2phase Flow and Boiling Heat Transfer

22.
313 THERMAL HYDRAULICS IN NUCLEAR POWER TECHNOLOGY

PROBLEM UU-1 QUESTION
Calculate the vapor temperature and the wall temperature, in a vertical round
tube of 12.6 mm inside diameter, downstream of the dryout point (upto 2 m)
for the following conditions:
Flow direction : Upflow
Fluid : Steam-Water
Pressure : 70 bar
Heat Flux : 852 kW/m
2
Mass Flux : 650 kg/s-m
2
Equilibrium Quality
at Dryout point : 0.80
Use the following three models for vapor generation:
a) Complete thermal nonequilibrium or Frozen model
b) Thermal equilibrium model
c) An actual vapor generation model, say Chen model (Ref. 2)
Repeat the above calculations for the following conditions also:
Flow direction : Upflow
Fluid : Steam-Water
Pressure : 70 bar
Heat Flux : 1700 kW/m
2
Mass Flux : 3800 kg/s-m
2
Equilibrium Quality
at Dryout point : 0.30
Page 1
Page 1 of 2 pages
PROBLEM 1-1N QUESTION
Worldwide Utilization Of Power Reactor Technology
Thermal Reactor Moderator-Coolant Matrix (attached page 2)
For each position, identify either:
1. The principal Technical reason that this moderator-coolant combination cannot be
exploited, or
2. The name of one (or more) reactor plants that have been built using this combination.
References For Thermal Reactor Types
"List of operational Nuclear Power Plants, " Nuclear News, August 1992.
Dietrich and Zinn, Solid Fuel Reactors, Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., Reading MA, 1958.
Directory of Nuclear Reactors, International Atomic Energy Commission, Vienna,
published annually.
Kuljian, Nuclear Power Plant Design, A.S. Barnes & Co., Cranbury NJ, 1968.
Safety Issues at Defense Production Reactors, National Academy Press, 1987.
Zinn, Pittman, Hogerton, Nuclear Power, USA, McGraw-Hill, date? (TK9202.278).
This is only a partial list of the resources available for this assignment. If there are
any sources that you found to be particularly helpful, please give the name of the
reference to the TA for future use.
Rev August 28, 2000
Problem 1-1N Question
Page 2 of 2 pages
WORLDWIDE UTLIZATION OF POWER REACTOR TECHNOLOGY
THERMAL REACTOR TYPES
Coolant Light Water Heavy Water Organic Gas Liquid Metal
Moderators

Pressurized Boiling Pressurized Boiling HB-40
Santowax-OM
Hydrogen,Nitrogen,
CO
2
, Helium
NaK
Na
Light Water
Heavy
V
E
S
S
E
L
Water
T
U
B
E
Graphite
Beryllium
Organic
Page 1 of 1 page
Analysis Of Reactor Types
NOTE: The use of MathCAD is not required for this problem set; however, now would be a good
time to familiarize yourself with MathCAD since it may significantly reduce the work involved with
future problems.
This problem set involves calculations that show some typical differences between reactor types.
1) Compare average heat deposition rates for seven reactor types: (BWR, PWR(W), PHWR,
HTGR, AGR, LMFBR core region (C), and LMFBR axial and radial blanket regions (BA &
BR)). Details are:
a) Use information in Tables 1-2, 1-3, and 2-3 to find core average values of the linear heat
generation rate, q' (kW/m). Do not use the "linear heat rate" row in Table 2-3. Note: 90% of
the LMFBR power is deposited in the C region.
b) After calculating part a), why are the reactor types listed in the order found in 1)?
c) Use your calculate q' to compute the surface heat flux, q" (kW/m
2
), and the volumetric heat
generation rate, q"' (kW/m
3
) for the same reactor types.
Rev August 28, 2000
Page 1 of 1 page
Relationships Between Assemblies Of Different Pin Arrays
A utility wishes to replace the fuel in its existing PWR from 15x15 fuel pin array assemblies to
17x17 fuel pin array assemblies. What is the ratio of the core average linear power, q, in the new
core to the old core, assuming reactor power length and number of fuel assemblies are maintained
constant, i.e.,
a)
q
17x17
q
15x15
= ?
b)
q
17x17
q
15x15
= ?
Rev August 28, 2000
(
22.313 THERMAL HYDRAULICS IN NUCLEAR POWER TECHNOLOGY
PROBLEM OO-2 QUESTION
In annular flow liquid, droplets are carried in the gaseous core at an average velocity, V
d
,
which is close to the average gas velocity, V
g
. On the contrary, the average liquid film velocity,
V
f
, is significantly lower than the gas velocity.
It is proposed to formulate a separate, three-velocity flow model. Calling A
g
, A
f
, and A
d
the cross-
sectional area of the pipe covered by gas, liquid film and liquid droplets, respectively, we define:
=
A
g
and
d
=
A
d
A A
d
+A
f
Similarly, calling w
g
, w
f
, and w
d
the gas, liquid film and liquid droplet mass flow rates, we define:
x=
w
g
and x
d
=
w
d
w w
d
+w
f
You are asked to extend the expressions developed for separated flow, steady-state accelerational
and gravitational pressure gradients i.e.:
|dp|
| = G
2
d
(1 x)
2
+
x
2
(
(
\
dz
.
ac
dz
(1 )
f
|dp|
| =(
g
+ (1 )
f
)gcos
\
dz
.
gr
to this three-velocity model using the definition of
d
and x
d
given above.
Suggestion: For the gravity term, think, the answer is simple.
For the acceleration term, it may be simplest to derive the expression from first
principles considering the momentum of each component, gas, liquid film and
liquid droplets separately.
Page 1
Page 1 of 1 page
Energy Sources In A Typical PWR
Compute the energy sources in a typical PWR (Sequoyah - Table 1-2) which the containment
might have to accommodate.
1. Stored Energy in primary coolant. Should enthalpy or internal energy be used: Explain.
2. Stored energy in secondary side of the steam generator (assume 89 m
3
of saturated liquid at
secondary system conditions).
3. Decay Heat integrated release over a one day shutdown period after infinite operation.
4. Chemical Reactions
a) metal-water reaction of 75% of the zircaloy clad.
b) reaction of 25% of the zircaloy clad with CO
2
to produce C which then reacts with CO
2
to produce CO. Assume reactions are constrained only by amount of zircaloy available.
5. Combustion of hydrogen and carbon monoxide product in (4) above.
Reaction Heat
Zr + 2H
2
O ZrO
2
+ 2H
2 + 6.057x10
5
J/mol of Zr
Zr + CO
2
ZrO
2
+ C + 7.05x10
5
J/mol of CO
2
C + H
2
O CO + H
2 - 1.31x10
5
J/mol of H
2
O
C + CO
2
2CO - 1.74x10
5
J/mol of CO
2
* Please pay attention to Heat Unit
Combustion Reactions
H
2
+
1
2
O
2
H
2
O
+ 2.4x10
5
J/mol of H
2
CO
2
+
1
2
O
2
CO
2
+ 2.85x10
5
J/mol of CO
Rev August 28, 2000
Page 1 of 1 page
Decay Heat From A PWR Fuel Rod
A decay heat cooling system is capable of removing 1 kW from the surface of a typical PWR
(Sequoyah, Table 1-2; and PWR(W), Table 2-3) fuel rod. Assume the rod has operated for an
essentially infinite period before shutdown.
1. At what time will the decay energy generation rate be matched by the cooling capability?
2. What is the maximum amount of decay heat energy that will be stored in the rod following
shutdown?
Rev August 28, 2000
Page 1 of 1 page
Decay Power Calculations Of A 3-Batch PWR Core
A PWR core has been operated on a three-batch fuel management scheme on an 18-month
refueling cycle, e.g., at every 18 months, one third the core loading is replaced with fresh fuel. A
new batch is first loaded into the core in a distributed fashion such that it generates 43% of the core
power. After 18 months of operation, it is shuffled to other core locations where it generates 33%
of the core power. After another 18 months, it is moved to other core locations where it generates
24% of the core power.
QUESTION
The plant rating is a 3400 MWth. Assume it is shutdown after an 18-month operating cycle.
What is the decay power of the plant one hour after shutdown if it has operated continuously at
100% power during each of the preceding three 18-month operating cycles and the shutdown
periods for refueling were each of 35 days duration.
Solve this problem in two ways.
a) Consider the explicit operating history of each of the three batches to the core decay power.
b) Assume the whole core had been operating for a infinite period before shutdown.
Rev August 28, 2000
PROBLEM OO-3 QUESTION
Consider a BWR with the following characteristics:
Lattice Array: 7x7 Square
Rod Pitch: 18.8 mm
Rod Diameter: 14.3 mm
Heated Length: 3.66 m
Wall Heat Flux: 1.0 MW/m2
Heat Flux Axial Distribution: Uniform
System Pressure: 6.89 MPa
Water Inlet Temperature: 271.3 C
Notes:
a. The nominal mass flow rate through an interior sub-channel is 0.34 kg/sec.
b. You may ignore the unheated lengths at both ends of the fuel.
c. You may ignore form losses, entrance effects, and exit effects.
Questions:
1 Calculate the pressure drop across the core using the Thom and Baroczy separated flow
correlations.
2 Calculate the pressure drop components using a HEM model (be sure to specify the
specific formulation you select)
3 Compare the results from parts 1 and 2. Explain any differences that you observe. Which
results are the most reliable?
Page 1
Page 1 of 2 pages
Thermodynamics Of Binary Cycle Involving Sodium And Steam Water
Consider the binary cycle using the sodium and steam/water in the sketch below and operating at
conditions in Table 1. Sodium properties are in the text Appendix E.
1. Draw T-S diagram of the cycle.
2. Compute the cycle thermal efficiency.
Boiler
Heater
H
e
a
t

E
x
c
h
a
n
g
e
r
Condenser
Turbine
Turbine
Pump Pump
a
b
c
d
1
2
3
4
5
Schematic Diagram of Binary Cycle
Rev August 29, 2000
Page 2 of 2 pages
Table 1. Operating Conditions
Points Pressure (psia) Condition
a 105.2 Saturated Vapor of Sodium
b 1.317
c 1.317 Saturated Liquid of Sodium
d 105.2
1 600.0 Superheated Steam at T = 680F
2 1.0
3 1.0 Saturated Liquid
4 600.0
5 600.0 Saturated Vapor
Turbine Isentropic Efficiency = 90%
Pump Isentropic Efficiency = 85%
Page 1 of 1 page
Proofs Involving The Brayton Cycle
A. The Brayton Cycle identified in Figure 1 utilizes intercooling. The replacement of the
compressor process (a-b) with a two step compression process (a-c and d-e), an
intermediate cooling phase (c-d) which defines the intercooling process subject to the
constaint T
d
T
a
and a heating phase (e-b) to return to state b presumably creates a
benefit. This benefit could be either:
(1) reduction in work required for the compression process, or
(2) reduction in the irreversibility of the required compression process.
Provide proofs which demonstrate whether benefits (1) and (2) are true or false. You
may treat the cooling phase c-d and the heating phase e-b as unreversible.
B. You must select the intermediate pressure, P
c
(P
c
= P
cs
= P
d
) at which to perform the
intercooling phase.
(1) Which pressure should be selected in order to maximize the reduction in work for
the compression process? Prove your answer.
(2) Which pressure should be selected in order to minimize the irreversibility of the
compression process? Prove your answer.
T
S
f
g
b
c
d
e
b
s
s
e
c
s
T T
a d
Figure 1
Rev August 29, 2000
Page 1 of 1 page
Replacement Of A Steam Generator In A PWR With A Flash Tank
Consider a "direct" cycle plant with a pressurized water-cooled reactor. This proposed design
consists of using most of the typical PWR plant components except the steam generator. In place
of the steam generator, a large "flash tank" is incorporated with the capability to take the primary
coolant and reduce the pressure to the typical secondary side pressure. The resulting steam is
separated, dried, and taken to the balance of plant, the feedwater from the condenser return to this
flash tank. The primary water from the flash tank is repressurized and circulated back to the core.
Make a schematic drawing of this direct cycle plant, and discuss the benefits and/or problems with
this design. Also, compare a typical PWR plant design with this direct cycle design with respect
to:
Plant thermal efficiencies (perform a numerical comparison and explain your results), and
Nuclear plant safety (perform a qualitative comparison).
Rev August 29, 2000
Page 1 of 1 page
Irreversibility Problems Involving The Rankine Cycle
Consider the Rankine cycles given in the T-S diagram and defined by operating conditions of
Table 1. The cycles differ in the temperature and pressure of the condensation process. What are
the differences in cycle irreversibilities between the two cases for irreversibilities defined as:
1. Irreversibility per unit mass flowrate of working fluid, I/m
s
, and
2. Irreversibility per unit mass flowrate of working fluid and energy input, i.e., I/Q
in
m
s
.
T
S
1'
1
2'
2
3
4
4'
6800 kPa
7.0 kPa
6.0 kPa
T - S Diagram
T
T'
o
o
Table 1. Operating Conditions
Points Pressure (kPa) Condition
1 7.0 Saturated Liquid
2 6800.0
4 7.0
1' 6.0 Saturated Liquid
2 6800.0
4' 6.0
Rev October 11, 2002
Page 1 of 1 page
Complex Brayton Cycle With Regeneration, Pressure Loss, And
Real Machines
Consider a helium Brayton Cycle with regeneration, pressure losses, and real machines.
These are characterized by the following parameters:
= 0.92
= 1.025

t
=
c
= 0.92
The cycle operates at a pressure ratio of r
p
= 2.2 between limiting temperatures of
303 K and 1083 K. For helium:
= 1.66
c
p
= 5.230 kJ/kg K
For this cycle, find the thermal efficiency,
th
.
Rev January 17, 2001
Page 1 of 2 pages
Optimizing The Pressure Ratio Of The Brayton Cycle In A Brayton-
Rankine Combined Cycle
A. A Brayton cycle is presented in Figure 1. The Brayton cycle uses helium as the working
fluid. The constraints for this cycle are that the highest temperature achievable, T
4
, is 972K
and the atmospheric reservoir is 290K. The temperature of State 1 is 10K above the
atmospheric reservoir temperature, e.g., T
1
= 300K Cycle parameters are given in Table 1.
Draw the T-S diagram for this cycle and the temperature distribution diagram within the
regenerative heat exchanger.
Demonstrate how to find the compression ratio that will result in the maximum value of
cycle thermal efficiency in terms of only the given temperatures T
4
and T
1
and other given
constants.
B. The Brayton cycle above has a Rankine bottoming cycle added as shown in Figure 2. The
Rankine cycle uses H
2
O. The mass flow rates in each cycle are equal. The constraints for
this combined cycle are analogous to those above, e.g., T
4
, is 972K and T
7
is 300K. Cycle
parameters are given in Tables 1 and 2.
Draw the T-S diagram for this cycle and the temperature distribution diagrams within the
regenerative heat exchangers.
Demonstrate how to find the compression ratio that will result in the maximum value of
cycle thermal efficiency in terms of only the given temperatures T
4
and T
7
and other given
constants.
W
CB
W
TB
4
3
2
5
6
1
Atmospheric
Cooling Stream
Reactor
Figure 1 Brayton Cycle
Rev August 29, 2000
Page 2 of 2 pages
W
CB
W
TB
4
3
2
5
6
1
Steam loop
Atmospheric
Cooling Stream
Helium loop
W
TR
9
10
8
7
W
PR
Reactor
Figure 2 Combined Brayton-Rankine Cycle
Table 1
for Helium = 1.658 c
p
for Helium = 5,230 J/kgK
Efficiency of the regenerative heat exchanger = 0.75
The pump and turbine are ideal, e.g.,
s
= 100%
Both heat exchange processes are conducted at constant pressure
Table 2
Efficiency of both regenerative heat exchangers = 0.75
All pumps and turbines are ideal, e.g.,
s
= 100%
All heat exchange processes are conducted at constant pressure
The pinch point of the helium-steam heat exchanger = 10 K
State 7 is saturated liquid state State 9 is a saturated vapor state
Page 1 of 2 pages
Cycle Thermal Efficiency Problem Involving A Bottoming Cycle
In Example 6-10 it is shown that the cycle thermal efficiency of the simple Brayton cycle shown in
Figure 6-24 can be increased by utilizing regeneration. Specifically, it was found that, with the
addition of a regenerator of effectiveness 0.75, the cycle thermal efficiency was increased from
42.3% to 48.1%. Another way of improving the efficiency of the simple Brayton cycle is to use a
bottoming cycle. To this end, consider the system shown in Figure 1. It shows the simple
Brayton cycle with a Brayton bottoming cycle. For this system, the following parameters and
information are known:
T
1
= 278 K r
p
for the simple Brayton cycle = 4.0
T
3
= 972 K c
p
for both cycles = 5230 J/kg K
T
9
= T
1
for both cycles = 1.658
(T
p
)
1
= pinch point of heat exchanger #1
= 15C
Mass Flowrate for the simple Brayton cycle =
twice the mass flowrate for the Brayton
bottoming cycle
All turbine and compressors in both cycles
are ideal
No duct pressure losses in either cycle
2
Reactor
3
Simple Brayton Cycle
Compressor #1 Turbine #1
Heat
Exchanger
#2
Heat
Exchanger
#1
1 4
7
5
6
To Atmosphere
Bottoming
Brayton Cycle
Wc2
Wc1 Wt1
To Atmosphere
9 8
Heat
Exchanger
#3
Compressor #2 Turbine #2
Wt2
Figure 1
Rev August 29, 2000
Page 2 of 2 pages
QUESTIONS
A. Draw the T-S diagram for the entire system.
B . What must be the pressure ratio of Turbine #2 and Compressor #2 such that the cycle thermal
efficiency of the entire system is maximized?
C. What is the maximum cycle thermal efficiency?
Page 1 of 2 pages
PROBLEM 6-16N Question
Tokamak Power Generation Problem
A problem associated with Tokamak fusion reactors is that power generation is intermittent
and some type of energy storage device is required to maintain a constant electrical generation
rate. One suggested solution to this problem is a combination steam generator/steam storage unit
which expands in volume (at constant pressure) during the reactor "burn," and contracts to its
original volume during the reactor down time. The Tokamak and the power cycle are given in
Figure 1. Relevant physical properties and conversion factors are given in Table 1.
The Tokamak reactor burn cycle is 1000 seconds at 6680 MWt. The down time at zero
power is for 100 seconds after which the power cycle is repeated. This reactor power cycle is
illustrated in Figure 2.
Weight
Steam
Liquid
Tokamak
Q
Turbine
W
T
M
s
M
T
M
PH
Preheater
Pump, W
P
Condenser
The water within the
storage device is
always saturated at
320C and 11.29 MPa
Q
C
Frictionless
Seal
Coolant is Water
at 16.5 MPa
Q
Figure 1 Tokamak and Power Cycle

Q
0 1000 1100
t (seconds)
6680 MWt 6680 MWt
Figure 2. Reactor Power Cycle
Rev August 30, 2000
Page 2 of 2 pages
TABLE 1. Property Data for 320C, 11.27 MPa
Water, f Steam, g
Water To Steam,
fg
v m
3
/kg 1.5x10
-3
0.015 0.0135
h kJ/kg 1462 2700 1238
u kJ/kg 1445 2526 1081
c
p kJ/kgK 6.604 8.060
N/m 9.89x10
-3
--
Ns/m
2
83.5x10
-6
20.95x10
-6
k W/mK 0.503 87.8x10
-3
Pr 1.11 1.92
Unit Conversions :
J = Nm = Ws
Pa = N/m
2
QUESTION
The liquid mass in the steam generator/storage unit necessary to cover the heat exchanger
tubes is 3.6x10
6
kg and the quality at the start of a reactor burn is 15%.
a) Sketch a graph of steam mass stored in the steam/generator/storage unit versus time, and
of the liquid mass stored in the steam generator/storage unit versus time. Explain the basis
for your sketches.
b) Calculate the required total volume of the steam generator/storage unit.
Page 1 of 1 page
Containment Problem Involving a LOCA
Upon a loss of primary coolant accident (LOCA) the primary system flashes as it discharges into
the containment. At the resulting final equilibrium condition, the containment and primary system
are filled with a mixture of steam and liquid. A containment is being designed as shown in
Figure1 which directs the liquid portion of this mixture to flood into a reactor cavity in which
primary system is located. The condensate which passes back into the core through the break can
satisfactorily cool the core if it can submerge it, i.e., if the condensate level is high enough.
Find the containment volume which will yield a final equilibrium pressure following primary
system rupture sufficient to create the 125 m
3
of liquid required to fill the cavity and submerge the
core.
The pressure and volume of the primary system are 15.5 MPa and 354 m
3
, respectively.
Neglect the initial relative humidity and the air in the containment.
Neglect Q
c-st
and Q
c-atm
.
Core
125 m of liquid
3
Figure 1
Rev August 30, 2000
Page 1 of 2 pages
Pressurizer Transient Problem
A pressurizer is to be designed in such a way that it can accommodate anticipated pressure
fluctuations. Suppose the pressure range which the pressurizer should control is from 14.0MPa
to 16.6 MPa with 15.5 MPa as the nominal condition. During depressurization transients, because
of rainout and flashing the water in the pressurizer is assumed at saturation conditions. However,
for the overpressurization transient, the steam and liquid in the pressurizer is assumed at non-
equilibrium conditions, i.e., steam is saturated because of the spray, but the liquid is subcooled
(see Figure 1). Using the single region approach, answer the following questions with the
information given in Table 1.
(C ) T
344.9
336.8
S
Indicates the vapor and
liquid states
p = 15.5 MPa
p = 14.0 MPa
p = 16.6 MPa
350.4
Figure 1
a . Determine the pressurizer volume which accommodates the overpressurization transient
assuming the end state of this transient is at p = 16.6 MPa. What is the vapor volume fraction
at the end of this transient?
b . Determine the heater size which accommodates the depressurization transient assuming the end
state of this transient is 14.0 MPa with the pressurizer volume obtained in (a) above. What is
the liquid volume fraction at the end of transient? Is it large enough to cover the heaters, if the
minimum liquid volume to cover the heaters is 13% of the pressurizer volume?
Rev August 31, 2000
Page 2 of 2 pages
TABLE 1
Vapor and Liquid Conditions in the Pressurizer during Transients:
Pressure
(MPa)
v
f
(10
-3
m
3
/kg)
v
g
(10
-3
m
3
/kg)
u
f
(kJ/kg)
u
g
(kJ/kg)
14.0 1.61 11.5 1549 2478
15.5 1.68 9.81 1600 2444
16.6 1.68* 8.73 1600* 2416
* Subcooled Condition
Initial Conditions:
The pressurizer is initially 60% full of liquid water, and at 15.5 MPa.
Overpressurization Transient:
m
insurge
= 9200 kg h
insurge
= 1442 kJ/kg
m
spray
m
insurge
= 0.09 h
spray
= 1285 kJ/kg
During Overpressurization, Heaters are Off
Depressurization Transient:
m
outsurge
= 14,166 kg h
outsurge
= 1600 kJ/kg
During Depressurization, Sprays are Turned Off
Assumptions:
h
insurge
, h
outsurge
, h
spray
are constant during transients.
For the depressurization transient, heaters are operating at the full capacity, and the transient is
over after 15 minutes.
Page 1 of 1 page
Pressurizer Insurge Problem
For insurge case, why isnt latent heat of vaporization of vapor which is condensed
sufficient to heat insurge mass to saturation?
Rev August 31, 2000
Page 1 of 1 page
Pressurizer Sizing Analysis
The size of a pressurizer is determined by the criteria that the vapor volume must be
capable of accommodating the largest insurge and the liquid volume must handle the
outsurge. The important limitations of the design are that the pressurizer should not be
totally liquid filled or the immersion heaters should not be uncovered after possible
transients. To size the vapor volume, a maximum insurge is assumed to completely fill the
pressurizer with liquid with some of the insurge being diverted to the spray to condense the
vapor. Treating the entire pressurizer volume, V
t
, as the control volume, find the vapor
volume, V
g1
, which will accommodate the insurge given below.
DATA:
Initial Pressurizer Conditions
Saturation at 2250 psia and 653F
Initial liquid mass = 1827 kg
Maximum Insurge (includes spray)
Mass = 2740 kg.
Enthalpy = 1.2 x 10
6
J/kg
Final Pressurizer Condition
Assume completely filled with liquid at 2250 psia
Rev August 31, 2000
Page 1 of 1 page
Containment Pressurization Reactor Thermodynamics
What should the containment volume for a 3000 MWt PWR be to prevent a primary coolant pipe
rupture from resulting in an overpressurization of 45 psi, assuming all heat removal systems fail
and the fuel may add up to 180 Gw-sec. of energy before mitigating procedures begin? What
overpressurization may occur with this design if a steamline ruptures and the steam generator
provides the same amount of energy before any safety system intervention? Assume thermal
equilibrium within the containment and no heat losses to structures.
DATA
Initial Containment Atmosphere
Pressure p
ao
= 14.7 psia
Temperature T
ao
= 90F
Relative humidity = 95%
Specific Heat at Constant Volume
Air c
va
= 0.172 B./lb.F
Steam c
vw
= 0.379 B./lb.F
PWR NSSS Operating Conditions and Design Parameters
Primary coolant volume V
p
= 12,500 ft
3
Secondary coolant volume V
s
= 3,145 ft
3
Primary system pressure p
po
= 2,250 psia
Secondary system pressure p
so
= 1,000 psia
Primary system temperature T
po
= 650F
Secondary system temperature T
so
= 550F
Rev August 31, 2000
Page 1 of 2 pages
Drain Tank Pressurization Problem
A drain tank is used to temporarily store water discharged from the pressurizer through the PORV
(Figure 1). The drain tank has a burst disk on it which ruptures if the pressure inside the drain
tank becomes too large. For this problem, assume that the PORV at the top of the pressurizer is
stuck open, and saturated water at 15.4 MPa leaves the presssurizer at a constant flowrate of
3kg/sec and enters a perfectly insulated drain tank of total volume 12 m
3
. In addition, assume
that the initial conditions (before the water due to the stuck open PORV has entered the drain tank)
in the drain tank are:
No air present Initial vapor volume = 10 m
3
Initial pressure = 3 MPa Initial liquid volume = 2 m
3
Also assume that the liquid and the water vapor are in thermal equilibrium at all times in the drain
tank, and that the burst disk on the drain tank ruptures at 10 MPa.
From Pressurizer Relief Valve (PORV)
Drain Tank is Perfectly Insulated
Burst Disk Ruptures at 10 MPa
Initial Pressure in Tank = 3 MPa
Water Vapor
Initial Vapor Volume = 10 cubic meters
Liquid Water Initial Liquid Water Volume = 2 cubic meters
Figure 1
Rev August 31, 2000
Page 2 of 2 pages
QUESTIONS
A. Define the control mass or control volume you will use and the equation set you will develop.
B . Solve for the elapsed time to burst disk rupture.
C. Now assume 11.93 kg of air are present in the drain tank along with the liquid water and
water vapor, P
1w initial
= 3 MPa and that the change in volume of the liquid water from the
initial state to the final state is large. What is the new time to rupture?
Page 1 of 1 page
Containment Pressurization Following Zircaloy-Hydrogen Reaction
Consider a LOCA in a typical PWR in which the emergency cooling system is insufficient
to prevent metal-water reaction of 75% of the Zircaloy clad and the hydrogen produced
subsequently combusts. Using the results of Problem 3.6, this sequence of events yields the
following material changes and energy releases relevant to the containment pressurization:
Primary coolant released = 2.1 x 10
5
kg
Zr reacted = 0.75 x 24,000 kg
Energy released from Zr-H
2
O reaction = 1.195 x 10
11
J
H
2
produced and reacted = 394.7 kg mol
Energy released from H
2
combustion = 9.47 x 10
10
J
O
2
consumed = you must determine
Net H
2
O change = you must determine
Take the initial primary coolant and containment vessel geometry and conditions the same
as Table 7-2. Also, assume that nitrogen has the same properties as air.
QUESTION
For the sequence described (e.g., LOCA, 75% Zircaloy clad reaction and subsequent
complete combustion of the hydrogen produced):
(a) Demonstrate that the final equilibrium temperature is 449 K, neglecting containment
heat sinks using the initial conditions of Table 7-2, and
(b) Find the final equilibrium pressure.
HINT: Is the final state likely saturated water or superheated steam in equilibrium with the air?
Consider the energy releases compared to those of Example 7.2.
Rev August 31, 2000
Page 1 of 1 page
'Conductivity Integral'
Describe an experiment by which you would obtain the results of Figure 8-2, i.e., the value of the
conductivity integral. Be sure to explicitly state what measurements and observations are to be
made and how the conductivity integral is to be determined from them.
Rev September 1, 2000
Page 1 of 3 pages
Thermal Conduction Problem Involving Design Of A BWR Core
A core design is proposed which locates BWR type UO
2
pins in holes within graphite
hexagonal blocks (Fig. 1). These blocks then form a core of radius R
o
. The achievable
linear heat power of the core (MW/m) is desired as a function of core radius, R
o
(m) for
constraints of Table 1. Present the result as a plot. Constants and terms are defined in
Figure 2 and Table 1.
Basically these constraints exist under decay power conditions where the outside of
the core radiates its energy to a passive air chimney. However , the outside of the core
which is in touch with a vessel at the same temperature is limited to 500C. The clad
outside temperature, T
co
, which radiates to the graphite, T
gi
, is also constrained, here to a
temperature 649C.
Constants and Constraints for Homogenized Core Power Analysis
Table 1
Constraints Constants
T
co
< 649C
A
cell
= 7.30

10
4 2
m
T
go
< 500C d
1
= 12.5 mm
d
2
= 19.8 mm
1
= 0.6
2
= 0.7
k
g
= 60 W/m
=
5 669 10
8 2 4
. / W m K
1 1
1
1
1
2 2
=
d
d
=1.937
Page 2 of 3 pages
Unit Cell Dimensions
Part 1
Figure 1
Unit cell using BWR fuel pin in MHTGR prismatic block holding the ratio of fuel to
graphite constant.
Coolant channel size established by taking the area of water normally associated with a
pin in conventional BWR.
Graphite
Zircaloy clad
Coolant channel
UO
2
fuel
Units = millimeters
d mm
d mm
1
2
12 5
19 8
=
=
.
.
29 0 .
10 4 .
d
1
d
2
Page 3 of 3 pages
Configuration of Solid Core and Variables
Figure 2
Notes:
T
gi
is the temperature at the inner surface of the matrix graphite surrounding the fuel pin.
T
go
is the temperature of the matrix graphite at the core outer surface.
T
co
is the temperature at the clad outer surface.
d
1
and d
2
are shown in the Fig. 1.
T
gi
T
co
T
go
Homogenized
Core
Enlarged center
fuel pin
R
0
Page 1 of 2 pages
Important Features Of Fuel Element Temperature Calculation
Note: You may use the MathCAD program to solve this problem set but the use of MathCAD is
not mandatory.
This problem set illustrates some important features of fuel element temperature calculations.
Consider an LMR fuel rod with the dimensions, thermal calculations characteristics, and operating
conditions as follows:
The clad is an austenitic stainless steel with outside diameter = 8.5 mm; thickness = 0.7 mm;
and thermal conductivity = 23 W/
mk .
The fuel is enriched UO
2
contained in hollow pellets with outside diameter = 6.9 mm; inside
diameter = 0.8 mm; as-fabricated density = 88% TD (theoretical density); and a thermal
conductivity versus temperature as defined in a section "fuel conductivity" at the end of this
problem statement.
The gap conductance = 14 kW/
m
2
K ; and the heat transfer coefficient at the clad outer surface
= 170 kW/ m
2
K .
The linear heat deposition rate = 57 kW/m; and the coolant temperature = 540C.
Treat porosity as spherical using the Biancharia relation of the text Eq. 8-21. Neglect cracking and
relocation effects.
1) Consider first that there is no restructuring.
What are the temperatures at the following locations: clad outer radius R
co ; clad inner radius
R
ci ; fuel outer radius R
fo ; and fuel inner radius R
fi ? Prepare a sketch (to scale and similar
to text fig. 8-17 showing temperature versus radius.
2) Consider the same fuel rod and the same operating conditions but consider also that
restructuring has occurred. The sintering temperatures and densities are those of
Westinghouse in text Table 8-5.
What are T
fi , R
1 , R
2 , and R
fi ? Add a "restructured" temperature distribution to the sketch
of part 1.
Page 2 of 2 pages
FUEL CONDUCTIVITY
This conductivity information applies to 95% TD UO
2
. It is based on Lyon and is taken from the
B&W polynomial of text Eq. 8-16c. The plot of text Fig. 8-1 is also applicable. SI units are
adopted here (text information is non-SI).
Temperature
(C)
Thermal Conductivity
(W/mk)
Conductivity Integral
(kW/m)
0 9.32 0
200 6.38 1.54
400 4.78 2.64
600 3.85 3.50
800 3.26 4.20
1000 2.86 4.81
1200 2.58 5.35
1400 2.41 5.85
1600 2.29 6.32
1800 2.29 6.78
2000 2.31 7.24
2200 2.39 7.71
2400 2.53 8.20
2600 2.74 8.73
2800 2.94 9.30
Page 1 of 1 page
Comparison Of Thermal Energy That Can Be Extracted From A
Spherical Hollow Fuel Pellet Versus A Cylindrical Annular Fuel Pellet
Consider an annular cylindrical annular fuel pellet of length L, inside radius, R
V
,
and outside radius R
foc
. It is operating at q
c
, such that for a given outside surface
temperature, T
fo
, the inside surface temperature, T
V
, is just at the fuel melting limit T
melt
.
A fellow engineer claims that if the same volume of fuel is arranged as a sphere
with an inside voided region of radius R
V
and operated between the same two surface
temperature limits, i.e., T
V
and T
fo
, more power can be extracted from the spherical fuel
volume then from a cylindrical fuel pellet. In both cases volumetric generation rate is
radially constant.
Is the claim correct? Prove or disprove it. Please use the nomenclature of Fig. 1.
Assume no sintering occurs.
Given:
The one dimensional heat conduction equation in the radial direction in spherical
coordinates is:
1
0
2
2
r
d
dr
kr
dT
dr
q
+ =
For a sphere: V R
S
=
4
3
3
and A R
S
= 4
2
Cylindrical Annular Fuel Pellet: Spherical Hollow Fuel Pellet :

q
c
q
s
R
V
= 0.25 mm R
V
= 0.25 mm
R
foc
= 1 cm R
fos
= ?
L = 1 cm (to be determined from
the problem statement)
R
V
R
foc
L
R
V
R
fos
Page 1 of 3 pages
Transient Fuel Pin Analysis
A PWR fuel pin experiences DNB followed by SCRAM with the resulting reduction of
power. The transient begins with full power steady-state operation at time t = 0.0, followed by
DNB with a decrease in the fluid film heat transfer coefficient at the outside surface of the fuel rod.
The reactor power drops to 10% of initial power with SCRAM at t = 4.0 sec., which reflects both
the decay heat and some delayed fission. This situation is assumed to remain constant during the
time of interest for this calculation (less than 15 seconds).
The data to be used to describe the fuel rod follows:
dimensions (ft.) ; fuel linear heat rate (B/hr.ft) ;
r
f
= 0.016958 45734.0 at t = 0.0 to 4.0 sec.
r
ci
= 0.017708 4573.4 at t = 4.0 to end of calculation
r
co
= 0.020542
thermal properties ;
k
f
= 1.15 B/hr.ft.F
= 1.25 (sintered)
p
f
= 635.0 lbm/ft
3
= 677.4 (sintered)
c
f
= 0.08 B/lbm.F
= 0.08 (sintered)
k
c
= 10.0 p
c
= 409.0 c
c
= 0.08
h
gap
= 1000 B/hr.ft.
2
F Sintering temperature, T
s
= 3,092.0F
boundary conditions ;
T
b
= 536.0 F
h
f = 10000 B/hr.ft.
2
F at t= 0.0
= 100 from t = 0.0 to end of calculation
computational parameters ;
number of iterations between plots (NP) = 100
maximum number of iterations (MAX) = 2500
number of fuel nodes (N) = 25
total number of nodes (M) = 29 (4 clad nodes)
time step in hours (DELT) = 0.000001388
node of sintered radius (NS) = 13
Page 2 of 3 pages
a. Provide plots of the following for the first 12.5 sec. of the transient and for sintered and
unsintered fuel:
(i) maximum fuel temperatures
(ii) maximum clad temperatures (do not read from plots)
(iii) heat flux at the outer surface
(iv) stored energy in the fuel
(v) temperature drop across the gap (do not read from plots)
b. Stainless Steel may be used as an alternative to Zircaloy for clad material. Using the solid
(unsintered) fuel model, provide plots for the parameters listed in part a. where the clad has
the following properties:
k
c
= 15.0 B/hr.ft.F
c
c
= 0.12 B/lbm.F
p
c = 500.0 lbm/ft.
3
c. Swelling of the fuel pellet and creep-down of the clad can result in pellet-clad interaction which
can be harmful to the clad integrity. Another result of this phenomenon is the enhancement of
heat transfer between the fuel and clad. Provide plots for the parameters listed in part a. where
the solid fuel has interacted with the Zircaloy clad and the heat transfer coefficient at the gap
has increased to:
h
gap = 5000 B/hr.ft.
2
F
d. Comment on the following:
(i) the effect on the results of including sintering in the model
(ii) the effect of changing the clad material to stainless steel
(iii) the effect of pellet-clad interaction on the thermal results
(iv) discuss the reasons for maximum values in some of the parameters after time t = 0.0
Note: plot the same parameter for the various conditions on one graph to facilitate comparisons
Information for computer usage:
Submit card decks at IPC counter on second floor of building 39 with the following JCL;
// AAAAAAAA JOB BBBBBB , AAAAAAAA is the jobname
// PROFILE = 'LOW, MEMORY = 256', TIME = 1 BBBBBB is the group user identification no.
//*PASSWORD CCCCCC CCCCCC is the group user password
// EXEC FTG1XEQ,PROG = 'SAWDYE. DDDDDDDD (NELIB)'
DDDDDDDD is the program name;
//GO.SYSIN DD * TRANROD for the solid fuel
pellet model
(data cards) TRANRODS for the sintered
fuel model
/*
Page 3 of 3 pages
Output will be placed in BIN no. 422 at the user counter with the group identification printed on the
cover sheet
student groups A B C D
identification NE313A NE313B NE313C NE313D
passwsord A313 B313 C313 D313
data format from listings on the following pages
Page 1 of 1 page
Fuel Pin Problem
A fuel pin is operating with solid pellets of 88% theoretical density and outside
radius 5 mm such that at the axial location of maximum fuel temperature, the fuel centerline
temperature T
CL,
is 2500
0
C and the fuel surface temperature, T
fo,
is 700
0
C. It is desired to
raise the pin linear power by 10% by employing one of the following alternative strategies
(in each case all the other conditions except the one cited are held constant):
a) raise the maximum allowable fuel temperature;
b) use an annular pellet with the center void of dimension R
v,
or
c) increase the pellet density.
For each strategy find the new value of the cited parameter necessary to achieve the
desired 10% increase of linear pin power. Sintering effects may be neglected.
Page 1 of 1 page
Radially Averaged Fuel Temperature And Stored Energy In Solid And
Annular Pellet
Consider a solid pellet of radius b and an annular pellet of inside radius a, and outside radius b,
each operating at the same linear power rate, q'.
Define T r T r T
b
( ) ( )
and T r T r T
b
( ) ( ) .
Find across each pellet, the value of T / T. Use the subscript s for solid and the subscript
a for annular.
What is the ratio of the stored energy in the solid to the annular pellet?
Rev October 11, 2002
Page 1 of 1 page
Two-Zone Sintering Of An Annular Fuel Pellet
An initially annular UO
2
fuel pellet is put under operation at 600 W/cm with an outside surface
temperature of 700C. Assume sintering occurs reconfiguring the pellet with the linear power and
outside surface temperature maintained constant.
QUESTIONS
a) Draw a temperature-radius plot for the pellet before and after sintering (numerical values not
required, but do illustrate relative magnitudes, i.e., a figure analogous to Fig. 8-16 showing
T
max
, T
s
, T
f
o
, R
v
i
, R
v
f
, R
s
i
, R
s
f
, and R
f
o
, where state i is at power but before sintering, and
state f is at power but after sintering).
b) What is the maximum pellet temperature achieved after sintering occurs?
You may assume a two-zone sintering model where:
T
sintering
T
s
= 1,800C ,
sintered

s
= 98%
TD
.
Take the initial annual pellet,
i
= 88%
TD
, and of dimensions:
D
fo
(outside fuel diameter) = 9.5 mm ,
D
v
(void diameter or inside fuel diameter) = 4.5 mm .
Page 1 of 1 page
Reynolds Analogy And Equivalent Diameter Problem
Consider a uniformly heated tube (constant heat flux) of diameter 0.025m with fluid flowing at an
average velocity of 0.5m/s. Find the fully developed heat transfer coefficient for two different
fluids (Fluid A and Fluid B, whose properties are given in Table I) by the following two
procedures:
Procedure #1 Use only friction factor data. If you find this procedure not valid, state the reason.
Procedure #2 Select the relevant heat transfer correlation.
In summary, you are asked to provided four answers, i.e.,
FLUID A FLUID B
PROCEDURE #1 h = ? h = ?
PROCEDURE #2 h = ? h = ?
TABLE I
FLUID PROPERTIES FLUID A FLUID B
k W/mC 0.5 63
kg/m
3
700 818
kg/ms 8.7x10
-5
2.3x10
-4
C
p
J/kgC 6,250 1,250
Page 1 of 1 page
Turbulent Heat Transfer Coefficient Calculations
The friction factor for a flow channel at a velocity of 10 m/s under fully developed turbulent
conditions is 0.014. Find the approximate heat transfer coefficient under these same conditions
assuming the fluid is: (1) water at 315C and (2) sodium at 538C (see Nuclear Systems, Vol. 1,
p. 455 for properties).
Page 1 of 1 page
Equivalent Diameter And Reynolds Analogy Problem Involving A Fuel
Element
A liquid sodium test reactor fuel element configuration of equivalent diameter = 0.01m with a
unique spacer is proposed for application in an innovative light water core to be designed for long
fuel cycle. Hence, the tightly packed, uniquely spaced fuel configuration of the sodium reactor is
to be used in this water reactor core.
Friction factor test results in sodium are available at Re = 10
5
indicate that f = 0.08. It is desired to
find the turbulent heat transfer coefficient for this fuel element configuration at Re = 10
5
in the
water reactor core. Relevant properties are given in Table I. Is it possible to achieve the desired
prediction? If so, make the prediction. If not, explain why you think it cannot be done with the
information given.
Table I. Fluid Properties at Operating Conditions
Fluid Properties Sodium Water
k W/mC 62.6 0.57
kg/m
3
818 740
kg/ms 2.3x10
-4
9.6x10
-5
C
p
J/kgC 1250 5.4x10
3
Page 1 of 1 page
Fully Developed Laminar Heat Transfer in a Circular Duct
For fully developed laminar flow in a circular duct with constant wall heat flux the Nusselt
number value is 4.364
Identify all the assumptions made in arriving at this result.
Rev December 5, 2002
Page 1 of 1 page
HEM Pressure Loss Problem
Consider a 3 meter long water channel of circular cross-sectional area 1.5x10
-4
m
2
operating at the
following conditions:
m = 0.29 kg/s
p = 7.2 MPa
Compute the pressure loss under homogeneous equilibrium assumptions for the following
additional conditions:
a. Adiabatic channel with inlet flow quality of 0.15.
b. Uniform axial heat flux of sufficient magnitude to heat the entering saturated coolant to an exit
quality of 0.15.
Page 1 of 1 page
Calculating Void Fraction In Adiabatic Steam-Water Flow
Consider an adiabatic tube in steady state steam-water upflow under the following
conditions:
p = 1 atm
d = 0.01 m
L = 1 m
l
= 1,000 kg/m
3
g
= 1,000 kg/m
3
h
fg
= 2,246 kJ/kg
k
s
= 0.025 W/mK
g
= 12x10
-6
Nsec/m
2
QUESTIONS:
A. Find the void fraction. Use at least two different methods to calculate your answer,
and compare the results.
B. Now calculate the void fraction for the case of liquid downflow and vapor upflow. If
your calculations indicate that the tube is flooding, verify this by applying an
appropriate flooding correlation.
d
L
G kg m
g
= 1 8
2
. / sec

G kg m
1
2
4000 = / sec
Page 1 of 1 page
Thermal Parameters In A Heated Channel In Two-Phase Flow
Consider a 3 meter long water channel of circular cross-sectional area 1.5x10
-4
m
2
operating at the
following conditions:
m = 0.29 kg/s
p = 7.2 MPa
h
in
= saturated
q" = axially uniform
x
exit
= 0.15
Compute and plot as a function of axial position:
1. Fluid temperature,
2. Wall temperature, and
3. CHFR for the axial locations where the Hench-Levy limit lines (page 561) are valid.
Page 1 of 1 pages
Computation Of The Axial Distribution Of Thermal And Hydraulic
Characteristics Of A Horizontal Steam Generator
1) Operating conditions: see Table 1
2) Properties: determine using the given operating conditions
3) Material and geometry: see Table 1
4) Questions: compute the axial distribution of the following parameters on the secondary side:
a) Temperature
b) Enthalpy
c) Quality
d) Void fraction
e) Mass flux (liquid, vapor, total)
f) Volume flux (liquid, vapor, total)
5) Assumptions:
1 dimension flow
Thermodynamic equilibrium
Slip ratio = 1.5
Once-through steam generator
Table 1
Geometry Thermal Hydrodynamic
Primary: Horizontal
U-Tube (Full-Power
Conditions)
Tube O.D. = 0.687 in
Tube thickness =
0.050 in
Average tube length =
23.78 ft
Number of tubes =
13856
Heat transfer area =
59,260 ft
2
Inlet temp. = 619.2F
Outlet temp. = 555.0F
Power = 900 MW
h = 950 Btu/hrft
2
F
Flow rate =
34.1 x 10
6
lbm/hr
Pressure = 2250 psia
Secondary Steam temp. = 540.2F
Feedwater temp. =
440.0F
Steam pressure =
964.2 psia
Flow rate =
3.96 x 10
6
lbm/hr
Overall Tube bundle height =
12.25 ft
Tube bundle cross-
sectional area (for axial
secondary flow) =
471.75 ft
2
Shell I.D. = 19.5 ft
Shell length = 39.0 ft
Collector I.D. = 48 in.
Rev December 2, 2002
Page 1 of 1 pages
Shell And Tube Horizontal Evaporator
A shell-and-tube horizontal evaporator is to be designed with 30 tubes 1 cm diameter. Inside the
tubes water at 100 psia (690 kN/m
2
) enters at one end at 130
o
C and leaves at the other end at
120
o
C. The water velocity (V) in the tubes is 3 m/sec. In the shell, atmospheric pressure steam is
generated at 100
o
C.
Calculate:
1. The length of the tubes
2. Rate of evaporation, kg/sec
3. Rate of flow of the water, kg/sec
4. Pressure drop in the tubes on the water side.
(Assume fully developed flow and neglect entrance and exit losses).
For the boiling side take C
sf
= 0.013 in Eq. 14-22, Boiling Condensation and Gas-Liquid Flow,
P.B. Whalley.
Make your calculations for heat flux at mid-point where the liquid is at 125
o
C. Neglect thermal
resistance of the thin tube wall.
H
2
O: P = 1 atm T
sat
= 100
o
C
Liquid Vapor
(kg/m
3
)
960 0.60
c
p
(kJ/kg
o
C) 4.2 1.88
(kg/m s)
0.0003 0.000013
K (W/m
o
C) 0.68 0.025
(N/m)
0.06
i
lg
(kJ/kg) 2280
Pr 1.9 0.97
Assume properties of liquid inside the tubes at 690 kPa in the range 120-130
o
C are the same as the
above at 1 atm and 100
o
C.
Page 1 of 1 page
BWR Heat Transfer Problem
Consider a fuel assembly in a BWR. For simplicity, consider that all coolant channels are identical
and all fuel rods are operating at the same uniform axial heat flux. The exit void fraction for this
assembly is limited by physics considerations to 0.6.
1. What is the maximum assembly power at which the Boiling Crisis occurs? (Note that the term
"Boiling Crisis" reflects that the BWR limit is on critical power, not heat flux)
2. What are the fuel rod outside wall temperature and quality as a function of z, i.e., T
w
(z) and
x(z), at an assembly power level 1/3 of the CHF power level? Ignore the subcooled boiling
region because it is a highly non-equilibrium state. Make plots of your results.
DATA
Coolant mass flow rate into the assembly = 13.86 kg/sec
Active fuel length = 3.66 m
Assembly flow area = 1.0 x 10
-2
m
2
Number of fuel rods = 62
Reactor coolant pressure = 6.89 MPa
Inlet water temperature = 276.7C
Density of saturated liquid = 741.65 kg/m
3
Density of saturated vapor = 35.93 kg/m
3
Slip ratio from Bankoff's correlation*
Enthalpy of saturated liquid
Enthalpy of saturated vapor
= 1260.4 kJ/kg
= 2770.8 kJ/kg
*Nuclear Systems, Vol. 1, Eq. 11-43 inserted in Eq. 11-48 with V
vj
taken as zero.
Page 1 of 1 page
Calculation Of MCHFR And MCPR For A BWR Channel
Consider a BWR channel operating at 100% power at the conditions noted below. Using the
Hench-Levy limit lines (Eqs. 12-69) and assuming the critical condition occurs at all powers at a
position three quarters of the channel length from the inlet, i.e., z = 0.75 L, determine:
MCHFR at 100% power, and
MCPR at 100% power.
Operating Conditions Channel Conditions
q(z) = 8x10
4
exp (-1.96 z/L) sin z/L
where z = 0 is defined at the channel inlet
and q is in units of BTU/hr
.
ft
G = 1x10
6
lb/hrft
2
p = 1000 psia
h
IN
= 475 BTU/lb
L = 12 feet
P = 0.638 inches
D = 0.483 inches
NOTE: English units have been used because Nuclear Systems, Vol. 1, Eqs. 12-69 are written in
these units.
exp
0
nL
-
z
L
sin
z
L
dz =
L
1 - exp (- n) cos n -
L
2
exp ( - n) sin n
1 +
2
=
2.08 ft. for = 1.96 and nL = 0.25 L
2.42 ft. for = 1.96 and nL = 0.5 L
3.00 ft. for = 1.96 and nL = 0.75 L
Rev March 4, 2003
Page 1 of 2 pages
Nucleate Boiling And CHF In A PWR Steam Generator
The steam generator for many PWR reactor systems is a U-tube arrangement. Focus on
the hot leg of one tube idealized in Fig. 1. The secondary side coolant is in upflow in an annulus
surrounding the tube in which primary flow is also in upflow. Operating conditions and properties
are given in Tables 1 and 2. In this solution, neglect the subcooled boiling regime and assume fully
developed flow on both the primary and secondary sides and ignore pressure changes and hence
property changes with length.
QUESTIONS
a) Find the axial location, z, at which the equilibrium flowing quality of the secondary side coolant
equals zero.
b) Sketch the outside (i.e., wall in contact with secondary side coolant) tube wall temperature as a
function of axial location. Explain and justify the shape of the profile and particularly consider
whether the flowrate on the secondary side of the tube goes through a boiling crisis.
D
i
p
t
m
s
m
s
D
s
L
z
m
p
Figure 1
Rev March 4, 2003
Page 2 of 2 pages
Table 1
Operating Conditions
Primary Secondary
Pressure (MPa) 15 5.5
Inlet temperature (C) 324 225
Flowrate per unit cell (kg/s) 0.895 0.082
h
1
(W/m
2
K) 38,000 2,230
h
2
(W/m
2
K) N/A 10,000
Table 2
Properties Geometries
Primary Secondary Tube Wall t = 1.2 mm
(kg/m
3
) 726 767 --
D
ip
= 16.6 mm
k (W/mK) 0.56 0.581 26 L = 8 m
(kg/ms) 92x10
-6
1.0x10
-4
-- D
s
= 3.23 cm
c
p
(J/kgK) 5,700 4,900 --
T
sat
(C) 345 270 --
h
f
(kJ/kg) 1629 1185 --
h
g
(kJ/kg) 2596 2789 --
h
in
(kJ/kg) 1490 970 --
Page 1 of 1 page
Nucleate Boiling On A Tube Wall
A Tokamak is cooled by a single phase water flow which exits at a temperature which you will
determine, and this water enters a steam generator through a large number of tubes in which parallel
flow occurs (only one tube is shown in Fig. 1). Assume each tube has diameter 0.01m and all
tubes together have an outside surface area of 10
6
m
2
. Take the flow in each tube at Re=10
7
.
a) What outside wall temperature (see Fig. 1) would you desire to achieve on steam generator
tubes for the length portion just entering the storage device? Use the boiling curve provided in
Fig. 2.
b) What bulk coolant temperature, T
B
, within a tube entering the storage device (see Fig. 1) is
necessary to achieve the wall temperature you specify in Part 2.a?
You may neglect the thermal resistance of the tube wall. In the temperature range of interest, the
relevant water properties are:
Pr = 1.11, k = 0.503 W/m K, = 83.5x10
-6
Ns/m
2
, c
p
= 6.604 kJ/kg K.
Liquid
Tokamak
T
pool
= 593 K
Steam Generator/
Steam Storage Device
T
B
T
W

10
6
1 10 10 10
2 3
T (K)
sat
E
D
F
C
B
A
10
5
H
e
a
t

F
l
u
x
,

,

(
W
/
m

)
2
Figure 1 Figure 2. Boiling Curve.
Page 1 of 1 page
Nucleate Boiling Initiation And Termination On A Heat Exchanger Tube
A heat exchanger tube is immersed in a water cooling tank at 290K, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Hot
water (single phase, 550K) enters the tube inlet and is cooled as it flows at 2 kg/s through the 316
grade stainless steel tube (19 mm outside diameter and 15.8 mm inside diameter). Neglect entrance
effects.
a) Compute the length along the horizontal inlet length of the tube where nucleate boiling on the
tube O.D. is initiated.
b) Compute the length where nucleate boiling on the tube O.D. is terminated.
The heat transfer coefficient between the outer tube wall and the water cooling tank is 500 for single
phase conditions and 5000 for nucleate boiling conditions. The wall superheat for incipient
nucleation is 15C for this configuration. Estimate and justify any additional information you need to
execute the solution.
Fluid Properties of Inlet Water
(assume they stay constant)

K Thermal Conductivity = 0.5 W/mC
Density = 704 kg/m
3
Viscosity = 8.69x10
-5
kg/ms
C
p
Heat Capacity = 6270 J/kgC
Inlet
Inlet
Heat
Exchanger
Tube
Cooling Tank
2 m
Atmospheric
Pressure
Outlet
Figure 1
Page 1 of 1 page
Nucleation in Pool and Flow Boiling
A heat surface has conical cavities of uniform size, R, of 10 microns.
A) If the surface is used to heat water at 1 atmosphere in pool boiling, what is the value of the
wall superheat required to initiate nucleation?
B) If the same surface is now used to heat water at 1 atmosphere in forced circulation, what is the
value of the wall superheat required to initiate nuclear boiling? What is the surface heat flux
required to initiate nucleation?
Page 1 of 1 page
Two Phase Flow Pressure Drop Calculation In BWR
Consider a hypothetical BWR fuel assembly with following characteristics: All
coolant channels are identical and all fuel rods are operating at the same uniform axial heat
flux of 0.8 MW/m
2
.
Calculate the friction pressure drop across the fuel assembly assuming the HEM
condition are valid.
DATA:
Operating Conditions:
Subchannel coolant mass flow rate = 0.199815 kg/sec
Reactor coolant pressure = 6.89 MPa
Inlet water temperature = 276.7
o
C
Density of saturated liquid = 741.65 kg/m
3
Density of saturated vapor = 35.93 kg/m
3
Enthalpy of saturated liquid = 1260.4 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of saturated vapor = 2770.8 kJ/kg
Slip ratio from Bankoffs correlation
Geometry:
Pitch = 16.2 mm
Pin Diameter = 12.27 mm
Active fuel length = 3.6576 m
Number of fuel rods = 54
Page 1 of 3 pages
Thermal Hydraulic Analysis Of A Pressure Tube Reactor
Consider the light water cooled and moderated pressure tube reactor shown in Figure 1. The fuel
and coolant in the pressure tube are within a graphite matrix. Each pressure tube consists of a
graphite matrix that has 24 fuel holes and 12 coolant holes. Part of the graphite matrix and a unit
cell are also shown in Figure 1.
An equivalent annuli model for thermal analysis is shown in Figure 2. Consider the fuel (although
composed of fuel particles in each fuel hole) as operating at a uniform volumetric heat generation
rate in the r, plane. Operating conditions and some useful parameters are in Table 1.
Pressure Tube (740) Calandria
C
o
r
e

L
e
n
g
t
h
6
.
0

m

Fuel Hole
OD: 12.8mm
27.5 mm
Unit Cell
Coolant Hole
OD: 14.8 mm
Figure 1 Calandria with Pressure Tubes and Unit Cell in the Pressure Tube
Page 2 of 3 pages
Fuel Graphite
Line of Zero
Shear Stress Coolant
Figure 2 Equivalent Annuli Model (not to scale)
Table 1. Operating Data
Units Data Units Data
Reactor System Fuel Hole
Core thermal power MWth 2000 Fuel hole diameter mm 12.8
Number of pressure tubes 740 Mass of UC kg/hole 2.3
Core radius m 8.5
Core length m 6.0 Coolant Hole
Coolant hole diameter mm 14.8
Primary System Coolant flowrate kg/s 1.4
Pressure MPa 6.89
Inlet coolant temperature C 245 Unit cell pitch mm 27.5
Assumptions :
HEM (Homogenized Equilibrium Model) for two phase flow analysis is valid.
Cosine axial heat flux (neglect extrapolation).
Page 3 of 3 pages
Useful Data :
Parameters Fuel Graphite Coolant
Thermal conductivity, k (W/mK) 7 23 0.59
Dynamic viscosity, (Pas) 101x10
-6
Specific heat, C
p
(J/kgK) 5.0x10
3
Coolant inlet enthalpy, h
in
(kJ/kg) 1062.3
Single phase density, (kg/m
3
) 776.3
Saturated Coolant Data @ 6.89 MPa
Density:
f
= 742.0 kg/m
3
,
g
= 35.94 kg/m
3
Enthalpy: h
f
= 1261.6 kJ/kg, h
fg
= 1511.9 kJ/kg
Saturated temperature @ P = 6.89 MPa, T
sat
= 284.86C
QUESTIONS
1. What is the radial peaking factor assuming an axial cosine and radial Bessel function flux
shape (neglect extrapolation length)?
For the following questions, assume that the total power of the fuel hole is 260 (kW/fuel hole) in
the hot channel.
2. What is the coolant exit temperature in the hot channel?
3. What is the coolant exit enthalpy in the hot channel?
4. What is the exit void fraction in the hot channel?
5. What is the non-boiling length in the hot channel?
6. What is the fuel centerline temperature at the position where bulk boiling starts in the hot
channel?
7. What is the pressure drop in the hot channel? To simplify your calculation, assume a uniform
heat flux value that provides total power equivalent to the cosine shape heat flux distribution.
Page 1 of 1 page
Heat Transfer Problems for a BWR Channel
Consider a channel operating at BWR pressure conditions with a cosine heat flux distribution.
Relevant conditions are as follows:
Geometry Operating Conditions
D = 17 mm = 7.5 MPa
L = 3.8 m T
in
= 270C
L
e
= L G = 1700 kg/m
2
s
q
max
= 1050 kW/m
2
Pr = 1.0
= 8.7x10
-5
kg/ms
A) Find the axial position where the equilibrium quality, x
e
, is zero.
B) What is the axial extent of the channel where the actual quality is zero? i.e., this requires
finding the axial location of boiling incipience. (It is sufficient to provide a final equation
with all parameters expressed numerically to determine this answer without solving for the
final result.)
C) Find the axial location of maximum wall temperature assuming the heat transfer coefficient
and given by the Thom, et al., correlation for nuclear boiling heat transfer (Eq. 12-28b).
D) Find the axial location of maximum wall temperature assuming the heat transfer coefficient
is not constant but varies as is calculated by relevant correlations. Here you are not asked
for the exact location, but whether the location is upstream or downstream from the value
from Part C.
Page 1 of 2 pages
Two Phase Problem Involving A Nuclear Power Plant
Consider a steam-cooled 170 MWe (electrical power output) power plant as shown in Fig. 1. The
plant is heating the coolant (water) in two stages: the first stage is from waste heat supplied by an
external boiler (located at the same site) through a heat exchanger; the second is through a nuclear
reactor. The plant states are defined as follows:
Position Quality (x) Pressure (p) State
1 5.0 MPa saturated liquid
2 15.0 MPa h = 1168.86 kJ/kg
2 30% 15.0 MPa
3 75% 15.0 MPa
4 5.0 MPa Two-phase mixture
Additional Information: Assumptions:
QHX = 1,000 MWt Uniform flat radial power distribution over entire core
Number of fuel pins = 25,000 Cosine power shape axially with zero extrapolation length
Number of channels = 25,000 HEM flow throughout
Square array with P/D = 1.15 For the pressure drop calculation assume:
Diameter of rod = 1.0 cm Entrance and exit losses negligible
Active core length = 2 m Liquid and vapor compressibility negligible
Gravitational losses negligible
f
2
= f
lo
QUESTIONS
A. Draw the cycle T-s diagram.
B . Compute reactor power and mass flowrate needed.
C. Compute p
acc
across the core.
D. Indicate completely how to evaluate p
fric
(but do not perform the integration).
E. Compute the exit void fraction.
Page 2 of 2 pages
~
Gen
T
C
4
1
= 0.9
= 0.9
PUMP
2
HX
2'
RX
3
Figure 1
Page 1 of 1 page
Location Of Maximum Clad And Fuel Temperature For A
UniformAxialq'''
Consider a fuel rod in a channel (an equivalent annulus) cooled by a single phase flow over its
entire axial length L. In this arrangement the heat transfer coefficient is constant over the axial
length L. Take the fuel rod volumetric energy generation rate, q, as uniform both axially and
radially. Identify the axial locations of the maximum clad outside temperature and the fuel
centerline temperature. See figure for nomenclature to be used. Be sure to present the basis for
your answer.
Fuel
gap
cladding
h
-L/2
+L/2
k
f
h = gap conductance
g
k = cladding
conductivity
c
h = heat transfer coefficient
at outside surface of
cladding
co
in
m
in
R
fo
Rco
R
ci
R
EA
(EA is equivalent annulus)
C
p
Page 1 of 2 pages
Thermal Behavior Of A Plate Fuel Element Following A Loss Of Coolant
A reactor fuel assembly of the MIT research reactor is made up of plate elements as shown
in Fig. 1 (only 4 of 13 elements are shown). Suppose the flow channel between plates 2 and 3 is
blocked at the inlet (Fig. 2) What is the axial location of the maximum fuel temperature in plate 3?
Solve this in the following steps: (Steps A and B can be solved independently of each other).
A) Find T
w
(z) where T
w
is the element 3 surface temperature on the cooled side (RHS).
B) Find T
Fuel
LHS
(z) - T
w
(z) where T
Fuel
LHS
(z) is the element 3 surface temperature on the
insulated side (LHS).
C) Find the axial location of the maximum T
Fuel
LHS
(z).
In solving this problem you can make the following assumptions:
All heat transfer through the fuel element is radial, i.e. there is not axial heat transfer within the
fuel element.
All of the energy generated in plate 3 flow radially to the right to the coolant channel between
elements 3 and 4, i.e., the left side of element 3 has an insulated boundary (see Fig. 3).
For simplicity, we neglect the clad and take the elements as only composed of fuel - a metallic
fuel.
Assume the flow is fully developed.
Operating Conditions:
P = 55 psi (0.379 MPa)
T
inlet
= 123.8 F (51C)
m = 0.32 kg
q(z) = 8.54E5cos(z/L) kW/m
3
Geometry:
L = 23 inches (58.42 cm)
s = 0.098 inches (0.249 cm)
t = 0.030 inches (0.0762 cm)
w = 2.082 inches (5.288 cm)
Page 2 of 2 pages
Properties:
Water: c
p
= 4.181 kJ/kg-K
= 987.2 kg/m
3
k = 0.644 W/m-K
= 544E-6 kg/m-s
Pr = 3.597
Fuel: k = 41.2 W/m-K
1 2 3 4 5
m
Figure 1
m = 0
2 3 4
w
Figure 2
3 4 5
m
L
s
z=0
T (z)
Fuel
LHS
T (z)
w
t
Figure 3
Page 1 of 1 page
Maximum Clad Temperature For LMFBR Reactor
Derive the relationship between the physical and extrapolated axial lengths for a LMFBR
core such that the maximum clad temperature occurs at the core outlet during steady-state operating
conditions. This relationship describes the truncation of the assumed sinusoidal thermal flux
variation along the core axis.
Ignore the reactor blankets and assume the following remain constant along the axial length
of the core:
(i) heated perimeter of channels
(ii) mass flux of coolant
(iii) coolant specific heat
(iv) film heat transfer coefficient
Page 1 of 1 v120202
22.312 ENGINEERING OF NUCLEAR REACTORS
OPEN BOOK QUIZ #1 1.5 HOURS
PROBLEM #1 (50 %)
A direct Brayton cycle fast gas reactor is cooled by helium. The fuel pin clad is
satisfactorily maintained below its failure limit upon a LOCA by natural circulation
cooling. To do so requires maintaining the containment pressure at or above 4
atmospheres so that the resultant air, helium, and water vapor (from the initial relative
humidity in the containment air) mixture can cool the fuel clad. The pressure limit for
the containment is 4.5 atmospheres (.456 MPa).
The initial conditions of the air in the containment and helium in the power cycle
are given in Table 1.
QUESTION
What is the maximum allowable volume of helium in the power cycle?
Make the following assumptions:
1. Treat Air, He, and water vapor as perfect gases
2. Neglect decay heat
3. The outside wall of the containment is perfectly insulated.
This solution requires iteration. As a guide you may assume that the volume of helium is at least
an order of magnitude less than the volume of the containment
Table 1: Initial Conditions for He-cooled GCFR
Air in the containment Helium in the power cycle
V
a
= 34,830 m
3
V
g
= to be determined
P
a
= 0.1 Mpa P
g
= 8.88 Mpa
T
a
= 322
o
K T
g
= 700
o
K
n
a
= 1301 kmol n
g
= to be determined
_
a
= 80 % (relative humidity) *R = 0.00831 (Mpa m
3
)/(kmol
o
K)
c
v,air
= 20.80 kJ/kmol c
v,He
= 12.47 kJ/kmol
c
v,water

vapor
= 25.42 kJ/kmol * universal gas constant
Page 2 of 2 v120202
PROBLEM #2 (50 %)
A fuel pin of initially solid pellets having an outside radius of 5mm is placed in
operation and the pellets undergo sintering, such that at the axial location of maximum
fuel temperature, T
max
is 2500
o
C and the fuel surface temperature, T
fo
is 700
o
C.
QUESTION
a) (35%) If linear power were to be increased by 10 %, what would be the new
maximum temperature? Use a 2 zone sintering model with _
o
= 0.88 TD, _
s
=
.98 TD, T
sintering
= 1800
o
C
b) (15%) Using an initial annular pellet, what initial central void dimension R
v
would be required to attain the same linear power as in part a, while
maintaining T
max
= 2500
o
C. Do not consider effects of sintering for this
portion of the problem.
pg 1 of 7 v12/04/02
OPEN BOOK QUIZ #1 SOLUTIONS 1.5 HOURS
Problem #1:
Starting from the Control Volume first law for shaft work equal to zero:
U U Q Q
n gp c st 2 1
=

(1)
Given the assumptions:
1. Air, He, and water vapor are perfect gases
2. Neglecting decay heat
3. The outside wall of the containment is perfectly insulated
This equation reduces to:
U U
2 1
0 = (2)
or, expanding terms:
( ) ( ) ( ) U U U U U U
a a g g w w 2 1 2 1 2 1
0 + + = (3)
pg 2 of 7 v12/04/02
Treating all species in equation 3 as perfect gases, and noting that at the end of the transient, all
gases will be at the same temperature, this equation may be re-expressed as:
n c T T n c T T n c T T
g v g g a v a a wa v wa w a , , , ,
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
= (4)
Noting that initially, the air and the water vapor are in thermal-equilibrium:
T T
w a a ,
=
Now solve for T
2
:
T
n c T n c T n c T
n c n c n c
g v g g a v a a wa v wa a
g v g a v a wa v wa
2
=
+ +
+ +
, , ,
, , ,
(5)
Using the Perfect Gas Law:
P
n n n RT
V V
g a wa
g a
=
+ +
+
( )
(6)
where R is the universal gas constant.
Substituting equation 5 into equation 6 results in:
P
n n n R
V V
n c T n c T n c T
n c n c n c
g a wa
g a
g v g g a v a a wa v wa a
g v g a v a wa v wa
=
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
[
\
|

)
j
( )
, , ,
, , ,
(7)
This is the expression for the final pressure in the containment. The final pressure limit is 4.5
atmospheres. In MPa, this is:
4 5
1
1 0133 10
0 456
5
. *
. *
. atm
atm
Pa
MPa = (8)
All values are given except for n
g
, n
wa
, and V
g
.
Using equation 7-19 from NS Vol I:
( )
a sat wa
T p p =
8 . 0 =
K T
a
322 =
Using the steam tables:
p MPa
sat
= 0 0117 . (9)
Treating water as a perfect gas:
p V n RT
sat a wa a
= (10)
pg 3 of 7 v12/04/02
Solving for n
wa
, and substituting given and computed values:
n
p V
RT
wa
sat a
a
= = =
( . )( , )
( . )( )
.
0 0118 34 830
0 00831 322
153 6 kmol (11)
Now the remaining unknowns are n
g
and V
g
. These quantities are related through the Perfect
Gas Law applied to the helium system at its initial state.
n
P V
RT
V
V
g
g g
g
g
g
= = =
( . )
( . )( )
.
8 88
0 00831 700
1 527 (12)
Substituting this value, and other computed or given values into equation 7 results in:
0 456
1 527 1301 153 6 0 00831
34 830
1 527 12 47 700 1301 20 80 322 153 6 25 42 322
1 527 12 47 1301 20 80 153 6 25 42
.
( . . )( . )
,
( . )( . )( ) ( )( . )( ) ( . )( . )( )
( . )( . ) ( )( . ) ( . )( . )
=
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
[
\
|

)
j
V
V
V
V
g
g
g
g
(13)
Simplified Further:
0 456
0 1269 12 088
34 830
13 329 9 97 10
19 04 30 965
6
.
. .
,
, . *
. ,
=
+
+
+
+
[
\
|

)
j
V
V
V
V
g
g
g
g
(14)
This must be solved iteratively for V
g
. The method of Bisection was used in for the
development of this solution. With a pressure tolerance of 0.001 MPa, the final answer is:
V m
g
= 1614 0
3
. (15)
If the initial volume of the He is neglected in the final answer, equation 14 becomes:
0 456
0 1269 12 088
34 830
13 329 9 97 10
19 04 30 965
6
.
. .
,
, . *
. ,
=
+ +
+
[
\
|

)
j
V V
V
g g
g
(16)
Using the same iterative method, to a pressure tolerance of 0.001 MPa, the answer is:
V m
g
= 1526 2
3
. (17)
pg 4 of 7 v12/04/02
Problem # 2
A = Initially Solid Pellet at q
initial
B = Sintered Pellet at q
initial
C = Sintered Pellet with maximum temperature of 2500 C at > q q
res initial
D = Increase linear power by 10% (i.e., = q 1.1q
new,res res
)
The above figure, adapted from Figure 8-16 in NS Vol I, describes the logic of this problem. An
initially solid pellet (A) undergoes sintering (as described by the 2-zone sintering model) (B).
The initial linear power is increased so that the pellet maximum temperature is 2500C (line C).
Then, the linear power is further increased 10% (D).
Part a)
The first step is to find the linear power for the initially solid pellet which upon sintering, has its
linear power raised to q
res
so that T
max
= 2500C.
Using equation 8-99 and figure 8-2 from NS Vol. I, obtain the relationship between R
s
and q
res
.
k dT
q R
R
W
cm
T
T
res s
fo
fo
s
0 88
700
1800 2
4
1 35 5 13 5 22
.
. .
=
=
[
\
|

)
j
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
= =
(1)
Using equation 8-100 and figure 8-2 from NS Vol. 1, obtain the relationship between q
res
, R
fo
,
R
s
, and R
v
:

(2)
k dT
q R
R
R
R
R
R
T
T
res s
o
s
fo
v
s
s
v
s
0 98
1800
2500 2 2 2
4
1 1
.
max
ln
=
=
=

[
\
|

)
j
[
\
|

)
j

[
\
|

)
j
+
[
\
|

)
j
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
pg 5 of 7 v12/04/02
Now solve equation 2 for the quantity
q
res
4
:
=
[
\
|

)
j
[
\
|

)
j

[
\
|

)
j
+
[
\
|

)
j
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
q
R
R
R
R
R
R
res
s
o
s
fo
v
s
s
v
4
21
1 1
2 2 2
ln
(3)
Substitute this into equation 1 to eliminate q
res
:
22
21
0 98
0 88
1 1
1
2 2 2
2
=
[
\

)
[
\
|

)
j

[
\
|

)
j
+
[
\
|

)
j
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
[
\
|

)
j
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
.
ln
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
s
fo
v
s
s
v
s
fo
(4)
Performing some algebraic manipulation, one arrives at:
1 1667 1 1
1
1
2 2
2
2
2
. ln
[
\
|

)
j
+
[
\
|

)
j
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
=
[
\
|

)
j
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
[
\
|

)
j
=
[
\
|

)
j

R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
v
s
s
v
s
fo
s
v
fo
s
(5)
From mass balance equation, 8-98 in NS Vol. 1:
R R R R
v
s o
s
s s s
2 2 2 2
0 98 0 88
0 98
0 102 =

=

=

. .
.
.
[
\
|

)
j
=
R
R
s
v
2
9 8 . (6)
Substitute the above expression relating R
s
and R
v
into equation 5 resulting in:
1 1667 1 0 102 1 9 8 1
2
. . ln . + ( ) ( ) }
=
[
\
|

)
j

R
R
fo
s
0 7761 1
2
. =
[
\
|

)
j

R
R
fo
s

R
R
fo
s
[
\
|

)
j
=
2
1 7761 . (7)
Inserting this result into equation 1 finds the desired result:
22
4
1
1
1 7761
=

|
|
|
|
|
|
q
res
.
= q
W
cm
res
632 68 . (8)
pg 6 of 7 v12/04/02
This is the initial linear power. The new linear power will then be:
= = q q
W
cm
new res
1 1 695 95 . . (9)
Given this, find the new resulting T
max
.
Insert the new linear power into equation 1:
k dT
R
R
T
T
s
fo
fo
s
0 98
700
1800 2
22
695 95
4
1
.
.
=
=
= =
[
\
|

)
j
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
=
[
\
|

)
j
0 3972 1
2
.
R
R
s
fo
[
\
|

)
j
=
R
R
s
fo
2
0 60276 . (10)
The relationship between R
v
and R
s
still holds, substituting these values into equation 2:
k dT
T
T
s
0 98
1800
695 95
4
0 98
0 88
0 60276 1 0 102 1 9 8
.
?
max
. .
.
( . ) . ln( . )
=
=
=
[
\

)
+ ( ) }
=
=
=
k dT
T
T
s
0 98
1800
24 73
.
?
max
. (11)
From NS Vol 1, figure 8-2:
T
max
= 2640C (12)
Part b)
For annular fuel rods with no restructuring using the same linear power as arrived at in part a,
and maintaining the temperature limit of 2500C, we use equation 8-69 in NS Vol. 1:
k dT
q
F
R
R
T
T
v
fo
v
fo
0 88
700
2500
4
1
.
max
,
=
=
=

[
\
|

)
j
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(13)
Using Fig 8-2:
k dT
W
cm
T
T
fo
0 88
700
2500
54 13 5 41
.
max
.
=
=
= = (14)
pg 7 of 7 v12/04/02
and the linear power from part a:
41
695 95
4
1 =
[
\
|

)
j
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
,
F
R
R
v
fo
v
= = F
v
( )( )
.
.
41 4
695 95
0 74
(15)
From Fig 8-18 for =1 (uniform generation):
1
0 32
= .
Now:
R
R
fo
v
, so R
R
v
fo
=
= = R mm mm
v
5 0 32 1 6 ( . ) . (16)
Page 1 of 2 revised 11/26/02
OPEN BOOK QUIZ #2 QUESTIONS 1.5 HOURS
PROBLEM #1 (40%)
Consider two cases of fully developed axial flow of a fluid with Prandlt number of unity
in a triangular subchannel of fuel rods of diameter 9.5mm spaced at a P/D = 1.2 a turbulent
flow at Reynolds number of 10
5
and a laminar flow at Reynolds number of 10
3
. In both cases
the thermal boundary condition is constant axial wall heat flux. The above information is
summarized in the following Table:
Fully Developed Flow
in Triangular subchannel of
rods 9.5 mm diameter
of P/D = 1.2 with
w
q constant
Case Flow Regime Re Pr
Case 1 Laminar Flow 10
3
1
Case 2 Turbulent Flow 10
5
1
Question: Estimate the friction factor for each case by at least 2 different methods. Do not
execute a solution of the momentum equation as one of your methods.
Page 2 of 2 revised 11/26/02
PROBLEM #2 (20%)
A liquid metal (properties in Table below) is flowing at Reynolds number of 10
6
in a
heated circular channel of diameter 10cm, with a constant wall heat flux boundary condition of
50Kw/m
2
. The Darcy friction factor for this flow is equal to 0.015. The bulk temperature at the
fully developed position z = 6 meters is 50C
Parameter Sodium (538 C)
k 62.6 W/mC

817.7 kg/m
3

2.28 x 10
-4
kg/m s
c
p
1254 J/kgC
Question: What is the corresponding wall temperature at z = 2 meters?
PROBLEM #3 (40%)
Consider four reactor types liquid metal, pressurized water, boiling water, and helium
cooled reactors all operating at 2000MWth at the same average linear heat rate. For each case take
the fuel rods as metal clad of 10mm outside diameter and 3 meters long and take the the
extrapolated length as 3 meters with a cosine axial linear power distribution. Other parameters of
interest are in the Table below.
Liquid Metal
Reactor
PWR
Gas Cooled
Reactor
BWR
Coolant Core Inlet Temp C 395 286 318 278
Coolant Core Exit Temp C 545 324 742 288
Heat Transfer Coefficient
W/m2 C
10
5
5 x 10
4
10
4
2 x 10
4
Question: For which reactor is the maximum clad temperature closest to the core exit? Prove
your answer.
Page 1 of 1 v12/04/02
OPEN BOOK QUIZ #2 SOLUTIONS 1.5 HOURS
Problem 1:
Laminar:
1) f
C
iL
fiL
iL

Re
(eqn 9-83)
Where,
C a b
P
D
b
P
D
fiL
= +
( )
+
( )
1 2
2
1 1 (eqn 9-82)
From Table 9-2
C
fiL
. . ( . ) . ( . ) = + 62 97 216 9 0 2 190 2 0 2
2
= + 62 97 43 38 7 6 . . .
= 98 75 .
= = f
iL
98 75
10
098
3
.
.
2) Fig 9-22, P/D = 1.2 (fRe) 90 for triangular array curve f = 0.090
Turbulent:
1) f
C
iT
fiT

.
Re
0 18
(eqn 9-88)
where,
C a b
P
D
b
P
D
fiT
= +
( )
+
( )
1 2
2
1 1
= + 0 1458 0 03632 0 2 0 03333 0 2
2
. . ( . ) . ( . )
= + 0 1458 0 007264 0 0013332 . . .
= 0 1517 .
f
iT
=
( )
=
0 1517
10
0 0191
5
0 18
.
.
.
Page 2 of 2 v12/04/02
2) D
e
transformation:
Use the Moody curve directly for Re = 10
5
and read f as 0.018. This f is valid for a tube
velocity of
10
5
D
and a subchannel velocity of
10
5
D
e
where D
e
is obtained as follows:
D
A
P
P
D
D
e
F
W
= =

[
\

) 4
4
3
4 8
1
2
2
2
See Table J-3

=
( )

[
\

)
|
|
|
|
|
|
D
P
D
8
3
4 8
2

=
[
\

)

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
D
P
D
2 3
1
2
= ( )
|
|
|
|
|
|
9 5 10
2 3
1 25 1
3
2
. .
=

9 5 10 0 724
3
. ( . )
=.00622
3) Reynolds analogy (eqn 10-76)
St
f h
c V
p m
= =
8
St
Nu
hD
k
VD
c
k
h
Vc
p
p
= = =
RePr

Nu f
RePr
=
8
Nu = ?
Fig 10-10 Re = 10
5
, Pr = 1 -> Nu = 200
f
Nu
= = = 8 8
200
10
0 01600
5
RePr
.
4) Equivalent Annulus: (eqn 9-86)
Re =
De
10
5

f
f
P
D
ct
= +
( )
1 036 0 054 1 . .
f f
ct
= + ( )
[ |
1 036 0 054 25 . . . = ( ) f
ct
1 0495 .
from part 2, f
ct
= 0 018 .
f = ( ) 0 018 1 0495 . . = 0.01889
Page 3 of 3 v12/04/02
Problem 2:
=
( )
q h T T
W B
so, T T
q
h
h
w B
= +

= +

50
50 10
3
need to find h.
The applicable correlation is eqn 10-113
Nu Pe
= + 7 0 025
0 8
.
.
Pr
. ( )
.
. = =

=
c
k
p
2 28 10 1254
62 6
0 00457
4
Pe = = = RePr . . 10 0 00457 4 57 10
6 3
Nu
= +
( )
7 0 025 4 57 10
3
0 8
. .
.
= + ( ) 7 0 025 847 1 . .
hD
k
H
= 28 18 .
h
k
D
W
m C
H
= ( ) = ( ) 28 18
62 6
0 1
28 18
2
.
.
.
.
= 17 639
2
,
W
m C
T
W
= + = 50
50000
17 639
52 8
,
. C
Let us examine the solution by Reynolds analogy for h:
(inapplicable because eddy effects do not dominate core flow as these analogies assume)
Try Prandtl analogy St
h
c V
f
f
p m
= =
+ ( )
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 8
1
1 5
8
1 Pr
Pr
.
.
. = =
( )
( )
=
c
k
p
1254 2 28 10
62 6
0 0045
4
h c V
f
f
p m
=
+ ( )
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
8
1
1 5
8
1 Pr
Re = =
VD
10
6
= =

( )
( )
=
V
D
10
10 2 28 10
817 7 0 1
2 7
6
6 4
.
. .
.
Page 4 of 4 v12/04/02
h = ( )( )
+ ( )
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
817 7 1254 2 7
0 015
8
1
1 5
0 015
8
9955
. .
.
.
.
h =
|
|
|
|
|
|
= 5 190
1
0 8
6 400 ,
.
,
Note that this h is much less than that obtained by the correlation. Hence the Prandtl analogy is
not applicable.
Problem 3:
For a cosine linear power axial shape:
z
L R Lh
mc
c
c co
p
=
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tan
1
2
(eqn. 13-25b)
tan

1
2
So, given the conditions in the problem statement, the reactor with the max clad
temperature closest to the exit has the largest ratio of
h
m c
sc p
where m
sc
is subchannel flow rate.
For a core:
Q m c T m N c T
core p sc sc p
= =
so,

m c
Q
N T
sc p
sc
=
Each core has the same number of rods, N, since
Q NLq = , and
Q, L and q are the

same for each core. Since N
sc
is directly proportional to N
rods
(and also almost numerically
equal) the parameter dictating the location of max clad temp becomes:
h
m c
h T
sc p

Where the max z corresponds to the largest h T
LM PWR Gas
h T 150(10
5
) 38(5 x 10
4
) 424(10
4
)
The parameter for Liquid Metal is the greatest; hence the maximum channel temperature
is closest to the exit for the Liquid Metal cooled core when these cores are considered.
Page 5 of 5 v12/04/02
For the case of the BWR, the analysis must include the fact that the coolant in the channel
reaches and maintains saturation temperature through the majority of the channel. The relative
bulk and clad temperature profiles are depicted in the diagram below. The shape of these
profiles is compared to that of a PWR:
The dots indicate the approximate location of the maximum clad temperature. As drawn, the
BWR maximum channel temperature is not closest to the exit.
PROBLEM BB-2 QUESTION
Mechanical equilibrium of a spherical bubble containing pure vapor states that:
2
P
G
- P
L
=
r
and thermodynamic equilibrium requires that T
G
= T
L
. In order to establish a criterion for growth
of a bubble of radius r, or the incipience of boiling from a cavity of radius r, it is necessary to
relate T and P along the saturation line. This can be accomplished by:
(a) Utilization of Clapeyron equation,
(b) A curve fit of the saturation line, or
(c) Use of tabulated property data.
I. Derive expressions for the minimum vapor temperature required for existence of a bubble
of radius r, utilizing method (a) together with the common simplifications described below.
Clapeyron equation:
h
fg
= T
dP
v
fg
dT
Perfect gas: Pv
g
= R
g
T
(1) Assume h
fg
v
fg
T is constant, T ~ T
sat
.
(2) Assume h
fg
v
fg
is constant.
(3) Assume v
fg
~ vg, h
fg
R
g
is constant, and use the perfect gas assumption.
(4) Same as (3), but assume 2 p
L
r << 1.
II. Compute the minimum vapor temperature for water under the following conditions:
R = 0.0005 in.
P
2
= 14.7, 1000 psia.
Use (a) the four results derived in part I
(b) an empirical fit of the saturation curve:
where log
10
p(psia) = A + B/T (R)
A 6.72
B -3720
and (c) the tabular values found in Steam Tables.
Use Steam Tables for the properties, and the attached data for the surface tension (the
-data will be useful throughout the course).
ft
Evaluate all properties at T
sat
; R
g
= 85.57
lb
lb
f
m
o
R
Note all tables used in calculations should be in R.
Page 1
PROBLEM DD-2 QUESTION
Compute the minimum time needed to heat up 100 lb. of water from 100F to 212F at
atmospheric pressure. The water is contained in a well-insulated tank that is also well-stirred.
The water is electrically heated with a high-power Calrod unit, in the form of a horizontal
cylinder 0.5 in. in diameter with a heated surface area of 1ft
2
. The power to the heater can be
varied continuously. The heated element will be destroyed if the burnout flux is exceeded.
Use at least two burnout correlations in order to get a good estimate of the power limit.
Remember that the pool is initially subcooled.
Page 1
1/11/02
NUCLEAR SYSTEMS I:
THERMAL HYDRAULIC FUNDAMENTALS
Neil E. Todreas and Mujid S. Kazimi
ERRATA
TEXT
PAGE (Line, Fig., Eq., Ex.) ORIGINAL CORRECTED
13, Table 1-3 (LMFBR
column, Line 6)
Cylindrical pellet Annular pellet
40 (Line 2) ... appears as kinetic energy of the
fission fragments, ...
... appears as kinetic and decay
energy of the fission fragments, ...
40 (Line 3) ... emitted -rays. ... ... emitted -rays and neutrinos. ...
42 (end of page) ... (neutrino energy). ... (neutrino energy). Accounting
for capture energy, the fraction of
recoverably energy, i.e., core
power, deposited in the fuel
becomes about 95%.
57 (Line 9) thrermal thermal
63 (Line 12)
q
(x) = (10
14
) ...
q
= (10
14
) ...
64 (Eq. 3-63)

= q r
el
r
K ( )

= q
el
K
64 (Eq. 3-64)

= q r
il
r
K ( )

= + + q r q r q r q r ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
r r s r
l l e i

= q
il
K

= + + q q q q
e i l l
85 (Eq. 4-22a) = - m
D
dt
+ m
t
= - m
D
Dt
+ m
t
90 (Line 22)
h
in
- h
out

= u
in
(T) - u
out
(T) - (p/)
in
- (p/)
out
= p
out
- p
in
/
h
in
- h
out

= u
in
(T) - u
out
(T) + (p/)
in
- (p/)
= p
in
- p
out
/
94 (Line 2) withn within
141 (Line 22) ... Using Eq. 5-30, we can write
m
as:
... Using Eq. 5-30 and the area
averaging analogy to Eq. 5-16,
we can write
m
as:
143 (Line 2) vapor fraction () vapor fraction {}
146 (Eq. 5-65, 1
st
term)

K K K
l
+ ( ) { }
1 v
vz

K K K
l l
+ ( ) { }
1 v
z
149 (Fig. 5-5, bottom)
A
1
A
s
r
l
A
( )
1
r
l
A
s
2
167 (Eq. 5-158) first term
t

m v
m
2
/2

A
z
second term
z
G
m v
m
2
/2

A
z
t

m v
2
m
/2

A
z
z
G
m v
2
m
+
/2

A
z
172 (Table 6-1, Line 8,
Eq. 6-1)
U
2
- U
1
= Q
1+2
- W
1+2
U
2
- U
1
= Q
12
- W
12
176 (renumber Eqs.) (6-2)
(6-3)
(6-3a)
(6-3b)
188 (Eq. 6-32) W
u,max
=
U - T
o
S
t
W
u,max
= -
U - T
o
S
t
219 (Eq. 6-97)
r
p
=
p
2
p
1

p
3
p
4
r
p

p
2
p
1
=
p
3
p
4
221 (Ex. 6-7, solution)
=
W
T
- W
CP
/m
W
u,max/m
= ... =
W
T
- W
CP
/m
W
u,max
/m
= ...
227 (Ex. 6-10, solution) W
Cp
= mc
p
T
2
- T
1
= mc
p
T ... W
Cp
= mc
p
T
2
- T
1
= mc
p
T
1
...
231 (Fig. 6-29) Graph drawn as T
1'
T
2'
and
T
3'
T
4'
Graph redrawn so that T
1'
= T
2'
and
T
3'
= T
4'
232 (after 2
nd
eq.)
where T
2
'
= T
1
"
(r
p
)
- 1
...
where T
2
'
= T
1
"
(r
p
'
)
- 1
...
241 (Line 1)
... m
wc
1
, m
wpd
, and m
wpr
) ... m
wc
1
and m
wp
)
241 (Eq. 7-2c) For m
wpd
:
d (m
wpd
u
wpd
)
dt
= Q
wpr - wpd
- ...
For m
wp
:
d (m
wpd
u
wpd
+ m
wpr
u
wpr
)
dt
= Q
n - wpr
- ...
242 (Eq. 7-2d)
d (m
wpr
u
wpr
)
dt
=

...
delete
243 (Lines 3 & 4) ... 7-2c and 7-2d ... ... and 7-2c ...
245 (last Line) ... coolant in the primary or secondary
system, ...
... coolant in the primary system, ...
246 (Fig. 7-4) Changed to differentiate primary
and secondary coolant in steam
generator.
250 (Ex. 7-1) ... saturated water in equilibrium ... ... saturated water mixture in
equilibrium ...
251 (Table 7-2) Example 7-1: saturated water in ...
Example 7-2: superheated water in ...
Example 7-1: saturated water
mixture in ...
Example 7-2: superheated steam
in ...
3
254 (Ex. 7-2) ... superheated water in equilibrium ... ... superheated steam in equilibrium ...
254 (Line 20) If the water is superheated ... If the steam is superheated ...
254 (Line 25) ... treats the superheated water ... ... treats the superheated steam ...
263 (Line 2) computer compute
267 (Line 9)
discontinuous phases continuous phases
267 (Fig. 7-16B)
m
v
s U
( )

m
l
( )
s L
m
v
s U
( )

m
l
( )
s L
278 (Fig. 7-20)
280 (Fig. 7-21) Redrawn with lighter shading so
arrows show.
arrows show.
arrows show.
301 (Eq. 8-16c, last term) - 1797017 - 1.797017
317 (Line 3) Hence: Hence, Eq. 8-57 becomes:
319 (Fig 8-13, y-axis
label)
Void Factor, F
v
(/) Void Factor, F
v
(, )
338 (Eq. 8-23, top)
T
co
T
m
T
ci
T
fo
T
max
T
co
T
m
T
ci
T
fo
T
max
359 (Solution, 1
st
Eq.)
376 (Eq. 9-62)

zr eff
=
zr
- v'
z
v'
r

rz eff
=
rz
- v'
z
v'
r
384 (Eq. 9-84)
D
el

D
eb

D
ei

D
eb

397 (Line 9) C
s
= 1.75 (by extrapolation ... C
s
= 1.7 (by extrapolation ...
397 (Line 12)
...
(1.75)(8.678 m/s)
2
(0.417)
2
= 0.153 MPa ...
(1.7)(8.678 m/s)
2
(0.417)
2
= 0.149 MPa
vapor at h
liquid at h
g
l
l
liquid at h
vapor at h
g
m (t ) =
1
C

e

2C p
A
l T
t
- 1
e
2C p
A
l T
t
+ 1
m (t ) =
1
C

exp 2C p
A
l
T
t - 1
exp 2C p
A
l
T
t + 1
4
399 (Fig. 9-35, top)
Note: The arrows change to
399 (Fig. 9-35, bottom) K
e

V
2
2
2
K
c

V
2
2
2
406 (Ref. 18) Zerke, J.E. Zerbe, J.E.
437 (Line 9) ... sublayer.
numerical results for the ...
... sublayer.
Kays and Leung (1963) used
various refinements for their
approach and obtained numerical
results for the ...
451 (Line 11) ...P/D > 1.1 the equivalent diameter... ...P/D > 1.1 the equivalent
annulus...
467 (Line 4) ... depend on the channel exit
conditions.
... depend on the design of the
channel ends.
467 (Line 14) Pushkina Pushkin
490 (Eq. 11-82)
lo
2
=
fo
2
= ...
490 (Eq. 11-83)

l
l
l
o
TP
m o
2
= =
f
f

fo
2
=
m

f
TP
f
fo
= ...
510 (Eq. 11-126b)
p
b
p
o cr
=
2
+ 1

- 1
p
b
p
o cr
=
2
+ 1

- 1
535 (Eq. 12-17c)

T T
q
k
w sat
=

( ) 0 00135
1 2
. Re
/
l
l

T T
q
h
sat bulk
o
=

( ) 0 00135
1 2
. Re
/
l
l
559 (Line 5) p = 800 to 2000 psia p = 800 to 2300 psia
559 (Eq. 12-62) [(2.022 - ... exp (18.177 - ...)x
e
]
[(0.1484 ... 0.869x
e
]
[0.2664 + 0.837 exp...]
{(2.022 - ... exp [(18.177 - ...)x
e
]}
[(0.1484 ... 0.869x
e
]
[0.2664 + 0.8357 exp...]
567 (Line 7) ... needed for x, which ... ... needed for x = x
cr
, which ...
571 (Line 10) 83:3 83:351
581 (Ex. 13-1) Linear heat ... = 17.8 31.1
582 (Ex. 13-1) C
p
= 6.143
= 917
5.60
= 91.7
585 (Eq. 13-22) sin
Z
L
e
sin
z
L
e
5
587-588 (Ex. 13-2) Change every 17.8 (q') to
Change every 6.143 (c
p
) to
T
m
(z) = 295.9 + 9.9 sin ...
z
c
= 0.6
T
c
(z
c
) = 286 + 17.8(0.83 + 0.858)
= 316.0C
z
f
= 0.014
T
C
L
(z
f
) = 286 + 17.8 [0.556
sin
0.014
3.66
+ 1 + 45.99
cos
0.014
3.66
= 1114.7C
31.1
5.60
305.0 + 19.0 sin ...
0.65
286 + 31.1(0.851 + 0.836)
= 341.0C
0.015
286 + 31.1 [0.610
sin
0.015
3.66
+ 1 + 45.99
cos
0.015
3.66
= 1735.3C
597 (Eq. 13-45b)
... -
G
m
2
p
m
+
i n
... -
G
m
2
m
+
i n
599 (Eq. 13-53)
1
x
2
- x
2
1/ 2
2
x
2
- x
2
1/ 2
603 (Line 12)
1
x
- x
2
1/ 2
2
x
2
- x
2
1/ 2
603 (Line 17) (0.1036
2
- 0.0862
2
)
-1/2
2
0.1036
2
- 0.0862
2
1/ 2
604 (Line 7) -(0.794) -(0.793)
604 (Line 8) 1.1362(1.277 - 0.7260) 2.276(1.277 - 0.7265)
604 (Line 9) 12.3 kPa 16.6 kPa
604 (Line 14) q = m h
out
- h
in
q = m h
out
- h
in
604 (Table 13-3) p
gravity
: 6.47 p
total
: 16.90
9.07 28.61
12.58 49.61
15.14 69.43
17.20 88.89
20.51 128.30
23.34 170.10
8.81 19.24
12.21 31.71
16.63 53.68
19.62 73.91
21.83 93.52
24.85 132.7
26.64 173.4
605 (Fig. 13-11) Graph based on original Table 13-3
values.
Change graph according to
Table 13-3 changes.
605 (Line 4) h
out
- 1224.1) (h
out
- 1224.1)
610 (Eq. 13-70)

Z
b

ZB
611 (Eq. 11-104) x x
e
623 (App. A-4, p
+
)
p
*
gL - 1
p
*
gL
- 1
625 (App. A-4) x
cr
Vol. II P12-557
6
628 (37) FS Fuel pellet ... Delete the entire line
633 (App. B) Electron charge 1.60210 x 10
-20
emu 1.60210 x 10
-19
Coulomb
637 (App. C, Table C-1)
Col. 5, Row 1
Col. 5, Row 2
6.214 x 10
-4
6.214 x 10
-6
6.214 x 10
-6
6.214 x 10
-4
Col. 6, Row 1 2.4711 x 10
-3
2.4711 x 10
-8
Col. 2, Row 5
Col. 2, Row 6
1.016
1.000
1016
1000
Col. 3, Row 5 1.440 1440
Col. 1, Row 6 1.0133 x 10
3
1.0133 x 10
6
Col. 2, heading
Pascal
kgm
-1
s
-3
*
Pascal
kgm
-1
s
-2
*
Col. 4, Row 7 1.9500 x 10
6
1.9800 x 10
6
Col. 6, Row 4 1.1583 x 10
3
1.1583 x 10
5
Col. 1, Row 3
Col. 2, Row 3
Col. 3, Row 1
Col. 3, Row 2
14.618
1.4168 x 10
4
6.841 x 10
-2
6.841 x 10
-5
14.594
1.4594 x 10
4
6.852 x 10
-2
6.852 x 10
-5
662 (Table E-4, Col. 1 @
2700
(1.052 x 10
2
) (1.5052 x 10
2
)
663 (App. E, Table E-5) All v v
670 (Fig. F-2) He graphed inproperly. He specific heat level corrected.
672 (Line 5)
p
kg
m
3

kg
m
3
690 (Index) Cladding
thermal properties of, 295t ...
Cladding
thermal properties of 296t, ...
7
PROBLEMS (Answers and Statements)
PAGE (PROB. #) ORIGINAL CORRECTED
37 (2-3, Lines 9, 10
& 12)
q' (z) = q'
max
...
where = 1.96.
Answer: MCPR = 3.43
q' (z) = q'
ref
...
where = 1.96. Determine q'
ref
such that q''(z)
max
= 44 kW/m.
Answer: MCPR = 1.54
72 (3.3) Assume uniform axial power profile.
1. Q = 23.85 MW
2. Q = 24.37 MW
Assume uniform axial power prof
and the slab approximation.
1. Q = 23.79 MW
2. Q = 24.39 MW
123 (4.7) 1. F
x
= 1875 N, F
y
= 3247.6 N
2. F
x
= 833.3 N, F
y
= 1443.4 N
F
x
= 5625 N, F
y
= -3248 N
F
x
= 2500 N, F
y
= -1443 N
169 (5.3) 2. 4.89 m/sec
3. 1.636 m/sec
2.83
0.74
233 (6-2, Question 3) ... in the legs 34 ... ... in the legs 3'4 ...
236 (6.5) 36.7% to 37.8% 36.9% to 37.7%
236 (6-6) 1. A perfect gas. 1. A perfect gas of c
p
= 1.30.
287 (7.2) Heat of fusion for water = 3.33(10
5
) J 3.33(10
5
) J/kg
289 (7.4) p = 93.15 87.9
289 (7.5) 34.7C (94.4F) 35.3C (95.5F)
290 (Table 7.8) Specified cool-down rate = 38C/hr
(100F/hr)
s
f
= 3.1211
s
g
= 2.6922
Suppression pool initial pressure =
0.1 MPa (15 psia)
(68.4F/hr)
3.1211 kJ/kg K
2.6922 kJ/kg K
0.1 MPa (14.5 psia)
293 (7.8) 230.2 seconds
22.16 m
3
28.81 m
3
227
22.14
28.83
339 (8.2) 0.7 T
ci
+ 0.3 T
co
1.73
0.7 T
cl
+ 0.3 T
f
1.67
340 (8.4) 2. T
ave
(C) 1395.9 1213.9 1388 1213
409 (9.5)
p
friction
= 29.29
p
T
= 92.71
31.17
94.59
519 (11.3) Slug to Churn: j
l
{ }
+ j
v
{ }
= 0.5344 0.527
519 (11.4) ... tubes longer than about ... ... tubes with a diameter
largerthan about ...
8
PAGE (PROB. #) ORIGINAL CORRECTED
521 (11.6) D = 3.5 ft 2.4 ft
521 (11.7) Answer: Level = Answer: Level swell =
573 (12.1) (T
v
- T
sat
)
sodium
= 25.2
(T
v
- T
sat
)
water
= 3.25
26.1
3.15
573 (12.2) ... boiler operates at 3.34 MPa, ... 3.35 MPa
574 (12.2) h
fg
= 1803
v
= 17.3
= 0.0204
k = 0.606
1766
16.8
0.0286
0.628
Answers: 1. N = 6
2. q
i
"
= 3.04
N = 6 (based on C
1
= 0.18 in
Eq. 12-10)
4.19
574 (12.3) H
2
O at 0.1 MPa: T
B
M
- T
sat
= 176
T
H
M
- T
sat
= 406
H
2
O at 7.0 MPa: T
B
M
- T
sat
= 194
T
H
M
- T
sat
= 374
Na at 0.1 MPa: T
B
M
- T
sat
= 206
T
H
M
- T
sat
= 1071
156
368
1907 (too high in physical sense)
2629 (too high in physical sense)
87 (too low in physical sense)
771
574 (12.5)
q
cr
"
= 1.37 x 10
6
1.41 x 10
6
615 (13.1)
1.
Q = 6170
2.
Q = 4070
5760
3960
617 (13.4) p
fric
= 13.9
p
grav
= 16.1
p
total
= 42.7
Martinelli-Nelson p
fric
= 18.0
14.4
15.8
42.9
20.4
9
SUPPLEMENT
PROBLEMS SUPPLEMENTARY ANSWERS REMARKS
9.6 answers for interior channels:
1. f
laminar
= 0.12
2. f
turbulent
= 0.02
3. Yes for Turbulent flow (f 0.018 from
Moody's chart)
4. Cannot compute entrance length for laminar
flow in this case.
5. Z = 11.7 to 18.6 cm
No available equations
2/10/02
NUCLEAR SYSTEMS I (2
nd
Printing):
ERRATA
48 (Eq. 3-20) ... =
q
S
n
... =
q
n
S
n
69 (Fig. 3-11, Caption) ... for irradiation time of 10
13
seconds
[8].
... for the essentially infinite
irradiation time of 10
13
seconds [8].
119 (Eq. 4-129b)

r r r
v v v + +
r r r
v v v +
137 (Fig. 5-2b) Sensors r
4
and r
6
indicate vapor.
Sensors r
3
and r
5
indicate liquid only.
This contradicts Fig. 5-2a.
Replace the outputs for sensors
r
4
and r
6
with those of r
3
and r
5
.
140 (Eq. 5-43b)
j
Q
A
l
l
K
{ }
= =
z
j
Q
A
l
l
K
{ }
= =
g
145 (Last Line) (shown in Figure 5-4 in the axial
direction:
(shown in Figure 5-4 in the axial
direction):
146 (Eq. 5-64) ... g cos dA
A
z

... g cos dA
z
A
z

150 (Last Line) (5-86) (5-86b)
151 (Line 4) change of phase to liquid into vapor: change of phase of liquid into vapor:
166 (Table 5-3,
Momentum equation,
where)

G
p p
m
m
2
2 2
1

+
=
{ }
+ ( )
{ } v vz z
v v
l l
G
m
m
2
2 2
1

+
=
{ }
+ ( )
{ } v vz z
v v
l l
166 (Table 5-3, Energy
equation, Phase)
q
wk
wk
P
w
q
wk
wk
P
w
169 (Prob. 5-3) 1. ... {j
v
} = 3.25 m/s 1. ... {j
v
} = 3.31 m/s
191 (Eq. 6-42, middle
term)
(Fig. 9B) (Fig. 6-9B)
236 (Prob. 6-6) 1. A perfect gas of C
p
= 1.30.
1. A perfect gas of = 1.30.
241 (Line 7) For m
wpd
: For m
wp
:
242 (Line 2) Heat transfer from mass wpr ... only
to mass wpd:
Delete (a true statement, but not
relevant since mass wp is
considered as the subsystem)
302 (Fig. 8-2, y-label) k
p
dT
100C
T
k
dT
100C
T
2
319 (Fig. 8-13, Eq. 8-68)

2
2
- 1
2
2
- 1
327 (Line 3)
... =
q
res
3
... ... =
q
res
0
...
329 (Line 10) R
v
= 0.311; R
2
= 0.343;
R
1
= 0.256R
fo
R
v
= 0.311R
2
= 0.343R
1
= 0.256R
fo
350 (Line 14) The values of C
D
are typically 0.3 to
0.7 depending on the nozzle geometry.
The values of C
D
are typically 0.7 to
0.95 depending on the nozzle geometry
[13].
358 (Table 9-1) 0.5 (1 -
2
) 0.5 (1 - )
n
n=1 approximate for Re > 10
4
n=0.75 more exact
376 (Eq. 4-129b)
r
r
r
v v v = +

r r r
v v v = +
376 (Eq. 9-59)

[ ]
=
r
v 0

[ ]
=
r
v 0
376 (Eq. 9-60)

r
r r
r r r v
vv v v
t
p g +
[ ]
= +
[ ]
+

+
[ ]
= +
[ ]
+

r
r r r r r v
vv v v
t
p g
378 (Eq. 9-74)
R R
+
=

w
/
R R
+
=

w
/
382 (Line 6) (discussed in sections II.D.3 and VII). (discussed in sections II.D.2 and
386 (Fig. 9-24)
ordinate is: (f Re)
bT
ordinate is: (f Re
n
)
bT
387 (Line 14) regimens regimes
393 (Eq. 9-98) E = a
i
j
i
i =0
8
E
j
= a
i
j
i =0
8
398 (Table 9-5)
form
= + K
c

V
2
2

form
= + K
c

V
2
2
2
407 (Line 3) ... geshwin digkeitsverteilung ... ... geschwindigkeitsverteilung ...
408 (Prob. 9-4, Data) Pressure drop across assemblies Pressure drop across each assemb
409 (Fig. 9-40)
p
A
40 cm
Fuel
Bundle
Orificing
Block
Assembly 2 Assembly 1
p
A 400 cm
360 cm
40 cm
Fuel
Bundle
Orificing
Block
Assembly 2
(within Zone 2)
Assembly 1
(within Zone 1)
3
426 (Line 20) ... concept of equivalent heated
diameter where:
... concept of equivalent hydraulic
diameter where:
426 (Eq. 10-34) D
H

4 flow area
heated perimeter
=
4A
f
P
h
D
e

4 flow area
wetted perimeter
=
4A
f
P
w
426 (Lines 22-23) In many cases ... diameters. Table 10-
4 ...
Delete [In many cases ...
diameters. ] Table 10-4 ...
427 (Table 10-4) a
b
1.0 3.63 2.98
a
b
1.4 3.78
a
b
2.0 4.11 3.39
a
b
3.0 4.77
a
b
4.0 5.35 4.44
a
b

8.0 6.60 5.95
a
b
1.0 3.61 2.98
a
b
1.43 3.73 3.08
a
b
2.0 4.12 3.39
a
b
3.0 4.79 3.96
a
b
4.0 5.33 4.44
a
b

8.0 6.49 5.60
444 (Lines 12-13) for the Reynolds number and D
H
,
where: D
H
=
4A
f
P
h
for the Nusselt
number relation.
for the Reynolds number.
449 (Line 2) ... predicted by Eq. 10-107. ... predicted by Eq. 10-108.
449 (Line 3) ... Equation 10-108 ... ... Eq. 10-107 ...
458 (Ref. 22) Kays, W.M. Convective Heat and
Mass Transfer, New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1966.
Kays, W.M. and Crawford, M.E.
Convective Heat and Mass Transfer,
2nd Ed., New York: McGraw-Hill,
1980.
469 (Eqs. 11-15 & 11-16)

K
l
l
g
j

( )
[ ] v
v
1 4
1 2
/
/

K
l
l
g
j

( )
[ ]
{ }
v
v
1 4
1 2
/
/
475 (Fig. 11-11) TRANSITION (TCT)
TRANSITION TO CHURN-
TURBULENT
4
484 (Fig. 11-13) As drawn, values in the figure are not
consistent and need to be made so
with those in the table on the same
page.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
V
o
i
d

F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
,

{
}
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Quality, x
Drift Flux G
3
M-N for G , G and G
1 3 2
Homogeneous for G , G and G
1 3 2
2
Drift Flux G
Drift Flux G
1
489 (Line 10)
To evaluate the friction multiplier
lo
2
in the HEM model, ...
To evaluate the friction multiplier
lo
2
given by Eq. 11-67a, ...
501 (Fig. 11-21, caption)

lo
2
( )

lo
2
( )
506 (Line 11)

in
=
1
1 +
1 - x
x

g
...
in
=
1
1 +
1 - x
x

f
...
518 (Ref. 33) RELAP-5 MOD1 Code Manual,
EGG-270, 1980.
Ransom, V.H., el al., RELAP5/MOD1
Code Manual, Vols 1 & 2, NUREG/CR-
1826, EGG-2070, March 1982.
519 (Line 19) Problem 11-3 Regime map for
horizontal flow (section II)
Problem 11-3 Regime map for
vertical flow (section II)
519 (Line 21) ... for a horizontal steam generator. ... for the secondary side of a vertical
steam generator.
528 (Last Line) ... flow pattern leads to a forced
convection heat transfer mechanism ...
... flow pattern leads to a convection
heat transfer mechanism ...
529 (Fig. 12-4) Forced convection heat transfer
through liquid film
Convection heat transfer through liquid
film
530 (Line 10) Finally, as the thermodynamic quality
reaches unity, ...
In the post-dryout region, even before
the thermodynamic equilibrium quality
approaches unity, ...
533 (Fig. 12-9, Eq. 12-8) T = T
f
+
2T
f
v
fg
h
fg

1
r
*
T
f
= T
sat
+
2T
sat
v
fg
h
fg

1
r
*
542 (Line 7)

=
( )
( ) q
F X
F
k T T
c
tt
w sat
2
0 9
l l l
Re Pr
.

=
( )
( ) q
F X
F
k
D
T T
c
tt
w sat
2
0 9 l
l l
Re Pr
.
559 (Eq. 12-62)
{(2.022 - 0.06238p) + (0.1722 -
0.001427p)[exp (18.177 - 0.5987p) x
e
]
etc.
{(2.022 - 0.06238p) + (0.1722 -
0.01427p)exp [(18.177 - 0.5987p) x
e
]}
etc.
5
560 (Line 1)
Because F 1, ... reduces the critical
heat flux.
In a reactor channel the minimum DNB
ratio occurs downstream of the peak heat
flux. Hence, the F-factor at the minimum
DNBR location is generally greater than
unity; the axial non-uniformity in the heat
flux reduces the CHF.
560 (Line 2)
The parameter C decreases ... for the
heat flux shape.
The parameter C decreases with
increasing quality; at high quality C will
be small and the effect of the heat flux
shape will be less pronounced.
560 (Eq. 12-67) 2.19 10
6
D
h
2
- 0.36 x
e
- 0.0714
G
10
6
- 0.22
2.19

D
2
- 0.36

x
e
- 0.0714
G
10
6
- 0.22
566 (4 Barnett
correlation)
... same basic form as MacBeths
correlation. The rms error ...
... same basic form as MacBeths
correlation. The correlation is capable
of predicting both DNB and dryout
CHF conditions. The rms error ...
566 (Eq. 12-74a)
...
3.584 Ah fg
+ 4.3 10
-4
B

h f
- h i

C + 39.37L
...
A + 4.3 10
-4
B

h f
- h i

C + 39.37L
566 (Eq. 12-74b) A = 230.7 D

h
0.68
G

0.192

1 - 0.744 exp -0.3477D

e
G
A = 205 D
h
0.68
G

0.192

1 - 0.744 exp -0.189D

e
G
566 (Eq. 12-74c) B = 0.1206 D

h
1.415
G

0.817
B = 0.0731 D

h
1.261
G

0.817
566 (Eq. 12-74d) C = 8249 D
e
1.415
G

0.212
C = 7244 D
h
1.415
G

0.212
571 (Ref. 17) Collier, J.G. Convective Boiling and
Condensation (2nd ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1981.
Collier, J.G. and Thome, J.R.
Convective Boiling and
Condensation (3rd ed.), New York:
Oxford, 1994.
574 (Prob. 12-2)
Assume that the maximum cavity
radius is very large.
Assume that the maximum cavity radius is
very large. You may use the Rosenhow
correlation for nucleate pool boiling [52]:
q
s
=
l
h
fg
g
l
-
v
1/2
c
p,l
T
w
- T
sat
C
s,f
h
fg
Pr
l
s
where s = 1 for water and C
s,f
= 0.0130,
an empirical constant for water and
mechanically polished steel surfaces.
574 (Line 7) k = 0.628 W/m
2
C k = 0.628 W/m C
577 (Eq. 5-142)
p = p
v
+ p
1
(1 - ) =
v
+
1
(1 - )
578 (Eq. 13-7) Term: V
m
m
V
m
t
Term: V
m

m
V
m
t
6
586 (Line 13) First by combining Eqs. 8-119 and
13-22 we find that the fuel centerline
temperature, T
C
L
corresponding to
T
max
in Eq. 8-119) and T
m
is given
by:
First by combining Eqs. 8-119 and
13-17 we find that the fuel centerline
temperature, T
C
L
(corresponding to
T
max
in Eq. 8-119) is given by:
598 (Eq. 13-47) x = x
in
+
q
2mh
fg
+
q
2mh
fg
sin
z
L
x = x
in
+
q
2mh
fg
+
q
2mh
fg
sin
z
L
615 (Prob. 13-1) 1.
Q = 5760 MW
2.
Q = 3960 MW
3.
Q = 5390 MW
1.
Q = 5731 MW
2.
Q = 3954 MW
3.
Q = 5456 MW
617 (Prob. 13-4) p
fric
= 14.4 kPa p
fric
= 20.26 kPa
649 (Table D-3) J
1
(2.3) = 0.5305 J
1
(2.3) = 0.5399
649 (Table D-3) x = 2.5 J
o
(x) = 0.0729 x = 2.5 J
o
(x) = 0.0729
670 (Fig. F-2) H
2
O Saturated Vapor and H
2
O
Liquid are interchanged
The higher line for H
2
O Saturated
Vapor should be thicker to indicate
it is really H
2
O Liquid; and the
lower line indicating H
2
O Liquid
should be thinner since it is really
H
2
O Saturated Vapor
12/5/02
NUCLEAR SYSTEMS I (3
rd
Printing):
ERRATA
383 (Fig. 9-22, caption) ... for parallel flow in a rod bundle. ... for parallel flow in an infinite
triangular array of rods.
389 (Eq. 9-93a)
C H D
H D P D H D
fT
P D
= ( )
[ ]
+ ( )
[ ]
( ) ( )
( )
0 8063 0 9022
0 3256
10
10
2 9 7 1 78 2 0
. . (log
. log
. . .
C H D H D
P D H D
fT
P D
= ( ) ( )
+ ( )
[ ]
[ ]
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0 8063 0 9022 0 3526
10 10
2
9 7 1 78 2 0
. . log . log
. . .
400 (3 Viscous...) Kays defintions of K
e
and K
c
need
to be added.
Kays definitions for K
e
and K
c
,
which apply to Fig. 9-36 and are
consistent with the general definition
of K in Eq. 9-23:
p K
form
ansion
e
ref
exp
=
( )
[ ]
1
2
2
2

p K
form
contraction
c
ref
=
( )
+
[ ]
1
2
2
2

402 (B Assumption...) Same as page 400 above. Same as page 400 above.
409 (Prob. 9-5, Answers) p kPa
entrance
and P
exit
= 11 73 . p kPa
entrance
and p
exit
= 3 44 .
536 (Fig. 12-10)
St q Gc T
w pL D
= St q Gc T
w pL D
=
PROBLEM FF-8 QUESTION
For the BWR-6 conditions in Example 13-3 of Text 2, compute and plot the axial distribution of
void fraction for two cases:
1 A homogenous equilibrium flow model
2 A separated flow model of your choice.
Page 1

Fall 2002

December 17, 2002

OPEN BOOK FINAL EXAM 3 HOURS

PROBLEM #1 (30 %)

Consider a BWR fuel assembly square coolant subchannel with geometry and operating
characteristics given in the table below. In particular the axial profile of the linear power
generation rate is:
L
z
L z

sin ) 5 . 3 exp( 77 (z) q =
m
kw

Operating Conditions Geometry
G = 1356 kg/m
2
-s P/D = 1.326
P = 6.8 MPa D
rod
= 10.16 mm
Inlet Enthalpy = 1105 kJ/kg L = 3.7 m
Neglect channel pressure loss
Assume interior subchannel and that all rods are fuel rods.

( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( [ ] )
+

=

nL
n n
L
n n
L
dz
L
z
L
z
0
2
2
1
sin exp cos exp 1
sin exp

for n= 0.75, =3.5, and L = 3.7 the above expression equals: 0.5224
for n = 0.5, a=3.5, and L = 3.7 the expression equals: 0.4238
for n = 0.25, a=3.5, and L = 3.7 the expression equals: 0.1980

1 of 6
QUESTION

a) Find the axial position of the start of the bulk boiling region. (x
e
= 0)

b) Find the axial position and magnitude of the maximum value of the outside clad
temperature.

Hint: Although you must consider the fact that the magnitude of the heat transfer
coefficient, h, varies with the axial position, you can identify the desired axial
position of T
clad
maximum without evaluating h over all the z locations.

c) Critical Condition: Assuming that, at all powers, the critical condition occurs at
a position three quarters of the channel length from the channel inlet, (i.e. z =
0.75L) : Find the value of the minimum CPR using the CISE-4 correlation.

Caution: You cannot use Figure 12-26 to answer this question because numerical values
of the parameters of this figure are held proprietary (for all flux shapes) by General
Electric Company

2 of 6
PROBLEM #2 (20%)

The outside surface of a spherical stainless steel vessel is inadvertently insulated with a
material which shrinks under irradiation which thereby imposes a radial strain on the
vessel. The steel materials properties are given in the Table below. The sphere has an
inside diameter of 6m and a wall thickness of 30cm.

QUESTION

What is the maximum radial strain that the vessel can sustain without fracture
based on consideration of the following three failure theories:

a) Maximum normal stress theory

b) Maximum shear stress theory

c) Maximum distortion energy theory

Table I
Steel Properties
Modulus of elasticity, E 29 x 10
6
psi
Poissons ratio, 0.3
Density, 0.28 lb/in
3

Coefficient of linear expansion, 9 x 10
-6
/F
Yield stress in compression 60 x 10
3
psi

3 of 6
PROBLEM #3 (20 %)

Consider a PWR core that uses annular fuel pins cooled on both surfaces as shown in
Figure 1. These fuel pins are arranged in a square array. Relevant geometric, material
properties and operating characteristics are given in the table below. Note that q is the
pin averaged linear heat rate and T is the coolant temperature rise of the total flow
along the pin.

Geometry Material
Properties
Operating
Conditions
P/D = 1.326 c
p
=5.3 kJ/kg C
q = 20 kW/m
L= 4.25m =750.7 kg/m
3

T = 38 C
Pitch = 12.6 mm =9.75 x 10
-5

kg/m s

a = 2 mm
Figure 1: Annular Geometry

QUESTION

What are the values of the flowrates in the inside and outside flow regions associated
with the fuel pin? (i.e. and )
i
m&
o
m&

Consider friction pressure loss only.
The outside flow region can be modeled with the equivalent annulus approach.

4 of 6
PROBLEM #4 (30 %)

A reactor core is in a long vertical cylindrical pressure vessel located within a spherical
containment as shown in Figure 2. The pressure vessel is filled with water above the core
to a height H.

Figure 2

The containment is designed to be small and can withstand an internal pressure of 150
psia. In the event of a rupture of the primary system, when the water/vapor mixture
reaches the final equilibrium condition, the liquid drains into a cavity around the lower
portion of the pressure vessel where the core is located. Supplemental analysis already
available has shown that the core can be satisfactorily cooled if the cavity is filled to
above the core level. The relevant problem geometry and operating conditions are given
in the table below.

Operating Conditions RV Geometry Containment Geometry
Primary Pressure = 15.5 MPa Reactor Vessel Inside
Diameter = 6.1 m
Inside Diameter of
containment = 30 m
Free Volume of Vessel to Top of
Core = 134.5 m
3

Free Volume Ratio in
containment = 0.9
Free Volume Ratio in Reactor
Vessel above core = 0.6 (due to
presence of primary system
equipment)
Volume of liquid to fill the cavity
to above the core level = 86.5 m
3

Free Volume of Reactor Vessel =
335 m
3

5 of 6

QUESTION

a) What is the minimum value of H such that subsequent to a rupture of the primary
system the cavity is filled above the core level?

b) For this value of H, is the final pressure below the design pressure limit?

Ignore the presence of air in the containment and assume primary water at saturated
conditions.

6 of 6

Fall 2002

December 17, 2002

FINAL EXAM SOLUTIONS

Problem 1

a)

The basic expression for finding equilibrium quality is:

( ) 0
1 1
0
=
(
+ =

dz z q
GA
h h
h
x
z
f in
fg
e (1)

Simplifying, to solve for x
e
= 0:

( )dz z q
GA
h h
z
in f

=
0
1
(2)

h
f
= 1256.6 kJ/kg, h
in
= 1105 kJ/kg

find A: P/D and D are both given -> find pitch:
( ) m
D
P
D P 0135 . 326 . 1 01016 . = = =
2 4
2
2
2
2
10 0043 . 1
4
01016 .
0135 .
4
m
D
P Area

= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

Inserting the above values, and performing the integration on the linear heat rate:

( )( )
( ) ( ) ( | | { } z z z +
=

8491 . cos 8491 . sin 114 . 1 946 . exp 949 . 949 .
10 0043 . 1 1356
77
1105 6 . 1256
4
)

This must be iterated for z resulting in: z = 1.17m.

17 February 2003 1 of 11
b)

The following schematic is an attempt to illustrate that since the position where x
e
= 0 is
above the hump in the power profile, the maximum clad temperature occurs at this
point.

Using the Jens Lottes correlation to find the temperature rise from the bulk coolant to the
wall:

( )
4
4
25
2 . 6
4
exp
bulk wall
T T
p
q

|
.
|
\
|
= (3)
where q is in MW/m
2
, p is in MPa, and T is in C.

Evaluating for heat flux at z = 1.169 m:
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
6 . 668
01016 .
7 . 3
169 . 1
sin
7 . 3
169 . 1
5 . 3 exp 77
169 . 1
m
kW
D
z q
q
rod
=
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
=

Now, adjust units to MW/m
2
, and solve for temperature rise:
55 . 7 25
2 . 6
4
exp
25 .
=
(
|
.
|
\
|
=
p
q T C C 26 . 291 55 . 7 71 . 283 549 . 7
max ,
= + = + =
sat wall
T T

c)

Using the CISE-4 correlation to find CPR: The critical position is 0.75*L.

Find L
cr
: The distance between x
e
= 0 and the critical position:

( ) 606 . 1 169 . 1 7 . 3 75 . 0 = =
cr
L m

Insert this value into the CISE-4 correlation to find x
cr
.

(
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
b L
L
a
D
D
x
cr
cr
e
h
cr
(4)

D
h
is the heated diameter = .01016 m
D
e
is the hydraulic diameter:

( )
( )
( )( ) ( ) | |
( )
0126 .
01016 .
4
01016 .
01016 . 326 . 1 4
4
2
=
= =

meter WettedPeri
FlowArea
D
e
m

3
1 3375 *
|
.
|
\
|
=
c
p
p
G where p
c
is the critical pressure = 22.09 MPa
2 . 1119 * = G

Since G > G*
( ) ( )( ) 6254 . 0
1000
1356
09 . 22
8 . 6
1
1000
1
3
1
3
1
= =
|
.
|
\
|
=

G
p
p
a
c

( ) ( )( ) 6047 . 0 01016 . 1356 1
8 . 6
09 . 22
199 . 0 1 199 . 0
4 . 1
4 . 0
4 . 1
4 . 0
= =
|
.
|
\
|
= GD
p
p
b
c

Combining these values x
cr
is:
( ) 367 . 0
6047 . 0 606 . 1
606 . 1
6254 .
0126 .
01016 .
=
(
+
=
cr
x

To find the CPR, evaluate the power required (with the same power profile) to achieve in
x
cr
at the critical position, as a ratio of the actual power profile.

The enthalpy for x = 0.367 is:

( ) 9 . 1812 7 . 1516 367 . 0 6 . 1256 = + = + =
fg f crit
xh h h kJ/kg

Now find the power profile required to achieve in this quality.

dz
L
z
L
z
C
GA
h h
L
in crit

|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
75 . 0
0
sin
5 . 3
exp
1
(5)

( )( )
( ) 5224 . 0
10 0043 . 1 1356
1105 9 . 1812
4
=
C

C = 184.5

40 . 2
77
5 . 184
sin
5 . 3
exp 77
1
sin
5 . 3
exp 5 . 184
1
75 . 0
0
75 . 0
0
= =
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
dz
L
z
L
z
GA
dz
L
z
L
z
GA
CPR
L
L

Question 2

The sphere has geometry of:

1 . 0
15 . 3
3 . 0
= =
R
t
so it can be treated as thin walled

(

=
r r
E
1
) (1)
t
pR
2
= =

,
2
p
r

= (2)

Where p is the pressure imposed on the outside surface by the shrinkage.

So,

|
.
|
\
|

=
|
.
|
\
|

v
R
t
Et
pR
t
pR
t
pR p
E
r
2
2 2 2
1
(3)

Since 0
R
t
, equation 3 becomes:
( )
( )
( )
( )
6
6
10 103 .
6 . 0
10 29 2
10
2
2
= =
p
p
Et
pR
r
r

(4)

So to find max
r
, find the maximum pressure (which is in the negative r direction)

Max normal stress theory:

( )( ) psia
R
t
S p
t
pR
S
c
c
y
y
3 3
10 12 1 . 0 2 10 60 2
2
= = =
=

( )
3 6 3
10 236 . 1 10 103 . 0 10 12
max

= =
r
(5)

Max shear stress theory:

( )
psia
t
R
S
p
t
R p
S
p
t
pR
S
c
c
c
y
y
y
3
3
10 9 . 10
1 10
10 60 2
1
2
1
2
2 2
=
+
=
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+ =

( )
3 6 3
10 128 . 1 10 103 . 0 10 9 . 10
max

= =
r
(6)

Max distortion energy theory:

( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2 2 2 2
0
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
2 2
2
1
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
p
t
pR
p
t
pR
t
pR p p
t
pR
S
y
+ =
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
(
(
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
+ + =
(7)

This result is the same as for the maximum shear stress theory: 10.9 x 10
3
psia,
-1.128x10
-3
radial strain.


Question 3

The flow for this rod will be such that the pressure drop on each flow area will be the
same.

A
m
D
L
f
V
D
L
f p
2 2
2 2
&
= = (1)
since
A
m
&
= V .

The friction factor is assumed to be a function of the Reynolds number according the
McAdams relationship
f
2 . 0
Re 184 . 0 (Re)

= f . Since
VD
= Re , simplifying the equation for the friction
factor:

2 . 0
184 . 0 (Re)

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
D m
f
&
(2)

Combining the above equation:

8 . 1 2 . 1
2 . 0 8 . 1
2
2
2 . 0
184 . 0
2
184 . 0
A D
L m
A D
m L
A
D m
p
& & &
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

(3)

This expression is the same for both the inside and outside of the annular fuel.

8 . 1 2 . 1
8 . 1
8 . 1 2 . 1
2 . 0 8 . 1
184 . 0 184 . 0
o o
o
i i
i
A D
L m
A D
L m & &
= The length is obviously the same for both sides of
this equation. The density and viscosity are assumed to be the same on both sides of the
expression. Therefore, the equation reduces to:

8 . 1 2 . 1
8 . 1
8 . 1 2 . 1
8 . 1
o o
o
i i
i
A D
m
A D
m & &
= (4)

This defines one constraint.

Since there are two unknowns (the inner and outer mass flow rate), a second constraint is
required.

The second constraint is for the total mass flow rate.

t o i
m m m & & & = + (5)

The total mass flow rate m is set by the rod power and temperature rise as given.
t
&
( )( )
( )( )
422 . 0
38 3 . 5
25 . 4 20
= =
= =
T c
L q
m T c m L q
p
t p t
& & kg/s

So, the second constraint becomes:

422 . 0 = +
o i
m m & & kg/s (6)

The inside radius is given, therefore the inner diameter is given: 004 . 0 * 2 = = a D
i
m.
The inner flow area is: m
5 2
10 26 . 1

= = a A
i

2
.
The outer radius is found from the hydraulic diameter:
( )
01178 .
0095 .
4
0095 .
0126 . 4
4
4
4
2
2
2
2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = =
D
D
P
P
A
D D
w
flow
e o
m (7)

The outside flow area above is computed as above:
5
2
2
2
2
10 788 . 8
4
0095 .
0126 .
4

= = =
D
P A
o
m
2
(8)
Manipulating the pressure drop constraint:

( )
( )
66 . 2
8 . 1
10 788 . 8 01178 .
10 26 . 1 004 .
8 . 1
8 . 1
5 2 . 1
8 . 1
5 2 . 1
8 . 1 2 . 1
8 . 1 2 . 1
8 . 1 2 . 1
8 . 1 2 . 1
8 . 1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

n
A D
A D
n
m
m
n
A D
A D
m
m
o o
i i
o
i
o o
i i
o
i
l
l
&
&
l
&
&

0698 .
66 . 2
2
= =

e
m
m
i
&
&
(9)

Now solve for the flow rates:

( )
s
kg
m m m
s
kg
m
m
m
m m m m
o t i
o
o
i
o t o i
0275 . 394 . 0 422 . 0
394 . 0
1 0698 .
422 . 0
422 . 0 1
= = =
=
+
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = = +
& & &
&
&
&
& & & &
(10)

As a check on our assumption that the flow both inside and outside the annular fuel is
turbulent, evaluate the Reynolds number of both flows. Using typical values for water
properties:

3
720
m
kg
=

s m
kg
=
4
10 1

Inside:

Find Velocity

( )( )
s
m
A
m
V
i
i
i
03 . 3
10 26 . 1 720
0275 . 0
5
=
= =

&
(11)

Compute Reynolds Number:

( )( )( )
( )
300 , 87
10 1
004 . 0 03 . 3 720
Re
4
=
= =

i i
i
D V
(12)

Outside:

Find Velocity

( )( )
s
m
A
m
V
o
o
i
23 . 6
10 788 . 8 720
394 . 0
5
=
= =

&
(13)

Compute Reynolds Number:


( )( )( )
( )
143 , 528
10 1
01178 . 0 23 . 6 720
Re
4
=
= =

i i
i
D V
(14)

Therefore, our assumption of turbulent flow was appropriate.

Question 4

Using the control volume approach:

The control volume is defined to be the entire containment region.

The energy balance for this volume is:

2 1 2 1
+ = W Q U (1)
This containment is rigid, and insulated. No work is performed and there is no heat
transfer out of the control volume. The conservation of energy equation becomes:

0 = U (2)

Any air or water vapor initially in the containment is assumed to have negligible effect.
The energy balance equation becomes:

0
1 2
=
wp wp
U U (3)

Assuming, from the problem statement, that the final equilibrium condition will be a
saturated mixture, and that the water in the primary is initially in an approximately
saturated condition, the energy equation is further defined:

( ) 0
1 2 2
= +
f wp fg f wp
u M xu u M (4)

This can be simplified by factoring out the mass of the water in the primary:

( ) 0 0
1 2 2 1 2 2
= + = +
f fg f f fg f wp
u xu u u xu u M (6)

Additionally, there is a volume constraint. The water and steam mixture must completely
fill the reactor vessel and containment.

( )
RV t containmen fg f wp
V V x M + = + (7)

The constraints set by equations 6 and 7 are insufficient. For a range of postulated final
equilibrium pressures, a quality can be chosen to satisfy equation 6, and then a value for
the mass of primary water can always be found to satisfy equation 7. It is further
required that the volume of liquid in the containment be sufficient to fill the annulus. It is
assumed that the water/vapor mixture is uniformly distributed in the containment and in
the reactor vessel. Only the fraction that is in the containment (i.e. outside the reactor
vessel) is assumed to contribute water to fill the annulus. The last constraint becomes:

( )
3
5 . 86 1 m V v x
V V
V
M
annulus f
RV t containmen
t containmen
wp
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
(8)

The free volume of the containment is: ( ) ( ) ( ) 723 , 12 9 . 0 15
3
4
3
4
3 3
= = F R
cont
m
3
.
The free volume of the reactor vessel is given as: 335m
3
.

In general, for a higher final equilibrium pressure, the quality required to satisfy equation
6 will be lower, therefore resulting in more liquid in the containment at final equilibrium
conditions. There exists a minimum pressure where the volume of liquid remaining just
fills the annulus. This also corresponds to the minimum mass of primary water required.
(By inspection of equation 7, as pressure increases x and v
g
go down faster than v
f
goes
up. As a result, the mass of primary water required to satisfy equation 7 goes up as
pressure increases. Therefore, choosing the minimum pressure that results in the
satisfaction of equation 8 minimizes the mass of primary water required and minimizes
H.)

The basic algorithm is:
a) guess a trial pressure
b) find the quality (at the trial pressure) that satisfies the energy equation (eq 6).
c) Find the mass of primary water that then satisfies the volume constraint (eq 7) for
that pressure and quality.
d) Find the resulting volume of liquid in the containment for that quality, and mass
of primary water (eq 8).
e) If the water volume is insufficient, increase the pressure (resulting in a reduced
quality and more liquid). If the water volume is excessive, reduce pressure, with
converse results.

The results of this algorithm are final equilibrium pressure, quality, and mass of primary
water required to satisfy all constraints.

These are: P = 1.02MPa (pressure limit = 150 psia = 1.03MPa -> just below the pressure
limit), x = .46, and M
wp
= 146,200 kg.

To answer the question, the mass of water in the primary must be translated into a value
of H:

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
m
FV
D
V v M
H
core above RV
RV
core of top to RV f wp
5 . 6
6 . 0
4
1 . 6
5 . 134 0017 . 0 200 , 146
4
2
_ _
2
1
=
=

(9)

Some numerical parameters:

u
wp1
= 1604.1 kJ/kg, v
wp1
= .0017 m
3
/kg

u
f
(1MPa) = 761.07 kJ/kg
u
g
(1MPa) = 2581.7 kJ/kg
v
f
(1MPa) = .0011 m
3
/kg
v
g
(1Mpa) = .1945 m
3
/kg

PROBLEM HH-2
Conditions Leading to a P vs. w Instability
A wide variety of adiabatic, heated and cooled tubes can experience a pressure drop versus
flow rate (first order) instability. Five possibilities are illustrated in the next two pages. You are
to look at the terms contributing to the pressure drop and state whether they are stabilizing or
destabilizing. Rather than computing the pressure drop versus flow rate curve, say which
correlations you would use to compute the terms in the pressure drop equation. If you do not
know of the appropriate correlation, state what characteristics the correlation must have in order
to be satisfactory.
The following table should be filled in:
EXAMPLE FRICTION MOMENTUM GRAVITY
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
1
a) A mixture of a gas and a liquid flow
up at low velocity and low quality.
No heat is added or removed from
the tube. The pressure drop is
maintained constant by a large
number of parallel tubes.
b) Dry saturated steam at a low
pressure is condensed completely in
a metal tube at a very high heat
transfer rate (for the first part of the
tube anyway). The cooling is
provided by water, which flows
across the tube at ah high rate.
c) Dry saturated steam at a low
pressure is condensed completely in
a water-cooled glass tube in up flow.
The heat flux is moderate and fixed.
A number of parallel tubes maintain
a constant pressure difference across
this tube.
2
d) A long horizontal heated tube filled
with steam and water for its entire
length has a fixed pressure
difference across it. A very low
velocity of saturated water comes in
one end. The L/D is around 1000
and the pressure level around one to
three atmospheres. The quality out is
variable from 2 to75 %. Heat is
provided by a warm gas passing
over the tubes.
e) A vertical down-flow tube with
saturated liquid coming into it
experiences a moderate heat transfer
rate on the walls of a boiler. The
pressure is half the critical pressure and
the inlet velocity is around two feet per
second.
3
PROBLEM JJ-7 QUESTION
For a local condition correlation of your choice, compute CHFR using the HBM and
DSM (or L) approaches for several axial positions along the tube operating under conditions as
defined in the graph below (Figure 4 of the Hejzlar and Todreas 1996 paper, Considerations for
CHF Margin Prediction at Subcooled or Low Quality Correlations.)
Page 1
Note 1 - RECOMMENDATION FOR THE USE OF
THE VARIOUS PRESSURE DROP CORRELATIONS
1) Todreas Set
Low Pressure Systems
Air-Liquid Mixtures: Lockhart-Martinelli
High Pressure Water: p > 200 psia
G > 0.5 x10
5
lbm/hr ft
2
Thom (Martinelli-Nelson)
General Correlation
i.e., Liquid Metals Baroczy
Analytical Expressions
High Quality, High Pressure,
High Mass Flux, Simplicity Homogeneous
Page 1 of 2
2) Papers of
ESDU, 1977
IDSINGU, 1975
FRIEDEL, 1976
BRYCE, 1977
WHALLEY, 1980
EPRI, TR-113189 Pressure Drop Technology for Design and Analysis,
August 1999
3) WHALLEY RECOMMENDATIONS (from Collier and Thome, pp. 68)
Whalley (1980) has evaluated separated flow models against a large proprietary data bank and
gives the following recommendation:
(a) For (
f
/
g
) < 1000: Utilize the Friedel (1979) correlation
(b) For (
f
/
g
) > 1000 and G > 100 kg/ms
2
: Utilize the most recent refinement of the
Chisholm (1973) correlation;
(c) For (
f
/
g
) > 1000 and G < 100 kg/ms
2
: Utilize the correlations of Lockhart and
Martinelli (1949) and Martinelli and Nelson (1948)
For most fluids and operating conditions, (
f
/
g
) is less than 1000 and the Friedel correlation will
be the preferred method.
References
ESDU (1977), The gravitational component of pressure gradient for two-phase gas or
vapor/liquid flow through straight pipes Engineering Science Data Unit, London
Idsinga, W. (1975), An assessment of two-phase pressure drop correlations for steam-water
systems, MsC Thesis, MIT - Department of Nuclear Engineering, May.
Friedel, L. (1975), Momentum exchange and pressure drop in two-phase, proceedings NATO
Advanced Study Institute, Istanbul, Turkey, 16-27 August, I, 239-312. Hemisphere Pub. Corp.
(Also see Appendix B, P. Whalley Boiling Condensation and Gas-Liquid Flow, Oxford, 1987)
Bryce, W.M. (1977), A new flow dependent slip correlation which gives hyperbolic steam-water
mixture flow equation, AEEW-R 1099
Whaley, P.B. (1980), Private Communication to G.F. Hewitt
Page 2 of 2
Page 1 of 1 v04/22/03

Note 2 - Summary of Void Fraction and Slip
Models for Homogeneous and Separated Flow
Models

In general
v
l
1
- 1
S

=

Slip Ratio = S

Homogeneous

g
Collier (2.26)
where =
g
+ (1-)
f
Collier (2.23)

1
Separated
In general
v
l
1
- 1
S

=
or

- K
1 1

=

Martinelli -
Lockhart
= (1 + X
0.8
)
-.378

378 . 0
72 . 0
C(P)
1
1
1

+
=

where
1 . 0 5 . 0
0.8
1
C(P)

=
v
v
l
l

+ = 1 C(P)
1
1
- 1
S
378 .
72 . 0
v
l

72 . / 1

378 .
1
378 .
1
v
C(P)
1 1
S
l

Martinelli
Nelson
= F(P,) fig. 2.6 Collier S = use general expression with
prediction
Thom
) 1 ) ( ( 1
) (
+
=
P
P

for (P) see Thom paper; for see Collier
Table 2.3

g
l
(P)
1
S=
Baroczy = f (p, x) - Fig. E8 notes EE-F S = use general expression above with
Page 2 of 1 v04/22/03
prediction
Baker = fig 2.11 Collier S = use general expression above with
prediction

Pseudo Homogeneous
BANKOFF

1
K
1

v v
l l
HSU (5.46)
K = 0.833+0.05 in p (5.52)

S = use general expression above with
and K values.

Page 1 v03/19/03

Note 3 - How to Calculate (Z)

Eqn 5-55 (Text 2)
S
- 1
1
1

v
l
+
=

Eqn 12-22 (Text 2) ( ) ( )
( )

= 1
Z
) z (
exp Z z ) z (
e
e
e e
D
D

Using the above equations there are 4 combinations of assumptions of the parameters
Mechanical Equilibrium / Non-Equilibrium and Thermal Equilibrium / Non-Equilibrium which
can be employed as noted in the table below.

Mechanical Thermal

Equilibrium

Non-Equilibrium

S = 1
e

S 1

(1)
(2) (3)
(4)
PROBLEM PP-1 QUESTION
1 Show that the cross-sectionally averaged void fraction is
o
j C
j j
f g g
=
2 Gas is injected into a column of stagnant water through a coarse grid as shown. With no
air injection the height of the water is 1 m. By using the above information, determine the
height of the column as a function of j
g
, and sketch the resulting curve. Be sure to
consider bubbly, slug, and churn flow regimes as possible using the following flow
regime parameters
Page 1
'
Problem #1
This solution takes a step-by-step approach to determining SG tube wall temperature, primary and
secondary fluid temperatures, quality and void fraction. Starting with the initial conditions
provided at the tube inlet, an energy balance is performed between the primary and secondary.
Neglecting any work, or external energy gains or losses:
AE
primary
+ AE
sec ondary
= 0 or,
AE
primary
= AE
secondary
(1)
It will be assumed that the only mode of energy transfer will be convection.
AE
i
= tD
)
q' dz (2)
Using Newtons Equation:
q''
pri
(z) = h
pri
(z)(T
P
(z) T
wall ,out
(z)) (3)
sec
(z) = h
sec
(z)(T
wall
(z) T
sec,in
(z)) (4) q''
For this problem, the thermal conductivity of the SG tube is neglected, so there is not
temperature drop across the tube thickness (which also is neglected).
T
wall ,out
(z) = T
wall ,in
(z) = T
wall
(z) (5)
Since the tube thickness is neglected, equations (2) (5) can be applied to equation 1 to
form a more explicit energy balance:
h
pri
(z)(T
pri
(z) T
wall
(z)) = h
sec
(z)(T
wall
(z) T
sec
(z)) (6)
The task at hand is to track carefully the fluid conditions in the SG tube, starting from the
tube inlet so as to allow equation (6) to remain continually in balance along the axial
length of the tube. Note that convective heat transfer is the only mode considered. It is
asserted without proof that for pressurized water at the temperature, pressure and flow-
rates considered, other heat transfer mechanisms are negligible.
Page 1 of 9
Quiz Solution
The procedure used in this solution to the problem is as follows:
1. The tube is discretized axially into a number of nodes. For this solution, 200
nodes were used. No analysis was performed to find the numerical sensitivity to
the density of axial nodalization. The goal was to have a discretization that is
sufficiently fine to allow wall temperature and void fraction to be found and
plotted with, in rough terms, reasonable accuracy.
2. At the tube inlet, find the (assumed constant) heat transfer coefficient on the
primary side of the SG tube. This reduces by one the unknown variables in
equation (6). The primary side fluid is assumed to be subcooled, and thus, the heat
transfer coefficient will be determined by the Dittus-Boelter correlation:
Nu
= 0.023Re
0.8
Pr
0.3
Nu
= 0.023(1.485E6)
0.8
(1.47)
0.3
= 2235.3
h
pri
=
Nu
k
=
(2235.5)(0.448)
=1.42E5
D (.0071)
3. Initially assume that the secondary heat transfer mode will be by subcooled
forced convection, with the heat transfer coefficient given by the Dittus-Boelter:
Nu
= 0.023Re
0.8
Pr
0.4
Nu
= 0.023(1.44E5)
0.8
(0.934)
0.4
= 358.3
h =
Nu
k
=
(358.3)(0.557)
= 2.35E4
sec
D (.0085)
Note that it is assumed that the flow can be modeled as fully developed turbulent flow in circular tubes.
For this solution, the effects of the SG tube bundle geometry was disregarded.
4. With the above approximations and the given primary and secondary inlet
temperature, the inlet wall temperature T
wall
(0) can be estimated using a re-
arrangement of equation (6):
T
wall
(z) =
h
pri
(z)T
pri
(z) + h
sec
(z)T
sec
(z)
(7)
h
pri
(z) + h
sec
(z)
5. Given the above calculations:
T
wall
( ) =
1.42E5(330) + 2.35E4(230)
= 315.8 0
1.42E5 + 2.35E4
6. With this estimated wall temperature and heat flux, we must test to determine if
nucleate boiling would occur. This is a sort of chicken-and-egg portion of the
Page 2 of 9
(Text 2, eq. 10-946)
(Text 2, eq. 10-94a)
|
problem. The wall temperature (and thus wall-temperature/saturation-temperature
delta t) is determined with an assumed mode of heat transfer. If it is found that
nucleate boiling would occur with this condition, one must go back and re-
determine the heat transfer coefficient with the assumption that nucleate boiling is
occurring. These will then, in turn, result in a new heat transfer coefficient, wall
temperature and heat flux; different than those used to determine that there is
nucleate boiling in the first place. One could wonder then, if one should go back
and check (again!) if nucleate boiling should occur. It was decided for this
problem that, if nucleate boiling is predicted after the initial computation under
the assumption of subcooled forced convection is made, then there is nucleate
boiling (period no re-checking required.)
To check for the onset of nucleate boiling, the Davis-Anderson correlation is
used
q'' =
|
k
L
H
fg

g
|
|
|(T
w
T
sat
)
2
IB
\
8oT
sat .
Close inspection of this equation reveals that it is dimensionally
inconsistent (British Units are used) and a conversion factor of 778 (lbf-ft/BTU)
is required. Additionally, it is better to re-arrange this equation to give the
T
wall
T
sat
to indicate that incipient boiling would occur at a given heat flux.
Performing this re-arrangement:
0.5
|
q''8oT
sat
|
T
wall
T
sat
=
\
778k
L
H
fg

g
.
|
|
in British units this is:
0.5
AT =
| (6.39E6)8(0.0011)(554.87)|
| = 2.87
\
778(0.3219)(632.6)(2.47)
.
For the previously assumed conditions of subcooled forced convection:
AT = 45.1 degrees F, therefore, nucleate boiling must occur at the inlet.
7. Heat transfer correlations in the nucleate boiling region were computed using
the Thom correlation:
| 2
. 8
p |
exp
\
q'' =
(22.7)
2
7
|
.
(T
wall
T
sat
)
2
To obtain an expression for the heat transfer coefficient, the above expression is
divided by the quantity T
wall
T
sec
. This is needed because the heat flux will
depend upon wall temperature. The wall temperature is, in turn determined by the
heat transfer coefficient. (As compared to the primary side heat transfer
coefficient, and the respective primary and secondary bulk temperatures.) This
Page 3 of 9
(Text 1, eq. 4-3)
(Text 2, eq. 12-28b)
'
'
requires an iterative procedure. The algorithm used in this solution is provided in
the included Matlab
files.
8. The heat flux has now been determined. The heat flux is a quantity that describes
the amount of heat that flows from the primary coolant to the secondary water in
the SG. It is assumed that q' (z) is sufficiently smooth so as to be accurately
approximated by a piecewise constant function. Therefore:
m
pri
c
p, pri
(T
pri
(z
i+1
) T
pri
(z
i
)) = tDq' (z
i
) = tD{h
pri
(z
i
)|T
pri
(z
i
) T
wall
(z
i
)|} (8)
The primary coolant mass flow rate and specific heat are assumed to be constant
and given. The only unknown in equation (8) is: T
pri
(z
i+1
).
9. Similarly, on the secondary side, the analogous heat balance is performed. Since
the secondary water enters the SG in a subcooled state, the water specific heat is
used in conjunction with the secondary mass flow rate to determine the secondary
temperature until the water reaches a saturated state. At that time, enthalpy is used
to account for the transfer of energy from the primary coolant to the secondary
water.
m
sec
c
p,sec
(T
sec
(z
i+1
) T
sec
(z
i
)) = tDq''(z
i
) = tD{h
sec
(z
i
)|T
wall
(z
i
) T
sec
(z
i
)|} (9)
or: = m
sec
(h
s
(z
i+1
) h
s
(z
i
))
In a similar fashion, the secondary quality is tracked for all axial levels.
10. When it is determined that equilibrium quality is equal to zero, the correlation for
secondary heat transfer coefficient is shifted to the Chen correlation as given in
NS Vol I equations 12-29 through 12-32. The details of this correlation are also
provided in the accompanying Matlab
script. It is notable that this equation also

requires iteration since the heat transfer coefficient depends of the difference
between wall temperature and saturation temperature with the wall temperature
itself depending on the heat transfer coefficient.
11. This process is carried out for each axial level in the channel. It was determine
using the Biasi CHF correlation that the Dryout CHF condition occurs at
approximately 4 meters up the channel. It is expected that for a real SG, the
thermal resistance of the SG tubes would cause the axial location of CHF to occur
further up the channel.
12. The void fraction is computed using the real quality
x( ) = x
e
( ) x
e
(Z
D
)exp
x
e
(z)
1
(
(
z z
x
e
(Z
D
)

{o z
1
( )}=
1+
1 x( )
v
S
z
x( )
z
Page 4 of 9
(Text 2, eq. 12-22)
(Text 2, eq. 5-55)
'
and the given expression for slip as related to quality and (other) water
properties:
u
v
= .4 + (1- .4)

v
+
1
.4(1 x( ) -1)(
1/ 2
z
z u
1+.4( x( ) -1)
(
To find the location of Z

D
, the Saha and Zuber criterion was used:
For Pe < 7x10
4
:
(Nu)
Dep
= 455 or T
sat
T
bulk
( ) = 0.0022
| q''(z)D
e
|
|
| z
\
k
.
For Pe > 7 x 10
4
:
( ) St
Dep
= 0.0065 or T
sat
T
bulk
(z) =154
|
q' (z)
|
|
|
\
Gc
p
.
For this problem, the Peclet number for the secondary fluid was ~ 134,000 , so use
equation 12-21b. For this problem, heat flux and bulk temperature was tracked up the
axial length of the tube. At the location where the right hand side of 12-21b is greater
than or equal to the left hand side, the criteria was satisfied, and the point of bubble
departure Z
D
was found also to occur at the channel entrance.
Using the above computed information, the following plots were produced:
Page 5 of 9
(Text 2, eq. 12-21a)
(Text 2, eq. 12-21b)
Part B:
As a simple mathematical relationship, if the secondary side heat transfer
coefficient approaches zero as can be seen by equation (7):
T
wall
(z) =
h
pri
(z)T
pri
(z) + (0)T
sec
(z)
=
h
pri
(z)T
pri
(z)
= T
pri
( ) z
z h
pri
(z) + (0) h
pri
( )
Physically this can be equated to an insulation of the secondary water. Insulation prevents
the passage of heat flux, and thus, on the primary side, where there is a small heat flux
(but a constant heat transfer coefficient) the temperature drop is small. Conversely, from
the secondary side where the heat transfer coefficient is vanishingly small, even a small
heat flux requires a large temperature drop as a driving force.
Problem #2
In general for liquid and vapor entering a vertical tube and rising
j
v
= u
b
+ j
Where the rise velocity of the inertia controlled slug bubble u

b
is given as
u
b
=0.35( )
1/ 2
|

v
|
|
|
1/ 2
gd
\

.
Page 6 of 9
In this case only vapor enters the bottle so:
1/ 2
j
v
= 0.35( )
1/ 2
|

v
|
|
|
gd
\

.
Now
td
2
V =
4
j
v
t
so
t =
4V 1
(
1/ 2
td
2
0.35(gd)
1/2

V
(
for V = 10
-3
m
3
, d = 0.02m,
= 10
3
kg m
3
,
g
= 1.25kg m
3
t = 20.5 seconds (compared to 15.84 sec for flooding controlled homework case)
Problem #3
1. The space above beer in a capped bottle while predominately filled with CO
2
also
contains water vapor (since beer is mostly water). When the bottle is opened, the
gasses/vapor in the neck expand rapidly into the surroundings causing the
temperature in the neck to drop rapidly. The cooler temperature causes the water
molecules in the neck to move so sluggishly that by chance several combine to form
small embryos that serve as sites for further condensation. Particles in the neck region
at the time of bottling likely have settled to the surfaces by gravity (large ones) or by
diffusion (small ones). In a word the observed phenomena is homogeneous
nucleation.
2. Overwhelmingly nucleation sites on the bottom and sides of the glass.
3. Dissolved carbon dioxide in the supersaturated beer diffuses into the gas in these
sites. It also diffuses into the rising bubbles (see question 4).
4a. Observed bubble size 0.2 mm.
From figure 3.4 (corrected) from Whalley given in class, the rise velocity is then 2
cm/s.
Page 7 of 9
4b. As the bubble rises it expands: Its diameter change is due to decreasing external
pressure and increasing CO
2
mass, which is diffused from the beer through the
bubble wall. Analytic determination of bubble diameter with axial position requires
simultaneous solution of the ideal gas law, bubble mechanical energy balance and
diffusion law for dissolved CO
2
into the bubble. The important parameters are:
- surface tension
- gas constant
- external beer pressure
- beer temperature
- CO
2
diffusion coefficient and concentration
I believe bubble growth is dominated by diffusion of dissolved carbon dioxide in the
supersaturated beer into the rising bubbles since the external pressure change over the
glass height is small.
To predict change in bubble diameter we must know the time available for
diffusion. If we take the rise distance as 1.5 inches form and initial rise
velocity of 2cm/s, then the first estimate of that time is about 1.9 seconds (somewhat
long)
1.5 (2.54)
= 1.9 seconds
2
However, with this time one could start to solve the CO
2
diffusion kinetics and
calculate the increase in mass of CO
2
in the bubble. The problem needs an iterative
solution since per fig 3.4, Whalley, the velocity increases dramatically with diameter.
Estimate the bubble diameter increases by 3X over the rise
distance of 1.5 inches. At a diameter of 0.6mm, from fig 3.4, the rise velocity is of order
40 cm/s. For this velocity a bubble could traverse the 1.5 distance in 0.1 sec (a more
satisfying duration).
Page 8 of 9
(Whalley, 1987)
Note: Units of u
b
should be cm/s versus mm/s
Page 9 of 9
PROBLEM RR-2 QUESTION
CRITICAL FLOW PROBLEM
A vessel containing a homogeneous mixture of saturated stream and water at 1000 psia
blows down through a 2 ft. long 1 in. diameter pipe into a receiver vessel. The quality of the
mixture in the first vessel is 50 %. Determine the initial mass flow rate for the following receiver
vessel pressures:14.7 psia, 600 psia, 900 psia. What would the numbers be if the flow in the pipe
were frictionless?
(Hint: For the critical pressure ratio determination use Figure 11-25 in
Nuclear Systems I, the critical flow solution for all 4 cases can be obtained by
using Levys Two Phase Flow in Complex System or Todreas and Kazimis
Nuclear Systems I)
1
Page 1 of 1 v.2/25/03
PROBLEM S1-1 QUESTION
Determining Material Properties From Test Results
Using the (uniaxial) Tensile Stress data listed in Table 1, calculate the following
parameters:
Young's Modulus, E (Pa)
The Yield Stress,
y
(Pa)
The Ultimate Stress
u
(Pa)
Poisson's ratio, = (Transverse Strain) / (Axial Strain)
Table I
L (mm) D (mm) F(kN)
50.000 7.0000 0.00
50.012 6.9995 2.00
50.025 6.9990 4.00
50.038 6.9985 6.00
50.057 6.9975 8.00
50.131 6.9928 9.99
50.501 6.9674 11.90
52.113 6.8592 13.45
55.467 6.6489 13.89
69.751 5.9294 12.43
129.415 4.3533 7.44
Page 1 of 1 v. 2/25/03
Stress Field Determination Using Mohrs Circle
A thin plate lying in the xy plane (small thickness in the z direction) is acted upon by
forces so that the stress components with respect to the xy axes are as given in Fig. 1.
QUESTIONS
A. Find the stress components (
a
,
b
,
ab
) with respect to the ab axes, which are
inclined at 45 to the xy axes.
B. Display results from A above on the inclined element below in Fig. 2.
C. Display all results from Fig. 1 and part A above on a Mohrs circle. Also compute
and include the magnitude of the radius of the circle and the magnitude of the angle
between the stresses on the x plane and the plane of the principle stresses.
Figure 1 Figure 2
45
a
b
y
x
5,000 psi
4,000 psi
11,000 psi
b
y
a
x
45
Page 1 of 1 v.2/25/03
Discontinuity Analysis at the Joint of
Cylindrical Pipes of Different Wall Thickness
Two sections of stainless steel cylindrical piping of different wall thickness are
joined by welding. Before an internal pressure p
i
(above atmospheric) is applied (assume
no outside pressure above atmospheric), the geometry of the piping is as shown in Fig. 1.
The numerical values of geometry and pressure p
i
are given in Table 1. You can assume
the piping is capped at both ends to hold the internal pressure. Stainless steel properties
are given in Table 1.
t
1
Section 1
t
2
Section 2
D
t
1
Section 1

Figure 1 (not to scale)
Table 1
D, cm = 46
t
1
, cm = 4
t
2
, cm = 2
p
i
, MPa = 5
t
2
Section 2
Table 2. Stainless Steel
Modulus of elasticity, E 2 x 10
5
MPa
Poissons ratio, 0.3
Density, 8000 kg/m
3
Page 2 of 2 v.2/25/03
QUESTIONS
A. What is the magnitude and location of the maximum principle stress within the
piping when the internal pressure p
i
(above atmospheric) is applied. You may
neglect the discontinuity stresses.
B. Sketch the geometry of the piping after internal pressure p
i
(above atmospheric) is
applied. Your sketch should clearly show the relative displacements of the two pipe
sections and rotations of the material about the location they are joined. Further you
should explain and justify the key features of your sketch in words.
Page 1 of 1 v.2/25/03
External and Internal Pressure to Fail a Spherical Vessel by the
Maximum Shear Stress Theory
A stainless steel spherical vessel of dimensions shown in Fig. 1 is subjected to an
external pressure of 4000 psi and an internal pressure, p
i
. Assume failure is to be
established by the maximum shear stress theory and the yield stress in a tensile specimen
test is 10
5
psi. What is the maximum internal pressure that will not fail the vessel? Other
stainless steel properties are given below.
Figure 1
Stainless Steel
Modulus of elasticity, E
29x10
6
psi
Poissons ratio, 0.3
Density, 0.28 lb/in
3
Coefficient of linear expansion, 9x10
-6
/F
1.9 m
2
.
0

m
Page 1 of 1 v.2/25/03
Interior Pressure to Fail Cylindrical and Spherical Vessel by
Several Failure Theories
Determine the internal pressure required to yield the inner surface of each vessel
(assure plane stress for the cylinder) for the maximum normal stress theory, the
maximum shear stress theory, and the maximum distortion energy theory. Hence, you
are asked to provide six answers to fill in the following matrix.
Internal Pressure to Cause
Yielding at Inside Surface
Cylinder Sphere
Maximum normal stress theory ? ?
Maximum shear stress theory ? ?
Maximum distortion energy theory ? ?
Assume that the cylindrical and spherical vessels illustrated in Fig. 1 are made of steel
with properties S
y
= 100 ksi and = 0.3
r = 2"
i
r = 3"
o
L is
very
long
p
i
Cylinder
r = 2"
i
r

=

3
"
o
p
i
Sphere
Figure 1
Page 1 of 1 v.2/25/03
Determining Allowable Pressure by ASME Criteria
Consider the reactor vessel geometry, material properties and operating conditions given
below. Based on these results, evaluate the design pressure, P
d
, at which the following ASME
code limits will be violated:
1. The limit on General Primary Membrane Stress, P
m
,
2. The limit on Primary Membrane plus Bending plus Secondary Stresses, and
3. The limit on Fatigue Usage Factor considering pressurization cycles only (i.e., use Fig.
N.415(A) of ASME Code, pp. 5, 6 and 17-26, Rules for Construction of Nuclear Vessels,
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section III, ASME, 1968).
The steel used for construction has the following properties:
Youngs Modulus = E = 1.91x10
11
Pa
Poissons Ratio = = 0.286
Yield Stress = s
y
= 345 MPa = 2.45x10
8
Pa
Ultimate Stress = S
u
= 552 MPa = 5.52x10
8
Pa
Design Fatigue Curve = Dashed curve of Fig. N-415(A) of ASME Code, pp. 5, 6 and
17-26, Rules for Construction of Nuclear Vessels, ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section III, ASME, 1968
The maximum values of stress occurring at the inside surface of the sphere are:
t
p
max
. = 10 53
l
max
. = 9 85 p
r
p
max
=
t = 0.216 m
c
R = 2.185 m
1
R = 2.401 m
o
t = 0.122 m
s
2.185 m
2.307 m
PROBLEM SS-1
ANNULAR FLOW PROBLEM
Using the simplest annular flow theory, determine how thick an
annular film will be on the core of an annulus which is passing air and water
at 70
o
Fahrenheit and 14.7 psia. The rod outer diameter is 0.75 (19.05mm)
while the outside tube inner diameter is 1.25(31.75mm). The water is all on
the rod with the outside tube completely dry.
(Note: This problem cannot be solved by any of the overall calculation
methods.)
The superficial velocities (based on the entire flow area) of the air and
water are given below:
=
A
Q
l
0.5 ft/sec
(.152 m/sec)
l
=62.247 lb/ft
3
(997.101 kg/m
3
)
Wall Friction
Factor: f
w
= 0.005
(Fanning)
=
A
Q
air
50 ft/sec
(15.24 m/sec)
air
=0.0752 lb/ft
3
(1.205 kg/m
3
)
1
Take Home Quiz
Due at 9:30AM on Day# 16
Do not consult anyone about this examination in preparing your solution.
Problem 1 (60%)
A once through steam generator of a new design has the high pressure primary flow in
the shell side and the lower pressure secondary flow in the tubes. A single tube with its associated
annular primary system flow region is pictured in Figure 1. Operating conditions and water steam
properties to be used are given below.
Figure 1
8.5
11.5 mm (annulus outer diameter)
8.5 m
s
kg
m
s
2
10 9
=
s
kg
m
p
1
10 2 . 7
=
The secondary flow becomes steam at 10
o
C superheat at the outlet. The inlet and
outlet temperature and enthalpy conditions are:
Temperature Enthalpy
Primary Inlet 330
o
C 1980 kJ/kg
Secondary Inlet 230
o
C 991.2 kJ/kg
The secondary coolant pressure is 7.5 MPa and the saturation temperature and
related enthalpies are:
Saturation temperature 290.5
o
C
Saturated liquid enthalpy 1292.7 kJ/kg
Saturated steam enthalpy 2766.9 kJ/kg
Heat of evaporation 1474.2 kJ/kg
Page 1 of 3
---
---
Steam and water properties:
v
p x 10
3
x 10
6
x 10
6
k
m
3
/kg N/m Ns/m
2
m
2
/s /m/K
Water 1.368 x 10
-3
5.47 94.10 0.128 0.558 0.932
Steam 2.533 x 10
-2
7.09 19.21 0.491 0.066 1.61
c Pr
kJ/kg/K W
16.71
Questions:
You are encouraged to prepare a numerical algorithm for the solution of this
problem. but be sure also to write out the solution approach including all equations and
correlations used as well.
a) Compute and make a plot of the following quantities considering thermal non-
equilibrium and mechanical non-equilibrium (use the slip correlation of Smith
provided below)
i) T
wall
(z)
ii) (z)
Please show all computations and assumptions. You may assume that at 4
meters along the tube length the CHF condition occurs. (i.e. film dryout)
Hence, calculate conditions in the SG tube only up to z = 4.0 meters.
b) If at film dryout it is assumed that the heat transfer coefficient on the
secondary side goes to zero, what is the resulting tube wall temperature?
Smith 1969 Slip Correlation (eqn 3.12, Collier and Thome)
u
v
=.4 + (1- .4)
A
1
(
v
1
1 4 . +
+.4( x -1
x
)
-1)
1/ 2
u
A
Acceptable Calculation Simplifications:
1. Neglect tube wall resistivity
2. Take primary side heat transfer coefficient to be constant
3. Neglect pressure losses
Calculational Aids
Matlab
data files and scripts will be made available to you that are free to use for the
purposes of obtaining the additional water properties you may need for this problem.
Additionally, a Matlab
script is provided the two-phase heat transfer coefficient from the Chen
Page 2 of 3
correlation for a given set of water properties. (Please see the TA if you need help in setting up
these Matlab
functions.)
However you choose to solve this problem, be sure to provide a clear description of the
correlations and flow models that you use.
Problem 2 (20%)
A bottle has a volume, V, of 1 liter and neck internal diameter, d, of 20mm. It is full of
water and emptied by turning it upside down. Assume the bottle emptying is controlled by the
entry of slug (plug) flow bubbles into the bottle. If these bubbles are inertia controlled, find the
emptying time.
Problem 3 (20%)
1. Open yourself a bottle of beer. Explain the origin of the cloud you observe in the
neck of the bottle.
Pour your beer into a transparent glass. As you relax, observe the beer and answer the following
additional questions.
2. Identify the types of locations of sites from bubbles are originating.
3. By what mechanism are bubbles being continually created from these given sites?
4. For any given site bubbles depart at a given frequency and rise in a column.
a) Predict the rise velocity of any given bubble and compare it with
your observation.
b) Also predict and compare the observed bubble diameter change.
5. Sprinkle some salt into the beer and explain the behavior you observe.
MATLAB
is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc.

Page 3 of 3
Rev 2001
Fall 2002
NOTE L.4
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS
Lothar Wolf*, Mujid S. Kazimi** and Neil E. Todreas
1
Load Line
Shear Diagonal
35
-25
-57.7
-60
-100
55 6569 100
Nominal Load Point
Max theory
DE theory
Mohr theory
Max theory
Limiting
Points
-45
* Professor of Nuclear Engineering (retired), University of Maryland
** TEPCO Professor of Nuclear Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
KEPCO Professor of Nuclear Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1. Definition of Concepts .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Concept of State of Stress ........................................................................................... 4
1.2 Principal Stresses, Planes and Directions .................................................................... 6
1.3 Basic Considerations of Strain ..................................................................................... 6
1.4 Plane Stress ................................................................................................................. 8
1.5 Mohrs Circle............................................................................................................... 10
1.6 Octahedral Planes and Stress........................................................................................ 13
1.7 Principal Strains and Planes ......................................................................................... 14
2. Elastic Stress-Strain Relations .............................................................................................. 17
2.1 Generalized Hookes Law............................................................................................ 17
2.2 Modulus of Volume Expansion (Bulk Modulus) ........................................................ 19
3. Thin-Walled Cylinders and Sphere ....................................................................................... 21
3.1 Stresses ....................................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Deformation and Strains .............................................................................................. 22
3.3 End Effects for the Closed-Ended Cylinder ................................................................. 24
4. Thick-Walled Cylinder under Radial Pressure ...................................................................... 27
4.1 Displacement Approach................................................................................................ 28
4.2 Stress Approach ........................................................................................................... 29
5. Thermal Stress....................................................................................................................... 31
5.1 Stress Distribution........................................................................................................ 32
5.2 Boundary Conditions ................................................................................................... 34
5.3 Final Results................................................................................................................. 32
6. Design Procedures ............................................................................................................... 37
6.1 Static Failure and Failure Theories ............................................................................... 38
6.2 Prediction of Failure under Biaxial and Triaxial Loading ............................................. 40
6.3 Maximum Normal-Stress Theory (Rankine) ............................................................... 41
6.4 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (The Coulomb, later Tresca Theory)........................... 44
6.5 Mohr Theory and Internal-Friction Theory .................................................................. 46
6.6 Maximum Normal-Strain Theory (Saint-Varants Theory).......................................... 47
6.7 Total Strain-Energy Theory (Beltrami Theory)............................................................. 48
6.8 Maximum Distortion-Energy Theory (Maximum Octahedral-Shear-Stress
Theory, Van Mises, Hencky) ....................................................................................... 49
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
6.9 Comparison of Failure Theories ................................................................................. 51
6.10 Application of Failure Theories to Thick-Walled Cylinders........................................ 51
6.11 Prediction of Failure of Closed-Ended Circular Cylinder Thin-Walled
Pressure Vessels......................................................................................................... 58
6.12 Examples for the Calculation of Safety Factors in Thin-Walled Cylinders................. 60
References ................................................................................................................................... 61
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS
M. S. Kazimi, N.E. Todreas and L. Wolf
1. DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
Structural mechanics is the body of knowledge describing the relations between external
forces, internal forces and deformation of structural materials. It is therefore necessary to clarify
the various terms that are commonly used to describe these quantities. In large part, structural
mechanics refers to solid mechanics because a solid is the only form of matter that can sustain
loads parallel to the surface. However, some considerations of fluid-like behavior (creep) are also
part of structural mechanics.
Forces are vector quantities, thus having direction and magnitude. They have special names
(Fig. 1) depending upon their relationship to a reference plane:
a) Compressive forces act normal and into the plane;
b) Tensile forces act normal and out of the plane; and
c) Shear forces act parallel to the plane.
Pairs of oppositely directed forces produce twisting effects called moments.
y
x
z
y
x
z
y
x
z
Compressive Tensile Shear
Figure 1. Definition of Forces.
Note L.4
Page 2
The mathematics of stress analysis requires the definition of coordinate systems. Fig. 2
illustrates a right-handed system of rectangular coordinates.
y
x
z
z
y
x
x
z
y
Figure 2. Right-handed System of Rectangular Coordinates.
In the general case, a body as shown in Fig. 3 consisting of an isolated group of particles will
be acted upon by both external or surface forces, and internal or body forces (gravity, centrifugal,
magnetic attractions, etc.)
If the surface and body forces are in balance, the body is in static equilibrium. If not,
accelerations will be present, giving rise to inertia forces. By DAlemberts principle, the resultant
of these inertial forces is such that when added to the original system, the equation of equilibrium is
satisfied.
The system of particles of Fig. 3 is said to be in equilibrium if every one of its constitutive
particles is in equilibrium. Consequently, the resulting force on each particle is zero, and hence the
vector sum of all the forces shown in Fig. 3 is zero. Finally, since we observe that the internal
forces occur in self-canceling pairs, the first necessary condition for equilibrium becomes that the
vector sum of the external forces must be zero.
F
F
F
n
1
2
Figure 3. An Isolated System of Particles Showing External and Internal Forces (Ref. 1,
Fig 1.12).
Note L.4
Page 3
F
1
+ F
2
+ ... + F
n
= F
n
n
= 0 (1.1a)
The total moment of all the forces in Fig. 3 about an arbitrary point 0 must be zero since the vector
sum of forces acting on each particle is zero. Again, observe that internal forces occur in self-
canceling pairs along the same line of action. This leads to the second condition for equilibrium:
the total moment of all the external forces about an arbitrary point 0 must be zero.
r
1
F
1
+ r
2
F
2
+ ... + r
n
F
n
= r
n
F
n
n
= 0 (1.1b)
where r
n
extends from point 0 to an arbitrary point on the line of action of force F
n
.
In Fig. 4A, an arbitrary plane, aa, divides a body in equilibrium into regions I and II. Since the
force acting upon the entire body is in equilibrium, the forces acting on part I alone must be in
equilibrium.
In general, the equilibrium of part I will require the presence of forces acting on plane aa.
These internal forces applied to part I by part II are distributed continuously over the cut surface,
but, in general, will vary over the surface in both direction and intensity.
dF
I
II
I
a
a
dA
A B
a
a
Point 0 Point 0
n
Figure 4. Examination of Internal Forces of a Body in Equilibrium.
Stress is the term used to define the intensity and direction of the internal forces acting at a
particular point on a given plane.
Metals are composed of grains of material having directional and boundary characteristics.
However, these grains are usually microscopic and when a larger portion of the material is
considered, these random variations average out to produce a macroscopically uniform material.
Macroscopic uniformity = homogenous,
If there are no macroscopic direction properties the material is isotropic.
Note L.4
Page 4
Definition of Stress (mathematically), (Fig. 4B) [see Ref. 1, p. 203]
n
T = stress at point 0 on plane aa whose normal is
r
n passing through point 0
= lim
dA0

dF
dA
where dF is a force acting on area dA.
[Reference 1 uses the notation
n
T to introduce the concept that
n
T is a stress vector]
NOTE: Stress is a point value.
The stress acting at a point on a specific plane is a vector. Its direction is the limiting direction
of force dF as area dA approaches zero. It is customary to resolve the stress vector into two
components whose scalar magnitudes are:
normal stress component : acting perpendicular to the plane
shear stress component : acting in the plane.
1.1 Concept of State of Stress
The selection of different cutting planes through point 0 would, in general, result in stresses
differing in both direction and magnitude. Stress is thus a second-order tensor quantity, because
not only are magnitude and direction involved but also the orientation of the plane on which the
stress acts is involved.
NOTE: A complete description of the magnitudes and directions of stresses on all possible
planes through point 0 constitutes the state of stress at point 0.
NOTE: A knowledge of maximum stresses alone is not always sufficient to provide the best
evaluation of the strength of a member. The orientation of these stresses is also
important.
In general, the overall stress state must be determined first and the maximum stress values
derived from this information. The state of stress at a point can normally be determined by
computing the stresses acting on certain conveniently oriented planes passing through the point of
interest. Stresses acting on any other planes can then be determined by means of simple,
standardized analytical or graphical methods. Therefore, it is convenient to consider the three
mutually perpendicular planes as faces of a cube of infinitesimal size which surround the point at
which the stress state is to be determined.
Figure 5 illustrates the general state of 3D stress at an arbitrary point by illustrating the stress
components on the faces of an infinitesimal cubic element around the point.
Note L.4
Page 5
Infinitesimal Cube about Point of Interest
P
zy
zx
z
x
xy
xz
y
yx
yz
y
x
z
0
Figure 5. Stress Element Showing General State of 3D Stress at a Point Located Away from
the Origin.
Notation Convention for Fig. 5:
Normal stresses are designated by a single subscript corresponding to the outward drawn
normal to the plane that it acts upon.
The rationale behind the double-subscript notation for shear stresses is that the first designates
the plane of the face and the second the direction of the stress. The plane of the face is represented
by the axis which is normal to it, instead of the two perpendicular axes lying in the plane.
Stress components are positive when a positively-directed force component acts on a positive
face or a negatively-directed force component acts on a negative face. When a positively-directed
force component acts on a negative face or a negatively-directed force component acts on a positive
face, the resulting stress component will be negative. A face is positive when its outwardly-directed
normal vector points in the direction of the positive coordinate axis (Ref. 1, pp. 206-207). All
stresses shown in Fig. 5 are positive. Normal stresses are positive for tensile stress and negative
for compressive stress. Figure 6 illustrates positive and negative shear stresses.
NOTE:
yx
equals
xy
.
y
z
x
+
yx
-
yx
Figure 6. Definition of Positive and Negative
yx
.
Note L.4
Page 6
Writing the state of stress as tensor S:
S =
x

xy

xz
yx

y

yz
zx

zy

z
9-components (1.2)
However, we have three equal pairs of shear stress:
xy
=
yx
,
xz
=
zx
,
yz
=
zy
(1.3)
Therefore, six quantities are sufficient to describe the stresses acting on the coordinate planes
through a point, i.e., the triaxial state of stress at a point. If these six stresses are known at a point, it
is possible to compute from simple equilibrium concepts the stresses on any plane passing through
the point [Ref. 2, p. 79].
1.2 Principal Stresses, Planes and Directions
The tensor S becomes a symmetric tensor if Eq. 1.3 is introduced into Eq. 1.2. A fundamental
property of a symmetrical tensor (symmetrical about its principal diagonal) is that there exists an
orthogonal set of axes 1, 2, 3 (called principal axes) with respect to which the tensor elements are all
zero except for those on the principal diagonal:
S' =
1
0 0
0
2
0
0 0
3
(1.4)
Hence, when the tensor represents the state of stress at a point, there always exists a set of mutually
perpendicular planes on which only normal stress acts. These planes of zero shear stress are called
principal planes, the directions of their outer normals are called principal directions, and the stresses
acting on these planes are called principal stresses. An element whose faces are principal planes is
called a principal element.
For the general case, the principal axes are usually numbered so that:
1

2

3
1.3 Basic Considerations of Strain
The concept of strain is of fundamental importance to the engineer with respect to the
consideration of deflections and deformation.
A component may prove unsatisfactory in service as a result of excessive deformations,
although the associated stresses are well within the allowable limits from the standpoint of fracture
or yielding.
Strain is a directly measurable quantity, stress is not.
Note L.4
Page 7
Concept of Strain and State of Strain
Any physical body subjected to forces, i.e., stresses, deforms under the action of these forces.
Strain is the direction and intensity of the deformation at any given point with respect to a
specific plane passing through that point. Strain is therefore a quantity analogous to stress.
State of strain is a complete definition of the magnitude and direction of the deformation at a
given point with respect to all planes passing through the point. Thus, state of strain is a tensor and
is analogous to state of stress.
For convenience, strains are always resolved into normal components, , and shear components,
(Figs. 7 & 8). In these figures the original shape of the body is denoted by solid lines and the
deformed shape by the dashed lines. The change in length in the x-direction is dx, while the change
in the y-direction is dy. Hence,
x
,
y
and are written as indicated in these figures.
y
x
y
dy dx
0
x

x
= lim
x0

dx
x
y
= lim
y0

dy
y
Figure 7. Deformation of a Body where the
x-Dimension is Extended and the
y-Dimension is Contracted.
y
x
y
dx
dx

yx
= lim
y0

dx
y

= tan
Figure 8. Plane Shear Strain.
Subscript notation for strains corresponds to that used with stresses. Specifically,

yx
: shear strain resulting from taking adjacent planes perpendicular to the y-axis and
displacing them relative to each other in the x-direction (Fig. 9).

x
,
y
: normal strains in x- and y-directions, respectively.
y
x
initial deformed
rotated clockwise

yx
> 0
initial deformed
rotated counter-clockwise

xy
< 0
Figure 9. Strains resulting from Shear Stresses
xy
.
Note L.4
Page 8
Sign conventions for strain also follow directly from those for stress: positive normal stress
produces positive normal strain and vice versa. In the above example (Fig. 7),
x
> 0, whereas
y
< 0. Adopting the positive clockwise convention for shear components,
xy
< 0,
yx
> 0. In
Fig. 8, the shear is
yx
and the rotation is clockwise.
NOTE: Half of
xy
,
xz
,
yz
is analogous to
xy
,
xz
and
yz
, whereas
x
is analogous to
x
.
T =
x

1
2

xy
1
2

xz
1
2

yx

y

1
2

yz
1
2

zx
1
2

zy

z

It may be helpful in appreciating the physical significance of the fact that is analogous to /2
rather than with itself to consider Fig. 10. Here it is seen that each side of an element changes in
slope by an angle /2.
2
Figure 10. State of Pure Shear Strain
1.4 Plane Stress
In Fig. 11, all stresses on a stress element act on only two pairs of faces. Further, these
stresses are practically constant along the z-axis. This two-dimensional case is called biaxial stress
or plane stress.
y
y
yx
x
xy
z
A
0
Figure 11. State of Plane Stress
Note L.4
Page 9
The stress tensor for stresses in horizontal (x) and vertical (y) directions in the plane xy is:
S =
x

xy
yx

y
When the angle of the cutting plane through point 0 is varied from horizontal to vertical, the
shear stresses acting on the cutting plane vary from positive to negative. Since shear stress is a
continuous function of the cutting plane angle, there must be some intermediate plane in which the
shear stress is zero. The normal stresses in the intermediate plane are the principle stresses. The
stress tensor is:
S' =
1
0
0
2
where the zero principal stress is always
3
. These principal stresses occur along particular axes in
a particular plane. By convention,
1
is taken as the larger of the two principal stresses. Hence
1

2

3
= 0
In general we wish to know the stress components in a set of orthogonal axes in the xy plane,
but rotated at an arbitrary angle, , with respect to the x, y axes. We wish to express these stress
components in terms of the stress terms referred to the x, y axes, i.e., in terms of
x
,
y
,
xy
and the
angle of rotation . Fig. 12 indicates this new set of axes, x
1
and y
1
, rotated by from the original
set of axes x and y. The determination of the new stress components x
1
, y
1
, x
1
y
1
is
accomplished by considering the equilibrium of the small wedge centered on the point of interest
whose faces are along the x-axis, y-axis and perpendicular to the x
1
axis. For the general case of
expressing stresses x
1
and x
1
y
1
at point 0 in plane x
1
, y
1
in terms of stresses
x
,
y
,
xy
and the
angle in plane x, y by force balances in the x
1
and y
1
directions, we obtain (see Ref. 1, p. 217):
x
1
=
x
cos
2
+
y
sin
2
+ 2
xy
sin cos (1.5a)
x
1
y
1
= (
y
-
x
) sin cos +
xy
(cos
2
- sin
2
) (1.5b)
y
1
=
x
sin
2
+
y
cos
2
- 2
xy
sin cos (1.5c)
where the angle is defined in Fig. 12.
y
x
y
x
1
1
y
x
x
1

(A) (B)
Figure 12. (A) Orientation of Plane x
1
y
1
at Angle to Plane xy;
(B) Wedge for Equilibrium Analysis.
Note L.4
Page 10
These are the transformation equations of stress for plane stress. Their significance is that
stress components x
1
, y
1
and x
1
y
1
at point 0 in a plane at an arbitrary angle to the plane xy are
uniquely determined by the stress components
x
,
y
and
xy
at point 0.
Eq. 1.5 is commonly written in terms of 2. Using the identities:
sin
2
=
1 - cos 2
2
; cos
2
=
1 + cos 2
2
; 2 sin cos = sin 2
we get
x
1
=
x
+
y
2
+
x
-
y
2
cos 2 +
xy
sin 2 (1.6a)
x
1
y
1
= -
x
-
y
2
sin 2 +
xy
cos 2 (1.6b)
y
1
=
x
+
y
2
-
x
-
y
2
cos 2 -
xy
sin 2 (1.6c)*
The orientation of the principal planes, in this two dimensional system is found by equating x
1
y
1
to
zero and solving for the angle .
1.5 Mohr's Circle
Equations 1.6a,b,c, taken together, can be represented by a circle, called Mohrs circle of stress.
To illustrate the representation of these relations, eliminate the function of the angle 2 from
Eq. 1.6a and 1.6b by squaring both sides of both equations and adding them. Before Eq. 1.6a is
squared, the term (
x
+
y
)/2 is transposed to the left side. The overall result is (where plane y
1
x
1
is an arbitrarily located plane, so that x
1
is now written as and x
1
y
1
as ):
[ - 1/2 (
x
+
y
)]
2
+
2
= 1/4 (
x
-
y
)
2
+
xy
2
(1.7)
Now construct Mohrs circle on the and plane. The principal stresses are those on the -axis
when = 0. Hence, Eq. 1.7 yields the principal normal stresses
1
and
2
as:
1,2
=
x
+
y
2

xy
2
+
x
-
y
2
2
(1.8)
center of circle radius
The maximum shear stress is the radius of the circle and occurs in the plane represented by a
vertical orientation of the radius.

* y1 can also be obtained from x1 by substituting + 90 for .
Note L.4
Page 11
max
=
xy
2
+
x
-
y
2
2
=
1
2

1
-
2
(1.9)
The angle between the principal axes x
1
y
1
and the arbitrary axis, xy can be determined from
Eq. 1.6b by taking x
1
y
1
as principal axes. Hence, from Eq. 1.6b with
x
1
y
1
= 0 we obtain:
2 = tan
-1

2
xy
x
-
y
(1.10)
From our wedge we know an arbitrary plane is located an angle from the general x-, y-axis set
and ranges from zero to 180. Hence, for the circle with its 360 range of rotation, planes
separated by in the wedge are separated by 2 on Mohrs circle. Taking the separation between
the principal axis and the x-axis where the shear stress is
xy
, we see that Fig. 13A also illustrates
the relation of Eq. 1.10. Hence, Mohrs circle is constructed as illustrated in Fig. 13A.
x
+
y
2
x
-
y
2
2
2 1
( , 0)
2
( , 0)
1
( , )
x xy
( , )
y yx
y
x
xy
2
+
x
-
y
2
2
-
-
+
+
locus of
yx
locus of
xy
A B
Figure 13. (A) Mohrs Circle of Stress; (B) Shear Stress Sign Convection for Mohrs Circle.
*
When the principal stresses are known and it is desired to find the stresses acting on a plane
oriented at angle from the principal plane numbered 1 in Fig. 14, Eq. 1.6 becomes:
1
+
2
2

1
-
2
2
cos 2 (1.11)
and
= -
1
-
2
2
sin 2 (1.12)

*
For shear stresses, the sign convection is complicated since
yx
and
xy
are equal and of the same sign (see Figs 5
and 6, and Eq. 1.3), yet one must be plotted in the convention positive y-direction and the other in the negative y-
direction (note the -axis replaces the y-axis in Fig. 13A). The convention adopted is to use the four quadrants of the
circle as follows: positive
xy
is plotted in the fourth quadrant and positive
yx
in the second quadrant.
Analogously, negative
xy
lies in the first quadrant. Further, the shear stress at 90 on the circle is positive while
that at 270 is negative. [Ref. 1, p. 220]
Note that the negative shear stress of Eq. 1.12 is plotted in the first and third quadrants of Fig. 14, consistent with
this sign convention.
Note L.4
Page 12
2
2 1
1
1
+
2
2
1
-
2
2
cos 2
1
-
2
2
sin 2
Figure 14. Mohrs Circle Representation of Eqs. 1.11 & 1.12.
Example 1:
Consider a cylindrical element of large radius with axial (x direction) and torque loadings
which produce shear and normal stress components as illustrated in Fig. 15. Construct Mohrs
circle for this element and determine the magnitude and orientation of the principal stresses.
From this problem statement, we know the coordinates
x
,
xy
are 60, 40 ksi and the
coordinates
y
,
yx
are 0, 40 ksi. Further, from Eq. 1.10, 2 = tan
-1
2(40)/(60) = 53. From these
values and the layout of Fig. 13, we can construct Mohrs circle for this example as shown in
Fig. 16. Points 1 and 2 are stresses on principal planes, i.e., principal stresses are 80 and -20 ksi
and points S and S' are maximum and minimum shear stress, i.e., 50 and -50 ksi. These results
follow from Eqs. 1.8 and 1.9 as:
From Eq. 1.8
1
,
2
=
60 + 0
2
40
2
+
60 - 0
2
2
= 80, -20 ksi
From Eq. 1.9
max
= 40
2
+
60 - 0
2
2
= 50 ksi
From Fig. 13A at plane of
max
= (60 + 0)/2 = 30 ksi, i.e., at S and S'
= 0
y
T
F
xy
=
T
A
= 40 ksi
x
=
F
A
= 60 ksi
Figure 15. Example 1 Loadings.
37
2 1
53= 2
3
0
(-20, 0)
y (0, 40)
S (30, 50)
S' (30, -50)
(80, 0)
x (60, 40)
Figure 16. Mohrs Circle for Example 1.
Note L.4
Page 13
The principal element, i.e., its faces are principal planes, and the maximum shear element are
shown in Fig. 17.
NOTE: The angle between points y and S is the complement of 53 or 37, and plane y is rotated
37/2 counter-clockwise from plane S.
NOTE: The procedure for determining the orientation of these elements: point 1 is 53 counter-
clockwise from point x on the circle; hence the plane represented by 1 is half of 53
counter-clockwise from plane x. Similarly, the S plane is 143/2 counter-clockwise of
plane x, or 37/2 clockwise of plane y.
26.5
(2)
(2)
(1)
(1)
Plane perpendicular
to x axis
1
= 80 ksi
2
= - 20 ksi
Plane y
= 30 ksi
Plane x
P
la
n
e
S
P
la
n
e
S
max
= 50 ksi
143
2
y axis
S axis
x axis
37
2
y axis
x axis
P
l
a
n
e

S
37
2
= 30 ksi
S axis
P
l
a
n
e

S
Plane y
Plane x
max
= 50 ksi
Principal Element Maximum Shear Elements
Figure 17. Key Elements for Example 1.
Mohrs circle clearly illustrates these additional points:
1. the principal stresses represent the extreme values of normal stress at the point in question;
2.
max
=
1
2

1
-
2
;
3. planes of maximum shear are always 45 removed from the principal planes; and
4. normal stresses acting on maximum shear planes S and S' are equal to the algebraic average of
principal stresses
1
and
2
, i.e., 1/2 (
1
+
2
).
1.6 Octahedral Planes and Stresses
Figure 18 illustrates the orientation of one of the eight octahedral planes which are associated
with a given stress state. Each of the octahedral planes cut across one of the corners of a principal
element, so that the eight planes together form an octahedron.
The stresses acting on these planes have interesting and significant characteristics. First of all,
identical normal stresses act on all eight planes. By themselves the normal stresses are therefore
said to be hydrostatic and tend to compress or enlarge the octahedron but not distort it.
Note L.4
Page 14
oct
=
1
+
2
+
3
3
(1.13a)
Shear stresses are also identical. These distort the octahedron without changing its volume.
Although the octahedral shear stress is smaller than the highest principal shear stress, it constitutes
a single value that is influenced by all three principal shear stresses. Thus, it is important as a
criterion for predicting yielding of a stressed material.
oct
=
1
3

1
-
2
2
+
2
-
3
2
+
3
-
1
2
1/ 2
(1.13b)
In cases in which
x
,
y
,
z
,
xy
,
xz
and
yz
are known:
oct
=
x
+
y
+
z
3
(1.14a)
oct
=
1
3

x
-
y
2
+
y
-
z
2
+
z
-
x
2
+ 6
xy
2
+
xz
2
+
yz
2
1/ 2
(1.14b)
oct

oct
Figure 18. Octahedral Planes Associated with a Given Stress State.
1.7 Principal Strains and Planes
Having observed the correspondence between strain and stress, it is evident that with suitable
axis transformation one obtains an expression for the strain tensor T' which is identical to that of
stress tensor S' except that the terms in the principal diagonal are
1
,
2
,
3
. Hence, recalling from
Section 1.3 that
/2 corresponds to , strain relations analogous to Eqs. 1.8, 1.9 and 1.10 can be
written as follows:
1
,
2
=
x
+
y
2

1
2

xy
2
+
x
-
y
2
2
(1.15)
max
= 2
1
2

xy
2
+
x
-
y
2
2
(1.16)
2 = tan
-1

xy
x
-
y
(1.17)
Note L.4
Page 15
Conclusion
The preceding sections dealt separately with the concepts of stress and strain at a point. These
considerations involving stresses and strains separately are general in character and applicable to
bodies composed of any continuous distribution of matter.
NOTE: No material properties were involved in the relationships, hence they are applicable to
water, oil, as well as materials like steel and aluminum.
Note L.4
Page 16
intentionally left blank
Note L.4
Page 17
2. ELASTIC STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS
The relationships between these quantities are of direct importance to the engineer concerned
with design and stress analysis. Generally two principal types of problems exist:
1. Determination of the stress state at a point from a known strain statethe problem
encountered when stresses are to be computed from experimentally determined strains.
2. Determination of the state of strain at a point from a known stress statethe problem
commonly encountered in design, where a part is assured to carry certain loads, and strains
must be computed with regard to critical clearances and stiffnesses.
We limit ourselves to solids loaded in the elastic range. Furthermore, we shall consider only
materials which are isotropic, i.e., materials having the same elastic properties in all directions.
Most engineering materials can be considered as isotropic. Notable exceptions are wood and
reinforced concrete.
2.1 Generalized Hookes Law
Let us consider the various components of stress one at a time and add all their strain effects.
For a uni-axial normal stress in the x direction,
x
, the resulting normal strain is
x
=
x
E
(2.1)
where E is Youngs modulus or the modulus of elasticity.
Additionally this stress produces lateral contraction, i.e.,
y
and
z
, which is a fixed fraction of
the longitudinal strain, i.e.,
y
=
z
= -
x
= -
x
E
. (2.2)
This fixed fraction is called Poissons ratio, . Analogous results are obtained from strains due to
y
and
z
.
The shear-stress components produce only their corresponding shear-strain components that
are expressed as:
zx
=
zx
G
,
xy
=
xy
G
,
yz
=
yz
G
(2.3a,b,c)
where the constant of proportionality, G, is called the shear modulus.
Note L.4
Page 18
For a linear-elastic isotropic material with all components of stress present:
x
=
1
E

x
-
y
+
z
(2.4a)
y
=
1
E

y
-
z
+
x
(2.4b)
z
=
1
E

z
-
x
+
y
(2.4c)
xy
=
xy
G
(2.5a) same as (2.3)
yz
=
yz
G
(2.5b)
zx
=
zx
G
(2.5c)
These equations are the generalized Hookes law.
It can also be shown (Ref 1, p. 285) that for an isotropic materials, the properties G, E and
are related as:
G =
E
2 (1 + )
. (2.6)
Hence,
xy
=
2 (1 + )
E

xy
(2.7a)
yz
=
2 (1 + )
E

yz
(2.7b)
zx
=
2 (1 + )
E

zx
. (2.7c)
Equations 2.4 and 2.5 may be solved to obtain stress components as a function of strains:
x
=
E
(1 + ) (1 - 2)
1 -
x
+
y
+
z
(2.8a)
y
=
E
(1 + ) (1 - 2)
1 -
y
+
z
+
x
(2.8b)
z
=
E
(1 + ) (1 - 2)
1 -
z
+
x
+
y
(2.8c)
xy
=
E
2 (1 + )

xy
= G
xy
(2.9a)
yz
=
E
2 (1 + )

yz
= G
yz
(2.9b)
zx
=
E
2 (1 + )

zx
= G
zx
. (2.9c)
Note L.4
Page 19
For the first three relationships one may find:
x
=
E
(1 + )

x
+
(1 - 2)

x
+
y
+
z
(2.10a)
y
=
E
(1 + )

y
+
(1 - 2)

x
+
y
+
z
(2.10b)
z
=
E
(1 + )

z
+
(1 - 2)

x
+
y
+
z
. (2.10c)
For special case in which the x, y, z axes coincide with principal axes 1, 2, 3, we can simplify the
strain set, Eqs. 2.4 and 2.5, and the stress set Eqs. 2.8 and 2.9, by virtue of all shear strains and
shear stresses being equal to zero.
1
=
1
E

1
-
2
+
3
(2.11a)
2
=
1
E

2
-
3
+
1
(2.11b)
3
=
1
E

3
-
1
+
2
(2.11c)
1
=
E
(1 + ) (1 - 2)
1 -
1
+
2
+
3
(2.12a)
2
=
E
(1 + ) (1 - 2)
1 -
2
+
3
+
1
(2.12b)
3
=
E
(1 + ) (1 - 2)
1 -
3
+
1
+
2
. (2.12c)
For biaxial-stress state, one of the principal stresses (say
3
) = 0, Eqs. 2.11a,b,c become:
1
=
1
E

1
-
2
(2.13a)
2
=
1
E

2
-
1
(2.13b)
3
= -
E

1
+
2
. (2.13c)
In simplifying Eqs. 2.12a,b,c for the case of
3
= 0, we note from Eq. 2.12c that for
3
to be zero,
3
= -
1 -

1
+
2
. (2.14)
Substituting this expression into the first two of Eqs. 2.12a,b,c gives:
1
=
E
1 -
2

1
+
2
(2.15a)
2
=
E
1 -
2

2
+
1
(2.15b)
3
= 0 . (2.15c)
Note L.4
Page 20
In case of uniaxial stress Eqs. 2.13 and 2.15 must, of course reduce to:
1
=
1
E

1
(2.16a)
2
=
3
= -
E

1
(2.16b)
1
= E
1
(2.17a)
2
=
3
= 0 . (2.17b)
2.2 Modulus of Volume Expansion (Bulk Modulus)
k may be defined as the ratio between hydrostatic stress (in which
1
=
2
=
3
) and
volumetric strain (change in volume divided by initial volume), i.e.,
k = /(V/V). (2.18)
NOTE: Hydrostatic compressive stress exists within the fluid of a pressurized hydraulic cylinder,
in a rock at the bottom of the ocean or far under the earths surface, etc.
Hydrostatic tension can be created at the interior of a solid sphere by the sudden
application of uniform heat to the surface, the expansion of the surface layer subjecting
the interior material to triaxial tension. For
1
=
2
=
3
= , Eqs. 2.11a,b,c show that:
1
=
2
=
3
= =
E
1 - 2 .
This state of uniform triaxial strain is characterized by the absence of shearing deformation; an
elemental cube, for example, would change in size but remain a cube. The size of an elemental cube
initially of unit dimension would change from 1
3
to (1 + )
3
or to 1 + 3 + 3
2
+
3
. If we
consider normal structural materials, is a quantity sufficiently small, so that
2
and
3
are
completely negligible, and the volumetric change is from 1 to 1 + 3. The volumetric strain, V/V,
is thus equal to 3 or to:
V
V
= 3 =
3 (1 - 2)
E
. (2.19)
Hence,
k
3
=
E
3 (1 - 2)
. (2.20)
Now 0.5, so that k cannot become negative. A simple physical model of a representative
atomic crystalline structure gives:
= 1/3 , (2.21)
so that
k = E . (2.22)
Note L.4
Page 21
3. THIN-WALLED CYLINDERS AND SPHERE
3.1 Stresses
Stresses in a Thin-Walled Cylinder:
Consider a portion of the cylinder sufficiently remote from the ends to avoid end effects.
The equation of equilibrium of radial forces (Fig. 19) acting on the element is:
p
i
r
i
ddL = 2
t,av
tdL sin
d
2
(3.1)
yielding
t,av
=
p
i
r
i
t
. (3.2)
when sin (d/2) is approximated by d/2, which is valid for small d. This is a correct expression
for the average tangential stress (hoop stress) regardless of cylinder thickness.
NOTE: It is only when this equation is used as an approximation for the maximum tangential
stress,
t,max
, that the thickness t must be very small in comparison with the cylinder
diameter.
Equation 3.1 can be modified to give a good quick estimate of the maximum tangential stress due to
internal pressure for cylinders of moderate thickness by replacing r
i
with r
av,
which we label R:
R = r
i
+
t
2
. (3.3)
Thus,
t,max

p
i
R
t
(3.4)
p
t
2r
i
2r
o
i
d
R
dL
d/2 p r ddL
i i
tdL
t,av
Figure 19. Radial Forces in an Internally Pressurized Thin-Walled Cylinder.
Note L.4
Page 22
The following are errors in estimating
t,max
from Eqs. 3.2 or 3.4 compared to the thick-walled
cylinder results:
t/r
i
% Error Using
Eq. 3.2
% Error Using
Eq. 3.4
0.1 5 (low) 0.5 (low)
0.2 10 (low) 1.0 (low)
0.5 23 (low) 3.8 (low)
1.0 40 (low) 10.2 (low)
If the ends are closed, the cylinder is also subjected to an axial force of magnitude p
i
r
i
2
. This is
distributed over an area of cross section that can be expressed as:
A = r
o
2
- r
i
2
= 2Rt . (3.5)
Thus the average axial tensile stress can be expressed by:
a,av
=
p
i
r
i
2
r
o
2
- r
i
2
=
p
i
r
i
2
2r
av
t
. (3.6)
For the thin-walled case, r
i
r
av
R since r
i
= R(1 - 0.5t/R). Hence, Eq. 3.6 reduces to:
a,av
=
p
i
R
2t
. (3.7)
Thus the axial stress is approximately half the tangential stress.
Stresses in a Thin-Walled Sphere:
From a force balance these stresses can be determined to be
a,av
=
t,av
=
pR
2t
(3.8)
3.2 Deformation and Strains
The deformation of the diameter of a thin-walled cylinder or sphere caused by the internal
pressure is to be determined. Note that the state of stress at the inner surface is triaxial and is not
plane stress. The principal stresses of the inner surface are
1
=
,
2
=
z
and
3
= -p.
However,
3
= -p is so small compared to
1
and
2
that it can be neglected when considering
strains. Thus, the state of stress in thin-walled pressure vessels is usually considered to be plane
stress.
The deformation of such pressure vessels is influenced by the tangential and axial (transverse
for the sphere) stresses, and hence use must be made of the following relations obtained from Eqs.
2.4, 2.5 and 2.8, respectively, with
y
= 0.
Note L.4
Page 23
x
=
x
E
-
z
E
(3.9a)
y
= -
E

x
+
z
(3.9b)
z
=
z
E
-
x
E
(3.9c)
=
xy
G
(3.9d)
x
=
E
1 -
2

x
+
z
(3.10a)
z
=
E
1 -
2

z
+
x
(3.10b)
to express Hookes law for plane stress. Equations 3.10a,b are obtained from Eqs. 2.8a and 2.8c
upon inspection of
y
evaluated from Eq. 2.8b with
y
taken as zero.
Let
,
z
,
and
z
represent the tangential and axial stress and strain, respectively, in the wall.
The substitution of these symbols in Eqs. 3.9a,b,c, i.e., x and z = z, gives:
E
-
z
E
(3.11)
z
=
z
E
-
E
. (3.12)
Closed-End Cylinder:
For the strains in the closed-end cylinder, the values of
and
z
as derived in Eqs. 3.4
and 3.8, respectively, are substituted into Eqs. 3.11 and 3.12 to give:
=
1
E

pR
t
-
pR
2t
=
pR
2Et
(2 - ) (3.13)
z
=
1
E

pR
2t
-
pR
t
=
pR
2Et
(1 - 2) . (3.14)
Let the change in length of radius R be r when the internal pressure is applied. Then the change in
length of the circumference is 2r. But the circumferential strain,
, is, by definition, given by the

following equation:
=
2r
2R
=
r
R
. (3.15)
By combining Eqs. 3.15 and 3.13 we get:
r =
pR
2
2Et
(2 - ) . (3.16)
Note L.4
Page 24
The change in length, l, for a closed-end cylinder is equal to:
l =
z
l (3.17)
or
l =
pR
l
2Et
(1 - 2) (3.18)
Sphere:
z
=
=
pR
2t
(3.19)
Thus, from Eq. 3.11:
=
1
E

pR
2t
-
pR
2t
=
pR
2Et
(1 - ) . (3.20)
By combining Eq. 3.20 with Eq. 3.15, we obtain:
r =
pR
2
2Et
(1 - ) . (3.21)
3.3 End Effects for the Closed-End Cylinder
Figure 20 illustrates a cylinder closed by thin-walled hemispherical shells. They are joined
together at AA and BB by rivets or welds. The dashed lines show the displacements due to internal
pressure, p. These displacements are given by Eqs. 3.16 and 3.21 as:
R
c
=
pR
2
2Et
(2 - ) (3.22a)
R
s
=
pR
2
2Et
(1 - ) (3.22b)
The value of R
c
is more than twice that of R
s
for the same thickness, t, and as a result the
deformed cylinder and hemisphere do not match boundaries. To match boundaries, rather large
shearing forces, V, and moments, M, must develop at the joints as Fig. 20 depicts (only those on the
cylinder are shown; equal but opposite shears and moments exist on the ends of the hemispheres).
This shear force is considerably minimized in most reactor pressure vessels by sizing the
hemisphere thickness much smaller than the cylinder thickness. For example, if the hemisphere
thickness is 120 mm and the cylinder thickness is 220 mm, for = 0.3, then the ratio R
c
to R
s
is

R
c
R
s
=
t
s
t
c

2 -
1 -
= 1.32
Note L.4
Page 25
V
R
c
V
V
R
s
R
s
V Shearing Forces

Figure 20. Discontinuities in Strains for the Cylinder (R
c
) and the Sphere (R
s
).
The general solution of the discontinuity stresses induced by matching cylindrical and
hemisphere shapes is not covered in these notes. However, a fundamental input to this solution is
the matching of both displacements and deflections of the two cylinders of different wall
thicknesses at the plane they join. Thus, the relationship between load, stress, displacement and
deflection for cylinders and hemispheres are derived. These relations are presented in Tables 1
and 2, respectively.
Table 1. Relationship Between Load, Stresses, Displaced and Deflection for the Cylinder
(equations cited are from Ref. 2)
Load
Stresses
t
,
l
,
r
,
z
,
r
Displacement
u
o
Deflection
o
p
pR
t
,
pR
2t
, -
p
2
pR
2
2tE
2 - +
t
R
0
M
o
Edge
Moment
per Unit
Perimeter
Length
EM
o
2
2
DR

6M
o
t
2
,
6M
o
t
2
, 0
(Eq. 7.3.22, (Eq. 7.3.21,
p. 7.3-12) p. 7.3-11)
Note: u
M
D
o
o
=
2
2
; so first term
=
Eu
R
o
.
M
o
2
2
D
(Eq. 7.3.18, p. 7.3.7)
units
F L/L
1
L
2

F
L
2
L
3
= L
-
M
o
D
(Eq. 7.3.19, p. 7.3.8)
dimensionless
Table 1 continued on next page
Note L.4
Page 26
Table 1. Relationship Between Load, Stresses, Displaced and Deflection for the Cylinder (contd)
Q
o
Edge Shear
Force
per Unit
Perimeter
Length
EQ
o
R2
3
D
, 0 , 0
(Eq. 7.3.22,
p. 7.3-12)
Note: u
Q
D
o
o
=
2
3
; so first term
=
u E
R
o
.
Q
o
2
3
D
(Eq. 7.3.18, p. 7.3.7)
units
F/L
1
L
3
FL
= L
-
Q
o
2
2
D
(Eq. 7.3.19, p. 7.3.8)
dimensionless
where Plate Flexural Rigidity:
D =
Et
3
12 1 -
2
, units
F
L
2
L
3
4
=
Et
4R
2
D
=
3 1 -
2
R
2
t
2
1
L
2

1
L
2
Equations and pages cited are from Ref. 2.
Table 2. Relationship Between Load, Stresses, Displaced and Deflection for the Hemisphere
Load
Stresses
t
,
l
,
r
Displacement
o
Deflection
o
p
pR
2t
,
pR
2t
, -
p
2
pR
2
2t
1 - +
t
R
0
M
o
Edge
Moment
per Unit
Perimeter
Length
2
2
M
o
tR

6M
o
t
2
,
6M
o
t
2
, 0
Note:
2
2
M
o
t
=
o
E
; so first
term =
E
o
R
.
2
2
M
o
Et
4
3
M
o
REt
Q
o
Edge Shear
Force
per Unit
Perimeter
Length
2Q
0
t
, 0 , 0
Note:

2Q
0
t
=
E
o
R
.
2RQ
0
Et
2
2
Q
o
Et
where
= R ;

4
2
2 2
3 1
=

( )
R t
Note L.4
Page 27
4. THICK-WALLED CYLINDER UNDER RADIAL PRESSURE [Ref. 1, pp. 293-300]
Long Cylinder Plane Strain
The cylinder is axially restrained (
z
= 0) at either end and subjected to uniform radial pressure,
not body forces. The cylinder cross section and stresses on an element are illustrated in Fig. 21.
p
i
r
i
r
o
p
o
d
r
r
r + dr
d
2
d
2
r
+ d
r
Figure 21. Force Balance and Displacements in a Pressurized Cylinder.

The relevant elastic equation set when azimuthal symmetry prevails is
StrainDisplacement Relations
r
=
du
dr
,
=
u
r
,
r
=
dv
dr
-
v
r
(4.1a,b,c)
where u is the outward radial displacement and v is the direction displacement. Since the effect of
internal pressure is to move the material in the radial direction without any rotation, both v and
r
should be zero. This will be demonstrated formally from the boundary conditions.
StressEquilibrium Relations (for forces in the r and directions)
d
r
dr
+
r
-
r
= 0 ,
d
r
dr
+
2
r
r
= 0 . (4.2a,b)
StressStrain Relations

r r z
E
= +
( )
[ ]
1
(4.3a)

= + ( )
[ ]
1
E
z r
(4.3b)

z z r
E
= = +
( )
[ ]
0
1
(4.3c)
Note L.4
Page 28
The strain-displacement relations can, by elimination of the displacement variables, be
combined as a compatibility (of strain) equation:
d
dr r
r

+

= 0 (4.4)
Finally the boundary conditions are:
r
r
i
= - p
i
;
r
r
o
= - p
o
(4.5a)
r
r
i
=
r
r
o
= 0 (4.5b)
Note that the radial dimension is assumed to be free of displacement constraints.
4.1 Displacement Approach
When displacements are known, it is preferable to use this solution approach. In this case we
solve for the displacements. Proceeding, solve Eq. 4.3 for stresses and substitute them into the
stressequilibrium relations of Eq. 4.2 to obtain:
(1 - )
d
r
dr
+
r
-
r
+
d
dr
+
-
r
r
= 0 (4.6a)
d
r
dr
+
2
r
r
= 0 (4.6b)
Substituting Eq. 4.1 in Eq. 4.6 and simplification show that the displacements u and v are
governed by the equations:
d
2
u
dr
2
+
1
r

du
dr
-
u
r
2
=
d
dr

1
r

d
dr
(ru) = 0 (4.7a)
d
2
v
dr
2
+
1
r

dv
dr
-
v
r
2
=
d
dr

1
r

d
dr
(rv) = 0 . (4.7b)
Successive integration of these equations yields the displacement solutions
u =
C
1
r
2
+
C
2
r
; v =
C
3
r
2
+
C
4
r
(4.8a,b)
where the constants of integration are to be determined by the stress boundary conditions
(Eqs. 4.5a,b). With the use of Eqs. 4.8a,b, the strain and stress solutions are obtained from Eq. 4.1
and
r
=
E
(1 + ) (1 - 2)
(1 - )
r
+
(4.9a)
=
E
(1 + ) (1 - 2)
(1 - )
+
r
(4.9b)
r
= G
r
(4.9c)
as
r
=
C
1
2
-
C
2
r
2
,
=
C
1
2
+
C
2
r
2
,
r
= -
2C
4
r
2
(4.10a,b,c)
Note L.4
Page 29
r
=
E
(1 + ) (1 - 2)

C
1
2
- (1 - 2)
C
2
r
2
(4.11a)
=
E
(1 + ) (1 - 2)

C
1
2
+ (1 - 2)
C
2
r
2
(4.11b)
z
=
r
+

EC
1
(1 + ) (1 - 2)
(4.11c)
r
= -
2GC
4
r
2
. (4.11d)
By virtue of the boundary conditions, Eqs. 4.5a,b, the first and last of Eq. 4.11 yield the
following equations for the determination of the constants C
1
and C
2
.
C
1
2
- (1 - 2)
C
2
r
i
2
= -
(1 + ) (1 - 2)
E
p
i
(4.12a)
C
1
2
- (1 - 2)
C
2
r
o
2
= -
(1 + ) (1 - 2)
E
p
o
(4.12b)
C
4
= 0 (4.12c)
The solutions for C
1
and C
2
are
C
1
2
=
(1 + ) (1 - 2) p
i
r
i
2
- p
o
r
o
2
E r
o
2
- r
i
2
(4.13a)
C
2
=
(1 + ) p
i
- p
o
r
i
2
r
o
2
E r
o
2
- r
i
2
. (4.13b)
As to the constant C
3
, it remains undetermined. However, with C
4
= 0, Eq. 4.8 shows that v = C
3
r/2
which corresponds to a rigid-body rotation about the axis of the cylinder. Since this rotation does
not contribute to the strains, C
3
is taken as zero. Hence Eqs. 4.11a,b,c and Eq. 4.8a become:
r
=
1
r
o
/r
i
2
- 1
1 -
r
o
/r
i
2
r/r
i
2
p
i
- 1 -
1
r/r
i
2

r
o
r
i
2
p
o
(4.14a)
=
1
r
o
/r
i
2
- 1
1 +
r
o
/r
i
2
r/r
i
2
p
i
- 1 +
1
r/r
i
2

r
o
r
i
2
p
o
(4.14b)
z
=
2
r
o
/r
i
2
- 1
p
i
-
r
o
r
i
2
p
o
Plane Strain! (4.14c)
u =
(1 + ) r/r
i
r
i
r
o
/r
i
2
- 1

(1 - 2) +
r
o
/r
i
2
r/r
i
2

p
i
E
- (1 - 2) +
1
r/r
i
2

r
o
r
i
2 p
o
E
(4.14d)
4.2 Stress Approach
In this case we solve directly for the stresses and apply the boundary conditions as before.
Thus, re-expressing the stress-strain relations (Eq. 4.3) directly as strain when
z
= 0 we get:
Note L.4
Page 30
r
=
1 +
E
(1 - )
r
-
(4.15a)
=
1 +
E
(1 - )
-
r
(4.15b)
r
=
r
G
, (4.15c)
and then substituting them into Eq. 4.4 upon simplification yields
1 0 ( ) +

=

d
dr
d
dr r
r
r
. (4.16)
By the first stress-equilibrium relation in Eq. 4.2, this equation is reduced to the simple form
d
dr

r
+
= 0 . (4.17)
Integration of this equation and the second of Eq. 4.2 yields

r
C + =
1
;
r
C
r
=
2
2
. (4.18a,b)
Substitution of the relation
= C
1
-
r
in Eq. 4.2, transposition, and integration yield
r
=
C
1
2
+
C
3
r
2
, (4.19)
where C
1
, C
2
and C
3
are constants of integration. Applying the boundary conditions we finally get
C
1
=
p
i
r
i
2
- p
o
r
o
2
r
o
2
- r
i
2
, C
2
= 0 , C
3
=
p
i
- p
o
r
i
2
r
o
2
r
o
2
- r
i
2
. (4.20a,b,c)
With these values for the constants, Eqs. 4.18, 4.19 and the relation
z
= (
r
+
), the complete
stress solution is explicitly given. This solution can then be substituted in Eqs. 4.15a and 4.15b to
determine
r
and
and, finally, u is determined by the relation u = r
.
NOTE: Since the prescribed boundary conditions of the problem are stresses, it is evident that the
stress approach in obtaining the solution involves simpler algebra than the displacement
approach.
Note L.4
Page 31
5. THERMAL STRESS
Let us consider the additional stresses if the cylinder wall is subjected to a temperature gradient
due to an imposed internal wall temperature, T
1
, and an external wall temperature, T
o
. For this case
the following stresses and stress gradients are zero,
r
;
z
and
= 0 (5.1a,b,c)
rz
= 0 and
z
z
= 0 (5.1d, e)
NOTE: All boundary planes are planes of principal stress.
For this case the governing equations become:
Equilibrium
r
r
-
-
r
r
= 0 (5.2)
The strain equation can be applied to get
E
r
= E
u
r
=
r
-
-
z
+ ET (5.3a)
E
= E
u
r
=
-
r
-
z
+ ET (5.3b)
E
z
= E
w
z
=
z
-
r
-
+ ET (5.3c)
Compatibility
r

u
r
=
1
r

u
r
-
1
r

u
r
(5.4)
or from this with the expression for u/r and u/r,
-
r
-
z
+ ET =
1
r

r
-
-
z
+ ET -
1
r

-
r
-
z
+ ET (5.5)
=
1
r

r
-
r

r
-
=
1 +
r

r
-

and therefore,
-
r
= -
r
1 +

-
r
-
z
+ ET = r
r
r
(5.6)
from the
Equilibrium Condition
Note L.4
Page 32
or,
-
r
+
z
r
- E
T
r
=
r
r
(5.7)
or,

r
+
r
r
-
z
r
+ E
T
r
= 0 . (5.8)
Assumptions (
z
= constant so that it is independent of r)
z
r
= 0 or
w
2
rz
= 0 (5.9)
and therefore, differentiating Eq. 5.3c with respect to r
z
r
-
r
-
r
r
+ E
T
r
= 0 . (5.10)
Eliminating
z
/r from Eqs. 5.8 and 5.10 we get
r
+
r
r
-
2

r
-
2

r
r
+ E
T
r
+ E
T
r
= 0 (5.11a)
(1 - )
+
r
+ E
T
r
= 0 (5.11b)
By integration we get
+
r
+
E
(1 - )
T = Z (independent of r). (5.11c)
Let us solve the energy equation to get the wall radial temperature distribution:
2
T
r
2
+
1
r

T
r
= 0 (5.12a)
1
r

r
r
T
r
= 0 (5.12b)
T
r
=
b
r
(5.12c)
T = a + b lnr . (5.13)
5.1 Stress Distribution
Radial Stress
From Eq. 5.11c
+
r
+
ET
(1 - )
= Z . (5.14)
Note L.4
Page 33
From Eq. 5.2
-
r
- r
r
r
= 0 (5.15)
or by subtraction
2
r
+ r
r
r
+
ET
(1 - )
= Z (5.16)
or
1
r

r
r
2
r
+
E
(1 - )
(a + blnr) = Z (5.17)
By integration we get
r
2
r
+
Ear
2
2 (1 - )
+
Eb
(1 - )

r
2
lnr
2
-
r
2
4
=
Zr
2
2
+ B (5.18)
or
r
= A +
B
r
2
-
ET
2 (1 - )
(5.19)
where A = Eb/4(1 - ) + Z/2 and B is a constant with respect to r.
Tangential Stress
From Eq. 5.11c
= -
r
-
ET
(1 - )
+ Z = - A -
B
r
2

+
ET
2 (1 - )
-
ET
(1 - )
+ 2A -
Eb
2 (1 - )
(5.20)
= A -
B
r
2
-
ET
2 (1 - )
-
Eb
2 (1 - )
(5.21)
Axial Stress
1)
w
z
= 0
2) no axial load so that 2
z
rdr = 0
ri
ro
.
From Eq. 5.3c
z
=
+
r
- ET + E
z
(5.22a)
z
= 2A -
ET
(1 - )
-
Eb
2 (1 - )
- ET + E
z
= 2A -
Eb
2 (1 - )
-
ET
(1 - )
+ E
z

= 2A -
Eb
2 (1 - )
-
Ea
(1 - )
-
Eblnr
(1 - )
+ E
z
(5.22b)
Note L.4
Page 34
1) If
z
= 0 then from Eq. 5.22b
z
= 2A -
Eb
2 (1 - )
-
ET
(1 - )
(5.23)
NOTE: T = a + blnr
2) If no axial load so that 2
z
rdr = 0
ri
ro
;
or
Dr -
Ea
(1 - )
-
Eblnr
(1 - )
dr = 0
ri
ro
(5.24)
where D 2A - Eb/2(1 - ), and
z
= D -
ET
(1 - )
= D -
Ea
(1 - )
-
Eblnr
(1 - )
(5.25)
or
Dr -
E
(1 - )

r

ar
2
2
+
br
2
lnr
2
-
br
2
4
dr = 0
ri
ro
(5.26)
or

Dr
2
2
-
E
2 (1 - )
ar
2
+ br
2
lnr -
br
2
2

r
i
r
o
= 0 (5.27a)

Dr
2
2
-
E
2 (1 - )
r
2
T -
br
2
2

ri
ro
= 0 (5.27b)
D =
E
(1 - )

r
o
2
T
o
- r
1
2
T
1
r
o
2
- r
1
2
-
b
2
(5.27c)
and
z
=
E
(1 - )

r
o
2
T
o
- r
1
2
T
1
r
o
2
- r
1
2
-
b
2
- T (5.28)
5.2 Boundary Conditions
r = r
o
,
r
= 0, T = T
o
r = r
1
,
r
= 0, T = T
1
Therefore, from Eq. 5.19 at the inner and outer boundaries, respectively:
0 = A +
B
r
1
2
-
ET
1
2 (1 - )
(5.29a)
Note L.4
Page 35
0 = A +
B
r
o
2
-
ET
o
2 (1 - )
. (5.29b)
Solving Eqs. 5.29a,b obtain
B =
Er
o
2
r
1
2
T
1
- T
o
2 (1 - ) r
o
2
- r
1
2
(5.30a)
A =
E r
o
2
T
o
- r
1
2
T
1
2 (1 - ) r
o
2
- r
1
2
. (5.30b)
With regard to temperature, from Eq. 5.13, at the inner and outer boundaries, respectively:
T
1
= a + blnr
1
, T
o
= 1 + blnr
o
. (5.31a,b)
Solving Eqs. 5.31a,b obtain
b =
T
1
- T
o
ln
r
1
r
o
(5.32a)
a =
T
o
lnr
1
- T
1
lnr
o
ln
r
1
r
o
(5.32b)
5.3 Final Results
r
=
E
2 (1 - )

r
o
2
T
o
- r
1
2
T
1
+
r
o
2
r
1
2
r
2
T
1
- T
o
r
o
2
- r
1
2
- T (5.33a)
=
E
2 (1 - )

r
o
2
T
o
- r
1
2
T
1
+
r
o
2
r
1
2
r
2
T
1
- T
o
r
o
2
- r
1
2
-
T
1
- T
o
ln
r
1
r
o
- T (5.33b)
z
= 0, from Eq. 5.23
1)
z
=
E
2 (1 - )

2 r
o
2
T
o
- r
1
2
T
1
r
o
2
- r
1
2
-
T
1
- T
o
ln
r
1
r
o
- 2T (5.34)
2) No axial load
z
=
E
(1 - )

r
o
2
T
o
- r
1
2
T
1
r
o
2
- r
1
2
-
T
1
- T
o
2ln
r
1
r
o
- T (5.35)
Note L.4
Page 36
intentionally left blank
Note L.4
Page 37
6. DESIGN PROCEDURES
There are four main steps in a rational design procedure:
Step 1:
Determine the mode of failure of the member that would most likely take place if the loads
acting on the member should become large enough to cause it to fail.
The choice of material is involved in this first step because the type of material may
significantly influence the mode of failure that will occur.
NOTE: Choice of materials may often be controlled largely by general factors such as:
availability
cost
weight limitations
ease of fabrication
rather than primarily by the requirements of design for resisting loads.
Step 2:
The mode of failure can be expressed in terms of some quantity, for instance, the maximum
normal stress.
Independent of what the mode of failure might be, it is generally possible to associate the
failure of the member with a particular cross section location.
For the linearly elastic problem, failure can be interpreted in terms of the state of stress at the
point in the cross section where the stresses are maximum.
Therefore, in this step, relations are derived between the loads acting on the member, the
dimensions of the member, and the distributions of the various components of the state of stress
within the cross section of the member.
Step 3:
By appropriate tests of the material, determine the maximum value of the quantity associated
with failure of the member. An appropriate or suitable test is one that will produce the same action
in the test specimen that results in failure of the actual member.
Note L.4
Page 38
NOTE: This is difficult or even impossible. Therefore, theories of failure are formulated such
that results of simple tests (tension and compression) are made to apply to the more
complex conditions.
Step 4:
By use of experimental observations, analysis, experience with actual structures and machines,
judgment, and commercial and legal considerations, select for use in the relation derived in Step 2 a
working (allowable or safe) value for the quantity associated with failure. This working value is
considerably less than the limiting value determined in Step 3.
The need for selecting a working value less than that found in Step 3 arises mainly from the
following uncertainties:
1. uncertainties in the service conditions, especially in the loads,
2. uncertainties in the degree of uniformity of the material, and
3. uncertainties in the correctness of the relations derived in Step 2.
These considerations clearly indicate a need for applying a so-called safety factor in the design of a
given load-carrying member. Since the function of the member is to carry loads, the safety factor
should be applied to the loads. Using the theory relating the loads to the quantity associated with
failure desired in Step 2 and the maximum value of the quantity associated with failure in Step 3,
determine the failure loads which we will designate P
f
. The safety factor, N, is the ratio:
N =
P
f
P
w
=
failure load
working load
NOTE: If P
f
and P
w
are each directly proportional to stress, then
N =
w
The magnitude of N may be as low as 1.4 in aircraft and space vehicle applications, whereas in
other applications where the weight of the structure is not a critical constraint, N will range from 2.0
to 2.5.
6.1 Static Failure and Failure Theories
This section will treat the problem of predicting states of stress that will cause a particular
material to faila subject which is obviously of fundamental importance to engineers.
Note L.4
Page 39
Materials considered are crystalline or granular in nature. This includes metals, ceramics
(except glasses) and high-strength polymers.
The reason for the importance of crystalline materials is their inherent resistance to
deformation. This characteristic is due to the fact that the atoms are compactly arranged into a
simple crystal lattice of relatively low internal energy.
In this section we neglect the following types of failures:
creep failures which occur normally only at elevated temperature,
buckling and excessive elastic deflection, and
fatigue failure which is dynamic in nature.
Thus we limit ourselves to failures which are functions of the applied loads.
Definition: Failure of a member subjected to load can be regarded as any behavior of the member
which renders it unsuitable for its intended function.
Eliminating creep, buckling and excessive elastic deflection, and fatigue, we are left with the
following two basic categories of static failure:
1. Distortion, or plastic strainfailure by distortion is defined as having occurred when the
plastic deformation reaches an arbitrary limit. The standard 0.2% offset yield point is
usually taken as this limit.
2. Fracturewhich is the separation or fragmentation of the member into two or more parts.
I. Distortion is always associated with shear stress.
II. Fracture can be either brittle or ductile in nature (or a portion of both).
As tensile loading acts on an atomic structure and is increased, one of two events must
eventually happen:
Either the shear stress acting in the slip planes will cause slip (plastic deformation), or
The strained cohesive bonds between the elastically separated atoms will break down (brittle
fracture) with little if any distortion. The fractured surfaces would be normal to the applied
load and would correspond to simple crystallographic planes or to grain boundaries.
NOTE: The stress required for fracture ranges from about 1/5 to as little as 1/1000 of the
theoretical cohesive strength of the lattice structure because of sub-microscopic flaws or
dislocations.
Note L.4
Page 40
Many fractures are appropriately described as being partially brittle and partially ductile,
meaning that certain portions of the fractured surface are approximately aligned with planes of
maximum shear stress and exhibit a characteristic fibrous appearance, while other portions of the
fractured surface appear granular as in the case of brittle fracture and are oriented more toward
planes of maximum tensile stress.
NOTE: Tensile fractures accompanied by less than 5% elongation are often classed as brittle. If
the elongation is > 5% elongation, then the fracture is classed as ductile.
Brittle fractures often occur suddenly and without warning. They are associated with a release
of a substantial amount of elastic energy (integral of force times deflection) which for instance may
cause a loud noise. Brittle fractures have been known to propagate great distances at velocities as
high as 5,000 fps.
Primary factors promoting brittle fracture are:
a. low temperature increases the resistance of the material to slip but not to cleavage,
b. relatively large tensile stresses in comparison with the shear stresses,
c. rapid impact rapid rates of shear deformation require greater shear stresses, and these
may be accompanied by normal stresses which exceed the cleavage strength of the
material,
d. thick sections this "size effect" has the important practical implication that tests made
with small test samples appear more ductile than thick sections such as those used in
pressure vessels. This is because of extremely minute cracks which are presumably
inherent in all actual crystalline materials.
6.2 Prediction of Failure under Biaxial and Triaxial Loading
Engineers concerned with the design and development of structural or machine parts are
generally confronted with problems involving biaxial (occasionally triaxial) stresses covering an
infinite range or ratios of principal stresses.
However, the available strength data usually pertain to uniaxial stress, and often only to uniaxial
tension.
As a result, the following question arises: If a material can withstand a known stress in
uniaxial tension, how highly can it be safety stressed in a specific case involving biaxial (or triaxial)
loading?
Note L.4
Page 41
The answer must be given by a failure theory. The philosophy that has been used in
formulating and applying failure theories consists of two parts:
1. Postulated theory to explain failure of a standard specimen. Consider the case involving a
tensile specimen, with failure being regarded as initial yielding. We might theorize that
tensile yielding occurred as a result of exceeding the capacity of the materials in one or
more respects, such as:
a) capacity to withstand normal stress,
b) capacity to withstand shear stress,
c) capacity to withstand normal strain,
d) capacity to withstand shear strain,
e) capacity to absorb strain energy (energy associated with both a change in volume and
shape),
f) capacity to absorb distortion energy (energy associated with solely a change in
shape).
2. The results of the standard test are used to establish the magnitude of the capacity chosen
sufficient to cause initial yielding. Thus, if the standard tensile test indicates a yield
strength of 100 ksi, we might assume that yielding will always occur with this material
under any combination of static loads which results in one of the following:
a) a maximum normal stress greater than that of the test specimen (100 ksi),
b) a maximum shear stress greater than that of the test specimen (50 ksi),
cf) are defined analogously to a and b.
Hence, in the simple classical theories of failure, it is assumed that the same amount of whatever
caused the selected tensile specimen to fail will also cause any part made of the materials to fail
regardless of the state of stress involved.
When used with judgment, such simple theories are quite usable in modern engineering
practice.
6.3 Maximum Normal Stress Theory (Rankine)
In a generalize form, this simplest of the various theories states merely that a material subjected
to any combination of loads will:
Note L.4
Page 42
1. Yield whenever the greatest positive principal stress exceeds the tensile yield strength in a
simple uniaxial tensile test of the same material or whenever the greatest negative principal
stress exceeds the compressive yield strength.
2. Fracture whenever the greatest positive (or negative) principal stress exceeds the tensile
(or compressive) ultimate strength in a simple uniaxial tensile (or compressive) test of the
same material.
NOTE: Following this theory, the strength of the material depends upon only one of the principal
stresses (the largest tension or the largest compression) and is entirely independent of the
other two.
Hydrostatic
Compression
Hydrostatic
Tension
Uniaxial
Tension
Pure Shear
= S
yt
= S
yc
-
-
Figure 22. Principal Mohrs Circles for Several Stress States Representing Incipient Yielding
According to Maximum Normal Stress Theory (Note, for Pure Shear
1
=
2
= ).
NOTE: Each of the circles is a principal circle for the state of stress which it represents. This
theory implies that failure (in this case yielding) occurs when and only when the principal
Mohrs circle extends outside the dashed vertical lines given by S
yt
and S
yc
.
The failure locus for the biaxial stress state for yield according to the maximum normal-stress
theory is to be illustrated.
1,2
are the principal stresses. Yield will occur if either the compressive
yield strength, S
yc
, or the tensile yield strength, S
yt
, is exceeded by either of the principle stresses
1
or
2
. Hence, the maximum value of +
1
is S
yt
, +
2
is S
yt
, -
1
is S
yc
, and -
2
is S
yc
. These
maxima are plotted in Fig. 23, thus defining the failure locus as a rectangle. Failure is predicted for
those states that are represented by points falling outside the rectangle.
Note L.4
Page 43
NOTE: If use is made of S
ut
and S
uc
instead of S
yt
and S
yc
, the theory would have predicted
failure by fracture.
NOTE: In the 3D case we have to deal with a cube.
S
yt
2
S
yt
S
yc
S
yc
1

2

1
Failure Locus
Figure 23. Failure Locus for the Biaxial Stress State for the Maximum Normal-Stress Theory.
Failure for Brittle Material
2
Mohr's Theory
Maximum Normal-Stress Theory
1
S
uc
S
ut
S
ut
S
uc
Figure 24. Failure Locus for Mohrs Theory
NOTE: For most brittle materials the ultimate compressive strength exceeds the ultimate tensile
strength. The locus of biaxial stress states of incipient failure will be a square as shown
above, and "safe" stress will lie within this square. Mohrs theory (denoted by dashed
lines) is more conservative.
Note L.4
Page 44
It is often convenient to refer to an equivalent stress, S
e
(
e
), as calculated by some
particular theory.
NOTE: The equivalent stress may or may not be equal to the yield strength.
Mathematically, the equivalent stress based on the maximum stress theory is given by:
S
e
=
i max
i = 1, 2, 3 (6.1)
Applicability of Method
Reasonably accurate for materials which produce brittle fracture both in the test specimen
and in actual service such as: Cast iron, concrete, hardened tool steel, glass [Ref. 3, Fig. 6.8].
It cannot predict failure under hydrostatic compression (the state of stress in which all three
principle stresses are equal). Structural materials, including those listed above, can withstand
hydrostatic stresses many times S
uc
.
It cannot accurately predict strengths where a ductile failure occurs.
6.4 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (The Coulomb, later Tresca Theory)
The theory states that a material subjected to any combination of loads will fail (by yielding or
fracturing) whenever the maximum shear stress exceeds the shear strength (yield or ultimate) in a
simple uniaxial stress test of the same material.
The shear strength, in turn, is usually assumed to be determined from the standard uniaxial
tension test. Principle Mohrs circles for several stress states representing incipient yielding
according to maximum shear stress theory are shown in Fig. 25.
Uniaxial
Compression
Uniaxial
Tension
Pure Shear
= S
ys
=
S
y
2
= - S
ys
= -
S
y
2
Figure 25. Stress States for Yielding According to the Maximum Shear Stress Theory
Note L.4
Page 45
It was shown in connection with the Mohrs circle that,
max
=
1
2

1
-
2
, (6.2a)
where
max
occurs on faces inclined at 45 to faces on which the maximum and minimum principle
stresses act. Hence, in this failure theory, it is important to recognize
1
and
2
are the maximum
and minimum principle stresses, or
max
=
1
2

max
-
min
. (6.2b)
In the tensile test specimen,
1
= S
y
,
2
=
3
= 0, and thus:
max
=
1
2
S
y
. (6.3)
The assumption is then made that this will likewise be the limiting shear stress for more
complicated combined stress loadings, i.e.,
max
=
1
2
S
y
=
1
2

max
-
min
(6.4)
or
S
y
=
max
-
min
(6.5)
The failure locus for the biaxial stress state for the maximum shear stress theory is shown in
Fig. 26. This locus is determined as follows. There are three principal stresses involved,
1
,
2
and
3
(
3
is always equal to zero). In the first quadrant, along the vertical line,
1
>
2
>
3
, which
means that
1
=
max
and
3
.=
min
. Thus, the value of
2
is free to be any value between
1
and
3
, yielding the vertical line. Similarly, along the horizontal line in the first quadrant,
2
>
1
>
3
,
which means that
2
.=
max
.and
3
.=
min
. Thus, in this situation,
1
is free to be any value
between
2
and
3
, yielding the horizontal line. In Quadrant II,
1
.is a compressive stress. Hence,
this stress is now
min
. Thus, one now has the situation:
2
=
max
>
3
= 0 >
1
=
min
(6.6)
and direct application of the criterion
S
y
=
max
-
min
=
2
-

-
1

(6.7)
yields the diagonal line in Quadrant II. Similar arguments apply to Quadrants III and IV.
Note L.4
Page 46
yt
S
yt
S
yc
S
yc
S
2
Yield strength is
S in tension and
compression
y
y
S
y
S
y
S
y
S
2
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
45
Locus of
principal
axes
Pure shear
Figure 26. The Failure Locus for the Biaxial Figure 27. Pure Shear State Representation on
Stress State for the Maximum the Failure Locus for the Maximum
Shear-Stress Theory Shear-Stress Theory
NOTE: When
1
and
2
have like signs, the failure locus is identical to that of the maximum
stress theory.
NOTE: The boundaries of all principal Mohr circles not representing failure are the two
horizontal lines S
ys
(or S
us
). This theory predicts that failure cannot be produced
by pure hydrostatic stress.
The failure locus for the biaxial stress state is shown in Fig. 27. EF represents the shear
diagonal of the
1
-
2
plot, since it corresponds to the equation
1 =
-
2
which yields Mohrs
circle with
1
=
2
= which represents pure shear in the 1-2 plane. GH corresponds to
1
=
2
, which yields Mohrs circle as a point with = 0. Hence, GH represents the locus of
principal axes.
Applicability of Method
For ductile failure (usually yielding) steel, aluminum, brass. 15% error on the
conservative side.
6.5 Mohr Theory and Internal-Friction Theory
This theory suggests that Mohrs circles be drawn representing every available test condition
and that the envelope of these circles be taken as the envelope of any and all principal Mohr circles
representing stress states on the verge of failure.
Note L.4
Page 47
Figure 28 represents what might be called Mohrs theory in its simplest form where only
uniaxial tension and compression data are available, and where the envelope is assumed to be
represented by the two tangent straight lines.
In this form, the Mohr theory is seen to be a modification of the maximum shear-stress theory.
If both compression and tension data are available, the Mohr theory is obviously the better of the
two.
S
yt
S
yc
Uniaxial
Compression
Uniaxial
Tension
Figure 28. Mohrs Failure Theory for Uniaxial Tension and Compression
6.6 Maximum Normal-Strain Theory (Saint-Vanants Theory)
Failure will occur whenever a principal normal strain reaches the maximum normal strain in a
simple uniaxial stress test of the same material.
The principal normal strains have been written as follows in Eq. 2.4:
i
=
1
E

i
-
j
+
k
(6.8)
which for a biaxial stress state are
1
=
1
E

1
-
2
(6.9a)
2
=
1
E

2
-
1
(6.9b)
For failure in a simple tensile test, Eq. 6.9 reduces to
f
=
f
E
(6.10)
where
f
and
f
are taken in the uniaxial loading direction.
Note L.4
Page 48
Hence, taking
f
as S
y
, the failure criteria are
1
-
2
S
y
(6.11a)
2
-
1
S
y
(6.11b)
and
1
-
2
- S
y
(6.11c)
2
-
1
- S
y
(6.11d)
where failure is predicted if any one of the relations of Eq. 6.11 are satisfied.
NOTE: Unlike the previously considered theories, the value of the intermediate principal stress
influences the predicted strength.
The graphical representation of this failure theory is presented in Fig. 29.
This theory predicts failure in hydrostatic states of stress, i.e., ductile, which is not in agreement
with experimental evidence plus does not work well for brittle material failures. It is of historical
but not current importance.
S
y
-S
y
2
1
S
y
-S
y
Yield strength is S
in tension and
compression.
y
Figure 29. The Failure Locus for the Maximum Normal Strain Theory (for fixed ).
6.7 Total Strain-Energy Theory (Beltrami Theory)
The total amount of elastic energy absorbed by an element of material is the proper criterion
for its yielding. It is a forerunner to the important maximum distortion-energy theory discussed
next.
Note L.4
Page 49
6.8 Maximum Distortion-Energy Theory (Maximum Octahedral-Shear-Stress Theory, Van
Mises, Hencky)
Given a knowledge of only the tensile yield strength of a material, this theory predicts ductile
yielding under combined loading with greater accuracy than any other recognized theory. Where
the stress involved is triaxial, this theory takes into account the influence of the third principal
stress.
NOTE: Its validity is limited to materials having similar strength in tension and compression.
Equations can be developed from at least five different hypotheses! The most important of these
relate to octahedral shear stress and distortion energy. [see Ref. 3, p. 139 for a derivation based on
direct evaluation of distortion energy.]
We consider this theory as the maximum octahedral-shear-stress theory, i.e., yielding will
occur whenever the shear stress acting on octahedral planes exceed a critical value. This value is
taken as the octahedral shear existing in the standard tensile bar at incipient yielding.
The maximum octahedral-shear-stress theory is closely related to the maximum shear-stress
theory but may be thought of as a refinement in that it considers the influence of all three principal
stresses.
From
oct
=
1
3

1
-
2
2
+
2
-
3
2
+
3
-
1
2
1/ 2
(1.13b)
the octahedral shear stress produced by uniaxial tension, i.e., only
1
0, is
oct
=
2
3

1
. (6.12)
According to the theory, yielding always occurs at a value of octahedral shear stress established by
the tension test as
oct
(limiting value) =
2
3
S
y
. (6.13)
Thus, the octahedral shearing stress theory of failure can be expressed as follows by utilizing
Eqs. 6.13 and 1.13b:
S
y
=
2
2

1
-
2
2
+
2
-
3
2
+
3
-
1
2
1/ 2
. (6.14)
Equation 6.14 implies that any combination of principal stresses will cause yielding if the right side
of this equation exceeds the tensile test value of S
y
. This may be written alternatively as
2S
y
2
=
1
-
2
2
+
2
-
3
2
+
3
-
1
2
. (6.15)
Note L.4
Page 50
A variation of Eq. 6.14 which is sometimes useful involves the concept of an equivalent
uniaxial tensile stress,
e
, where
e
is the value of uniaxial tensile stress which produces the same
level of octahedral shear stress as does the actual combination of existing principal stresses, thus
e
=
2
2

1
-
2
2
+
2
-
3
2
+
3
-
1
2
1/2
(6.16)
Obviously, if the loads are such that
e
> S
y
, yielding would be predicted. For design purposes,
e
should be made equal to the allowable working uniaxial stress.
Case of Pure Biaxial Shear-Stress
Recalling Mohrs circle for this case, we have the principal stresses
1
= ,
2
= -,
3
= 0.
Substituting these values into Eqs. 6.14 or 6.16 gives
S
y
or
e
= 3 , (6.17)
This means that if >
S
y
3
= 0.577 S
y
, the material will yield. Hence, according to the maximum
octahedral-shear-stress theory, a material is 57.7% as strong in shear as it is in tension.
General Case of Biaxial Stress (
3
= 0)
Equation 6.16 reduces to
e
=
1
2
+
2
2
-
1
2
1/ 2
(6.18)
In many biaxial-stress problems it is more convenient to work directly with stress
x
,
y
and
xy
, because these can be determined more readily than principal stresses. Equation 6.18 can be
modified for this purpose by application of Eq. 1.8 to yield Eq. 6.19:
1
,
2
=
x
+
y
2

xy
2
+
x
-
y
2
2
(1.8)
e
=
x
2
+
y
2
-
x
y
+ 3
xy
2
1/ 2
(6.19)
Equation 6.19 can also be derived by superposition of Eqs. 6.17 and 6.18.
The locus of failure conditions for this failure theory is illustrated by the ellipse in Fig. 30.
NOTE: The theory can be independently developed from the maximum distortion-energy theory,
which postulates that failure (yielding) is caused by the elastic energy associated with this
distortion.
Note L.4
Page 51
45
1
Shear Diagonal
-0.577 S
S
-0.577 S
0.577 S
S
0.577 S
yt
yt
yt
yt
yt
yt
Figure 30. Failure Locus for the Biaxial Stress State for the Maximum Distortion Energy Theory
6.9 Comparison of Failure Theories
The failure theories are compared graphically for a biaxial state of stress in Fig. 31. From this
figure, it can be seen that:
The distortion energy and maximum shear stress theories predict similar results with the
shear stress theory being more conservative.
The maximum normal stress and maximum shear stress theories agree in the first and third
quadrants where the signs of the principal stresses are the same but not in the second and
fourth quadrants.
Biaxial strength data for a variety of ductile and brittle materials are shown in Fig. 32 with
several failure theory limits. From this figure it can be seen that experimental data supports:
- Maximum normal stress theory is appropriate for brittle behavior.
- Distortion energy or maximum shear stress theories is appropriate for ductile failure.
6.10Application of Failure Theories to Thick-Walled Cylinders
An examination of the cases
a) internally pressurized cylinder, and
b) externally pressurized cylinder
indicate that in both cases failure would be expected at the innermost fibers. Moreover, this
statement is true with respect to each of the aforementioned failure theories. Assuming zero axial
Note L.4
Page 52
f
-1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4
-1.0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
1.0
0
.
4
0
.
8
1
.
2
1
.
6
1
.
0
-
1
.
6
-
1
.
2
-
0
.
8
-
0
.
4
-
1
.
0
f
Maximum normal stress theory
Maximum shear theory
Maximum normal strain theory ( = 0.35)
Total strain energy theory ( = 0.35)
Distortion energy theory
Figure 31. Comparison of Failure Theories for a Biaxial State of Stress. (From Ref. 4, p. 123.)
1.0
-1.0
0 1.0
2
ult
1
ult
Brass
Cast iron
Cast iron
Maximum normal
stress theory
Brittle materials
1.0
-1.0
0 1.0
2
yp
1
yp
Ductile materials
Aluminum
Copper
Nickel
Steel
Mild Steel
Carburized Steel
Distortion
energy theory
Maximum shear
theory
Figure 32. Comparison of Biaxial Strength Data with Theories of Failure for a Variety of Ductile
and Brittle Materials. (From Ref. 3, p. 144.)
Note L.4
Page 53
stress (plane state of stress), the critical inner surfaces are subjected to uniaxial stress. For these
cases, the failure theories are, of course, in complete agreement as to the load intensity causing
failure.
Example 1:
Internally pressurized cylinder. Determine the internal pressure required to yield the inner
surface of a cylinder, where r
i
= 1 in., r
o
= 2 in., (t = 1 in.), and the material is steel with the
properties S
y
= 100 ksi and = 0.3. Assume plane stress.
Maximum stresses located at the inner surface are
t
= p
i

r
o
2
+ r
i
2
r
o
2
- r
i
2
= p
i

4 + 1
4 - 1
=
5
3
p
i
r
= - p
i
.
The predictions of the various failure theories are displayed as numbered curves on Fig. 33 for
a spectrum of geometries of internally pressurized cylinders. The specific results for several failure
theories for this example are as follows:
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

R
a
t
i
o
,

p

/
S
i
y
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Cylinder Proportion t/r
i
Cylinder Proportion r /r = (r + t)/r
i i i o
Thin-walled analysis. All failure
theories [initial and complete
yielding].
Max r theory curve
based on complete
yielding. p
i
S
y
=
r
r
i
(6) (5) (4)
(3)
(2)
(1)
1.0 at r/r =
i
Max
theory
1/(1 + ) at r/r =
i
i
0.577 at r/r = Max DE
theory
Max
theory
Max
theory
for = 0.3
Curves
based on
initial
yielding
0.5 at r/r =
i
Figure 33. Failure Predictions for Internally Pressurized Cylinder
Note L.4
Page 54
Curve (1)
According to the maximum shear-stress theory, yielding will begin when the highest shear
stress in the cylinder reaches that in the standard tensile test at initial yielding, which is S
y
/2. Thus,
max
=
S
y
2
or
t
-
r
2
= 50 ksi ,
4
3
p
i
= 50 ksi
or p
i
= 37.5 ksi .
Hence, for this case where t/r
i
= 1.0, p
i
/S
y
= 0.375. This value appears on Fig. 33.
Curve (2)
According to the maximum distortion-energy theory, yielding will begin when the equivalent
tensile stress at the inner cylinder wall reaches the tensile stress in the standard tensile test at initial
yielding, which is S
y
. Hence, using Eq. 6.18 and the known principal stresses:
e
= S
y
t
2
+
r
2
-
t
r
1/2
= 100 ksi
5
3
p
i
2
+ - p
i
2
- -
5
3
p
i
2
1/2
= 100 ksi
2.33 p
i
= 100 ksi
or p
i
= 43 ksi for t/r
i
= 1.0
Curve (4)
According to the maximum normal-stress theory, yielding will begin when the highest normal
stress in the cylinder reaches the highest normal stress in the standard tensile test at initial yielding,
which is S
y
. Hence,
t
= S
y
5/3 p
i
= 100 ksi
or the internal pressure required to yield the inner surface is
p
i
= 60 ksi for t/r
i
= 1.0.
For the full range of cylindrical geometries, p
i
can be determined for each theory and is presented
on Fig. 33.
Note L.4
Page 55
Example 2:
Strain-gage tests on the surface of a steel part indicate the stress state to be biaxial with
principal stresses of 35 ksi tension and 25 ksi compression. The steel has been carefully tested in
tension, compression and shear, with the results that S
yt
= S
yc
= 100 ksi and S
ys
= 60 ksi.
Estimate the safety factor with respect to initial yielding using the following failure theories:
Maximum normal-stress,
Maximum shear-stress,
Distortion-energy, and
Mohrs theory.
Evaluate briefly the relative merits of the four approaches.
Solution:
We assume that the safety factor should be computed on the basis of all stresses increasing
proportionally as the load is increased to failure. On this basis the load line has been extended
outward from the nominal load point until it intersects the limiting lines corresponding to each
failure theory.
NOTE: By simple proportion, we obtain the safety factor as the ratio by which the nominal
stresses can be increased before yielding is predicted.
a) Maximum Normal-Stress Theory
S
yt
35, -25
1
S
yt
= 100 ksi
S
yc
= -100 ksi
S
yc
Figure 34. Maximum Normal-Stress Theory
Yield will occur if either the compressive yield strength, S
yc
, or the tensile yield strength, S
yt
, is
exceeded by either of the principal stresses,
1
or
2
. Hence, the maximum value of +
1
is S
yt
,
+
2
is S
yt
, -
1
is S
yc
, and -
2
is S
yc
. Thus, for this problem:
Note L.4
Page 56
Safety Factor = min
S
yt
1
,
S
yc
2
= min
100
35
,
-100
-25
= min 2.86 , 4.00
= 2.86 2.9
b) Maximum Shear-Stress Theory
y
S
y
S
y
-S
y
-S
2
(35, -25)
Minimum distance to failure
(i.e., yielding)
1
,
2
yt
S =
yc
S = 100 ksi
y
S =
Need to find and
1

2
Figure 35. Maximum Shear-Stress Theory

For the failure locus in the fourth quadrant,
2
=
1
S
y
slope = 1. For the minimum
distance to failure line slope = -1.
NOTE: m m
= - 1 m
=
- 1
m
=
- 1
1
= -1
Thus, -1 =
y
x
=
- 25 -
2
35 -
1
At the point of intersection between the failure locus line and the minimum distance to failure line
(i.e., at
1
,
2
),
2
=
1
- S
y
. So:
-1 =
- 25 -
1
- S
y
35 -
1
-35 +
1
= -25 -
1
+ S
y
2
1
= 35 - 25 + S
y
S
y
= 100
1
=
35 - 25 + 100
2
= 55
Note L.4
Page 57
2
=
1
- S
y
= 55 - 100 = -45
max
max
-
min
2
=
55 - - 45
2
=
100
2
= 50
For
1
= 35 ksi,
2
= -25 ksi
max
= 30
Safety Factory =
max
max
=
50
30
= 1.67 1.7
Solutions for the distortion energy theory and Mohr theory are shown together with the
foregoing solutions in Fig. 36. Satisfactory accuracy can be obtained by drawing the partial ellipse
representing the distortion-energy theory as a careful freehand curve through the three known
points. The curve representing the Mohr theory is drawn similar to the distortion energy curve
except that it passes through a value of 60 on the shear diagonal instead of through 57.7.
1
Load Line
Shear Diagonal
35
-25
-57.7
-60
-100
55 6569 100
Nominal Load Point
Max theory
DE theory
Mohr theory
Max theory
Limiting
Points
-45
Figure 36. Failure Theories for Example 2 Conditions
NOTE: Only the lower right quadrant is needed, because of one tensile and one compressive
stress.
Note L.4
Page 58
Hence, the resulting safety factors for the failure theories examined are:
THEORY SAFETY FACTOR
Maximum Shear Stress 50/30 = 1.7 conservative
Distortion-Energy 65/35 = 1.9
Mohr 69/35 = 2.0 preferable
Maximum Normal-Stress 100/35 = 2.9 no basis for believing this factor
6.11Prediction of Failure of Thin-Walled Cylinders
Maximum Normal-Stress Theory
For a thin-walled cylinder
pR/t =
f
where
f
is as determined from a tension test.
Rearranging yields
p
f
=
1
R/t
. (6.20)
Maximum Shear-Stress Theory
For a thin-walled pressure vessel
max
=
max
-
min
2
=
1
2

f
.
For a thin-walled pressure vessel,
max
= pR/t,
min
= -p/2, thus
pR/t + p/2 =
f
, or
p
f
=
1
R/t + 1/2
(6.21)
Maximum Distortion-Energy Theory
According to this theory, failure occurs as expressed by Eq. 6.13 when the maximum
octahedral shear stress,
oct
, becomes equal to
2
3

f
. Hence, applying Eq. 1.13b we can write
oct
=
1
3

1
-
2
2
+
2
-
3
2
+
3
-
1
2
=
2
3

f
(6.22)
Now
1
= pR/t,
2
= pR/2t,
3
= -p/2
Note L.4
Page 59
Hence
1
3

pR
t
-
pR
2t
2
+
pR
2t
+
p
2
2
+ -
p
2
-
pR
t
2
=
2
3

f
(6.23)
When the terms on the left side of Eq. 6.23 are squared and like terms collected, the following
equation is obtained:
p
f
=
2
3
2

R
t
2
+
3
2

R
t
+
1
2
(6.24)
Figure 37 compares the foregoing results for p/
f
for various thin-walled cylinders, and shows that
the maximum shear-stress theory predicts the lowest value of pressure to cause failure and the
maximum distortion-energy theory the largest. The maximum normal-stress theory predicts
intermediate values.
NOTE: The maximum difference between the lowest and largest values of the failure pressure is
about 15%.
NOTE: For cylinders of brittle materials, the maximum normal-stress theory (curve (4) of Fig. 33
with S
y
replaced by S
u
) may be applied. It is obvious that brittle cylinders must be
designed with much larger safety factors than ductile cylinders, as failure involves
complete fracture, whereas ductile cylinders have a substantial plastic reserve between
initial (or small) yielding and fracture.
10
0
20
0.02
30
0.04
40
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
p
f

=

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
F
a
i
l
u
r
e

S
t
r
e
s
s
R
t
=
Intermediate Radius
Wall Thickness
Max. normal stress theory
Max. shearing stress theory
Max. octahedral shearing stress
(or distortion energy) theory
Maximum Internal Pressure in Closed-Ended Thin-Walled Circular Cylindrical
Pressure Vessel Predicted by Various Theories of Failure
Figure 37. Failure of Closed-End Circular Cylinder Pressure Vessels
Note L.4
Page 60
6.12Examples for the Calculation of Safety Factors in Thin-Walled Cylinders
Example:
The most stressed volume element of a certain load-carrying member is located at the free
surface. With the xy plane tangent to the free surface, the stress components were found to be
x
= 15,000 psi
y
= -2,000 psi
xy
= 7,000 psi
The load-stress relations for the member are linear so that the safety factor, N, can be applied either
to loads or stresses. Determine N if the member is made of a ductile metal with a tensile yield
stress of
e
= 44,000 psi.
NOTE: In general N
Yield Stress
Load Stress
. Hence, we can write N(Load Stress) Yield Stress.
1) Maximum Distortion-Energy Theory From Eq. 6.12 together with the definition of N we
obtain:
N
oct
=
2
3
S
y
For a uniaxial tensile test
e
= S
y
. Also,
oct
is given by Eq. 1.14b for stresses in the general x,
y, z directions. Hence, the above equation becomes:
N
3

x
-
y
2
+
y
-
z
2
+
z
-
x
2
+ 6
xy
2
+
xz
2
+
yz
2
2
1/ 2
=
2
3
(44,000)
For the given stress components obtain:
N
3
17,000
2
+ - 2,000
2
+ - 15,000
2
+ 6 7,000
2
=
2
3
(44,000)
N 812 10
6
= 2 (44,000)
N = 2.18
NOTE: This result can also be obtained directly from the result for a biaxial stress state,
Eq. 6.19 as:
N
x
2
+
y
2
-
x
y
+ 3
xy
2
1/2
=
e
N 15,000
2
+ - 2,000
2
+ 30 10
6
+ 3 7,000
2
1/2
= 44,000
N 406 10
6
= 44,000
N = 2.18
2) Maximum Shear-Stress Theory In order to use this theory it is necessary to determine the
three principal stresses. From Mohrs circle:
Note L.4
Page 61
1
=
x
+
y
2
+
x
-
y
2
2
+
xy
2
=
1
2
(13,000) +
1
4
(17,000)
2
+ (7,000)
2
= 6,500 + 11,010
= 17,510 psi
2
= 6,500 - 11,010
= - 4,510 psi
3
= 0
At failure the three principal stresses are:
1
= 17,510 N psi
2
= - 4,510 N psi
3
= 0
Now, from Eq. 6.5, which expresses the failure criterion for the maximum shear stress theory:
17,520 N + 4,510 N = 44,000
N 2
If the maximum distortion-energy theory is used, the loads can be increased by a factor of 2.18
before failure by general yielding. Assuming this is correct, the maximum shear-stress theory
of failure is conservative since it predicts smaller failure loads.
REFERENCES
[1] S.H. Crandall, N.C. Dahl and T.J. Lardner, An Introduction to the Mechanics of Solids,
McGraw-Hill, 2
nd
ed., 1972.
[2] P.L. Pfenningwerth, Stress Analysis with Applications to Pressurized Water Reactors,
Report #TID-4500 (16th Ed.), Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory, Pittsburgh, PA, January,
1963. Alternately, see Chapter 4 of J.F. Harvey, Theory and Design of Pressure Vessels,
Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1985.
[3] J.A. Collins, Failure of Materials in Mechanical Design Analysis, Prediction, Prevention,
Wiley, 1981.
[4] J. Marin, Mechanical Behavior of Engineering Materials, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.

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22.

313 THERMAL HYDRAULICS IN NUCLEAR POWER TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1 Tokamak and Power Cycle

Cylindrical Annular Fuel Pellet: Spherical Hollow Fuel Pellet :

See Table J-3

Each core has the same number of rods, N, since

Q, L and q are the

script. It is notable that this equation also

To find the location of Z

Where the rise velocity of the inertia controlled slug bubble u

is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc.

, is, by definition, given by the

Figure 21. Force Balance and Displacements in a Pressurized Cylinder.

and, finally, u is determined by the relation u = r

Figure 35. Maximum Shear-Stress Theory

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