Yunitha Ratnadilla Tri Adhi Kusuma

11/313560/TK/37951
ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING

A. INTRODUCTION
Electron beam machining is one of the examples of non-conventional machining under
the thermal process category, along with laser beam machining, electric discharge machining,
and plasma cutting. This process uses high velocity electrons for material removal, which is done
primarily by melting and rapid vaporization due to intense heating by the electrons.
The earliest work of material removal utilizing an electron beam was attributed to
Steigerwald who designed a prototype machine in 1947. Electron beam machining has been used
in industry since the 1960s, initially in nuclear and aerospace welding application.
Electron beams themselves carry out several beneficial properties which make them well
suited to be used in material handling (Crawford, 1962). First, electron beams have such short
wavelength that can produce high energy electrons. Hence, very high resolution and long depth
of field is achievable. The second aspect is about their extraordinary energy density. It far
surpasses any conventional energy source with the power density of 10
9
watts/cm
2
. Because of
the high scattering cross section of electrons in solids, this power can be easily extracted in the
form of heat in a thin layer of material. The third one is their ability to catalyze many chemical
reactions, thus allowing them to be used to selectively destroy or create thin films. And the last,
electron beams are particularly easy to control. They can be positioned rapidly and accurately in
space and time, and are very suitable for use in completely automated processes.

B. MECHANISM
Electron beam is generated in an electron beam gun, which is basically a triode consisted
of a cathode, a grid cup negatively biased with the respect to the cathode, and an anode at ground
potential (McGeough, 1988). Due to being dependent on the using of high velocity electrons, the
whole process of this machining has to be performed under vacuum condition, including the
placement of the workpiece to be machined. Else, the electrons would interact with the air
molecules of which condition they can lose their energy and cutting ability.
Yunitha Ratnadilla Tri Adhi Kusuma
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The mechanism of electron beam machining can be seen in Figure 1 below. The electron
gun produces such high energy focused beam which is made to invade the workpiece with a spot
size of 10-200 m. As the beam strikes the surface of the work material, the kinetic energy of the
high velocity electrons is converted to heat energy. This will make the spot gradually getting
bigger and deeper due to the melting and vaporization of material caused by the high power
density. This process will be carried out until the desirable depth is created. The molten material,
as the product of the material removal process, will be casted out from the cutting zone by the
high vapor pressure at the lower part.

Figure 1. Mechanism of Material Removal in Electron Beam Machining

C. ELECTRON BEAM GUN
The basic functions of an electron beam gun are to generate electrons from the high
voltage supply attached at the cathode, accelerate them to a sufficiently high velocity, and direct
the beam to the workpiece through a small spot. Parts of electron beam gun are divided into two
categories, which are (Leonard, 1962) :
1. The elements necessary for generating free electrons, or cathode elements, and
Yunitha Ratnadilla Tri Adhi Kusuma
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2. The field-shaping elements necessary for the production of a useful beam; the various
electrodes such as the cathode electrode, anode, and grids or modulating electrodes.


Figure 2. Electron Beam Gun

The cathode is generally made of tungsten or tantalum filament, which can tolerate the
temperature to 2500-3000C. A measure of this effect is the emission current, the magnitude of
which varies between 25 and 100 mA. Corresponding current densities lie between 5 and 15
A/cm
2
. However, this quantity is determined by some factors, such as the type of cathode
material, its temperature, and the voltage applied (McGeough, 1988).
Electrons are generated from the high power supply in the range of 150-200 kV to create
velocity over 200,000 km/s. Just after the cathode, there is a grid cup which functions to focus
the accelerated electrons so that they travel through a hole in the anode. The grid cup is set up in
high negative bias condition to prevent the electrons from divergence. When it leaves the anode,
the beam may reach velocity as high as 50% to 80% of the speed of light.
A magnetic lens is placed under the anode. This lens has the jobs of re-focusing the
electron beam by shaping it and reducing the divergence. This way, the quality of the beam can
be improved and its direction towards the workpiece is kept under control.
The last section to go through is deflection coils. Deflection coils can direct the electron
beam, although only for a small amount, to further improve shape of the machined holes.
Sometimes, the deflection coils are also supported by electromagnetic lenses positioned right
Yunitha Ratnadilla Tri Adhi Kusuma
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above the coils to help focusing the electron beam to a desired spot. Another advancement
applied on electron beam guns is the installment of illumination facility and telescope for
alignment of the beam with the workpiece.
During the process, both the electron beam gun and the workpiece must be placed in a
vacuum chamber so that electrons do not lose their energy and a significant life of the cathode is
obtained. Level of vacuum should be set up between 10
-4
to 10
-6
Torr (1 Torr = 1 mmHg).

D. PARAMETERS AND PROCESS CAPABILITY
Although there are many parameters which influence the process, there are three most
important parameters related to electron beam machining, those are :
1. Beam current
Beam current is continuously adjustable from approximately 100 GA to 1 A. As the
setting of beam current is increased, the amount of energy per pulse delivered to the
workpiece is also increased. Electron beam machining can facilitate up to 120
joules/pulse, which explains the ability of the process to rapidly drill very deep and
make large-diameter holes.
2. Pulse duration
Pulse duration affects both the depth and diameter of the hole. The longer the pulse
duration, the wider the diameter and the deeper the drilling depth capability will be.
Typically, electron beam systems can generate pulses as short as 50 tisec or as long as
10 msec.
3. Lens current
Lens current is used as the parameter to determine the working distance as well as the
spot size of the beam on the workpiece should be. To achieve a desired hole diameter,
the beam power must be able to generate more than 10
8
W/cm
2
, or else the power
density will be insufficient to do heating and vaporization.
Other than those parameters, there are still more factors of the process which directly
affect the machining characteristics in electron beam machining, which are the accelerating
Yunitha Ratnadilla Tri Adhi Kusuma
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voltage applied, energy per pulse, spot size of the hole, power density of the beam, and the
melting temperature of the workpiece.
Electron beam machining can provide holes of diameter from 100 m to 2 mm with a
depth up to 15 mm. Almost all materials can be machined using this process, ranging from
metals such as steel, stainless steel, titanium and nickel super alloys, and aluminium to non-
metals like plastics, ceramics, and leathers. Electron beam machining does not apply any cutting
force on the workpiece, thus very simple work holding is required. This is why machining fragile
and brittle materials is obtainable using this method.
As electron beam machining is grouped under the thermal category, it is natural to have
thermal damages as part of the result. However, the heat-affected zone of electron beam
machining is rather narrow compared to other thermal processes due to shorter pulse duration
being used. Typically, the heat-affected zone of this process is around 20 to 30 m.
Furthermore, electron beam machining gives finer surface finish and thinner kerf width
than other thermal processes. Nonetheless, the quality of the surface roughness of the edges
produced in electron beam machining depends greatly on the type of material. Thermal
properties of the workpiece as well as the pulse energy are two of factors which influence the
result of the surface.

E. MATHEMATICS
In the process, electron beam gun is operated in pulse mode. Holes can be drilled in thin
sheets using a single pulse. For thicker plates, multiple pulses would be required.
There are two ways of calculating the number of pulses needed to produce a desired
depth of cut (McGeough, 1988). Firstly, the volume number nev is evaluated by comparing the
mass as follows

where m is the mass of material to be removed and me is the mass of material removed by a
single pulse.
Yunitha Ratnadilla Tri Adhi Kusuma
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Secondly, the linear number of pulses needed is calculated by comparing the depth given
by the expression

where g is the depth of hole required and ge is the depth of cavity sunk by a single pulse.
The average mass of material removed per pulse me is related to the depth of material
could be worn away per pulse ge as the equation gives

4

where db is the diameter of the electron beam at contact with the machined surface and is the
density of the workpiece material. Maximum material removal rate can be achieved in electron
beam machining is 10 mm
3
/min.
When a slot of depth g is given to be formed using electron beam machining, the process
time required in this case is found to be given by

where tp is the duration of the pulse, L is the slot length, and de is the diameter (width) of the
electron beam at the region of incidence with the workpiece.

F. APPLICATIONS
With its high penetration depth, high impulse frequency, and fast beam deflection,
electron beam machining has been widely used in many fields other than manufacturing, for
instance in aerospace, food and chemical, insulation, and clothing industries.
In manufacturing field itself, electron beam machining is mainly applied for
micromachining, including drilling fine holes, cutting narrow slots, and cutting contours in
sheets.
Yunitha Ratnadilla Tri Adhi Kusuma
11/313560/TK/37951
The consideration of using electron beam machining for hole-drilling was started by
Steigerwald and Meyer in 1967. They concluded that improved reproducibility, greater working
speeds, and deeper holes of accurately controlled shapes were all needed for the successful
applications of hole-drilling. By controlling the focus and pulse duration, the beam power, and
mechanical motion, these days a number of shapes of holes such as conical and barrel as well as
various diameters can be drilled with consistent accuracy at rates of several thousand holes per
second. The drilling process can obtain such small diameter holes down to 0.05 mm (0.002 in)
and small bores (diameter down to few m) can be made in thin foils at a rate of up to 10,000
bores/sec without moving the target. Electron beam machining can also provide drilling holes
with very high depth-to-diameter ratios which are greater than 100:1.

G. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
Electron beam machining affords very high drilling rates when small hole with large
aspect ratio are asked to be drilled. Besides, this method can process almost all materials, metals
or non-metals, with minimal concerns of their mechanical properties. The material type will
affect on the number of holes drilled per second can be achieved, together with the influence of
the hole diameter, the depth of the hole, and the power density. This process applies no cutting
force on the workpiece which benefits in the ability to machine fragile and brittle materials as
well as lessening the cost of work holding and fixturing.
Furthermore, electron beam machining facilitates hole-drilling at a very shallow angle of
as less as 20 to 30. As it has narrower heat-affected zone as thermal damage, thinner kerf width
and smoother surface finish is obtainable compared to other thermal processes. High accuracy on
the result is also one of the advantages of this method since it uses computer-controlled
equipments.
However, electron beam machining has its own limitations. The primary limitations are
the high capital cost of the equipment and necessary regular maintenance applicable for any
equipment using vacuum system. The process also needs very high energy consumption. Another
disadvantage of this method is related to the fact that X-rays are generated above an acceleration
voltage of 80 kV, thus a severe shielding of the system and a highly-skilled operator to run the
system are necessary.
Yunitha Ratnadilla Tri Adhi Kusuma
11/313560/TK/37951
H. SUMMARY
Electron beam machining is one of the non-conventional machining under thermal
process category. The principle of this method is using high velocity electron beams to induce
melting and rapid vaporization of material. The equipment which works to generate the beams is
called electron beam gun.
Almost all materials can be handled using electron beam machining, which is one of
many benefits coming from this technique. This method is also very fit for micromachining, with
the jobs of drilling fine holes, cutting narrow slots, and cutting contours in sheets. However, the
high capital cost of equipment and the mandatory requirement of high-skilled operator of the
system should be taken into consideration before installment.














Yunitha Ratnadilla Tri Adhi Kusuma
11/313560/TK/37951
REFERENCES

Crawford, C., 1962, Introduction to Electron Beam Technology, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Grote, K., Antonsson, E., 2009, Handbook of Mechanical Engineering, 10
th
edn, Pringer, Berlin.
McGeough, J.A., 1988, Advanced Methods of Machining, Chapman and Hall, London.
Moarrefzadeh, A., 2011, Finite-Element Simulation of Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
Process, International Journal of Multidisciplinary Sciences and Engineering,
vol. 2, no. 6, pp 51-56, viewed 29 December 2012.
< http://www.ijmse.org/Volume2/Issue6/paper10.pdf>