Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Course Teachers
Dr.P.Kalaiselvan
Dr.C.R.Chinnamuthu
Dr.N.Sakthivel
Department of Agronomy
Centre for Soil and Crop and Management Studies
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Coimbatore-641003
2004
SYLLABUS
THEORY
Agronomy of field crops - importance - origin - soil and climatic requirement - area, production and
productivity in World, India and Tamil Nadu. Systems of cultivation. Crop management - season,
varieties, seed rate, seed treatment, sowing, density and geometry, growth stages, critical stages for
input requirement - nutrient, irrigation and weed management - after cultivation - harvest and
processing- storage - byproducts - cropping systems
LECTURE SCHEDULE
THEORY
1. Importance of cereals, millets, pulses, green manure, green leaf manures and forage
crops
2. Area, production and productivity of major cereals, millets, pulses and forage crops of
World, India and Tamil Nadu
3. Rice - importance - origin, distribution - soil and climatic requirement, season and
varieties
4. Rice - growth stages - systems of rice cultivation - methods of sowing - nursery
preparation and management - seed rate, seed treatment and sowing in nursery
5. Rice - main field preparation for wet and dry cultivation, Methods of crop establishment
- Direct sowing under wet and dry condition – Transplanting, Throwing seedlings, plant
density and geometry, management of aged seedlings
6. Nutrient management in rice – manures and manuring - time and method of fertilizer
application - application of biofertilizers - Azolla, Bluegreen algae, Azospirillum and
Phosphobacteria
7. Rice - weed control - irrigation - after cultivation - cropping system - harve sting,
threshing, drying and storage - byproducts
8. Rice - cultivation of Hybrid rice - deep water rice – Ratoon management
9. Maize - origin and distribution - soil and climatic requirements - season, varieties –
types of maize - field preparation - sowing - manures and manuring - weed control
10. Maize - irrigation - after cultivation - harvest, threshing, drying and storage -
Agronomic practices for Baby corn - cropping system
11. Wheat - origin and distribution - soil and climatic requirements - season, varieties
12. Wheat - field preparation - seeds and sowing, seed treatment - manures and manuring -
weed control - irrigation - after cultivation - harvest, threshing, drying and storage -
cropping system
13. Oats, Barley, Rye and Triticale* - origin and distribution - soil and climatic requirements
- season, varieties - field preparation - sowing - manures and manuring - weed control -
irrigation - after cultivation - harvest, threshing, drying and storage- cropping system
14. Sorghum - importance - origin and distribution - soil and climatic requirements –
season, varieties -seeds and sowing – nursery preparation
15. Sorghum - main field preparation - transplanting – manures and manuring - weed
control - after cultivation – irrigation - harvest and storage
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16. Sorghum - Agronomic practices for rainfed and ratoon sorghum - cropping system
17. Mid - Semester Examination
18. Pearl millet - importance - origin and distribution - soil and climatic requirements -
season, varieties - nursery - seeds and sowing – main field preparation and planting
19. Pearl millet - manures and manuring - weed control - after cultivation - irrigation -
harvest and storage – Agronomic practices for rainfed pearl millet - cropping system
20. Finger millet - importance - origin and distribution - soil and climatic requirements -
season, varieties - nursery - seeds and sowing - main field preparation and planting -
manures and manuring - weed control - after cultivation - irrigation - harvest and
storage – Agronomic practices for rainfed crop - cropping system
21. Barnyard millet - Foxtail millet - Kodo millet - importance - origin and distribution - soil
and climatic requirement - season - varieties - field preparation - seeds and sowing -
manures and manuring - weed control - after cultivation - harvest
22. Little millet and Common millet - importance - origin and distribution - soil and climatic
requirements - season, varieties - field preparation - seeds and sowing - manures and
manuring - weed control - after cultivation - harvest and storage
23. Redgram – importance - origin and distribution - season, varieties - field preparation –
seeds and sowing - manures and manuring - weed control - after cultivation – irrigation
- harvest and storage - cropping system
24. Blackgram and Greengram - importance - origin and distribution - season, varieties -
field preparation - seeds and sowing - manures and manuring - weed control - after
cultivation – irrigation - harvest and storage
25. Bengalgram and Horsegram - importance - origin and distrib ution - season, varieties -
field preparation - seeds and sowing - manures and manuring - weed control - after
cultivation - irrigation - harvest and storage
26. Cowpea, Lab-lab, Beans and Grain peas* - importance - origin and distribution -
season, varieties - field preparation - seeds and sowing - manures and manuring - weed
control - after cultivation - irrigation - harvest and storage
27. Soybean - importance - origin and distribution - season, varieties - field preparation -
seeds and sowing - manures and manuring - weed control - after cultivation - irrigation
– harvest and storage
28. Agronomy of Lentil - Agronomy of rice fallow pulses
29. Green manure crops* - importance - soil and climatic requirement for Sesbania
aculeata, Sesbania speciosa and Sesbania rostrata, Sunnhemp, Kolinji, Pillipesara, -
Agronomic practices - biomass production - time and method of incorporation and
nutrient content
30. Green leaf manure crops* - importance - Gliricidia, Pungam, Neem, Calotropis and
Ipomoea - method of incorporation and nutrient content
31. Forage crops – Forage grasses - importance - soil and climatic requirement for Guinea
grass, Napier grass, Water grass, Blou-buffel grass, Dinanath grass - season, varieties –
agronomic practices - time of harvest – biomass production (fodder yield) and nutrient
content
32. Cereal and legume forage crops - importance - soil and climatic requirement for Fodder
sorghum - pearl millet - maize and teosinte and legumes such as lucerne, berseem,
desmanthus, stylosanthes, siratro and cowpea – agronomic practices - harvest -
biomass production (fodder yield) and nutrient content
33. *Fodder trees and their importance
34. Preservation of fodder – hay and silage - Seasonal pastures Byproduct of crops studied
above
PRACTICAL
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1. Maintenance of crop cafeteria involving cereals, millets, pulses, green manures and
forage crops for identification of crops and acquiring skill in various operations
2. Identification of crop plants and varieties of cereals, millets and pulses
3. Identification of crop plants and varieties of green manures, green leaf manures and
forage
4. Practicing various nursery preparation in rice
5. Acquiring skill in nursery preparation for sorghum, pearl millet and finger millet
6. Practicing main field preparation, sowing and manuring of important cereals under pure
and intercropping system
7. Practicing main field preparation, sowing and manuring of important pulses under pure
and intercropping system
8. Acquiring skill in hay and silage making
9. Practicing main field preparation, sowing / planting of important green manures and
forage crops
10. Estimation of plant population per unit area for important crops
11. Acquiring skill in foliar nutrition to pulses – Diammonium Phosphate spray
12. Acquiring skill in seed treatment practices for cereals, pulses, green manures and forage
crops
13. Observation on growth and yield parameters and assessing maturity, estimation of yield
of important cereals, millets, pulses, green manures and forage crops
14. Cost of cultivation and economics of important cereals
15. Cost of cultivation and economics of important millets and pulses
16. Biomass estimation of important green manures, forage crops and incorporation of
green manures
17. Practical examination
REFERENCE BOOKS
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RICE (Oryza sativa)
Rice belongs to genus Oryza and family Poaceae. The genus includes 24 species of which
O. sativa and O. glaberrima are cultivated. O. sativa has three sub species viz; Indica, Japonica
and Javanica.
Distribution
It grows from the tropics to subtropical and warm temperate countries upto 40?S and
50?N of the equator. Most of the rice area lies between equator and 40?N and 70? to 140? EL.
Highest yields were recorded between 30? and 45? N of the equator. India, China and Egypt
lying between 21? to 30? N, the average yield ranges from 2.0 to 5.7 t/ha. The countries near
the equator shows an average yield of 0.8 to 1.4 t/h.
Area, Production and Productivity
In terms of area a nd production, it is second to wheat. Maximum area under rice is in Asia
(90%). Among the rice growing countries, India has the largest area (43.4 m ha) followed by
China - Bangladesh - Thailand. The area, production, productivity of rice for some of the
important countries and the world is tabulated below.
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County Area (million ha) Production (m. t) Productivity
(t/ha)
India
Acreage : WB > UP > MP > Bihar > Orissa > AP
Total Production : WB > UP > AP > Punjab > TN
Average Yield : Punjab(3.39t/ha)>Haryana(2.96t/ha)>TamilNadu (2.69t/ha)
In India rice accounts for about 22% of the tota l cropped area under cereal and about
31% of total area under food grain. It forms 41% of India’s total out put of the grain and forms
roughly 46% of total output of the cereal.
Rice growing areas in India can be grouped into 5 regions.
1. Northeastern region: Comprises of Assam, West Bengal, South Bihar and Orissa. Rice
grown in the basins of Brahmaputra, Ganga and Mahanadhi rivers and known for the
highest intensity of cultivation in the country. This region enjoys heavy rainfall and here
mostly rice is grown mainly under rainfed conditions.
2. Southern region: Comprises of deltaic tracts of Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and
Tambraparani rivers and non-deltaic rainfed areas of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Rice
is grown under irrigated conditions in the deltaic regions.
3. West Coast region: Comprises of Kerala and the coastal districts of Karnataka and
Maharastra. There is heavy rainfall during the monsoon period. Rice is grown under rainfed
conditions.
4. Central region: Comprises of Madhya Pradesh, Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh and
parts of Karnataka. Except in Andhra Pradesh, rice is grown as rainfed crop by broadcasting
in this region.
5. Northern region: Comprises of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and North
Bihar. These areas have low winter temperatures and only a single crop of rice is raised
from May-June to September-October.
The area, production and productivity of rice in different states of India are tabulated below
(1996-97).
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Kerala 4.3 8.32 1941
Madhya Pradesh 52.9 59.39 1172
In Tamil Nadu rice research being carried out in the following research stations of Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University.
1. Paddy Breeding Station, Coimbatore
2. Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute, Aduthurai
3. Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai
4. Agricultural College and Research Institute, Trichy
5. Agricultural College and Research Institute, Killikulam
6. Rice Research Station, Tirur
7. Rice Research Station, Ambasamudram
8. Agricultural Research Station, Paramakudi
9. Agricultural Research Station, Ramanathapuram
10. Agricultural Research Station, Thirupathisaram
From these Research Stations till January 2000, 149 varieties and 3 hybrids were
released. Another 25 high yielding varieties in the pipeline are already introduced making the
total varieties at 174 with 3 rice hybrids.
Climatic and soil requirements for rice
Rice can be grown in different loca tions under a variety of climates. The Indicas are
widely grown in tropical regions. Japonicas, which are adapted to cooler areas, are largely
grown in temperate countries. Both Indica and japanica rices are grown in subtropical regions.
However their crosses grown through out the world. Rice needs hot and humid climate. It is
best suited to regions, which have high humidity, prolonged sunshine and an assured supply of
water.
Temperature, solar radiation and rainfall influence rice yield by directly affecting the
physiological processes involved in grain production and indirectly through diseases and pests.
Temperature
Extreme temperatures are destructive to plant growth and hence depended on the
environment under which the life cycle of the rice plant can be completed. The critical low and
high temperatures for rice are normally below 20?C and above 30?C, which vary from one
growth stage to another. The critical temperatures for different growth stages of rice are
tabulated below.
Temperature ?C
Growth stage
Low High Optimum
Germination 10 45 20-35
Rooting 16 35 25-28
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Tillering 9-16 33 25-31
Panicle initiation 15 - -
Anthesis 22 35 30-33
Temperature affects the grain yield by affecting tillering, spikelet formation and ripening
and it influences the growth rate just after germination and increases almost linearly with
increasing temperature within a range of 22 to 31?C. At later stages it slightly affects tillering
rate and the relative growth rate. During reproductive stage, the spikelet number per plant
increases as the temperature drops.
Solar radiation
The solar radiation requirements of rice crop differ from one growth stage to another.
Shading during vegetative stage slightly affects yield and yield components. Shading during
reproductive stage however has a pronounced effect on spikelet number. During ripening, it
reduces grain yield considerably because of decrease, in the percentage of filled spikelets. Solar
radiation at the reproductive stage has the greatest effect on grain yield. The minimum
requirement of solar radiation is 300 cal/cm2/day.
Rainfall
Under rainfed rice culture rainfall is the most limiting factor in rice cultivation. When
irrigation is provided the growth and yield is determined by temperature and solar radiation.
Water stress at any growth stage may reduce the yield. The rice plant is most sensitive to
water deficit from the reduction division stage to heading.
Day length
Rice is a short day plant. Long day prevents or delays flowering. Eg. GEB 24 is a
photosensitive and season bound variety. However the latest varieties released are photo
insensitive.
Wind
Moderate wind is beneficial for crop growth. Wind velocity of 0.75 to 2.25 cm/sec is not
conducive for photosynthesis. High wind at maturity may cause lodging of the crop.
Soils
Rice is a semi aquatic plant and grows best under low land condition. In India it grows
in all most all type of soils; alluvial, red, lateritic, laterite, black, saline and alkali, peaty and
marshy soils and in acid soils. But the soil is having good retention capacity with good amount
of clay and organic matter and ideal for rice cultivation. Clay and clay loam soils are most
suited. It tolerates a wide range of soil reaction from 4.5 to 8.0. It grows well in soils having pH
range of 5.5 to 6.5. It can be grown on alkali soil after treating them with gypsum or pyrites.
RICE ECOSYSTEMS
Based on land and water management practices, rice la nds are classified as low land (wet
land) and upland (dryland).
In India, the principal system of rice growing are
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The field is ploughed and harrowed to fine tilth taking advantage of summer rains and
early monsoon showers. Application of gypsum at 1.0 t/ha is recommended whenever soil
crusting and soil hardening problem exists. During the last ploughing organic manures at 12.5
t/ha is applied and incorporated.
Season: May-June is S.West monsoon area
August/ Sept in N.E. monsoon dominant area.
Varieties: Varieties having 90 to 110 days are recommended.
1. TKM 9: Red rice, 100 to 105 days duration, short, bold grain, 5 t/ha.
2. TPS 1: Red rice, 110 to 115 days duration, short bold grain, average yield is 4.8
t/ha
3. TPS 2: 125 days duration, non-lodging, average yield is 5 t/ha, suitable for
kumbapu season
4. TPS 3: 135 days duration, non-lodging, average yield is 5.3 t/ha, suitable for
kumbapu season.
5. MDU 5: 95 to 110 days, average yield is 5 t/ha, multiple resistant to pest and
diseases.
6. PKM 1: 110 to 115 days, dull white rice, pigmented, coarse grain and high protein,
average yield is 3.2 t/ha.
Seed rate: 75 to 100 kg/ha.
Seed treatment: The seeds are treated with any one of the fungicides Bavistin or Thiram
@ 2g/kg of seeds, 24 hours before sowing and the seeds are treated with Azospirillum at 3
pockets (600g) per ha of seeds.
Sowing
1. Broadcasting: The seeds are sown by broadcasting when the moisture is at the marginal
level and the surface soil is compacted by a light roller for compacting the seeds with
moist soil.
2. Line sowing: Sowing /dibbling behind the country plough. Line sowing is better than
broadcasting. Using seed drill to ensure optimum population, reduce the seed rate and
for early intercultivation.
After cultivation: Thinning and gap filling should be done 10 to 12 DAS, taking advantage of
immediate rains.
Manures and manuring: In Tamil Nadu, P is applied at 25 kg/ha as enriched FYM at the time
of last ploughing. N at 50 kg/ha and K at 25 kg/ha should be applied in two splits viz. 20 to 25
DAS and the second at 40 to 45 DAS.
Weeds and Weed control: Under upland condition, weeds reduce the yield to the extent of
50 %. First weeding should be done at 15 to 20 DAS and second weeding may be done on 45
DAS. Under unfavourable rainfall conditions, application of Thiobencarb 2.5l/ha or Pendimethalin
3.0 l/ha 8 DAS as sand mix if adequate moisture is available followed by one hand weeding on
30 to 35 DAS.
Intercropping: Raising one row of blackgram for every four rows of rice.
Special types: A primitive type of shifting cultivation called Punam cultivation in Malabar,
Kumari in South Kanara, Podu in Circars, Jhum in Assam hills is being done in scrub jungles on
small scale. The bushes are cut and burnt. The land is ploughed with pre monsoon showers and
rice is sown as pure or mixed crop. The land is abandoned after the harvest of rice and allowed
to recoup its fertility. Fresh jungle land is broken up for cultivation every year.
SEMIDRY RICE CULTIVATION
It is practiced in the district of Chengleput, Ramnad, Kanyakumari and Pudukottai
district.
Season
1. July – August ? Chengleput and Kanyakumari districts
2. August ? Thanjavur and Pudukottai districts
3. Sept – Oct ? Ramanathapuram district
Varieties
Chengleput : TKM 9, IR20, PMK 1, PMK 2, TKM10 and TKM11
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Pudukottai : ADT36, Rasi, PMK-1, PMK-2, TKM9
Kanyakumari : TKM 9, ADT36, Rasi, ASD17, TPS-1, TPS 2, TPS 3
Ramnad : TKM9, ADT36, Rasi, PMK1, PMK2, MDU5.
Field preparation
i. On the receipt of shower, during the month of May-June repeated ploughing
should be carried out so as to conserve soil moisture, destroy weeds and break
the clods.
ii. Apply FYM at 12.5 t/ha. Application of 750 kg of FYM enrichedwith 50 kg P 2O 5 can
be applied as a basal dose in clay soils of Thanjavur district.
Seed rate : 80 to 100 kg ha-1
Seed treatment : "As give n in upland rice"
Sowing
1.Broadcasting as dry crop and compacting with Gundaka
2.Drilling : Sowing by using seed drill at 20 cm row spacing.
After cultivation: Thinning and gap filling should be done on 25th to 30th day after receipt of
sufficient rain or impounding water in the field from the adjoining tanks.
Manures and Manuring: 100: 50: 50 kg N:P 2O 5:K2O/ha is recommended. P2O 5 at 50 kg/ha is
applied as basal as enriched FYM. Nitrogen is applied in three splits. K is applied at 50 kg/ha as
basal. 50% of N at basal, 25% at maximum tillering stage and remaining 25% at panicle
initiation stage. The first top dressing should be done immediately after the receipt of sufficient
rain on canal water.
Weed management: Integrated weed management of pre -emergence application of
Thiobencarb (Saturn 50 EC) at 3.0 lit/ha (1.5 kg ai/ha) or Pendimethalin 4.0 lit/ha (stomp 30
EC) on the 8th day after sowing as sand mix it adequate moisture is available, followed by one
hand weeding on 30 to 35 DAS. Spraying of insecticides and fungicides may be need based.
Harvest: Timely harvest ensures good quality grain and prevents different losses. Harvest is
done by using sickle, threshed and dried in the sun for 3 to 4 days up to 10 to12% moisture for
storage.
WET SYSTEM OR LOW LAND RICE
In India, low land rice is established by
1. Transplanting the seedlings in which separate nursery is raised (or)
2. Direct seedling of sprouted seeds in the puddled soil
Types of nursery
1. Wet nursery
2. Dapog nursery
3. Dry nursery
I. Wet nursery
Seed rate : For short duration : 60 kg/ha
Medium duration : 40 kg/ha
Long duration : 30 kg/ha
1. Pre-treatment of seeds: Before sowing
a. Dry seed treatment:
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Mix any one the fungicide at 2 g/kg of seed. (Thiram, Captan, Carboxin or Carbendazim).
Treat the seeds at least 24 hrs prior to soaking for sprouting. The seeds can be stored for 30
days with out any loss in viability.
2. Treatment of seeds at the time of soaking the seeds for sprouting
b. Wet seed treatment:
Treat the seeds in Carbendazim or Pyroquilon or Tricyclozole solution at 2g/lit of water
for 1 kg of seed. Soak the seeds in the solution for 2 hours. Drain the solution, sprout the
seeds and sow in the nursery bed. It gives protection to the seedlings upto 4o days from
seedlings disease such as blast and it is better than dry seed treatment.
c. Seed treatment with Azospirillum:
Three packets (600 g/ha) of Azospirillum culture are to the mixed with sufficient water,
wherein seeds are soaked over night before sowing in the nursery bed. The bacte rial
suspension after decanting may be poured over the nursery area itself.
d. Seed treatment with Pseudomonas fluorescense for management of rice blast
Three packets (600 g/ha) of Pseudomonas peat culture should be added in water
wherein seeds are soaked over night before sowing in the nursery bed. It can be mixed with
Azospirillum culture, as it is not inhibitory to Azospirillum.
Soaking and sprouting the seeds
i. Soak the seeds for 10 hrs and drain excess water. Should not soak the seeds in
running water, which removes the minerals and nutrients.
ii. Keep the soaked seeds in gunny bag in dark room and cover with extra gunnies for 24
hrs for sprouting. Should not cover with thick material, which develops heat and
reduces the aeration.
Preparation of nursery for sowing
Nursery are required : 20 cents (800 m2) for planting one ha.
- Raise the nursery near the water source.
- Apply 1000 kg of FYM or compost to 20 cents of nursery and spread the manure
uniformly
- Before ploughing, allow water to a depth of 2.5 cm. Plough and bring it the a puddle.
- Before last puddling, apply 40 kg of DAP @ 2 kg DAP/cent
- Basal application of DAP is recommended when the seedlings are to the pulled out in 20
to 25 DAS
- If the seedlings are to be pulled out after 25 days, application of DAP is to be done 10
days prior to pulling out
- Clayey soils, where root snapping is a problem, DAP has to be applied at 1 kg/cent 10
days after sowing.
Forming nursery beds
- Mark out plots, 2.5 m broad with channels, 30 cm wide in between
- Collect the mud from the channel and spread on the seedbed and level the surface of
seedbed so that water drains into the channel.
Sowing: Having a thin film of water in the nursery, sow the sprouted seeds uniformly on the
seedbed.
Water management
1. Drain the water 18 to 24 hrs after sowing
2. Allow enough water to saturate the soil from 3 rd to 5 th day
3. From 5 th day onwards, increase the quantity of water to a depth of 1.5 cm depending on
the height of seedlings
4. Afterwards maintain, 2.5 cm depth of water.
Weed management in nursery:
Apply any one of the following pre -emergence herbicide on 8 DAS to control weeds in the
nursery.
1. Butachlor or Thiobencarb 2.0 lit/ha
2. Pendimethalin 2.5 lit/ha
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3. Anilophos or 1.25 lit/ha
Keep thin film of water at the time of herbicide application and s hould not drain the water
after application
Top dressing with fertilizers:
If the seedlings show the symptoms of 'N' deficiency and if the growth is not
satisfactory, apply urea at 500 g/cent of nursery, 7 to10 days prior to pulling. If DAP is applied
10 days prior to pulling, urea application is not necessary.
Optimum age of seedling for transplanting
Short duration varieties : 18 to 22 days
Medium duration varieties : 25 to 30 days
Long duration varieties : 35 to 40 days
Main field preparation for wet system:
Wet rice requires a well puddled soil. Ploughing under submerged soil condition is called
puddling. The land is ploughed repeatedly 3 or 4 times with an interval of about 4 days
between each puddling by country plough or mould board plough or tractor drawn cage wheel or
by using power tiller with a standing water of 3 to 5 cm. Optimum depth of puddling is 10cm for
clay and clay loam soils.
Application of organic manures
i) Apply 12.5 t of FYM or compost / ha and spread the manure evenly on the dry soil
before applying the water.
ii) If FYM or compost is not available, apply green manure/green leaf manure at 6.25 t /
ha. Compute the green matter using the formula. Yield / m2 in kg x 10,000.
iii) The yield of green manure are as follows
Daincha :10 to 15 t/ha
Sunhemp : 8 to 15 t/ha
Kolingi : 6 to 7.5 t/ha.
iv) Incorporation of green manure
Sesbania rostrata: Growing stem nodulating S. rostrata in the month of March to April.
Adopt seed rate of 50 to 60 kg/ha. Treat the seeds with rhizobial culture. Cut the crop
at 45 to 60 th day to have maximum green matter (25 to 30 t/ha).
v) Plough the green manure or green leaf manure directly in to the soilusing mould board or
tractor. Then maintain 2.5cm of water in the field. Incorporate the green manure to a
depth of 15cm using Burmese Setturn and allow to decompose for 7 days.
vi) When the green manure is applied, rock phosphate can be used as cheaper source of ‘P’.
It also harness the decompositions of stubbles in the second crop. Finally level the fie ld
using levelling board.
Transplanting
- Puddle and level the fields after applying basal fertilizers.
- Seedlings are dibbled at desired spacing and depth.
Plant density and geometry: It varies with soil fertility, genotypes and soils. To exploit the
full potential of any genotype, optimum plant population is to be adopted.
Depth of Planting
Clay soil : 5 to 6 cm
Shallow soil : 2.5 to 3.0 cm
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Number of seedings/ hill
Wet nursery : 3 to 4 seedling / hill
Dapog : 6 to 8 seedling / hill
Saline soil : 4 to6 seedling / hill
Management of aged seedling
? Increase basal Nitrogen by 25%.
? Closer spacing.
? 80 hills/m2
? Increasing the number of seedlings / hill.
Transplanting shock: It occurs when the seedlings are pulled out from the nursery and
planted in the new environment. For recovery from shock, it will take minimum of 5 to 7 days
under tropics.
? Shallow planting reduces the period.
? Mild temperature after transplanting also reduces the period.
? Hot weather period delays recovery.
? Very cold weather period also delays recovery.
? Best temperature: <300 C maximum and > 200 C minimum.
Root dipping: In rice, root nematode is a problem. Dip the seedlings roots in the
phosphomidon 0.02% solution for 20 minutes prior to planting.
For saline soils: Use saline tolerant variety.
? 25 days old seedling instead of 18 to 22 days.
? 4 to 6 seedlings / hill.
? Apply 25% more ‘N’ than recommended.
? Application ZnSo 4 at 32.5 (25% extra) kg/ha at the time of planting.
Application of biofertilizer to Rice
1. Azolla is a water fern which is used as a biofertilizer for rice and has been found
effective. Blue green algae, Anabaena azolla lives in the dorsal cavity of azollae and fix
'N'. It is also able to reduce the 'N' bill to the extent of 25 to 30 kg / ha. It is raised as
a dual crop and also applied as green manure .
2. Blue green algae: Broadcast at the rate of 10 kg/ha of powdered blue green algae
flakes 10 days after transplanting. Maintain thin film of water. Blue green algae
multiplies well from March to September and can be used for any variety raised during
period.
3. Dipping roots in Azospirillum slurry. Prepare the slurry with 5 pockets (1000 g/ha of
Azospirillum inoculant in 40 lit of water and dip the root portion of the seedling for15 to
30 minutes in bacterial suspension and transplant the seedlings.
4. Soil application of AzospirillumI: Mix 10 pockets (2000g/ha of Azospirillum inoculant
with 25 kg FYM and 25 kg of soil and broadcast the mixture uniformly in the main field
before transplanting.
Water management in low land rice: Among the cereal crops, the productivity per mm of
water used is very low in rice, which is about 3 to7 kg/ha mm of water. Total water required for
rice from nursery to main field (up to maturity) is 1200 to 1500 mm which depends on the
duration of crop, soil type and climate.
? At the time of transplanting, shallow depth of 2 cm is adequate, since higher depth of water
results in reduction in tillering
? Upto 7 days maintain 2.0 cm of water
? At establishment stage, 5.0 cm submergence of water has to be continued through out the
crop growth period
? For loamy soil one day disappearance of ponded water during summer and winter 3 days
after disappearance
? For clay soil, immediately after disappearance during summer and 1 to 2 days after
disappearance during winter
? Critical stages for water requirement are
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1. Primordial initiation 2. Booting 3. Heading 4. Flowering
At boot leaf stage, excess water 75.0 cm, leads to delay in heading and reduction in growth of
panicle. Stop irrigation 15 days ahead of harvest.
Nutrient management for low land transplanted rice
i) As for as possible, apply fertilizer as per soil test recommendation. If it is not followed,
adopt blanket recommendation as follows in Tamil Nadu.
Varieties N P 2O 5 K2O
Short duration 120 : 38: 38 kg/ha
Medium and Long duration 150: 50: 50 kg/ha
ii) All P2O 5 and K2O should be applied as basal at the time of puddling as quartering method
only in course textured (low CEC), K may be applied in two splits 50% at basal and 50%
at maximum tillering stage/panicle initiation stage.
iii) In clay soil, 'N' should be applied in three splits. 50% basal + 25% at max. tillering +
25% at panicle initiation stage
iv) Application 25 kg of ZnSo 4 at the time of sowing. Should not incorporate micronutrient. P
and K should be applied as q uartering method
Among the losses, denitrification and leaching losses are more in paddy soil under
submerged due to low redox potential.
14
2. Rate of application: 50 kg/ha for medium and long duration varieties and 40 kg/ha for
short duration varieties.
3. 'P' use efficiency increased with green manuring
4. When DAP is applied in the nursery, 1/3 rd of recommended dose of 'P' can be applied to
main field
Potassium: Compared to N and P, rice absorb more of K. Potassium absorption is up to dough
stage. Ne arly 50 to 60% of K is absorbed from seedling to jointing stage (20 to 25 days). So
entire 'K' is applied as basal in clay soil. In light soil, K is applied in two splits viz. 50% basal
and 50% at maximum tillering or panicle initiation stage.
Source of K: K2So 4 is more effective, but unit cost is very high. Hence KCl is recommended.
Zinc: It is more important for rice next to N, P and K. The deficiency occurs in sodic soils,
alkaline soils, sandy soils and during continuous submergence. High amount of Ca and Mg
reduces Zn uptake. Zn deficiency causes the following physiological disorders
1) Khaira disease
2) Akagare – Type II
Zn deficiency can be corrected by
1. Dipping rice roots in 1% ZnO (Zinic oxide)
2. Basal application of ZnSO 4 at 25 kg/ha (only surface application and no incorporation)
3. If basal application is not done, it is better to apply as foliar spray
4. 0.5 % concentration at 20, 30 and 40 DAP for short duration varieties at 30, 40 and 50
DAP for medium and long duration varieties.
Akiochi disease is due toxicity of H2S when high organic matter is present along with Fe
toxicity.
Weed management in Low land rice
The weeds reduce the yield of transplanted rice by 15 to 20%. Crop weed competitions: Up to
20 to 30 days for short duration varieties and 30 to 40 days for long duration varieties after
transplanting.
Weed control measures
1. Through land preparation : Summer ploughing and puddling reduce weed population.
2. Straight row planting: It is more effective to operate rotary weeder or wheel hoe in
between rows of crop. Now IRRI has developed single and double row Conoweeder
which can uproot and burry the weeds and are faster.
3. Flooding paddy at effective root depth: Proper water management of 6 to 8 weeks
submergence control the weeds effectively. Aquatic and broad leaved weeds are not
affected by this method.
4. Hand pulling : It is laborious and is not economical
5. Weed control by Chemicals is quicker and less laborious. Large area can be covered
in a short time with a limited amount of labour and it is cheaper.
Disadvantages: 1.No herbicide will kill all the species of weeds 2. Initial cost is higher.
Integrated weed management for rice
i. Use Butachlor 2.5 l/ha or Thiobencarb 2.5 lit/ha or Pendimethalin 3 lit/ha or
Anilophos 1.25 lit / ha as pre -emergence application on 3 rd day of planting as sand mix
(50 kg of sand) followed by one hand weeding on 30 to 35 days after planting (or)
ii. Use herbicide mixture: Pre emergence herbicide mixture viz; Butachlor 1.20 l /ha + 2,4
DEE 1.5 lit/ha (or) Thiobencarb 1.20 l + 2,4 DEE 1.5 lit / ha (or) Pendimethalin 1.5 l +
2,4 DEE 1.5 lit/ha as sand mix (or) Anilophos + 2,4 DEE ready mix at 1.25 l/ha followed
by one hand weeding on 30 to 35 days after planting as sand mix will have a broad
spectrum of weed control in transplanted rice.
iii. Maintain 2.5 cm of water at the time of herbicide application. Water should not be
drained for 2 days (or) fresh irrigation should not be given.
iv. Weed management – post emergence: If herbicides are not used as pre -emergence, 2,4
D sodium salt (Fernoxone 80% WP) at 1.25 kg / ha dissolved in 625 lit of water, is
sprayed 3 weeks after transplanting using high volume sprayer.
15
Harvest and post harvest operations
I. Harvesting
1. In the tropics, harvesting is to be done in optimum time, otherwise, there is loss of
grain shedding, scattering, lodging and also damaged by birds, over maturity and
lodging.
2. Timely harvesting ensures good grain quality, a high market value and improved
consumer preference / acceptance
3. In India, harvesting between 27 and 39 days after flowering gave maximum head rice
recovery. Harvesting before or after that period resulted in increases in broken rice.
The moisture content at the time of harvest is 18 to 20%.
4. Taking the average duration of crops as an indication, drain the wate r from the field 7 to
10 days before the expected harvest as the drainage hastens the maturity and improves
harvesting conditions.
5. When 80% of the panicles turn straw colour (or) most of the grains at base of the
panicle in the selected tillers are in hard dough stage, the crop is ready for harvest.
6. Maturity may be hastened by 3 to 4 days by spraying 20% Na Cl a week before harvest
to escape monsoon rains.
Method of harvest: Rice straw is usually cut with a sickle at 15 to 25 cm above the ground. In
Indonesia and Philippines, only panicles are removed. Now combined harvester is available for
harvesting, threshing, winnowing and cleaning the seeds.
Post harvest Technology: Post harvest technology encompasses an array of handling and
processing system from the stage of maturation till consumption of the produce and includes
threshing, cleaning, grading, drying, parboiling, curing, milling, preservation, storage,
processing, packing, transportation, marketing and consumption system
1. Threshing: The methods are generally classified as manual, animal or mechanical. The
common method of separating grains from panicle is hand beating (hand threshing or using
mechanical thresher (small or big thresher). A loss under manual threshing is 8%. IRRI
designed a portable thresher.
2. Drying: It is the process that removes moisture from the grain mass for safe storage and
preservation of quality, viability and nutritive value. Drying should begin within 12 hours but not
later than 24 hours after harvesting. Rice is normally harvested at moisture content of 20% or
more. If the moisture content is not reduced to below 14% shortly after threshing the grain
quality is deteriorate because of microbial activities and insect damage. The grains should be
dried to 12 to 14% moist level (drying on the threshing floor). In general, 4 to 5 days of seed
drying are required.
3. Winnowing and cleaning: Presence of impurities like foreign seeds and trash is more likely
to deteriorate in storage and reduce milling recovery rate. Cleaning is mostly done by hand
winnower, which takes advantage of wind for removing impurities. Now mechanical winnower is
available. Combine harvester is a multipurpose one, which is useful for harvesting, threshing,
winnowing and cleaning in one operation. It is highly profitable and economical. TNAU
winnower costs Rs. 400/- with 90% efficiency.
4. Grading: The grains are graded for uniformity in size, shape and colour. Seed cleaner cum
graders are also available for effective cleaning and grading.
5. Storage: Low temperature and low moisture are necessary for long term storage of rice for
seed. Rice seed of 10 to 14% moisture content can be stored in good condition at 18°C for more
than 2 years.
Rice processing
1. Parboiling: In the process, rough rice is soaked, steamed and redried before milling.
Advantages of parboiling: 1. Easy dehusking 2. low incidence of pests and diseases 3. by
milling of raw rice, 80% of fat and18% of crude protein are lost, but starch increases by
5%.
2. Curing:The new rice has low swelling capacity and has the tendency to yield a thick
viscous gruel during cooking. To overcome the above defect in newly harvested paddy,
methods have been developed to hasten the ageing in fresh rice and such process is called
as curing. Steaming for 15 to 20 minutes is sufficient to bring satisfactory curing effect.
16
3. Milling: Rice milling involves the removal of husks and bran from rough rice to produce
polished rice. Time of harvest and season affect the milling yield of rice.
4. Polishing: Removal of very fine bran (often called whitening ) 2 to 3 times.
17
PACKAGE OF PRACTICES FOR WET SEEDED RICE
N P 2O 5 K2O
18
AGRO TECHNIQUES FOR CULTIVATION OF HYBRID RICE
With an advent of cytoplasmic male sterile lines, China released first hybrid during
1976. More than 100 hybrids have been released in China. But out of 33.0 m.ha, only 17.6
m.ha is under hybrid rice. From 33.0 m.ha, China produces about 197 m.t. of rice. India so far
produced 9 hybrids and the details are given in the table.
Hybrids recorded additional yield ranges from 0.85 to 2.3 t/ha compared to check.
Private companies viz., Boro. Agro, Pioneer etc released 8 hybrids.
The success of hybrid rice cultivation in India depends on the success of seed
production. The seed production programme should be efficient and economics. So far India
could achieve seed yield of 1.5 to 2.0 t/ha as against China which recorded higher average yield
of 2 to 3 t/ha for Indian hybrid and 3.6 t/ha for Japonica hybrid.
AGRONOMIC PRACTICES FOR TAMIL NADU RICE HYBRIDS
Hybrids
Season :
Nursery :
Manure to Nursery : FYM /compost 1t/20 cents or green manure 500 kg,
DAP 2 kg/cent at last ploughing.
19
CORH 1 and ADTRH 1 150 50 50
Apply 50% N and 100% P and 50% of K as basal. Remaining 50% N in 3 splits viz. 15
DAT, 30 DAT and 45 DAT. Remaining 50% of K should be applied at 30 DAT
: N P 2O 5 K2O kg/ha
CORH2 : 150 60 60
50% N, 100% P and 50% K as basal, Remaining 50% N in 3 splits viz, 15 DAT, 40 DAT
and 60 DAT. Remaining 50% of K at 40 DAT.
Planting
i) No of seedlings : One
/hill
ii) Spacing : 20 x 10 cm
Super rice
A plant type to raise the harvest index to around 0.6 and the biomass to 22 t/ha. Such a
plant type is expected to have a yield potential of 13 t/ha. To achieve these objectives, a new
plant type was conceived with following attributes.
? The new plant type should have lower tillering capacity of producing 3 to 4 tillers when
direct seeded and 8 to 10 tillers when transplanted and all other should be ear bearing.
? Each panicle should have 200 to 250 grains and plants with sturdy stem should grow to
the height of 90 to 100 cm.
? It should have multiple disease and insect resistance and produce grain of acceptable
quality.
Rice based cropping systems: In North Eastern part of India, rice in grown under rainfed
condition.
Rice based intercropping system under rainfed condition
Rice + Pigion pea
Rice + green gram (moong bean) 3 :1 or 4: 1 ratio
Rice + Black gram, urd bean
20
2. Other varieties are : CO 37, ACM 8, ACM 10, ADT 36, ASD 16, PMK 1
Stubble height : 20 cm stubble height
Nutrient response : Ratoon crop responds from 120 to 150 kg N /ha.
Application of complete basal fertilizer application is immediately after harvest of plant crop
registered higher yield than split application.
Classification of wheat
1. Emmer wheat: Triticum dicoccum
This wheat is grown in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. It is grown in Spain,
Italy, Germany and Russia. It was developed from T. diccoides koru., a wild form.
2. Macaroni wheat: Triticum durum
It is drought tolerant and cultivated in Punjab, M.P., Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat,
W.B and H.P. It is used for suji preparation. It is grown in Italy, USA, Canada, and Russia. They
are descended from emmer wheat.
3. Common bread wheat: Triticum vulgare
It is a typical wheat of alluvial soils of Indo Gangetic plains i.e. Punjab, U.P., Bihar and
parts of Rajasthan. Bulk of Indian crop consists of this type.
4. Indian dwarf wheat: Triticum spherococcum
This is found in limited areas of M.P., U.P. of India and in Pakistan. They are
characterized by very short and compact heads having shorter grains. This belongs to the club
wheat of western countries.
5. Bread Wheat : Triticum aestivum
This is the type presently grown in India in almost all the wheat-growing zones. It is
introduced in India by Dr. N.E. Borlaug of Mexico and called as Mexican dwarf wheat. It is the
bread wheat.
Growth stages of wheat plant
1. Pre establishment stage
a) Pre emergence: Sprouting of seeds by giving rise to seminal roots and coleoptiles.
b) Emergence: Appearance of coleoptiles from germinating seeds above the soil
surface.
2. Vegetative stage
a) Seedling: The young plants establish larger root systems in this stage. The stage may
be further differentiated as one leaf, two leaf, three leaf and four leaf stage.
21
b) Crown root stage: This coincides with three or four leaf stage in which the crown roots
appear.
c) Tillering: Plants develop crown and branch out into tillers from their base at soil
surface.
d) Jointing: This is the stage at which the plants start elongating when the nodes start
developing above the crown node.
3) Reproductive stage
a) Booting: In this stage the uppermost leaf swells out into flag holding the spike into it.
b) Heading: The spikes start emerging out from the leaf sheath at this stage.
c) Flowering: Anthesis of florets and fertilization of ovaries takes place at this stage.
4) Post anthesis stage
a) Filling: The ovaries after fertilization start elongating in to seeds and pass through milk,
soft dough and hard dough stages.
b) Maturity : Colour of the glumes changes and kernels become fairly hard at this stage.
Important varieties
Sonora 64 is dwarf variety introduced to India from Mexico. It is early ripening, resistant to
lodging, grown well in late crop rotation with sugarcane or sweet potato. Its grain contains 12.4
to 14.4% protein. When irrigated it yields 6 to 7t/ha.
Lerma Rojo is a semi dwarf variety, strongly tillering. The period form blossoming until
ripening is short. The resistance to rust is high. Sowing time is late. The yields are high (7t/ha
under optimal conditions).
Kalyan Sona is a dwarf variety of Indian selection. Bushy, late ripening, very productive under
favorable conditions (up to 8t/ha).
Sonalika is a short stem, medium bushy, early ripening and high yielding variety distributed
(the yields are up to 7t/ha).
Soil and climatic requirements
Soil: Wheat is grown in a variety of soils in India. Well drained loam and clay loams are good
for wheat. However good crop of wheat are raised in sandy loams and black soils also. Soils
should be neutral in reaction. Heavy soils with good drainage are suitable for wheat cultivation
under dry condition. In India wheat-growing areas can be divided in to 5 soil divisions.
1. the Gangetic alluvium of U.P. and Bihar.
2. the Indus alluvium of the Punjab and Haryana
3. the black soil regions of central and southern India comprising M.P., and parts of
Maharashtra and Karnataka
4. the hilly regions of the Himalayas and else where and
5. the desert soils of Rajasthan
Climate: Wheat has wide adaptability. It can be grown not only in tropical and sub tropical
zones but also in temperate zones and the cold tracts of the far north. It can tolerate severe
cold and snow. It can be cultivated from sea level to as high as 3300 m. The optimum
temperature range for ideal germination of wheat seed is 20-25?C though the seed can
germinate in the temperature range of 3.5 to 35?C. It can be grown in regions where rainfall
varies from 25 to 150 cm/year. The wheat plants require medium (50-60%) humidity for their
growth. But at the time of maturity crop requires less humidity and warm season. At the time of
maturity the plants require 14-15?C.
Season and varieties
Varieties
22
NW Plain Sonalika, Arjun, Sonalika, Swati, Kundan, Pratap, -
zone Jairaj, HD 2204 HD 2270 Mukta, Sujata
Time of sowing: Temperature during growing season and at grain filling is one of the several
factors deciding the sowing time. However, ideal temperature requirement values from plant
type and stages of growth. The dwarf varieties require the following temperature for their
growth and development.
Germination 20 - 25?C
Tillering 16 - 20?C
Wheat plants are very sensitive to very cold and frost injury at any stage of growth particularly
at reproductive growth if temperature is below 15?C.
23
Spacing: For normal sown crop : 20 to 22.5 cm between the rows
For delayed sowing : 15 to 18 cm.
Depth of sowing: Since the coleoptiles length is 5 cm, depth of sowing should not more than 5
cm and the optimum depth of sowing is 2.5 to 5.0 cm.
Method of sowing
a) Broadcast sowing : Seeds are broadcasted and then worked in by harrowing to cover
the seeds. Germination is very poor and plant stand is often irregular, since the seeds
are not placed in the moist zone. High seed rate and it is an inefficient method.
b) Sowing behind the country plough: A majority of farmers use this method. The seed is
dropped in furrows by hand and it is called as 'Kera method' and when it is dropped
through a 'pora', a special set of attachment with local plough it is called "Pora method".
In this method seeds are dropped at 5-6 cm depth.
c) Drilling: Seeds are sown by seed drill or ferti seed drill. In ensures uniform depth of
sowing, proper placement of fertilizers and good germination.
d) Dibbling : This method is used in the case where supply of seeds is limited, using the
implement is called "Dibbler". It is not a common method, because it is time
consuming.
e) Transplanting : It is not a common practice. When the sowing delays beyond Ist week of
December, seedling are raised in the nursery and transplanted on 25 DAS at 2 or 3
seedling per hill at the row spacing of 15 cm x 5to 7.5 cm. The varieties Kalyansona and
Sonalika are best for transplanting.
Seed rate : 125 kg/ha.
Manures and Fertilizer: A crop of wheat yielding 50 q/ha (5 t/ha) removes 100-150 kg N/ha,
70-80 kg P2O 5 and 120-150 kg K2O/ha from the soil. Fertilizer application should be made
based on the soil test recommendation.
FYM or compost : 12.5 t/ha at last ploughing and incorporated
N : P 2O 5 : K2O
for light soil, 'N' should be applied in 3 equal splits viz 1/3 at basal, 1/3 at Ist irrigation and
1/3 at 2 nd irrigation.
Weed Management: Critical weed free period up to 30 DAS.
Post emergence application of Isoproturon (Tolkan 50% WP or Arelon 50% WP) on 30 to 35 at
1.0 kg ai/ha followed by one hand weeding or combined application of Isoproturon 0.75 kg ai/ha
+ 2,4-D at 0.5 kg ai/ha on 30 to 35 days is more effective for control of monocot and dicot
weeds or pre-emergence application of pendimethalin 1.0 kg ai/ha followed by one hand
weeding on 30 to 35 days is more efficient and economical method.
Water Management: Wheat requires 440 to 460mm of water. Irrigation at 50% available soil
moisture or 50% depletion of available soil moisture is optimum. The critical stages of crop for
irrigation
1. Crown root initiation (21-25 days)
2. Tillering (45-60 days)
3. Jointing (60-70 days)
24
4. Flowering (90-95 days)
5. Milky stage (100-108 days)
6. Dough stage (120-125 days)
Of these, irrigation at CRI stage is the most important and delay of every day results in
reduction of 1.4% grain yield/day.
It has also been noticed that if any of following irrigation is delayed or missed, the yield is
reduced to the extent of 5 to 10 kg / ha.
Number of irrigation
Cropping system
Wheat may be grown as relay crop in potato after earthing up especially in case of early crop of
potato.
Harvesting and threshing: Harvest when the leaves and stems turn yellow and becomes fairly
dry. Harvest when there is about 20-25% moisture content. Harvesting is done by using sickle
or bullock driven reapers or by using Combine Harvester. After threshing and cleaning, the
grain is dried in the sun for 3 to 4 days for getting 10 to 12 % moisture for storing.
Time of harvest
Hilly zone : May to June
North Western plain zone : Mid April
North Eastern plains zone : March to April
Central zone : February to March
Peninsular zone: February.
Yield: 4.5 to 5.5 t/ha
Post Harvest Technology: Wheat is usually ground into flour before used as food. Earlier
days stone grinding was done. Nowadays steel roller mills are available for grinding.
Process of milling: Before milling wheat is tempered by adding water about 24 to 48 hours
earlier to milling so that the moisture of grains comes around 14%. This allows better
separation of bran from the endosperm.
Wheat is eaten as atta in the north and west, in the south and east as maida and suji. Rava is
consumed mainly in the south. Pasta is a mixture of flour and salt. Pasta products comprise
vermicelli, noodles, macaroni and spaghetti.
Storage: If the moisture content of grain is more than 12% they are eaten up by storage pests.
There is marked deterioration in weight, taste, nutrients or nutritive value and germination of
wheat grains when they are stored. Safe storage means ensuring that the stored grains retain
their original weight, taste, nutritive value and germination.
25
MAIZE (Zea mays.L)
Maize is one of the important cereal crops in the world's agricultural economy both as
food for men and feed for animals, because of its higher yield potential compared to other
cereal it is called as “Queen of Cereals”.
Classification : Classification is largely based on the character of the kernels. Classified into
seven groups.
1. Flint Corn: Zea mays indurata : Starchy endosperm enclosed with hard hammy
endosperm. Kernel size is large with flat bottom and round at the top. High proportion
of starch. Colour may be white or yellow. This is the type mostly grown in India.
2. Dent Corn : Z. mays indentata Because of formation of dent on the top of kernal
having white or yellow. Maize kernels have both soft and hard starches. The hard starch
extends on the sides and the soft starch is in the centre and extends to the top of the
kernels. Depression or dent in the crown on the seed is the result of drying and
shrinkage of soft starch. This type is widely grown in USA.
3. Pop Corn : Z. mays averta Kernel size is small. Presence of hard and corneous
endosperm.
4. Sweet Corn : Z. mays saccharata The sugar and starch make the major component
of the endosperm that results in sweet taste of kernels. It is mainly grown in Northern
half of USA. The cobs are picked up green for canning and table purpose.
5. Flour Corn : Z. mays amylaceae It resembles to the flint corn in appearance and ear
characteristics. The grains are composed of soft starch and have little or no dent are
called as “Soft Corn”. It is widely grown in USA and South Africa.
6. Pod Corn : Z. mays tunicata Each kernel is enclosed in a pod or husk in an ear,
which enclosed in husks, like other types of corn.
7. Waxy Corn : Z. mays cerabina The kernel looks to have waxy
appearance and gummy starch in them, because of amylopectin. Starch is similar to
that of Tapioca starch for making adhesive for articles.
Origin : - Mexico and Central America.
CIMMYT : - Centro International de Mejorimiento de Maizy Trigo (International Centre for the
improvement of Maize and Wheat) situated in Mexico.
Economic Importance and their uses
? Most important cereal crops in the worlds’ agricultural economy. 85% is consumed as
human food.
? Several food dishes viz Chapathi are prepared from maize flour.
? Green cobs are roasted and eaten by the people.
? Popcorn is used for popped form; green cob for table purpose.
? Corn has low fibre content, more carbohydrate and most palatable.
? Widely used in preparation of cattle feed and poultry feed.
? It can be used as green fodder It has no HCN content.
? Can be preserved as silage.
? Food product : Corn meal, Corn flakes.
? Industrial product : Alcohol, Corn Starch (Dextrose), Glucose, Corn oil , corn syrup
? Used in canning Industry, production of polymer, making paper,
? paper boards, bread etc.
? Maize grain contains
Maize protein “Zein” is deficient in two essential amino acids viz., Lysine and
Tryptophane. Maize grain has significant quantity of vitamin A, nicotinic acid, riboflavin and
vitamin E. Maize is low in Calcium, but fairly high in ‘P’.
26
Area and Production
Area : 130 m.ha. Production : 580 m.t.
Maize growing Countries
USA > China > Brazil > Mexico > India.
USA ranks first in area, production and productivity.
India : India occupies 5 th place in area and 11th place in production.
Area : 6.25 m.ha (1996 – 97) Production : 10.61 m.t
Average Productivity : 1698 kg/ha.
Area : U.P. > Rajasthan > M.P. > Karnataka > Bihar.
Production : U.P. > Bihar > Karnataka. Karnataka recorded the highest average
yield of 3379 kg/ha.
Tamil Nadu : (1997 – 1998)
Area : 81,800 ha
Production : 1,32,900 tonnes
Productivity : 1625 kg/ha.
Mainly cultivated in Coimbatore, Erode, Salem, Madurai, Trichy, Thanjavur, Pudukottai districts.
Rainfed Condition : Southern districts, Dindigul areas.
Climatic requirement
? It is essentially a tropical crop.
? It is a C 4 short day plant.
? Though it is a tropical crop, it has got high adaptability to wider climate. 55? N to 45? S .
It can be grown up to 2500 m above MSL.
? This crop is not suitable when night temperature drops below 15.6 ? C.
? Maize requires moist and warm weather from germination to flowering.
? Most suitable temperature for germination is 21?C and for growth is 32? C.
? Extremely high temperature and low RH at flowering desiccate the pollen resulting in poor
pollen grain formation.
? Temperature more than 35? C reduce the pollen germination. Temperature < 15? C delays
silking and tasseling.
? Rainfall of 500 to 750 mm of well distributed rain is continue to proper growth.
Soil : Maize is best adapted to well drained sandy loam to silt loam soil. Water stagnation is
extremely harmful to the crop, therefore proper drainage is must. Maize can not thrive on heavy
soil especially on low lands. pH ranges from 5.5 to 7.5. The alluvial soils of UP, Bihar and Punjab
are very suitable for growing maize crop. Salinity and water logging are harmful at seeding
stage. Continuous water logging 3 days reduce the yield by 40 to 45%.
Growth stages of Maize :
1. Seedling stage : 1-14 days from sprouting to 2 to 4 leaves.
2. Vegetative phase : 15-39 days. (30-35 days is knee high stage)
3 Flowering phase : (40-65 days).
4. Maturity stage : 66-95 days. Includes soft and hard dough stage.
5. Ripening : 96-105 days.
Varieties recommended for cultivation : All India Co-ordinated Maize Improvement Project
was started in 1957 in collaboration with Rockefeller foundation..
Hybrids : 100 to 105 days. Deccan, Ganga Safed, Ganga-4, Ganga-5, Ganga-7,9, Histarch,
Sangam, In Tamil Nadu, CoH1, CoH2 and CoH3 Hybrids, 5.5 to 6.0 t/ha.
Promising Composites : 100 to 105 days. Amber, Vijay, Kisan, Sona, Vikram, Jawahar. 5.0 to
5.5 t/ha. Shortest duration composite : K1(80 to 85 days
Co1 (105 days)
Cropping system
27
1. Maize – Potato
2. Maize – Berseem
3. Maize – Chickpea/Safflower (Rainfed)
4. Maize – Potato – Wheat
Tamil Nadu
1. Maize – Greengram 3. Maize – Onion
2. Maize – Cotton
Rainfed Intercropping
Maize + Redgram
In North India Short duration Maize, Kathri and Sathi (65 to 75 days) grown as intercrop in
sugrcane in UP.
Time of sowing: In India, it is grown in 3 seasons.
1. Kharif – June – July (85% of rainfed area)
2. Rabi – Peninsular India and Bihar. Oct – November
3. Spring : North India. Jan – Feb. Irrigated condiiton.
Yield of maize is more during Rabi and Spring season.
28
Transplanting is adopted in problem areas like Dharmapuri and Pudukottai, where red
ferrugenious and laterite soils exist. Studies reveal that 5 days old seedling increased the grain
yield by 11 to 14% during kharif and summer season over direct seeding.
Pai Nursery technique is advocated. Raised bed is formed and above the seed bed spread
compost and sand at 1:1 ratio and dibble the seeds. Cover it, sprinkle the water for 3 to 4 days.
Pull out the seedling on 5 th day. There will be 100% germination.
Seed treatment with fungicide followed by Azospirillum (3 pockets)
Seed rate : Composite : 20 kg/ha, Hybrids : 5 kg/ha
Spacing : 60x20cm. 83,333 plants/ha. For maximum yield : 1.1 l/ha with (60x15cm).
Fertilizer management : Among the cereals, it is the heavy feeder. If there is no soil test
recommendation, blanket recommendation of NPK at 135:62.5:50 kg/ha is recommended for
irrigated maize, besides application of 12.5 t of FYM/ha.
Method of application : Apply fertilizer 5cm below the soil and 10cm away from the root zone.
Time of application of fertilizers : 100% P and K should be applied as basal. ‘N’ should be
applied in 3 splits. Why ?.
In all the cereal crops, there is 2 peak stages of uptake, where as in Maize, there are 3 peak
stages of uptake.
Ist peak 30-35 days. (Knee high stage)
nd
II peak 50-60 days ( Tasselling)
IIIrd peak 70-80 days ( dough stage).
Hence ‘N’ should be applied in 3 splits. ? basal, ? at 25 th day, ? rd at 45 th day.
Bio fertilizers : Seed treatment with 3 pockets of Azospirillum followed by soil application of
Azospirillum @10 pockets (2 kg/ha) with FYM at 50 kg/ha,
For transplanted crop ‘N’ should be applied 50% basal and 25% at knee high stage and
25% at taselling stage.
ZnSo4 : Apply ZnSo 4 at 25 kg/ha at the time of sowing. If not possible to apply at basal, foliar
spray of 0.5% ZnSo 4 at critical stages is recommended.‘Zn’ deficiency cause “White bud” in
Maize.
For getting maximum yield: For irrigated crop adopt 1.1 lakh plants (60 x 15cm) with
200:100:80 kg NPK /ha (N and K application in 3 splits) + 25kg ZnSo 4/ha.
Water management
? Requires 500 to 600 mm of water.
? Based on IW/CPE ratio, irrigating at 0.8 IW/CPE ratio recorded higher yield. Under
intercropping situation, 0.6 IW/CPE ratio is optimum.
? Critical stages for irrigation are taselling and silking. Peak consumption of water also
occurs during this period (taselling and silking).
? Water shortage for 2 days in this stage, reduce the yield by 20%.
Number irrigation required :Clay/clay loam : 8 irrigations
Light soil : 10 irrigations
Irrigation for germination : 1 (Irrigation after sowing)
2 (Life irrigation 4 th day)
Vegetative phase: 1 st irrigation on 12 th day
2 nd irrigation on 25th day
3 rd irrigation on 36 th day.
29
? Among the herbicides, pre emergence herbicide, Simazine and atrazine are more selective.
? Hence integrated weed management of pre-emergence application of atrazine 0.25 kg/ha
followed by one hand hoeing and weeding on 30 to 35 DAS is effective and economical
compared to two hoeings and weedings (Conventional methods).
? For intercropping systems, atrazine should not be used.
? For maize + pulse intercropping system, pre-emergence application of pendimethalin 1.0 kg
ai/ha followed by one hand weeding on 30 to 35 DAS.
? Spraying should be done within 3 days
? There should be adequate soil moisture
? Should not disturb the soil immediately after application
? Use high volume sprayer fitted with deflected type or flat fan nozzle can be used.
? If pre-emergence herbicides is not applied, post emergence application, 2,4 D Na salt
(Fernoxone 80 WP) at 1.0 kg/ha on 2 or 3 rd leaf stage for sole maize, should not use when
intercropped with legumes.
? For maize + soybean/pulse intercropping system, pre-emergence application of alachlor at
2.0 kg ai/ha (Lasso 50% EC) + one hand weeding.
Pre emergence
Post emergence
Thinning and gap filling : Leave one healthy seeding per hill and remove others on 7 th or 8th
day of sowing. Where seedings are not germinated, dibble 2 seeds per hill and immediately pot
water it. The crop should be earthed up after application fertilizer at 30 to 35 DAS to prevent
lodging.
Harvesting and grain shelling : The grain cob is harvested when cob sheath turns brownish,
grains become hard and they do not contains more then 20% moisture and they are piled up for
24 hours and then dried in the sun for 5 or 6 days to reduce the moisture to 10 to 12%.
Shelling : Common practice is hand shelling, but efficiency is very poor. Now corn shellers of
greater efficiency, which are manually driven, tractor drawn, electricity operated are available.
The left over plants are used as green fodder or straw.
30
BARLEY (Hordeum vulgare L.emend, Lam .)
31
Rain at the time of ripening causes discolouration of grain and it is not good for malting or
seeding. The crop possesses high degree of tolerance to drought and Sodic condition.
Edaphic or Soil requirements : Sandy to moderately heavy loam soil of Indo-Gangetic plains
having neutral to Saline in reaction and medium fertility are most suited for barley. Being a salt
tolerant crop, it is the best substitute for sodic soils and also for saline coastal soils in West
Bengal and black soils of Karnataka. A higher spot with efficient drainage would be best location
for barley. The soil should not be very fertile which causes lodging and reduce the yield. Acidic
soils are not suitable.
Season
Rainfed crop : Before end of October or first week of November.
Irrigated : Ist or IInd week of November
Late sown : Up to December
Hilly Zones (2000 m): Is t week of November.
Seed Rate
Irrigated : 75 to 100 kg/ha.
Rainfed : 80 to 100 kg/ha.
Saline soil : 100 kg/ha.
In very high altitude of 2000 m above MSL, grown only as summer crop. Sowing during
end of April or Ist week of May . Similar to Wheat.
32
? Select the seeds having 1.2 to 1.5% N
? Timely sowing. Avoid late sowing.
? Fertile soil should be avoided.
Land preparation : Barley being a shallow rooted crop responds well to light textured, fine
seed bed. One ploughing with soil turning plough followed by 2 or 3 ploughings with desi plough
or 2 or 3 harrowings by tractor or bullock power. In areas where termites are problematic, mix
the soil with BHC 10% at 20-25 kg/ha or aldrin 5% dust at 10 to15 kg/ha.
Seed treatment : Treat the seeds with either Captan/Thiram/Bavistin @ 2g/kg of seeds. In
the case of saline and rainfed areas, sowing of overnight soaked seeds results in a quick
germination and also ensures better stand.
Fertilizer management : Apply FYM at 12.5 t/ha during last ploughing
Condition Recommended
N P 2O 5 K2O
Irrigated crop 60 : 30 : 20
Malt production 30 : 20 : 20
Rainfed 40 : 20 : 20
Method and Time of application: 50% N and 100% P and K as basal. Remaining 50 % N at
30 DAS (Ist irrigation). In rainfed and saline soils, entire fertilizer should be drilled below 8
to10cm depth as basal.
Light Textured soil: N should be applied in 3 splits. ? as basal + ? during first irrigation + ?
during second irrigation.
Method of Sowing : Similar to Wheat
1) Broadcasting 2) Pora and Kera method.
Water management: It requires 200-250 mm water. 2-3 irrigations are adequate. Light soil
requires 4 irrigations. Following are the critical growth stages for irrigation.
1. Seedling or sprouting stage
2. Active tillering stage (30-35 DAS)
3. Flag leaf
4. Milling stage or soft dough stage.
Of these active tillering stage around 30-35 DAS and grain filling (60-65 DAS) are most critical.
Weed management : Up to 30 days is critical. Monocot and dicot weeds found are similar to
that of wheat.
1) Post emergence application of Isoproturan 0.75 kg/ha + 0.5 kg/ha 2,4-D combination
on 35-40 days (3-5 leaf stage) effectively control both dicot and monocot weeds + one
hand weeding or pendimethalin (pre emergence) 1.0 kg/ha + one hand weeding is
economical than that of two hand weedings.
Barley based cropping system: Barley being a short duration crop is more suitable for
rotation than wheat. The following are the common rotations.
Paddy - barley Cotton - barley
Jowar - barley Maize - barley
Bajra - barley Urdbean - barley
Barley is grown mixed with crops like
1. Chickpea + barley 4. Mustard + barley
2. Pea + barley 5. Linseed + barley.
3. Lentil + barley
Harvest : Similar to that of wheat. Timely harvest ensures quality grain and prevent different
losses. Threshing either by using animal or mechanical threshers. Then winnowing and
cleaning are done. Storage of grains at 10-12% moisture level.
Yield : Grain: 3.0-3.5 t/ha
Straw :4.0-5.0 t/ha
33
? Hulled barley is not accepted by consumers. Now two improved huskless varieties viz.,
Karan 18 and Karan 19 have been released and there is a great demand for them among
the farmers.
34
OATS (Avena sativa)
35
6. UPO. 50 : Medium late and semi erect variety released from Pantnagar. Resistant to rust,
blight and lodging. Fodder yield : 45 to 50 t/ha. Suitable for cultivation in U.P.
Time of sowing : Optimum time of sowing is from middle of October to middle of November
for getting higher yield. Oct. middle for fodder production and Nov.middle for seed productio n
Seed rate : 100 kg/ha. Drill sowing is better than broadcasting.
Field preparation: The field should be thoroughly prepared to secure a fine and firm seed bed.
One deep ploughing followed by 3-4 harrowings and planking are sufficient to get good seed
bed. Long narrow beds may be laid out across the field so that only single irrigation channel
along the upper side of the field may serve the purpose.
Spacing : 20 to 23 cm for fodder 23 to 25 cm for grain
Manures and fertilizers: The crop responds to organic manures apply 15.0 to 20.0 t/ha.
Recommended NPK : 80:40:0 kg NPK/ha. Apply entire ‘P’ as basal and ‘N’ should be applied
as follows
60 kg N/ha as basal
10 kg N/ha at Ist irrigation (25 to 30 DAS)
10 kg N/ha after Ist cutting.
Water management : Lowest WUE next to rice, require high amount of water. The crop
irrigated once in 20 to 25 days, 4 to 5 irrigations are needed. Generally irrigation is necessary
after each cutting. Critical stage is tillering stage for oat.
Weed Control : Usually one weeding after 3 to 4 weeks of sowing is enough.
Harvesting : The crop needs about 120 to 150 days to mature (4½ to 5 months). It is
common practice to take 2 or 3 cuttings of fodder and then to allow the crop to grow for seed.
But normally only two cuttings are taken from the seed or grain crop. Of these two cuttings,
first is taken after 60 to 65 days and second after 90 days of sowing or at the flowering stage of
the crop. Then plants are allowed to grow and set seeds.
Yield : If it has given two cuts, Green fodder: 50 to 60 t/ha and
seed / grain yield : 200 to 400 kg/ha.
Threshing, winnowing and cleaning of the grain as per wheat.
Rotation and Inter cropping
1. Jowar – Oat – Maize
2. Maize – Oat – Maize
3. Cowpea – Oat+Mustard – Miaze+Cowpea
4. Jower+Cowpea – Oat+Lucerne
Yield : If the crop is allowed after Ist cut for seed set, then fodder yield : 25 to 30 t/ha. Seed: 3
to 3.5 t/ha. Straw: 2.5 to 3 t/ha
36
Rye (Secale cereale)
Minor rabi cereal. Mainly used for green fodder, pasture crop, green manure crop and cover
crop. The flour of rye is mixed with wheat flour for making bread. Rye straw is used for bedding
and packing material.
Area and distribution : In the world, it is cultivated in an area of 16.3 m.ha with a
productivity of 40.7 m.t. 60% of area is in USSR, followed by Germany, Austria, Hungari, USA,
Canada, Poland, Turkey etc. In India, it is grown in Punjab, Haryana and U.P.
Origin : Compared to wheat, rye is a relatively new crop. The earliest cultivation appears to
have been in Western Asia and Southern USSR.
Climate : It can with stand all adverse weather conditions except heat. Commonly called as
“Winter hardy cereal” and is the earliest of all cereals.
Soil : Rye is the only one rabi cereal best suited for sandy soil.
Season : Winter season and spring season.
Rye Varieties : Rye varieties are not so numerous as Wheat, Barley and Oats.
For Winter Season: Forage type: Athens, Common, Abruzzes
Grain type : Rosen, Dakold, Balba
Spring Rye : Prolific, Merced.
Time of sowing : For Forage crop : October is the best time.
Grain crop : November.
For Pasture or green manure or cover crop: August.
Seed rate : 75 to 95 kg/ha for forage and 55 to 65 kg/ha for grain.
Land preparation: Summer ploughing is recommended. Stubble mulching to over come the
erosion.
Method of sowing: Broadcasting and Drill sowing. Depth 2.5 cm. 20 to 25 cm row spacing.
Fertilizers: It responds to 30 to 90 kg N, 35 to 55 kg P and 65 kg K2O. ‘N’ is applied in two
splits.
Application of BHC 10% or Aldrin 5% at 15.20 kg/ha for termite.
Water Management : CRI and heading are the critical stages.
Six irrigations are recommended.
1. Sowing irrigation
2. 20 to 25 DAS Vegetative (CRI)
3. 40 to 45 DAS (Tillering)
4. 70 to 75 DAS (Late Jointing stage)
5. Flowering stage
6. Dough stage (115th day).
If only one irrigation is available - Irrigate at CRI.
If 2 irrigations , CRI and flowering.
If 3 irrigations, CRI, Late jointing and flowering stage.
Harvest
For Forage crops : Two harvests. 50 to 55th day and at Dough stage.
Forage cum grain crop : 50 to 55 th day and allowed for seed set.
Yield : 50 to 55 t/ha [Only fodder purpose].
Dual Crop : 25 t/ha fodder, 2.5 t/ha grain and 2.5 t/ha straw.
TRITICALE
Rye, a member of the Poaceae family, is popularly grown as fodder in foreign countries
and the same is found on the North Indian hills. It has characteristic feature of growing very
profuse with exceptionally more number of tillers per plant under poor fertility status of soil
having marginal or no irrigation facilities. Breeders took rye for crossing with wheat and the
resultant offspring was named as man made cereal or ryewheat scientifically known as triticale.
This was done with a view to reduce the required input in wheat production and to increase the
per unit area. Besides these, triticales have about 20 per cent protein and a very high biological
value but the greatest drawback was that the grain colour was dark-red, seeds were very
37
wrinkled with low viability and the plants had a very high degree of sterility. The grains are also
susceptible to store grain pests. In the present day breeding these points are being taken into
active consideration and probably in near future the farmers would be having a good number of
triticale varieties for the cultivation.
38
? It has the capacity to withstand drought or excess moisture (92% of sorghum is grown
under rainfed.
? Comes up well even in marginal soil under moisture stress
? It does well in low rainfall areas
? It makes comparatively quick growth than maize.
? It is dormant during stress condition and it resumes it growth, when optimum condition
occur.
Climatic requirement : It is a short day plant. Long day condition delays flowering and
maturity. It is a C4 plant. It is a warm weather plant and is grown to as high as 1500 m from
MSL. Sorghum can tolerate high temperature throughout their life cycle, better than any other
cereal. It is highly resistant to desiccation. It can tolerate water logging. Low temperature at
flowering affect the seed set. Rainfall at maturity affect the quality of grain. Low temperature
with cloudy weather at flowering induce sugary disease.
Edaphic or soil requirement : It is grown under variety of soil. Soil with clay loam or loamy
texture having good water retention are best suited. It does not thrive in Sandy soils, but does
better in heavier soils. It does well in pH range of 6.0 to 8.5 as it tolerates considerable salinity
and alkalinity. The black cotton soils of Central India are very good for its cultivation. In
TamilNadu, 60% of soil is alfisol, where sorghum is grown.
Area, Production and Productivity
During 1997, world production : 147 mt.
Production
USA > Brazil > Argentina > China
(74.2mt) (26.5) (14.5mt) (13.5)
In India, it is staple food crop of North Karnataka, Maharashtra, AP, Gujarat, MP and Rajasthan.
It is mainly grown as kharif crop and smaller extent as Rabi crop in Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP
and MP.
India: (1996 – 1997) Area:11.5 m.ha, Production:11.08m.t Productivity: 950 kg/ha. In
India, 92.0% of the area is under rainfed.
Area : Maharashtra > Karnataka > MP > AP
(61.6 l ha) (20.8 l ha)
In Maharashtra, Karnataka, MP and AP sorghum is grown in both kharif and rabi.
Tamil Nadu : Area:5.06 l. ha, Production: 4.86 l.t and
Productivity: 960 kg/ha.
At present, Maharashtra has the largest area accounting 43% of Indian area under
sorghum and 51% of total production. In Tamil Nadu, it is largely grown in Trichy, Coimbatore,
Salem, Dharmapuri, Madurai, and Tirunelveli (undivided district). North Arcot and Erode
districts. In Tamil Nadu 85% of area is under rainfed and 15% is irrigated.
1. Rainfall: Average and well distributed rainfall of 250 to 300mm is optimum for rainfed
sorghum.
2. Distribution: Madurai, Dindigul, Theni, Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi,
Virudhunagar, Sivagangai, Trichy, Erode, Salem, Namakkal, Coimbatore and
Dharmapuri districts.
3. Season : 1) S.W monsoon: entire North India “Kharif crop”
(June to July)- Salem and Dharmapuri in Tamil Nadu.
2) N.E monsoon: All the district except Salem.
(Sept to Oct to Dec to Jan)
3) Rabi: North India October and Dharmapuri.
Field preparation : Field has to be prepared well in advance taking advantage of early
showers.
39
FYM @) 12.5 t/ha applied at last ploughing. i) Chiselling the soil with hand pan or shallow soil
once in three years. ii) Depending on the rainfall and soil type, different land shaping methods
may be adopted for conservation of the moisture. Black soil having high rainfall areas and hence
form broad bed and furrow.
In Black soils having low rainfall, form compartmental bunding or sow the seeds in flat bed and
form furrows between crops during inter cultivation or during third week after sowing for both
the soil types or form dead furrow at 3 m interval.
Varieties : CO26 (105-110), COH3, (105-110), K 8(85 days), CO19 (145 days Lexpark), K10
(110-115), Paiyur-1 (140-145), Paiyur-2 (Sencholam) (90-95 days).
Varieties: APK 1 (105-110 days), BSR1 (105-110 days)
Southern districts : [Irungu cholam belt] –Traditional variety
Seed hardening
i) It is a method by which drought tolerance is induced in plants by soaking the seeds in weak
electrolytes or salt solution
ii) Seed treatment with Azospirillum and phosphobacteria each 3 pockets (600 gm).
iii) In main field, apply 2 kg of Azospirillum and 2 kg of phosphobacteria with 25 kg of
FYM + 25 kg of soil.
iv) Treat the seeds with any one of the fungicides @ 2g/kg of seeds. (Thiram / Bavistin)
Sowing : Sow the seeds before onset of monsson at 5cm depth with seed cum fertilizer drill or
by seed drill or by country plough. Before sowing, the seed is pelletised with 15g of
chlorpyriphos in 150 ml of gum and seeds are dried.
Pre monsoon sowing / dry seeding: Sowing a week or 2 weeks before on set of monsoon.
District Optimum period
Coimbatore 37-38 th week (II – III week of September)
Erode 38 th week (III week of September)
Sivaganga and Ramnad 40 th week (Ist week of October)
Thoothukudi, Tirunelveli 39-40 th (Last week of September
to first week of October)
Spacing
Sole Sorghum : 45x15 or 45x10 cm(1,80,000 plants/ha)
Intercropping and Paired row system : 60//30x15cm.
Fertilizer : Organic manure at 12.5 t/ha during last ploughing.
NPK: 40:20:0 kg/ha. ‘P’ is applied as basal as Enriched FYM. ‘N’ may be applied in two splits.
50% basal + 50% at 25 DAS depending up on the rainfall.
40
For high rainfall of North India where sorghum is grown during S.W. monsoon (kharif season),
the recommended NPK is: 80:40:40 kg/ha. 50% N and entire P and K should be applied as
basal, remaining 50% N as top dressing at 25 to 30 DAS depending on the rainfall.
During rabi season : NPK at 40:20:0 kg/ha. Entire fertilizer is applied as basal by drilling the
fertilizer.
Growth stages of sorghum
1. Seedling stage : 1-15 days
2. Vegetative stage (Grand growth (30-40) : 16-40 days
3. Flowering/Reproductive Stage : 41-65 days
4. Maturity : 66-95 days
5. Ripening : 96-105 days
Weed management : Keep the sorghum fields free of weeds from second week after
germination till 5th week. If sufficient moisture is available spray atrazine @ 500g/ha (atrazine
0.25 kg/ha) as pre -emergence within three days after receipt of soaking rain followed by one
late hand weeding/inter culture
For sorghum based intercropping system with pulses, use pendimethalin (Stomp 30 EC) at 3.0
lit/ha as pre -emergence + one hand weeding/inter culture at later (35 DAS)
Striga : Striga asiatica, S.lutea, S. hermonthica (Witch weed)
It is a semi-root parasite in sorghum and reduces the yield markedly.
41
All India Co-ordinated sorghum Improvement Project (AICSIP)
It developed 15 sorghum varieties : CSV1 to CSV 15
Hybrids : CSH1 to CSH 18 R
CSH1, CSH6,CSH9 : best for kharif season
CSH 15 R & 18 R : best fro rabi season.
Hybrids and Varieties recommended for different parts of Rainfed region in India
42
even after the crop is mature. Harvest may be done at physiological maturity. Harvesting is
done by cutting the entire plant or removing the earheads first and cutting down the plants
latter and is allowed to dry for 2 to 5 days. Threshing is done with the help of thresher or
beating the earheads. The threshed grain is dried in the sun for a week to bring the moisture
content to 10 to 12% for safe storage.
Yield : Grain : 2 to 3 t/ha under rainfed condition.
Dry Stover : 8 to 10 t/ha.
43
TECHNOLOGIES FOR IRRIGATED SORGHUM
Sowing Form rills using fingers, broad cast the seeds and cover with 500 kg of FYM.
Irrigation : Immediately after sowing, 3 rd day, 7 th day, 12th day and 17 th day.
Transplanting
1) Age of seedling 15 to 18 days
2) Dip the seedlings in Azospirillum solution (5 pockets (1000g) dissolved in 40 lit of
water) for 15 to 30 minutes.
3) Plant at 45x15cm spacing at a depth of 3 to 5cm with one seedling per hill on the
side of ridge.
Main field preparation for both direct seeded and transplanted crop
? Sorghum does not require fine tilth. Plough the field with an iron plough once and twice
with a country plough.
? To over come the sub soil hard pan in Alfisol, chiseling the field at 0.5 m interval to a
depth of 40 cm on both the direction of the field followed by disc ploughing once and
cultivator ploughing twice help to increase the yield.
? Apply 12.5 t FYM or compost /ha with 2 kg of Azospirillum (10 pockets/ha) and
incorporate the manure in the soil by working a country plough.
44
? Form ridges and furrows at 45cm apart using ridge plough.
Fertilizer management
Transplanted crop : If soil test recommendation is not available, follow the blanket
recommendation of 90:45:45 kg NPK /ha.
? 50% N and entire P and K should be applied basally before planting.
? Remaining 50% N on 15 days after planting.
Direct seeded crop: Blanket recommendation: 90:45:45 kg NPK /ha.
? Apply 50% N and entire P and K basally
? Remaining 50% N on 25 to 30 DAS
Micronutrient
? For Zn deficient soils, apply 25kg ZnSo 4/ha at the time of sowing/transplanting.
? For Fe deficient soils, apply 50kg FeSO 4 at sowing or at planting.
Foliar spray of Micronutrient:
? If ZnSO 4 is not applied basally and if Zn deficiency is noticed, spray ZnSO 4 at 0.5%
concentration.
? Similarly FeSO 4 at 1% concentration at 2 or 3 stages.
Optimum plant population : 45x15cm, 1,48,000 plants/ha for both direct and transplanted
crop.
? For raising intercrop, paired row system, 60//30x15cm may be adopted. Raise one
row of pulses in between 60cm row spacing.
Thinning and gap filling : In the direct sown crop, thin one seeding per hill and gap fill the
thinned out seedlings 10 to 15 DAS, maintaining a spacing of 15cm between plants.
Weed management
? Apply pre emergence herbicide Atrazine 50 WP at 500 g/ha (atrazine 0.25 kg/ha)
on 3 days after sowing using high volume sprayer followed by one hand weeding on
30 to 35 DAS.
? Sorghum is slow growing in the early stage and is adversely affected by weed
competition. Keep the fields free of weeds up to 45 days.
? If pulse crop is raised as intercrop, do not use atrazine.
? If herbicide is not used, for transplanted crop, two hoeings and weedings on 10 day
and 30 to 35 th day after planting.
th
? In the case of direct seeded crop, 15 to 20 day and second weeding on 35 to 40
DAS.
? Striga control.
Water management
i) Total water requirement : 450-500 mm.
ii) Irrigation at 50% depletion of available soil moisture
iii) 0.6 IW/CPE ratio is sufficient.
Critical stages : 1) Seedling 2) Vegetative 3) Flowering iv) Dough stage.
Stress at one week before and one week after flowering is very critical. Under moisture stress
condition, 5 irrigations are sufficient. For normal condiiton, 8 irrigations are to be given . i.e. on
Ist day, 4 th day, 15th, 28th, 40th, 53nd, 64th,76th and 88 th days. Stop irrigation after 88 to 90 DAS.
Contingent plan: Spraying 3% Kaolin (30 g in one litre of water) during periods of stress will
mitigate the ill effects.
Harvesting and processing
? When the crop matures, leaves turn yellow and the grains are hard and firm and
moisture content will be less than 25%.
? At this stage, cut the earheads separately dried for 2 to 3 days and threshed using
mechanical thresher and dry the grain to 12% moisture for safe storage.
? Cut the straw after a week, allow it to dry and then stack.
45
Cropping system : In Tamil Nadu Sorghum – Ragi, Sorghum – Cotton, Sorghum – Onion,
Sorghum – Greengram.
Intercropping : Sorghum + Cowpea
Sorghum + Greengram
46
AGRO-TECHNIQUES FOR SWEET SORGHUM
Juice Brix 8 19 20
47
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR RATOON SORGHUM
1. Varieties for ratooning : CO25, CO26, CSH5, K.Tall. Sorghum is highly amenable for
ratooning.
2. Ratooning technique
i) Harvest the main crop leaving 15cm stubble
ii) Remove first formed two sprouts from the main crop and allow only the latter
formed two sprouts to grow. Allow two tillers per hill.
3. Hoeing and Weeding
i) Remove the weeds immediately after harvest of main crop.
ii) Hoe and weed on 15 th and 30th day after cutting.
4. Application of fertilizers : 100:50:0 kg NPK /ha.
i) Apply 100 kg N/ha in two splits doses.
ii) Apply Ist dose on 15 th day after cutting and second on 45 th day after cutting.
iii) Apply 50 kg P 2O 5 along with first application of N.
5. Pest and disease management : Since the ratoon crop invites pests and diseases in
early stages, plant protection measures have to be resorted to.
6. Water management
i) Irrigate immediately after cutting the main crop.
ii) Irrigation should not be delayed for more than 24 hours after cutting.
iii) irrigate 3 rd or 4 th day after cutting.
iv) Subsequent irrigation once in 7 to10 days.
v) Stop irrigation 70 to 80 days after ratooning.
7. Harvest : Similar to sown crop but duration is 10 to 15 days lesser than main crop.
8. Yield : equal or slightly higher than sown crop.
48
FINGER MILLET (RAGI, MANDUA) Eleusine coracana L. Gaertn.
Cultivated mainly in Asia and Africa and is predominantly grown in the Peninsular Indian sta tes
of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Importance
1. Staple food crop in many hilly regions of the country
2. Grown both for grain and forage
3. In Northern hills grains are eaten in the form of chapaties
4. In South India grain flour is used for preparing gruel, cakes or unleavened bread,
puddings, porridges, sweets etc.
5. Germinating grains are malted and fed to infants and good for pregnant woman.
6. Considered as nutritive food for adults of different ages
7. Grain contains 9.2% protein, 1.29% fat, 76.32% carbohydrates, 2.24% minerals 3.% ash
and 0.33% Ca. Contain vitamins A and B with small amount of P.
8. Good for persons suffering from diabetes.
9. Green straw suitable for making silage.
Origin: India
Distribution: India, Africa, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, China and Japan
Area and Production
India: Area 19.1 lakh ha Production 27.62 lakh t Productivity 1440 kg/ha
Particulars Indaf 5 Co 11 Co 12 Co 13
Growth Stages
49
Vegetative Phase (Main field) 1 to 18 1 to 20 1to 22
Flowering phase 19 to 40 21 to 55 23 to 69
Nursery Management
a. Seeds and sowing
? Seed rate: 5 kg/ ha for transplanting and 8-10kg for direct sowing
? 12.5 cents (500 m2) nursery area required/ha
? Prepare land and mix 37.5kg super phosphate and 500 kg FYM or compost
? Form raised beds of 3.0x1.5m with 30cm channels
? Seed treatment with fungicides done 24 hours prior to sowing
? Azospirillum seed treatment @ 3 packets/ha seed rate (600g/ha)
? Make rills of1cm depth, broadcast and cover the seeds with 500kg powdered FYM
? Do not sow the seeds deeply as germination will be adversely affected
b. Schedule the irrigation as given below for nursery
Heavy soils
50
Vegetative phase 8-20 1 18 th day 20 th day 20 th day
st rd
2 31 day 33 day 30 th day
Light soils
51
PEARLMILLET (or) BAJRA (P.glaucum)
Tamil : Cumbu
Of the 150 sps of Pennesitum, P.glaucum is the cultivated species for grain and P.purpurea is
the forage species.
Origin:- Africa
Economic importance
? It is a stable food crop of about 100 million peoples in rural areas of India and Sub
Saharan Africa.
? Roti or Chapati, which are unleaved flat breads prepared using pearlmillet flour are
common in Asia.
? Porridges and cooked grains are also used.
? In Northern India, it is prepared during winter while wheat becomes common in Summer
diet.
? Fried preparations, foods such as fermented products and beer.
? Variety of pan cakes are prepared using pearlmillet flour in Africa and pearl millet beer is
used throughout Africa.
? Fura or cheese are the traditional African snacks prepared using steamed pearl millet flour
and cream.
? It is used as fodder in Africa and Asia.
? Oxalic acid content is very high. So it is not relished by cattle.
? Quality of grain: Rich in protein (12.6%) and rich in fat (5%), fibre 1.2% and 60.70%
of Carbohydrate.
? Normally rich in Ca, Vit.Riboflavin and rich in Carotenoides
? In Central America, it is mainly cultivated for forage purpose.
? It is grown as pasture grass.
52
rainfall at flowering is not conducive, as it washes off the pollen and there is poor seed setting.
The crop does better in light showers followed by bright sunshine.
Usually bajra is grown, where it is not possible to grow sorghum because of high temperature
and low rainfall. It is grown as kharif crop in Northern India, while in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Punjab, it is grown under irrigated condition during summer.
Edaphic requirement : It is grown in a wide variety of soils, but being sensitive to water
logging, It does best on well drained sandy loams. It is sensitive to acidic soil. It is grown
successfully on black cotton soil, alluvial soils and red soils of India.
Time of sowing : India
Kharif (rainfed) : June to October
Winter (rainfed) : Nov to Feb
Summer(rainfed) : March to June
During summer, it is grown in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Punjab and Gujarat as an irrigated crop.
Hybrids: Under All India Co-ordinated Research project many hybrids have been developed.
Using Cytoplasmic male sterile line (CMS line) five hybrids have been developed. Among them
HB3 is the best. But all hybrids are susceptible to downy mildew. To overcome the downy
mildew, CMS line MS.5071 was used and five New Hybrid bajra were developed. Among them,
NHB.5 is the best for disease resistance and wide adaptability besides giving higher yield.
In Tamil Nadu, using CMS line MS 5141 A, two hybrids X6 and X7 were evolved and are
recommended for cultivation.
X6: 90-100 days. Irrigated crop : 3236 kg/ha. Rainfed condition : 2394 kg/ha. Resistant to
downy mildew. 1000 grain weight: 7.7 to 8.8 g
X7: 90 days, both irrigated and rainfed. Irrigated crop : 3295 kg/ha. Rainfed : 2513 kg/ha.
Resistant to downy mildew. 100 grain weight 8-9g.
Composite : WC.C 75 (World Cumbu Composite developed at ICRISAT, Hyderabad). Suited for
both irrigated and rainfed. Duration : 95 days. Irrigated crop : 3.0 t, Rainfed 2.0 t/ha.
Variety : Co7 : 90-100 days, Rainfed : 2.5 t/ha. Irrigated 3.5 t/ha. Resistant to downy mildew.
K3: 85 days.
Tamil Nadu : Season and Varieties
I Irrigated Crop Variety and Hybrids
1. March – April: WCC 75, K3,
(All district except Kanchipuram, CO7, X6, X7.
Tiruvallur and Nilgris)
2. Jan – Feb : WCC 75, CO7, X6, X7.
(except Kanchipuram, Tiruvallur
and Nilgris)
II Rainfed
1. June – July : WCC 75, k3, Co7, X6, X7, K4HB
2. Sept – Oct : ------ do -------
53
Nursery preparation for transplanted crop :Nursery area required is 7.5 cent (300 m2) for
one ha. Plough the land and bring it to fine tilth. Apply 750 kg of FYM or compost and
incorporate. Form raised beds of 3.0 m x 1.5m with 30 cm channel. Open small rills not deeper
than 1cm on the raised bed. Sow 3.75 kg of seeds in 7.5 cents at the rate 0.5 kg/cent and
cover the seeds and sprinkle 500 kg of FYM or compost for covering the seeds.
Irrigation Light Soil Heavy Soil
st
I immediately after sowing immediately after sowing
2 nd 3 rd DAS 3 rd DAS
rd th
3 7 day 9 th day
4 th 12 th day 16 th
th th
5 17 -----
Fertilizer management: If soil test recommendation is not available, follow the blanket
recommendation.
Irrigated crop : Hybrids 80 : 40 :40 kg N : P 2O 5 : K2O/ha.
Varieties 70 : 35 : 35 kg N : P 2O 5 : K2O/ha.
Rainfed crop: 40 : 20 : 0 kg N : P 2O 5 : K2O/ha.
Apply 50% and 100% P and K as basal at 5cm depth and the remaining 50%N at 15 days after
planting for transplanted crop and 30 DAS for direct sown crop. Bajra removes about 90 kg N,
20 to 25 kg P 2O 5 and 160 kg K2O. Micronutrient: For Zn deficient soil, apply ZnSo 4 at 25 kg/ha.
Iron deficiency occurs in saline and calcareous soil. Based on the level of deficiency, 12.5 to 25
kg of FeSo 4 is recommended. If it is not applied basally, foliar application of FeSo 4 at 1%
concentration at vegetative phase is recommended.
Water management : Highly drought tolerant crop.
Water requirement : 300 to 350 mm.
54
Irrigation at available soil moisture of 50%
Optimum IW/CPE ratio 0.4 is sufficient.
Critical Stages: Tillering and Flowering. Normally 5 irrigations are recommended. Tillering,
Panicle irrigation, Flag leaf, Flowering, Dough stage in addition to sowing irrigation.
Under limited moisture condition : 3 irrigations can be recommended. Panicle initiation,
Flag leaf, Flowering in addition to sowing irrigation.
Thinning and gap filling : In the direct sown crop, after Ist weeding at the time of irrigation
gap fill and thin the crop to a spacing of 15cm between plants. In rainfed crop, thinning should
be done 10 to15 days after sowing.
Weed Management : It reduces the yield by 50% crop weed competition is up to 35 days.
Pre-emergence application of atrazine 500 g/ha (atrazine 0.25 kg/ha) followed by hand
weeding on 30 to 35 days after transplanting or sowing. If the herbicide is not used, hand weed
on 15 th day and again between 30 and 35 days after transplanting. For direct sown crop,
hoeing and weeding may be done on 20 to 25th day and second weeding on 35 th to 40 th day
after sowing.
*Atrazine should not be used for intercropping systems.
Cropping system : Some of the important crop rotations are
1. Bajra - Barly Intercropping system in North India
2. Bajra - Wheat Bajra + Groundnut
3. Bajra - Gram Bajra + Blackgram
4. Bajra - Pea Bajra + Greengram
5. Bajra - Potato Bajra + Castor
Bajra + Cowpea
Harvesting and Threshing:When the leaves turned yellow colour and when the seeds
become hardened and having 20% moisture. Harvesting is done by removing the earheads first
and cutting down the plants latter on. The earheads after harvesting should be dried well in sun
before threshing. The grains are separated either by beating the earheads by sticks or by
trampling by bullocks. The threshed grain should be cleaned and dried in the sun to bring the
moisture to12-14% for safe storage.
Yield Grain Yield Stover Yield (t/ha)
Irrigated : 3.0 to 3.5 t 10.0 t/ha
Rainfed : 1.2 to 1.5 t 7-7.5 t/ha
55
SMALL MILLETS
Importance
? Coarsest food grains covered with horny seed coat which should be removed before
cooking and highly drought resistant crop
? Immature and molded grains are poisonous
? Easily preserved and proves as good famine reserve
? Recommended as a substitute for rice to patients suffering from diabetes
? Grain contains 8.3% protein, 1.4% fat, 65.6% carbohydrates and 2.9% ash
56
Origin: India
Area and Distribution
? Grown mostly in AP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and UP
soil and climatic requirement
? Grown from gravelly and stony upland poor soils to loam soils
? Adverse conditions in poor soils yield some grain & straw
? Thrives best on sandy loam to loam soils which are well drained
? Makes rapid growth in warm and dry climate & req. rainfall of 40 to 50 cm.
? Highly drought tolerant can be grown in areas where rainfall is scanty and erratic
Importance
? Very drought resistant & also capable of withstanding water logging condition
? Grains consumed just like rice
? Used in making rice pudding
? Grain contains 6.2% protein, 9.8% crude fibre, 65.5% carbohydrates, 4.4% ash
? Mostly eaten by poor class people
? Sometime brewed for beer
? Used as feed for cage birds & straw makes good fodder for cattle
Origin: India
Area and Distribution
? Grown in India, China, Japan, Malaysia and east Indies and some extent in Africa and USA
? In India grown in MP, UP, TN, AP, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Bihar
Soil and climate requirement
? Can be grown in soils of marginal fertility and partially waterlogged condition
57
? Thrives best on sandy loam to loam soil
? Grown from sea level to 2000 m on the Himalaya slopes
? Warm and moderately humid climate is good
Cultivation details of small millets
58
PULSES
Importance of pulses
? India largest producer and consumer
? Dried edible seed of a cultivated legume is known as pulse.
? Legume derived from Latin "legere" means "to gather"
? Constitutes 10 to 12% of Indian diet.
? WHO recommend 80 g/day/person ICMR recorded 47g but actual is 30-35g
? Used as fodder, food crops, green manure, cover crop, catch crop
? N fixation improves soil fertility and Leucaena leucocephala aid in reclamation
? Protein content ranges from 17 to 25% (Soybean : 40 to 43%)
? Provides thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B complex and ascorbic acid.
? Early maturity, relative thermo and photo insensitivity and better canopy structure (non-
spreading) makes them included in multiple cropping
a) Ecological factors
? Mostly rain fed and only 8% irrigated and depend on residual soil moisture
? Pulses are sensitive to excess soil moisture, salinity, alkalinity and acidity
b) Lack of agronomic management
? Grown with poor management and Lack HYV (HI 0.1 to 0.2 and for wheat 0.5)
? Improper sowing time, inadequate seed rate and defective method of sowing
c) Basic research factors
? Break through in production possible if HYV / hybrid developed with synchronous
flowering, multiple resistance to pests a nd diseases and response to inputs.
d) Socio-economic constraints
? Grown by resource poor farmers often as catch crop mixed crop or in rotation with
commercial or high yielding cereal crop, Un assured market
e) Constraints in post harvest technology
59
Pigeon pea 3.61 2.7 747 Maharastra>UP>Karnataka> MP
> Gujarat > AP
Urd bean 3.15 1.33 423 MP > Maharastra > AP > TN > UP
> Orissa
Moong bean 3.04 1.17 386 Maha > AP > Raj > Orissa >Bihar
> Karnat > TN
Lentil 1.14 0.8 702 UP > MP > Bihar
Horse gram 1.07 0.42 393 Karnataka > Maha > MP>TN > AP
Moth bean 1.46 0.4 273 Rajasthan(80%) > Maha
>Gujarat
Peas (Dried) 0.74 0.63 860 UP > MP > Bihar > Assam >
Orissa
Khesari 0.95 0.58 609 MP > Bihar
(Chicklig pea)
Rajmash (red) 0.25 AP > Kashmir > Maha >
HP > UP > MP
C.cajan var. flavous –Tur (Early), C.cajan var bicolour – Arhar (late)
Importance
a. Primarily used as dal, while the tender green seeds are consumed as vegetable, crushed
dried seeds as animal feed and green leaves as fodder.
b. Stems used as fuel wood and t o make huts and baskets, Used for paper pulp
c. Leaves can be used to feed silkworm and plants are used to culture lac insect
d. Serves as wind break and live fence, Canned for export by freezing
e. Venezucla local soft drink known as 'Chicha' is made.
f. Accounts for 12% pulse area,
g. 17% pulse production and 90% world production
h. After gram second most important pulse crop
Origin: India
Area and Distribution
? Africa, West Indies, Ceylon, Australia and Malaya, India, Indo China
? India : Area 3.61 mha Production 2.7mt Productivity 747 kg/ha (1996-97)
? States Maharastra (16.5lha) > UP(5.0lha) > Karnataka > MP > Gujarat > AP
? Production Maharastra > UP > Gujarat > MP
? Productivity: Haryana > UP > Bihar
? Tamil Nadu Area : 1.40 l .ha, Production :1.20 l. t
? Productivity : 864kg/ha
Soil and Climate requirement
? Grown wide range of soil from sandy loam to clay loams.
? Best soils are fertile and well drained loamy soils, Suitable pH range is 5 to 8
? Grows 1500m and well distributed rainfall 500 to 900mm in tropics and subtropics
? Temperature ranges 10 to 40?C and the optimum is 20 to 28?C.
Season and Varieties
Kharif: June-Aug Rabi : Sep-Nov
CO5, CO6, Vamban 1, Vamban2 (resistant to sterility mosaic)
BSR 1,SA1 and CO4 – Suitable for bund planting.
Hybrids: ICPH 8 from ICRISAT, yields 4 t/ha, COH1, COH2
Seeds and sowing (Depth of seeding : 5cm)
Vertisols: Broad Bed Furrows are best with 90cm beds and 60 cm shallow furrow.
60
Long and medium duration varieties :75x30 cm
Short duration : 45x30 cm
Rain fed : 90x30cm
Seed rate : 20 to 30kg/ha
Bund planting : 50g/100 metre row
SEED TREATMENT
? Canbendazim or Thiram @ 2g/kg seed 24 hours before sowing (or) Trichoderma virdie
@4g/kg of seed (or) Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10g/kg
? Fungicide treated seeds should be again treated with 3 pockets bacterial culture 15
minutes before sowing
APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
? For a production level of 2 t grain, 6 t stalks redgram removes 132 kg N, 20 kg P 2O 5 and
53 kg K2O per ha.
? P is the most limiting & Response is about 6 to 10 kg grain/kg of applied P.
? Apply fertilizers basally before sowing
Rain fed: 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5/ha
Irrigated: 25kgN + 50 kg P 2O 5/ha.
? Soil application of 25 kg DAP/ha and foliar application of 25 kg DAP/ha with 25 kg sulphur
as gypsum (110 kg/ha) or 2% urea in two sprays at flower commencement and 15 days
after may be given.
WEED MANAGEMENT
? Spray Fluchloralin 1.5 l/ha (or) Pendimethalin 2 l/ha 3 DAS + one hand weeding may be
given on 30 to 35 days after sowing.
? If no herbicide is applied, give two hand weeding on 15 and 35 DAS
WATER MANAGEMENT
? WUE legume 500 kg water/kg DMP while cereals 300 to 350 kg water/kg DMP.
? High plant densities water requirement is 50 to 60 cm
? To produce 1 ton of grain, 20 to 25 cm water is used
? Irrigate immediately after sowing, 3 rd day after sowing, bud initiation, 50% flowering and
pod development stages, Water stagnation should be avoided.
CROPPING SYSTEMS
Intercropping
Sorghum + redgram, Ragi + redgram, Redgram + Urd, Redgram + groundnut
Crop rotation
Maize/rice – redgram, Redgram - wheat
YIELD
Yield of sole crop ranges from 2 to 4 t/ha
61
BENGALGRAM (Gram, Chickpea) Cicer arietinum
TWO TYPES
Kabuli types: Large seeds (>26g/100g seeds) more or less rounded, pale cream colour,
constitutes 15% production
Desi types : Smaller seeds (17 to 26g/100 seeds) irregular shapes and various colors,
constitutes 85% production
IMPORTANCE
? Most important pulse crop of India, constitutes 37% area and 50% production of pulses &
nearly 75% in acreage and production
? Predominantly consumed as dhal or for preparing variety of snack foods, sweets and
condiments
? Fresh gram serves as vegetable and eaten raw
? Bhusa used as cattle feed
? Husk and split beans are useful as livestock feed
? Contains 17 to 21% protein, 4.5% fat, 61.0% carbohydrate
? An acidic liquid from glandular hairs of the plant are collected at night, which contain 94%
maleic acid and 6% oxalic acid has medicinal value and used in preparation of vinegar
DISTRIBUTION
? India, Pakistan, Myanmar, Ethiopia, Turkey
? States in India are Bihar, Haryana, MP, Maharastra, Punjab, Rajasthan, UP
FIELD PREPARATION
? Prepare the land to get fine tilth and form beds and channels
? To tide over surface soil crusting apply lime @ 2t/ha along with 12.5t/ha FYM or
composted coir pith to get additional yield of 15 – 20%
62
? Instead of chemical treat with Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescence
@ 10g/kg followed by biofertilizer
? Seed rate Kabuli type 80 to 100kg/ha and desi type is 60 to 75 kg/ha
? Seeds soaked in 1% KH2PO 4 for 4 hours and then shade dried before sowing
FERTILISER APPLICATION
? Apply fertilizers basally before sowing
? Rainfed: 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 / ha
? Irrigated: 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P 2O 5 / ha
SOWING
? Spacing Kabuli type 45x10 cm and Desi type 30x10 cm
? Depth of sowing suggested is 10cm
? Pora method is better than broadcast and furrow covering should be followed with plank
WATER MANAGEMENT
? Grown mostly as rainfed crop
? Flowering and pod filling stages are critical periods of irrigation
? Avoid water stagnation especially at all stages
WEED MANAGEMENT
? Spray fluchloralin 1.5l/ha or pendimethalin 2.0 l/ha as pre -emergence 3DAS followed by
one hand weeding 30DAS
? If herbicides are not applied give two hand weeding on 15th and 30 th DAS
CROPPING SYSTEMS
? In Tamil Nadu intercropping after paired row planting one or two rows of coriander give
higher net return
? Intercropped with cotton, wheat barley and sunflower is common
? Rotations are Paddy-chickpea, Maize-chickpea, Groundnut-chickpea, green gram-
chickpea, sesame -chickpea and black gram-chickpea
HARVESTING
? Harvesting the plants when all the pods are matured and stack and thresh the pods and
extract seeds
? Present average yield is 0.7 t/ha. A good crop of desi variety can yield 1.5 to 2.0t/ha while
Kabuli varieties can yield 2.5 to 3.0 t/ha. TN varieties yield 1.0 t/ha
63
GREEN GRAM (Vigna radiata)
(Moong, Mung, Golden gram)
IMPORTANCE
? Relished for easy digestibility as dhal or split seeds and green pods used as vegetables
? Haulms used as fodder
? Husk and split beans are useful as livestock feed
? It makes a good cover crop and soil binder
? Excellent green manure easily decomposed when incorporated (Biomass has 1.5% N)
? Contains 24% protein, 1.15% fat, 62.6% carbohydrate
? Seeds are boiled and used in soups, made into porridge with rice or wheat
? Sprouted seeds consumed as salad which are rich in vitamins
? Flour is used in cakes and deserts
? Starch is used in making noodles
? The low content of oligosaccharides result in low flatulence
? Being short duration fit well in many intensive crop rotations
ORIGIN
India and Central Asia
DISTRIBUTION
? India (45% world production), Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Indo-China,
Indonesia, China
? States in India are AP, Orissa, MP, Maharastra, Bihar and Gujarat
FIELD PREPARATION
? Prepare the land to get fine tilth and form beds and channels
? To tide over surface soil crusting apply lime @ 2t/ha along with 12.5t/ha FYM or
composted coir pith to get additional yield of 15 to 20%
64
Other important varieties in India:
Type 44, Pusa Baisakti, Jawahar-45, K-851, Sheela, PS-16, Pant Mung-1, Mohini (S8)
FERTILISER APPLICATION
? 1 ton of green gram removes43 kg N, 3-4kg P and 10-12kg K
? Apply fertilizers basally before sowing as below
? Rainfed 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 / ha
? Irrigated 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P 2O 5 / ha
SOWING
? Dibble the seeds adopting spacing of 30x10cm
? Rice fallows broadcast in the standing crop 5-10 days before the harvest uniformly at
optimum moisture condition (seeds should get embedded in the waxy mire)
? On wetland bunds dibble at 30 cm spacing
WATER MANAGEMENT
? Irrigate immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the third day
? Irrigate at interval of 10-15days depending on soil moisture conditions
? For wetland bunds pot water daily for a week after sowing
? Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation
? Avoid water stagnation at all stages
WEED MANAGEMENT
? Spray fluchloralin 1.5l/ha or pendimethalin 2.0 l/ha as pre -emergence 3DAS followed by
one hand weeding 30DAS
? If herbicides are not applied give two hand weeding on 15th and 30 th DAS
CROPPING SYSTEMS
? Intercropping is common practice where one or two rows of black gram with maize, pearl
millet, sorghum, pigeon pea, cotton and sugarcane
? Rotated with wheat, potato
HARVESTING:
Harvesting the plants when 80% of the pods are mature and stack the plants for few days
before sowing
Yield : Rainfed :700 to 900 kg/ha, irrigated: 1500 kg/ha and rice fallows: 500 kg/ha
65
BLACKGRAM (Urd) Vigna mungo
IMPORTANCE
? Consumed as dhal or split seeds, husked and unhusked
? Chief constituent of 'papad'
? Haulms used as fodder
? Husk and split beans are useful as livestock feed
? Possesses deep root system binds soil particles and prevent erosion
? Also used as green manure crop
? Contains 25% protein, 1.83% fat, 61.0% carbohydrate
? Peculiarity is when ground with water develop muscilagenous character giving additional
body to the mass
? Husked dal is ground into a fine paste and allowed to ferment with rice flour to make
'dosa' and 'Idli'
? Being short duration fit well in many intensive crop rotations
ORIGIN: India
DISTRIBUTION
? India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka
? States in India are MP, Maharastra, AP, TN, UP, Orissa
FIELD PREPARATION
? Prepare the land to get fine tilth and form beds and channels
? To tide over surface soil crusting apply lime @ 2t/ha along with 12.5t/ha FYM or
composted coir pith to get additional yield of 15 to 20%
66
? Chemical seed treatment with carbandazim or thiram @ 2g/kg of seed then after interval
of 24 hours treat with 3 packets (600g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertiliser with rice
gruel 15 minutes before sowing
? Instead of chemical treat with Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescence
@ 10g/kg followed by biofertilizer
? For Pre-monsoon sowing seeds treated with paste made of ash (500g/kg of seeds) plus
3% gum followed by 5 hrs drying is recommended
FERTILISER APPLICATION
? Apply fertilizers basally before sowing
? Rainfed 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 / ha
? Irrigated 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P 2O 5 / ha
SOWING
? Dibble the seeds adopting spacing of 30x10cm
? Rice fallows broadcast in the standing crop 5 to 10 days before the harvest uniformly at
optimum moisture condition (seeds should get embedded in the waxy mire)
? Wetland bunds dibble at 30 cm spacing
WATER MANAGEMENT
? Irrigate immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the third day
? Irrigate at interval of 10 to15days depending on soil moisture conditions
? For wetland bunds pot water daily for a week after sowing
? Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation
? Avoid water stagnation at all stages
? Apply KCl at 0.5% as foliar spray during vegetative stage if there is moisture stress
WEED MANAGEMENT
? Spray fluchloralin 1.5l/ha or pendimethalin 2.0 l/ha as pre -emergence 3DAS followed by
one hand weeding 30DAS
? If herbicides are not applied give two hand weedings on 15 th and 30 th DAS
CROPPING SYSTEMS
? Intercropping is common practice where one or two rows of mung bean is intercropped
with maize, pearl millet, sorghum, pigeon pea, cotton and sugarcane
? Rotations are Maize-wheat-urd, Maize-potato-urd, Paddy-wheat-urd
HARVESTING
? Harvesting the plants when 80% of the pods are mature and stack the plants for few days
before sowing
? Yield: Rainfed :600 to 700 kg/ha, Irrigated 1000 to 1300 kg/ha and Rice fallows: 500
kg/ha
67
HORSEGRAM (kulthi) Macrotyloma uniflorum
IMPORTANCE
? Predominantly a South Indian crop and termed as poor man's legume here
? Serves the farmer excellently under subsistence farming conditions
? Suited to marginally poor soils and those deficient in Nitrogen
? Richer in protein source and utilized for human consumption
? Cooked seeds possess an earthy fiavour and the soups are nutritious
? Roasted grains are salted and consumed as confectionary items
? Greater use as animal feed particularly horse and cattle, boiled, salted and fed
? Freshly cut plants are excellent fodder source in South India
? Contains 22% protein, 1.0% fat, 62.0% carbohydrate
ORIGIN: India
DISTRIBUTION
? South East Asian crop predominantly grown in South India
? States in India are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
? Less frequently grown in central states and in the hilly slopes of HP and UP
FIELD PREPARATION
? Prepare the land to get fine tilth and in general kept to minimum to save investment
FERTILISER APPLICATION
? Apply 12.5 t/ha of compost or FYM and 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 / ha fertilizers basally
before sowing
SOWING
? Spacing 30x10 cm Dibble the seeds at 30 cm row spacing and thin it to 10 cm in the row
WEED MANAGEMENT
? One hand weeding and hoeing between 20 to 25 DAS
68
HARVESTING
? Matured pods suitable for harvest are slightly brittle and straw coloured. Plants are
uprooted at harvest, stacked for few days to dry, later threshed by beating to separate
the grains by winnowing
? Yield range from 0.5 to 0.8 t/ha. Green fodder yield is 10t/ha
69
COWPEA (Vigna unguiculata)
(Lobia, Black eyed pea, China pea)
IMPORTANCE
? Grains used for human consumption and green pods used as vegetables
? Being rich in protein and other nutrients known as vegetable meat
? It makes a good cover crop and prevents soil erosion
? The leaves and haulms are rich sources of fodder and hay is more digestible than alfalfa
? Excellent green manure
? Contains 23.4% protein, 1.8% fat, 60.3% carbohydrate. Also rich in Ca and Fe
? Alternate pulse crop for dryland farming
DISTRIBUTION
? Mainly grown in Africa (90%) and Nigeria is the world's largest producer
? Cultivated through out Sub-Saharan Africa, South East Asia, Latin America, Australia and
the USA
? Mainly grown in central and peninsular India and in Northern India it is grown in UP,
Punjab, Delhi and Haryana
FIELD PREPARATION
? Prepare the land to get fine tilth and form beds and channels
Kharif (Adipattam) June – August Co2, Co3, Co4, Co6, KM1, Paiyur 1
70
? Chemical seed treatment with carbendazim or thiram @ 2g/kg of seed then after interval
of 24 hours treat with 3 packets (600g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertilizer with rice
gruel 15 minutes before sowing
? Instead of chemical treat with Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescence
@ 10g/kg followed by biofertilizer
FERTILISER APPLICATION
? Apply fertilizers basally before sowing as below
? Rainfed 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 / ha
? Irrigated 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P 2O 5 / ha
? Application of 20kg K2O/ha is beneficial for lateritic soils in increasing the yield
SOWING
? Dibble the seeds adopting spacing of 30x15cm or 45x15cm depending on variety
WATER MANAGEMENT
? Irrigate immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the third day
? Irrigate at interval of 10 to15days depending on soil moisture conditions
? For wetland bunds pot water daily for a week after sowing
? Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation
WEED MANAGEMENT
? Spray fluchloralin 1.5l/ha or pendimethalin 2.0 l/ha as pre-emergence 3 DAS followed by
one hand weeding 30 DAS
? If herbicides are not applied give two hand weeding on 15th and 30 th DAS
CROPPING SYSTEMS
? Usually mixed with maize, sorghum, millets, cassava
? Maize-wheat-cowpea, Paddy-wheat-cowpea, Cowpea-wheat-cheena, Jowar+cowpea-
berseem-maize+cowpea
HARVESTING
? Harvesting the plants when 80% of the pods are mature and thresh after drying
? Yield :1000 to1500 kg/ha and if raised for fodder yields 25 to 35t/ha green fodder
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GARDEN LAB LAB (Avarai) Lab lab purpureus var. typicus
IMPORTANCE
? Mostly the green pods used as vegetables
? Grains are also used for human consumption
? The leaves and haulms are also used as fodder
FIELD PREPARATION
? Prepare the land to get fine tilth and form beds and channels for bushy types and pits of
one cubic foot for Pandal types
Kharif (Adipattam) June – August CO3, CO4, CO5, CO6, CO8, CO9, CO10, CO11,
CO12, CO13
FERTILISER APPLICATION
? Apply fertilizers basally before sowing as below
? Rainfed 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 / ha
? Irrigated 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P 2O 5 / ha
? For pandal varieties, 115 g each in Ammonium sulphate and superphosphate may be
applied
SOWING
? Dibble the seeds adopting the fo llowing spacing
? CO3, CO4, CO5 : 90x90 cm (Climber)
? CO6, CO7, CO8, CO9, CO10, CO11 and CO12 : 45x15 cm
? CO13 : 45x30 cm
WATER MANAGEMENT
? Irrigate immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the third day
72
? Irrigate at interval of 15 to 20 days depending on soil moisture conditions
? Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation
WEED MANAGEMENT
? Give two hand weeding first between 20 to 25 DAS and second at 45 DAS
PRUNING TECHNIQUE
? Spacing of 10 feet between lines and four feet between plants is adopted
? Pits are dug (one cubic foot) and two to three seeds are sown in the middle of the pit
? One healthy seedling allow to grow and rest removed
? The vine is propped with a stick
? When the vine reaches the pandal the terminal bud is nipped
? Allow the branches to trail over the pandal. Each branch may be pruned at three feet
length so that pandal is cover with vines. Branches arising on the main vine below the
pandal are removed. When flowering starts, prune the tip of the branches bearing the
inflorescence having three nodes from the productive axils. Continue the procedure
through out the reproductive phase
HARVESTING
? Pick the pods when they are completely dry.
? Thresh the pods and clean the beans
? Pick the tender pods once in a week for vegetable use
? Yield of grain 5.0 to 7.5 t/ha and green pod yield 10 to15 t/ha
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FIELD LAB LAB Lab lab purpureus var. lignosus
(Mochai)
IMPORTANCE
? Grains are also used for human consumption and found to possess all the aminoacids
required for disease resistance
? The leaves and haulms are also used as fodder
FIELD PREPARATION
? Prepare the land to get fine tilth
FERTILISER APPLICATION
? Apply fertilizers basally before sowing as below
? Rainfed : 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 / ha
? Irrigated : 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P 2O 5 / ha
SOWING
? Dibble the seeds adopting the following spacing
? Co1 : 90x30 cm and mixed crop 200 x30 cm
? Co2 : 45x15 cm and mixed crop 200 x15 cm
WATER MANAGEMENT
? Irrigate immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the third day
? Irrigate at interval of 15 to 20 days depending on soil moisture conditions
? Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation
WEED MANAGEMENT
? Give two hand weeding first between 20 to25 DAS and second if required at 40 DAS
74
HARVESTING
75
SOYBEAN (Bhat, Ramkulti) Glycine max
IMPORTANCE
? Soybean serves as an important fat and protein source for large population residing in
Asia and American continents
? China and USA together contributes 60% of world production
? Contains 20% o il and 40% high quality protein
? Large number of Indian and Western dishes are prepared using soybean
? Soybean oil is used for making vanaspathi and several other industrial products
? Used for making high protein food for children
? Widely used in the industrial production of antibiotics
? Builds up soil fertility by N fixation (as high as 160 kg/ha Average 100kg/ha)
? Can be used as fodder, forage can be made into hay and silage
? Cake are excellent nutritive foods for livestock and poultry
? Soybean is the richest, cheapest and easiest source of best quality protein and fat and
having a vast multiplicity of uses as food and industrial products and hence called as
wonder crop.
DISTRIBUTION
? Grown in USA, China, Brazil, Mexico and USSR
? In India restricted to MP, UP, Maharastra, Gujarat and also grown in HP, Punjab
FIELD PREPARATION
? Prepare the land to get fine tilth
76
? Seed rate Co2 : 60 to 70 kg/ha
? Chemical seed treatment with carbendazim or thiram @ 2g/kg of seed then after interval
of 24 hours treat with 3 packets (600g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertiliser with rice
gruel 15 minutes before sowing
? Coat the seeds with ZnSO4 @ 300mg/kg using 10% maida solution as adhesive
(250ml/kg) or gruel and arappu leaf powder (250 g/kg) as carrier to increase the field
stand
FERTILISER APPLICATION
? Apply 20 kg N, 80 kg P2O 5 and 40 kg K2O along with 40 kg of S as gypsum (220kg/ha)
per hectare as basal dressing
? Give 40 kg P 2O 5 as foliar spray (2% DAP) on 40 DAS
? Salicylic acid at 100 ppm (50g/500 t/ha) as foliar spray on 30th and 45 th day to increase
the yield
? For rainfed 20:40:20 NPK kg/ha as basal
SOWING
? Dibble the seeds adopting spacing of 30x5 cm and for rainfed 30x10 cm
? Depth of sowing is 2 to 3 cm
WATER MANAGEMENT
? Irrigate immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the third day
? Irrigate at interval of 7 to 10 days during summer and 10 to 15 days in winter days
depending on soil moisture conditions
? Should not suffer due to water stress from flowering to maturity
? To alleviate moisture stress spray Kaolin 3% or liquid paraffin 1% on the foliage
WEED MANAGEMENT
? Fluchloralin 2.0 lit/ha or pendimethalin 3.3 lit/ha 3 DAS followed by one hand weeding on
30 DAS
? If herbicide is not applied give two hand weeding first at 20 DAS and second at 35 DAS
? In case of labour availability restricted for timely weeding use fluchloralin 1kg ai/ha or
alachlor 2.0 kg ai/ha
CROPPING SYSTEM
? Recommended for intercropping with sugarcane, maize, soghum cotton
? Rotated with wheat/potato/gram/tobacco and potato - wheat
HARVESTING
? Yellowing of leave and shedding indicate the maturity
? Cut the entire plant when most of the pods have turned yellow
? Dry the pods adequately in sun and thresh with sticks to separate the grain
? Hand thresh for seeds purpose and dried to 8% moisture, treated with Thiram @ 2g/kg
and packed in 300 gauge thick poly lined gunny bag or ordinary gunny bag to maintain
germination of 70% for 8 months
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MOTH BEAN (Dew gram) Phaseolus aconitifolius
IMPORTANCE
? Important pulse crop in desert region and drought tolerant
? Suited to arid and semiarid
? Grown for fodder, as green manure, as cover crop
? Improves soil fertility
ORIGIN: India
DISTRIBUTION
? India, Thailand, China, Africa and Southern USA
? In India states are Rajasthan, Haryana and Gujarat
SEASON: July
VARIETIES
? Majority are local
? Spreading habit and indeterminate
? Viny and late maturing
? Prone to shattering and susceptible to yellow mosaic
Rajasthan : Jadia
Gujarat : Baleswar 12, Mevi
Fodder type: J 3, RMO 40
FIELD PREPARATION
? Needs minimum land preparation
? Pre-sowing irrigation for proper germination
WEED MANAGEMENT
? Fluchloralin @ 1kg ai ha as pre -emergence or
? Hand weeding twice 20 to 25 and 30 to 35 DAS
78
CROP ROTATION
Rainfed Irrigated
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PEAS Pisum sativum (Garden pea and Field pea)
ORIGIN:
? Mediteranean region of S. Europe and Western Asia
DISTRIBUTION:
? China (ranks first), USSR, Ethiopia, USA.
? Indian states are UP (major area), MP, Bihar, Punjab, Haryana
FIELD PREPARATION
Prepare a well pulverized seed bed
WEED MANAGEMENT
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? Fluchloralin 0.75 kg ai/ha or hand weeding twice
CROPPING SYSTEMS
? Peas mixed with wheat, barley, oats, rape seed and mustard
? Rotation after Maize, paddy, cotton, jowar, bajra
YIELD
Green pods: 10 to 12.5 t/ha
Field pea: 2 to 3 t/ha
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LENTIL (Lens culinaris)
IMPORTANCE
? It is an important rabi pulse.
? One of the oldest and most nutritious pulse
? It has the potential to cover the risk of rainfed farming.
? It is also used as a cover crop to check soil erosion.
? It is eaten as dal.
? The split dal are deep orange (or) orange yellow in colour.
? It contains protein 25.0%, carbohydrate 60.0% and Fat 1.8%
? It is rich in calcium, iron and niacin.
? Being a leguminous crop fix atmospheric nitrogen and improve soil fertility.
? Whole pulse is known as Malka masoor.
DISTRIBUTION
? India, Turkey, Syria, Pakistan, Spain, and Bangladesh.
? India ranks first in Area and Production followed by Turkey.
? In India, it is mostly grown in central and eastern parts of India, i.e. M.P, U.P, Bihar and
West Bengal.
Classification
1. Small seeded group sub sp. microspermae (masuri)
2. Bold seeded group sub sp macrospermae (malkamasur)
VARIETIES
Pusa1 100-140 days L912, LL56 150-160 days. Type 8 : 120-125 days
Pusa4 130-140 days Type36: 130-140 days
Pusa6 130-135 days
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LAND PREPARATION
? Soil should be made friable.
? Proper moisture in soil for proper germination
METHOD OF SOWING
? Line sowing : 30cm row spacing (behind country plough)
? Broad casing : just like rice fallow pulses
? Late sown condition : 20cm spacing
? Depth of sowing : 2 to 3 cm
WATER MANAGEMENT
? 1 to 2 irrigation
? 1 st irrigation : 40 DAS
? 2 nd irrigation : at flowering (or) pod formation
NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
? N: 20 to 25 kg/ha
? P: 50 to 60 kg/ha
? Whenever cultivated after rice 0.5% ZnSo4
WEED MANAGEMENT
? Fluchloralin 0.75kg ai/ha as pre -planting spray (or) Hand weeding twice at 30 DAS and
60 DAS
HARVESTING
? When the plants dry up, pods mature and moisture reaches 12%.
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GREEN MANUURING
Subsidiary objective
a. Catch Crops
Legumes are inter-sown in standing crop before or after harvest, to utilize nitrates or
the left over moisture
b. Shade crops
Sown in young orchards with the object of shading the soil surface and, preventing the
rise of temperature. Otherwise tender roots of fruit plants may be affected by the high soil
temperature. In plantation like tea and coffee, Glyricidia is used as shade crop first and
incorporated as green manure.
c. Cover crops
Green manure crops grown with the objective of clothing the surface with a vegetative
cover, especially in hill slopes during the rainy season to avoid soil erosion and run off.
d. Forage crops
Legume are grown for taking cutting of green fodder for cattle in early stages and later
as GM. Pillipesara seeds are broadcasted in the standing rice crop (3-5 days before harvest) in
coastal Andhra Pradesh.
84
Soil Structure and tilth improvement
? Green manuring builds up soil structure and improves tilth
? Promotes formation of crumbs in heavy soils leading to aeration and drainage
? Increases the water holding capacity of light soils.
? Form a canopy cover over the soil and reduce the soil temperature and from erosive
action of rain and water
Pest control
? Pongamia and Neem leaves have insect control effects.
Green manures
Legumes Non-legumes
Green manure Green leaf manure Green manure Green leaf manure
85
? High seed viability
? Ease in incorporation
? Ability to cross-inoculate or responsive to inoculation
? Pest and disease resistant
? High N sink in underground plant parts.
86
Criteria for selection green manure
Criteria Effects
High biomass production Mobilisation of nutrients from soil into
vegetation; suppression of weeds
Deep rooting system Pumping up of weathered and/or leached
nutrients from soil layers not occupied by roots
of main crop
Fast initial growth Quick soil cover for effective soil protection;
suppression of weeds
More leaf than wood Easy decomposition of organic matter
Low CN ratio Leading to enhanced availability of nutrients for
succeeding crops; easy to handle during -
cutting and/or incorporation into the soil.
Nitrogen fixing Increased nitrogen availability
Good affinity with mycorrhiza Mobilisation of phosphorus leading to improved
availability for crops.
Efficient water use Possibility to grow after main cropping season on
residual soil moisture or with less rainfall
Non-host for crop related pests and Decrease in pest and disease populations
diseases
No rhizomes Controllable growth
Easy and abundant seed formation Propagation in fanner's fields
Useful by products(e.g. fodder, wood) Integration of animal husbandry and forestry
87
AGRONOMY OF GREEN MANURE CROPS
88
Sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea)
Season Grown in all seasons, March – April sowing best for seeds production
Soil Loamy soils are suitable
Seed rate 25-35 kg/ha for green manure, Seed purpose 20 kg/ha
Seed treatment Mix seeds with specific rhizobium strain @ 5 pkts /ha
Spacing Broadcasted or 30x10cm, seed purpose adopt 45 x 20 cm
Irrigation Once in 30 days
Harvest Incorporate the green mater within 45-60 DAS & for seed collect the
seeds from 150 DAS
Yield Green biomass – 13-15 t/ha, Seed – 400 kg/ha
Season Grown all seasons, March – April best for seeds production
Soil Grown all soils, sandy soils are suitable
Seed rate 15-20 kg/ha for green manure, Seed purpose 10 kg/ha
Seed treatment Soak the seeds in concentrated sulphuric acid (100 ml /kg seed) for 30
minutes and then thoroughly wash the seeds in water for 10-15 times and
shade dry
Spacing Broadcasted, for seed purpose adopt 30 x 10 cm
Irrigation Once in 30 days
Harvest Incorporate within 60 DAS & for seed collect from 150 DAS
Yield Green biomass – 6-7 t/ha, Seed – 400 - 500 kg/ha
Season Grown in all seasons, March – April best for seeds production
Soil Rice fallow clay soils are suitable
Seed rate 10-15 kg/ha for green manure, Seed purpose 10 kg/ha
Spacing Broadcasted, for seed purpose adopt 30 x 10 cm
Irrigation Once in 25-30 days
Harvest Incorporate the green mater within 60 DAS & for seed collect the seeds from
150 DAS
Yield Green biomass – 6-7 t/ha, Seed – 400 - 500 kg/ha
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AGRONOMY OF GREEN LEAF MANURE CROPS
Ipomoea cornea
? Profusely branching, large ever green tree and gives plenty of foliage
? It comes up in all types of soil
? The trees are grown along field borders, rivers banks, roads, waste lands and also in
garden lands and homestead gardens.
? Trees are established by planting seedlings at a spacing of 5 to 6 m
? One or two lopping in a year are taken in favourable seasons, each lopping weighing
about 150 to 200 kg of green matter.
90
Vadanarayan
91
AGRONOMY OF FORAGE CROPS AND GRASSES
The term forages or forage crops denote plants either cultivated or wild that are used as
stock feed for domestic animals, which are allowed to graze or fed with cut grasses in stalls.
Forage crops include pastures, which is used for grazing animals, straw, haulms, foliage of trees
and shrubs.
Although forages and fodder crops are synonyms, yet often latter is termed to the
cultivated crops like cereals and legumes. The term fodder is generally applied to non
traditional forage crops used for livestock feed eg. maize, sorghum, bajra, guar etc are primarily
the grain crops, but also raised as soiling crop (Greed fodder, which is cut and fed to cattle).
Silage : The green fodder is cut and is preserved or ensiled under anaerobic condition and fed
to the cattle w ith out loss in nutrient.
The gap of demand and supply of forages needs to be bridged by maximizing forage production.
1. in space and time (intensification)
2. identifying new avenues of forage production
3. integration of forage crops in existing cropping
4. utilization of marginal, sub marginal degraded and problem land for forage production
through pastures, and sylvipasture
5. enrichment of poor quality roughages and by products.
6. conservation of seasonal surplus fodder.
Forage crops are divided into 6 groups for ease of understanding
92
Ant nutritional factors or toxic constituents in forages
Etiology: It is found in sorghum, cynodon, Johnson grass and Sudan grass. Young leaves
contains more than 500 ppm.
Critical level: Less than 20 mg HCN / 100 gram of feed material (<200 ppm)
? Harvest for fodder at heading stage / 50% flowering.
? Drying or hay making
? Ruminants are more susceptible than horse and Figs.
Nitrate poisoning:
Forage that accumulated more than 1.5% of NO 3 (0n dry matter basis are classified as
potentially toxic).
Causes:
Salivation, teeth grinding, high pulse rate abdominal pain, difficult breathing and finally death of
ruminants .
Etiology:
Found in immature green oats, Hybrid cumbu Napier grass, rye, Para grass etc.
Management practices
? Irrigation management to prevent long spell of drought
? Dilution of high NO 3 water and cattle shed washings
? Avoid 'N' fertilizer application particularly during drought period
? Delayed cutting – allow over maturity
? Application of FYM / Compost.
Oxalates:
Oxalic acid present in Napier grass and rice straw (contain 1.5 to 1.6%). Young leaves of bajra
contains more oxalic acid than matured leaves. Young leaves contain upto 7%.Toxic limit : 3%
Symptom
? Causes negative 'Ca' balance
? Precipitation of calcium in the blood
? Impairs P, Mg and Na nutrition.
Management
? Ensiling or hay making the napier grass
? Combine with legume fodder
? Supplemental with chalk or supernated lime water at 1.0 lit / animal may be given along
with drinking water.
Mimosine : Atoxic aminoacid found in subabul and mimosa pudica. Critical level : <0.75%.
Symptoms: Infertility, goiter, low birth weight and death of new born.
93
Control : Mixing with other cereal forages / feeding 1% FeSo 4 in the diet / supplemented with
Iron.
Forage grasses
NAPIER GRASS
Distribution: It is widely distributed in tropical and sub tropical regions of Asia, Africa,
Southern Europe and America. In India, it is grown in Punjab, UP, Haryana, Gujarat, MP, Bihar,
Orissa and W .B.
Soil : Loamy soil with good drainage. It can with stand saline condition to some extent.
Varieties
BN 2 (Green fodder yield: 250 t/ha/year)
NB21 (Green fodder 250 to 225 t/ha/year)
CO 1 (250 to 300 t/ha/year)
CO 2 (350 to 385 t/ha/year)
CO 3 (380 to 400 t/ha) higher foliage.
Low oxalic acid content 2.8 to 2.9% Non lodging, profuse tillering, more leafy.
Seeds: Vegetative propagation by two noded stem cutting or by root slips. For sole crop:
40,000 slips or stem cuttings / ha. For inter cropping with one row of Desmanthus : 30,000
slips/ha.
Field preparation: Plough the field with Iron plough 2 or 3 times to obtain good tilth.
94
FYM : Apply and spread 25 t/ha of FYM / compost and incorporate.
Forming ridges : Form ridges and furrows using ridge plough (Ridger), 6m long and 50 cm
apart.
Application of fertilizer: Apply as per soil test recommendation. If it is not done, follow
blanket recommendation of 50:50:40 of NPK kg/ha. Apply full dose of NPK before planting by
opening furrow 5cm deep on the side of the ridges and cover.
Transplanting
? Irrigate through furrows and plant one rooted slip per hole and at a depth of 3 to 5cm on
the side of the ridges
? Maintain spacing of 50x50 cm with 40,000 slips/ha
? As a mixed crop, 3 rows of cumber Napier hybrid and one row of Desmanthus can be
raised to increase the nutrient value.
Water Management: Give life irrigation on 3 rd day and there after once in 10 days,. Sewage or
waste water can also be used for irrigation.
After cultivation: Hand weeding and hoeing on 30th day thin and gap fill to maintain plant
population. Subsequent weeding as and when required. Earthing up once after 3 cuts and
remove dried leaves once a year.
Harvest: First harvest on 60 th day after planting and subsequent harvests at interval of 45
days.
Inter cropping
1. CNH + Desmanthus 3:1
2. CNH + Lucerne + oat
3. CNH + Velvet beans
4. CNH + Cowpea + berseem
95
GUINEA GRASS ( Panicum maximum)
Propagation: By rooted slips and mostly by seeds. Germination of fresh seed is low, but can
be increased by storing the seed in dry condition for 6 months.
Variety : CO1
Importance
1. High tillering and more no. of leaves
2. Easily digestible and high yielding (250 to 280 t/ha)
3. Can be grown with mixed crop with Desmanthus (Velimasal)
4. Comes up well under coconut garden
5. Not toxic to animals
Season
Irrigated : Throughout
Rainfed : Monsoon season (June – July to Sept – October)
Field preparation: Apply 25 t FYM/ha. Plough once with Iron Plough and twice with country
plough, form ridges and furrows at 50 cm apart.
Manures and Manuring: FYM / Compost 25 t/ha NPK on STL recommendation. If not
followed, adopt NPK at 50:50:40 kg/ha at the time of planting.
Seeds and Sowing: Seeds: 2.5 kg/ha or Rooted slips: 40,000/ha plant the rooted slips to a
depth of 3 cm on the side of ridges adopting 50x50 cm spacing.
After cultivation: Hoeing and weeding on 30 th day thin and gap fill to maintain spacing.
Earthing up once after three cuts. Remove dried tillers once in a year.
Irrigation: At the time of planting / sowing and life irrigation on 3 rd day. There after once
in 10 days or as required.
Harvest: First cut 80 days after planting and subsequent cuts : once in 45 days.
96
Cropping system
? Guinea grass + Cowpea
? Guinea grass + Velvet bean
? Guinea grass + Lucerne
? Guinea grass + Berseem
? Guinea grass + Desmodium
? Guinea grass + Stylosanthus
? Guinea grass + Rice bean.
Origin : Tropical Africa and Tropical South America and spread over to tropics and sub tropics.
Importance: It is a perennial grass and grows to a height of 2.5 m. height. Grows on moist
soils and withstands prolonged flooding or water logging. Crude protein: 6.9%.
Manures and manuring: FYM or compost 25 t/ha. NPK at 20:40:0 kg / ha. Apply entire dose
prior to planting.Top dressing N : Apply 20 kg N / ha after each cutting.
Seeds and sowing: Form ridges and furrows at 50 cm apart. Propagated by stem cuttings.
Number of rooted slips required for planting one ha: 40, 000/ha.
Cropping system
? Para grass + cowpea
? Para grass + velvet bean
? Para grass + berseem
? Para grass + Lucerne
? Para grass + rice bean.
97
BLOU BUFFEL GRASS ( Cenchrus glaucus)
It is a promising green grass type which perform well in dry lands under raifned condition. Two
species, C. ciliaris (white kollukottai) and C. setigerus (Black) are two commonly grown species,
but are low yielding. C. glaucus (Neela Kollukattai) is the type which yields better than other
two species.
Importance : Drought resistant, perennial pasture grass, 4-6 cuts a year. Adapted arid and
semi arid tropical climate with long dry spell.
? Contains 9.06 % Protein, 0.59 % Ca,
? Easily digestible
? As mixed crop with Stylosanthus scabra at 3:1 ratio
? Best suited for hay of silage making.
Variety : Co 1
Field preparation: Plough the field twice or thrice to obtain good tilth.
Spacing : 50x30 cm
Manures and Manuring : FYM 12.5 t/ha and NPK at 25:40:20 kg/ha Entire dose as basal.
Top dressing: After each cut, if sufficient moisture is available " N "at 25 kg/ha should be
applied.
Seeds and Sowing: Adopt a spacing of 50x30 cm. Seeds are to be sown at a shallow depth
(1cm) and cover with soil. Care to be taken for the seeds not to be blown away by wind while
sowing. Seeds are mixed with soil and used.
Harvest : First cut on 70 to75 days and subsequent 4 to 6 cuts depending on the growth.
Note: Intercropping with Stylasanthus, or Clitoria or Sirato or Desmantus will help to improve
fodder quality.
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CEREAL FORAGE CROPS
It is a favorite fodder in many parts of the country. To improve the nutritive value, it should be
grown mixed with leguminous fodder crops like cowpea, cluster bean, green gram etc.
Utilization: Crude protein content 9.2 to 9.8%. Used as green fodder, stover, silage and
hay. It is an excellent silage crop. Since it contains HCN, it should be harvested at 50%
flowering.
Origin: Africa. After wards China and India. Tropical or sub tropical climate
Season
1. Irrigated (Jan to Feb and April to May in al the districts)
2. Rainfed (June - July : S.W monsoon)
(Sept - Oct : N.E monsoon)
Varieties
Irrigated : CO 11 (37 t/ha), CO 27 (44 t/ha)
Rainfed : K7 (33 t/ha), CO 27
Soil: All soils, but loamy soils with good drainage are best suited.
Field preparation: Plough once with Iron plough and twice with country plough for rainfed crop
Field should be prepared is advance taking advantage of early showers.
Apply FYM @ 12.5 t/ha to be the crop and incorporated
Apply 10 pockets of Azospirillum (2kg/ha) for irrigated crop.
Application of fertilizer
For irrigated crop N P K kg/ha
Basal 30: 40: 20
Top dress on 30 DAS 30: - -
Total: 60: 40: 20
Irrigated crop: Sow the seeds to a depth of 3 cm and cover the seeds
99
Dry Crop: Use seed drills for sowing at 5 cm depth or use country (pre monsoon sowing)
plough and sowing behind the country plough.
Water management for irrigated crop: Irrigated immediately after sowing, life irrigation on
3 rd day and there after irrigated once in 10 days.
Weed management: Along with hand weeding, thin the seedling and use it for gap filling and
maintaining the spacing of 15 cm between plants.
Ist weeding : 20 DAS
IInd weeding : 30-40 DAS if necessary.
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FODDER MAIZE (Zea mays)
Origin :Africa
Salient Features: Quickly growing, emerging fodder, suited to wide of range of climate, No
HCN content. High yield and digestibility obtained when harvested at 50% flowering to dough
stage.
? Highly palatable and nutritious
? Suitable for high altitude.
N P K (kg/ha)
Basal 30: 40: 20
Top dress on 30 DAS 30: - -
Total: 60: 40: 20 kg/ha
Form ridges and furrows using ridger, 6m long and 30 cm apart / form beds depending on the
availability of water.
Hybrid
Seed and Sowing: Maintain seed rate of 40 kg/ha and dibble one seed to spacing of 15 cm
between the seeds in the row to a depth of 4 cm
Spacing : 30 x 15 cm
Seed treatment: Treat the seeds with 3 pockets (600 g) Azospirillum inoculant before sowing.
Weed management: Hand weeding on 20th day and subsequent weedings if necessary.
Water management: Irrigate immediately after sowing and life irrigation on 3rd day and
thereafter once in 10 days.
Harvesting: Harvest the crop when the cob is in the milling stage (50% flowering to dough
stage).
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FODDER CUMBU / Bajra (Pennisetum glaucum)
Origin : Africa
Variety : CO 8
Features
? High yielding, sweet stemmed, high tillering
? At any stage, cut and fed to animals (free of toxic)
? Short duration, fall growing, drought resistant
? Non lodging.
As a rainy season crop, it is grown in well drained light soils of TN, AP and Punjab. It is one
of the quick growing crops and it responds to multicut. Hence it has to be cut before flowering
stage, so that 2 to 3 harvests can be taken. The fodder is not as paltable as that of sorghum or
maize. But recently evolved Co8 is palatable and sweet.
CO 8 contains high protein of 12.56%.
Spacing : 30 X 10 CM
Seed and Sowing: Sow the seeds to a depth of 2 to 3 cm and cover / broad cast and cover
with country plough.
This is relative to maize (monocious) and introduced from Central America. It is a tall, succulent
annual growing to a height of 1.8 to 3.6m in large clumps with numerous branching tillers. The
leaves are 90cm long and 5.0t to 7.5cm broad. It was first introduced to India in 1881. It is un
affected by any serious pests or diseases. The seeds are about 8 m.m long, some what angular
and vary in colour from dark brown to creamy white. It is also used for hay and silage making.
In Punjab, it is recommended for growing during fodder scarcity month of May to June and
October to November.
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Climate:
Being a tropical species can be grown in warm humid regions with annual rainfall of >1000m.m.
Soil:
It needs rich well-drained loamy soil for best growth.
Season:
Usually grown in kharif season. Best time of sowing in North India is June 25 th to July15th . It is
also grown in rabi season.
Sowing:
Seed rate 40kg/ha. Either board cast or drill sowing adopting 30cm row spacing.
After cultivation:
One intercultivation. It requires higher water compared to maize 4 to 5 irrigations are grain.
Harvest:
At 110 to 120 days. Sometimes second cut after 6 to 7 weeks after Ist is also taken. Fodder
yield: 40 to 50 t/ha.
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LEGUME FORAGES
Fodder legumes also referred as masals have immense value in animal nutrition, because of
their higher protein content (19-24%), vitamin’s specific minerals like P, Calcium etc. and rich in
crude protein content. Legume forages are near equal to concentrates and are likely to be
substituted for the latter.
Importance
1. Short duration in nature
2. Raised as catch crop in between two crops
3. Improve soil fertility by way of ‘N’ fixation
4. Suitable for inter or mixed cropping
5. Dual purpose green manure and fodder value
Eg.) Sunhemp, Berseem
6. Increase intake of fodder by improving fodder availability
7. Rich in protein, calcium, ‘P’ and minerals
8. Capable of replacing concentrates in animal rations and save feeding costs.
Annual Perennial
1. Desmanthus
2. Lucerne
3. S. Scabra
4. S. hamata
(perennial)
Summer growing Winter growing
Eg. Cowpea Eg. 1. Berseem
Stylosanthus 2. Lentil
hamata
( annual)
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COWPEA: (Vigna unquiculata)
Origin: India
Salient features
? Grown in irrigated / rainfed conditions
? Withstand shade
? It has 19% crude protein, 2.13% ca.
Season
Irrigated throughout the year
Rainfed: September - October
Field preparation
Plough 2 or 3 times and form ridges and furrows at 6m.long and 30cm apart or beds of 20m2.
Manuring
FYM or compost: 25t/ha
NPK at 25:40:20 kg/ha
Band application prio r to sowing is preferred.
Spacing: 30 X 10cm
After cultivation: Hoeing and weeding on 20DAS. Subsequent weeding as and w hen required.
Note: Mixed or intercropping with sorghum/maize or cumbu will help to improve fodder yield as
well as quality.
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BERSEEM or EGYPTIAN CLOVER (Trifolium alexandrinum)
In India, it is an important rabi forage crop in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajesthan, Gujarat, UP
etc.,
Importance
? winter forage crop
? 20% crude protein / 70% drymatter digestibility
? Rich in Ca and P
? Used as green mane for improving physical, chemical and biological properties of soil
? Decrease bulkdensity and better soil aggregation
? Very good fodder for milch animals and horses
Climate requirement: Requires dry and cool climate. When the temperature goes around 30
to 33?C, regrowth after cutting is not possible. It cannot with stand drought and frost. It cannot
be grown in damp and heavy rainfall areas.
Soil: All type of soils except very sandy soils. Well-drained medium loam soils rich in ‘P’ and
calcium. It performs well in acid soil.
Field preparations: Once with Iron plough and thrice with country plough and marke it to
fine tilth. Form ridges and furrows / beds.
Varieties
1) Diploid
i) Mescari (C.10) : 6.0 to 7.0 t/ha. Adapted in Punjab, Haryana, H.P.
ii) Berseem Ludhiana 1: (BL.1). A week earlier than Mescari. 0t/ha
2) Tetraploid
Winter Hardy, quick growing. Vey leafy and succulent. However regrowth after cutting is not
possible if temperature goes > 27?C.
eg.) i) Pusa Giant : from IARI :10-15% more yield than Mescari, winter hardy and frost
resistant.
Manners Manuring: FYM 15 t/ha and NPK: 25:60:0 kg/ha entire basal.
Seeds and Sowing: Seed rate: 20 to 25 kg/ha.
Late/ early sowing: 30 kg/ha to 35 / kg/ha
Rhizobium treatment should be given.
Time of sowing: Ist fortnight of October. For better growth and yield, diploid and tetraploid
varieties should be mixed with 1:1 or 2:1 ratio.
Sowing: Broad cast, mixed and covered. For getting higher yield of good quality fodder, mix
1.8kg of mustard seed with full rate of berseem seed.
Weed control: Pre plant incorporation of Basalin 1.0 lit/ha in 500 lit of water/pre emergence
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Harvesting: Ist cut: 60 days old crop. Subsequent cuttings 25 to 35 days interval depending on
vegetable growth (After taking two cuttings, allow it for seed production)
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HEDGE LUCERNE (Desmathus virgatus) Veli masal
It is introduced from South America. It is a perennial fodder legume. With stand repeated
cuttings. Better suited for growing as mixed crop with Cumbu Napier Hybrids.
? Contains 19.2% crude protein.
? 27% dry matter, No toxic principles.
Field preparations: Plough 2 times to obtain good tilth. Form ridges and furrows at 50cm
apart.
Sowing: Soak the seeds in hot water for 4 minutes (80?C) and then soak in cold water
overnight. Deep sowing will results in lower germination. Plan to a depth of 1.0 to 1.5 cm.
Irrigation: Immediately after sowing, life Irrigation and then once in a week.
After cultivations: Hoeing and weeding on 30th day. There after HW after each cut.
Harvest: First cut at 90 days at 50cm height and, subsequent cut at an interval of 40 days.
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Field preparation: Plough 2 to 3 times to obtain good tilth.
Manures and Manuring: FYM or compost: 10t/ha. NPK: 20:60:15 kg/ha and the entire dose
as basal.
Spacing: 30 X 15 cm.
Seed treatment: Soak the seeds in hot water (80?C) for 4 minutes and soak it in cold water
over night.
Irrigation: For Irrigated crop: Immediately after sowing, life irrigation , + 7 to 10 days internal
/ Rainfed Crop.
Harvest: First cut on 75 th day at flowering and s ubsequent cut depending upon the growth.
Green fodder Yield: Irrigated: 50t/ha. First year yield will be poor. Second and subsequent
years: 30 to 35 t/ha.
? It is a perennial leguminous plant and may supply green fodder for 3 to 4 years from the
same field.
? Being a deep rooted crop, it extracts water from deeper zone.
? High crude protein (20 to 24%) with 72% digestibility. 1.5% Ca and 0.2% P. High
amount of vitamin A, B and D, and Calcium.
? Lucerne crop supplies green fodder for a long period (November to June)
Distribution: USA, Canada, Argentina, India. In India, it is mostly grown is irrigated areas of
Punjab, Haryana, UP, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu.
Climate: It thrives best under ward, dry and sunny condition up to 2500 m altitude . It can
withstand fairly low temperature.
Season: Throughout the year for irrigated condition and middle of October is the best time of
sowing.
Varieties: CO1, IGFRI.112 (for all areas), Anand 2,3 and Anand1 (for hills)
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Manures and Manuring: FYM or compost 25t/ha, NPK: 25:120:40 kg/ha. Band placement is
preferred prior to planting. Lucerne requires high ‘P’.
Sowing: Sow to a depth of 2cm on the sides of the ridges or above the fertilizer band.
After Cultivation: Hand weeding on 20DAS, thin and gap fill. Subsequent weeding if
necessary.
Harvest: Ist cut, on 60 days after sowing and subsequent cut: 25 to 30 days interval.
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TREE FODDERS
Variety: Co1
Salient features
? Leaves and pods are nutritious
? Crude protein 26%, Easily digestible (45%)
? Crude fibre is low
? Withstand drought/quick growing/fixes atmorpheric ‘N’
Field preparation: Plough the field 2 or 3 times and form ridges and furrows at 100cm
spacing.
Seed Treatment: Soak in hot water (80?C) for 5 minutes and then over night in cold water.
Irrigation:
For better establishment, the soil should be sufficiently moist for 5 to 6 months. In summer,
irrigation once in 6 weeks is adequate.
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2) Rainfed crop: First cut 2years after sowing.
Subsequent cut 60-80 days
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PASTURE MANAGEMENT
Terminologies
1. Agrostology: A science which deals with the study of grasses, their classification,
management and utilization.
2. Forage crops: Crops which are primarily grown for live stock feed for making hay or
silage or utilized as green fodder or grazed by animals.
3. Fodder crops: Crops which are harvested and used for stall feeding. Mostly these cops
are grown for both fodder as well as grain purpose eg) fodder sorghum, fodder maize,
fodder cowpea, horsegram etc.
4. Silage: It is the product obtained by packing fresh fodder in a suitable container and
allowing it to ferment under anaerobic conditions with out under-going much loss of
nutrients.
5. Ensiling: The process of making silage
6. Hay: It can be defined as conversion of green forage in to dry farm without affecting
the quality of original material.
7. Ley farming: Annual arable crops are rotated with biennial / perennial pastures, which
is used for soil moisture conservation and grazing.eg: sorghum – pasture – caster. I
year -II & III year – IVth year.
8. Quartering: Removal or thinning of excess tillers from the clump is called quartering.
It is generally done from 3 rd year on wards is grasses like cumber Napier grass and CN
Hyderabad.
9. Soiling: Feeding harvested fodder directly to cattle.
10. Paddock: Small forced field used for grazing purpose.
1. Natural pastures
2. Seeded pastures
Pastures are the grass lands where domestic animals are allowed to roam about and graze for
them selves.
Native pastures are highly degraded ones. Their improvement and management involves a set
of technical and social interventions. The important technical interventions are
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2. Improved moisture conservation
Forming contour furrows (60cm wide and 22cm deep) at a distance of 8 to 10m across the slope
of the grassland increased forage production of perennial grass by 130% over non furrowed
grass lands.
b) Transplanting: The establishment of Sewan grass and Marvel grass was found more
assured by transplanting of rooted slips, or seedlings compared to direct seeding.
c) Dry seeding: Cenchrus ciliaris seed sown in dry soil before on set of rain gave 36%
higher forage yield over monsoon sowing.
d) Pelleting forage seeds for higher seed germinations:
Pellets are prepared by mixing grass seeds with cow dung, clay and sand in proportions
of 1:1:3:1 using sufficient quantity of water for preparing round pellets of size of about
0.5cm diameter.
4. Fertilization in pasure lands
Application of fertilizers to pasture grasses increased the forage yield as well as seed yield.
Application of 20 kg Nto Cenchrus pastures resulted in 83% increase in dry forage yield. In
well rainfall distributed area, application of NPK at 40:20:0 is recommended. For stylo,
application of "P" at 30kg/ha is recommended. The protein content of fertilized pastures was
higher than that of unfertilized ones.
5. Regulating the grazing pressure and using an optimum stocking rate:
The access of line stock to pastures should be controlled, so that grazing pressure could be
managed.
Carrying Capacity : The native pasture can carry only 2 sheep/ha. But improved pasture, can
carry up to 6 sheep/ha in a continuous grazing system.
The quality of pasture can be evaluated in terms of number of lambings and lamb
weight at birth. The improved pastures produced more number of lambs (2.78) than natural
pastures (1.56), because of better quality of forages.
But this system requires additional investments. This system has several advantages.
1. There is no wastage compared to continuous grazing.
2. The pastures get enough of re-growth period.
7. Increasing the grazing period through introduction of top feed tree species:
A major shortcoming of most of common pastures is lack of production during hot summer
lean period. A traditional way to over come this is to use tree leaf fodder during this period.
In the pasture lands, lot of trees are seen growing. It these are replaced with top feed
species, that would prolong the grazing period and improve carrying capacity of pasture.
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b) Acacia aneura
c) Acaeia nilotica
d) Leucaena (Subabul)
Preservations of fodder:
With availability of high fodder yielding varieties of season-bound and perennial fodder
crops, there is a glut/abundance of fodder availability during peak-periods of growth (rainy
season/monsoon season) and scarcity during other periods.
The best way to regulate the supply of palatable and nutritive fodder during the lean
period of October and November and May to July is to conserve the surplus fodder in the form
of 1) Hay (Hay making) 2) Silage (silage making)
I. Hay Making: Hay can be defined as the conversion of green forage in to dry form with out
affecting quality of original material.
It is the most common, easy and safe method of preserving the excess green fodder (grasses)
for long time.The quality of hay largely depends on the a) species b) the stage of harvesting
and c) freedom from moulds and bacteria.
b) Pasture and cultivated grasses are cut at 50% flowering or slightly earlier to prevent the
lignifications of cellulose, losses of protein and palatability.
c) Lucerne and Berseem are cut for hay making at 30 to 40 days interval.
2. The fodder crop should not be harvested immediately after irrigation. They should be
harvested in the after noon and before applying irrigation.
3. Though the fodder species may be dried as such in the field it self, the best quality hay is
made by chaffing in to small pieces by hand driven machine or with a power drivers chaff.
Either chaffed or un chaffed material is spread evenly in their layers and is turned two or 3
times daily. In the evening half dried material is raked and collected or heaped in the form
of cone so as to prevent exposure of the material to dew fall at night. On the second day,
the material is again spread evenly after the dew has disappeared. The material is turned
frequently depending on the climatic conditions.
During summer, the hay of lucerne, cowpea, berseem etc., may preferably be made in shade so
that bleaching action may be reduced to the minimum.
4. The hay made by adopting above steps and possessing about 15% moisture is finally transported
to the hay-barn. It should retain green colour, good aroma and flavour.
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5. It should be preferably stored at low temperature and humidity so as to prevent the losses
owing to oxidations of carbohydrates. For rainy seasons, hay curing sheds are
recommended.
6. In order to minimize the space for storage and for effective long term storage, the hay is
turned in to bales of suitable sizes with manually operated or power drivenhay-bales.
Silage is a product obtained by packing fresh fodder in a suitable container (Silo) and allowing it
to ferment under anaerobic conditions with out under going much loss of nutrients.
Fermentation under anaerobic condition preserves the nutritive value and enhances the
keeping quality of the fodder. The process of conserving the green fodder in this way is termed
as ‘Ensiling’.
a) A good silage should be greenish or yellowish brown, with pleasant odour, possess high acid
content (pH ranges from 3.5 to 4.2)
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b) Silage having acidic taste and odour, being free from butyric acid, moulds with ammoniacal
“N” less than 10% of the total nitrogen.
? Generally, the fodder crops rich in soluble carbohydrates and low to medium in protein
conte nt are ideally suited for silage making.
? High content of soluble carbohydrates provides excellent growth medium for the anaerobic
bacteria to form abundant acids which increases the keeping quality of the silage.
? Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Guinea grass, Para grass and Napier grass are highly suitable for
making good quality silage.
? On the other hand, leguminous fodders, which normally have high moisture and high
crude protein and low soluble carbohydrates, are not considered fit for silage making.
Types of silos:
1. Tower silos: They are permanent type and are costly. They are constructed above the
ground level in the form of cylindrical towers. The diameter and height vary according to the
needs. The loss of dry matter in such silos is 5 to 10% only.
2. Bunker silos: These silos are constructed on the surface of the ground. They should always
built on firm soils having good surface and sub surface drainage.
3. Pit or Trench silos: Pit silos are less costly than tower silos and are widely adopted for
silage making. Pits of desired sizes are dug according to the availability of green fodder. Pits
silos are not suited where there is higher water table areas.
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11.A silo pit is opened and the material is removed daily by exposing little surface area to
prevent sunlight.
12.The feeding of the silage should be regulated in such a way that the silage is used with in
a reasonable period. Otherwise long exposure causes drying and deterioration in
keeping quality.
13.Silage may be fed in small quantities (4 to 5 kg per cow) to start with and later quantity
may be increased to 15 to 20 kg.
14.Under ideal condition, it can be stored easily for 1 year.
Advantages
1. It is more suited in those lean seasons when weather is not conducive for hay making
2. Thick stemmed crops like sorghum and maize are better utilized
3. Weeds are used as fodder, consequently the weed seeds are destroyed
4. Highly palatable and nutritious
5. Organic acids produced during ensiling are similar to those organic acid produced in the
digestive tract of the animals (ruminants) and used in the same manner. (Lactic acid 3
to 13% and Butyric acid 0.2 to 0.5 %).
It is the zone / area where the productivity of a crop is higher and also stable due to prevalence
of optimum condition for crop growth and yield.
Rice Zone : 49% rainfed and 51% irrigated. In India, Punjab, TN and AP are the potential zone
for irrigated / low land rice. North eastern part of the country (Assam, WB, Tiripura, Mahalaya,
Orissia and Bihar is the potential area for upland / rainfed rice.
Wheat zone : Efficient wheat zones are UP, Punjab, Haryana, MP and Bihar. Higher
production of wheat from UP, but Punjab recorded the highest average productivity. Now 85%
of the wheat is grown under irrigated condition.
Sorghum zone: Nearly 94% of sorghum is grown under rainfed condition. In India, potential
zone for rainfed sorghum are Maharastra, MP, Karnataka, AP and TN. Irrigated sorghum is
raised is le sser extent is southern part of India. In TN, concentration of sorghum is more
pronounced.in
1. North Western zone (Salem and Dharmapuri)
2. Western Zone (Coimbatore and Periyar )
3. Southern zone (Tirunelvelli and Madurai districts).
Sorghum yields are higher in Southern zone (zone 5). Some area under sorghum in black soils,
are diverted for more remunerative crops such as sunflower in zone 5 and maize in zone 3.
(Western zone).
Maize zone : In India, 85% of area is under rainfed. Efficient zones are Karnataka, UP,
Rajasthan, Bihar and MP. The average productivity is higher in Karnataka. Area under maize is
in increasing trend in Western Zone of TN (Coimbatore and Periyar), North Western zone and
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Southern Zone. In TN, it is mainly grown as irrigated crop during Dec – Jan and July and
August months for higher yield. During Sept – Oct it is grown as rainfed crop.
Bajra zone : More than 95% of the area is under rainfed condition. It is cultivated is drought
prone low rain fall and shallow soil. The potential area is North Western part of India
(Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharastra and Part of UP). Rajasthan is the potential area for bajra. In
TN, it is largely grown in North Eastern, Western and Southern zones.
Pulse zone: India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world and accounts
33% of world area and 22% of world production. Nearly 90% pulses are grown under rainfed
condition. In India, potential production of pulses is from MP, UP , Maharastra, Rajasthan and
Karnataka. In, TN, Cauvery delta zone is the efficient area for the production of rice fallow
pulses viz green gram and black gram. The other areas / zone are North Western Zone,
Western and Southern zone of TN.
Chick pea : MP, Rajasthan and UP. In, India, Western zone.
Red gram (Pigeon pea): Karnataka, Maharastra, AP. In TN, Southern zone , Western zone
and North Western zone.
Green gram: Efficient area are maharastra, AP, UP. In TN, Cauvery Delta zone, Southern zone
and western zone.
Black gram: In India, Maharastra, AP, TN, Orissia. In TN, Cauvery Delta zone and Southern
zone.
Horse gram : Karnataka, TN, Maharastra. In India, potential area is North Western zone and
Western zone.
Forage crops : Efficient areas and Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar and Gujarat. In TN, it is largely
cultivated / grown in North Western and Southern Zones.
Potential Yield : It is the maximum possible economic yield for a crop from a unit land, when
all the factors affecting the crop growth and yield are available with out any constraints.
(OR)
This is the maximum possible yield that could be obtained under controlled condition.
Here all the environmental factors are provided to the crop to express the full potential.
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Average farmers yield : Actual yield obtained by the farmer
Research Yield : The yield obtained in the research station under correct management and
super vision by the scientist. Hence all the technologies are being used by scientists to get
maximum yield.
Potential farmers yield: The yield obtained by the progressive farmers under the guidance of
scientists using new techniques.
Gap – I: The latest technologies developed by the scientists are not completely transformed to
the extension agency. The extension agency should fill up the gap by advocating the farmers
by acquiring themselves with these improved method of cultivation.
Gap – II: Here there is no input constraints and only environmental constraints exist.
Gap – III: Variation in management of field and crop. Only few farmers get higher yield . Gap
can be filled up by improving the socio-economic condition of the farmers.
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Yield Gap Model in Rice (Gomez, 1971)
Gap II
1. Experimental station yield
2. Potential farmer’s yield
3. Actual farmers yield
1 2 3
Gap – I : The yield obtained in the research station is due to better management and optimum
inputs under favourable environment.
Gap – I is caused by environmental differences between exprimental research station and
potential farmer’s land. The variety / technology may not be suitable to that environment or it
is not economical for that station.
Gap – II: This caused by biological / production constraints such as
1. Variety / Improved seed
2. Weeds
3. Pests and Diseases
4. Problem soil
5. Water
6. Soil fertility
7. Cultured practices
Socio – economic constraints
1. Cost and return
2. Credit
3. Traditional attitude
4. Knowledge
5. Input availability
6. Institution
7. Risk
8. Market facilities.
The main aim should be to fill or bridge the gap I and II. Here the role of extension agency is
more important and has to effectively transfer the viable technologies among the farmers
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Crops Page
Redgram 118
Bengalgram 121
G.G. 124
B.G. 127
Horsegram 130
Soybean 140
Moth 143
Pean 145
Lentil 147
Napien 164
Gui 166
Para 168
Blou 169
Legumes 177
Cowpea 178
Bersean 180
Hegelians 182
Stylosan 183
Lucer 184
Lucerne
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