Instrument Classification

1)Active Instrument 2)Passive Instruments Instruments are either active or passive according to whether the instrument output is entirely produced by the quantity being measured or whether the quantity being measured simply modulates the magnitude of some external power source.
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Examples
An example of passive instrument is the pressure measuring device in which the pressure of the fluid is translated into movement of a pointer against a scale. An example of a active instrument is a float-type petrol-tank level indicator.
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Points to remember

In active instruments the external power source is usually electrical in form, but in some cases it can be pneumatic or hydraulic. One important difference between active and passive instruments is the level of measurement resolution which can be obtained. Passive instruments are normally cheaper to manufacture then active instruments.

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Static characteristics of instruments

Accuracy Precision/repeatability Tolerance Range or span Bias Linearity Sensitivity of measurement Sensitivity to disturbance Hysteresis Dead space Threshold Resolution

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Accuracy: Accuracy is the extent to which a reading might be wrong, and is often quoted as a percentage of full-scale reading of an instrument. Precision: Precision is a term which describes an instruments degree of freedom from random errors.
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Tolerance: Tolerance is a term which is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error which is to be expected in some value.
Range or Span: The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is designed to measure.

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Bias: Bias describes a constant error which exists over the full range of measurement of an instrument. Linearity: It is normally describes that the output reading of an instrument is linearly proportional to the quantity being measured. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is a measure of the change in instrument output which occurs when the quantity being measured changes by a given amount.
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Sensitivity to disturbance: Sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the magnitude of change in static characteristic of a instrument due to environmental changes. Such changes effect instrument in two main ways.
1) 2)

Zero drift Sensitivity drift (Scale factor drift)

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Hysteresis: The non-coincidence between loading and unloading curves is known as hysteresis. Dead space: Dead space is defined as the range of different input values over which there is no change in output value.
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Threshold: The minimum level of input before the change in the instrument output reading is of large enough magnitude to be detectable is known as the threshold of the instrument. Resolution: The minimum reading that can be taken from instruments.

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The Dynamic Response of Measuring Instruments

The dynamic response of a measuring instrument is the change in the output y caused by a change in the input x. Both x and y are functions of time t . Classes of Linear Instruments Zero Order Instruments First Order Instruments Second Order Instruments
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Zero Order Instruments

A zero order linear instrument has an output which is proportional to the input at all times in accordance with the equation y(t) = Kx(t), where K is a constant called the static gain of the instrument. The static gain is a measure of the sensitivity of the instrument. An example of a zero order linear instrument is a wire strain gauge in which the change in the electrical resistance of the wire is proportional to the strain in the wire.

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First Order Instruments

A first order linear instrument has an output which is given by a non-homogeneous first order linear differential equation tau.dy(t)/dt + y(t) = K.x(t), where tau is a constant, called the time constant of the instrument. In these instruments there is a time delay in their response to changes of input. The time constant tau is a measure of the time delay. Thermometers for measuring temperature are first-order instruments.
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Second Order Instruments

A second order linear instrument has an output which is given by a non-homogeneous second order linear differential equation
d2y(t)/dt2 + 2.rho.omega.dy(t)/dt + omega2.y(t) = K.omega2.x(t),

where rho is a constant, called the damping factor of the instrument, and omega is a constant called the natural frequency of the instrument.
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Under a static input a second order linear instrument tends to oscillate about its position of equilibrium. The natural frequency of the instrument is the frequency of these oscillations Friction in the instrument opposes these oscillations with a strength proportional to the rate of change of the output. The damping factor is a measure of this opposition to the oscillations
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An example of a second order linear instrument is a galvanometer which measures an electrical current by the torque on a coil carrying the current in a magnetic field. The rotation of the coil is opposed by a spring. The strength of the spring and the moment of inertia of the coil determine the natural frequency of the instrument. The damping of the oscillations is by mechanical friction and electrical eddy currents. Another example of a second order linear instrument is a Utube manometer for measuring pressure differences. The liquid in the U-tube tends to oscillate from side to side in the tube with a frequency determined by the weight of the liquid. The damping factor is determined by viscosity in the liquid and friction between the liquid and the sides of the tube.

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