OBJECTIVE To understand the basic concepts of different types of electrical machines and their performance.

ce. To study the different methods of starting D.C motors and induction motors. To study the conventional and solid-state drives. 9

DRIVE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Mechanical characteristics Speed-Torque characteristics of various types of load and drive motors Bra ing of !lectrical motors DC motors" Shunt# series and compound - single phase and three phase induction motors. STARTING METHODS 8

Types of D.C Motor starters Typical control circuits for shunt and series motors Three phase squirrel cage and slip ring induction motors. CONVENTIONAL AND SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL OF D.C. DRIVES 10

Speed control of DC series and shunt motors $rmature and field control# %ard-&eonard control system - 'sing controlled rectifiers and DC choppers applications. CONVENTIONAL AND SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL OF A.C. DRIVES 10

Speed control of three phase induction motor (oltage control# voltage ) frequency control# slip po*er recovery scheme 'sing inverters and $C voltage regulators applications.

UNIT-I INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL DRIVES

Drives are employed for systems that require motion control e.g. transportation system# fans# +obots# pumps# machine tools# etc. ,rime movers are required in drive systems to provide the
Sources" di esel engines# petrol engines# hydraulic motors# electric motors etc.

movement or motion and energy that is used to provide the motion can come from various Drives that use electric motors as the prime movers are no*n as electrical drives There are several advantages of electrical drives" a. -le.ible control characteristic This is particularly true *hen po*er electronic Converters are employed *here the dynamic and steady state characteristics of the motor can be controlled by controlling the applied voltage or current. b. $vailable in *ide range of speed# torque and po*er c. /igh efficiency# lo*er noi se# lo* maintenance requirements and cleaner operation d. !lectric energy is easy to be transported. $ typical conventional electric drive system for variable speed application employing multimachine system is sho*n in -igure 0. The systems are obviously bul y# e.pensive# and infle.ible and require regular maintenance. 1n the past# induction and synchronous machines *ere used for constant speed applications this *as mainly because of the unavailability of variable frequency supply.

%ith the advancement of po*er electronics# microprocessors and digital electronics# typical electric drive systems no*adays are becoming more compact# efficient# cheaper and versatile this is sho*n in -igure 2. The voltage and current applied to the motor can be changed at *ill by employing po*er electronic converters. $C motor is no longer limited to application *here 3nly $C source is available# ho*ever# it can also be used *hen the po*er source available is DC or vice versa

$n electric drive is multi-disciplinary field. (arious research areas can be sub-divided from electric drives as sho*n in -igure 4.

COM PONENTS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES The main components of a modern electrical drive are the motors# po*er processor# control unit and electrical source. These are briefly discussed belo* a5 Motors Motors obtain po*er from electrical sources. They convert energy from electrical to mechanical - therefore can be regarded as energy converters. 1n bra ing mode# the flo* of po*er is reversed. Depending upon the type of po*er converters used# it is also possible for the po*er to be fed bac to the sources rather than dissipated as heat

There are several types of motors used in electric drives choice of type used depends on applications# cost# environmental factors and also the type of sources available.. Broadly# they can be classified as either DC or $C motors they can be classified as either DC or $C motors" DC motors 6*ound or permanent magnet5 $C motors 1nduction motors squirrel cage# *ound rotor Synchronous

motors *ound field# permanent magnet Brushless DC motor require po*er electronic converters Stepper motors require po*er electronic converters Synchronous reluctance motors or s*itched reluctance motor require po*er electronic converters

b5 ,o*er processor or po*er modulator Since the electrical sources are normally uncontrollable# it is therefore necessary to be able to control the flo* of po*er to the motor this i s achieved using po*er processor or po*er modulator. %ith controllable sources# the motor can be reversed# bra e or can be operated *ith variable speed. Conventional methods used# for e.ample# variable impedance or relays# to shape the voltage or current that is supplied to the motor these methods ho*ever are infle.ible and inefficient. Modern electric drives normally used po*er electronic converters to shape the desired voltage or current supplied to the motor. 1n other *ords# the characteristic of the motors can be changed at *ill. ,o*er electronic converters have several advantages over classical methods of po*er conversion# such as 05 More efficient since ideally no losses occur in po*er electronic converters 25 -le.ible voltage and current can be shaped by simply controlling s*itching functions of the po*er converter. 45 Compact smaller# compact and higher ratings solidstate po*er electronic devices are continuously being developed the prices are getting cheaper Converters are used to convert and possibly regulate 6i.e. using closed-loop control5 the available sources to sui t the load i.e. motors. These converters are efficient because the s*itches operate in either cut-off or saturation modes Several conversions are possible

b5Control 'nit The comple.ity of the control unit depends on the desired drive performance and the type of motors used. $ controller can be as simple as fe* op-amps and)or a fe* digital 1Cs# or it can be as comple. as the combinations of several $S1Cs and digital signal processors 6DS,s5. The types of the main controllers can be $nalog - This is noisy# infle.ible. /o*ever analog circuit ideally has infinite band*idth. Digital immune to noise# configurable. The band*idth is obviously smaller than the

analog controller7s depends on sampling frequency

8 DS,)microprocessor fle.ible# lo*er band*idth compared to above. DS,s perform faster operation than microprocessors 6multiplication in single cycle5. %ith DS,)microprocessor.# comple. estimations and observers can be easily implemented. d5 Source !lectrical sources or po*er supplies provide the energy to the electrical motors. -or high efficiency operation# the po*er obtained from the electrical sources need to be regulated using po*er electronic converters ,o*er sources can be of $C or D C in nature and normally are uncontrollable# i.e. their magnitudes or frequencies are fi.ed or depend on the sources of energy such as solar or *ind. $C source can be either three-phase or single-phase9 4-phase sources are normally for high po*er applications There can be several factors that affect the selection of different configuration of electrical drive system such as a5 Torque and speed profile - determine the ratings of converters and the quadrant of operation required. b5 Capital and running cost Drive systems *ill vary in terms of start-up cost and running cost# e.g. maintenance c5 c5 Space and *eight restrictions d5 !nvironment and location

3. Selec !"# $ D%!&e 3ften drive selection is straight for*ard# as a motor is already installed and the speed range requirement is not e.cessive. /o*ever# *hen a drive system is selected from first principles# careful consideration may avoid problems in installation and operation# and may also save significant cost. 3.1 O&e%$ll C'"(!)e%$ !'"(. Chec the Current rating of the inverter and the motor. ,o*er rating is only a rough guide Chec that you have selected the correct operating voltage. 24:( three phase input M1C+3M$ST!+s *ill operate *ith single or three phase inputs9 M1D1M$ST!+s *ill operate *ith three phase only. Single phase input units can be more cost effective in some cases# but note that 24:( units *ill be damaged if operated at ;::(. Chec the speed range you require. 3peration above normal supply frequency 6<: or =:/>5 is usually only possible at reduced po*er. 3peration at lo* frequency and high torque can cause the motor to overheat due to lac of cooling Synchronous motors require de-rating# typically by 2 -4 times. This is because the power factor, and hence the current, can be very high at low frequency. Chec overloads performance. The inverter *ill limit current to 0<: or 2:: ? of full current very quic ly - a standard# fi.ed speed motor *ill tolerate these overloads. Do you need to stop quic ly@ 1f so# consider using a bra ing resistor 6bra ing unit on M1D1M$ST!+s5 to absorb the energy.

8 Do you need to operate *ith cables longer than <:m# or screened or armoured cables longer than 2<m@ 1f so# it may be necessary to de-rate# or fit a cho e to compensate for the cable capacitance. 3.* M' '% l!+! $ !'"( For more information concerning calculation of Power requirements, Torque, and Moment of Inertia, see later. The motor speed is determined mainly by the applied frequency. The motor slo*s do*n a little as the load increases and the slip increases. 1f the load is too great the motor *ill e.ceed the ma.imum torque and stall or Apull out. Most motors and inverters *ill operate at 0<:? load

Thermal considerations
The losses in the machines contribute to the temperature increase in the machine. The various parts of the machine use different type of insulation materials *hich have different temperature limits. ,articularly important is the insulation used for the *indings *hich give rise to the different classes of machines. $llo*able po*er losses are higher for materials *hich can *ithstand higher temperature *hich translates to higher costs. Three main cause of po*er losses are" Conductor losses " !.ist in the *indings# cables# brushes# slip rings# commutator# and etc. Core losses" Mainly due to eddy current and hysteresis losses -riction and *indage losses" Mainly due to ball bearings# brushes# ventilation losses The constructions of the machines are very comple.9 normally built from various types of materials 6heterogeneous5 *ith comple. geometrical shapes. To e.actly predict the heat flo* and hence the temperature distribution is e.tremely difficult. Based on the assumptions that the temperature limits of all parts does not e.ceed the temperature limits under certain operating conditions# the motors can therefore adequately modeled as homogeneous bodies. 3bviously# this assumption cannot determine the specific internal thermal conditions for the motors

&et us assume that a homogeneous body sho*n in -igure 02 represents a motor *hich has a thermal capacity C. The input po*er# *hich is the losses incurred in the motor# is represented by p0 *hereas the output po*er# *hich is the po*er released as heat by convection# is represented by p2. The output po*er due to radiation is assumed negligible because of the lo* operating temperature and bac radiation. 'nder a steady state condition# the input po*er equals the output po*er9 this is *hen the steady state temperature is reached. The equation describing the po*er balance is given by

The heat dissipated by convection is given by *here is the coefficient of heat transfer 1f *e let equation 6025 can be *ritten as

*here is the thermal time constant. %ith p0 from : to ph at tB:# the solution for

and a step change in the po*er input is

$t steady state# C During cooling# i.e. *hen heat is removed at tB:# the temperature of the body decays to the ambient temperature.

1f the thermal time constant is large# a temporary overload is therefore possible *ithout e.ceeding the temperature limits. Three typical modes of operation are" - Continuous duty - Short time intermittent duty - ,eriodic intermittent dutyC

Ratings of converters and motors

1n order to accelerate to a given reference value# the motor torque has to be larger than the load torque. $ccording to 605# the difference bet*een T0 and Te determines ho* fast the angular acceleration is. -or e.ample# the speed and torque responses for a closedloop speed control DC drive *ith t*o different torque limit setting 60: Dm and 0< Dm5 is sho*n in -igure E. The higher the torque during the speed transient# the faster is the speed gets to its reference

1n most cases# the torque during this transient condition can be up to 4 times the rated torque of the motor and for servo motor# it can be as high as F to 0: times the rated value. This momentary high torque is possible due to the large thermal capacity of the motor *ith suitable insulators used for the *inding. The converter# *hich conducts the motor current# must be able to sustain this condition. /o*ever since the thermal capacity of the converter is small# the current cannot be higher than its rated value. Consequently# the current rating of the converter is normally set to equal the ma.imum allo*able motor current and this can be as high as the 4 times the motor rated current. The ma.imum allo*able torque during transient of a drive system is determined by the current rating of the converter used *hereas the continuous torque limit depends on the current rating of the motor. The operating area of a ;-quadrant motor drive is sho*n in -igure F. The converter is normally protected from the over-current condition by the current limiter mechanism *ithin the converter system# *hich means that sustained 3verloads on the motor have to be protected by an additional thermal protection mechanism. $bove the base speed Gb# the toque is limited by the ma.imum allo*able po*er# *hich depends on *hether the transient or continuous torque limit is considered. The speed limit basically depends on the mechanical limitation of the motor.

-ig. &imits for torque# speed and po*er for drive system

Steady-state stability
The motor *ill operate at the steady-state speed 6point *here T0 B Te5 provided that the speed is of stable equilibrium. The stable equilibrium speed is investigated using steadystate torque- speed characteristics of the load and motor. $ disturbance in any part of the drive *ill result in a speed to depart from the steady state speed. /o*ever# if the steadystate speed is of stable equilibrium# the speed *ill return to the stable equilibrium speed. 3n the other hand# if the speed i s not of the stable equilibrium# the disturbance *ill results in the speed to drift a*ay from the equilibrium speed. 1t can be sho*n that the condition for stable equilibrium is"

UNIT-3,T'%./e (0ee) c1$%$c e%!( !c( '2 $ (1/" +' '%3

$ constant applied voltage ( is assumed across the armature. $s the armature current 1a# varies the armature drop varies proportionally and one can plot the variation of the induced emf !. The mmf of the field is assumed to be constant. The flu. inside the machine ho*ever slightly falls due to the effect of saturation and due to armature reaction. The variation of these parameters is sho*n in -ig. Hno*ing the value of ! and flu. one can determine the value of the speed. $lso no*ing the armature current and the flu.# the value of the torque is found out. This procedure is repeated for different values of the assumed armature currents and the values are plotted as in -ig. 6a5. -rom these graphs# a graph indicating speed as a function of torque or the torque-speed characteristics is plotted -ig. 6b56i5. $s seen from the figure the fall in the flu. due to load increases the speed due to the fact that the induced emf depends on the product of speed and flu.. Thus the speed of the machine remains more or less constant *ith load. %ith highly saturated machines

the on-load speed may even slightly increase at over load conditions. This effect gets more pronounced if the machine is designed to have its normal field ampere turns much less than the armature ampere turns. This type of e.ternal characteristics introduces instability during operation -ig. 6b56ii5 and hence must be avoided. This may be simply achieved by providing a series stability *inding *hich aids the shunt field mmf. L'$) c1$%$c e%!( !c( '2 $ (e%!e( +' '% -ollo*ing the procedure described earlier under shunt motor# the torque speed Characteristics of a series motor can also be determined. The armature current also happens to be the e.citation current of the series field and hence the flu. variation resembles the magneti>ation curve of the machine. $t large value of the armature currents the useful flu. *ould be less than the no-load magneti>ation curve for the machine. Similarly for small values of the load currents the torque varies as a square of the armature currents as the flu. is proportional to armature current in this region. $s the magnetic circuit becomes more and more saturated the torque becomes proportional to 1a as flu. variation becomes small. -ig. 6a5 sho*s the variation of !0# flu.# torque and speed follo*ing the above procedure from *hich the torque-speed characteristics of the series motor for a given applied voltage ( can be plotted as sho*n in -ig.6b5 The initial portion of this torquespeed curve is seen to be a rectangular hyperbola and the final portion is nearly a straight line. The speed under light load conditions is many times more than the rated speed of the

motor. Such high speeds are unsafe# as the centrifugal forces acting on the armature and

commutator can destroy them giving rise to a catastrophic brea do*n. /ence series motors are not recommended for use *here there is a possibility of the load becoming >ero. 1n order to safeguard the motor and personnel# in the modern machines# a I*ea I shunt field is provided

on series motors to ensure a definite# though small# value of flu. even *hen the armature current is nearly >ero. This *ay the no-load speed is limited to a safe ma.imum speed. 1t is needless to say# this field should be connected so as to aid the series field.

Load characteristics of a compound motor

T*o situations arise in the case of compound motors. The mmf of the shunt field and series field may oppose each other or they may aid each other. The first configuration is called differential compounding and is rarely used. They lead to unstable operation of the machine unless the armature mmf is small and there is no magnetic saturation. This mode may sometimes result due to the motoring operation of a level-compounded generator# say by the failure of the prime mover. $lso# differential compounding may result in large negative mmf under overload)starting condition and the machine may start in the reverse direction. 1n motors intended for constant speed operation the level of compounding is very lo* as not to cause any problem. Cumulatively compounded motors are very *idely used for industrial drives. /igh degree of compounding *ill ma e the machine approach a series machine li e characteristics but *ith a safe no-load speed. The maJor benefit of the compounding is that the field is strengthened on load. Thus the torque per ampere of the armature current is made high. This feature ma es a cumulatively compounded machine *ell suited for

1ntermittent pea loads. Due to the large speed variation bet*een light load and pea load conditions# a y *heel can be used *ith such motors *ith advantage. Due to the reasons provided under shunt and series motors for the provision of an additional series)shunt *inding# it can be seen that all modern machines are compound machines. The difference bet*een them is only in the level of compounding.

B%$4!"# 1e ).c. M' '%(

%hen a motor is s*itched off it KcoastsI to rest under the action of frictional forces. Bra ing is employed *hen rapid stopping is required. 1n many cases mechanical bra ing is adopted. The electric bra ing may be done for various reasons such as those mentioned belo*" 0. To augment the bra e po*er of the mechanical bra es. 2. To save the life of the mechanical bra es. 4. To regenerate the electrical po*er and improve the energy efficiency. ;. 1n the case of emergencies to step the machine instantly. <. To improve the throughput in many production processes by reducing the stopping time. 1n many cases electric bra ing ma es more bra e po*er available to the bra ing process *here mechanical bra es are applied. This reduces the *ear and tear of the mechanical bra es and reduces the frequency of the replacement of these parts. By recovering the mechanical energy stored in the rotating parts and pumping it into the supply lines the overall energy efficiency is improved. This is called regeneration. %here the safety of the personnel or the equipment is at sta e the machine may be required to stop instantly. !.tremely large bra e po*er is needed under those conditions. !lectric bra ing can help in these situations also. 1n processes *here frequent starting and stopping is involved the process time requirement can be reduced if bra ing time is reduced. The reduction of the 0. Dynamic 2. +egenerative 4. +everse voltage bra ing or plugging These are no* e.plained briefly *ith reference to shunt# series and compound motors. D5"$+!c 6%$4!"#

Shunt machine
1n dynamic bra ing the motor is disconnected from the supply and connected to a dynamic bra ing resistance +DB. 1n and -ig. ;L this is done by changing the s*itch from position 0 to 2. The supply to the field should not be removed. Due to the rotation of the armature during motoring mode and due to the inertia# the armature continues to rotate. $n emf is induced due to the presence of the field and the rotation. This voltage drives a

current through the bra ing resistance. The direction of this current is opposite to the one *hich *as o*ing before change in the connection. Therefore# torque developed also gets reversed. The machine acts li e a bra e. The torque speed characteristics separate by e.cited shunt of the machine under dynamic bra ing mode is as sho*n in -ig. 6b5 -or a particular value of +DB. The positive torque corresponds to the motoring operation. -ig. sho*s the dynamic bra ing of a shunt e.cited motor and the corresponding torque-speed curve. /ere the machine behaves as a self-e.cited generator. Belo* a certain speed the self-e.citation collapses and the bra ing action becomes Mero. ,rocess time improves the throughput. Basically the electric bra ing involved is fairly simple. The electric motor can be made to *or as a generator by suitable terminal conditions and absorb mechanical energy. This converted mechanical po*er is dissipated)used on the electrical net*or suitably. Bra ing can be broadly classified into"

-igure " Dynamic Bra ing of a shunt motor

-igure" Dynamic bra ing of shunt e.cited shunt machine

Series machine
1n the case of a series machine the e.citation current becomes >ero as soon as the armature is disconnected from the mains and hence the induced emf also vanishes. 1n order to achieve dynamic bra ing the series field must be isolated and connected to a lo* voltage high current source to provide the field. +ather# the motor is made to *or li e a separately e.cited machine. %hen several machines are available at any spot# as in rail*ay locomotives# dynamic bra ing is feasible. Series connection of all the series fields *ith parallel connection of all the armatures connected across a single dynamic bra ing resistor is used in that case.

Compound generators
1n the case of compound machine# the situation is li e in a shunt machine. $ separately e.cited shunt field and the armature connected across the bra ing resistance are used. $ cumulatively connected motor becomes differentially compounded generator and the bra ing torque generated comes do*n. 1t is therefore necessary to reverse the

series field if large bra ing torques are desired.

Regenerative braking
1n regenerative bra ing as the name suggests the energy recovered from the rotating masses is fed bac into the d.c. po*er source. Thus this type of bra ing improves the energy efficiency of the machine. The armature current can be made to reverse for a constant voltage operation by increase in speed)e.citation only. 1ncrease in speed does not result in bra ing and the increase in e.citation is feasible only over a small range# *hich may be of the order of 0: to 0<?. /ence the best method for obtaining the regenerative bra ing is to operate# the machine on a variable voltage supply. $s the voltage is continuously pulled belo* the value of the induced emf the speed steadily comes do*n. The field current is held constant by means of separate e.citation. The variable d.c. supply voltage can be obtained by %ard-&eonard arrangement# sho*n schematically in -ig. . Bra ing torque can be obtained right up to >ero speed. 1n modern times static %ard-&eonard scheme is used for getting the variable d.c. voltage. This has many advantages over its rotating machine counterpart. Static set is compact# has higher efficiency# and requires lesser space and silent in operation9 ho*ever it suffers from dra*bac s li e large ripple at lo* voltage levels# unidirectional po*er flo* and lo* over load capacity. Bidirectional po*er flo* capacity is a must if regenerative bra ing is required. Series motors cannot be regenerative bra ed as the characteristics do not e.tend to the second quadrant. Pl/##!"# The third method for bra ing is by plugging. -ig. sho*s the method of connection for the plugging of a shunt motor. 1nitially the machine is connected to the supply *ith the s*itch S in position number 0. 1f no* the s*itch is moved to position 2# then a reverse voltage is applied across the armature. The induced armature voltage ! and supply voltage ( aid each other and a large reverse current flo* through the armature. This produces a large negative torque or bra ing torque. /ence plugging is also termed as reverse voltage bra ing. The machine instantly comes to rest. 1f the motor is not s*itched off at this instant the direction of rotation reverses and the motor starts rotating the reverse direction. This type of bra ing therefore has t*o modes vi>. 05 plug to reverse and 25 plug to stop. 1f *e need the plugging only for bringing the speed to >ero# then *e have to open the s*itch S at >ero speed. 1f nothing is done it is plug to reverse mode. ,lugging is a convenient mode for quic reversal of direction of rotation in reversible rives. Nust as in starting# during

-igure +egenerative bra ing of a shunt machine

-igure " ,lugging or reverse voltage bra ing of a shunt motor

,lugging also it is necessary to limit the current and thus the torque# to reduce the stress on the mechanical system and the commutator. This is done by adding additional resistance in series *ith the armature during plugging.

Series motors
1n the case of series motors plugging cannot be employed as the field current too gets reversed *hen reverse voltage is applied across the machine. This eeps the direction of the torque produced unchanged. This fact is used *ith advantage# in operating a d.c. series motor on d.c. or a.c. supply. Series motors thus qualify to be called as K'niversal motorsI.

Compound motors
,lugging of compound motors proceeds on similar lines as the shunt motors. /o*ever some precautions have to be observed due to the presence of series field *inding. $ cumulatively compounded motor becomes differentially compounded on plugging. The mmf due to the series field can Iover po*erI the shunt field forcing the flu. to lo* values or even reverse the net field. This decreases the bra ing torque# and increases the duration of the large bra ing current. To avoid this it may be advisable to deactivate the series field at the time of bra ing by short-circuiting the same. 1n such cases the bra ing proceeds Just as in a shunt motor. 1f plugging is done to operate the motor in the negative direction of rotation as *ell# then the series field has to be reversed and connected for getting the proper mmf. 'nli e dynamic bra ing and regenerative bra ing *here the motor is made to *or as a generator during bra ing period# plugging ma es the motor *or on reverse motoring mode.

De)/c!"# 1e +$c1!"e 0e%2'%+$"ce. 7S!"#le 01$(e I")/c !'" +' '%8

-rom the equivalent circuit# many aspects of the steady state behavior of the machine can be deduced. %e *ill begin by loo ing at the speed-torque characteristic of the machine. %e *ill Consider the appro.imate equivalent circuit of the machine. %e have reasoned earlier that the po*er consumed by the Irotor-portionI of the equivalent circuit is the po*er transferred across the air-gap. 3ut of that quantity the amount dissipated in +: r is the rotor copper loss and the quantity consumed by +:r60 O s5Bs is the mechanical po*er developed. Deglecting mechanical losses# this is the po*er available at the shaft. The torque available can be obtained by dividing this number by the shaft speed.

T1e c'+0le e '%./e-(0ee) c1$%$c e%!( !c '2 I")/c !'" +' '%
1n order to estimate the speed torque characteristic let us suppose that a sinusoidal voltage is impressed on the machine. +ecalling that the equivalent circuit is the per-phase representation of the machine# the current dra*n by the circuit is given by

%here (s is the phase voltage phasor and 1s is the current phasor. The magneti>ing current is neglected. Since this current is o*ing through # the air-gap po*er is given by

The mechanical po*er output *as sho*n to be 60Ps5 ,g 6po*er dissipated in +:rBs5. The torque is obtained by dividing this by the shaft speed .Thus *e have#

%hereQ S is the synchronous speed in radians per second and s is the slip. -urther# this is the torque produced per phase. /ence the overall torque is given by

The torque may be plotted as a function of KsI and is called the torque-slip 6or torquespeed# since slip indicates speed5 characteristic R a very important characteristic of the induction machine. !quation 0= is valid for a t*o-pole 6one pole pair5 machine. 1n general# this e.pression should be multiplied by p# the number of pole-pairs. $ typical torque-speed characteristic is sho*n in Pg. 22. This plot corresponds to a 4 %# ; pole#=: /> machine. The rated operating speed is 0EF: rpm. %e must note that the appro.imate equivalent circuit *as used in deriving this relation. +eaders *ith access to M$T&$B or suitable equivalents 6octave# scilab available free under SD' at the time of this *riting5 may find out the difference caused by using the Ke.actI equivalent circuit by using the script found here. $ comparison bet*een the t*o is found in the plot of fig. The plots correspond to a 4 %# ; pole# <: machine# *ith a rated speed of 0;;: rpm. 1t can be seen that the appro.imate equivalent circuit is a good appro.imation in the operating speed range of the machine. Comparing the t*o figures. %e can see that the slope and shape of the characteristics are dependent intimately on the machine parameters. -urther# this curve is obtained by varying slip *ith the applied voltage being held constant. Coupled *ith the fact that this is an equivalent circuit valid under steady state# it implies that if this characteristic is to be measured e.perimentally# *e need to loo at the torque for a given speed after all transients have died do*n. 3ne cannot# for e.ample# try

Torque# Dm to obtain this curve by directly starting the motor *ith full voltage applied to the terminals and measuring the torque and speed dynamically as it runs up to steady speed. $nother point to note is that the equivalent circuit and the values of torque predicted is valid *hen the applied voltage *aveform is sinusoidal. %ith non-sinusoidal voltage *aveforms# the procedure is not as straightfor*ard. %ith respect to the direction of rotation of the air-gap flu.# the rotor maybe driven to higher speeds by a prime mover or may also be rotated in the reverse direction. The torque-speed relation for the machine under the entire speed range is called the complete speed-torque characteristic. $ typical curve is sho*n in fig for a four-pole machine# the synchronous speed being 0<:: rpm. Dote that negative speeds correspond to slip values greater than 0# and speeds greater than 0<:: rpm correspond to negative slip. The plot also sho*s the operating modes of the induction machine in various regions. The slip a.is is also sho*n for convenience.

+estricting ourselves to positive values of slip# *e see that the curve has a pea point. This is the ma.imum torque that the machine can produce# and is called as stalling torque. 1f the load torque is more than this value# the machine stops rotating or stalls. 1t occurs at a slip Ts# *hich for the machine of fig is :.4F. $t values of slip lo*er than Ts# the curve falls steeply do*n to >ero at s B :. The torque at synchronous speed is therefore >ero. $t values of slip higher than s B Ts# the curve falls slo*ly to a minimum value at s B 0. The torque at s B 0 6speed B :5 is called the starting torque. The value of the stalling torque may be obtained by differentiating the e.pression for torque *ith respect to >ero and setting it to >ero to find the value of Ts. 'sing this method#

Substituting Ts into the e.pression for torque gives us the value of the stalling torque T T

the negative sign being valid for negative slip. The e.pression sho*s that T Te is the independent of +: r# *hile Ts is directly proportional to +: r. This fact can be made use of conveniently to alter Ts. 1f it is possible to change +: r# then *e can get a *hole series of torque-speed characteristics# the ma.imum torque remaining constant all the *hile. But this is a subJect to be discussed later.

%e may note that if + is chosen equal to becomes unity# *hich p means that the ma.imum torque occurs at starting. Thus changing of + r# *herever possible can serve as a means to control the starting torque. %hile considering the negative slip range# 6generator mode5 *e note that the ma.imum torque is higher than in the positive slip region 6motoring mode5.
Operating Point

Consider a speed torque characteristic sho*n in fig. -or an induction machine# having the load characteristic also superimposed on it. The load is a constant torque load i.e.# the torque required for operation is fi.ed irrespective of speed. The system consisting of the motor and load *ill operate at a point *here the t*o characteristics meet. -rom the above plot# *e note that there are t*o such points. %e therefore need to find out *hich of these is the actual operating point. To ans*er this *e must note that# in practice# the characteristics are never fi.ed9 they change slightly *ith time. 1t *ould be appropriate to consider a small band around the curve dra*n *here the actual points of the characteristic *ill lie. This being the case let us considers that the system is operating at point 0# and the load torque demand increases slightly. This is sho*n in fig# *here the change is e.aggerated for clarity. This *ould shift the point of operation to a point 0: at *hich the slip *ould be less and the developed torque higher. The difference in torque-developed ;Te# being positive *ill accelerate the machine. $ny overshoot in speed as it approaches the point 0: *ill cause it to further accelerate since the developed torque is increasing. Similar arguments may be used to sho* that if for some reason the developed torque becomes smaller the speed *ould drop and the effect is cumulative. Therefore *e may conclude that 0 is not a stable operating point. &et us consider the point 2. 1f this point shifts to 2:# the slip is no* higher 6speed is lo*er5 and the positive difference in torque *ill accelerate the machine. This behavior *ill tend to bring the operating point to*ards 2 once again. 1n other *ords# disturbances at point 2 *ill not cause a runa*ay effect. Similar arguments may be given for the case *here the load characteristic shifts do*n. Therefore *e conclude that point 2 is a stable operating point.

torque# Dm -rom the foregoing discussions# *e can say that the entire region of the speed-torque characteristic from s B : to s B Ts is an unstable region# *hile the region from s B Ts to s B : is a stable region. Therefore the machine *ill al*ays operate bet*een s B : and s B Ts.
Modes of Operation

The reader is referred to fig *hich sho*s the complete speed-torque characteristic of the induction machine along *ith the various regions of operation. &et us consider a situation *here the machine has Just been e.cited *ith three phase supply and the rotor has not yet started moving. $ little reaction on the definition of the slip indicates that *e are at the point s B 0. %hen the rotating magnetic field is set up due to stator currents# it is the induced emf that causes current in the rotor# and the interaction bet*een the t*o causes torque. 1t has already been pointed out that it is the presence of the non->ero slip that causes a torque to be developed. Thus the region of the

curve bet*een -igure " Stability of operating point s B : and s B 0 is the region *here the machine produces torque to rotate a passive load and hence is called the motoring region. Dote further that the direction of rotation of the rotor is the same as that of the air gap flu.. Suppose *hen the rotor is rotating# *e change the phase sequence of e.citation to the machine. This *ould cause the rotating stator field to reverse its direction R the rotating stator mmf and the rotor are no* moving in opposite directions. 1f *e adopt the convention that positive direction is the direction of the air gap flu.# the rotor speed *ould then be a negative quantity. The slip *ould be a number greater than unity. -urther# the rotor as *e no* should be Udragged alongU by the stator field. Since the rotor is rotating in the opposite direction to that of the field# it *ould no* tend to slo* do*n# and reach >ero speed. Therefore this region 6s V 05 is called the bra ing region. 6%hat *ould happen if the supply is not cut-off *hen the speed reaches >ero@5 . There is yet another situation. Consider a situation *here the induction machine is operating from mains and is driving an active load 6a load capable of producing rotation by itself5. $ typical e.ample is that of a *indmill# *here the fan li e blades of the *indmill are connected to the shaft of the induction machine. +otation of the blades may be caused by the motoring action of the machine# or by *ind blo*ing. -urther suppose that both acting independently cause rotation in the same direction. Do* *hen both grid and *indact# a strong *ind may cause the rotor to rotate faster than the mmf produced by the stator e.citation. $ little reaction sho*s that slip is then negative. -urther# the *ind is rotating the rotor to a speed higher than *hat the electrical supply alone *ould cause. 1n order to do this it has to contend *ith an opposing torque generated by the machine preventing the speed build up. The torque generated is therefore negative. 1t is this action of the *ind against the torque of the machine that enables *ind-energy generation. The region of slip s V 0 is the generating mode of operation. 1ndeed this is at present the most commonly used approach in *ind-energy

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!instein College of !ngineering

generation. 1t may be noted from the torque e.pression of equation that torque is negative for negative values of slip. Braking of d.c shunt motor: basic idea 1t is often necessary in many applications to stop a running motor rather quic ly. %e no* that any moving or rotating obJect acquires inetic energy. Therefore# ho* fast *e can bring the obJect to rest *ill depend essentially upon ho* quic ly *e can e.tract its inetic energy and ma e arrangement to dissipate that energy some*here else. 1f you stop pedaling your bicycle# it *ill eventually come to a stop eventually after moving quite some distance. The initial inetic energy stored# in this case dissipates as heat in the friction of the road. /o*ever# to ma e the stopping faster# bra e is applied *ith the help of rubber bra e shoes on the rim of the *heels. Thus stored H.! no* gets t*o *ays of getting dissipated# one at the *heel-bra e shoe interface 6*here most of the energy is dissipated5 and the other at the road-tier interface. This is a good method no doubt# but regular maintenance of bra e shoes due to *ear and tear is necessary. 1f a motor is simply disconnected from supply it *ill eventually come to stop no doubt# but *ill ta e longer time particularly for large motors having high rotational inertia. Because here the stored energy has to dissipate mainly through bearing friction and *ind friction. The situation can be improved# by forcing the motor to operate as a generator during bra ing. The idea can be understood remembering that in motor mode electromagnetic torque acts along the direction of rotation *hile in generator the electromagnetic torque acts in the opposite direction of rotation. Thus by forcing the machine to operate as generator during the bra ing period# a torque opposite to the direction of rotation *ill be imposed on the shaft# thereby helping the machine to come to stop quic ly. During bra ing action# the initial H.! stored in the rotor is either dissipated in an e.ternal resistance or fed bac to the supply or both. Rheostatic braking Consider a d.c shunt motor operating from a d.c supply *ith the s*itch S connected to position 0 as sho*n in figure. S is a single pole double throw switch and can be connected either to position 0 or to position 2. 3ne end of an e.ternal resistance Rb is connected to position 2 of the s*itch S as sho*n. &et *ith S in position 0# motor runs at n rpm# dra*ing an armature current Ia and the bac emf is Dote the polarity of b *hich# as usual for motor mode in

opposition *ith the supply voltage. $lso note Te and n have same cloc *ise direction.

Do* if S is suddenly thro*n to position 2 at t B :# the armature gets disconnected from the supply and terminated by Rb *ith field coil remains energi>ed from the supply. Since speed of the rotor can not change instantaneously# the bac emf value b is still maintained *ith same polarity prevailing at t B :-. Thus at t B :O# armature current *ill be Ia B b)6ra O Rb5 and *ith reversed direction compared to direction prevailing during motor mode at t B :-. 3bviously for t V :# the machine is operating as generator dissipating po*er to Rb and no* the electromagnetic torque Te must act in the opposite direction to that of n since Ia has changed direction but has not $s time passes after s*itching# n decreases reducing H.! and as a consequence both b and Ia decrease. 1n other *ords value of bra ing torque *ill be highest at t B :O# and it decreases progressively and becoming >ero *hen the machine finally come to a stop. Pl/##!"# '% )5"$+!c 6%$4!"# This method of bra ing can be understood by referring to figures 4L.2< and 4L.2=. /ere S is a double pole double thro* s*itch. -or usual motoring mode# S is connected to positions 0 and 0I.

$cross terminals 2 and 2I# a series combination of an e.ternal resistance Rb and supply voltage *ith polarity as indicated is connected. /o*ever# during motor mode this part of the circuit remains inactive.

To initiate bra ing# the s*itch is thro*n to position 2 and 2I at t B :# thereby disconnecting the armature from the left hand supply. /ere at t B :O# the armature current *ill be Ia B 6 b O !5)6ra O Rb5 as b and the right hand supply voltage have additive polarities by virtue of the connection. /ere also Ia reverses direction-producing Te in opposite direction to n. Ia decreases as b decreases *ith time as speed decreases. /o*ever# Ia cannot become >ero at any time due to presence of supply (. So unli e rheostatic bra ing# substantial magnitude of bra ing torque prevails. /ence stopping of the motor is e.pected to be much faster then rheostatic brea ing. But *hat happens# if S continuous to be in position 0I and 2I even after >ero speed

has been attained@ The ans*er is rather simple# the machine *ill start pic ing up speed in

the reverse direction operating as a motor. So care should be ta en to disconnect the right hand supply# the moment armature speed becomes >ero. Re#e"e%$ !&e 6%$4!"# $ machine operating as motor may go into regenerative bra ing mode if its speed becomes sufficiently high so as to ma e bac emf greater than the supply voltage i.e.# b V !. 3bviously under this condition the direction of Ia *ill reverse imposing torque *hich is opposite to the direction of rotation. The situation is e.plained in figures 4L.2E and 4L.2F. The normal motor operation is sho*n in figure 4L.2E *here armature motoring current Ia is dra*n from the supply and as usual b W !. Since The question is ho* speed on its o*n become large enough to ma e b W ! causing regenerative bra ing. Such a situation may occur in practice *hen the mechanical load itself becomes active. 1magine the d.c motor is coupled to the *heel of locomotive *hich is moving along a plain trac *ithout any gradient as sho*n in figure. Machine is running as a motor at a speed of n0 rpm. /o*ever# *hen the trac has a do*n*ard gradient 6sho*n in figure 4L.2F5# component of gravitational force along the trac also appears *hich *ill try to accelerate the motor and may increase its speed to n2 such that b 1n such a scenario# direction of Ia reverses# feeding po*er bac to supply. +egenerative bra ing here *ill not stop the motor but *ill help to arrest rise of dangerously high speed.

UNIT-III STARTING METHODS STARTING OF D.C. MACHINES3 -or the machine to start# the torque developed by the motor at >ero speed must e.ceed that demanded by the load. Then TM P T& *ill be positive so also is diBdt# and the machine accelerates. The induced emf at starting point is >ero as the i B : The armature current *ith rated applied voltage is given by (B+a *here +a is armature circuit resistance. Dormally the armature resistance of a d.c. machine is such as to cause 0 to < percent drop at full load current. /ence the starting current tends to rise to several times the full load current. The same can be told of the torque if full flu. is already established. The machine instantly pic s up the speed. $s the speed increases the induced emf appears across the terminals opposing the applied voltage. The current dra*n from the mains thus decreases# so also the torque. This continues till the load torque and the motor torque are equal to each other. Machine tends to run continuously at this speed# as the acceleration is >ero at this point of operation. The starting is no* discussed *ith respect to specific machines. DC (1/" +' '%

1f armature and field of d.c. shunt motor are energi>ed together# large current is dra*n at start but the torque builds up gradually as the field flu. increases gradually. To improve the torque per ampere of line current dra*n it is advisable to energi>e the field first. The starting current is given by (B+a and hence to reduce the starting current to a safe value# the voltage ( can be reduced or armature circuit resistance +a can be increased. (ariable voltage ( can be obtained from a motor generator set. This arrangement is called %ard-&eonard arrangement. $ schematic diagram of %ard&eonard arrangement is sho*n in -ig. By controlling the field of the %ard-&eonard generator one can get a variable voltage at its terminals# *hich is used# for starting the motor. The second method of starting *ith increased armature circuit resistance can be obtained by adding additional resistances in series *ith the armature# at start. The current and the torque get reduced. The torque speed curve under these conditions is sho*n in -ig. 6a5. 1t can be readily seen from this graph that the unloaded machine reaches its final speed but a loaded machine may cra*l at a speed much belo* the normal speed. $lso# the starting resistance *astes large amount of po*er. /ence the starting resistance must be reduced to >ero at the end of the starting process. This has to be done progressively# ma ing sure that the current does not Jump up to large values. Starting of series motor and compound motors are similar to the shunt motor. Better starting torques are obtained for compound motors as the torque per ampere is more. Characteristics for series motors are given in fig.

Grading of starting resistance for a shunt motor

1f the starting resistor is reduced in uniform steps then the current pea s reached as *e cut do*n the resistances progressively increase. To ascertain that at no step does

Starting of D.C shunt motor

1. P%'6le+( '2 ( $% !"# 9! 1 2/ll &'l $#e %e no* armature current in a d.c motor is given by

$t the instant of starting# rotor speed n B :# hence starting armature current is Since# armature resistance is quite small# starting current may be quite high 6many times larger than the rated current5. $ large machine# characteri>ed by large rotor inertia 6"5# *ill pic up speed rather slo*ly. Thus the level of high starting current may be maintained for quite some time so as to cause serious damage to the brush) commutator and to the armature *inding. $lso the source should be capable of supplying this burst of large current. The other loads already connected to the same source# *ould e.perience a dip in the terminal voltage# every time a D.C motor is attempted to start *ith full voltage.

This dip in supply voltage is caused due to sudden rise in voltage drop in the sourceIs internal resistance. The duration for *hich this drop in voltage *ill persist once again

depends on inertia 6si>e5 of the motor. /ence# for small D.C motors e.tra precaution may not be necessary during starting as large starting current *ill very quic ly die do*n because of fast rise in the bac emf. /o*ever# for large motor# a starter is to be used during starting. *. A (!+0le ( $% e% To limit the starting current# a suitable e.ternal resistance Re#t is connected in series 6-igure 6a55 *ith the armature so that $t the time of starting# to have sufficient starting torque# field current is ma.imi>ed by eeping the e.ternal field resistance Rf# to >ero value. $s the motor pic s up speed# the value of Re#t is gradually decreased to >ero so that during running no e.ternal resistance remains in the armature circuit. But each time one has to restart the motor# the e.ternal armature resistance must be set to ma.imum value by moving the Joc ey manually. 1magine# the motor to be running *ith Re#t B : 6-igure 6b55.

Do* if the supply goes off 6due to some problem in the supply side or due to load shedding5# motor *ill come to a stop. $ll on a sudden# let us imagine# supply is restored. This is then nothing but full voltage starting. 1n other *ords# one should be constantly alert to set the resistance to ma.imum value *henever the motor comes to a stop. This is one maJor limitation of a simple rheostatic starter. 3. 3-0'!" ( $% e% $ X4-point starterY is e.tensively used to start a D.C shunt motor. 1t not only overcomes the difficulty of a plain resistance starter# but also provides additional protective features such as over load protection and no volt protection. The diagram of a

4-point starter connected to a shunt motor is sho*n in figure . $lthough# the circuit loo s a bit clumsy at a first glance# the basic *or ing principle is same as that of plain resistance starter The starter is sho*n enclosed *ithin the dotted rectangular bo. having

three terminals mar ed as $# & and - for e.ternal connections. Terminal $ is connected to one armature terminal $l of the motor. Terminal - is connected to one field terminal -0 of the motor and terminal & is connected to one supply terminal as sho*n. -2 terminal of field coil is connected to $2 through an e.ternal variable field resistance and the common point connected to supply 6-ve5. The e.ternal armatures resistances consist of several resistances connected in series and are sho*n in the form of an arc. The Junctions of the resistances are brought out as terminals 6called studs5 and mar ed as 0#2#.. .02. Nust beneath the resistances# a continuous copper strip also in the form of an arc is present. There is a handle *hich can be moved in the cloc *ise direction against the spring tension. The spring tension eeps the handle in the 3-- position *hen no one attempts to move it. Do* let us trace the circuit from terminal & 6supply O ve5. The *ire from & passes through a small electro magnet called 3&+C# 6the function of *hich *e shall discuss a little later5 and enters through the handle sho*n by dashed lines. Dear the end of the handle t*o copper strips are firmly connected *ith the *ire. The furthest strip is sho*n circular shaped and the other strip is sho*n to be rectangular. %hen the handle is moved to the right# the circular strip of the handle *ill ma e contacts *ith resistance terminals 0# 2 etc. progressively. 3n the other hand# the rectangular strip *ill ma e contact *ith the continuous arc copper strip. The other end of this strip is brought as terminal - after going through an electromagnet coil 6called D(+C5. Terminal - is finally connected to motor field terminal -l.

4. Working principle
&et us e.plain the operation of the starter. 1nitially the handle is in the 3-position. Deither armature nor the field of the motor gets supply. Do* the handle is moved to stud number 0. 1n this position armature and all the resistances in series gets connected to the supply. -ield coil gets full supply as the rectangular strip ma es contact *ith arc copper strip. $s the machine pic s up speed handle is moved further r to stud number 2. 1n this position the e.ternal resistance in the armature circuit is less as the first resistance is left out. -ield ho*ever# continues to get full voltage by virtue of the continuous arc strip. Continuing in this *ay# all resistances *ill be left out *hen stud number 02 63D5 is reached. 1n this position# the electromagnet 6D(+C5 *ill attract the soft iron piece attached to the handle. !ven if the operator removes his hand from the handle# it *ill still remain in the 3D position as spring restoring force *ill be balanced by the force of attraction bet*een D(+C and the soft iron piece of the handle. The no volt release coil 6D(+C5 carries same current as that of the field coil. 1n case supply voltage goes off# field coil current *ill decrease to >ero. /ence D(+C *ill be deenergised and *ill not be able to e.ert any force on the soft iron piece of the handle. +estoring force of the spring *ill bring the handle bac in the 3-- position. The starter also provides over load protection for the motor. The other electromagnet# 3&+C overload release coil along *ith a soft iron piece ept under it# is used to achieve this. The current flo*ing through 3&+C is the line current I$ dra*n by the motor. $s the motor is loaded# Ia hence I$ increases. Therefore# I$ is a measure of loading of the motor. Suppose *e *ant that the motor should not be over loaded beyond rated current. Do* gap bet*een the electromagnet and the soft iron piece is so adJusted that for the iron piece *ill not be pulled up. /o*ever# if rated I I force of attraction *ill be sufficient to pull up iron piece. This up*ard movement of the iron piece of 3&+C is utili>ed to de-energi>e D(+C. To the iron a copper strip 6Z shaped in figure5 is attached. During over loading condition# this copper strip *ill also move up and put a short circuit bet*een t*o terminals B and C. Carefully note that B and C are nothing but the t*o ends of the D(+C. 1n other *ords# *hen over load occurs a short circuit path is created across the D(+C. /ence D(+C *ill not carry any current no* and gets deenergised. The moment it gets deenergised# spring action *ill bring the handle in the 3-- position thereby disconnecting the motor from the supply. Three-point starter has one disadvantage. 1f *e *ant to run the machine at higher speed 6above rated speed5 by field wea%ening 6i.e.# by reducing field current5# the strength of D(+C magnet may become so *ea that it *ill fail to hold the handle in the 3D position and the spring action *ill bring it bac in the 3-- position. Thus *e find that a false disconnection of the motor ta es place even *hen there is neither over load nor any sudden disruption of supply.

DIFFERENT T:PES OF STARTERS FOR 3 PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR 7IM8 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

 Deed of using starters for 1nduction motor T*o 6Star-Delta and $uto-transformer5 types of starters used for Squirrel cage 1nduction motor Starter using additional resistance in rotor circuit# for %ound rotor 6Slip-ring5 1nduction motor
Introduction

1n the previous# i.e. fourth# lesson of this module# the e.pression of gross torque developed# as a function of slip 6speed5# in 1M has been derived first. The s etches of the different torque-slip 6speed5 characteristics# *ith the variations in input 6stator5 voltage and rotor resistance# are presented# along *ith the e.planation of their features. &astly# the e.pression of ma.imum torque developed and also the slip# *here it occurs# have been derived. 1n this lesson# starting *ith the need for using starters in 1M to reduce the starting current# first t*o 6Star-Delta and $uto-transformer5 types of starters used for Squirrel cage 1M and then# the starter using additional resistance in rotor circuit# for %ound rotor 6Slip-ring5 1M# are presented along *ith the starting current dra*n from the input 6supply5 voltage# and also the starting torque developed using the above starters. ;e59'%)(3 Direct-on-&ine 6D3&5 starter# Star-delta starter# auto-transformer starter# rotor resistance starter# starting current# starting torque# starters for squirrel cage and *ound rotor induction motor# need for starters.
Direct-on-Line (DOL Starters

1nduction motors can be started Direct-on-&ine 6D3&5# *hich means that the rated voltage is supplied to the stator# *ith the rotor terminals short-circuited in a *ound rotor 6slip-ring5 motor. -or the cage rotor# the rotor bars are short circuited via t*o end rings. Deglecting stator impedance# the starting current in the stator *indings

The input voltage per phase to the stator is equal to the induced emf per phase in the stator *inding# as the stator impedance is neglected 6also sho*n in the last lesson 6[4255. 1n the formula for starting current# no load current is neglected. 1t may be noted that the starting current is quite high# about ;-= times the current at full load# may be higher# depending on the rating of 1M# as compared to no load current. The starting torque is *hich sho*s that# as the starting current increases# the starting torque also increases. This results in higher accelerating torque 6minus the load torque and the torque component of the losses5# *ith the motor reaching rated or near rated speed quic ly.

!eed for Starters in IM

The main problem in starting induction motors having large or medium si>e lies mainly in the requirement of high starting current# *hen started direct-on-line 6D3&5. $ssume that the distribution line is starting from a substation 6-ig.5# *here the supply voltage is constant. The line feeds a no. of consumers# of *hich one consumer has an induction motor *ith a D3& starter# dra*ing a high current from the line# *hich is higher than the current for *hich this line is designed. This *ill cause a drop 6dip5 in the voltage# all along the line# both for the consumers bet*een the substation and this consumer# and those# *ho are in the line after this consumer. This drop in the voltage is more than the drop permitted# i.e. higher than the limit as per 1SS# because the current dra*n is more than the current for *hich the line is designed. 3nly for the current lo*er the current for *hich the line is designed# the drop in voltage is lo*er the limit. So# the supply authorities set a limit on the rating or si>e of 1M# *hich can be started D3&. $ny motor e.ceeding the specified rating# is not permitted to be started D3&# for *hich a starter is to be used to reduce the current dra*n at starting.

Starters for Cage IM

The starting current in 1M is proportional to the input voltage per phase the motor 6stator5# i.e. # *here# as the voltage drop in the to

stator impedance is small compared to the input voltage# or if the stator impedance is neglected. This has been sho*n earlier. So# in a 6squirrel5 cage induction motor# the starter is used only to decrease the input voltage to the motor so as to decrease the starting current. $s described later# this also results in decrease of starting torque.

This type is used for the induction motor# the stator *inding of *hich is nominally delta-connected 6-ig. 44.2a5. 1f the above *inding is reconnected as star 6-ig. 44.2b5# the voltage per phase supplied to each *inding is reduced by 50) 46.<EE5. This is a simple starter# *hich can be easily reconfigured as sho*n in -ig. 44.2c. $s the voltage per phase in delta connection is (s# the phase current in each stator *inding is # *here is the impedance of the motor per phase at standstill or start 6stator impedance and rotor impedance referred to the stator# at standstill5. The line current or the input current to the motor is *hich is the current# if the motor is started direct-on-line 6D3&5. Do*# if the stator *inding is connected as star# the phase or line current dra*n from supply at start 6standstill5 is *hich

is of the starting current# if D3& starter is used. The voltage per phase in each stator *inding is no* 6. 4 ) s ! 5. So# the starting current using star-delta starter is reduced by 44.4?. $s for starting torque# being proportional to the square of the current in each of the stator *indings in t*o different connections as sho*n earlier# is also reduced by 6 2 5 4 ) 0 6 4 ) 0 B 5# as the ratio of the t*o currents is 6 4 ) 0 5# same as that 6ratio5 of the voltages applied to each *inding as sho*n earlier. So# the starting torque is reduced by 44.4?# *hich is a disadvantage of the use of this starter. The load torque and the loss torque# must be lo*er than the starting torque# if the motor is to be started using this starter. The advantage is that# no e.tra component# e.cept that sho*n in -ig. 44.2c# need be used# thus ma ing it simple. $s sho*n later# this is an auto-

transformer starter *ith the voltage ratio as <E.E?. $lternatively# the starting current in the second case *ith the stator *inding reconnected as star# can be found by using star-

delta conversion as given in lesson [0F# *ith the impedance per phase after converting to delta# found as 6 s & \ 4 5# and the starting current no* being reduced to 60)4 5 of the starting current obtained using D3& starter# *ith the stator *inding connected in delta.

A/ '- %$"(2'%+e% S $% e%

$n auto-transformer# *hose output is fed to the stator and input is from the supply 6-ig. 44.45# is used to start the induction motor. The input voltage of 1M is # *hich is the output voltage of the auto-transformer# the input voltage being (s. The output voltage)input voltage ratio is # # the value of *hich lies bet*een :.: and 0.: &et be the starting current# *hen the motor is started using D3& starter# i.e applying rated input voltage. The input current of 1M# *hich is the output current of auto-transformer# *hen this starter is used *ith input voltage as . The input current of auto-transformer# *hich is the starting current dra*n from the supply# is# obtained by equating input and output volt-amperes# neglecting losses and assuming nearly same po*er factor on both sides. $s discussed earlier# the starting torque# being proportional to the square of the input current to 1M in t*o cases# *ith and *ithout autotransformer 6i.e. direct5# is also reduced by # as the ratio of the t*o currents is same as that 6ratio5 of the voltages applied to the motor as sho*n earlier. So# the starting torque is reduced by the same ratio as that of the starting current. 1f the ratio is # both starting current and torque are ?5 F: 6 F . : B # ?5 =; 6 =; . : 5 F . : 6 2 2 B B # times the values of starting current and torque *ith D3& starting# *hich is nearly 2 times the values obtained using star-delta starter. So# the disadvantage is that starting current is increased# *ith the result that lo*er rated motor can no* be started# as the current dra*n from the supply is to be ept *ithin limits# *hile the advantage is that the starting torque is no* doubled# such that the motor can start against higher load torque. The star-delta

starter can be considered equivalent to an autotransformer starter *ith the ratio# ?5 E . <E 6 <EE . : B # . 1f ?5 E: 6 E . : B # # both starting current and

torque are times the values of starting current and torque *ith D3& starting# *hich is nearly 0.< times the values obtained using star delta starter.

"otor "esistance Starters for Slip-ring (#ound rotor IM

1n a slip-ring 6*ound rotor5 induction motor# resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit via slip rings 6-ig. 44.;5# so as to increase the starting torque. The starting current in the rotor *inding is

*here

B $dditional resistance per phase in the rotor circuit.

The input 6stator5 current is proportional to the rotor current as sho*n earlier. The starting current 6input5 reduces# as resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit. But the starting torque increases# as the total resistance in the rotor circuit is increased. Though the starting current decreases# the total resistance increases# thus resulting in increase of starting torque as sho*n in -ig. 42.2b# and also obtained by using the e.pression given earlier# for increasing values of the resistance in the rotor circuit. 1f the additional resistance is used only for starting# being rated for intermittent duty# the resistance is to be decreased in steps# as the motor speed increases. -inally# the e.ternal resistance is to be completely cut out# i.e. to be made equal to >ero 6:.:5# thus leaving the slip-rings short-circuited. /ere# also the additional cost of the e.ternal resistance *ith intermittent rating is to be incurred# *hich results in decrease of

starting current# along *ith increase of starting torque# both being advantageous. $lso it may be noted that the cost of a slip-ring induction is higher than that of 1M *ith cage rotor# having same po*er rating. So# in both cases# additional cost is to be incurred to obtain the above advantages. This is only used in case higher starting torque is needed to

start 1M *ith high load torque. 1t may be observed from -ig. 42.2b that the starting torque increases till it reaches ma.imum value# rotor circuit is increased# the range of total resistance being range of e.ternal resistance is bet*een >ero 6:.:5 and is equal to the ma.imum value# i.e. equal to the e.ternal resistance in the The 2 r # -5. The starting torque if the e.ternal resistance inserted is

if the e.ternal resistance in the rotor circuit is increased further# the starting torque decreases. This is# because the

This is# because the starting current decreases at a faster rate# even if the total resistance in the rotor circuit is increased. 1n this lesson - the fifth one of this module# the direct-on-line 6D3&5 starter used for 1M# along *ith the need for other types of starters# has been described first. Then# t*o types of starters - star-delta and autotransformer# for cage type 1M# are presented. &astly# the rotor resistance starter for slip-ring 6*ound rotor5 1M is briefly described. 1n the ne.t 6si.th and last5 lesson of this module# the various types of single-phase induction motors# along *ith the starting methods# *ill be presented.

ST$+T1DS M!T/3DS -3+ S1DS&!-,/$S! 1DD'CT13D M3T3+

Instructional Ob$ecti%es

Why there is no starting torque in a single-phase induction motor with one (main) winding in the stator? Various starting methods used in the single-phase induction motors, with the introduction of additional features, li e the addition of another winding in the stator, and!or capacitor in series with it.
Introduction

"n the pre#ious, i.e. fifth, lesson of this module, the direct-on-line ($%&) starter used in three-phase "', along with the need for starters, has (een descri(ed first. )wo types of starters - star-delta, for motors with nominally deltaconnected stator winding, and autotransformer, used for cage rotor "', are then presented, where (oth decrease in starting current and torque occur. &astly, the rotor resistance starter for slip-ring (wound rotor) "' has (een discussed, where starting current decreases along with increase in starting torque. "n all such

cases, additional cost is to (e incurred. "n the last (si*th) lesson of this module, firstly it is shown that there is no starting torque in a single-phase induction motor with only one (main) winding in the stator. )hen, the #arious starting methods used for such motors, li e, say, the addition of another (au*iliary) winding in the stator, and!or capacitor in series with it. Keywords: +ingle-phase induction motor, starting torque, main and au*iliary windings, starting methods, split-phase, capacitor type, motor with capacitor start!run.

Single-phase Induction Motor

)he winding used normally in the stator (,ig.) of the single-phase induction motor ("') is a distri(uted one. )he rotor is of squirrel cage type, which is a cheap one, as the rating of this type of motor is low, unli e that for a three-phase "'. -s the stator winding is fed from a single-phase supply, the flu* in the air gap is alternating only, not a synchronously rotating one produced (y a poly-phase (may (e two- or three-) winding in the stator of "'. )his type of alternating field cannot produce a torque if the rotor is stationery so, a single-phase "' is not self-starting, unli e a three-phase one. .owe#er, as shown later, if the rotor is initially gi#en some torque in either direction then immediately a torque is produced in the motor. )he motor then accelerates to its final speed, which is lower than its synchronous speed. )his is now e*plained using dou(le field re#ol#ing theory.

Double field re%ol%ing theory

When the stator winding (distri(uted one as stated earlier) carries a sinusoidal current ((eing fed from a single-phase supply), a sinusoidal space distri(uted mmf, whose pea or ma*imum #alue pulsates (alternates) with time, is produced in the air gap. )his sinusoidally #arying flu* is the sum of two rotating flu*es or fields, the magnitude of which is equal to half the #alue of the alternating flu* and (oth the flu*es rotating synchronously at the speed,

in opposite directions. )his is shown in ,ig. )he first set of figures (,ig. /0.1a (i-i#)) show the resultant sum of the two rotating flu*es or fields, as the time a*is (angle) is changing from ,ig. shows the alternating or pulsating flu* (resultant) #arying with time or angle.

)he flu* or field rotating at synchronous speed, say, in the anticloc wise direction, i.e. the same direction, as that of the motor (rotor) ta en as positi#e induces emf (#oltage) in the rotor conductors. )he rotor is a squirrel cage one, with (ars short circuited #ia end rings. )he current flows in the rotor conductors, and the electromagnetic torque is produced in the same direction as gi#en a(o#e, which is termed as positi#e (2#e). )he other part of flu* or field rotates at the same speed in the opposite (cloc wise) direction, ta en as negati#e. +o, the torque produced (y this field is negati#e (-#e), as it is in the cloc wise direction, same as that of the direction of rotation of this field. )wo torques are in the opposite direction, and the resultant (total) torque is the difference of the two torques produced (,ig. /0./). "f the rotor is stationary the slip due to forward (anticloc wise) rotating field is 3 . 1 4 sf . +imilarly, the slip due to (ac ward rotating field is also s( 4 3 .1. )he two torques are equal and opposite, and the resultant torque is 3.3 (5ero). +o, there is no starting torque in a singlephase "'. 6ut, if the motor (rotor) is started or rotated somehow, say in the anticloc wise (forward) direction, the forward torque is more than the (ac ward torque, with the resultant torque now (eing positi#e. )he motor accelerates in the forward direction, with the forward torque (eing more than the (ac ward torque. )he resultant torque is thus positi#e as the motor rotates in the forward direction. )he motor speed is decided (y the load torque supplied, including the losses (specially mechanical loss). 'athematically, the mmf, which is distri(uted sinusoidally in space, with its pea #alue pulsating with time, is descri(ed as (space

angle) measured from the winding a*is. Now, is distri(uted (oth in space and time, i.e. )his can (e e*pressed as,

+o, the mmf

which shows that a pulsating field can (e considered as the sum of two synchronously rotating fields and the )he forward rotating field is, (ac ward rotating field is,

6oth the fields ha#e the same amplitude equal to

where is the ma*imum #alue of the pulsating mmf along the a*is of the winding. When the motor rotates in the forward (anticloc wise) direction

with angular speed

the slip due to the forward rotating field is, +imilarly, the slip is,

due to the (ac ward rotating field, fields are in opposite direction. )he resultant torque is, "t was earlier shown with (oth as resultant torque at start is 3.3 (5ero).

the speed of which is

)he torques produced (y the two

that, when the rotor is

stationary, the

)herefore,

S&'"&I!( M)&*ODS

)he single-phase "' has no starting torque, (ut has resultant torque, when it rotates at any other speed, e*cept synchronous speed. "t is also nown that, in a (alanced two-phase "' ha#ing two windings, each ha#ing equal o num(er of turns and placed at a space angle of 73 (electrical), and are fed from a (alanced two-phase supply, with two #oltages equal in magnitude, at an angle o of 73 , the rotating magnetic fields are produced, as in a three-phase "'. )he torque-speed characteristic is same as that of a three-phase one, ha#ing (oth starting and also running torque as shown earlier. +o, in a single-phase "', if an au*iliary winding is introduced in the stator, in addition to the main winding, (ut

placed at a space angle of 73 (electrical), starting torque is produced. )he

currents in the two (main and au*iliary) stator windings also must (e at an angle of o 73 , to produce ma*imum starting torque, as shown in a (alanced two-phase stator. )hus, rotating magnetic field is produced in such motor, gi#ing rise to starting torque. )he #arious starting methods used in a single-phase "' are descri(ed here.
"esistance Split-phase Motor

)he schematic (circuit) diagram of this motor is gi#en in ,ig. . -s detailed earlier, another (au*iliary) winding with a high resistance in series is to (e added along with the main winding in the stator. )his winding has higher resistance to reactance ratio as compared to that in the main winding, and is placed at a space angle of from the main winding as gi#en earlier. )he phasor diagram of the currents in two windings and the input #oltage is shown in ,ig. /0.0(. )he current ("a ) in the au*iliary winding lags the #oltage ( V ) (y an angle, currents is which is small, whereas the current ("m ) in the main winding lags the which is nearly 73 . )he phase angle (etween the two
o

#oltage (V ) (y an angle,

which should (e at least /38. )his results in a small

amount of starting torque. )he switch, + (centrifugal switch) is in series with the au*iliary winding. "t automatically cuts out the au*iliary or starting winding, when the motor attains a speed close to full load speed. )he motor has a starting

full load current. )he torque-speed characteristics of the motor with!without au*iliary winding are shown in ,ig. )he change o#er occurs, when the au*iliary winding is switched off as gi#en earlier. )he direction of rotation is re#ersed (y re#ersing the terminals of any one of two windings, (ut not (oth, (efore connecting the motor to the supply terminals. )his motor is used in applications, such as fan, saw, small lathe, centrifugal pump, (lower, office equipment, washing machine, etc. )he motor descri(ed earlier, is a simple one, requiring only second o (au*iliary) winding placed at a space angle of 73 from the main winding, which is there in nearly all such motors as discussed here. "t does not need any other thing, e*cept for centrifugal switch, as the au*iliary winding is used as a starting winding. 6ut the main pro(lem is low starting torque in the motor, as this torque is a function of, or related to the phase difference (angle) (etween the currents in the two windings. )o get high starting torque, the phase difference required is 738(,ig. /0.9(), when the starting torque will (e proportional to the product of the magnitudes of two currents. -s the current in the main winding is lagging (y the current in the au*iliary winding has to lead the input #oltage (y with

is ta en as negati#e (-#e), while is positi#e (2#e). )his can (e can (e achie#ed (y ha#ing a capacitor in series with the au*iliary winding, which results in additional cost, with the increase in starting torque, )he two types of such motors are descri(ed here.

Capacitor-start Motor

The schematic 6circuit5 diagram of this motor is given in -ig. 1t may be observed that a capacitor along *ith a centrifugal s*itch is connected in series *ith the au.iliary *inding# *hich is being used here as a starting *inding. The capacitor may be rated only for intermittent duty# the cost of *hich decreases# as it is used only at the time of starting. The function of the centrifugal s*itch has been described earlier. The phasor diagram of t*o currents as described earlier# and the torque-speed characteristics of the motor *ith)*ithout au.iliary *inding# are sho*n in -ig. respectively. This motor is used in applications# such as compressor# conveyor# machine tool drive# refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment# etc.

Capacitor-start and Capacitor-run Motor

1n this motor 6-ig. 4;.=a5# t*o capacitors -Cs for starting# and Cr for running# are used. The first capacitor is rated for intermittent duty# as described earlier# being used only for starting. $ centrifugal s*itch is also needed here. The second one is to be rated for continuous duty# as it is used for running. The phasor diagram of t*o currents in both cases# and the torque-speed characteristics *ith t*o *indings having different values of capacitors# are sho*n in -ig. 4;.=b and -ig. 4;.=c respectively. The phase difference bet*een the t*o currents is in the first case 6starting5# *hile it is for L:] second case 6running5. 1n the second case# the motor is a balanced t*o phase one# the t*o *indings having same number of turns and other conditions as given earlier# are also satisfied. So# only the for*ard rotating field is present# and the no bac *ard rotating field e.ists. The efficiency of the motor under this condition is higher. /ence# using t*o capacitors# the performance of the motor improves both at the time of starting and then running. This motor is used in applications# such as compressor# refrigerator# etc.

Beside the above t*o types of motors# a ,ermanent Capacitor Motor 6-ig.5 *ith the same capacitor being utilised for both starting and running# is also used. The po*er factor of this motor# *hen it is operating 6running5# is high. The operation is also quiet and smooth. )his motor is used in applications, such as ceiling fans, air circulator, (lower, etc.

Shaded-pole Motor $ typical shaded-pole motor *ith a cage rotor is sho*n in -ig. This is a singlephase induction motor# *ith main *inding in the stator. $ small portion of each pole is covered *ith a short-circuited# single-turn copper coil called the shading coil. The sinusoidally varying flu. created by ac 6single-phase5 e.citation of the main *inding induces emf in the shading coil. $s a result# induced currents flo* in the shading coil producing their o*n flu. in the shaded portion of the pole.

&et the main winding flu* (e

where

-s per the a(o#e equations, the shading coil current (" sc ) and flu* phasors lag (ehind the induced emf (E sc ) (y angle
o

while the flu* phasor is in phase with

leads the induced emf (Esc ) (y 73 . %(#iously the phasor

)he resultant flu* in the shaded pole is gi#en (y the phasor sum as shown in ,ig. and lags the flu* the angle )he two sinusoidally #arying flu*es of the remaining pole (y are displaced in

space as well as ha#e a time phase difference there(y producing forward and (ac ward rotating fields, which produce a net torque. "t may (e noted that the motor is self-starting unli e a single-phase single-winding motor. "t is seen from the phasor diagram (,ig. /0.:() that the net flu* in the shaded portion of the pole lags the flu* in the unshaded portion of the pole resulting in a net torque, which causes the rotor to rotate from the unshaded to the shaded portion of the pole. )he motor thus has a definite direction of rotation, which cannot (e re#ersed. )he re#ersal of the direction of rotation, where desired, can (e achie#ed (y pro#iding two shading coils, one on each end of e#ery pole, and (y open-circuiting one set of shading coils and (y short-circuiting the other set. )he fact that the shaded-pole motor is single-winding (no au*iliary winding) selfstarting one, ma es it less costly and results in rugged construction. )he motor has low efficiency and is usually a#aila(le in a range of 1!/33 to 1!;3 W. "t is

used for domestic fans, record players and tape recorders, humidifiers, slide pro<ectors, small (usiness machines, etc. )he shaded-pole principle is used in starting electric cloc s and other single-phase synchronous timing motors. 1n this lesson - the si.th and last one of this module# firstly# it is sho*n that# no starting torque is produced in the single-phase induction motor *ith only one 6main5 stator *inding# as the flu. produced is a pulsating one# *ith the *inding being fed from single phase supply. 'sing double revolving field theory# the torque-speed characteristics of this type of motor are descri(ed, and it is also shown that, if the motor is initially gi#en some torque in either direction, the motor accelerates in that direction, and also the torque is produced in that direction. )hen, the #arious types of single-phase induction motors, along with the starting methods used in each one are presented. )wo stator windings - main and au*iliary, are needed to produce the starting torque. )he merits and demerits of each type, along with their application area, are presented. )he process of production of starting torque in shade-pole motor is also descri(ed in (rief. "n the ne*t module consisting of se#en lessons, the construction and also operation of dc machines, (oth as generator and motor, will (e discussed.

UNIT-IV CONVENTIONAL AND SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL OF D.C. DRIVES SPEED CONTROL OF D.C. MOTORS3 1n the case of speed control# armature voltage control and flu. control methods are available. The voltage control can be from a variable voltage source li e %ard&eonard arrangement or by the use of series armature resistance. 'nli e the starting conditions the series resistance has to be in the circuit throughout in the case of speed control. That means considerable energy is lost in these resistors. -urther these resistors must be adequately cooled for continuous operation. The variable voltage source on the other hand gives the motor the voltage Just needed by it and the losses in the control gear is a minimum. This method is commonly used *hen the speed ratio required is large# as also the po*er rating. -ield control or flu. control is also used for speed control purposes. Dormally field *ea ening is used. This causes operation at higher speeds than the nominal speed. Strengthening the field has little scope for speed control as the machines are already in a state of saturation and large field mmf is needed for small increase in the flu.. !ven though flu. *ea ening gives higher speeds of operation it reduces the torque produced by the machine for a given armature current and hence the po*er delivered does not increase at any armature current. The machine is said to be in constant po*er mode under field *ea ening mode of control. $bove the nominal speed of operation# constant u. mode *ith increased applied voltage can be used9 but this is never done as the stress on the commutator insulation increases. Thus operation belo* nominal speed is done by voltage control. $bove the nominal speed field *ea ening is adopted. -or *ea ening the field# series resistances are used for shunt as *ell as compound motors. 1n the case of series motors ho*ever field *ea ening is done by the use of Adiverters. Diverters are resistances that are connected in parallel to the series *inding to reduce the field current *ithout affecting the armature current.

S0ee) c'" %'l '2 (1/" +' '%

%e no* that the speed of shunt motor is given by"

*here# !a is the voltage applied across the armature and ^ is the flu. per pole and is proportional to the field current If. $s e.plained earlier# armature current Ia is decided by the mechanical load present on the shaft. Therefore# by varying !a and If *e can vary n. -or fi.ed supply voltage and the motor connected as shunt *e can vary !a by controlling an e.ternal resistance connected in series *ith the armature. If of course can be varied by controlling e.ternal field resistance Rf connected *ith the field circuit. Thus for shunt motor *e have essentially t*o methods for controlling speed# namely by"

0. (arying armature resistance. 2. (arying field resistance. 1. S0ee) c'" %'l 65 &$%5!"# $%+$ /%e %e(!( $"ce The inherent armature resistance ra being small# speed n versus armature current Ia characteristic *ill be a straight line *ith a small negative slope as sho*n in figure . 1n the discussion to follo* *e shall not disturb the field current from its rated value. $t no load 6i.e.# Ia B :5 speed is highest and Dote that for shunt motor voltage applied to the field and armature circuit are same and equal to the supply voltage !. /o*ever# as the motor is loaded# Iara drop increases ma ing speed a little less than the no load speed n:. -or a *ell-designed shunt motor this drop in speed is small and about 4 to <? *ith respect to no load speed. This drop in speed from no load to full load condition e.pressed as a percentage of no load speed is called the inherent speed regulation of the motor.

1t is for this reason# a d.c shunt motor is said to be practically a constant speed motor 6*ith no e.ternal armature resistance connected5 since speed drops by a small amount from no load to full load condition. Since for constant operation# Te becomes simply proportional to Ia. Therefore# speed vs. torque characteristic is also similar to speed vs. armature current characteristic as sho*n in figure.

The slope of the n vs Ia or n vs Te characteristic can be modified by deliberately connecting e.ternal resistance re#t in the armature circuit. 3ne can get a family of speed

vs. armature curves as sho*n in figures for various values of re#t. -rom these characteristics it can be e.plained ho* speed control is achieved. &et us assume that the load torque T$ is constant and field current is also ept constant. Therefore# since steady state operation demands Te B T$# Te B a % I ^ too *ill remain constant9 *hich means Ia *ill not change. Suppose re#t B :# then at rated load torque# operating point *ill be at C and motor speed *ill be n. 1f additional resistance re#t0 is introduced in the armature circuit# ne* steady state operating speed *ill be n0 corresponding to the operating point D. 1n this *ay one can get a speed of n2 corresponding to the operating point !# *hen re#t2 is introduced in the armature circuit. This same load torque is supplied at various speed. (ariation of the speed is smooth and speed *ill decrease smoothly if re#t is increased. 3bviously# this method is suitable for controlling speed belo* the base speed and for supplying constant rated load torque *hich ensures rated armature current al*ays. $lthough# this method provides smooth *ide range speed control 6from base speed do*n to >ero speed5# has a serious dra* bac since energy loss ta es place in the e.ternal resistance re#t reducing the efficiency of the motor.

*. S0ee) c'" %'l 65 &$%5!"# 2!el) c/%%e" 1n this method field circuit resistance is varied to control the speed of a d.c shunt motor. &et us re*rite .the basic equation to understand the method.

1f *e vary If# flu. *ill change# hence speed *ill vary. To change If an e.ternal resistance is connected in series *ith the field *indings. The field coil produces rated flu. *hen no e.ternal resistance is connected and rated voltage is applied across field coil. 1t should be understood that *e can only decrease flu. from its rated value by adding e.ternal resistance. Thus the speed of the motor *ill rise as *e decrease the field current and speed control above the base speed *ill be achieved. Speed versus armature current characteristic is sho*n in figure for t*o flu. values and Since no load speed for flu. value is than the no load
speed no corresponding to . /o*ever# this method *ill not be suitable for constant load torque. To ma e this point clear# let us assume that the load torque is constant at rated

value. So from the initial steady condition# *e have torque remains constant and flu. is reduced to state is obtained from Therefore ne* armature current is

1f load

ne* armature current in the steady

But the fraction# 9 hence ne* armature current *ill be greater than the rated armature current and the motor *ill be overloaded. This method therefore# *ill be suitable for a load *hose torque demand decreases *ith the rise in speed eeping the output po*er constant as sho*n in figure. 3bviously this method is based on flu# wea%ening of the main field. Therefore at higher speed main flu. may become so *ea ened# that armature reaction effect *ill be more pronounced causing problem in commutation.

3. S0ee) c'" %'l 65 $%+$ /%e &'l $#e &$%!$ !'" 1n this method of speed control# armature is supplied from a separate variable d.c voltage source# *hile the field is separately e.cited *ith fi.ed rated voltage as sho*n in figure. /ere the armature resistance and field current are not varied. Since the no load speed the speed versus Ia characteristic *ill shift parallel as sho*n in figure for different values of !a.

$s flu. remains constant# this method is suitable for constant torque loads. 1n a *ay armature voltage control method is similar to that of armature resistance control method e.cept that the former one is much superior as no e.tra po*er loss ta es place in the armature circuit. $rmature voltage control method is adopted for controlling speed from base speed do*n to very small speed# as one should not apply across the armature a voltage# *hich is higher than the rated voltage. -. <$%) Le'"$%) +e 1')3 c'+6!"$ !'" '2 Va $") If c'" %'l 1n this scheme# both field and armature control are integrated as sho*n in figure. $rrangement for field control is rather simple. 3ne has to simply connect an appropriate rheostat in the field circuit for this purpose. /o*ever# in the pre po*er electronic era# obtaining a variable d.c supply *as not easy and a separately e.cited d.c generator *as used to supply the motor armature. 3bviously to run this generator# a prime mover is

required. $ 4-phase induction motor is used as the prime mover *hich is supplied from a 4-phase supply. By controlling the field current of the generator# the generated emf#

hence !a can be varied. The potential divider connection uses t*o rheostats in parallel to facilitate reversal of generator field current. -irst the induction motor is started *ith generator field current >ero 6by adJusting the Joc ey positions of the rheostats5. -ield supply of the motor is s*itched on *ith motor field rheostat set to >ero. The applied voltage to the motor !a# can no* be gradually increased to the rated value by slo*ly increasing the generator field current. 1n this scheme# no starter is required for the d.c motor as the applied voltage to the armature is gradually increased. To control the speed of the d.c motor belo* base speed by armature voltage# e.citation of the d.c generator is varied# *hile to control the speed above base speed field current of the d.c motor is varied maintaining constant !a. +eversal of direction of rotation of the motor can be obtained by adJusting Joc eys of the generator field rheostats. $lthough# *ide range smooth speed control is achieved# the cost involved is rather high as *e require one additional d.c generator and a 4-phase induction motor of simialr rating as that of the d.c motor *hose speed is intended to be controlled. 1n present day# variable d.c supply can easily be obtained from a.c supply by using controlled rectifiers thus avoiding the use of additional induction motor and generator set to implement %ard leonard method.

Series motor

1n this motor the field *inding is connected in series *ith the armature and the combination is supplied *ith d.c voltage as depicted in figure 4L.04. 'nli e a shunt motor# here field current is not independent of armature current. 1n fact# field and armature currents are equal i.e.# Do* torque produced in a d.c motor is"

Since torque is proportional to the square of the armature current# starting torque of a series motor is quite high compared to a similarly rated d.c shunt motor.

1.C1$%$c e%!( !c( '2 (e%!e( +' '%

T'%./e &(. $%+$ /%e c/%%e" c1$%$c e%!( !c Since in the linear >one and characteristic is as sho*n in figure the saturation >one# the T vs. Ia

(0ee) &(. $%+$ /%e c/%%e" -rom the H(& equation of the motor# the relation bet*een speed and armature current can be obtained as follo*s"

The relationship is inverse in nature ma ing speed dangerously high as +emember that the value of Ia# is a measure of degree of loading. Therefore# a series motor should never be operated under no load condition. 'nli e a shunt motor# a series motor has no finite no load speed. Speed versus armature current characteristic is sho*n in figure nvsia"side"

Since

in the linear >one# the relationship bet*een speed and torque is

represent appropriate constants to ta e into account the proportionality that e.ist bet*een current# torque and flu. in the linear >one. This relation is also inverse in nature indicating once again that at light load or no load condition9 series motor speed approaches a dangerously high value. The characteristic is sho*n in figure. -or this reason# a series motor is never connected to mechanical load through belt drive. 1f belt snaps# the motor becomes unloaded and as a consequence speed goes up unrestricted causing mechanical damages to the motor.

Speed control of series motor

1. S0ee) c'" %'l 6el'9 6$(e (0ee) -or constant load torque# steady armature current remains constant# hence flu. also remains constant. Since the machine resistance a s r 're is quite small# the bac emf b is appro.imately equal to the armature terminal voltage !a. Therefore# speed is proportional to !a. 1f !a is reduced# speed too *ill be reduced. This !a can be controlled either by connecting e.ternal resistance in series or by changing the supply voltage. Se%!e(-0$%$llel c'""ec !'" '2 +' '%( 1f for a drive t*o or more 6even number5 of identical motors are used 6as in traction5# the motors may be suitably connected to have different applied voltages across the motors for controlling speed. 1n series connection of the motors sho*n in figure # the applied voltage across each motor is !)2 *hile in parallel connection sho*n in figure# the applied voltage across each motor is !. The bac emf in the former case *ill be appro.imately half than that in the latter case. -or same armature current in both the cases 6*hich means flu. per pole is same5# speed *ill be half in series connection compared to parallel connection.

*. S0ee) c'" %'l $6'&e 6$(e (0ee) -lu. or field current control is adopted to control speed above the base speed. 1n a series motor# independent control of field current is not so obvious as armature and field coils are in series./o*ever# this can be achieved by the follo*ing methods" 0. U(!"# $ diverter %e(!( $"ce c'""ec e) $c%'(( 1e 2!el) c'!l. 1n this method sho*n in figure 4L.0L# a portion of the armature current is diverted

through the diverter resistance. So field current is no* not equal to the armature current9 in fact it is less than the armature current. -lu. *ea ening thus caused# raises the speed of the motor.

2. C1$"#!"# "/+6e% '2 /%"( '2 2!el) c'!l 0%'&!)e) 9! 1 $0!"#(. 1n this case sho*n figure 4L.2:# armature and field currents are same. /o*ever provision is ept to change the number of turns of the field coil. %hen number of turns changes# field mmf se f ( I changes# changing the flu. hence speed of the motor.

4. C'""ec !"# 2!el) c'!l( 9'/") '&e% e$c1 0'le !" (e%!e( '% !". 0$%$llel. Senerally the field terminals of a d.c machine are brought out after connecting the

field coils 6*ound over each pole5 in series. Consider a ;-pole series motor *here there *ill be ; individual coils placed over the poles. 1f the terminals of the individual coils are

brought out# then there e.ist several options for connecting them. The four coils could be connected in series as in figure 4L.209 the ; coils could be connected in parallel or parallel combination of 2 in series and other 2 in series as sho*n in figure 4L.22. n figure -or series connection of the coils 6figure 4L.205 flu. produced is proportional to Ia and for series-parallel connection 6figure 4L.225 flu. produced is proportional to Therefore# for same armature current Ia# flu. *ill be doubled in the second case and naturally speed *ill be appro.imately doubled as bac emf in both the cases is close to supply voltage !. Thus control of speed in the ratio of 0"2 is possible for series parallel connection.

1n a similar *ay# reader can *or out the variation of speed possible bet*een 6i5 all coils connected in series and 6ii5 all coils connected in parallel.

UNIT-V CONVENTIONAL AND SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL OF A.C. DRIVES SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MACHINES3 %e have seen the speed torque characteristic of the machine. 1n the stable region of operation in the motoring mode# the curve is rather steep and goes from >ero torque at synchronous speed to the stall torque at a value of slip s B Ts. Dormally Ts may be such that stall torque is about three times that of the rated operating torque of the machine# and hence may be about :.4 or less. This means that in the entire loading range of the machine# the speed change is quite small. The machine speed is quite *ith respect to load changes. The entire speed variation is only in the range ns to 60 P Ts5ns# ns being dependent on supply frequency and number of poles. The foregoing discussion sho*s that the induction machine# *hen operating from mains is essentially a constant speed machine. Many industrial drives# typically for fan or pump applications# have typically constant speed requirements and hence the induction machine is ideally suited for these. /o*ever# the induction machine# especially the squirrel cage type# is quite rugged and has a simple construction. Therefore it is good candidate for variable speed applications if it can be achieved. 1. S0ee) c'" %'l 65 c1$"#!"# $00l!e) &'l $#e -rom the torque equation of the induction machine # *e can see that the torque depends on the square of the applied voltage. The variation of speed torque curves *ith respect to the applied voltage is sho*n in -ig. These curves sho* that the slip at ma.imum torque Ts remains same# *hile the value of stall torque comes do*n *ith decrease in applied voltage. The speed range for stable operation remains the same. -urther# *e also note that the starting torque is also lo*er at lo*er voltages. Thus# even if a given voltage level is sufficient for achieving the running torque# the machine may not start. This method of trying to control the speed is best suited for loads that require very little starting torque# but their torque requirement may increase *ith speed.

-igure " Speed-torque curves" voltage variation -igure also sho*s a load torque characteristic R one that is typical of a fan type of load. 1n a fan 6blo*er5 type of load# the variation of torque *ith speed is such that T )Q 2. /ere one can see that it may be possible to run the motor to lo*er speeds *ithin the range ns to 60 P Ts5 ns. -urther# since the load torque at >ero speed is >ero# the machine can start even at reduced voltages. This *ill not be possible *ith constant torque type of loads. 3ne may note that if the applied voltage is reduced# the voltage across the magneti>ing branch also comes do*n. This in turn means that the magneti>ing current and hence u. level are reduced. +eduction in the u. level in the machine impairs torque production 6recall e.planations on torque production5. 1f# ho*ever# the machine is running under lightly loaded conditions# then operating under rated flu. levels is not required. 'nder such conditions# reduction in magneti>ing current improves the po*er factor of operation. Some amount of energy saving may also be achieved. (oltage control may be achieved by adding series resistors 6a lossy# inefficient proposition5# or a series inductor ) autotransformer 6a bul y solution5 or a more modern solution using semiconductor devices. $ typical solid-state circuit used for this purpose is the $C voltage controller or $C chopper. $nother use of voltage control is in the so-called Ksoft-startI of the machine. This is discussed in the section on starting methods. *. R' '% %e(!( $"ce c'" %'l The reader may recall the e.pression for the torque of the induction machine. Clearly# it is dependent on the rotor resistance. -urther# that the ma.imum value is independent of the rotor resistance. The slip at ma.imum torque dependent on the rotor resistance. Therefore# *e may e.pect that if the rotor resistance is changed# the ma.imum torque point shift to higher slip values# *hile retaining a constant torque. -igure sho*s a family of torque-speed characteristic obtained by changing the rotor resistance. Dote that *hile the ma.imum torque and synchronous speed remain constant# the

slip at *hich ma.imum torque occurs increases *ith increase in rotor resistance# and so does the starting torque. %hether the load is of constant torque type or fan-type# it is

evident that the speed control range is more *ith this method. -urther# rotor resistance control could also be used as a means of generating high starting torque. -or all its advantages# the scheme has t*o serious dra*bac s. -irstly# in order to vary the rotor resistance# it is necessary to connect e.ternal variable resistors 6*inding resistance itself cannot be changed5. This therefore necessitates a slip-ring machine# since only in that case rotor terminals are available outside. -or cage rotor machines# there are no rotor terminals. Secondly# the method is not very efficient since the additional resistance and operation at high slips entails dissipation resistors connected to the slipring brushes should have good po*er dissipation capability. %ater based rheostats may be used for this. $ Ksolid-stateI alternative to a rheostat is a chopper controlled resistance *here the duty ratio control of the chopper presents a variable resistance load to the rotor of the induction machine.

-igure" Speed-torque curves " rotor resistance variation 4. Cascade control The po*er dra*n from the rotor terminals could be spent more usefully. $part from using the heat generated in meaning full *ays# the slip ring output could be connected to another induction machine. The stator of the second machine *ould carry slip frequency currents of the first machine# *hich *ould generate some useful mechanical po*er. $ still better option *ould be to mechanically couple the shafts of the t*o machines together. This sort of a connection is called cascade connection and it gives some measure of speed control as sho*n belo*. &et the frequency of supply given to the first machine be f0# its number poles be p0# and its slip of operation be s0. &et f29 p2 and s2 be the corresponding quantities for the second machine. The frequency of currents o*ing in the rotor of the first machine and hence in the stator of the second machine is s0f0. Therefore f2 B s0f0. Since the machines are coupled at the shaft# the speed of the rotor is common for both. /ence# if n is the speed of the rotor

-igure" Senerali>ed rotor control in radians#

Dote that *hile giving the rotor output of the first machine to the stator of the second# the resultant stator mmf of the second machine may set up an air-gap flu. *hich rotates in the same direction as that of the rotor# or opposes it. This results in values for speed as

The latter e.pression is for the case *here the second machine is connected in opposite phase sequence to the first. The cascade-connected system can therefore run at t*o possible speeds. Speed control through rotor terminals can be considered in a much more general *ay. Consider the induction machine equivalent circuit# *here the rotor circuit has been terminated *ith a voltage source !r. 1f the rotor terminals are shorted# it behaves li e a normal induction machine. This is equivalent to saying that across the rotor terminals a voltage source of >ero magnitude is connected. Different situations could then be considered if this voltage source !r had a non->ero magnitude. &et the po*er consumed by that source be ,r. Then considering the rotor side circuit po*er dissipation per phase

Clearly no*# the value of s can be changed by the value of ,r. -or ,r B :# the machine is li e a normal machine *ith a short circuited rotor. $s ,r becomes positive# for all other circuit conditions remaining constant# s increases or in the other *ords# speed reduces. $s ,r becomes negative# the right hand side of the equation and hence the slip decreases. The physical interpretation is that *e no* have an active source connected on the rotor side# *hich is able to supply part of the rotor copper losses. %hen ,r B P1:2 2 +2 the entire copper loss is supplied by the e.ternal source. The +/S and hence the slip is >ero. This corresponds to operation at synchronous speed. 1n general the circuitry connected to the rotor may not be a simple resistor or a machine but a po*er electronic circuit# *hich can process this po*er requirement. This circuit may drive a machine or recover po*er bac to the mains. Such circuits are called static ramer drives.

-. P'le c1$"#!"# (c1e+e(

Sometimes induction machines have a special stator *inding capable of being e.ternally connected to form t*o different number of pole numbers. Since the synchronous speed of the induction machine is given by ns B fsBp 6in rev.)s5 *here p is the number of pole pairs# this *ould correspond to changing the synchronous speed. %ith the slip no* corresponding to the ne* synchronous speed# the operating speed is changed. This method of speed control is a stepped variation and generally restricted to t*o steps. 1f the changes in stator *inding connections are made so that the air gap flu. remains constant# then at any *inding connection# the same ma.imum torque is achievable. Such *inding arrangements are therefore referred to as constant-torque connections. 1f ho*ever such connection changes result in air gap flu. changes that are inversely proportional to the synchronous speeds# then such connections are called constant-horsepo*er type. The follo*ing figure serves to illustrate the basic principle. Consider a magnetic pole structure consisting of four pole faces $# B# C# D in fig. Coils are *ound on $ _ C in the directions sho*n. The t*o coils on $ _ C may be connected in series in t*o different *ays R $2 may be connected to C0 or C2. $0 *ith the other terminal at C then form the terminals of the overall combination. Thus t*o connections result as sho*n in fig. Do*# for a given direction of current flo* at terminal $0# say into terminal $0# the flu. directions *ithin the poles are sho*n in the figures. 1n case 6a5# the flu. lines are out of the pole $ 6seen from the rotor5 for and into pole C# thus establishing a t*o-pole structure.

-igure" ,ole arrangement 1n case 6b5 ho*ever# the flu. lines are out of the poles in $ _ C. The flu. lines *ill be then have to complete the circuit by o*ing into the pole structures on the sides. 1f# *hen seen from the rotor# the pole emanating flu. lines is considered as north pole and the pole into *hich they enter is termed as south# then the pole configurations produced by these connections is a t*o-pole arrangement in fig and a four-pole arrangement. Thus by changing the terminal connections *e get either a t*o pole air-gap field or a four- pole field. 1n an induction machine this *ould correspond to a synchronous speed reduction in half from case 6a5 to case 6b5. -urther note that irrespective of the connection# the applied voltage is balanced by the series addition of induced emfs in t*o coils. Therefore the airgap flu. in both cases is the same. Cases 6a5 and 6b5 therefore form a pair of constant torque connections.

Consider# on the other hand a connection as sho*n in the fig. The terminals T0 and T2 are *here the input e.citation is given. Dote that current direction in the coils no* resembles that of case 6b5# and hence this *ould result in a four-pole structure. /o*ever# in fig# there is only one coil-induced emf to balance the applied voltage. Therefore flu. in case 6c5 *ould therefore be halved compared to that of case 6b5 6or case 6a5# for that matter5. Cases 6a5 and 6c5 therefore form a pair of constant horsepo*er connections. 1t is important to note that in generating a different pole numbers# the current through one coil 6out of t*o# coil C in this case5 is reversed. 1n the case of a threephase machine# the follo*ing e.ample serves to e.plain this. &et the machine have coils connected as sho*n `C0 P C=a The current directions sho*n in C0 _ C2 correspond to the case *here T09 T29 T4 are supplied *ith three phase e.citation and Ta9 Tb _ Tc are shorted to each other 6ST$+ point5. The applied voltage must be balanced by induced emf in one coil only 6C0 _ C2 are parallel5. 1f ho*ever the e.citation is given to Ta9 Tb_ Tc *ith T09 T29 T4 open# then current

through one of the coils 6C0 _ C25 *ould reverse. Thus the effective number of poles *ould increase# thereby bringing do*n the speed. The other coils also face similar conditions. =. S $ '% 2%e./e"c5 c'" %'l The e.pression for the synchronous speed indicates that by changing the stator frequency also it can be changed. This can be achieved by using po*er electronic circuits

called inverters# *hich convert dc to ac of desired frequency. Depending on the type of

control scheme of the inverter# the ac generated may be variable-frequency-fi.edamplitude or variable-frequency- variable-amplitude type. ,o*er electronic control achieves smooth variation of voltage and frequency of the ac output. This *hen fed to the machine is capable of running at a controlled speed. /o*ever# consider the equation for the induced emf in the induction machine.

-igure " ,ole change e.ample" three phase

*here D is the number of the turns per phase# Pm is the pea flu. in the air gap and f is the frequency. Dote that in order to reduce the speed# frequency has to be reduced. 1f the frequency is reduced *hile the voltage is ept constant# thereby requiring the amplitude of induced emf to remain the same# flu. has to increase. This is not advisable since the machine li ely to enter deep saturation. 1f this is to be avoided# then flu. level must be maintained constant *hich implies that voltage must be reduced along *ith frequency. The ratio is held constant in order to maintain the flu. level for ma.imum torque capability. $ctually# it is the voltage across the magneti>ing branch of the e.act equivalent circuit that must be maintained constant# for it is that *hich determines the induced emf. 'nder conditions *here the stator voltage drop is negligible compared the applied voltage# is valid. 1n this mode of operation# the voltage across the magneti>ing inductance in the Ie.actI equivalent circuit reduces in amplitude *ith reduction in frequency and so does the inductive reactance. This implies that the current through the inductance and the flu. in the machine remains constant. The speed torque characteristics at any frequency may be estimated as before. There is one curve for every e.citation frequency considered corresponding to every value of synchronous speed. The curves are sho*n belo*. 1t may be seen that the ma.imum torque remains constant.

-igure " Torque-speed curves *ith !Bf held constant This may be seen mathematically as follo*s. 1f ! is the voltage across the magneti>ing branch and f is the frequency of e.citation# then ! B f# *here is the constant of proportionality. 1fQ B 2Pf# the developed torque is given by

1f this equation is differentiated *ith respect to s and equated to >ero to find the slip at ma.imum torque Ts# *e get Ts B P+: rB6Q &: lr5. The ma.imum torque is obtained by substituting this value into eqn.

!quation sho*s that this ma.imum value is independent of the frequency. -urther TsQ is independent of frequency. This means that the ma.imum torque al*ays occurs at a speed lo*er than synchronous speed by a fi.ed difference# independent of frequency. The overall effect is an apparent shift of the torque-speed characteristic as sho*n in fig. Though this is the aim# ! is an internal voltage# *hich is not accessible. 1t is only the terminal voltage ( that *e have access to and can control. -or a fi.ed (# ! changes *ith operating slip 6rotor branch impedance changes5 and further due to the stator impedance drop. Thus if *e appro.imate !Bf as (Bf# the resulting torque-speed characteristic sho*n in fig. is far from desirable.

-igure " Torque-speed curves *ith (Bf constant $t lo* frequencies and hence lo* voltages the curves sho* a considerable reduction in pea torque. $t lo* frequencies 6and hence at lo* voltages5 the drop across the stator impedance prevents sufficient voltage availability. Therefore# in order to maintain sufficient torque at lo* frequencies# a voltage more than proportional needs to be given at lo* speeds. $nother component of compensation that needs to be given is due to operating slip. %ith these t*o components# therefore# the ratio of applied voltage to frequency is not a constant but is a curve such as that sho*n in fig. %ith this ind of control# it is possible to get a good starting torque and steady state

-igure " (oltage boost required for (Bf control performance. /o*ever# under dynamic conditions# this control is insufficient. $dvanced control techniques such as field- oriented control 6vector control5 or direct torque control 6DTC5 are necessary.

UNIT I 1. De2!"e D%!&e $") Elec %!c D%!&e. D%!&e3 $ combination of prime mover# transmission equipment and mechanical *or ing load is called a drive Elec %!c )%!&e3 $n !lectric Drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting electrical energy to mechanical energy to impart motion to different machines and mechanisms for various inds of process control. *. L!( '/ ('+e e>$+0le( '2 0%!+e +'&e%(. 1.C !ngines# Steam engine# Turbine or electric motors. 4. L!( '/ ('+e $)&$" $#e( '2 elec %!c )%!&e(. i. ii. iii. -. $vailability of electric drives over a *ide range of po*er a fe* *atts to mega *atts. $bility to provide a *ide range of torques over *ide range of speeds. !lectric motors are available in a variety of design in order to ma e them compatible to any type of load.

G!&e ('+e e>$+0le( '2 Elec %!c D%!&e(. i. ii. iii. iv. Driving fans# ventilators# compressors and pumps. &ifting goods by hoists and cranes. 1mparting motion to conveyors in factories# mines and *arehouses +unning e.cavators _ escalators# electric locomotives trains# cars trolley buses# lifts _ drum *inders etc.

=.

<1$ $%e 1e 50e( '2 elec %!c )%!&e(?

ndividual Drives# Multi motor electric drives. @. A. Cl$((!25 elec %!c )%!&e( 6$(e) '" 1e +e$"( '2 c'" %'l. Manual# Semiautomatic# $utomatic. <1$ !( $ G%'/0 Elec %!c D%!&e 7S1$2 D%!&e8?

This drive consists of single motor# *hich drives one or more line shafts

supported on bearings. The line shaft may be fitted *ith either pulleys _ belts or gears# by means of *hich a group of machines or mechanisms may be operated.

1. <1$ $%e 1e $)&$" $#e( $") )!($)&$" $#e( '2 G%'/0 )%!&e 7S1$2 )%!&e8? A)&$" $#e(3 $ single large motor can be used instead of a number of small motors. The rating of the single motor may be appropriately reduced ta ing into account the diversity factor of loads.

D!($)&$" $#e(3 There is no fle.ibility# $ddition of an e.tra machine to the main shaft is difficult. The efficiency of the drive is lo*# because of the losses occurring in several transmitting mechanisms. The complete drive system requires shutdo*n if the motor# requires servicing or repair. The system is not very safe to operate The noise level at the *or spot is very high.

*. <1$ !( $" !")!&!)/$l elec %!c )%!&e? G!&e ('+e e>$+0le(. 1n this drive# each individual machine is driven by a separate motor. This motor also imparts motion to various other parts of the machine. Single spindle drilling machine# &athe machines etc. 3. <1$ !( $ +/l ! +' '% elec %!c )%!&e? G!&e ('+e e>$+0le(. 1n this drive# there are several drives# each of *hich serves to activate on of the *or ing parts of the driven mechanisms.

Metal cutting machine tools# paper ma ing machines# rolling mills# traction drive# Traveling cranes etc.# -. <%! e $6'/ +$"/$l c'" %'l, (e+!$/ '+$ !c c'" %'l B A/ '+$ !c c'" %'l? M$"/$l c'" %'l3 The electric drives *ith manual control can be as simple as a room fan# incorporating on s*itch and a resistance for setting the required speed. Se+!$/ '+$ !c c'" %'l3 This control consists of a manual device for giving a certain command 6Starting# bra ing# reversing# change of speed etc.#5 and an automatic device that in response to command# operates the drive in accordance *ith a preset sequence or order. A/ '+$ !c c'" %'l3 The electric drives *ith automatic control have a control gear# *ithout manual devices 1*. <1$ $%e 1e T50!c$l ele+e" ( '2 $" Elec %!c D%!&e?
,o*er Supply Speed _ Torque Control Seared Coupling

Motor

Mechanical &aod

13. <1$ !( $ l'$) )!$#%$+? <1$ $%e ! ( 50e(? <1$ $%e %e./!%e) ' )%$9 $ l'$) )!$#%$+? $ load diagram is the diagram *hich sho*s graphically the variation of torque acting on the electric drive. The motor of the electric drive has to overcome the load torque e.pressed as a function of time. T50e(3 3ne for the static or steady state process 3ther for the dynamic process# *hen the dynamic components of torque are induced by the inertia of the motor _ load. 61nstantaneous speed# acceleration# Torque _ po*er5 as a function of time are required to dra*b.. 1-. <1$ $%e 1e 50e( D%!&e (5( e+(?

!lectric Drives !lectromechanical Drives

Mechanical Drives /ydraulic drives.

1=. G!&e $" e>0%e((!'" 2'% 1e l'((e( 'cc/%%!"# !" $ +$c1!"e. The losses occurring in a machine is given by < C <c D >* <& <1e%e %c B Constant losses %v B (ariable losses at full load c B load on the motor e.pressed as a function of rated load. 1@. <1$ $%e 1e $((/+0 !'"( +$)e 91!le 0e%2'%+!"# 1e$ !"# B c''l!"# c$lc/l$ !'" '2 $" elec %!c +' '%? i. The machine is considered to be a homogeneous body having a uniform temperature gradient. $ll the points at *hich heat generated have the same temperature. $ll the points at *hich heat is dissipated are also at same temperature. /eat dissipation ta ing place is proportional to the difference of temperature of the body and surrounding medium. Do heat is radiated. The rate of dissipation of heat is constant at all temperatures.

ii. iii.

1A. <1$ $%e 1e 2$c '%( 1$ !"2l/e"ce 1e c1'!ce '2 elec %!c$l )%!&e(? 0. Shaft po*er _ speed 00. Speed range 2. ,o*er range 02. !fficiency 4. Starting torque 04.1nfluence on the supply net*or ;. Maintenance 0;. Special competence <. Total purchase cost 0<. Cost of energy losses =. 1nfluence on po*er supply 0=. !nvironment E. $vailability 0E. $ccessibility F. Dature of electric supply 0F. Dature of load L. Types of drive 0L. !lectrical Characteristics 0:.Service cost 2:. Service capacity _ rating 18. I")!c$ e 1e !+0'% $"ce '2 0'9e% %$ !"# B 1e$ !"# '2 elec %!c )%!&e(. P'9e% %$ !"#3 Correct selection of po*er rating of electric motor is of economic interest as it is associated *ith capital cost and running cost of drives. He$ !"#3 -or proper selection of po*er rating the most important consideration is the heating effect

of load. 1n this connection various forms of loading or duty cycles have to be considered. 19. H'9 1e$ !"# 'cc/%( !" +' '% )%!&e(?

The heating of motor due to losses occurring inside the motor *hile converting the electrical po*er into mechanical po*er and these losses occur in steel core# motor *inding _ bearing friction. *0. <1$ $%e 1e cl$((e( '2 )/ !e(? 0. Continuous duty 2. Short time duty operation of motor Main classes of duties 4. 1ntermittent periodic duty ;. 1ntermittent periodic duty *ith starting <. 1ntermittent periodic duty *ith starting _ bra ing =. Continuous duty *ith intermittent periodic loading E. Continuous duty *ith starting _ bra ing F. Continuous duty *ith periodic load changes

*1. H'9 9!ll 5'/ cl$((!25 elec %!c )%!&e( 6$(e) '" 1e +e 1') '2 (0ee) c'" %'l? 0. 2. 4. ;. <. =. **. +eversible _non reversible in controlled constant speed +eversible and non reversible step speed control +eversible and non reversible smooth speed control Constant predetermined position control (ariable position control Composite control.

L!( '/ ('+e $00l!c$ !'"( 2'% 91!c1 c'" !"/'/( )/ 5 !( %e./!%e). Centrifugal pumps# fans# conveyors _ compressors

*3. <15 1e l'((e( $ ( $% !"# !( "' $ 2$c '% '2 c'"(!)e%$ !'" !" $ c'" !"/'/( )/ 5 +' '%? %hile selecting a motor for this type of duty it is not necessary to give importance to the heating caused by losses at starting even though they are more than the losses at rated load. This is because the motor does not require frequent starting it is started only once in its duty cycle and the losses during starting do not have much influence on heating. *-. <1$ !( +e$" 65 E(1'% !+e %$ !"# '2 +' '%F? $ny electric motor that is rated for a po*er rating , for continuous operation can be loaded for a short time duty 6,sh5 that is much higher than ,# if the temperature rise is the consideration.

*=.

<1$ !( +e$" 65 El'$) e./$l!G$ !'"F? 1n the method of Xload !quali>ationY intentionally the motor inertia is increased by adding a fly*heel on the motor shaft# if the motor is not to be reversed. -or effectiveness of the fly*heel# the motor should have a prominent drooping characteristic so that on load there is a considerable speed drop. *@. H'9 $ +' '% %$ !"# !( )e e%+!"e) !" $ c'" !"/'/( )/ 5 $") &$%!$6le l'$) ? 0. Method of $verage losses 2. Method of equivalent po*er 4. Method of equivalent current ;. Method of equivalent Torque *A. De2!"e 1e$ !"# !+e c'"( $" B C''l!"# !+e c'"( $" ?

*8.

D%$9 1e 1e$ !"# B C''l!"# c/%&e '2 $" elec %!c +' '%.

*9.

<1$ $%e 1e &$%!'/( 2/"c !'" 0e%2'%+e) 65 $" elec %!c )%!&e? 0. Driving fans# ventilators# compressors _ pumps etc.# 2. &ifting goods by hoists _ cranes 4. 1mparting motion to conveyors in factories# mines _ *arehouses and ;. +unning e.cavators _ escalators# electric locomotives# trains# cars# trolley buses and lifts etc. <%! e )'9" 1e 1e$ 6$l$"ce e./$ !'". /eat balance equation is given by Shd: O S: .dt B p.dt

30.

ELECTRICAL MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

1. <15 $ (!"#le 01$(e !")/c !'" +' '% )'e( "' (el2 ( $% ? %hen a single phase supply is fed to the single phase induction motor. 1ts stator *inding produces a flu. *hich only alternates along one space a.is. 1t is not a synchronously revolving field# as in the case of a 2 or 4phase stator *inding# fed from 2 or 4 phase supply. *. <1$ !( +e$" 65 0l/##!"#? The plugging operation can be achieved by changing the polarity of the motor there by reversing the direction of rotation of the motor. This can be achieved in ac motors by changing the phase sequence and in dc motors by changing the polarity. 4. G!&e ('+e $00l!c$ !'"( '2 DC +' '%. S1/" 3 driving constant speed# lathes# centrifugal pumps# machine tools# blo*ers and fans# reciprocating pumps Se%!e( 3 electric locomotives# rapid transit systems# trolley cars# cranes and hoists# conveyors C'+0'/") 3 elevators# air compressors# rolling mills# heavy planners. -. <1$ $%e 1e )!22e%e" 50e( '2 elec %!c 6%$4!"#? Dynamic or +heostatic bra ing# Counter current or plugging and +egenerative bra ing =. <1$ !( 1e e22ec '2 &$%!$ !'" '2 $%+$ /%e &'l $#e '" N-T c/%&e $") 1'9 ! c$" 6e $c1!e&e)? The D-T curve moves to*ards the right *hen the voltage is increased. This can be achieved by means of additional resistance in the armature circuit or by using thyristor po*er converter. @. C'+0$%e elec %!c$l $") +ec1$"!c$l 6%$4!"#. Mec1$"!c$l Bra es require frequent maintenance Dot smooth Can be applied to hold the system at any position torque. Elec %!c$l very little maintenance smooth cannot produce holding

A. <1e" )'e( $" !")/c !'" +' '% 6e1$&e ' %/" '22 $( $ #e"e%$ '%? %hen the rotor of an induction motor runs faster than the stator field# the slip becomes negative. +egenerative bra ing occurs and the H.!. of the rotating parts is return bac to the supply as electrical energy and thus the machine generates po*er. 8. De2!"e (l!0. S B Ds Dr Ds %here# Ds
Dr

B synchronous speed in rpm. B rotor speed in rpm B Slip

9. De2!"e (5"c1%'"'/( (0ee). 1t is given by Ds B 02:f ) p rpm. %here Ds B synchronous speed# p B no. of stator poles# f B supply frequency in />

10. <15 $ (!"#le 01$(e !")/c !'" +' '% )'e( "' (el2 ( $% ? %hen a single phase supply is fed to the single phase induction motor. 1ts stator *inding produces a flu. *hich only alternates along one space a.is. 1t is not a synchronously revolving field# as in the case of a 2 or 4phase stator *inding# fed from 2 or 4 phase supply. =. <1$ !( +e$" 65 %e#e"e%$ !&e 6%$4!"#? 1n the regenerative bra ing operation# the motor operates as a generator# *hile it is still connected to the supply here# the motor speed is grater that the synchronous speed. Mechanical energy is converter into electrical energy# part of *hich is returned to the supply and rest as heat in the *inding and bearing. @. G!&e ('+e $00l!c$ !'"( '2 DC +' '%. Shunt " driving constant speed# lathes# centrifugal pumps# machine tools# blo*ers and fans# reciprocating pumps Series " electric locomotives# rapid transit systems# trolley cars# cranes and hoists# conveyors Compound " elevators# air compressors# rolling mills# heavy planners.

A. C'+0$%e elec %!c$l $") +ec1$"!c$l 6%$4!"#.

Mec1$"!c$l Elec %!c$l

Bra es require frequent maintenance Dot smooth Can be applied to hold the system at any position torque.

very little maintenance smooth cannot produce holding

8. D!22e%e" !$ e c/+/l$ !&e $") )!22e%e" !$l c'+0'/") +' '%(.

C/+/l$ !&e )!22e%e" !$l

The orientation of the series flu. $!)( the shunt flu. shunt flu. 9. <1$ !( +e$" 65 +ec1$"!c$l c1$%$c e%!( !c(? $ curve dra*n bet*een the parameters speed and torque.

series flu. opposes

UNIT III STARTING METHODS

1. Mention the Starters used to start a DC )wo point +tarter )hree point +tarter ,our point +tarter !. Mention the Starters used to start an Indu"tion $.%.& +tarter ($irect %nline +tarter) +tar-$elta +tarter -uto )ransformer +tarter =eactance or =esistance starter +tator =otor +tarter (=otor =esistance +tarter) #. $hat are the %rote"ti&e de&i"es in a DC'AC %#er load =elease (%.&.=) or No #olt coil .old on >oil )hermal =elays ,uses(+tarting !=unning) %#er load relay otor Starter. otor. otor.

(. Is it %ossi)*e to in"*ude' E+"*ude e+terna* resistan"e in the rotor o, a S-uirre* "a.e indu"tion otor/. 0usti,y No it is not possi(le to include! E*clude e*ternal resistance in the rotor of a +quirrel cage induction motor (ecause, the rotors (ars are permanently short circuited (y means of circuiting rings (end rings) at (oth the ends. i.e. no slip rings to do so. 1. Gi&e the %ri e %ur%ose o, a starter ,or otors.

when induction motor is switched on to the supply, it ta es a(out 9 to : times full load current at starting. )his starting current may (e of such a magnitude as to cause o(<ectiona(le #oltage drop in the lines. +o +tarters are necessary 2. $hy otor ta3e hea&y "urrent at startin./

When / phase supply is gi#en to the stator of an induction motor, magnetic field rotating in space at synchronous speed is produced. )his magnetic field is cut (y the rotor conductors, which are short circuited. )his gi#es to induced current in them. +ince rotor of an induction motor (eha#es as a short circuited secondary of a transformer whose primary is stator winding, hea#y rotor current will require corresponding hea#y stator (alancing currents. Thus motor draws heavy current at starting 4. $hat are the ethods to redu"e the a.nitude o, rotor "urrent 5rotor indu"ed "urrent6 at startin./. 6y increasing the resistance in the rotor circuit 6y reducing the magnitude of rotating magnetic field i.e (y reducing the applied #oltage to the stator windings. 7. $hat is the o)8e"ti&e o, rotor resistan"e starter 5stator rotor starter6/
)o include resistance in the rotor circuit there current at starting. )his can (e implemented only

(y reducing the induced rotor on a slip ring induction motor.

9. $hy s-uirre* "a.e indu"tion startin. tor-ue/

otors are not used ,or *oads re-uirin. hi.h

+quirrel cage motors are started only (y reduced voltage starting methods which leads to the de#elopment of low starting torque at starting. )his is the reason Why squirrel cage induction motors are not used for loads requiring high starting torque. 1:. How redu"ed &o*ta.e startin. o, Indu"tion otor is a"hi&ed/ .

$.%.& +tarter ($irect %nline +tarter) +tar-$elta +tarter -uto )ransformer +tarter =eactance or =esistance starter 11. Gi&e the re*ation )etween *ine &o*ta.e and %hase &o*ta.e in a (i) $elta connected networ (ii) +tar connected networ De*ta "onne"ted networ3: Vphase 4 Vline Star "onne"ted networ3: Vphase 4 Vline ! ?/ 1!. Gi&e so e ad&anta.es and disad&anta.es o, D.O.; starter. Ad&anta.es: .ighest starting torque &ow cost @reatest simplicity Disad&anta.es: )he inrush current of large motors may cause e*cessi#e #oltage drop in the wea power system )he torque may (e limited to protect certain types of loads. 1#. E+%*ain dou)*e sta.e redu"tion o, *ine "urrent in an Auto trans,or er starter. ,irst stage reduction is due to reduced applied #oltage +econd stage reduction is due to reduced num(er of turns 1(. Co %are the Indu"tion < o, *ine &o*ta. e a%%*ie d 0::? <E.E? F:? otor starters Startin. "urrent 5I(6"o %ared with D.O.; "urrent5I)'l6 1s B 1dol 1s B 60)?/52 1dol 1s B6:.F52 1dol =u** *oad "urrent5I 6 1s B =1 1s B 21 1s B 4.F; 1 Startin. tor-ue 5Ts6"o %ared with D.O.; Tor-ue5T)'l6 Ts B Tdol Ts B 60)?/52 Tdol Ts B B6:.F52 Tdol =u** *oad tor-ue5T6 Ts B =T Ts B 2)4T Ts B 0.2F T

Des"ri%tion o, Starter

D.3.& Starter Star Delta starter $uto transformer

starter +eactanceresistance starter

=:? ;:? =;?

1s B6:.=52 1dol 1s B6:.;52 1dol

2

1s B 2.0= 1 1s B :.L= 1 1s B 2.< 1

Ts B B6:.=52 Tdol Ts B B6:.;52 Tdol 2 Ts B6:.;2<5 Tdol

Ts B :.E2 T Ts B :.42 T Ts B :.4<T otor with

1s B 6:.=;5 1dol

11. Draw the S%eed>Tor-ue "hara"teristi"s o, an Indu"tion &arious &a*ues o, Rotor Resistan"e. +otor +esistance 1ncreasing Tma.

Torque

Speed

UNIT H IV CONVENTIONAL SPEED CONTROL

1. G!&e 1e e>0%e((!'" 2'% (0ee) 2'% $ DC +' '%. Speed D B 6(-1a+a5

*here ( B Terminal (oltage in volts 1a B $rmature current in $mps +a B $rmature resistance in ohms B flu. per pole. *. <1$ $%e 1e 9$5( '2 (0ee) c'" %'l !" )c +' '%(? -ield control by varying the flu. per pole. -for above rated speed

$rmature control- by varying the terminal voltage

-for belo* rated speed

3. G!&e 1e L!+! $ !'" '2 2!el) c'" %'l a. Speed lo*er than the rated speed cannot be obtained. b. 1t can cope *ith constant % drives only. c. This control is not suitable to application needing speed reversal. -. C'+0e"($ !"# 9!")!"# c$" 6e /(e) ' !"c%e$(e 1e (0ee) %$"#e !" 2!el) c'" %'l +e 1') =. <1$ $%e 1e 3 9$5( '2 2!el) c'" %'l !" DC (e%!e( +' '%? -ield diverter control $rmature diverter control Motor diverter control -ield coil taps control Series-parallel control

@. <1$ $%e 1e +$!" $00l!c$ !'"( '2 <$%)-Le'"$%) (5( e+? 1t is used for colliery *inders. !lectric e.cavators 1n elevators Main drives in steel mills and blooming and paper mills.

A. <1$ $%e 1e +e%! ( $") )e+e%! ( '2 %1e'( $ !c c'" %'l +e 1')? 1mpossible to eep the speed constant on rapidly changing loads. $ large amount of po*er is *asted in the controller resistance. &oss of po*er is directly proportional to the reduction in speed. /ence efficiency is decreased. Ma.imum po*er developed is diminished in the same ratio as speed. 1t needs e.pensive arrangements for dissipation of heat produced in the controller resistance. 1t gives speed belo* normal# not above. 8. <1$ $%e 1e $)&$" $#e( '2 2!el) c'" %'l +e 1')?

More economical# more efficient and convenient.

 1t can give speeds above normal speed.

9. C'+0$%e 1e &$l/e( '2 (0ee) $") '%./e !" c$(e '2 +' '%( 91e" !" 0$%$llel $") !" (e%!e(. The speed is one fourth the speed of the motor *hen in parallel. The torque is four times that produced by the motor *hen in parallel. 10. Me" !'" 1e (0ee) c'" %'l +e 1') e+0l'5e) !" elec %!c %$c !'". Series-parallel speed control. 11. <1$ !( 1e e22ec '2 !"(e% !"# %e(!( $"ce !" 1e 2!el) c!%c/! '2 $ )c (1/" +' '% '" ! ( (0ee) $") '%./e? -or a constant supply voltage# flu. *ill decrease# speed *ill increase and torque *ill increase. 1*. <1!le c'" %'ll!"# 1e (0ee) '2 $ )c (1/" +' '% 91$ (1'/l) 6e )'"e ' $c1!e&e $ c'"( $" '%./e )%!&e?
$pplied voltage should be maintained constant so as to maintain field strength

SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL

1. <1$ !( $ c'" %'lle) %ec !2!e%? $ controlled rectifier is a device *hich is used for converting controlled dc po*er from a control voltage ac supply. *. <1$ !( 2!%!"# $"#le? The control of dc voltage is achieved by firing the thyristor at an adJustable angle *ith respect to the applied voltage. This angle is no*n as firing angle. 3. G!&e ('+e $00l!c$ !'"( '2 01$(e c'" %'l c'"&e% e%(. ,hase control converters are used in the speed control of fractional % dc motors as *ell as in large motors employed in variable speed reversing drives for rolling mills. *ith motors ratings as large as several M%s. -. <1$ !( 1e +$!" 0/%0'(e '2 2%ee 91eel!"# )!')e? -ree *heeling diode is connected across the motor terminal to allo* for the dissipation of energy stored in motor inductance and to provide for continuity of motor current *hen the thyristors are bloc ed. =. <1$ !( $ 2/ll c'"&e% e%? $ full converter is a to* quadrant converter in *hich the voltage polarity of the output can reverse# but the current remains unidirectional because of unidirectional thyristors. @. <1$ !( "$ /%$l '% l!"e c'++/ $ !'"? The commutation *hich occurs *ithout any action of e.ternal force is called natural or line commutation. A. <1$ !( 2'%ce) c'++/ $ !'"? The commutation process *hich ta es place by the action of an e.ternal force is called forced commutation. 8. <1$ !( $ c1'00e%? $ chopper is essentially an electronic s*itch that turns on the fi.ed-voltage dc source for a short time intervals and applies the source potential to motor terminals in series of pulses.

9. <1$ $%e 1e 9' +$!" )!22!c/l !e( '2 &$%!$6le 2%e./e"c5 (5( e+? Control of (a requires variation of chopper frequency over a *ide range. -ilter design for variable frequency operation is difficult.
10. A l'9 &'l $#e, $ l$%#e &$l/e '2 '22 +$4e( 1e +' '% c/%%e" )!(c'" !"/'/(.

Classify commutation. (oltage commutation Current commutation. 11. <1$ !( &'l $#e c'++/ $ !'"? $ charged capacitor momentarily reverse-bias the conducting thyristor to turn it off. This is no*n as voltage commutation. 1*. <1$ !( c/%%e" c'++/ $ !'"? $ current pulse is forced in the reverse direction through the conducting thyristor. $s the net current becomes >ero# the thyristor is turned 3--. This is no*n as current commutation. 13. <1$ !( l'$) c'++/ $ !'"? The load current flo*ing through the thyristor either becomes >ero 6as in natural or line commutation employed in converters5 or is transferred to another device from the conducting thyristor. This is no*n as load commutation. 1-. <1$ $%e 1e )!22e%e" +e$"( '2 c'" %'ll!"# !")/c !'" +' '%? Stator voltage control. -requency control ,ole changing control. Slip po*er recovery control.

1=. <1$ $%e 1e 9' 9$5( '2 c'" %'ll!"# 1e RMS &$l/e '2 ( $ '% &'l $#e? ,hase control 1ntegral cycle control 1@. Me" !'" 1e 9' (l!0-0'9e% %ec'&e%5 (c1e+e(.

 Static scherbius scheme Static Hramer drive scheme. 1A. G!&e 1e 6$(!c )!22e%e"ce 6e 9ee" 1e 9' (l!0-0'9e% %ec'&e%5 (c1e+e(. The slip is returned to the supply net*or in scherbius scheme and in Hramer scheme# it is used to drive an au.iliary motor *hich is mechanically coupled to the induction motor shaft. 18. <%! e (1'% "' e( '" !"&e% e% %ec !2!e%. The dc source could be converted to ac form by an inverter# transformed to a suitable voltage and then rectified to dc form. Because of t*o stage of conversion# the setup is bul y# costly and less efficient. 19. G!&e 1e (0ec!$l 2e$ /%e( '2 ( $ !c (c1e%6!/( (c1e+e.
The scheme has applications in large po*er fan and pump drives *hich requires speed control in anrro* range only.
1f ma.. slip is denoted by Sma.# then po*er rating of diode# inverter and

transformer can be Just Sma. times motor po*er rating resulting in a lo* cost drive.

This drive provides a constant torque control. *0. <1$ $%e 1e $)&$" $#e( '2 ( $ !c ;%$+e% (5( e+,, '&e% ( $ !c (c1e%6!/( (5( e+?
Since a static Hramer system possesses no line commutated inverter# it causes less reactive po*er and smaller harmonic contents of current than a static scherbius.

%hat is electrical po*er supply system@

The generation# transmission and distribution system of electrical po*er is called electrical po*er supply system.

*1. <1$ $%e 1e - +$!" 0$% ( '2 )!( %!6/ !'" (5( e+? -eeders# Distributors and Service mains. **. <1$ $%e 2ee)e%(?

-eeders are conductors *hich connect the stations 6in some cases generating stations5 to the areas to be fed by those stations. *3. <1$ $%e 1e $)&$" $#e( '2 1!#1 &'l $#e )c (5( e+ '&e% 1!#1 &'l $#e $c (5( e+? 1t requires only to* conductors for transmission and it is also possible to transmit the po*er through only one conductor by using earth as returning conductor# hence much copper is saved. Do inductance# capacitance# phase displacement and surge problem. There is no s in effect in dc# cross section of line conductor is fully utili>ed. *-. <1$ )' 5'/ +e$" 65 1e e%+ e$% 1!"#? The term XearthingY means connecting the non-current carrying parts of electrical equipment to the neutral point of the supply system to the general mass of earth in such a manner that at all time an immediate discharge of electrical energy ta es place *ithout danger. *=. <1$ $%e 1e )!22e%e" +e 1')( '2 0%'&!)!"# "e/ %$l e$% 1!"#?

Solid earthing +esistance earthing +eactance earthing $rc suppression coil or ,eterson coil earthing.