrastructure still prevail.
It is in the sectors of education and poverty alleviation that the government needs to continue
its efforts.
A major problem in tribal areas remains that of indebtednessamongst tribals. In tribal areas
often the debts are carried from generation to generation. In sonie cases more th;a,, 50 per
cent households are heavily indebted to.money lenders. This is a serious source of poverty
and oppression in tribal areas, especially that of Bihar, Gujarat and other parts of Central
India.
In spite of the efforts made by the Government, the benefits are not reaching to the really
needy poor people. The basic problem is not of the scarcity of resources but that of
mismanagement. The multiplicity of the agencies which are carrying out these programmes
i
has compounded the problem. Many times they are not able to co-ordinate their efforts or
hi1 to follow up the programmes over a longer duration. There is need to make integrated
efforts. Some initiative in this direction have come, both, from Government and
non-government agencies. The results of these are evident in some areas.
1.285 TOURISM AND TRIBAL AXEAS
Tribal culture is not only rich in tradition, its unique features generate a lot of interest among
tourists. The Indian government has also seen tourism asa strategyofeconomic development
in Tribal areas. Not only do the customs, festivals and dances of tribal communities attract
foreigners and Indian tourist, their colourful handicrafts and traditional dresses are also quite
popular. This becomes a means of income generating activity for tribals. The areas of Leh,
Ladakh, Spiti, Kinnaur, the Santhal Paraganas are all major tourist destinations today.
However, the tourist influx brings in its wake both positive and negative elements. On the
-positive side, one may see the increased income accruing to local people. On the negative
I side, there is danger of the commercialisation of cultural values and norms. Further,
! unscrupulous businessmen and developers may take advantage of tribals to exploit their land
and resources leading tribals into a spiral of poverty and landlessness.
I
Aswehave seen, tribalculturescan best be brought Into mainstream development byensuring
that their distinctive cultural traditions and economies are not disturbed by short sighted
policies and projects. For those involved in tourism, it is essential to be sensitive to tribal
culture and sensibilities of people. The main aim should be a familiarization with their
culture and understanding them rather than marketing their culture. Our efforts should be
directed towards an equitable participation and sharing the social and economic benefits of
Tourism.
Icheck Your Progress-2 I ..
1) Discuss the fundamental principles emphasised by Jawahar La1 Nehru for the
de~l opment of tribal areas.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i
.i
!
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
2)
What are the main problems still faced by the tribals?
1
- I
i
4
Tribal areas and tribal cultures in India make her a unique land ofdiverse cultures. They form
a part of India's rich heritage. Tribal cultures have had distinct languages and cultural
traditions of their own. They also have their own socio- political systems. To sum up, tribal
culhres are an unique microcosm. Although tribal cultures have ancient roots, the lack of
infrastructural development and at times inaccessibility of remote areas lead to a number of
problems. Illiteracy, poverty, lack of health facilities and poor communication system'are
,
some of the major problems. Tribal development, to begin with, was seen in two ways. The
one favoured a complete merger with the non-tribal society. The second approach was
advocated maintaining tribal identityalongwith their development. At present there isalmost
a consensus that tribal development should be achieved without disturbing their identity and
culture. In this Unit you have studied the efforts made by the Government through a number
of measures for the development of tribal regions. We have also pointed out some
shortcomings and problems in these efforts. Tourism industry sees a lot of potential in tribes
and their region. We have pointed out the dangers of rdpid expansion of tourism in tribal
regions. There is need to be cautious in adopting a policy for the development of tourism in
these areas.
' 28.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES 3
1)
See Sec. 28.2 Discuss that the British followed a policy of isolating the tribal areas from
rest of the country.
2)
It is not religion but geographical features, distinct cultural traits, occupational pattern,
etc. were taken into account for declaring a tribe, a Scheduled Tribe. See ~ e c . 28.3.1
3)
Point out those constitutionalsafeguards which protect the interests ofscheduled Tribes.
See Sec. 28.3.2
heck Your Progress-2
I
1) See Sec. 28.3.3
2)
The main problems faced by tribal societies even today are illiteracy, low economic
development, indebtedness, and poverty. See Sec. 28.4.
UNIT 29 GOVERNMENT
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Tourism, Culture and State
Goverment : Policy and Planning
Tourism Policy : Protection and Promotion
Tourism Policy : Need for Reorientation
Let Us Sum Up
29.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you will:
be acquainted with the relationship amongst tourism, culture and the state,
know about the goevernment policies to preserve, protect and promote various facets of
Indian culture, and
be able to analyse the cultural contents of Government's tourism policy along with the
inherent contradictions.
29.1 INTRODUCTION
Tourism is becoming one of the most important social and economic activities of today's
world. The number of domestic and international travellers is steadily increasing and many
countries in the world are now seeking to develop tourism for its many benefits. There is
also justifiable concern about the existing as well as possible negative effects of tourism and
a growing desire to develop this sector in a planned and controlled manner that optimizes
benefits while preventing any serious problems. In addition to newly developing tourism
areas, those places that already have substantial tourism development are now re-examining
their tourism sectors, policies, and in many places, desiring to make improvements where
necessary to meet contemporary standards and environmental objectives. Recognition is
gradually being given to the development of tourism in an integrated manner that sustains
its resources for perpetual use, and helps conserve (and not deteriorate) an area's natural
and cultural heritage.
In developing tourism of any particular countrytregion, its cultural heritage plays a very
crucial role. Equally important is that how the culture is portrayed to the tourist or How its
promotion is carried out in the tourist generating markets. Alongwith it, ideology, values and
the +ion of the tourist plays a critical role in influencing the nature of tourist development
and policy formulation. The vice-versa is also true in this regard.
Since tourism is generally considered as an unproblematic activity that is beyond a political
unileque, the Government and inter -governmental agencies concerned with tourism have
zenerally not been questioned on who makes Tourism Policy and what are its contents as far
as social and cultural impacts are concerned. The notion that it is an industry which is
generally considered as a remedy for foreign exchange problems with no side effects has
proved to be erroneous in the case of developing countries.
In the present Unit we will discuss the relationship ofthe state, tourism and culture. Besides,
a critical evaluation of the government's policies regarding promotion and preservation of
Indian culture in relation to cultural tourism are also discussed.
-- -- - - - - - - - -
29.2 TOURISM, CULTURE AND STATE
Tourism is developed for various reasons. Besides economic benifits, tourism can also
justify applying measures for environmental and cultural heritage conservation for which
resources otherwise might not be available. Socially, tourism in its best form provides
recreational, cultural and commercial facilities and serviccs that may not have been
developed without tourism for use by both tourists as well as by residents. It provides thc
opportunity to educate people about their cultures and environments as well as their own
national hcritage. Often this helps in circumventing ideological and political differences and
reducing prejudicial attitudes, that is, achieving a cross- cultural exchange.
Howevcr, tourism can also generate various problems such as the loss of potential economic
benefits and local economic distraction, environmental degradation, the loss of cultural
identity and integrity, and cross-cultural misunderstandings, reinforcing existing prejudices.
These benefits and problems will be examined in more depth in the specific context of
cultural aspects.
One of the difficulties in examining the relationship between tourism, culture and
Government is that the concept of culture is, like state:power, a contested concept.
Recreational tourism is typically perccived as a leisure activity which is undertdken
voluntarily, without constrains, as a sense of obligation. On thc other hand, politics denotes
the struggle over scarce resources, the domination of one group over anothcr and the
potential exercise of state control. The two would, therefore, seem to be completely different
social realms or spheres. Nevertheless, Wilson has explained it very clearly:
"The liberals and conservatives both locate leisure firmly within the private sphere, a
region of elite in which the individual can engage in these integral and significant social
,
relationsl~ips that are the building blocks of personal identity. The private sphere
connotes freedom and autonomy while the public sphere means constrains and aliena-
tion. In the private sphere the individual is in control, in the public sphere the
individual is under control".
The problematic positioning of tourism within either thc public or the private sphere reflects
the empyreans of understanding the social context within which tourism is both defined and
occurs as an activity. The notion of the conte~uality of tourism as a form of leisure implies
thc recognition that there is no such thing as absolute frcedorn.
Each state sets the framework and rules by which tourism activities can be pursucd. Even
within the "free'' countries of the west, certain tourist behaviours may be prohibited. Freedom
is hcdged by the prevailing distribution of resources and by rules which define those activities
as admissible or inadmissible pleasures, and which defines those activities which may hc
legitimately pursued in their own right rather than for instrumental purposes, and which
specifiesby whom they may be pursued. For example, in totalitarian statcs the private sphere
does not exist. In the case of the former socialist countries of Eastcrn Europe, the nature of
tourism activity was a substantial political concern of thc state and was geared to serve the
political and ideological goals of the state with benefits to the individual being a secondary
consideration. However, tourism can play a major role in socialising certain values in
individuals and reinforcing dominant ideologies/imagcs. Moreover, the potential for
wholesale contact between people of different culturcs and values that tourism represents
clearly has the potential for greater value change than industries which primarily deal with
physical products, such as agriculturc, manufacturing or mining.
The role that tourism can play in influencing cultural heritagr. is inherent in ideas of
commoditisation, which implies that what were once personal 'cultural displays' of living
traditions or a 'cultural text' of lined authenticity become a 'cultural product' to meet the
needs of commercial tourism. We already have a changed language in which we talk about
the arts no longer as expressions of imagination or creativity, but as a "product". We are no
longer moved by the expericnces the arts have to offer, rather we "consume" them. Here,
Culture becomes a commodity. According to Dowson:
'... ethnic and multicultural festivals may be seen as cultural products to be exploitecl
for tourism ends. Individual ethnic cultures and multiculturalism itself are to be 'solcl'
using 'professional business practices', through the medium of festivals and other
special events. Marketing initiatives and advertising campaigns are the means bywhich
. . . 1 m . . .. ..... . . .. < . . - A . .
.... when. .. an archaic revival of neurotic cultural practices takes place in orderto satisfy
the tastes of tourists, this deliberate, specialized revival vendors ethnicity as a com-
modity. It is valued for the profit it accrues through its exchange in the commercial
tourism market and little more'.
The above discussion makes it very clear that tourism cannot bc termed as an economic
activity only for the state. It is very closely related to the culture and society of the destination.
Hence, it is necessary for the stateJgovernment to formulate the tourism policy keeping in
view not only the economic aspect but also the issue of commoditisation of culture.
29.3 GOVERNMENT : POLICY AND PLANNING
In this Section wc will discuss various steps taken by government to protect and promote
Indian culture and arts, whereas we will discuss Indian governments' tourism policy to
promote Indian culture separately in the next Section.
India possess a complex, and multilayered, multidimensional cultural fabric with strong
regional identities. To accommodate such intricate culture Indian government developed
vast structure to plan and implement various schemes and programmes. During the
pre-independence period British government promoted few cultural institutions like,
National Library, Archaeological Survey of India, Botanical gardens, Anthropological
Survey of India. Mass- media units (All India Radio), etc. But there was no state finance or
organizational support available to the crafts. Whatever all India institutions of culture were
developed were the sheer voluntary efforts. After independence nccd was felt that Indian
government should frame policies to protect and promote Indian arts and crafts; cultural
heritage, etc.
The basic responsibility of administering culture rests on Union Ministry of Human Resource
Development. Its Department of Culture is the main incharge of policy planning and
execution. It maintains and directly administer certain cultural institutions like -
Archaeological Survey of India, National Museum, National Library, National Archives,
National Gallery of Modern Art, etc. Besides, it provides financial support to number of
autonomous bodies, and also to voluntary efforts in literary, performing and plastic arts.
The Union Ministry of Information and Broadcasting looks after and controls mass-media,
both, Radio and television. It also administers Directorate of Advertising and Visual
Publicity with the aim to disseminate cultural heritage to the masses. It has two publicity
units Press Information Bureau and Directorate of Field Publicity. Besides, its Song and
Drama Division l ooh after the entertainment of a large audience. The Films Division is the
central film producing organisation responsible for the production of documentary films to
educate people and spread and preserve Indian cultural heritage. The mass-media
organisations were set up with the aim:
i) for popular entertainment, and
ii)
to disseminate information about regional, national and international developments.
It was expected that all programmes to include 'light cultural content to create awareness
about diverse Indian culture among the masses.' Primarily, All India Radio and Television
programmes consist of children's programmes; programmes on music, dance, drama,
educational programmes, news bulletins, etc. Besides Hindi and English other regional
language programmes are also shownibroadcast on All India Radio and Doordarshan. Also,
there are separate stations of All India Radio all over India, which broadcast programmcs in
regional languages. Similarly, regional level Doordarshan Kendras show programmes, news,
etc. in regional languages for a wider appeal. Another important component of media is films.
Its entertainment value and impact on public mind is well established. The government's
role in making feature films is confined largely to give subsidies and to institute awards for
best films. Otherwise, Indian film industry is highly commercial and privately financed.
However, in making documentaries government plays significant role and they are prepared
largely either as propaganda or for information on Indian culture In 1960, Poona Film
Institute was established under the aegies of Ministry of Information and Broadcasting for
providing diploma courses in photography, sound recording and engineering, film acting and
film editing, etc. Later, National Film Archives of India (1964) and Indian Institute of Mass
Comlnunication (ITMC, 1965) were established. In the archives copies of all the national and
Govcrnmenl
policy Issues in Culture
international films, documentaries, etc. are preserved ; while IIMC provides training and
research in mass communication. Here, we are not going into details about the history and
impact of mass-media on society for we have already dealt it in our Block 4 and in Unit 30 of
the present Block. Here, we are confining to government's promotional policies with regard
to mass-media.
Prior to independence music, dance and drama were not supported directly or indirectly by
the British government. Indian art primarily survived during this period in the urban areas
either under the patronage of Indian princes, or in the hands of handful free-lancers; while
among the rural masses it was the integral part of the folk culture and tradition and also the
chief source of recreation. After independence, Indian government's chief objective behind
the promotion of performing, visual and verbal arts was to preserve, foster and promote
national integration through an awareness of culture. With this purpose, immediately after
independence, three academies were set up:
i)
National Academy of Letters (Sahitya Academy, 1952),
ii)
National Academy of Plastic Arts (Lalit Kala Academy, 1953), and
iii) National Academy of Music, Dance and Drama ( Sangeet Natak Academy, 1953).
The aim of establishing these academies was not only to revitalise, nourish and nurture
traditional arts but also to create better opportunities for the artists. The Sahitya Academy
was set up with an objective to maintain high literary standards and to sustain and,nourish
literary activities in all Indian languages, and to promote through them, the cultural unity of
the country. The Academy has succeeded in blossoming the variegated richness through its
publications, translations, etc. High quality literary works in regional languages have
appeared and awards of prizes (financed by Government of India) to outstanding works of
writers are given. At present, practically in all the states, on the pattern of Sahitya Academy
various academies, literary societies and institutions are working at regional levels. Its critics
continue to comment that more work should have been done in terms of achievements. To
achieve Academy's goals -to stimulate growth, foster quality and bring out coordination
among regional languages - is not an easy task. Certainly much more is left to be done. But
it no way undermines the efforts which have been undertaken for the promotion of Indian
literature and languages.
The aim of setting up the Lalit Kala Academy was to encourage and promote research and
training in plastic and applied arts; and to encourage setting up of art institutions and art
associations. The academy has since then published a number of monographs on Indian
paintings and sculptwe. Besides publishing a research journal it also does the work of
preservation, dissemination and fosteringof Indian art. Currently it is the most vocal platform
for artists. Here one can see the fine blending of tradition with modernity. But, still more is
to be done to establish coddination among various voluntary organisations.
The third important academy Sangeet Natak Academy, working in the field of dance, drama
and music, is expected to promote research in the fields of performing arts and coordinate
activities in these fields. Since its inception it is involved in organising competition, seminars,
festivals, etc. It provides subsidies for publication and research works in the field of
performing arts. There is a special unit for surveys and documentation of folk musk, dance
and drama. Annual awards are given by the academy in the field of classical music. It has
established three national institutions - National School of Drama, Manipuri College, ~ a h e
and Kathak Kendras - to provide training in various fields of performing arts.
-
To preserve Indian cultural heritage, as early as pre-independence period, efforts were
undertaken. In 1788, under the aegis of Sir William Jones, Asiatic Society of India was
established primarily to locate literary material relating to India's past. Archaeology,
however, formed a very small part of its activities. In 1900, Lord Curzon established a
separate unit -Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). The major activities performed by AS1
are : i) excavations ii) preservation and conservation iii) research in the field of epigraphy
and numismatics, and iv) publications. We have already discussed in detail the working of
the Archaeological Survey of India in our Block 1 Unit 3 of this Course. The tirst great task
performed during the pre-independence period was unearthing India's most ancient
civilization, the Harappa in 1924 under the leadership of Sir John Marshal. The
ArcbaeologicaI Survey of India further did commendable work at Kalibangan and Burzahom
in unearthmg the pre-historic past. Government of India passed Ancient Monuments'
Preservation Act under the aegis of Lord Curzon which now exist in the revised form i.e. thc
Act of Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958. Similarly,
Government '
Ii~dian Treasure Trove Act of 1878 exists in the form of the Antiquities and Art Treasures
Act, 1972. With the aim of protecting Indian Monuments Archaeological Survey of lndia
since independence has declared thousands of monuments and art pieces as National
heritage. Attempts are also taken to preserve them. In this direction numbcr of structural
preservation projects are undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India. A separate
Epigraphical Branch is established to undertake deciphering, identifpg, and publishing
inscriptions of Sanskrit, Dravidian, Persian, etc. Archaeological Survey of lndia runs
separate diploma in archaeology to provide training in various branches of archaeology. It
also publishes Reports of Archaeological Survey and Epigraphica Indica. Besides, they
publish a regular journal Indian Archaeological Survey which is an excellent forum for
discussion on approaches, content, and techniques of archaeology. Licences to tourist guides
who work in the monuments are issued by the ASI.
Museums are also established to conserve and preserve artefacts and to serve as a centrc of
public education and recreat~on. They also organise small exhibitions, particularly to
educate and create awareness ahout the cultural heritage of India among school and college
students. They are also used for research purposes. They regularly publish guide books and
information bulletins. However, there is still great need for better training facilities for
museum personnel. We have already discussed about the Museums as vehicle of prcseving
Indian art and culture in Block 6 Unit 20. There are 16 exclusive site archaeological
museums where artefacts of various archaeological sites are preserved. In this regard one
can name Indian Museum, Calcutta, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, National Museum,
New Delhi, and Salarjung Museum, Hyderabad. To preserve the extinct tribal culture
government has set up various museums where living tribal culture is preserved. Manav
Sansthan of Bhopal is an unique attempt in this direction. Similarly, in New Delhi a separate
Adim Jati Sangrahalaya was set up where not only various tribal traditions are preserved
and depicted through visuals but it also coordinates with various tribal groups for the
development of various tribal communities. The Goverment of India as well as various state
governments offer grants to museums and formulate policies relating to their management
and fuilctions.
Country's community development programmes come under Ministry of Food, Agriculture,
I
Community Development and Cooperation. The chief objective of setting up village
community programmes is to protect and nourish culture at the village and the non-urban
level.
'To preserve India's richest craft tradition i.e. handloom and handicrafts, various
organisations, like the All lndia Village Khadi Development Board, All India Handicrafts
Board, etc., were set up. Indian government's policies are primarily framed with the aim of
prescrving, sustaining and promoting indigenous village industry. Artisan and craft tradition
is imbedded with the day-to-day activities of rural masses. One finds women painting their
mud walls for decoration or embroidering their skirts, ordhnis, cholis, etc. Similarly, craft
tradition among the tribals is linked to the ritualistic cults and deities. They also prepare
items of day-to-day use ( pots, beads, cane and bamboo artefacts, etc.). (For further details
see Blocks 7 and 8 of this Course). Immediately after independence Indian government
launched plans for the development of handicrafts and handlooms. The prime task before
the government was to sustain this craft tradition as part of village culture, instead of reducing
it to museum pieces. To fulfill this objective in the fore govenment had to provide cconornic
support to make the artisans economically independent. The Government also took steps to
crcatc a greater demand and launch programmes to accelerate handloom production for
exports. With this purposc various Handicraft and Handloom boards, Units, etc. have been
I
set up. From time to time policies were framed for this purpose. For example, Handlooms
1
i
Act was passed by Parliament in 1985. Besides, special provisions are made in each five year
plans for handloom sector. To provide financial support on easy terms in 1983 NABARD is
s t up ( for dctails see Section 24.5). Likewise, separate budget provisions are made for the
development of tribal handicrafts. Various projects ( ITDP; MADA; TRIFED; etc.) are in
operation for such purposes. Besides, various crafts melas ( Dilly Haat and Crafts Museum
in New Delhi) are set up with the purpose of eliminating middlemen so that profit can directly
reach to the artisans, Similarly, Gramshree and other exhibition like TEX India,
International Trade Fair, etc. ( at New Delhi) arc organised for the promotion of handicrafts
( for further details see Sub- sec. 28.3.3). But, in spite of government's efforts still lot more
is to be done as the real profit is still not rcaching the artisans. They could hardly achieve
more than the subsistance level. There are problems in getting short term and long term
loans. Many are even not aware about various schemes of the government in operation for
their development. Therefore, in spite of the existing schemes, they are not actually benefited
poky IS- in cult&
by them. Therefore, there is need to create more awareness regarding the various assistance
programmes of the government among the rural masses and the tribals. There is also need
to take care that real profit should reach the artisans. Influence of brokers, middlemen, etc.
must be minimised. ,
Indian Council of Cultural Relations is another autonomous organisation created under the
Ministry of External Mairs, which works for the promotion of Indian Culture overseas.
Arranging or sponsoring the visits of Indian artists abroad, holding promotional fairs
depicting India's cultural heritage (see Unit TS-2), etc. are the tasks undertaken by this
organisation.
-
1)
Explain the relationship between Tourism and Culture.
2) Why is it important to plan a tourism policy?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) Examine government's policy regarding performing arts.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.4 TOURISM POLICY : PROTECTION AND PROMOTION
The World Tdurism Organization sees the role of policy as the means by which Government
motivations can be balanced with private sector improvement. This is primarily because it
views Tourism as one of the few development options for third world countries, and a means
of participation in the International trade. The World Tourism Organisation, therefore,
recommends that all countries, to realize the value of the process of liberalisation would have
a Tourism policy, which defines the means by which the objectives of Tourism development
are to be realised. To be 'meaningful' these objectives, should be fmed in a tourism
development plan which has the sanction of the Government.
Government
The first ever Tourism Policy was announced by the Government of India in November, 1982.
It was more an aggressive statement in marketing than a perspective plan for development.
Its main thrust was aimed at presenting India to the foreigners as the ultimate holiday resort.
With a view to reach this destination, the following measures were:
1) To take full advantage of the national heritage in arriving at a popular campaign for
attracting tourists,
2) To promote tourist resorts and make India a destination of holiday resorts,
3) To grant the status of an export industry to tourism,
4) To adopt a selective approach to develop few tourist circuits, and
5) To invite private sector participation into the sector
The Planning Commission recognised tourism as an industry by June, 1992.
As is very clear from above policy tourism was considered by Government as an industry
which should use India's cultural heritage as commodity to attract foreign travellers.
The major development in Tourism policy of India came with the National Action Plan for
Tourism in May, 1992. Its central concerns were:
socio-economic development of areas,
increasing employment opportunities,
developing domestic tourism for the budget category,
preserving national heritage and environment,
development of International tourism,
diversification of the tourism products, and
increase in India's share in world tourism.
The Eighth plan document makes a special mention that the future expansion of tourism
should be achieved mainly by private sector participation. The thrust areas as enumerated
in the Plan include development of selected tourist places, diversification from cultural
related tourism to holiday and leisure tourism, development of trekking, winter sports,
wildlife and beacldsea resort tourism, exploring new source markets, restoration of national
heritage projects, launching of national image building, etc.
It is evident from the contents of this document that now there is greater stress over
preservation of cultural heritage. Contrary to the policy of 1982, where it was suggested to
commoditise the culture, the 8th plan proposed diversification of tourist attractions from
more cultural heritage perspective. This change in orientation is very crucial as India is
moving on the road of development and it needs a positive image rather than a country of
snake-charmers and the rope trick.
As part of Government Tourism Policy certain cultural attractions are being promoted. The
Department of Tourism intends to set up craft villages in different parts of the country to
provide. a boost for the traditional handicrafts of various regions. In New Delhi, Dilli Haat
and Crafts Museum - a kind of shilpgram-which exhibits the crafts of different regions
throughout the year have been started. The Surajkund Crafts' Mela and Shilpgram,
Udaipur, have been a tremendous draw with the tourists. Organisation of Republic day
celebrations in India is a big cultural event. it attracts inlarge number not onlyforeign tourists
but also number of domestic tourists visit Delhi to see the event. Dances and cultural
representations, in the form of jhankis (tableau), from different states are major cultural
attraction. For almost a week after the Republic day parade the dancers and artists give
performances in different auditoriums in the city.
Policy Issues in Culture
Certain fairs and festivals have been identified by the Ministry of Tourism and assistance is
given to develop and publicise them to attract inland and foreign tourists. Fairs like Pushkar
Fair, Sonepur Cattle Fair, Kite Festival, Aleppey Boat Race, Duhsehra Festival in Mysore
and Kulu, etc. are already attracting tourists. Ministry gives liberal financial assistance to
develop these traditional fairs and festivals all over the country and promote them aggressively
in the international market. Festival of India and India-Fest are attempts in this direction
(See Course TS-2, Block-6, Units 21 and 22).
At important tourist centres where, earlier, there were no structured arrangements for
organising cultural evenings which could provide an experience or a glimpse of Indian culture
to the visiting foreign tourists now it will be the endeavour of the government to have a tie-up
with the zonal cultural centres for making arrangement at important tourists destinations to
organise cultural evenings son-etlumieres, craft bazars, food plazas and fairs and festivals all
round the year. Such activities will be organised in coordination with the Department of
Culture and Archaedlogical Survey of India. Konark and Khajnraho festivals, light and
sound programmes at the Red Fort and Purana Qila in New Delhi, and at Gwalior Fort, etc.
are some attempts in this direction.
At the same time the efforts in this direction should not be undertaken keeping in view the
foreign tourists. It is high time that the interests of domestic tourists be taken care of.
29.5 TOURISM POLICY: NEED FOR REORIENTATION
It is suggested that the existing thrust of our Tourism policy, should be reconsidered and to
locate alterations within the reality of our cultural heritage and existing socio - economic
conditions.
South Asian destinations have a marginal share of the International Tourism market and the
60's vision of the economic and developmental benefits and foreign exchange earnings from
tourism continues to dominate the developmental debate. Tourism is penetrating deeper
into our political and economic thinking and our culture.
Experience, however, shows that as the tourism industry draw an accounting's infrastructure,
the more developed and complex the rest of the economy, the greater are the economic gains
and the power of economy to retain the value added in the country.
Tourism policy in India, which is conceived and pushed from the top, is always justified and
legitimised by the yardstick of customer satisfaction. To ensure a competitive tourism growth,
tourism professionals audofficials\are to be encouraged to take an active part in the decision
making process. . -
In the 'free market' economies few needs are satisfied locally. Products originate in
communities that cannot consume them and the determining factor is access to money and
the empowerment it gives to the consumer. Tourism is an advanced form of consumerism
that depends on the distant, unknown "other" to supply it. It complies peoples who have
unknown names and identities to sacrifice the means to meet their daily needs so that the
affluent tourists can effortlessly reach out for whatever they desire - at their price.
An alternate tourism policy must reject this value system. It must stop just being consumer
oriented. Its focus should be on that form of tourism that encourages an exchange of cultures
and wealth, a sharing of skills and problems. This would include both domestic and
international tourists who wish to come at the terms of the destination. If India has developed
resistance to tourism it is because the people at the destination have no role in decision making
or in the benefits from tourism.
We want a policy that does not reduce as to a 'field' for which our Government has become
the 'native informant', making value and cultural statements that are neither authentic nor
representative for culture. We should have a policy that assents our subjectivity in the context
of unequal trade so that we do not subsidise the mass tourist and become victims of the travel
trade.
Therefore, the Tourism Policy must be re-defined by people's needs, people's movements
and people's organizations, in cooperation with similar badies and counterparts elsewhere
keeping in view the conserrvation and preservation of culture.
Check Your progress-2
I
1) Examine the salient features of Tourism Policy of India.
2) Examine the problems of current Tourism Policy and give some suggestions?
29.6 LET US SUM UP
To sum up, in this Unit we have analysed the:
role of government in Tourism Policy making process and its execution,
role of cultural heritage in Tourism development,
critical examination of government's policies to protect and promote Indian culture and
cultural tourism, and
impact of Tourism over our cultural heritage.
n
1) See Sec. 29.2
2) See Sec. 29.2
3) See Sec. 29.3
r
Government
1) See Sec. 29.4
2) See Sec. 29.5
UNIT 30 TRADE
Structure
30.0 Objectives
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Archaeological, Historical, and Cultural Sites
30.3 Arts and Handicrafts
30.4 Performing Arts
30.5 Let Us Sum Up
30.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this Unit are to know:
How does Tourism industry use Indian cultural attractions to its own end? and
What kind of impact is made on the culture of the regionlcountry as a consequence of
this use?
30.1 INTRODUCTION
The attraction features of a country or region provide a basis for developing tourism there. .-
But these are not the only factors which promote tourism; alongwith them the marketing arm
of the government and private enterprises also play an important role in order to induce the
tourists to visit a particular place. These agencies take the help of age old historical, cultural,
and religious traditions as well as the natnral assets of the countrytregion to create an image
of mysticism, kingly grandeur or lively folk culture in the world tourism markets. Thus India
is shown as one of the last untamed frontiers, with her diabolic traditions and culture,
danscrous tigers, alluring mountain, seductive beaches, inviting deserts, lively but mystical
oricntal culture and friendly people. It must be noted that for the tourism industry culture
is a product which is packaged, marketed and sold to earn profits.
Hence when tourism is understood as an industry to earn foreign exchange it uses definitions
of places and people and promotes areas that fit those definitions. Thus advertisements
create images of places, and evoke expectations on the part of the visitor, which inturn leads
destinations to adapt to such expectations.
This Unit is addressed to understand the process of image creations on the part of tourism
industry (trade) in order to study the perception of Indian culture, invoked by the industry.
30.2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL, HISTORICAL, AND
CULTURAL SITES
Archaeological, historical, and cultural sites include cultural and national monuments,
historic buildings, important religious houses such as churches, temples, mosques, etc. Prime
examples of these in India are the famous cave paintings, cave and other temples, Indo -
Islamic architecture, numerous regional styles, colonial architectures, etc.
The tourists are attracted, through wide publicity given by tourist agencies, to the 'oriental'
religious mysticism manifest in many layered carvings on temple walls, depicting scenes from
Hindu mythology or religious stories or various aspects of different deities. Similarly, erotic
sculptures and paintings, boldly emblazoned in all their grandeur in Khajuraho and other
temples, are projected as another major attraction which lure tourists to visit these places.
The tourists are invited to treat themselves with these diverse subjects of carving and paintings
and understand that full human life must concern itself with religious, sexual and artistic
experience. But in order to earn more and more revenue, such specific features, which are
!
I
but one part of the many faceted Indian religious cultural milieu, are often sold by tourism
1
industry through glossy brochures in the process converting 'oriental' into objects given to
i
I
the pleasure of flesh.
Trade
i
Another aspect that deserves a consideration relates to religion. India is reflected as a land
where Buddhist, Jain, Hindu, Islamic and Sikh religions co-exist along with tbeir manifest
symbols i.e. Temples, Mosques, Chaityas and Gurdwaras. The glossy promotional
pamphlets describe India as a land of religious mystics having more than just a normal share
of wise men and religious philosophers. The temples are truly described as architectural
delight. For instance, Konark with its 13th century Sun temple never fails to inspire an awe,
though the temple proper has been long lost to the elements and what stands today is only a
chariot whose exquisite stone wheels have become a symbol of Orissa. Similarly, Jama Masjid
at Delhi leaves the tourist dumbstruck, not to mention Sanchi Stupa near Vidisha, Dilwara
Temple at Mount Abu, Golden temple at Amritsar and the churches in Goa. The Buddhist
?
religious sites are being marketed as major tourist attractions in the South East Asian tourism
generating markets.
4
It may, however, be noted that since tourism is considered an industry, any attraction of the
countrylregion, be it cultural, ethnic or religious, becomes a commodity to the promoters
which can be sold in the market. Thus religious dances and temple fairs are organized and
in several cases these places become accessible only through varying rates of entry fee. We
must understand that the si&icance of such places lay in the faith of the believers, something
which cannot be understood by tourists, by buying tickets to the show. This kind of
commodification of religious and cultural activities violates the very meaning of the ritual, its
authenticity and its power for the people.
s&ilarly, tourists are lured to see the magnificent architectural wonders like Red Fort,
Fathpur Sikri, Taj Mahal, etc. These are often described as living examples of princely
Indian culture. Tourists in some cases are even invited to experience the extravagant life of
kings, and colonial rulers by offering them a stay in the oriental palace settings. To the
tourists, mostly European, an opulent colonial ambience is recreated through projects like
Palace-on Wheel type trains. The focus of archaeological and historic tourism thus gets
located mostly on objects like forts, palaces and havelis of rulers and wealthy persons. A
major difficulty that is encountered as a consequence of such lopsided projections is that they
invariably portray an elite perception of the past for the visitors and in the process, often
omit the less glittering yet more significant realities of our cultural heritage. This elite
perception makes heritage sensual rather than conceptual - something that is to be
experienced, rather than consumed.
I
1) What do you understand by cultural, historic and archaeological sites?
2)
Discuss the negative and positive impacts of tourism promotion on the archaeological
sites?
30.3 ARTS AND HANDICRAFTS
Refering to visual arts such as paintings and other artefacts,and handicrafts are important
attractions for tourists. They form an important sub-set of cultural tourism which has been
discovered as an effective marketing tool to attract those travellers with special interest in
arts and crafts. We notice that commercial art galleries, antique shops and museums (which
also include site museums associated with specific archaeological, cultural, historical or
natural features) are developed to tap tourists, with special interest in heritage and art. This
has also made various State governments in India to open up arts and handicrafts emporium.
These centres aim at maintaining minimum quality standards, pay the producer an equitable
price and set a fair pricing structure. The tourists are informed about these centers through
hyper publicity making these centres an attraction in themselves inviting visits. It is generally
observed that demonstrations by the artists and craft persons in making art and craft objects
can be an interesting and educational experience for tourists and may induce them to make
purchases. In order to induce tourists to buy the local artefacts, various cultural festivals
related to local traditions and arts are also organized.
An important question with regard to the promotion of art and handicrafts is whether the
authenticity in traditional styles should be maintained or not? There are two schools of
thought in this respect. The first school points out that authenticity, at least in terms of
utilizing traditional skills, techniques, motifs and materials, should be maintained. The other
school thinks that designs can be modified to suit tourist market demand.
In the tourism industry creation of jobs and earning foreign exchange is often considered the
prime objective of all promotional activity. Obviously then authenticity gets sacrificed and
the market forces asking for quantity production of artefacts begin to rule the roost.
Another serious side of this issue relates to the role of middlemen. No doubt tourism helps
in preserving various cultural manifestations - artefacts and makers of these artefacts are
encouraged through the medium of state emporiums, festivals and private entrepreneurs.
But tourism industry is controlled by middlemen, who dictate to the artists what sells and in
the process also make the real profit. In the process the 'real thing' is 'prettified' and
'deodorized' so much so that, according to a researcher, the craftsmen in Goa, and Rajasthan
have forgotten traditional patterns, shapes and designs.
Thus while tourism lives off culture it also destroys it. In Khajuraho, for instance, thevillagers
have taken to selling their ancestral vessels to the tourists. Cheap aluminium vessels replace
these time honoured things.
Tourism has furthered the process of impoverishing culture by claiming to make it into an
"authentic show". The art objects are often injured in this cultural oversell. For example, it
is common to find Ganeshas, Natrajas, Devis in the Indian drawing rooms 'on show'. The
attitude is normally found among the members of urban middle and upper middle class. They '
curse their rootlessness and their technology ridden existence and pine for "simple life". In
their menu, simple equals reaynatural and authentic equals rural.
r
1) How are arts and handicrafts converted into tourist attractions?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Tourism has a negative impact on the preservation of arts and handicrafts. Discuss.
Trade
30.4 PERFORMING ARTS
The Performing Art forms (dance, music, drama, etc.) are important attractions for tourists.
Performing art centres and theaters are often developed at considerable cost for such
presentation, primarily for the benefits of residents but often substantially supported by
tourists. Moreover, special cultural events such as religious carnivals, and fairs, or cultural
festivals at particular places (for instance, Pushkar Mela, Taj Mahotsav or Suraj Kund
Mela) are significant attractions which lure tourists. This kind of tourism often depends on
the visitors' desire to experience diverse cultural landscape and forms. It can also be an
important technique for reviewing and focusing interest on the preservation of local cultural
expressions that otherwise might be forgotten. Every tour operator packages cultural events
as a source of entertainment in the itinaries. They are used for evening and night
entertainment and in many cases the cultural features of a region are the subjects of theme
dinners.
In this endeavour overseas as well as domestic tourists are supplied with colourful pamphlets
which allure them to experience the life style, ritual dances or traditional music of
ethnicttribal communities. The important feature of such promotional ventures is that any
thing that is 'ethnic' becomes fashionable. The tourist brochures promise to take the visitor
back in the past by assuring the visitor of the same setting and same charmin which the cultural
items were originally organized, as if history can be re-created. Along with "authentic"
cultural recipe the tourists are also promised all modern amenities including trendy
restaurants and costly places to stay. This curious juxtaposition of the past and present is
typical of the marketing strategy of the tourist trade.
t
It is a sigeficant feature of such tourism promotion that with the advent of tourist gaze and
its attendant market impact, the material form and content of much indigenous art have
become adapted to meet external tourist demands. However, the demands of the tourism
industry are such that universal return to traditional art and cultural forms would be almost
I
impossible and, perhaps, from an economic perspective undesirable. This commercialisation
of culture for marketing it to the tourist destroys it for the host. What happened to Goa's
carnival is a good example. The origin of-carnival is obscure but it is believed that it was
introduced by the Portuguese. It was sonewhat similar to Holi where masked youngsters
pelted coloured water and wheat flour at one another. There were plays and roadside
performances which were occasions for the underdogs to take a snipe at their 1andlords.This
festival acted like a safety valve in the Goan society, providing a release of tension. Gradually
it became a show with many live bands, scantily clad women and cardboard cut outs of
sponsor's products. Thus the carnival was appropriated by the government and private
companies to their own ends.
The role which tourism plays in transforming collective and individual values is inherent in
the ideas of commoditisation, which implies that what were once personal 'Cultural display'
of living traditions or a 'cultural text' of lived authenticity now become a 'cultural product'
which meets the demand of commercial tourism. Art form is no longer thought of as an
expression of imagination or creativity but the talk about it is as a 'Product'. People no more
get moved by the experiences that art has to offer, but they consume them. Culture thus has
become a 'commodity'.
A serious question to be posed here is that will such commoditisation help the tourism in
the long run? The answer should be a straight no. This is because in the pursuit of short term
profits the authenticity of the "cultural product" is eroded and after a while it ceases to be an
I'olicy Issues in Culture
attraction, the "consumers" look elsewhere for more genuine and authentic products.
Researcher have proved that every destination has a life cycle. In TS-2 Block-1 you have been
already familiarised with the outcome of guest-host interaction at destinations along with the
sociological and anthropological impacts of tourism. Unfortunately, the travel trade rarely
takes any note of these aspects. Hence, it is time that the tourism industry should come
forward for the conservation and preservation of various cultural aspects rather than only
asking for incentives, benefits or concessions.
n
1)
What do you understand by Performing Arts?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2)
What is the result of tourist's interaction with the Performing Arts?
30-5 LET US SUM UP
The above discussion brings out the point that when cultural activity becomes an asset to be
sold and promoted in the tourist market place it distorts the cultural manifestations of the
community. Its authenticity is destroyed and its power for the people is lost. This kind of
cultural version goes hand in hand with the dominant ideology about tourism prevailing in
the world. Tourism is taken as a leisure activity and can be bought at a price. Thus culture
is being packaged, priced and sold like fast food. All the cultural as well as natural resources
have their price and if you have the necessary resources, it is your right to see and experience,
whatever you wish. In such a situation the perception of culture to the tourist trade is
primarily governed by the ethics of consumerism. Without passing any value judgement, we
may like to suggest that the tourism policy must make amends for any distortions emerging
from such commoditisation of culture, and consequent consumerism.
30-6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES
n
1) See Sec. 30.2
2) See Sec. 30.2
u
1 ) See Sec. 30.3
2) See Sec. 30.3
1) See Sec. 30.4
2) See Sec. 30.4
UNIT 31 MEDIA
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Media and Its Types
Media : Implications
Role of Media
Media, Cultufe and Tourism
Media: The Guardian
Let Us Sum Up
This Unit deals with the role of media in the sphere of culture and tourism. After going
through this Unit you will know about:
various forms of media,
the role of media with special reference to culture,
the place of media in promoting cultural tourism, and
media as an agency to preserve culture.
31.1 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier eight Blocks of this course on culture we discussed various aspects of Indian
culture. In the present Block we are discussing policy issues in culture. ThisUnit of theBlock
on policy issues is devoted to media.
We are living in the age where telecommunication is gradually bringing the world together.
It is not that distances have been reduced, rather khe speed of communication has made it
possible to interact with other parts of the world in all possible ways. In this age of
telecommunicative revolution, it becomes important to understand the role of media. It is
very difficult to assign a fmed role to media as it is seen from different perspectives by different
people associated with culture and tourism. Media itself also has its own perception about
its role. In the course of our discussion in this Unit we will examine these different
perceptions. Tourism, both, as a phenomenon as well as an industry also heavily depends on
media. We will examine the role of media in shaping people's attitude towards culture and
cultural tourism. Let usstart with various types of media.
31.2 MEDIA AND ITS TYPES
The technology of modern mass media\comrnunication results from the confluence of many
types of inventions and discoveries, some of which (the printing press, for instance) actually
preceded the main thrust of the Industrial Revolution into western culture. Technological
ingenuity of the 19th and 20th centuries has been responsible for the development of the
newer means of mass communication, particularly broadcasting, without which the present
near global diffusion of printed words, pictures, and sounds would have been impossible. The
steam printing press, radio, motion pictures, television and various methods of sound
recording as well as systems of mass production and distribution gave communication a mass*
base.
Technology was not, however, the only pre-requisite for the development of mass
communication in the West. A large public of literate citizens was necessary before giant
publishing and newspaper empire might employ extant communication technology to satisfy
widespread desires or needs for popular reading materials. Affluence and interest are
prc-requisites for the maintenance of the radio,television, cinema and recording industries
as well as institutions that are presently most highly developed in wealthy industrial nations.
The telecommunication revolution, satellites and computer networks in last 2 - 3 decades
have completely changed the nature of mass communication. Now the influence of a
particular media is not restricted to a region or nation; it goes beyond the boundaries of
nations and opinions can be made and mobilised globally.
Media is a vast area and a number of methods of communication are adopted through the
media in the field of culture and tourism. They can broadly be divided into two categories:
i)
The material developed for specific purpose by the government, industry or individuals
in relation to culture and tourism, and
ii) Mass media which in some way or the other represents culture.
We have discussed these in our course TS-1 (Block 6). Here we are more concerned about
mass media which includes:
i)
Print : newspapers, magazines and journals
ii) Radio
iii) Television and films.
i)
Print: A large number of daily newspapers in English, Hindi and other languages are
published in India. A greater number of periodicals are also brought. Most of these are
owned by private companies or individuals. A few are taken out by political parties or
government. Its influence is more among literate sections.
ii) Radio:
Radio in India is a completely government owned mass media and covers more
than 90% of population and area.
iii) Television and films: Television in India is largely government owned. Now a number
of private channels are also operating. In terms of reach, government owned television
. (DoorDarshan), has a very wide reach while private channels have a limited reach. Films
are mostly made by private companies or individuals. Sometimes government also
sponsors films on some specific issues or aspects. Besides, films made on specific aspects
of culture in the mainstream cinema (though mainly devoted to entertainment) also
influences culture in a big way (you have already read about it in Block-4)
Media are not entirely free to follow their own whims in serving the masses. As is the case
of any market, consumer satisfaction limits the nature and quantity of the material produced
and circulated. Media is also restricted in some measure by laws governing liable, slander
and other regulations. In almost every modern nation, privileges to use broadcasting
frequencies are circumscribed either loosely or rigidly by government regulations. It is
because Media is viewed as a machinerywhich could contribute a lot in determinkg the public
opinion about any issue.
31.3 MEDIA : IMPLICATIONS
Lively controversy centres on the effects of public communication upon audience not only in
matters concerning public opinion on political issues but in matters of the development of
personal life styles, tastes and influences upon consumer behaviors. Many sociologists follow
the theory that media seems to influence attitudes and behavior only in so far as it confirms
the status- quo,i.e., Others believe that Media provided potent sources of information and
persuasion for most people. It can be accepted that most people in technological societies
form their personal views of the social realities beyond their immediate experience from
messages presented to them through public communication. It is in this context that Media
becomes an important instrument in determination of public opinion.
The success of Mass media as an instrument of commercial advertising has been constant
and noticeable. Present evidence indicates that various instruments of Media produce
varying effects upon different segments of the audience. The case of Media in tourism is a
Media
bit different as it is expected by audience that in reporting the development of a nationlregion,
Media will play a neutral role. It is expected and most people believe that Media will present
the free and correct picture of socio- political conditions of a region. It cannot be influenced
by the economic/commercial interests. Most reliable surveys show that the majority of the
people of the world are usually satisfied with the kind of a mass communication available to
them. Lacking alternatives to the communication that they easily and conveniently receive,
most people seem to accept what they are given without complaint. It is perhaps that they
believe in Media. Usually Media being independent of government, is expected to be
impartial in attitude. It is expected of Media to preserve this image. Media is expected to
promote the beneficial image of society, not the dark gloomy side.
In the field of culture the role of media is very crucial in a society like India. In a democratic
society Media is not a monolith. There are different strands in the society. Similarlydifferent
people view it differently and have their own expectations from it. In the field of culture and
tourism let us discuss the expectations of the government, the tourism industry, the activists,
the tourists and the general public.
The government expects that media will propagate its policies and help in their
implementation. The industry expects the media to help in the promotion of tourism as per
their perception. The activists want media to help in their fight against the commercialisation
of culture which the industry or government is unable to check. They expect media to take
positions against formulation of wrong policies and facilitate implementation of sound
policies. The conservation of culture is the main agenda of the activists and they expect the
media to support them in their cause. The tourists expect the media to provide them a
balanced picture of the things which interest them as also the complete information with a
proper review. The general public also expects the media to inform, to review and to expose
the vested interests either in industry or government policies.
As already indicated the media in India is not of a single type. Different media have their
own perception about their roles and responsibilities. They are many times governed by
attitudes and interests of their consumers or clients (readersfviewerflisteners). They have to
see their commercial interests - circulation, advertising revenue etc. Keeping in the view the
interests of media and different expectations from it one can study the role of media which
is manifold. Let us now see the role of media in the field of culture and tourism.
1) Write a small note on a different types of media discussed in the Unit.
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2) What are the expectations of tourist industry and general public from the media?
I
i
I
1 31.4 ROLE OF MEDIA
I
i
One could identlfy five main functions of MediaMass communication.
I
I)
Firstly, it involves collection, shifting, processing information and its dissemination to
1
enable the recipient to form judgement and opinions which is an integral part of the
democratic process.
ii) Secondly, Media serves to interpret data, persuade and motivate people. This function
is inseparably related to the process of socio-economic development and the organisation
of community activities for thc pursuit of common objectives. In this particular context
it must be emphasised that information is not merely the raw material or news. It is much
more. It provides the material base of knowledge of diverse societiesfplaces. Hence,
information, motivation, interpretation and persuasion are the important functions of
communication.
iii) Thirdly, Media is concerned with education and transmission of the social realities in
historical perspective.
iv) The fourth function of Media in socialization. It facilitates the involvement of people -
individually and collectively, in public life, decision making and active participation in
problem solving activities, as an integral part of the democracy and public life.
v)
Finally, leisure and entertainment are also the functions of communication. This is where
its relation to the creative arts comes in. It helps foster culture not only in tune with its
diversity, but also with the objectives of making it a condition of a better quality of life
for the vast masses of the people.
i
In case of tourism, Media plays a crucial role as it promotes the dialogue between different
cultures and thus leads to better understanding of other cultures. Media also provides a
I
platform for exchange of ideas to general public and various other agencies involved in the
sphere of culture in diverse ways.
In the earlier Section we talked about the cxpcctations of different groups from media and
in this Section we talked about the role of media. You would notice that many times the
expectations are met but at times there is a gap. Let us understand this process. As far as
dissemination of information is concerned it is by and large fulfilled by the media. When it
comes to review or analysis, a number of subjective elements creap in. Here the constraints
of individual perceptions (the ideas of people writing on these issues), the commercial
interests of newspapers (publishing advertisements irrespective of their effects) come in. The
state owned media has another problem of standing by government policies (even though
individuals in societies might have reservations about them). In general media tries to
maintain a balance between their commercial interests and societal responsibilities. The
activists feel that the commercialisation is gradually gaining an upper hand in media. They
have therefore initiated public awareness and public interest campaigns to counter harmful
influences on society. Examples of campaigns against pollution and drugs, maintaining
environmental balance, need for conserving heritage etc. are significant in this direction. We
will discuss more of these issues in the subsequent Sections.
I
1)
Discuss three important roles of Media.
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Media
2)
What are the constraints of Media?
31.5 MEDIA, CULTURE AND TOURISM
Media plays very crucial role in perpetuation of traditional values and simultaneously it is a
vehicle of change also. Similarly, tourism also performs these two functions. Traditional
image is portrayed as attractive feature and the intermixing of tourists with it initiates change
by mutual respect. As culture is influenced by media and tourism in almost similar fashion
it is natural that culture and tourism must be influenced by media policy and vice-versa.
Let us clearly examine how media gives space to culture and tourism. In spite of mass media's
over indulgence with politics, personalities and news of diverse types, almost every
newspaper and magazines have separate sections on culture and tourism. You would get
information about cinema, music, dance, festivals, handicrafts, fashion, cuisine, television and
a whole range of cultural aspects. The culture is covered in three ways:
i)
as information about happenings in these areas,
ii) reviews, analysis and opinions, and
iii) through advertisements for the promotion as well as campaigns for or against specific
issues.
The same is the case with radio and television. Through these people know, understand a d
form opinions about various regions, customs and other aspects of culture. A large number
of periodicals devoted exclusively to fine arts, architecture, literature, etc. are also published.
As far as tourism industry is concerned they use media for promoting tourism through:
i)
the means of mass media by placing news items, advertisements, sponsored features and
programmers, and
ii) by developing material in the form of folders, brochures, display material, slides, newslet-
ters, magazines devoted to various aspects of tourism and travel, etc.
For tourism Media is a source of information for tourists. Tourists like to have some
knowledge of the existing condition of the place and its culture. If Media exaggerates the
impact of any event over the society it creates doubts in the mind of tourist/visitor.
Mass media is an avenue which is expected to be free from commercial compulsions. Hence
it becomes the best option to know about any particular place as it's reporting is expected to
be impartial.
Media with its extensive network caters to varied interests including minor cultural traditions.
It is by writing about them that Media makes them known to the world. Media is also expected
to promote and protect those minor cultural traditions which are now becoming extinct
whether it is an art form or craft tradition. Tourist agencies are basically concerned with
profits. They, therefore, promote only those cultural traditions which have good market
value.
Media also provides an option through which a tourist can share hisher experience with wider
world which can, in turn, promote more tourists to visit the place. It also provides an avenue
by which the tourist can express hislher complaint. Media can, and at times it does, mediate
between public authority and visitor. In many cases Film Media has played a major
promotional role in destination marketing. For example, movies are filmed at different
locations depicting different aspects of natural beauty, monuments, resorts, hotels, arts and
crafts, shopping centres, dresses, jewellery and what not. This, to a large extent, motivates
people to visit the destinations and encourages domestic tourism in a big way. For example,
the hut at Gulmarg where the Bobby film song was filmed became a major tourist attraction.
The palaces and havelis of Rajasthan, the Vrindaban gardens near Mysore, the train journeys
to Darjeeling, Ooty and Shimla, etc. (the list would be too big to mention) can all be cited as
examples. The TV serials are playing this role in a big way. Infact, the film city itself is a big
tourist attraction and many domestic tourists visit Mumbai to have a glimpse of the stars as
well as the studios.
I
31.6 MEDIA : THE GUARDIAN %
Media being an independent institutions functions as a watchdog. It keeps an eye over the
growing process of commercialisation of cultural heritage and society.
Tourism is a foreign exchange earning "industry" for government, hence it is given various
concessions. For example, the allotment of big plots of land along the sea coast in Goa and
other places is at times at the cost of local people. It also destroys the fragile ecology of the
coastal region. Similarly, large tracts of land are allotted for the construction of Golf courses.
Media as a watchdog can monitor the proper utilisation of concessions as well as do the social
costing.
The policies of the government at times may not be suitable fok local population. In such
'situations the media gives a voice to various affected groups. A case in point is the tourist
plan in Banglore. Here the Nandy Hills project is a $22 million, 250 acre world class resort
development plan. It is designed to encourage Intermeditoral Tourism in South Asia. It has
displaced a traditional farming community which for generations used this area for cultivation
of rice, millet, ragi, and other crops and has also used the area for grazing their cattle.
The developers have displaced the traditional community of farmers along with dairying
co-operatives which were the dominant economic activity. The government has not surveyed
either the environmental impacts or cared for local public opinion. It is in these contexts that
Media is expected to play its role as a watchdog. They have to report the local public opinion
and have to cover the whole issue keeping in mbd.the interests of the poor viUagers and to
provide a voice to theill.
Similarly, in the context of cultural heritage, Media is expected to play the role of a watchdog.
The commercialisation and vulgarization of culture by marketing it to tourists may destroy
it for the host population. What happened to Goa's carnival is a good example. Media is
expected to highlight the side effects of massive commercialbption of our cultural heritage.
It is expected of Media to analyse problems in context of changing socio-economic conditions.
r
1) Explain the relationship between Media and Culture.
Media
2)
Can media play the role of watchdog of society?
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31.7 LET US SUM UP
In a democratic society media plays a very important role in all spheres of life. It, a1 times
helps in initiating and conducting debates on important issues affecting society. I? a country
like ours where government has a lot of say in the issues related to culture, media establishes
a dialogue between the state and the people.
Various groups and individuals have a lot of expectations from mass media in the area of
preserving national heritage and culture. At times mass media is described as the conscience
keeper of the nation. The role of media, therefore, becomes crucial. We discussed the role
of media and also people's expectations. You must have noticed that media disseminates
information and news about various aspects of culture. It, at the same time, helps in putting
things in proper perspective and provides a platform to people to discuss their opinions and
concerns on vital issues of culture. Both private and government controlled media have their
limitations. In spite of the short comings mass media by and large effectively works as
watchdog of society. They try to have a balance between their commercial interests and
societal interests.
f 31.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES
r
1) See Sec. 31.2
2) See Sec. 31.3
r
1) See Sec. 31.4
2) See Sec. 31.4
n
1) See Sec. 31.5
2) See Sec. 31.5

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