I-O Psychology 1-9 Notes

INTRODUCTION TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY
Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan
Lecture 1 Definitions & History

Main Source: Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY Ronald Riggio
Lecture Overview
At the end of this lecture you should know:
Definition of I/O Psychology Objectives of I/O Psychology What do I/O Psychologists do? Founding fathers History of I/O Current issues and factors that pose challenges to organisations today
Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 3
What is I/O Psychology?

Definition The branch of psychology that is concerned with the study of behaviour in work settings and the application of psychology principles to change work behaviour (Riggio 2013)
What is I/O Psychology?

Two
important considerations
- The study of work behaviour is a
multidisciplinary, cooperative venture I/O Psychology is an applied field.
Objectives of I/O Psychology
To conduct research in an effort to increase knowledge and understanding of human behaviour in the workplace setting
To apply the knowledge in order to change or improve work behaviour; work environment and the psychological conditions of workers.
(Riggio)
What does an I/O Psychologist do?

I/O Psychologists work in the broad areas of:
Research
Consultancy
Teaching Human
Resource Development/ Management

Research
The work of the I/O psychologist involves designing, developing and executing the entire research process (research process to be covered next lecture) Studies focus on the attitudes, behaviours and motivations of people in the organisation Usually of an applied nature, i.e., research is carried out in order to understand and or/solve issues & problems

Consultancy
Organisational consultants help organisations to identify problems and create solutions in order to become more efficient & effective Their work involves research &/or change and/or organisational development interventions Various areas of consultancy are: Strategic Planning; Team Building; Leadership Development; Organisation Design &/or Reengineering; Change management
Checkout this local consultancy firm: http://www.ltsemaj.com/


Teaching
The I/O psychologist may teach courses in the broad areas of Psychology; HRM/HRD; Management; Organisational Behaviour
(Secondary, Undergraduate; Post Graduate levels)
10

Human Resource Development/Management
The I/O psychologist may operate in a generalist HR Management role, or may operate as a specialist in any of the following areas:
Training Performance Appraisal & Management Compensation & Benefits Employee Welfare & Security Job Design & Analysis
11
Employee Recruitment & Selection
Labour Relations
Founding Fathers
Hugh Munsterberg (1863 1916)
Experimental psychologist
Design of Work Personnel Selection (First Psychology Text in this area) Walter Dill Scott (1869 1965) - Psychology of Advertising (1908) - Personnel Selection, Management, Assessment (Human efficiency in the workplace)
12
Founding Fathers
Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915)
Scientific Management Movement Known for Time and Motion Studies Known for the Hawthorne Experiments Developed the Human Relations Movement His work highlighted the importance of social factors in influencing work performance
Elton Mayo (1880 1949)
13
History/Background of I/O Psychology

Early
1900
1. I/O Psychology during World War I

Period
Intelligence test for placement of army recruits (Army Alpha and Beta Tests)
2. Greater recognition of the field with new industrial development 3. World War II Development of screening and assessment tests

Hawthorn
Studies (Elton Mayo)
What are the effects of the physical work environment on worker productivity? - Lighting experiment Human relations movement (the
importance of social factors in improving productivity)
15

Post World War II - Publication of New Journal in 1948 (Personnel Psychology) - 1960-1990s research in the area flourished Labour relations laws
Civil Rights Act in the U.S. (1964) LRIDA Jamaica (1975)
OD Interventions

Other
Developments
- Holistic approach to employee

-
welfare Development of new methods and techniques for employee recruitment and selection (Increased usage of sophisticated
statistical tools)
Overlap with related fields (HRM/HRD,

Organisational Behaviour, Industrial Relations)
17
CURRENT ISSUES AND FEATURES THAT POSE CHALLENGES TO ORGANISATIONS
I/O Psychology has to relate to the emerging and shifting nature of organisation life
The Changing Nature of Work (Change and Adaptation) Expanding focus on Human Resources (Enhancing Performance/Motivation) Globalization & Competitiveness Attention to Diversity in the Workplace
Change and Adaptation

Organisation
Structure & Culture Downsizing, reengineering etc Work structure/systems Knowledge Worker New Technology Leadership
19
Enhancing Performance/Motivation
Teams
and/vs Individuals - compensation; job design etc Effective performance management systems Employee Development and Training
20
Globalization & Competitiveness

Two Major I/O Psychology Concerns Branding - Organisational Identity/Culture
Efficiency
- Organisational Learning
21
Diversity
Age
- Younger vs Older Employees Race/Class/colour issues Gender issues
22
Characteristics of Different Generations

Traditionalists
Pre 1945 Age 63
Baby Boomers
19451964 Age 4362
Generation X
19651980 Age 2742
Generation Y
1981Present Age 127
Formative
Events
Great Depression World Wars
Post war Prosperity
Globalization Downsizing Tech Boom Independent Individualistic Entrepreneurial Lack loyalty Tech skills Educated Social skills
Networking 9-11, World terrorism Internet Diverse Skilled Demanding Sophisticated Multi-tasking skills Work ethic Direction Focus Interpersonal skills
Qualities
Loyal Self-sacrificing
Competitive Optimistic
Assets
Wisdom Experience Persistence Technology skills
Social skills
Lack
Technology skills
23 Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan Source: Adapted from Susan P. Eisner, Managing Generation Y, SAM Advanced Management Journal 70, Autumn, 2005, v. 70, pp 413.
Characteristics of Different Generations

Traditionalists
Pre 1945
Baby Boomers
19451964
Generation X
19651980
Generation Y
1981Present
Age 63
Value
Age 4362
Age 2742
Age 127
Family Patriotism Directive Take charge Do whats right
Material success Free expression Equity Respect authority Micromanage Proactive Work hard
Skills more than titles Work-life balance Skeptical Reluctant to network Outcome focused Bend rules as needed Provide autonomy Give quick feedbacks Update their tech skills Give credit for results
Patriotism Family Respect Plunge right in Negotiate Blend work/play Measure own success Train/upgrade Assign meaningful work Use in teams Promote positive, open environment.
Style
Strategies For Managing
Respect their experience Value their loyalty Use their knowledge/ experience to help others
Give important roles Value their contributions Show respect Minimize conflict
24 Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan Source: Adapted from Susan P. Eisner, Managing Generation Y, SAM Advanced Management Journal 70, Autumn, 2005, v. 70, pp 413.
End
Next
Research In I/O Psychology
25
Introduction to I/O Psychology
PS10C
JOB ANALYSIS
Personnel Psychology
Job Analysis
Training Performance Management Recruitment & Selection
Compensation
Lecture Overview
At the end of this lecture you should:
- Define and explain Job Analysis - Explain the relationship between Job Analysis and other personnel processes - Outline the various Job Analysis Methods - Describe specific Job Analysis Techniques
Time & Motion Studies

(Setting the Framework)
What is Job Analysis?

The core or starting point for all other personnel functions and activities Provide data about task and duties in an organization to be performed by workers
The systematic study of the tasks, duties and responsibilities of a job and the qualities needed to perform it!
6
Job Analysis Outputs

Job Descriptions Detailed description of the job tasks, procedures, and Responsibilities; the tools and equipment used; and the end product or service Job Specification A statement of the human Characteristics required to perform a job
Job Analysis
Job Evaluation An assessment of the relative value of a job to determine appropriate compensation
7
Why Job Analysis?

To obtain full understanding of a particular job or task and its relationship to a number of important organisational/HR processes.
Training
Recruitment & Selection
Job Analysis
Compensation
Performance Management
(Relationship to other organisational/HR processes)
Why Job Analysis?
Training Developing the Workforce!

What knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics (KSAO) are required for the job?
Is there a gap between the standards to be attained and the KSAOs of the staff member?
Why Job Analysis?
Recruit & Place Employees in Jobs where they are most effective
How important is the job?
What are the specifications of the job? What are the required qualifications (KSAs)?
Why Job Analysis?

Performance Management
Are the elements and specifications of the job clear? What are the standards necessary for the achievement of the performance goals?
Why Job Analysis
. Compensation
How can we assess the comparable worth of the job?
12
Job Evaluation & Comparable Worth

Job Evaluation Process of assessing the relative value of the job to determine appropriate compensation (It is one of the products of a job analysis)
A number of factors may determine the compensation for a job such as KSAOs, supply of potential workers, the value of the job to the company, etc these are called compensable factors.
Job Evaluation & Comparable Worth

The issue of how jobs are to be compensated is very important and there are legislations that guide this process. One such issue concern the pay differentials between men and women.
Jobs therefore are required to be of comparable worth that is, the notion that jobs that require equivalent KSAOs should be compensated equally.
14
Job Analysis Methods

Observations - Observe the job incumbent at work for a
period of time Take detailed notes on the exact task and duties being performed.
Disadvantages 1. Some jobs may not have Observable elements 2. Workers may perform differently when they know that they are being observe 3. Slow and costly
Advantages 1.Useful in repetitious jobs and job requiring physical work 2. Reduces bias 3. Helpful in setting standards As best practices can be easily Observed.
15

Participation
Performing the job or an aspect of the job in order to obtain firsthand understanding It provides thorough knowledge and understanding of the job but the process may be time consuming, technical, or tedious. Secondary source of information about the job These should be checked properly to ensure that they are similar to the job Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan currently being performed
Existing Data
16

Interviews - Open-ended or structured questioning in
relation to the job a number of persons may be involved in the interviewing process.
Surveys/Questionnaires - Quick, easy, efficient and cost effective

method of obtaining information from both individuals and large numbers of persons.

Job Diaries
log of incumbents daily activities on the job. This can be burdensome and time consuming and may detract from the work performance.
18
Some Job Analysis Techniques

Job Element Method - A person oriented method that analyses jobs in terms of the KSAOs required to perform the job. Functional Job Analysis structured examination of the sequence of tasks in a job and the processes by which they are completed.

Position Analysis Questionnaire
Use of a structured questionnaire to analyse and group jobs. Analysis is done in relation to
187 statements grouped into six categories. These categories are: information input; mental processes; work output; relationships with other persons; job context; Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan other job characteristics
20

Critical Incidents Technique
This technique focuses on job performance. The incumbent is asked to identify specific incidents which have impacted negatively or positively on performance. This technique also helps to determine the particular KSAOs required for the job
21
Which Technique is Best?
1. It depends on the objective of the Job Analysis 2. No one method or technique is superior
3. A combination of methods should lead to more detailed and reliable outcomes.

Activity I
Write a job description and a job specification of your present job or your desired job!
23
Activity II Job Evaluation Exercise Job Title Forklift Operator

Compensable Factor
Education Experience Physical Demand Mental Demand Responsibility for Equipment & Materials Hazards
Substantiating Data
Points Awarded
Maximum Points
PSYC1002 (PS10C)
Lecturer: Sophia Morgan

E-mail: sophia.morgan@uwimona.edu.jm
Research Methods in Industrial/Organizational Psychology
At the end of this lecture students should know:

Why research important to the I/O Psychologist and how they use research in their work The steps in the research process and whats involved in each step How variables are operationalised Some major research designs Some issues in the research process for consideration.
The Hawthorne Studies A classic in I/O Psychology
Please read all you can on the Hawthorne studies for this class
GOAL OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH - Describe, explain, predict situations/ human behaviour - Solve problems/challenges - Improve/Enhance work behaviour (alter/change or control behaviours)
Research in I/O Psychology

.
Formulation of the problem
Generation of hypotheses or research questions
Choosing an appropriate research design
Collection of data
Analysis of data
Interpretation of results and drawing of conclusions
Recommendations For Actions
Prior Research Existing problem in the workplace Researcher's interest
Hypothesis is a statement that tells what is being studied/investigated This statement proposes the nature of the relationship between two variables (A variable is the thing being investigated) Hypothesis must be testable, i.e., they may be proven or disproven. They are mostly used in quantitative research designs
Hypothesis - Statement about the supposed relationship between or among variables
Research questions also serve as guiding posts in the investigation. They identify clearly the phenomenon that is being studied. They are mostly used in qualitative research designs Testing hypotheses and investigating research questions can lead to the development of new theories about a particular phenomenon
What discipline? What type/ format of exam?
Broad Study Topic: Taking Exams at School
What kind of school?
H1: Students who experience anxiety before an exam will get higher scores on the exam than students who do not experience anxiety H2: The experience of anxiety will affect a students score on an examination Q: How does anxiety affect a students score on an examination?
Broad Topic: The Impact of Worker Stress on Performance Work Performance on .

H1: Work Performance of persons who experience high stress levels on the job is lower than those who do not experience high stress levels H2: Work performance is impacted by worker stress levels Q: How does stress levels impact work performance?
Some considerations for the selection of the appropriate design are:

Research setting (laboratory vs field) The degree of control that the research has over the setting The purpose of the research/investigation
Quantitative e.g. Surveys/questionnaires Qualitative - e.g. Interviews and focus groups Mixed Methods
Experimental Cause & Effect Setting Laboratory & Field
Measurement of - Independent variables; dependent variables (extraneous variables) Participants - treatment group; control group
Quasi Experiment
Measures effectiveness vs cause and effect Setting Field Researcher does not have control over the setting so a true experiment cannot be performed Lacks features of experimental method such as random assignment of participants to groups and manipulation of the independent variable Measurement of - Independent variables; dependent variables & extraneous variables
2. -
Correlational (Observational) Examines relationships among or between variables as they occur naturally No manipulation of the variables Does not determine cause-and-effect (causal statements are made however)
Meta Analysis - Utilized when we want to draw conclusions about the relationship between variables from the examination of a number of research studies - Indicators include the effect size and the participants - One measure of the effect size is the correlation coefficient that describes the relationship between the variables
Effect Size - The estimate of the magnitude of a relationship or effect found in a research investigation Meta Analysis- A technique that allows results from several different research studies to be combined and summarized
Case study - Observational study involving a single activity, event, organisation, or behavioural assessment
-
No firm conclusions may be drawn Usually descriptive
Data collection considerations are guided by the research design Some considerations are: - Sampling methods (The selection of participants for the study) - Data collection methods e.g., interviews; focus groups; surveys etc.
Data collected may be analysed using statistical techniques or non-statistical techniques Both techniques help the research to make sense of data that was collected Levels of analysis may include; individual, group; and the organisation as a whole
In quantitative research designs, statistics is the primary tool used in data analysis The results of statistical analyses help us to understand the relationship between variables and also the strength of the relationship The type of statistical analysis used in a study depends on factors such as:
- The variables of interest and the way they are measured - The design of the study - The research questions
Data may be classified as categorical or measurement (measurement data is more frequently used in I/O
psychology
Two procedures used to analyse measurement data are descriptive statistics & inferential statistics Descriptive statistics are helpful in representing and organising data the statistical technique is called a frequency distribution. Descriptive statistics include measures of central tendency (mean; mode; median) and variability (standard deviation) Inferential statistics are use to test hypotheses in the analysis of the data. One of the objectives is test for statistical significance, i.e. the probability of chance occurrence is very low
Some non-statistical techniques are: (used in qualitative research designs) - Grounded theory - Content analysis - Narrative analysis - Phenomenology
The meaning of the findings is explored Conclusions are drawn Limitations are identified
Depending on the purpose of the research, (gaining knowledge vs problem solving) the researcher may need to make recommendations for: - Improving the functioning of the organisation - Addressing employee behavioural issues.
The I/O psychologist may also participate as a consultant in the implementation and evaluation of the initiatives taken based on the recommendations made.
Difficult aspect of research process Before the variables can be measured, they must be operationalised , i.e. clearly defined Two techniques used in the operationalised of variables are: Observational Techniques (obtrusive; unobtrusive) Self Report Techniques (surveys; interviews)
Variables - The elements measured in research investigation
Observational Techniques - Must be direct and systematic (e.g. Recording behaviours) - May be done in an obtrusive or unobtrusive manner Self Report Techniques - Less costly and more easily obtained than observational techniques - May be done by surveys and/or interviews
Self Report Techniques Measurement methods relying on research participants report of their own behaviour and attitudes. Obtrusive Observation research observation in which the presence of the observer is known to the participants
Objectivity
limit personal biases and value judgement
Validity
the accuracy of inferences drawn from a measurement
Reliability
the extent to which the same result is achieved (consistency) when a measure is applied repeatedly the extent to which the findings of your research can be generalised
External Validity
Confidentiality information from research Ethical Considerations Rights and

responsibilities of the researched and the researcher
should not be disclosed to unauthorised individuals
End of Presentation
Next Job Analysis (Personnel Issues)
PSYC1002 (PS10C)
Lecturer: Sophia S Morgan

E-mail:sophia.morgan@uwimona.edu.jm
Lecture Topic: EMPLOYEE RECRUITMENT, SELECTION & PLACEMENT
Chapter 4 Introduction to I/O Psychology Ronald Riggio

2
At the end of this lecture you should be able to recall and discuss:
1.
2.
3.
The HR Planning Process A simple model for recruiting and hiring effective & productive workers Steps in the Employee Recruitment & Selection Process - Recruitment - Screening - Selection - Placement
Pre-recruitment Questions
1. 2. 3.
What does the organisation do? Why is the job needed? Why at given level?
End process -----Recruitment and Selection
4.
5. 6. 7.
Job Analysis Job Analysis Outcomes
Recruitment
Screening
8. Selection & Placement

4
HR Planning Model - Processes - Talent Inventory (KSAOs) - Workforce Forecast (plan for future HR requirements eg. # of positions, skills required, market) - Action Plans (Plan to guide the recruitment, selection, training & compensation of the future hires) - Control and Evaluation (How well is the HR System working; how well is the HR plan met?)
5
1. Recruitment of Applicants 2. Employee Screening & Testing Procedures 3. Selection decisions 4. Placement of employees in appropriate jobs
Employee recruitment may be defined as the process by which companies attract qualified applicants
Recall: Pre-recruitment - Important question to
consider: what kind of work characteristics are required for the job?
Job analysis -
Job description Job specifications Job evaluation
A successful recruitment programme will attract a large pool of qualified applicants

7
Ads Referrals Transfers Recruitment centres Walk-ins
Which of these methods yield higher quality workers or workers who are more likely to remain with the company? Hmmmm
http://www.caribbeanjobs.com/ jamaicaobserver.com
Recruitment is a two-way process

We are looking for the best person for our organisation
Two important considerations in the recruitment process

1. Avoid overselling the organisation (Realistic Job Review RJP)
A Realistic Job Preview is an accurate presentation of the prospective job and organization made to applicants Riggio
2. Avoid intentional or unintentional discrimination against underrepresented groups

10
STEP 2 - Employee Screening
The process of reviewing information about job applicants to select individuals for jobs
11
Job applications Resumes References and letters of recommendation Work samples Employment tests Assessment Centres Hiring interviews
12
EMPLOYEE SELECTION
13
Employee selection:
The process of choosing applicants for employment
Multiple regression model Multiple cutoff model Multiple hurdle model
14
Criteria Variables
Measures of job success usually related to performance
What is the performance criteria for the job of a student ? - The # of courses passed? - The # of As received What should prospective students possess in order to ensure success in their job? -Knowledge/Education related to their course of study
Predictor Variables
Variables about the candidates that are related to (and predictive of) the criteria
NB - The success of an employee selection programme requires the appropriate pairing of criteria and predictors
15
Goals: To maximise the probability of accurate decisions in selecting job applicants and to ensure that the decisions are made in a way that is free from both intentional and unintentional discrimination against the applicants. To avoid decision errors
a.
b. False-positive errors erroneously accepting applicants who would have been unsuccessful False-negative errors erroneously rejecting applicants who would have be successful
16
Decision Approaches Clinical Approach (subjective)
Statistical Approach (objective) - Multiple Regression Model -Multiple Cutoff Model
an employee selection method that combines separate predictors of a job success in a statistical procedure a minimum cutoff score is used on each of the various predictors of job performance
-Multiple hurdled Model this strategy requires that an acceptance or rejection decision at each of the several stages in a screening process
17
18
The process of assigning workers to appropriate jobs
19
The role of personnel specialists (i.e., researchers & specialists) is to find the fit between the persons attribute and the job.
Consideration - KSAOs - LRIDA (Labour Relations and Industrial Disputes Act), 1975 (as amended)
http://www.moj.gov.jm/laws/statutes/The%20Laboour%20Relations%20and%20Industri al%20Disputes%20Act%20.pdf
20
Protecting against discrimination in employment Protected groups - groups including wonent

and certain ethnic and racial minorities that have been identified as targets of employment discrimination
Adverse impact when members f a protected

group are treated unfairly by an employers personnel action
Affirmative action the voluntary
development of policies that try to ensure that jobs are made available to qualified individuals regardless of sex age or ethnic background
21
End of Presentation
22
PSYC1002 (PS10C)
Lecturer: Sophia S Morgan

E-mail: sophia.morgan@uwimona.edu.jm
Lecture Topic: METHODS FOR ASSESSING AND SELECTING EMPLOYEES
Employee Screening
(STEP 2)
The process of reviewing information about job applicants to select individuals for jobs
3
At the end of this lecture you should be able to recall and discuss: - Types of employee screening and assessment methods - Important considerations for the use of screening and assessment methods - There basic test formats
1.
Methodological Issues
- Validity - Reliability
2.
3.
Cost Utility/Ease of Use
Job applications Resumes References and letters of recommendation Work samples Employment tests Assessment Centres Hiring interviews
The main purpose of these sources is to provide biographical data which are usually the best predictors of job performance Application forms may be weighted Resumes may be translated into numerical values Work Sample - written sample of your work; your portfolio
Form that assign different weights to the various pieces of information provided on a job application
8
Weighted Application Form
These provide information about applicants character, educational history, employment history, & job performance - Tend of be of least value to the employee selection
Used mostly in applications to graduate school certain professional positions and
Background checks are also becoming more widely used for screening, particularly for certain types of jobs (e.g. jobs working with children an other vulnerable populations)
Employee testing is widely carried out in organisations today. Tests measure a wide range of characteristics that are predictive of successful job performance Some of these tests are: Cognitive Ability Tests
Personality Tests Mechanical Ability Tests Motor and Sensory Ability Tests Job Skills and Knowledge Tests
(these, and others will be discussed in detail in later slides)
10
1.
1. Reliability of tests and results
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement instrument or its stability over time Methods of Estimating Reliability Test-retest reliability administer the same test to the same people at two different times and then correlate the scores Parallel form correlate the scores on two different but equivalent version of the same instrument Internal consistency examine how the various items on the instrument inter-correlate
11
a.
b.
c.
2. Validity of tests and results Validity refers to the accuracy of a measurement instrument and its ability to make accurate inferences about a criterion Methods of Estimating Validity a. Content validity the items (questions) on an instrument must measure adequately the characteristics needed to perform the job b. Construct validity the test must measure what it is supposed to measure and yield accurate predictions of job performance c. Criterion-related validity - looks at the relationship between test scores and some measurable criterion for job success
12
3.
Effectiveness use of a combination of tests (Test Battery) Validity generalisation the ability of a screening instrument to predict performance on a job or a situation different from which the test was validated
4.
13
5.
Test Utility contribution to organisational objectives and outcomes The issues of faking purposely distorting ones responses to a test to try to beat the test
6.
14
Individual vs Group Tests Speed vs Power Tests Paper-and-pencil vs performance tests
15
Biodata Instruments Cognitive Ability Tests Mechanical Ability Tests Motor and Sensory Ability Tests Job Skills and Knowledge Tests Personality Tests Honesty & Integrity Tests e.g. Polygraphs, etc. Other Tests Hygiene; Drugs; Medical; Graphology Assessment Centres Hiring Interviews
16
17
1.
A physical education class has three times as many girls as boys. During a class basketball game, the girls average 18 points each, and the class as a whole averages 17 points per person. How many points does each boy score on average?
2. Randolph has 8 ties, 6 pairs of pants, and 4 dress shirts. How many days could he possibly go without wearing the same combination of these three items? 3. John is a mechanic. He makes $8.50 an hour, plus $3 extra for every oil change he performs. Last week he worked 36 hours and performed 17 oil changes. How much money did he make? 4. A box of staples has a length of 6 cm, a width of 7 cm, and a volume of 378 cm cubed. What is the height of the box?
18
19
Sample Personality Inventory
20
21
Tests Formats Individual vs. group tests Paper & pencil vs. performance tests Speed vs. power tests
22
Offer a detailed, structured
evaluation of job applicants using a variety of instruments and techniques. positions selection, promotion, training in assessment centres these are assessment tools that require the performance of tasks that approximate actual work tasks
For high-level managerial
Situational Exercises are common
23
24
Hiring interviews Most commonly used method of selection Two types Experience-based question Situational (futuristic) question
25
Hiring Interviews contd

Effective Interviewing - Use structured approach
Make sure the questions are related to the job Consider using a panel or multiple interviews Develop a scoring or rating system Interview questions should be job related Limit prompting and follow-up questions USE TRAINED INTERVIEWERS
26
Hiring Interviews contd

Important issues to be considered in job interviewing Personal - First impressions (snap judgment) - Halo effect Procedural - No. of interviewers - Time - Questioning the interviewee
27
Move from paper-and-pencil testing to online computer testing
Move towards situational exercises Family of tests but assess only part of the job Problem-solving ability In-basket techniques
28
APA code of professional ethics Test user qualifications Invasion of privacy Confidentiality Retention of records
29
End of Presentation
30
PSYC1002 (PS10C)
Lecturer:Sophia S Morgan
E-mail: sophia.morgan@uwimona.edu,jm
Evaluating Employee Performance
Overview & Learning Expectations

At the end of this lecture you should be able to recall & discuss fully What is a performance appraisal? The performance appraisal process The importance of performance appraisals Objective & subjective performance criteria Methods of rating performance Problems and pitfalls in performance appraisals Guidelines for effective feedback in the performance appraisal process Current & future trends in performance appraisals
What is Performance Appraisal?

The formalised means of assessing worker performance in comparison to certain established organisational standards
Riggio 2013
Performance Appraisal Process

.Acquiring Information
about workers Performance Organising and storing Information about workers Performance behaviours Retrieving and translating stored information to the actual performance appraisal Performance Feedback
Why Performance Appraisals?

For the Worker
Source
of feedback to improve performance for pay increase/positive reinforcement career advancement goal attainment

For the Supervisor:
Make informed decisions (pay increase; firing) Assessment of workers goal attainment Provide constructive feedback Interact with subordinate

For the Organisation: Recognising and motivating workers Validation of personnel selection and placement method Source of information for personal training needs Assessment of productivity of individuals and work units Evaluation of the effectiveness of organisational interventions

For the Organization contd Personnel Training Wage & Salary Administration Placement Promotions Discharge
Measuring Job Performance
Performance Criteria
Performance Criteria measure of job performance or means of determining successful or unsuccessful performance
Performance criteria may be objective or subjective
Objective Performance Criteria These are measures of job performance that are easily quantifiable e.g.
Job Title Student Measure Number of Courses Passed in Examinations
Loans Officer
Number of loans processed per week
Subjective Performance Criteria These are measures of job performance that typically consist of ratings or judgements of performance e.g.
Job Title Branch Manager Software Developer at UWI Measure Increase moral of staff at the branch New Programme for improving student/lecturer interaction
Performance Criteria
Objective Performance Criteria Quantifiable Judgements of Performance
Less
Subjective Performance Criteria
prone to bias and distortion Usually tied to bottom-line assessment of an organisations goals
Objective criteria
Prone
to bias and distortion Not easily tied to bottom-line assessment of organisations goals
Appropriate for Less
may be impossible for some jobs Inappropriate for complex jobs May be costly
complex jobs
Costly
Criterion Concerns
Criterion concerns
Criterion Relevance is the means of appraising performance pertinent to job success? (KSAOs for the job are important here!)
Criterion Contamination Are there identifiable factors that detract the accurate assessment of job effectiveness?
Criterion Concerns Contd
Criterion Deficiency Is the measurement of performance criteria complete? Criterion Usefulness Is the performance criterion usable in appraising a particular job?
Sources of Performance Ratings
Supervisors
appraisal Self Appraisal Peer Appraisal Subordinate Appraisal Customer Appraisal 360-degree Feedback
Methods of Rating Performance

Comparative
Methods
Performance Appraisal Methods involving comparisons of one workers performance against that of another workers performance
- Rankings
- Paired Comparisons - Forced distributions
Methods of Rating Performance

Individual Methods
Performance appriaisl methods that evaluate an employee by himself or herself without explicit reference to other workers
- Graphic rating scales uses predetermined scales to

rate the worker on important dimensions
- Behaviourally anchored rating scales (BARS) uses

rating scales with labels reflecting examples of poor, average and good behavioral incidents
- Behavioural observation scales requires appraisers to

recall how often a worker has been observed performing key work behaviours
- Checklists uses series of statements about the job

performance
- Narratives Open-ended written accounts of a workers
Problems and Pitfalls

Leniency/Severity
errors Leniency
The tendency to give workers very positive performance appraisals
Severity
The tendency to give workers very negative performance appraisals
Central
Tendency Errors The tendency to give mid-point rating in performance appraisals

Halo
Effects overall positive evaluation of a worker based on one known positive characteristic or action.
Recency
Effects Tendency to give greater weight to recent performance and lesser weight to earlier performance

Causal
attribution errors Actor-observer bias
The tendency for observers to overattribute cause to characteristics of the actor and for the actor to overattribute cause to situational characteristics
Personal biases (sex, age, race,
physical characteristics. Etc.)
Improving Performance Appraisals
1.
Improve Performance Appraisal Techniques 2. Train the appraisers 3. Obtain multiple evaluations 4. Appraise the appraisers 5. Conduct performance appraisals regularly
Guidelines for Effective Feedback

Feedback should be descriptive rather than evaluative Feedback should be specific rather than general Feedback should be appropriate, taking into account the needs of the employer, the worker, and the situation Feedback should be directed towards behaviour the worker can do something about or is able to change
Guidelines for Effective Feedback

Feedback
should be well timed. More immediate feedback is usually more effective. Feedback should be honest rather than manipulative or self-serving Feedback should be understood by both parties. If necessary, additional input should be sought to enhance and clarify the feedback process.
Current & Future Trends in Performance Appraisal

The
changing nature of the work & its consequences in performance appraisals eg virtual situations, part time, teams review & revision of performance appraisal procedure
Constant
End of Presentation
TRAINING IN ORGANISATIONS
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1. Define employee training 2. Identify various areas of employee training 3. Identify and discuss the fundamental issues in employee training 4. Outline a model of a successful training programme
What is employee training?

Planned organizational efforts to help employees learn jobrelated skills and other characteristics
Why Train Employees? - Career & Personal Development - Job Enrichment and Satisfaction; - Improve KSAOs - Retention of Valued Employees
Who benefits?
a. Managers/ Supervisors b. Employees c. Organization
Broad areas of Employee Training

New Employee Orientation & Training Continuing education programmers Retirement planning and preparation Career development Diversity and Culture issues Team building
Are there distinctions?
Education
Training
Learning
Training & the Learning Theories

Employee training should be rooted in basic theories of learning!
What are the theories? What are the general assumptions? What area/s do you hope to effect change? How is the theory useful?
Theories (Examples) a. Social Learning Theory b. Cognitive theories of Learning c. Behavioural theories of learning
Training & the Learning Theories

- Social Learning Theory Theory that emphasizes the observational learning of behaviour - Modeling Learning that occurs through the observation and imitation of the behaviour of others - Cognitive theories of Learning Theories that emphasize that humans are information processors
Other important issues to consider for a successful training programme

Trainee readiness the individuals potential for successful training Transfer of training will/can the training be actually applied in the work setting? Training programme structure details of the training programme.
A model of a successful training programme (Riggio)

5
4 3
Implement Training programme Develop and test training materials Evaluate Training programme
2
1
Assess training needs Establish training objectives
Step 1 Assessing the training needs

In what way can/should workers performance be improved?
Different levels of analysis are required - Organizational Analysis - Task analysis - Person analysis
Step 2 Establish the training objectives

Training objectives should specify what the trainee should be able to accomplish on completion of the training programme. Use a SMART approach
Step 2 Establish the training objectives

The SMART Approach
1. Specific Objectives should specify what you want to
achieve from the training
2. Measurable You should be able to measure whether you are meeting the objectives or not.
3. Achievable - Are the objectives you set, achievable and attainable? 4. Realistic Can you realistically achieve the objectives with the resources you have?
5. Time When do you want to achieve the set objectives?
Step 3 Developing & Testing Training Material

It is important to pilot test all training materials Consider the methods you will be using
On-site methods (On-the-job training; apprenticeship; vestibule training; job rotation)
Step 3 Developing & Testing Training Material

- Off-site methods (seminars; audiovisual instruction; behaviour modeling training; simulation techniques; programmed instructions; computer assisted instructions)
Special management training methods (problem solving case study; role playing; management games; conference; action learning; mentoring)
Step 4 Implementation of the Training Programme

Factors to consider in the implementation process - Training readiness; expectations and climate - Preparation of venue, materials and refreshments - Opportunities for feedback
Step 5 Evaluation of the Training Programme

Outline the criteria that indicate the programmes success Develop means for measuring these criteria
Step 5 Evaluation of the Training Programme

Four types of criteria for measuring training programme success: Reaction Criteria Learning Criteria Behavioural Criteria Results Criteria
Can you now design a training programme?
Overview
WORK MOTIVATION: Theories of Work Motivation; Definitions; Elements JOB SATISFACTION: Factors that influence job satisfaction; Increasing job satisfaction and organisational behaviours; Desirable organisational behaviour
WORKER STRESS: Definitions; sources of worker stress; coping strategies
At The End Of This Section on Motivation You Should Be Able To: 1. Fully define the concept of motivation 2. Identify and define the various categories of motivation theories 3. Fully explain at least one theory within each category outlining the elements of the theory and the implications and/or application of the theories for work behaviour 4. Critique the theories of Motivation 5. Discuss the relationship between motivation and performance
What is motivation?
The force that: Energizes Behaviour Directs Behaviour; and Sustains Behaviour
(Steers and Porter 1991)
Theories of Motivation
Needs theories emphasize the role that individual differences play in the interaction among various types of needs and drives to satisfy those needs. Theories include: 1. Maslows Need Hierarchy (Maslow, 1965; 1970)
2. McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory (McClelland 1961; 1975) 2. Alderfers ERG Theory
Behaviour-based theories focus on behavioural outcomes . Theories include: 1. Reinforcement Theory 2. Goal Setting Theory (Locke & Latham; 1984; 1990)
Theories of Motivation
Job design theories the structure and design of jobs are key motivators . Theories include: 1. Herzbergs Two-Factory Theory (Herzberg, 1966)
2. Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham; 1976; 1980)
Rational Theories - view workers as rational beings who rationally assess costs and benefits before taking action. Theories include: 1. Equity Theory (Adams, 1965)
2. Expectancy (VIE) Theory (Vroom, 1964) NB We will focus on the ones highlighted in RED
Needs Theory - Maslow

Maslows need hierarchy Theory - needs that play a role in motivation are classified into five distinct categories ranging from basic human needs to more complex highorder needs

Classification of Needs
SELF ACTUALIZATION
ESTEEM NEEDS
SOCIAL NEEDS
SAFETY NEEDS PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

More Details

IMPLICATION FOR WORK MOTIVATION
Physiological needs: Minimum wage to cover basic necessities; lunch subsidies
Safety Needs: Worker need safe working environment; assurance that jobs are secure and retirement plans

IMPLICATION FOR WORK MOTIVATION
Social Needs: Foster positive interpersonal climate in the workplace Esteem Needs: Recognition for performance and other important contributions Self-Actualization: Provide career development opportunities
Needs Theory-McClelland
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY emphasizes the importance of three needs; achievement, power and affiliation in determining worker motivation.
Need for Achievement Persons with a Need for Achievement (nAch) has a compelling drive to excel and succeed in their jobs
Need for Power People with a need for power (nPow) seeks to direct others and control the activities of others. Need for Affiliation People with a Need for Affiliation (nAff) seeks harmony in their relationships with others. Their desire is to be liked and accepted by others.
IMPLICATION FOR WORK MOTIVATION nAch challenging and attainable goals; feedback
nPow leadership opportunities; status recognition nAff cooperative tasks; positive interpersonal climate
Behaviour Theory-Goal Setting

Goal Setting Theory Locke & Latham (1968, 1984, 1990) This theory explores the cognitive processes that are involved in setting goals and achieving them.

BASIC TENETS 1. Individuals rationally set work-related goals
2. Goals must be clear, specific, challenging, attainable and quantified where possible Feedback is important
3.

Application Management By Objectives (MBO) Peter Drucker (1954) Principles Employees must participate in setting of performance goals Feedback concerning goal attainment must be provided Guideline for improvement must be provided Goals must be realistic The upper levels of management must support the programme Individual, work group and organisational goals must be equally emphasised
Job Design Theory - Herzberg
Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory two factors, motivators and hygiene are important in determining worker satisfaction

Motivators These are elements that are related to
the content of the job. When present, these increase job satisfaction
RESPONSIBILITY GROWTH ON THE JOB
ACHIEVEMENT
ADVANCEMENT CONTENT OF WORK RECOGNITION

Hygiene Factors - These are elements that are
related to the context of the job. The absence of these can create job dissatisfaction
Source: http://www.tutor2u.net/business/people/motivation_theory_herzberg.asp

APPLICATION Job Enrichment a motivational programme that involves redesigning jobs to give workers a greater role in planning, execution and evaluation of their work.

Elements of Job Enrichment Programmes
Increased level of job responsibility Worker autonomy and independence Feedback
Change of task structure - complete job/work process rather than segments of a larger task - challenging task - improve expertise in jobs
Rational - Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory Also known as the VIE Theory VIE Refers to the core components of the theory
Valence the desirability of an outcome to the individual Instrumentality the perceived relationship between the performance of a particular behaviour and the likelihood of receiving a particular outcome Expectancy the perceived relationship between the individuals effort and performance of a behaviour

Factors that Influence Motivation to Perform
1. Desirability of the outcome (Valence) 2. Abilities of the individual to get the job done (Expectancy) 3. Whether performance will lead to expected outcome (Instrumentality)

Implication for Managers
1. Clearly define work outcomes i.e. potential rewards and costs associated with performance 2. Clearly define the relationship between performance and rewards 3. Performance goals should be achievable and reasonable
Motivation & Performance
Is a motivated worker a productive worker?
Motivation & Performance

Other variables may impact the relationship between productivity and motivation: Variables that may directly affect productivity include:
Systems and technology variables Individual differences variables Group Dynamics variables Organizational variables
At The End Of This Section on Job Satisfaction You Should Be Able To: 1. Fully define the concept of job satisfaction 2. Discuss the factors that relate to job satisfaction (Organizational Commitment & Employee Attendance) 3. Fully discuss the various strategies for increasing job satisfaction 4. Discuss the relationship between job satisfaction and performance
What is Job Satisfaction
The positive and negative feelings about ones jobs. It described the level of content a person has with his/her job
Factors that are related to Job Satisfaction
Organizational commitment a workers feelings and attitudes about the entire work organization Employee Attendance - (absenteeism; turnover)
Increasing Job Satisfaction & Organisational Performance
Changes in job structure Change in pay structure Flexible work schedules Benefit programmes Build positive interpersonal work climate
Increasing Job Satisfaction and Organisational Performance
CHANGES IN JOB STRUCTURE Techniques include: 1. Job rotation systematic movement of

workers from one type of task to another. This alleviates boredom and monotony
2. Job enlargement the expansion to jobs

to include additional, more varied work tasks
3. Job enrichment raising the responsibility

associated with a particular job.
CHANGE IN PAY STRUCTURE

Some approaches are:
Skills based pay system paying for knowledge

and skills rather than positions in the organisation Merit pay employees are paid a base rate, and additional pay based on performance Gainsharing a compensation system based on effective group performance Profit sharing all employees receive a small share of the organisations profit
FLEXIBLE WORK SCHEDULES

Compressed work week Decreasing the
number of days worked per week and increasing the number of hours per day
Flextime employee is committed to working

a specified number of hours per week, but has flexibility in relation to the beginning and ending of time for each day
BENEFIT PROGRAMMES These can include: Flexible working schedules A variety of health care options Retirement plans Profit sharing Career development programmes cafeteria style plans
BUILD POSITIVE INTERPERSONAL WORK CLIMATE Cooperative vs competitive work structure Social activities Staff retreats
Desirable Organisational Behaviours
ORGANISATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOURS Helping behaviour Sportsmanship Organisational Loyalty Organisational Compliance Individual Initiative Civic Virtue Self-development
The Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Organisational Performance
Mixed research finding on the relationship between the two variables Porter-Lawler Model (1968) Provide some explanation - Job satisfaction is not directly linked to performance but there is some correlation
At The End Of This Section on Worker Stress You Should Be Able To: 1. Fully define the concept of stress 2. Distinguish between stress in general and worker stress 3. Identify and discuss the sources of worker stress 4. Identity and discuss the effects of worker stress 5. Outline and discuss the strategies for coping with worker stress
What is Stress?
The psychological reactions to events that are perceived to be threatening or taxing (Riggio) That which results when person/environmental transactions lead the individual to perceive a discrepancy between the demand of a situation and the resources of the persons biological, psychological or social systems (Sarofino; 1998)
What is Stress?
Perception that the demand of a current situation (person/environmental transaction) either exceeds or is less than the resources (biological, psychological, social systems) you have, that can aid in your dealing of the situation.
Worker Stress
Worker stress results from the lack of a fit between a persons skills and abilities and the demands of the job and the workplace (French 1974; 1982) Stress results from the workers perception that a certain environmental event is a threat or a challenge (Lazarus 1984; 1991)
Sources of Worker Stress

Situational External Environment Dispositional Internal Environment
Sources of Worker Stress

Organisational Sources Work Overload occurs when a job requires excessive speed, output or concentration Underutilisation occurs when workers feel that their knowledge, skills or energy are not being fully utilised Job Ambiguity results from a lack of clearly defined jobs and work tasks Lack of Control Feeling of having little input or effect on the job
Effects of Worker Stress

Ill health More than one-half of physical illnesses are stress-related (Riggio) Adverse impact on psychological wellbeing Adverse impact on work outcomes absenteeism; turnover; poor performance; etc.
Effects of Worker Stress

JOB BURNOUT A syndrome resulting from prolonged exposure to work stress that leads to withdrawal from the organization Phases 1. Emotional exhaustion 2. Depersonalisation 3. Low personal accomplishments
Coping with Worker Stress

What does coping involves? The individuals cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage (reduce, minimize, master, or tolerate) the internal and external demands of the environment transaction that is appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of that individual (Lazarus & Folkman; 1984)

ORGANISATIONAL COPING STRATEGIES Improve the person-job-fit careful screening and selection Improve employee training and orientation programmes Increase employees sense of control greater participation; more responsibilities; increased autonomy

ORGANISATIONAL COPING STRATEGIES contd Eliminate punitive management Remove hazardous or dangerous working conditions Provide a supportive team-oriented work environment Improve communication

INDIVIDUAL COPING STRATEGIES
Diet and exercise Relaxation Time management Removing oneself from the situation temporarily or permanently Cognitive restructuring
PS10C
END OF PRESENTATION
Outline/Content
Communication Group Processes - Norms - Cohesiveness - Roles - Conflict - Decision Making Leadership, Influence & Power Organizational Structure, Culture and Developmen
Communication in the Workplace
Defining Communication
The transmission of information from one
person or group to another person or group (Riggio). It involves:
The sender (or encoder) is the originator of the communication; the receiver (decoder) is the recipient Encoding is the process of preparing a message for transmission by putting it into some kind of code (language or other form) The channel is the vehicle through which a message flows from sender to receiver
Defining Communication
Communication involves:
Decoding is the processing of translating a message so that it can be understood When the receiver has decoded the message, he/she responds with feedback, an acknowledgement that a message has been received and understood Different communication channels have various advantages and disadvantages Noise involves any physical or psychological distractions that disrupt the effective flow of communication
Group Processes Model

The Communication Process Model
NOISE
Message Message
Sender (Encoder)
Channel
Receiver (Decoder)
FEEDBACK
Communication Channels
Advantages
Communication Channels
Disadvantages
Telephone
Face-to-Face
Meetings Memorandum Formal Report Teleconference Electronic Mail Web-based
Communication Process Research

Research on the Source Factors Research on the Channel Factors
Research on the Audience Factors

Source factors are characteristics of the sender that influence the effectiveness of a communication
Source factors include organizational status, credibility, and encoding skills
Channel factors are characteristics of the vehicle of transmission of a message that affect communication
Semantic problems are common channel factors that can lead to communication breakdown Semantic problems may arise through the use of jargon, special language developed in connection with certain jobs Channel selection can also influence job outcomes like job satisfaction (e.g., the frequency of face-to-face interactions with supervisors)

Audience factors are characteristics of the receiver that influence effectiveness of communication
Audience ability and attention are crucial in delivering effective messages The receivers relationship to the sender (e.g., superior or subordinate) can also affect communication Decoding skills of the receiver, including listening skills, may also affect communication effectiveness
Non Verbal Communication

Nonverbal Communication messages sent and received through means other than spoken words.
Uses of Non Verbal Communication

Sender Two important functions
1. Substitutes for verbal communication; 2. To enhance verbal messages; to convey underlying feelings
NB. Nonverbal communication can result in the Pygmalion effect, when a sender communicates expectations to a receiver, thereby influencing his/her behavior
Receivers -
Two important functions: 1. They provide additional information (i.e., when communication is limited or when the receiver mistrusts the verbal message) 2. They are used in person perception, or making judgments about a persons attitudes, personality, and competence
Flow of Communication in Workplace

Downward Communication messages flowing downward in an organizational hierarchy, usually from superiors to subordinates Upward Communication messages flowing upward in an organizational hierarchy, usually taking the form of feedback Lateral Communication messages between two parties at the same level in the organization
Flow of Communication in Workplace

Communication Barriers
Filtering The selective presentation of the content of a communication. Filtering includes the
MUM effect, when a message is not forwarded to others because it involves bad news
Censoring The intentional omission of information from a message or a decision not to transmit particular information Exaggeration The distortion of information by elaborating, overestimating, or minimizing parts of a message
Communication Networks in the Workplace

Communication networks are systematic lines of communication among various senders and receivers
1. Centralized Information is funneled directly through certain members / to and from one person 2. Decentralized All available information is distributed to all the group members. Messages can originate at any point and need not be directed through specific group members
Communication Networks
Centralized networks include:
The chain, a status hierarchy where a message originates at the bottom or top of the chain and works its way up or down through the different links The Y, a hierarchy representing different levels of status, with the last link involving communication to more than one person The wheel involves two status levels: a higher-status member and lower-level members; the higher-status member is the hub, through which all communication must pass (there is no direct communication between lower-status members)

.
Centralized Communication Networks Within Organizations
Chain
Wheel
Decentralized networks include:
The circle - communication occurs between members who are immediately accessible to each other (e.g., workers side by side on an assembly line). Communication within a circle network is quick, but it can be difficult to trace the source of a message because any member can initiate communication The all-channel network - There is complete freedom among communication links (each member can communicate with any or all other members) Examples include boards of directors, task forces, employees working in teams. Communication is rapid with maximum opportunity for feedback
Group Processes - Communication

Decentralized Communication Networks Within Organizations
Circle
All-Channel
Factors that determine how the networks develop
Members perception of each other Previously known information of others Information provided by the individual himself/herself Observed behaviour Organisations structure and culture

Which Network is Best? It depends on:
Types of tasks centralized networks are preferable for simple task; (faster; fewer errors) decentralized networks are better for more complex & creative tasks Level of cohesion necessary/desired decentralized networks encourage interaction and foster cohesion among members (Hare 1976)
Job Satisfaction - Because of communication restrictions, noncentral workers in centralized networks tend to have lower job satisfaction
Lines of Communication in the Workplace

Lines of organizational communication can be either formal or informal
An organigram is a diagram of an organizations hierarchy representing the formal lines of communication The grapevine is the informal communication network in an organization A sociogram is a diagram of the informal lines of communication among organizational members
Lines of Communication in the Workplace

Formal vs Informal Communication
Organization Chart Grapevine
Factors that Determine Communication Links

Three factors determine the pattern of communication links that form the grapevine (Baird, 1977): Friendship determines who communication with whom Usage means that people who are communication links in formal lines of communication are also likely to be links within the grapevine The grapevine often develops because it is more efficient for sharing information than formal lines
Factors that Determine Communication Links

The grapevine is vital for maintaining social relationships among employees, encouraging unity and commitment to the work group Rumors, or information that is presented as fact, but which actually may not be true, may occur within the grapevine False rumors usually result when organizational members lack information about a topic that concerns them
Workplace Communication & Work Outcomes

Work Productivity/Job Performance Job Satisfaction Absenteeism Turnover rates

Research indicates that more communication in organizations, particularly lateral communication within work groups, and better supervisor communication skills are related to employee performance (Snyder & Morris, 1984) Other research indicates that employees are more productive when they are satisfied with the amount and quality of organizational communication (Clampitt & Downs, 1993)

Lower-level workers have higher job satisfaction with greater amounts of upward organizational communication (Koehler et al., 1981) Employees who receive a great deal of information about the organization through downward communication have higher job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Ng et al., 2006) Serving as a communication source is also linked to higher job satisfaction (Muchinsky, 1977)

Keeping downward and upward communication flowing is considered a crucial best practice when effectively managing major organizational changes like downsizing (Marks & Mirvis, 2010) Open communication among employees may result in a snowball effect, where employees quit their jobs in clusters
NEW LECTURE
GROUP PROCESSES Leadership, Influence & Power Organizational Structure, Culture and Development
Overview
Work Group & Organizational Issue
Defining Work Groups Characteristics of Work Groups Group Processes
- Norms
- Cohesiveness - Roles - Conflict - Decision Making
Leadership, Influence & Power Organizational Structure, Culture and Development
Defining Work Groups

Two or more individuals engaged in social interaction for the purpose of achieving some goal (Riggio)
Two or more persons who interact with each other, share common goals and are somehow interdependent and recognize that they belong to a group. (Baron and Bryne 1997
Some Characteristics of Work Groups

Task Activities - what ever furthers or is
concerned with furthering the propose or goal of the group
Maintenance Activities concerned with

establishing and maintaining a positive interpersonal climate in the group
Cohesion the strength of bonds linking group

members to one another and to their group (unity, oneness; solidarity)
Norms - Definition
Rules that groups adopt governing appropriate and in appropriate behavior (Riggio) A groups common beliefs regarding appropriate behaviour, attitudes and perceptions for the members Johnson and Johnson (1997)
Norms & Organizational Socialization

Organizational socialization is the process by which new employees learn group roles and norms and develop specific work skills and abilities
Organizational socialization occurs in stages:
Anticipatory socialization: new employees develop expectations concerning the job and assess their fit in the organization Accommodation: new employees learn about work group roles and norms Role management: newcomers transition to regular members, mastering required tasks and roles
Conformity Adhering to Norms

Conformity is the process of adhering to group norms
Conformity is often very strong and helps maintain order and uniformity in group behavior Extreme and repeated norm violation results in ostracism from the group Members who have more power (e.g., the group leader) or who usually conform to norms are more likely to be successful in nonconforming behavior
Purpose of Norms
How norms contribute to the effective functioning of the organization Survival of the organization Facilitate the achievement of the organizations goals Increase predictability of organizational members behaviours Provide group/organization identity
1. 2.
3.
4.
Group Processes Cohesiveness

Cohesiveness is the degree of attraction among group members
Cohesiveness increases member satisfaction, but only increases productivity when it is work-related Cohesiveness increases when group members have equal status Cohesiveness increases with increased stability of group membership Greater similarity of group members increases cohesiveness The we-they feeling is cohesiveness created by the existence of a threat to the group
Group Processes - Roles

Roles Patterns of behaviour that are adapted based on expectations about the functions of a position
role conflict results when the expectations associated with

one role interferes with the expectations concerning another role
role ambiguity - a sense of uncertainty over the

requirements of a particular role.
role differentiation - the process by which group

members learn to perform various roles
role expectation beliefs concerning the responsibilities

and requirements of a particular role.
Functions of Roles
Group task roles These serve to get the job done (e.g., leader, evaluator, coordinator)
Group building and maintenance roles - These server to maintain/build personal relationships among members (e.g., encourager, compromiser)
Self-centered roles - These serve to satisfy personal interests/idiosyncrasies rather than group goals (e.g., recognition seeker, aggressor) (Benne & Sheats, 1948)
Conflict - Definition
Conflict is behavior by a person or group intended to inhibit the attainment of goals by another person or group
Conflict occurs naturally within groups The key element in defining conflict is that conflicting parties have incompatible goals While conflict can have negative consequences, it can be constructive and lead to positive outcomes for work groups and organizations (Wall & Callister, 1995)
Conflict & Effective Group Functioning

Outcomes of conflict in organizations can be positive:
Conflict may energize group members, increasing work motivation Conflict can stimulate creativity and innovation Conflict can improve the quality of decisionmaking Conflict can increase organizational communication
Conflict & Effective Group Functioning

Outcomes of conflict in organizations can be negative:
Conflict can reduce group cohesiveness Conflict can hamper effective communication Conflict can lower group member satisfaction Conflict can cause group goals to become secondary to infighting
Levels of Conflict
Intra-individual the individual is faced with two sets of incompatible goals Inter-individual conflict between two persons striving to attain their own goals Intra-group a person or faction within a group attempts to achieve a goal that interferes with the groups goal
Levels of Conflict
Inter-group conflict between two groups trying to attain their respective goals Inter-organizational conflict between organizations with incompatible goals
Conflict Management Strategies

Dominating: persisting in conflict until one party attains personal goals at the expense of the others Accommodation: making a sacrifice to resolve conflict Compromise: both parties give up some part of their goals Collaboration: parties cooperate to reach a solution that satisfies both Avoidance: withdrawing from or avoiding the conflict situation Superordinate goal: a goal that two conflicting parties are willing to work to attain
Decision Making
The process of choosing among various sources of action. Important organizational decisions include: - Establishing group goals - Selecting new members - Determining standards for appropriate behaviour
Decision Making Methods

Autocratic A process by which group decisions
are made by the leader alone, based on information the leader possesses.
Democratic - A strategy by which decisions are made by

the group members based on majority rule voting
Consensus Decision making based on 100 percent

member agreement
Group Processes Decision Making

Advantages and disadvantages of decision making
Advantages
1. Broad knowledge base 2. Decisions are accepted by members 3. Decisions are highly critiqued
Disadvantages
1. Slow and unless properly organized can be a waste of time 2. Creates intra group conflict 3. Potential for groupthink and group polarisation
Group Processes Decision Making

Issues and problems with decision making 1. Groupthink A syndrome characterized by a
concurrence-seeking tendency that overrides the ability of a cohesive group to make critical decisions
2. Group Polarization -
The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than those made by individuals.
NEW LECTURE
Leadership, Influence and Power

Leadership the ability to guide a group towards the achievement of
goals
Influence
the ability to use social forces to affect the behavior of others
Power
the use of some aspect of work relationship to compel another to perform a certain action despite resistance
Organizational Politics Self serving actions designed to affect the behaviour of

others to achieve personal goals

Leadership Theories
Trait attempts to discover the traits shared by all effective leaders Behavioural These focus on behaviours common to leaders

Contingency These look at the interaction of both the leader and the situation Charismatic These state that leaders possess some exceptional characteristics that cause followers to be loyal and inspired

Influence Tactics
Assertiveness Ingratiation Rationality Sanctions Exchanges Upward Appeals Blocking Coalitions
Group Processes - Leadership, Influence and Power

Sources of Power
Organizational power is derived from position occupied
Individual power is derived from personal characteristics that are valued by the organization
NEW LECTURE
Organizational Structure, Culture and Development

Organizational Structure the arrangement of positions in an organization and the authority and responsibility relationships among them (Riggio)

Dimensions of Organizational Structure
Traditional vs Non-Traditional Functional vs Divisional Centralized vs Decentralized

Organisational Culture
shared values, beliefs, assumptions and patterns of behaviour within an organisation (Riggio)

Influence of Organisational Culture
Five dimensions of societal/national culture
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Individualism vs Collectivism Power Distance Masculinity vs Femininity Uncertainty Avoidance Long-term vs Short-term orientation

Organisational Development
the process of assisting organisations in preparing for or managing change (Riggio)

Organisational Development (OD) Techniques
Survey Feedback T-Groups Process Consultation Management by Objectives Quality Circles Team Building

Survey Feedback An OD Consultant develops a survey instrument and collects data in order to ascertain worker attitude on a number of important work-related issues.

T-Groups Also known as Sensitivity Training Groups, this technique is involves unstructured meetings of small groups of staff members.
The meetings provide participants with an opportunity to learn about themselves, their impact on others and how to function more effectively while working with others in the organisation

Process Consultation A philosophy of helping, and a technology or methodology of how to be helpful Schein 1999 The OD Consultant helps the Organisation to diagnose and study its problems objectively and learn how to solve them

How Process Consultation Works
It may be presumed that the organization/client is unable to define the problem and needs special help in diagnosing their problems. The OD specialist is not fully equipped to solve the problem because he/she cannot learn enough about the culture of an organization to suggest reliable new courses of action.

How Process Consultation Works Contd
Unless the organization/client learns to identify and acknowledge the problem, there may be a sense of unwillingness to implement the solution. Also, the organization/client will not learn how to effectively address the problems if they reappear. Decision making about the solutions must be made by the organization/client.

Management by Objectives (MBO)
A goal setting technique in which supervisors and subordinates jointly set performance goals. At the end of the goal period, the performance is evaluated and new goals are set (Riggio).

MBO Principles
Employees must participate in setting of performance goals Feedback concerning goal attainment must be provided Guideline for improvement must be provided Goals must be realistic The upper levels of management must support the programme Individual, work group and organisational goals must be equally emphasised

Quality Circles
Small groups of workers from the same work area meet regularly to identify, analyse and solve work task problems

Team Building
In this technique, work teams discuss how to improve team performance by analysing group interaction The OD consultant participates as a moderator and allows the team to discuss and solve its problems This process allows each team member an opportunity to present personal views and suggestion for improvement of team performance

Rules for making high-level decision-making work teams effective (Galbraith, 1973, 1977)
1. Team member should perceive their participation as important and personally rewarding 2. The work team should include some persons of organisational power who will be responsible for helping to implement any decisions made by the team

Rules for making high-level decision-making work teams effective (Galbraith, 1973, 1977) Contd
3. Team members should have knowledge and information relevant to the decision (to be taken) 4. Team members should have the authority to commit their departments to the decision 5. Team members should represent and inform non-team members

Rules for making high-level decision-making work teams effective (Galbraith, 1973, 1977) Contd 6. Influence of team members on decisions should be based on expertise 7. Work team conflict should be managed to maximise the problem solving process 8. Team members should have good interpersonal skills and adequate leadership abilities.

IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS FOR APPLICATION OF RULES 1. Positive interdependence - (Weinstead of ME)
Positive interdependence exists when individuals in a group collectively perceives that each is linked with the other in such a way so that one member cannot succeed unless the others succeed as well. Each group member therefore must coordinate his/her efforts with the efforts of others to ensure the groups success.

2.
a.
b. IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS FOR APPLICATION OF RULES Group Processing - This is a regular part of the teams activities/meeting which involves reflecting on a session in order to:
Discuss what member actions were helpful and those not helpful in relation to achieving the groups goals;
Discussion what member actions were helpful in maintaining effective working relationships;
c.
Making decisions about what actions to continue or change

IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS FOR APPLICATION OF RULES
3. Promotive Interaction - Promotive interaction involves individuals encouraging and facilitating each others efforts to complete tasks and achieve in order to reach the groups goals.
End of Presentation

I-O Psychology 1-9 Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

I-O Psychology 1-9 Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INTRODUCTION TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

Lecture 1 Definitions & History

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan 3

What is I/O Psychology?

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

What is I/O Psychology?

- The study of work behaviour is a

multidisciplinary, cooperative venture I/O Psychology is an applied field.

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

Objectives of I/O Psychology

What does an I/O Psychologist do?

Resource Development/ Management

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

What does an I/O Psychologist do?

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

What does an I/O Psychologist do?

Checkout this local consultancy firm: http://www.ltsemaj.com/

What does an I/O Psychologist do?

(Secondary, Undergraduate; Post Graduate levels)

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

What does an I/O Psychologist do?

Employee Recruitment & Selection

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

Hugh Munsterberg (1863 1916)

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

Elton Mayo (1880 1949)

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

History/Background of I/O Psychology

1. I/O Psychology during World War I

History/Background of I/O Psychology

Studies (Elton Mayo)

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

History/Background of I/O Psychology

History/Background of I/O Psychology

- Holistic approach to employee

Overlap with related fields (HRM/HRD,

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

CURRENT ISSUES AND FEATURES THAT POSE CHALLENGES TO ORGANISATIONS

Change and Adaptation

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

Globalization & Competitiveness

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

- Younger vs Older Employees Race/Class/colour issues Gender issues

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

Characteristics of Different Generations

Great Depression World Wars

Post war Prosperity

Wisdom Experience Persistence Technology skills

Characteristics of Different Generations

Family Patriotism Directive Take charge Do whats right

Strategies For Managing

Research In I/O Psychology

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

Introduction to I/O Psychology

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

Time & Motion Studies

Lecturer: Sophia S. Morgan

What is Job Analysis?