Valoda 2012-1

DAUGAVPILS UNIVERSITTE HUMANITR FAKULTTE
VALODA 2012
Valoda dadu kultru kontekst

Zintnisko rakstu krjums
XXII
DAUGAVPILS UNIVERSITTES AKADMISKAIS APGDS SAULE
2012
VALODA 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst. Zintnisko rakstu krjums XXII. Daugavpils: Daugavpils Universittes Akadmiskais apgds Saule, 2012. 476 lpp.
Rakstu krjum Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst apkopoti zintniskie raksti, kuros atspoguoti Humanitrs fakulttes XXII zintnisko lasjumu refertu materili. Krjum iekauti raksti par latvieu, lietuvieu, krievu, angu, vcu u.c. valodas dadu lmeu pardbm: diahroniskie, arelie, sinhroniskie un kontrastvie ptjumi, tulkoanas, lingvokulturoloiskie un sociolingvistiskie jautjumi. Visus iesniegtos rakstus novrt un akcept recenzenti. Redakcijas kolija Ludmila BOGDANOVA (Maskavas Valsts universitte), Dirks BALDESS (Zrlandes Universitte), Alvds BUTKUS (Vtauta Di Universitte), Ina DRUVIETE (Latvijas Universitte), Zaiga IKERE (Daugavpils Universitte), Nataja JUNDINA (Daugavpils Universitte), Genovaite KAUKIENE (auu Universitte), Jelizaveta KOSTANDI (Tartu Universitte), Anatolijs KUZECOVS (Daugavpils Universitte), Valentna MASLOVA (Vitebskas Valsts universitte), Vilma AUDIA (Daugavpils Universitte). Atbildg redaktore Svetlana POLKOVIKOVA (Daugavpils Universitte). Redakcijas adrese Humanitr fakultte Vienbas iel 13 Daugavpils, LV-5400 e-pasts hf@du.lv
ISSN 1691-6042 ISBN 978-9984-14-6010 Daugavpils Universitte, 2012
LANGUAGE 2012. Language in Various Cultural Contexts. Collection of scientific articles XXII. Daugavpils: Daugavpils University Academic Press Saule, 2012. 476 p.
Language 2012. Language in Various Cultural Contexts contains research articles that were presented at the XXIInd Scientific Readings of the Faculty of the Humanities. This selection is devoted to phenomena of various levels in Latvian, Lithuanian, Russian, English, German etc. languages, and represents works in diachronic, areal, synchronic and contrastive linguistics. It also includes the issues on the research carried out into lingvo-cultural and sociolinguistic fields. All articles are submitted and assessed by our referees before being accepted for publication. Editorial Board Ludmila BOGDANOVA (Lomonosov Moscow state University), Dirk BALDES (Saarbrcken Universitt des Saarlands), Alvydas BUTKUS (Vytautas Magnus University), Ina DRUVIETE (Latvian University), Zaiga IKERE (Daugavpils University), Natalja JUNDINA (Daugavpils University), Genovait KAIUKIEN (iauliai University), Elizaveta KOSTANDI (Tartu University), Anatoly KUZNECOV (Daugavpils University), Valentina MASLOVA (Vitebsk University), Vilma AUDIA (Daugavpils University). Editor Svetlana POLKOVNIKOVA (Daugavpils University). Editorial Address Humanitr fakultte Vienbas iel 13 Daugavpils, LV-5400, Latvia e-pasts hf@du.lv
Saturs / Contents
DIAHRONIJA UN ARELIE PTJUMI Brigita BUMANE. Leksma aste latvieu valod (Lexeme aste in Latvian) ......................................................................... . (Interjections in Latgalian Dialects of Old Believers) .................................................................................. Kristne KUICKA. Mbeu nosaukumi Latgales pou valod (Furniture Denominations in the Language of Latgalian Poles) ........................................................................................ . (The Etymology of Word Formation of the Verb in Russian Dialects of Latgale) .................................................. Regina RINKAUSKIEN. Vietinink vartojimas XIX amiaus ratuose ryt auktaii tarme (The Usage of Locatives in 19th Century Texts Written in Eastern Auktaitian Dialect) ...... Elga SKRZMANE. Mancea debesis: frazeoloismi Postill. I (Phraseological Units with debes(i)s Heaven in Georg Manzels Lang-gewnschte Lettische Postill) ......................... Anna STAFECKA. Kalmes (Acorus calamus) nosaukumi Latvieu valodas dialektu atlant (Names for Acorus calamus in The Dialectal Atlas of Latvian ) ............................................ Inguna TEILNE. Emocionli ekspresvie vrdi Kalupes izloksnes vrdnc (Emotive Words in Dictionary of Kalupe Sub-Dialect) ................................................................ . (1529, 1566, 1588) (Set Phrases in Statutes of Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1529, 1566, 1588)) ............................................................................. 13
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KONTRASTVIE PTJUMI UN TULKOANAS JAUTJUMI Sintija BLUMBERGA. Ja Paklona devums tulkojumzintnes attstb Latvij (The Contribution of Jnis Paklons into the Development of Translation Science in Latvia) .................... Jana BUTNE-ZARJUTA. Ptjumi latvieu un krievu antroponmik (Studies of Latvian and Russian Person Names) ..................................................................................... Monta FARNESTE. Organization of Argumentative Essays in Latvian and English (Argumentatvo eseju struktra latvieu un angu valod) ....................................................................... Nedas JURGAITIS. Einige Aspekte der Konzeptualisierung der Krise im Deutschen und Litauischen (Some Aspects of the Conceptualization of Crisis in German and Lithuanian) ............ . : (Pragmatics of the Attributive Word-Combinations: Problems of Translations) ............................................................................. Dace LIEPIA. Types of Equivalence in the Transfer of Legal Terminology from Latvian into English (Ekvivalences veidi juridisko terminu prnes no latvieu valodas angu valod) ...... Ilze OEHNOVIA. Phraseological Terminology in Latvian and English Linguistics (Frazeoloijas terminoloija latvieu un angu valodniecb) .............................................................. Dina RUBENE. Leksmu ilgas un ilgoties semantisk analze Janua Vievska romn Vientulba tmekl un t tulkojum latvieu valod (The Semantic Analysis of the Lexemes longing and to long for in Yanush Vishnevskys Novel Loneliness in the Net and Its Translation in Latvian) ............................................................. Mra VALPTERE. Leksiskie un sintaktiskie atkrtojumi latvieu un norvu sarunvalod (Lexical and Syntactic Repetitions in Spoken Latvian and Norwegian) .........................
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Jnis VECKRCIS. Josifa Brodska dzejoi atdzejojumos latvieu un angu valod: frazeoloismu funkcionli semantisk ekvivalence (Translations of Joseph Brodskys Poems into Latvian and English: Functional and Semantic Equivalence of Phraseologisms) ........................................................................ 141 SINHRONIJA: FONTISKAIS UN GRAMATISKAIS ASPEKTS Laimut BUIEN. Atributiniai vietos junginiai (Attributive Word Phrases of Place in Lithuanian) ........................................ Vida ESNULIEN. Laiko konjunkcija mokslinio ir publicistinio stiliaus tekstuose (Temporal Conjunction in the Texts of Scientific and Publicistic Style) .................................................. Vidas KAVALIAUSKAS. Dl lietuvi kalbos paprastj daiktavardi dumblas, gandras, rakandas, urvas kiriavimo realiosios vartosenos (On Actual Usage of Accentuation of Lithuanian Simple Nouns dumblas, gandras, rakandas, urvas) .... . : (Russian : pragmatical aspect) ............................ Regna KVATE. Lietuvas un Latvijas vietvrdu atveides gramatiskie aspekti (Grammatical Aspects of Rendering Lithuanian and Latvian Toponyms) .......................................... Inga LAIZNE. Akuzatvs latvieu valodas k svevalodas apguv (Accusative Case in Acquisition of Latvian as Second Language) ................................................................................. Anda MEISTERE. Lietvrda dzimtes izpratne pirms paaudzes latvieu valodas mcbgrmats (Comprehension of Genders of Nouns in the First Generation of Latvian Language Text Books) .............................................................................. Veronika RUA. Latvieu valodas daji lokm divdabja un nelokm divdabja ar -ot(ies) veidots reduplikatvs konstrukcijas (Reduplicative Constructions Created by Means of the Partially Declinable Participle and the Indeclinable Participle Ending in -ot(ies) in Latvian) .................. 150
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. - (The Morpheme - as Evidence of Intralinguistic Interaction Between Lexical Semantics and Grammatical Categories) ................................... 216 Dzintra ULCE. Lielie skumburti latvieu valod: vsturiskais aspekts (Capital Letters in the Latvian Language: The Hictorical Aspect) .............................................................. 223 Jurga TRIMONYT BIKELIEN. Lietuvi liaudies dainyno refren struktra (Lithuanian Folk Songbook Refrain Structure) .................................................................................. 230 SINHRONIJA: LINGVOKOGNITVAIS, LINGVOKULTUROLOISKAIS UN SOCIOLINGVISTISKAIS ASPEKTS Teres ALEKNAVIIT. Multimodality: A Theoretical Overview (Multimodalumas: teorin apvalga) ......................... Natalja CIGANKOVA, Zigrda VINELA. Specialised Corpora Structural and Functional Variability in Sociolinguistic Studies of Variation in English (Specializto korpusu strukturl un funkcionl variabilitte angu valodas variatvuma sociolingvistiskaj izpt) ....................................... Ona Laima GUDZINEVIIT. Lietuvi kalbos substantiva communia kalbos etiketo poiriu (Language Etiquette Aspects of Lithuanian Substantiva Communia) ......................... Nataja JUNDINA. Zur Geschichte des Fremdwortbegriffes (Of the Term Foreign Word History) ........................................ Kerttu KIBBERMANN. English in the Education Systems of Estonia and Latvia: An Overview of Language Attitudes of Students (Angu valoda Igaunijas un Latvijas izgltbas sistm: ieskats studentu attieksms) ......................................... Elna KRASOVSKA. Metonmijas mijiedarbba ar citiem tropiem: I Visprjo latvieu dziesmu svtku plakts (Metonymy in Interaction with Other Tropes: The Poster of the First Latvian National Song Festival) ................................... 8 238
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-. (The Impact of Bilingualisms on the Spontaneous Speech of Russian Speaking migrs of Distant Countries) ........ Lina MURINIEN. Lithuanian Language Etiquette: Inherited and Borrowed Greetings and Farewell Formulas (Lietuvieu valodas etiete: mantots un aizgts sasveicinans un atvadans formulas) ............................................................... . (Wedding Communication in Russian and Serbian Linguo-Cultures) ......... . (The Verbalization of Emotional Concept Joy in the Russian Language) .................................. Jeena TRETJAKOVA. Metaphor Study: Cognitive Linguistic Approach (Metaforas izpte: kognitvs lingvistikas pieeja) ....... . (Ways to Transform Precedent-Related Phenomena in Modern Russian Media and Advertising Texts) ......................... SINHRONIJA: LEKSISKAIS, SEMANTISKAIS UN STILISTISKAIS ASPEKTS
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. : (The Magic of Words: Efficient Communication) ....................................................................... 342 Hans-Harry DRIGER. Es war einmal... Grimms Mrchen und die interkulturelle Kommunikation (Once upon a time... Grimms Fairy Tales and the Intercultural Communication) ....................................................................... 352 , . (Speech Stereotypes and Clichs in the Russian-Speaking Periodical Press of Belarus) ........................................................ 363
. : (The Word Rossiyane in Contemporary Russian Speech: The Semantic and Pragmatic Aspects) ....................................... Jeena JERMOLAJEVA. Jaunieu literr dairade krievu valod (Youths Creative Writing in Russian: Professional Support) ..... Genovait KAIUKIEN, Irena KRUOPIEN. Leksikos ypatumai Mykolo Kariausko poezijoje (Lexical Characteristics of Mykolas Kariauskas Poetry) ....................... Velga LAUGALE. Pirmsskolas izgltbas iestu simboliskie nosaukumi (Symbolic Names of Preschool Educational Institutions) ............................................................................... Nijol LITEVKIEN. Anatomical Terms in J. Basanaviius Manuscript and Medega musu tautiszkai vaistinykystai (Anatomijos terminai J. Basanaviiaus rankratyje ir Medega musu tautiszkai vaistinykystai) ..................................... Ilga MIGLA. Frazeoloismi Via Lca romn Stroika ar skatu uz Londonu (Phraseological Units in the Novel by Vilis Lctis Stroika ar skatu uz Londonu) ............................. ivil NEMICKIEN. Ambiguity of Temporal Adverbials in Written Form of the Language (Dviprasmikumo faktorius laiko prieveiksmiuose raytinje kalboje) ................................... . (Intermediate Categories in Modern Russian Lexicon) .................................... . (Individual Sports Nicknames) .................................................. Svetlana POLKOVIKOVA. Valodniecbas rakstu nosaukumi (Titles of Articles in Linguistics) ................................................ Irita SAUKNE. Okazionlismi daos Latvijas radio raidjumos: semantiski derivatvais aspekts (Occasionalisms in Some Latvian Radio Programmes: Semantically Derivative Aspect) .... Olga SHOSTAKA. The Relationship between Language and Literary Context in Some of Ernest Hemingways Short Stories (Saikne starp valodu un literro kontekstu daos Ernesta Hemingveja sststos) ................................................... 10
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Valentna TAERKO. Die Gestaltung des Dialogs im frhen prosaischen Schaffen von Th. Storm (The Formation of the Dialoque in the Early Prose of Th. Storm) ........................... 462 Vidas VALSKYS. Vietininko vartosenos religinio pobdio tekstuose ypatumai (Usage Peculiarities of the Locative Case in Religious Texts) .................................................................... 470
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Brigita BUMANE
(LU Latvieu valodas institts)
Leksma aste latvieu valod

Atslgvrdi: leksika, semantika, izloksne, lietojums Somatisk leksika, t. i., vrdi, kuri apzm kdu cilvka vai dzvnieka ermea dau, ptniekiem ir saistoa vairku iemeslu d: 1) t prstv vienu no veckajiem leksikas sliem, 2) tai (it pai izloksns) raksturgs semantisks sazarojums, 3) ermea dau nosaukumi biei sastopami stabilajos vrdu savienojumos, frazeoloismos, toponmos. Latvieu valodniecb ldz im plak ir ptti vietvrdi ar komponentu aste [Laumane 1987, Rapa 2008, Rapa 2011], frazeoloismi ar vrdu acs [Kagaine, Rae 2003], balstoties uz folkloras un valodas materiliem, apzinta un atklta vrda kja daudznozmba un funkcionana dads sfrs, apkopoti mjvrdi, uzvrdi, augu, dzvnieku, personu, priekmetu un citi nosaukumi ar o vrdu [Laumane 2011], k ar atsevii ptjumi veltti saliktenim mrkja [Laumane 1995] un frazeoloismam iet uz lelles kju [Laumane 2004]. Vrds aste ietilpst mantotaj leksikas sln. J. Endzelns to nedroi saistjis ar ass scharf, sl. ost, liet. utas, atas eine Pferdehaar vom Schweif u. c. [ME I 145]. K. Karulis, balstoties ar uz dau citu valodnieku atzim, pieauj, ka, iespjams, vrdam aste ir cita cilme: no ide. *ost(h)kauls, nordot uz iespjamo vrda nozmes attstbu: kauls astes kauls (kauli) aste [sk. LEV I 8081]. Lietvrds aste k literraj valod, t izloksns ir polismisks. Literrs valodas vrdncs [LLVV I 333, LVV 100, MLVV] vrojamas nelielas atirbas nozmju resp. nozmju nianu izkrtojum un skaidrojum. LLVV vrdam aste reistrtas divas nozmes un trs nozmju nianses: 1) saaurints mugurkaula turpinjums. // dau bezmugurkaulnieku ermea pakaj daa (ar nesaaurinta); 2) pakaj, pagarint daa (piem., priekmetam, iercei). // no komtas izplstoo gzu veidojums. // sar. nobeigums, beigu daa (piem., gjienam, kolonnai, rindai). Divas nozmes (bez nozmju niansm) ar atirgu skaidrojumu fikstas ar LVV: 1) kustgs izaugums mugurkaula turpinjum dzvnieku ermea pakaj da; dau dzvnieku ermea saaurint pakaj daa; ar spalvu, 13
Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst
saru puis dzvnieku ermea pakaj da; 2) priekmeta saaurint beigu daa; sar. nobeigums, beigu daa (rindai, kolonnai u. tml.). Nedaudz detaliztk vrda semantisk struktra atklta MLVV, kur mintas trs nozmes un divas nozmju nianses: 1) saaurints mugurkaula turpinjums (dzvniekiem). // matu sakrtojums pakaus sasieti, nesavti mati; 2) pakaj, pagarint daa (piem., priekmetam, iercei); 3) sar. nobeigums, beigu daa (gjienam, kolonnai, rindai). // darba daa, kas palikusi nepadarta, nepabeigta. Var secint, ka ajs vrdncs otr nozme pakaj, pagarint daa (piem., priekmetam, iercei) resp. priekmeta saaurint beigu daa ir visprinta, par ko liecina ar irkos ietvertais ilustratvais materils. Bet kop 20. gs. 70. gadiem publictajs izloku vrdncs s visprints nozmes viet ir izdaltas atsevias patstvgas nozmes, k ar reistrtas vl citas konkrtas vrda aste nozmes. Tpc tajs nozmju skaits, saldzinot ar mintajm vrdncm, ir lielks. Ts sniedz vairkas liecbas par vienu no izplattkajiem un daudzveidgkajiem nosaukuma prnesumu tipiem: cilvka vai dzvnieka ermea daa priekmets, priekmeta daa. Izloku vrdncs resp. materilos vrdam aste bez pamatnozmes saaurints mugurkaula turpinjums ir reistrtas vl das nozmes resp. nozmju nianses: trpa, aprba gabala pagarinjums mugurpus Vainios [VIV I 51]. // trpa pagarinjums mugurpus; frakas pagarint mugurdaa rem [IV I 102]. // dekoratvs kleitas vai svrku mugurpuses pagarinjums Kalup [KIV I 115] u. c.; auanai sagatavotu velku beigu daa rem [IV I 102] u. c.; uz velku kokiem uzvilkta auduma pdjais posms Kalup [KIV]; sal. Jeros (aude klu sauc par asti, kad tuo uzgrie uz liel buomja) [EH I 131]); saaurint pakaj daa (piem., priekmetam, iercei) rem [IV I 102]. // saaurinta pakaj daa (priekmetam, zvejas rkam) Vainios [VIV]. // zvejas rku (tklu) saaurint daa Nc u. c.; miea akots Jeros; garks spalvas putna muguras pakaj da rem [IV I 102]; trijbria gala koks, ar kuru to spie pie grunts Kalup [KIV]; vrpjam ratia pamatda iedzts apa koci, ar kuru regul ritea stingrumu Kalup [KIV]. // vrpjam ratia skrve Aglon; ietaise garu koku veanai Dkst; 14
Brigita BUMANE. Leksma aste latvieu valod
senk gludeka daa Lutrios; plosta pdj daa Sinol; rinda, ar rindas beigu gals Vainios [VIV]; tas, kas ir beigs; pdjais Nc; brns (parasti vairki brni); ar brnu saisttie pienkumi, rpes rem [IV I 102]. // brns un ar to saisttie pienkumi, rpes Vainios [VIV] u. c.; aura zemes (parasti pavas) josla, piem., rem [IV I 102], Stend. Aplkotais materils ttad liecina par detaliztku nozmju resp. nozmju nianu atspoguojumu izloku leksikogrfiskajos avotos. E. Kagaine ptjum par semantiskajiem dialektismiem ir nordjusi, ka robeu noteikana, kad konkrtais lietojums no visprints nozmes.. btu izdalms k patstvgs leksiski semantiskais variants, ir zinm mr relatva [Kagaine 1992: 79]. Praks par kritriju tiek atzta nozmes lietojuma stabilitte saistjum ar kdu konkrtu priekmetu vai t dau, k ar tas faktors, ka kdam no iem leksiski semantiskajiem variantiem ir dialektla termina raksturs [turpat]. Jatzst, ka vrdam aste izloksns ir termina raksturs tas nosauc dadus apkrtjs vides priekmetus, relijas, ar jdzienus. Konkrto nozmju atspoguojums izloku vrdncs turklt, k secinjusi E. Kagaine, ir svargs ne tikai semantikas attstbas virzienu izptei, bet var sniegt faktu materilu citas ievirzes ptjumiem, piem., semantisko paralu veidoans jautjumiem nomincijas proces [turpat]. Vrds aste ldzgi k citi ermea dau nosaukumi ir biei sastopams vietvrdos, kas pieder pie visarhaiskkajiem toponmiem un saistmi ar cilvces pirmatnjo skatjumu uz pasauli [Rapa 2008: 147]. Vietvrdiem ar komponentu aste izvrstus ptjumus ir veltjuas valodnieces B. Laumane un S. Rapa (pc S. Rapas aplsm, LU Latvieu valodas institta vietvrdu kartotk ir 550 toponmu ar o vrdu, no tiem lielk daa ir pavu nosaukumi [Rapa 2011: 266, 272, Rapa 2008: 148]). Tie sniedz detaliztu s fizioeogrfisks leksikas grupas apskatu dados aspektos galvenokrt semantisk, arel un statistisk skatjum. Piemram, S. Rapa ir konstatjusi, ka toponmisk leksma aste visvairk izplatta Kurzem, pai dziajs lbisk dialekta izloksns, un pieauj, ka varbt is vietvrdu komponents latvieu valod vismaz daji nostiprinjies somugru valodu ietekm [Rapa 2008: 154155]. Leksikogrfisk skatjum uzmanbu saista S. Rapas atzia, ka, analizjot onomastisks vrdkopas un salikteus, k ar vietvrdu vkanas 15
ekspedcijs iegtos komentrus, atkljs vairkas leksmas aste nozmes nianses jeb smas, kas nav mintas LLVV vrda aste nozmju skaidrojum. S. Rapa ir konstatjusi toponmisks leksmas aste astoas smas, nordot, ka viena no tm saistta ar vrdncs doto sekundro vrda aste nozmi gals, pakaj, attlk daa [Rapa 2008: 149150]. o smu, k liecina izloku dotumi, ietver ar daas apelatva nozmes resp. nozmju nianses, piem., auanai sagatavotu velku beigu daa, plosta pdj daa, rindas beigu gals. Izloku leksika atklj ar S. Rapas minto smu gar (sal., piem., trpa, aprba gabala pagarinjums mugurpus, garks spalvas putna muguras pakaj da), k ar smu aurs (sal., piem., saaurint pakaj daa (piem., priekmetam, iercei), zvejas rku saaurint daa). Ttad semantisk aspekt izloksns reistrtajm vrda aste nozmm atbilsmes var rast onomastiskaj materil. atzia savukrt ir vl viens arguments nepiecieambai izloku vrdncs atspoguot konkrts vrda nozmes. Ar komponentu aste izloksns ir fikstas daudzas stabilas vrdkopas, ar saliktei, kas apzm konkrtus priekmetus, pardbas, jdzienus, piem., astes ugune (ar pleis) apgaismoanas ietaise pie neliela dla piestiprints vjlukturis, ko novieto jr izmestas zvejas tklu virknes (jedas) beigs Nc, astes zvaigzne komta Kazdang, Kursos, Nc, Stend u. c., cku aste vienkrs audekls Pl. Vrds aste k literraj valod, t izloksns sastopams vairkos augu nosaukumos. Pc I. delmanes un . Ozolas apkopotajiem materiliem [delmane, Ozola 2007: 18; 2003; piebilstams, ka aj apkopojum ietverti rakstu avotos reistrtie augu nosaukumi, k ar I. delmanes vkumi izloksns], tas ir konstatts piecos augu nosaukumos. Latvieu izloku leksikas kartotk sastopami vl citi augu nosaukumi ar komponentu aste. Vrds aste ir izplatts ar frazeoloismos (to skaits izloksns sniedzas pri 50), kas tpat k vietvrdi, kas raduies no ermea dau nosaukumiem, pieder pie valodas veck sla. Gan frazeoloismu, gan stabilo vrdkopu, ar salikteu ar komponentu aste izpte vartu sniegt jaunas atzias par somatiskajm leksmm latvieu valod.
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Brigita BUMANE. Leksma aste latvieu valod LITERATRA delmane, I., Ozola, . Latvieu valodas augu nosaukumi. Rga, 2003. 494 lpp. delmane, I., Ozola, . Latvieu valodas augu nosaukumi. Pielikums. Augu nosaukumu alfabtiskais rdtjs. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2007. 223 lpp. EH Endzelns, J., Hauzenberga, E. Papildinjumi un labojumi K. Mlenbaha Latvieu valodas vrdncai. 1.2. sj. Rga, 19341946. IV Kagaine, E., Rae, S. remes izloksnes vrdnca. 1.3. sj. Rga: Zintne, 19771983. Kagaine, E. Semantiskie dialektismi Ziemerietumvidzemes izloksns. Rga: Zintne, 1992. 295 lpp. Kagaine, E., Rae, S. Daas paralles latvieu valod un kaimivalods somtisko frazeoloismu veidoan. No: Silvija Rae. Darbu izlase. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2003, 208.235. lpp. KIV Rena, A. Kalupes izloksnes vrdnca. 1.2. sj. Rga: Latvieu valodas institts, 1998. Laumane, B. Daas Lejaskurzemes toponmu vrddarinanas un semantikas patnbas. No: Onomastikas apcerjumi. Rga: Zintne, 1987, 125.169. lpp. Laumane, B. Kurzemes mrkja viens no infernlo radjumu nosaukumiem. No: Latvijas Zintu Akadmijas Vstis. A. 1995. 1./2. nr., 45.58. lpp. Laumane, B. Latvieu izloku frazeoloisms iet uz lelles kju. No: Mana novada valoda. Lejaskurzeme. Liepja: LiePA, 2004, 197.211. lpp. Laumane, B. Kja un mrkja: vrda lietojuma lauks. Liepja: Liepjas Universitte, 2011. 129 lpp. LEV Karulis, K. Latvieu etimoloijas vrdnca. 1.2. sj. Rga: Avots, 1992. LLVV Latvieu literrs valodas vrdnca, 1.8. sj. Rga: Zintne, 1972 1996. LVV Latvieu valodas vrdnca. Rga: Avots, 2006. ME Mlenbahs, K. Latvieu valodas vrdnca. Redijis, papildinjis, turpinjis J. Endzelns. 1.4. sj. Rga: Kultras fonds, 19231932. MLVV Pieejams: http://www.tezaurs.lv/mlvv Rapa, S. Vlreiz par astm latvieu toponmij. No: Vrds un t ptanas aspekti. Rakstu krjums. 12(1). Liepja: LiePA, 2008, 147.158. lpp. Rapa, S. ermea dau nosaukumi latvieu eogrfisks nomenklatras vrdos. No: Vrds un t ptanas aspekti. Rakstu krjums. 15(1). Liepja: LiePA, 2011, 265.273. lpp VIV damsons, E., Kagaine, E. Vainiu izloksnes vrdnca. 1.2. sj. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2000.
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Lexeme aste in Latvian Summary

The somatic vocabulary, i. e. words denoting a specific human or animal body part, is attractive to researchers for several reasons: 1) it represents one of the oldest vocabulary layers; 2) its peculiarity is semantic divergence, especially in regional sub-dialects; 3) names of body parts appear frequently in fixed word groups, phraseological units and toponyms. In the dictionaries of Standard Latvian [LLVV, LVV, MLVV] there are slight differences in the arrangement and explanation of meanings or meaning shades of the inherited word aste tail; brush; scut; train (about its origin cf. ME I 145, LEV I 8081). The semantics of this word is revealed in a more detailed way in dialect dictionaries published since the 1970s. Its generalized meaning prolonged rear part (e.g. of an object or a device) has been replaced by separate independent meanings, and some other particular meanings have been recorded. Therefore these dictionaries are presenting a larger number of meanings than the aforementioned. They certify one of the most widespread and manyfold types of name transfers, namely, human or animal body part object, part of an object. The following meanings or meaning shades of the word aste have been recorded in dialect dictionaries resp. materials beside its basic meaning narrowed extension of the backbone: extension of a piece of dress, clothes at backside // extension of a dress at backside; prolonged rear part of dress-coat // decorative backside extension of a dress or coat; end portion of warp prepared for weaving // last section of fabric put on warp beams; narrowed rear part (e. g. of an object or a device) // narrowed section of fishing-tackle (nets); barley awn; longest feathers at the rear part of birds back; end beam of creel for pressing it to ground; small round plug driven into the basement of spinning-wheel to adjust tightness of the wheel; appliance for transporting long beams; part of the oldest flat-iron; last part of a float; queue, also very end of a queue; what occurs at the end; the last; child (usually many children); duties, trouble due to children; narrow stripe of land (usually meadow). In Latvian, the word aste is a widespread component in toponyms, phraseological units, fixed word groups as well as compounds.
18

( )

: , , , , , , [ 1972: 584]. . , , , . .. , , , , [ 2002: 130]. , , , , . , , . , .. [ 2011]. , . , , , . , [ 1972: 584]. , , . 19
[ 1972: 588]. , ( , ..). , ( [ 2002: 132] ). , . , , . , , ( ) , , , . , . . , , : . , , , . , , , , , . , . , , , . . 20
, ! , : , , , .. , , , , . , , , ! , , , , ( ). , ! : , , ! , ! , : , , , , , , ! (, , ). , ! , ! ! , . ! , , , ! ! , , ? ! , , , , , , . , . , , , , -. .. [ 2011: 8]. .. , , [ 2009: 9, 12]. , ! , , , ! ! , , . 21
! , , . , -! , , , , , , -, ! , -! , , , , , ! , -! , , , -, , ! -! , -! , .. , , , , - . ! ! , , , , . ! . ! , , , , , , ! ! . , , ! ! : , ? , -! , , -! ! , , . ! : , ! , - ! , , , -! , ! / ! , , , , ! , , , , , ! 22
! , , , . , -! , , -! ! , , . ! , ! , ! , [ 2004: 408] ! , , , ! ! , ! . ! ! ! . , . , , , . , . , , , . -, , . , , . , . -, .
, .. ( ). , 1972. , .., .., .. . . 10 . , 2002. , .., .., .. . , 2004.
23
Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst , .. ( ). . . . . . . , 2011. , .. ( ). .: . , 2009.
Interjections in Latgalian Dialects of Old Believers Summary

The article describes interjections with main words and , the material was registered from old believers living in Latgalian villages. The author analyzes interjections with emotional, imperative and etiquette functions. These interjections are very frequent, go back to ancient vocative and today they are good social markers, e.g.: , !, ! (We say, Good Lord, save me! But old believers say, God keep!)
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Kristne KUICKA
(Daugavpils Universitte)
Mbeu nosaukumi Latgales pou valod

Atslgvrdi: pou valoda, periferilais dialekts, mbeu nosaukumi, dialektl leksika Katrai valodai ir savs vrdu krjums. Tpat valodas dialektiem, kuri lielko dau leksikas dala ar normto valodu, ar piemt tikai tiem raksturga leksika. Dialektli specifisko leksiku galvenokrt veido aizguvumi (no kontaktvalodm un dialektiem), arhaismi, k ar visprlietojams leksikas dialektlie varianti. Veicot leksikas izpti, var aprakstt dialekt notiekoos procesus un izdart secinjumus par tiem. aj rakst tiks apskatta dialektl leksika, kas saistta ar mbeu nosaukumiem divs Latgales pilsts dzvojoo pou run, tiks analizta s leksikas izcelsme, ts fontisks un morfoloisks patnbas, k ar secints par izmaiu cloiem. Poi ir viena no lielkajm Latvijas, un it pai Latgales, nacionlajm minorittm, kura piecu gadsimtu laik ir liel mr asimiljusies ar vietjiem iedzvotjiem. Saska ar 2000. gada tautskaites rezulttiem Latvij dzvoja 59 505 pou tautbas iedzvotji, tas veidoja 2,5% no iedzvotju kopskaita. 2011. gada tautas skaitana pardja, ka pou kopskaits ir samazinjies gandrz par 25% (44 783), tomr, emot vr iedzvotju skaita samazinanos valsts mrog, poi joprojm veido 2,2% no Latvijas iedzvotjiem [CSP 2012]. ptjuma vajadzbm veikto interviju viets Daugavpil un Rzekn 2000. gad dzvoja attiecgi 17 209 (14,6%) un 1056 poi (2,7%) [CSP 2000]. Dieml Centrl statistikas prvalde vl nav publiskojusi datus par o pilstu nacionlo sastvu 2011. gad. Kopum Latgal pc 2006. gad veikt ptjuma datiem dzvoja 24 423 pou tautbas iedzvotji (10,4%) [Kruczewski 2007: 52], bet pc 2011. gada tautas skaitanas datiem 23 449 pou tautbas iedzvotji (7%) [CSP 2012]. Ldzinjie nedaudzie ptjumi, kas veltti Latvij lietotajai pou valodai, auj to uzskatt par pou valodas ziemeu periferil dialekta dau, kur prsvar figur msdienu Baltkrievijas un Lietuvas teritorij [Ostrwka 2005: 97, Kara 1995: 37]. is dialekts ir vsturiski attstjies cie kontakt ar krievu, baltkrievu un baltu valodm, k ar ilgu laiku ir bijis irts no tieas saskarsmes ar literro pou valodu. T k Lietuv un Baltkrievij 25
izmantot pou valoda ir labi dokumentta un aprakstta, pilnai dialekta ainas izveidei ir nepiecieams padziinti ptt ar Latvijas pou valodu. aj rakst apskatt dialektl leksika ir tikai pavisam neliela plaka Latgales pou valodas ptjuma daa, kas dniedz visprgu priekstatu par dialektls leksikas izmaiu izcelsmi. Ptjumam tika izvlti etrpadsmit informanti pa septiiem katr pilst (Daugavpil un Rzekn). Palaik Daugavpil dzvojoie informanti ir dzimui aj pilst vai ts apkaim no 1926. ldz 1940. gadam un lielko savas dzves dau pavadjui Daugavpil. Rzekn dzvojoie informanti ar ir dzimui aj pilst vai ts apkaim no 1932. ldz 1947. gadam. Atirbas informantu vecum abs pilsts ir saisttas ar to, ka Rzekn dzvojo visveck pou paaudze ir jaunka par Daugavpil dzvojoo visvecko paaudzi. Visi informanti ir dzimui imens, kurs k pamatvaloda tika lietota pou valoda, tomr pc savu imeu nodibinanas lielk daa ir izmantojusi sazi krievu vai latvieu valodu. Deviiem informantiem ir augstk, trim vidj specil, diviem vidj un vienam informantam ir septiu klau izgltba. Augstko izgltbu dads nozars informanti ir ieguvui prsvar krievu valod, ldzgi ar profesionlaj darbb ldz 90. gadu skumam tika izmantota viengi krievu valoda. Tikai divi no informantiem ir vriei, tas atspoguo valsts demogrfisko situciju lielku vrieu mirstbu. Informantu izmantoto pou valodu var raksturot k pou valodas ziemeu periferilo dialektu ar pou literrs valodas vai periferil dialekta bzi, t.i., daa informantu izmanto literro pou valodu ar nedaudzm dialektam raksturgm iezmm, bet daa run dialekt. Lai iegtu informciju par Daugavpils un Rzeknes pou valod funkcionjoajiem mbeu nosaukumiem, informantiem tika piedvti devii attli ar autores izvltajm mbelm un viens attls ar mjas interjer izmantojamu tekstilizstrdjumu1, ar lgumu mint to nosaukumus pou valod. Gadjum, ja informants ir devis vairk par vienu nosaukumu, tika pierakstti un izskatti visi varianti, sakrtojot tos secb no visbiek ldz visretk lietotajiem. Intervijs ieraksttie mbeu nosaukumi ir pierakstti fontiskaj transkripcij, izmantojot slvu fontisko alfabtu. Tlk apkopoti atbilu variantu kvantitatvie dati ar komentru par to kvalitatvo izcelsmi:
1 Autore ar nodomu izvljs attlus ar dvnu (pl. kanapa, ru. ) un paklju (pl. dywan, ru. ), lai prbaudtu, vai dialekt ir aizgti viltusdraugi, k ar sekciju (pl. mebloanka, ru. ), lai izvrttu, vai dialekt pards padomju gados izveidotais nosaukums.
26
Kristne KUICKA. Mbeu nosaukumi Latgales pou valod
galds pou valod st (stuu ): 5 stu (visiem pou valodas periferilajiem skaas viet tiek izrunts alveolrais dialektiem raksturga pazme: u laterlais spraudzenis ), 6 sto (skaa u tiek aizstta ar o; no krievu valodas ), 1 stolik (deminutva izskaas -ik izmantoana), 1 stoek (nepareiza deminutva izskaas -ek izmantoana vai ar jdzienu sajaukums, t k pou literraj valod stoek nozm taburete), 1 stoek kuhenny (nepareiza deminutva izskaas -ek izmantoana vai ar jdzienu sajaukums (skat. iepriek) + aprakstos precizjums kuhenny latvieu valod virtuves); klubkrsls pou valod fotel (fotel): 7 fotel (bez izmaim), 3 keso (viltusdraugs no krievu valod lietot nosaukuma ), 2 kesa (viltusdraugs no krievu valodas + patskaa o neitralizcija ldz a), 1 keso Jivan (no krievu valodas ), 1 hotel (iespjams, informants ir sajaucis divu reliju fotel un hotel nosaukumus) un kesa (skat. iepriek); skapis pou valod szafa (afa): 12 afa (bez izmaim), 1 staromodna afa (aprakstos precizjums staromodna latvieu valod vecmodga), 1 afa do ubraa (nosaukums pareizs, tomr nepareiza ir prievrda do izmantoana; pou valod szafa na); dvns pou valod kanapa (kanapa), wersalka (versalka), sofa (sofa): 6 kanapa (bez izmaim), 3 dyvan (pou valod dyvan nozm pakljs; viltusdraugs no krievu valodas ), 2 dyvan (skat. iepriek) un sofa (bez izmaim), 1 versalka (bez izmaim), 1 tahta (no krievu valodas ), 1 divan (viltusdraugs no krievu valodas ar saglabtu krievu valodas uzsvaru); taburete pou valod taboret (taboret): 5 taboret (bez izmaim), 4 taboretka (aizguvums no krievu sarunvalodas ), 2 zedelek (senpou valod lietot vcu aizguvuma zedel deminutvs) un taboretka (no krievu sarunvalodas ) vai taborecik (deminutva izskaas -ik izmantoana), 1 taboreta (gramatisks dzimtes maia no vr. uz siev. dzimti, ko, iespjams, ir ietekmjis krievu sarunvalod pastvoais ), 1 taboret (lietots krievu valodas uzsvars ), 1 stolik maleki (pou valod taburetes nosaukanai deminutv var izmantot ar stolek; aj gadjum izmantota nepareiza deminutva izskaa -ik, t iegts stolik jeb galdi + aprakstos precizjums maleki latvieu valod mazi); sekcija pou valod mebloanka (mebloanka), segment (segment), zestaw mebli (zestav mebli): 4 kredens (citas mbeles nosaukums), 3 sekcja (no krievu valodas vai latvieu valodas sekcija) un bufet 27
(citas mbeles nosaukums) vai puka na ksoh ki (aprakstos nosaukums; latvieu valod plaukts grmatm), 1 sekcja (no krievu valodas vai baltkrievu , kurai raksturgs mkstais ldzskanis s), 1 segment (bez izmaim), 1 bufet (citas mbeles nosaukums), 1 bufet (citas mbeles nosaukums un mkstints ldzskanis f, kas pards nosaukum krievu valod), 1 zestav (vrdu savienojuma redukcija: pou valod zestaw mebli), 1 sekreta (citas mbeles nosaukums) un scenka (no krievu valodas + tiek izmantots baltkrievu valodai raksturgais mkstintais s), un gurka (no krievu valodas nosaukuma , tomr izmantota pou valodai raksturga izruna ar patskani u, nevis o), 1 bez atbildes; rakstmgalds pou valod biurko (biurko): 6 biurko (bez izmaim), 2 stu pisemny (no krievu valod izmantot ), 1 pisemny stu (no krievu valod izmantot ), 1 pisminny stu (no krievu valod izmantot , gandrz saglabjot krievu izrunu), 1 stu do pisaa (aprakstoa nosaukuma veidoana stu do pisaa latvieu valod galds rakstanai), 1 stu dla pisaa (aprakstoa nosaukuma veidoana, izmantojot nepareizu prievrdu dla, kas raksturgs krievu valodai ; latvieu valod galds priek rakstanas), 1 stu dla ua (aprakstoa nosaukuma veidoana, izmantojot nepareizu prievrdu dla, kas raksturgs krievu valodai ; latvieu valod galds priek skolna); gulta pou valod ko (u uko): 8 uko (visiem pou valodas perife rilajiem dialektiem raksturga pazme: u skaas viet tiek izrunts alveolrais laterlais spraudzenis ), 5 uka (patskaa o neitralizcija ldz a), 1 bez atbildes; krsls pou valod krzeso (kesu o): 8 keso (visiem pou valodas periferilajiem dialektiem raksturga pazme: u skaas viet tiek izru nts alveolrais laterlais spraudzenis ), 5 kesa (patskaa o neitralizcija ldz a), 1 keseko (deminutva izskaas -eko izmantoana); pakljs pou valod dywan (dyvan): 6 dyvan (bez izmaim), 3 dyvanik (deminutva izskaas -ik izmantoana), 3 paas (no krievu valodas ), 2 kavor (viltusdraugs no krievu valodas , pou valod kavor nozm ikri), 1 dyvan (pou izruna ar krievu valodai raksturgo akcentu ). Apkopojot ptjuma rezulttus, var secint, ka rakst apskattaj leksik pards das dialektlas pabas, kas nav raksturgas pou literrajai valodai: 28
Kristne KUICKA. Mbeu nosaukumi Latgales pou valod
nozmgs aizguvumu skaits no krievu valodas (kavor, pisemny stu, keso (fotel), taboretka, sekcja u.c.), kuru vid ir gan fontiski pou valodai pielgotas, gan uzsvara un formas zi krievu valodas pabas saglabjuas vienbas; patskaa o neitralizcija ldz a (uka, kesa u. c.), kas ietekm ar lietvrdu gramatisks dzimtes maiu. Pou valod o procesu sauc par akanie un tas ir izplatts visos periferilajos dialektos; pou literrajai valodai raksturgs u skaas viet tiek izrunts alve olrais laterlais spraudzenis (puka na ksoh ki, uka u. c.). Process ar ir oti izplatts visos periferilajos dialektos; sarunvalodai un dialektlajai runai raksturga deminutvu lietoana (stolik, dyvanik u. c.), dakrt izmantojot nepareizus formantus); nepareizu prievrdu lietoana (stu dla pisaa, afa do ubraa), aizgstot tos no krievu valodas; aprakstoa nosaukumu veidoana, kas ar ir jebkurai sarunvalodai raksturga paba (stolik maleki, stul dla ua u.c.); krievu un pou valod lietoto ldzgo nosaukumu jaukana vai t saucamo viltusdraugu neatpazana; materil nefigur relijas sekcija pou literraj valod lietotais nosaukums mebloanka, kas ir saistts ar periferil dialekta atrautbu no pou literrs valodas padomju gados, kad dot relija un ar ts nosaukums pardjs valod. Neapaubmi, lielk loma doto dialektlo pabu attstb ir visu informantu divvalodbai un ar daudzvalodbai, kas visbiek ir saistta ar krievu valodas lietoanu darb un sadzv. Tomr nozmgi faktori ir ar ierobeota pou valodas lietoana ikdien (imenes lok, socilos kontaktos) un konstanta atrautba no pou literrs valodas un sarunvalodas. Ptjuma tlkaj gait vecks paaudzes informantu materila analz iegtie dati tiks saldzinti ar vidjs un jaunks paaudzes datiem, tad bs iespjams izdart secinjumus par viss paaudzs lietoto mbeu nosaukumu kvalitti un izcelsmi.
LITERATRA Centrl statistikas prvalde (CSP). Tautas skaitana 2000. gads. Pieejams: http://data.csb.gov.lv/DATABASE/tautassk/databasetree.asp?lang=16 Centrl Statistikas Prvalde (CSP). Tautas skaitana 2011. gads. Pieejams: http://data.csb.gov.lv/DATABASE/tautassk_11/databasetree.asp?lang=16
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Kara, H. Cechy fonetyczne i fleksyjne potocznej polszczyzny mwionej na otwie. No: Poradnik Jzykowy Nr. 3. Warszawa, 1995, 35.55. lpp. Kruczewski, J. et al. Polacy nad Dwin. Daugavpils. No: Polija un Baltija kultras dialog. Daugavpils: Saule, 2007, 51.81. lpp. Ostrwka, M. Regiolekt polski na otwie. No: BULLETIN DE LA SOCIETE POLONAISE DE LINGUISTIQUE LXI, 2005, 87.99. lpp. , .. . : , 2004. 301.
Furniture Denominations in the Language of Latgalian Poles Summary

One of the peculiarities of any dialect is the presence of a certain lexical layer different from the standard form of the language. Words or expressions can be invented, borrowed or adapted from any contact language or dialect. Due to historical reasons Poles have become one of the most considerable minorities in Latvia (2.2%) and especially Latgalia (~10%). The dialect of the Polish language spoken in Latvia is related to the northern peripheral Polish, spoken also on the current territory of Lithuania and Belarus. The research conducted on the language of the Polish minority living in Latgalia revealed numerous elements uncharacteristic of the literary Polish language but traceable in the peripheral variety. The aim of this paper is to describe the denominations of ten furniture items given by the representatives of the oldest generation of Poles, living in two largest cities of the region Daugavpils and Rezekne. The interviews were conducted in the second half of the year 2011; fourteen selected informants were born around the two cities between 1926 and 1947, and have spent the majority of their lives in the region. The analysis of the gained data allows assuming that the Russian language has a major effect on the local variety of Polish. Apart from numerous Russian borrowings, informants demonstrate vowel reduction, the use of alveolar lateral , diminutive forms, descriptive compositions of denominations, use of improper prepositions and submission to false friends. The reasons for these changes in the dialect are active bilingualism and even multilingualism of the vast majority of informants, limited use of the Polish language and the general peripheral quality of the spoken variety.
30

( )

: , , , . . : - ( XVI .); - ( XVII .); ( XIX .) [ 1972:13]. . : XVI , - (1561 .), (1772 .). , --- . - , [ 1977:50]. . , , [ 1986]. : , , , , , , , , , , , , , . . 30 -, 31
, .. . , 1963 . , [.: 1963]. : , , [ 1963: 138]. , [ 1963: 138]. , 1. , , . 2. [ 1963: 137]. , , [] . 1. , , . () . -., . . 2. , , [] ; , . [ 1963: 138]. 1. . [] . . 2. , , . [] . [] . -., . . , -, , [] . 1. , [ 1963: 47]. 2. , , - [] . [] . , [] . , , [] . . -, , , ( ) [] . [] . [] . , . ( , ) [] . 32
. ..
, , , [ 1963: 299]. , , : (), . . . , . . [ 1980: 68]. . . . , . . [ 1980: 68]. 1. ; - . . 2. () , . . . . 3. , . . ., 4. -, , , . . . [ 1980: 78]. ; , . . . . // , . . ., . . . , . . [ 1980: 78]. . . - [ 2009]. . , , . , [ 1986: 119]. . 2011 , , , . .. , *kul- *kulio- *kula, *kulati, *kulav *keu-l-/*kou-l-/*k-l- , , , [ 1987: 9899]. , , : . kulhati ; . kulhat , ^
33
; . kulha ; . , (., .); . , ; . [ 1987: 9899]. , , , : . kljav , . kulhavy ; . kulawy ; . kulavi ; . . , ( , ) (.) (., ., .); . ; . [ 1987:98]. . *keu-l-/ *kou-l-/*k-l- , /. : . kuliti , , . kuli se , ; . chulit sa , , ; . kuli kuli sie [ 1987: 97]. , /, / -. : , , , . , , , , (, : ), , , , , , , , , . , . , , . . . . . . . . . (. .). // , 34
. ..
. -. . // . ., . . . , . . , ., . . . . [ 1980:73]. , : : , ; : . . . , . , , . . , *keu- [ 2. 1982:440]. . , [ 2. 1986: 412]. . : : kly s [ 5. 1989: 155]. , . , , , *keu-l , , , . , , , , , [ 1963: 138]. .. : i i [yi 1959: 104]. : . . 45. . . . , . - , -: . ( 35
, , ), [ 2008]. . , *keu-l .

*KEU-L
. . . .. . : , 1963. . . 16. . .. . , 1980. i yi . . 5 i, 1989. , .. . Available: http://www.ia-centr.ru/expert/3197/ 10.12.2008. , .. . , 1986. , .. : . . . . . : , 2009. , .. , --- . .: . , 1977.
36
. .. , .. . .: . .. . , 1972. . . 16. . .. . , 1980. , . . . 2, : 19861987. . . . 13. // . .. . , 1987. . // . .. . . 2., . 8. , 1982. i yi . . 5. i, 1989. y i, .. yi. i, 1959. , : , , , . : . : . : , .
The Etymology of Word Formation of the Verb in Russian Dialects of Latgale Summary
The work presents an etymological analysis of the verb and its derivatives: , , , , , , , , , . For determining the primary etymology of the word the following dictionaries were used: Explanatory Dictionary of the Live Great Russian language by V. Dal, Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language in 4 volumes by M. Vasmer, Dictionaries of the Polish and Belarussian languages. Semantics of the verb and its derivatives is analyzed based on the examples taken from Materials for the dictionary of Russian old-believers dialects of the Baltic region of 1963 and card files of Daugavpils University. The connection of the root KUL with the Polish and Belarussian languages is being considered and the implementation of the root morpheme in the examples of the verb in Russian old-believers dialects of Latgale region is analyzed, too.
37
Regina RINKAUSKIEN
(Lietuvos edukologijos universitetas)
Vietinink vartojimas XIX amiaus ratuose ryt auktaii tarme

Reikminiai odiai: XIX amius, religiniai ratai, tarm, ryt auktaiiai, vietininkas XIX amius Europos taut budimo epocha. Vokieiai jau XVIII amiuje subruzdo prie prancz kalbos mad auktuosiuose sluoksniuose, atgijo vokietinami ekai, lenkai m labai branginti savo kalb. Visa tai sudar palanki atmosfer susirpinti lietuvi kalbos likimu Lietuvoje. Kylant valstiei ir smulkiosios bajorijos ratingumui, spauda m spariai plisti. Smarkiai padidjo knyg tiraai. Atsirado nauj autori. Kaip ir anksiau, daugiausia j buvo i emaii tarms ploto. Jie ra savo tarme su tam tikrais tradicins rat kalbos vidurinio varianto1 tsinio elementais. Be emaii, m rastis autori, kilusi i ryt, vliau ir vakar auktaii. Visi jie raydavo laikydamiesi savo gimtj tarmi, nors ir buvo veikiami tradicins rat kalbos. Tuo bdu lietuvik knyg kalba nuo XIX amiaus pradios darsi vis vairesn [Zinkeviius 1990: 110]. ymiausi to meto autoriai, ra ryt auktaii tarme, buvo Antanas Strazdas, Valerijonas Aukalnis, Kajetonas Aleknaviius, Pranas Savickas, Mykolas Smolskis, Mykolas Cerauskas, Jonas Juodelaitis ir kt. [Palionis 1979: 210]. Vis dlto iki baudiavos panaikinimo lietuvikai ra daugiausia tik kaimo ir ma miesteli kunigai, kurie rpinosi ileisti prastuomenei paias reikalingiausias lietuvikas religines knygas (daugelis knyg buvo verstos i kit kalb, ypa i lenk), nes turtingesnieji lietuvikai beveik nekalbjo. io straipsnio tikslas aptarti vietinink vartojimo polinkius XIX amiaus ratuose ryt auktaii tarme.
i kalba buvo emaii vyskupijos rat kalba, dar vadinama emaii kalba. Ji buvo palyginti artima Prsijos lietuvi rat kalbai. Joje buvo ilaikyti sveiki , ir dvigarsiai an, am, en, em. Priebalsis l buvo kietinamas [Kazlauskien, Rimkut, Bielinskien 2006: 12].
1
38
Regina RINKAUSKIEN. Vietinink vartojimas XIX amiaus ratuose ryt..
iuo tikslu apvelgiami ymiausi io laikotarpio autoriai ir j veikalai: Mykolas Cerauskas (Senas katekizmas, 1803; Kozonis padkavons, 1803); Laurynas Bortkeviius (Giesms apie keturiolika stacij, 1810); Mykolas Smolskis (Uvogos apie iganym dios, 1823); Tadas Lichodzejauskas (Gailus atminimas, 1841); Andrius Benediktas Klungys (Litanijos su maldomis, 1842); Antanas Kitkeviius (lietuvikos giesms knygoje Hymny ojcw witych, 1848); Henrikas Baleviius (Keliavedys, 1857); Kazimieras Michneviius-Miknas (ventas Izidorius Artojas, 1859). Minimi autoriai yra kil i skirting ryt auktaii patarmi2, taiau aptariant vietininkus nesigilinama atskir patarmi specifik, nes ir i darb kalba tarms poiriu nra labai gryna. Pasak J. Palionio [1979: 211], tam takos galjo turti ir to meto knygos autori noras tikti visiems lietuviams, ir danas gyvenamosios vietos kaitaliojimas (daugelis j buvo kunigai). Vis dlto vis autori darbuose randama ryt auktaiiams bding fonetini ypatybi (ne visais atvejais nuosekliai), kurios laikomos skiriamosiomis patarms ypatybmis, pvz.: an, am, en, em un, um, in, im (atsirunda 1325 iu 28 (MS); giwindami 30 (LB); itimpinieja 58 (HB)); (KMM3); unt umz 17 4 , u, i (szwintu potri 22913 (AK); terp Sawi 726 (MC1)). Nuo seno lietuvi kalboje buvo keturi vietininkai: inesyvas, iliatyvas, aliatyvas ir adesyvas. I i linksni dabartinje kalboje turime ilaikyt tik inesyv ir sustabarjusias kit vietinink formas, kurios i dien gramatikose jau vardijamos kaip prieveiksmiai [Paulauskien 1994: 382; DLKG 1997: 412]. Senojo lokatyvo, i kurio ms protviai ir pasidar keturis aukiau mintus lokatyvinius linksnius, turime tik liekan, pvz., namie, arti, anksti, dial. artie, ankstie ir t. t. Tarmse dar yra ilikusi
M. Cerauskas ir L. Bortkeviius ryt auktaiiai panevikiai, H. Baleviius ir T. Lichodzejauskas ryt auktaiiai utenikiai; M. Smolskis ir A. Kitkeviius ryt auktaiiai anyktnai; galbt anyktnas ir K. Michneviius-Miknas, kils nuo Anyki, nors skiriamj anyktn patarms ypatybi rasti nepavyko; ufiksuota keletas galim rotininkavimo atvej: draugas wisu darbu, kobu ir dumoimu musu 231011; kur tiktaj Dilges, Dogej ir Usnis auga 1823; atsiduodami paajstuwistej, girtibej, wogistej ir kelksmam 282021; tiktaj wiras pasakis koki kodu odeli 47 . Visikai neaiku, kokiai patarmei reikt priskirti A. B. Klung, gimus z 8 netoli Latvijos, mat su Latvija turi sien tiek panevikiai, tiek kupiknai, tiek utenikiai, tiek vilnikiai; visos ios patarms Latvijos teritorijoje turi ir nedideli lietuvikai kalbani saleli. 3 Santrumpomis pagal pirmj vardo ir pavards raid ymimi veikal autoriai. Kadangi M. Cerausko cituojami du veikalai, vartojamos santrumpos MC1 ir MC2.
2
39
daugiskaitos lokatyvo form, pvz.: pievosu pievose, upsu upse, akysu akyseir t. t. [Zinkeviius 1980: 253]. XIX amiaus ratuose ryt auktaii tarme rasta vis keturi vietinink inesyvo (vidaus esamojo), iliatyvo (vidaus einamojo), adesyvo (paalio esamojo) ir aliatyvo (paalio einamojo) pavyzdi. Inesyvas. Kalbant apie io linksnio vienaskaitos formas, reikia iskirti dvi grupes: a) , i, , u, i kamien visos formos yra sutrumpjusios dl galni sandaros asimetrijos alinimo, arba dl dvivokali galni keitimo vienavokalmis4, pvz.: toj paczioj naktij mgoja Petras 172 (ABK); Jerozolimay but niebuwis 2210 (HB); kam <...> niedaloy pasiskusiet 1125 (TL); but ajmingu <...> dunguj 311 (KMM); ir dunguj rgetum sieykit niekatoy buytiey 18 23522 (AK); lepsnoy diegti 2723 (MS); uz 23 (TL) ir t. t. b) a kamieno formos turi tarmines galnes (senovinio * siaurinimas ir . atliepimas i (LKTCH 2004: 101)), pvz.: Rimi mzdamasi 86 (ABK); atlikt Szwicziausiem Sakramenti 144 (HB); pastatie szwiesiasniam stoni 1924 (TL); prakiejkimi giwenam 3416 (KMM); igam miegi n zukit 2329 (AK); stosmes paskutiniam cziesi 11411 (LB); dala ju bus eieri ugnistam 6910 (MS); wiSSos Zuwis wundeni <...> Dekawokit 76 (MC2) ir t. t. Daugiskaitos formos taip pat nevienodos. Skiriamos dvi grups: a) pilnosios, t. y. nesutrumpjusios, formos, turinios nevienodas galnes, pvz.: kurs ira Danguosia 1816 (ABK); tgul uzmiegu Tawa runkosi 2117 (ABK); nieturietu dunguosie ta Tiewa mielausia 1523 (TL); giwensi nedoribesi sawa 6813 (KMM); kaltibes n pruwi 22913 (AK); newaykscioje tamS ibieS i 602 (LB); kurs ira namuoSe tawuoSe 166 (MC1); Diewas Anioosi randa kaltibi 8726 (MS) ir t. t.; b) sutrumpjusios dl dl galni sandaros asimetrijos alinimo, pvz.: gieros priadieimos Ponas Jezus patwirdintu 158 (HB); paskundinti warguo 1112 (TL); dideluos miestas ir mestelas giwena 63 (KMM); tajsik mumis pagdimo 23112 (AK); aukia namos sawa 7420 (MS) ir t. t.
^
termin vietoj sisteminio paradigmos ilyginimo pasil A. Rosinas. Kalbininko nuomone, tokio form trumpjimo vadinti sisteminiu netinka, nes dl jo vyksmo sistemoje niekas nesikeiia ilieka tos paios kategorijos, gramatins morfemos pakinta tik j sandara [Rosinas 2005: 223].
4
40
Iliatyvas. is linksnis rodo, kad veikjas ar veiksmas juda t viet, kuri ireikta iuo linksniu [Zinkeviius 1980: 254]. Iliatyvo formos, kaip ir prasta ryt auktaiiams, gana nuosekliai vartojamos vis autori darbuose. Iliatyvo linksnis iuo metu prasiausiai ilaikytas ryt auktaii paneviki plote, taiau XIX amiaus darbuose vartojamas ir i io ploto kilusi autori knygose. Vis dlto pasitaiko vienas kitas atvejis, kai vietoje iliatyvo pavartojamos prielinksnio + galininkas konstrukcijos, pvz.: eykite nicz i 16 (MC2); katras <...> ing amina ugni 7910 (LB); S zauks ius ing Baz 7 weda unt prapulti 187 (MS); nuwieys unt amzinu ugni 1813 (TL) ir t. t. Vienaskaitos iliatyvos formos yra prastos, tokios kaip ir dabartinse ryt auktaii patarmse, tik sutrumpjusi postpozicija -na, pvz.: wienon awiniczn <> surinkt 1127 (ABK); szirdin mana inpilkit dwasiu 1210 (HB); isz wiena kitan griekan brienda 1714 (TL); ejdami aukan 1723 (KMM); nuwrsk szonan nakties bajdus 23014 (AK); dungun paimsiu 614 (LB); ataduodam S awi <...> apiweizdon 1218 (MC2); tumsiben inmes 12520 (MS) ir t. t. io linksnio daugiskaitos formos yra dvejopos: a) su ilaikyta postpozicija -na, pvz.: wisosna szalisna swieta <> siuntiniejej 107 (ABK); niessidayrik szalisne 87 (HB); pasilecawoja su pinu ganitojaus 21 (TL); Ir dangusna atadutu 227 wilcziu runkosna Iz 11 16 (AK); uzengia danguoS na 1510 (MC1); idant Namosna Jo Ponas Jezusas injeytu 7410 (MS) ir t. t. b) be postpozicijos -na rasta tik dviej autori darbuose, pvz.: katras iemu pusnis suweja 7 (KMM); runkos tawa atidodu dusziu mana z 24 12110 (MS). Abu autoriai kil i ryt auktaii anyktn patarms ploto. I ties tokios sutrumpjusios daugiskaitos iliatyvo formos bdingos daugeliui ryt auktaii patarmi [Kazlauskas 1968: 164]. Sutrumpjusios daugiskaitos iliatyvo formos sutampa su sutrumpjusiomis daugiskaitos inesyvo formomis. Aliatyvas. is linksnis rodo, kad veikjas ar veiksmas artja (juda) prie to daikto ar asmens (gyvo padaro), kuris pasakomas iuo linksniu [Zinkeviius 1980: 261]. Aliatyvo form buvo rasta tik trij autori A. B. Klungio, L. Bortkeviiaus ir M. Cerausko darbuose. Po vien pavyzd rasta A. B. Klungio knygelje (Kojop tawa lkiu gavu mana 2114) ir M. odz iu Cerausko knygelje Kozonis padkavons (pryeiS im wartoimop z S zwintu 612). Du pavyzdiai rasti L. Bortkeviiaus darbe: Idant SuSzauktum Sawimp grieSzninkus 959; patrauk sawimp newierninkus 11823. Tik vieninteliame M. Cerausko darbe Senas katekizmas gausiai vartojamos aliatyvo 41

odi S awo weada mus pakutoS pi formos ir su postpozicija -pi (Diewas per z S zirdies 1226; Diewas per zodi S awo weada mus <...> czyS tebeS pi ir S zwentipeS pi ziwata 1226; weykjalams maziemus taweS pi ateynantiems 326), ir trumpesns, be postpozicijos -pi, pvz.: wi i dayktey padeda giarop 2120; galime at S iliepti Diewop ir Tewop S awo 1230; neiudinkit narS op weyku juS u 2514; o per pagalb tawo S zcziesliwop gaop priweaS ti 3129 ir t. t. Adesyvas. is linksnis rodo, kad veikjas ar veiksmas yra prie to daikto, kuris pasakomas iuo linksniu [Zinkeviius 1980: 259]. Adesyvo form rasta tik dviej autori darbuose K. Michneviiaus-Mikno knygoje ventas Izidorius artojas ir M. Cerausko knygoje Senas katekizmas, pvz.: Sawiep ne junti nora 1220; jausdamas <...> sawip stipruma 245 (KMM); Diewas mus ChryS tuje Iezuje Poniep muS u, o Suniep S awo prieme 1431; teyS us iS z wieros bus giwas IezuS iep Poniep muS u 221; bukite kauzodus Gimditojams juS u Poniep 2521 (MC1) ir t. t. Vis vietinink form vartojimo polinkiai aikiai matyti emiau pateiktoje lentelje. Lentel Vietinink vartojimas XIX a. ratuose ryt auktaii tarme
Autorius Inesyvas A. B. Klungys + H. Baleviius + T. Lichodzejauskas + K. Michneviius-Miknas + A. Kitkeviius + L. Bortkeviius + M. Cerauskas Kozonis padkavons + M. Cerauskas Senas katekizmas + M. Smolskis +
Iliatyvas Aliatyvas Adesyvas + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1)
2)
Ivados: Vis keturi vietinink inesyvo, iliatyvo, adesyvo ir aliatyvo form rasta vieninteliame darbe M. Cerausko knygelje Senas katekizmas. Tai galjo lemti ir knygos pasirodymo laikas pati XIX amiaus pradia (1803 m.). Po tris vietininkus rasta keturi autori darbuose: M. Cerausko knygelje Koznis padkavons, A. B. Klungio ir L. Bortkeviiaus darbuose inesyvo, iliatyvo ir aliatyvo formos; K. Michneviiaus-Mikno knygoje inesyvo, iliatyvo ir adesyvo formos.
42
3)
T. Lichodzejausko, H. Baleviiaus, M. Smolskio ir A. Kitkeviiaus knygose vartojami tik du pagrindiniai visiems ryt auktaiiams bdingi vietininkai inesyvas ir iliatyvas.
LITERATRA
DLKG Dabartins lietuvi kalbos gramatika, red. V. Ambrazas. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidybos institutas, 1997. 743 p. Kazlauskas, J. Lietuvi kalbos istorin gramatika. Vilnius: Mintis, 1968. 414 p. Kazlauskien, A., Rimkut, E., Bielinskien, A. Bendroji ir specialybs kalbos kultra. Kaunas: Pasaulio lietuvi centras, 2006. 295 p. LKTCH Lietuvi kalbos tarmi chrestomatija. Vilnius: Lietuvi kalbos instituto leidykla, 2004. 328 p. Palionis, J. Lietuvi literatrins kalbos istorija. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1979. 316 p. Paulauskien, A. Lietuvi kalbos morfologija. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidykla, 1994. 430 p. Rosinas, A. Latvi kalbos daiktavardio linksniavimo sistema: sinchronija ir diachronija. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidybos institutas, 2005. 322 p. Zinkeviius, Z. Lietuvi dialektologija. Vilnius: Mintis, 1966. 542 p. Zinkeviius, Z. Lietuvi kalbos istorin gramatika 1. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1980. 283 p. Zinkeviius, Z. Lietuvi kalbos istorija 4: Lietuvi kalba XVIIIXIX a. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1990. 331 p. SANTRUMPOS AK Antanas Kitkeviius HB Henrikas Baleviius KMM Kazimieras Michneviius-Miknas LB Laurynas Bortkeviius MC1 Mykolas Cerauskas Senas Katekizmas MC2 Mykolas Cerauskas Kozonis padkavons MS Mykolas Smolskis TL Tadas Lichodzejauskas
43
The Usage of Locatives in 19th Century Texts Written in Eastern Auktaitian Dialect Summary
The article is based on 19th century religious texts written in Eastern Auktaitian Dialect. Various forms of locative case, i.e. inessive, illative, allative, and adessive, registered in these texts are under discussion. The most eminent authors of that period and their works are presented: Mykolas Cerauskas (Senas katekizmas, 1803; Kozonis padkavons, 1803); Laurynas Bortkeviius (Giesms apie keturiolika stacij, 1810); Mykolas Smolskis (Uvogos apie iganym dios, 1823); Tadas Lichodzejauskas (Gailus atminimas, 1841); Andrius Benediktas Klungys (Litanijos su maldomis, 1842); Antanas Kitkeviius (lietuvikos giesms knygoje Hymny ojcw witych, 1848); Henrikas Baleviius (Keliavedys, 1857); Kazimieras Michneviius-Miknas (ventas Izidorius Artojas, 1859). It is ascertained that the forms of all four locatives are used only in M. Cerauskas book Senas katekizmas (turite Pona danguoS e 2433; perkialk mus dangun 2823; idant neieytumet pagundimop 2234; tawimpi aymingay beygtuS i 3131). Three locatives have been found in M. Cerauskas second book Kozonis padkavons, in A. B. Klungys and L. Bortkeviius works (inessive (Starkey dabar ira Kialoniey 720 (MC)), illative (dungun paimsiu 614 (LB)) and allative (Kojop tawa lkiu gavu mana 2114 (ABK)); in K. Michneviius-Miknas book inessive (but ajmingu <...> dunguj 311), illative (ejdami aukan 1723) and adessive (Sawiep ne junti nora 1220). In the other authors works two locatives typical of Eastern Auktaitians, i.e. inessive and illative, are constantly used.
44
Elga SKRZMANE
(LU Latvieu valodas institts) Veltts Kornlijai Pokrotniecei
Mancea debesis: frazeoloismi Postill. I

Atslgvrdi: frazeoloisms, leksika, semantika, variants G. Mancea spredii, kas lastjiem pieejami kop 1654. g. iznkuaj grmat Lang-gewnschte Lettische Postill1 (Ilgi gaidt latvieu postilla) un atkrtotajos izdevumos, sniedz priekstatu par 17. gs. latvieu rakstu valodas stvokli un G. Mancea latvieu valodas zinanm, spredios apvienojot mutvrdu runas un rakstu valodas funkcijas. Spredios fikstie emocionli un semantiski ietilpgie frazeoloismi lieti noderjui prasmgam oratoram: Novrtjot G. Mancea Postillas stilu un emot vr pattiskumu, patosu un periodus, jatceras, ka tas ir sava veida oratoriskais stils.. [Ozols 1965: 192]. Leksma debess iederas spredi, raisot pozitvas asocicijas, emot vr debess nozmes un lietojumu latvieu valod vispr. Frazeoloismiem atbilst vairkas no vrdncs fikstajm nozmm, kas pieauj funkcionlu elastbu. G. Mancea Postill lielkoties frazeoloismos ir saskatma nozme: debess.. [..] 4. parasti dsk.; rel.; mit. Dieva.. mjoklis, svtlaimes vieta, kur pc nves nonk labo cilvku dvseles. Ar paradze [LLVV II: 284285; Tez. llvv; Tez. sv]. Debess lietota: 1) galven komponenta funkcij (piem., celt debess kdu, ieiet debess); 2) k partnerkomponents (debesu dvana, debesu atslga); 3) frazeoloisma okazionla paplaintja funkcij (atvrt debesu durvis (vrtus), nkt pie debesu tva, sataist uz ceu debess). Postillas mri nosaka autora valodas stilu un izteiksmes ldzekus. T k Postilla sakojas Bbel, G. Mancelim bija jprzina ar to saisttie leksiskie sli, lai pilnveidotu reliijas terminoloiju latvieu valod un izkoptu atbilstou stilu, kur iederas ar frazeoloismi. Tajos sastopami: 1) laik nemaingi frazeoloismi ar stabiliem leksiskiem komponentiem, stabilu struktru, nozmes prnesumu; 2) konteksta iespaid daviet atirgas nozmes ieguvui frazeoloismi; 3) okazionli paplainti frazeolo1
Turpmk rakst Postilla.
45
ismi ar nozmes niansm, galvenokrt mainot ekspresivittes pakpi. Ttad ldzs atrodami vrdu savienojumi ar laika un konteksta nosactu frazeoloiskuma pakpi: tie ir vairk vai mazk stabili, bet to frazeoloisks nozmes izpratne laika gait mains. Laika prbaudi izturjis frazeoloisms ir, piem., celt (kdu) debess. Tam vrdncs doti ldzgi, bet nianss nedaudz atirgi nozmju skaidrojumi: sakrt interneta tezaura vietn un Latvieu literrs valodas vrdnc defint nozme celt (vai) (septtajs) debess prmrgi cildint [LLVV II: 285; Tez. llvv], frazeoloismu krjum Vrds sav viet celt (vai) debess slavt prlieku, slavt vairk nek pelnts [Re-Dravia 1974: 73], bet Latvieu frazeoloijas vrdnc ldzs prspltai cildinanai minta slavana, ttad nenordot, ka t btu tikai nepelnta prmrgi cildint, oti slavt [LFV 2000: 206]; nozme oti slavt ir vieng remes izloksnes vrdnc [IV I: 251 un 206]. Frazeoloisms celt (kdu) vai debess atrodams Latvieu-krievu frazeoloiskaj vrdnc [LKFV 1965: 119]; K. Mlenbaha un J. Endzelna Latvieu valodas vrdnc fiksts celt kdu debess [ME I: 450]. Pretstat G. Mancea Postill izteikts niansts vrtjums, saglabjot pozitvismu pat noliegum: Deews gir awu Dhlu uhtijis / tam by.. zaur awu AS ini mums S chkieS tiet / un~ be wiS u Nopllnu mu~s whtus darriet / un~ DebbeS ies zellt.2 (LP2 167, 2731; te: apbalvot, atalgot); Ta nhe by Ghrhx / ka ta Zillwhx baggahtz by / aiS to / ka NabbadS iba nhe weenu Debbeies ze.. (LP2 19, 1214; te cita nozmes nianse (ne)padart labku, vrtgku, izcilku). Mints nozmes vrdncs nav sti attiecinmas uz Postillas piemriem, jo o vrdu savienojumu skotnjs nozmes ir tikai ce uz frazeoloismiem msdienu izpratn, bet to semantisko radniecbu apliecina vrdu savienojuma semantiskais potencils prtapanai frazeoloism. K. Karua skaidrot etimoloija motiv saskatt Dieva un debess kopsakaru: debess; l. debess mkonis, kr. .. v. Nebel migla.. Pamat ide.*nebhes- mkonis no saknes *nebh- mitrs, dens.. Ar senku noz. mkonis ir la. debesis (vr. vsk.), tomr form senks ir debess.. Iespjams, ka nozmes preja mkonis izplatjums virs horizonta notikusi jau oti sen. Tau ts austrumbaltu ciltis, kas pirms izveidoja cieu kontaktu ar somugru ciltm, nav vl pazinuas du vrda debess semantikas diferenPiemri saglabti interneta vietnes http://www.korpuss.lv/senie/toc.jsp rakstb, tikai [Jeus] aizstts ar S [JES us]. Aiz piemra nordts Postillas daas, lappuses un rindu krtas numurs.
2
46
Elga SKRZMANE. Mancea debesis: frazeoloismi Postill. I
ciciju, jo somugri no tm debesu nozm aizguvui vrdu *deivas (> la. dievs..) [Karulis 1992: 205]. Skaidrojums paaugstina komponenta debess semantisko nozmbu ar frazeoloismos, piem., debesu dvana un Dieva dvana. G. Mancelis di pieris debesm zmgu dievibas auru. Latvieu frazeoloijas vrdnc debesu (debess) dvana uzrdts atsevi irkl k patstvgs frazeoloisms ar nozmm: 1. kaut kas sevis, labs, skaists, tds, ko iegst negaidti, bez plm [..] 2. kaut kas iedzimts, pozitvs (spjas, talants) , ne tikai k Dieva dvanas variants, jo Dieva dvanas 1. nozme defin iztikas lietas fiziskai iedzvoanai: 1. novec. diens, maize [LFV 2000: 205]. Ttad saldzinoi debesu (debeses) dvanai piemt vairk garguma un nosactas abstrakcijas, vairk potisma un patosa: .. nhe warr buht / ka ChriStiets Zillwhx buhtu ohte bdajee par Semmes=Leetahm / und no irrds arridSan ghahdajee us DebbeS es=Dahwanahm. Tam Zillwkam gir awas MeeS as no Semmes / unnd tha DwehS ele no Debbe: tapehtz zeek tha DwehS ele auxtaka gir / nhe ka tah MeeS as / teek wairahk buh mums ap to Debbe darrbotee nhe ka ap tah Semmes (LP2 92, 1621). Ttad frazeoloisma debesu dvana etimoloija radjusi savdabgu precedentu: tas atzts vienlaikus par sinonmisku frazeoloisma Dieva dvana variantu un ar par patstvgu frazeoloismu. A. aks to atzinis par gana dairungu, nosaucot 1943. g. sarakstto krjumu Debesu dvana [LRB 2003: 129]. Postill daudz jautjumu uzdod ldzgi, potencili frazeoloiski vrdu savienojumi, piem., debess valstba un debess tvs, Dieva debeses drzs; kaut ar debesis un Dievu vieno etimoloija un kontekstulu sinonmu rinda Dievs debesis paradze, pla konteksta un nozmju nianu d pagaidm problma tikai ieskicta. Atsevis vrdncs [LVV 1987: 172; ME I: 450] fiksts Postillai aktulais vrdu savienojums debesu tvs ar nozmi Dievs, tpat debesu valstba Dieva valstba. Tikai rpgi jnoir, kur G. Mancelis to lietojis tie nozm atbilstoi Bbelei un kur tam saskatmas frazeoloisma pazmes. Piem.: .. tee willtighi audis notck ka Vhdens / acka ta Konings Dawids. Tai miextai Mehlei / und willtighai irrdei nhe buh us Deewa Kallnu / ta gir DebbeS o WallS tiba nahkt (LP2 310, 2831); .. tick illghe ka meh no ChriS to nohS t S am / meh S am Deewam Schhl / tahe no Deewu.. und tahe no tah DbbS o WallS tibas (LP2 6364, 301.). Piemros iezmjas plaais debesu valstbas nozmju spektrs. To netiei norda G. Elksnte: Konstatti ar piemri, kuros skaidrota vrdkopu Christita 47
Basniza, Christita draudse btba: .. Ta Christita Basniza tohp cheit dwta Debbeses Wallstiba.. (LP1 202) [Elksnte 2011: 65]. Debesu atslgu eksistence norda, ka iekana debesu valstb nav vienkra, t saistta ar ru prvaranu. Turklt ar vienu atslgu debesis var vrt vai liegt, t.i., atslgt debesis dot iespju, padart pieejamu iespju sasniegt/iegt vislabko vai aizslgt debesis nedot iespju, padart nepieejamu iespju sasniegt/iegt vislabko. Veidojas savdabga frazeoloismu ligzda (debesu atslgas, atslgt debesis, atslgtas debesis, debess kst aizslgta, debesu-valstba ir aizslgta un (kds) debeses ir atsldzis). Tai piemt frazeoloismiem netipiska nolieguma forma (atslgt aizslgt, nevis ar priedkli ne-). Piem.: [Dievs] .. aweems Kallpeems gir ustitzejis tah DebbeS es=Atzlghas.. (LP1 163, 1011); .. tee nhe ghribb nheneeka S innaht / tapehtz preekS ch teem ta DbbS o=WallS tiba buh ai=lhkta. (LP2 153, 12); ChriS tus gir DebbeS ies usbrauzis / und gir mums to zeu rahdijis / und tah DebbeS es attS lehzis / aiS to Wings acka: Kur e mu / tur buhs mannam Kallpam arri buht (LP1 512, 2628. Sk. ar LP2 164, 2830; LP2 158, 59.) Msdienu kontekst debesu (paradzes) atslgas ir frazeoloisms, kas vrdncs nav fiksts, piem., A. Brena filmas nosaukums Paradzes atslgas [TKB 1999: 166]. Frazeoloisms atvrt (atdart) debess durvis (vrtus) ir okazionls variants atvrt.. durvis (kdam, kaut kam) radt labvlgus apstkus, dot iespju [LFV 2000: 275]. Nozmes nianse, kam par iemeslu ir frazeoloism iekautais komponents debess, apliecina, ka jau G. Mancea laik ikdieni vrdkopa atdart vrtus, atvrt durvis spredios lietota ar nozmes prnesumu, realizjot konteksta nosacto pozitvo frazeoloisma potencilu. Piem.: Bett preezajee / Manns Draugs / unnd turree drohchu irrdi / DebbeS ies.. No chah Wahrgho=Semmes noS chkirrdams / S tahw tw tah DebbeSes=Durrwis atwras (LP1 513, 610); WariS eers.. S chkitta.. labbus Darrbus darrijis / nhe by tam waijagha Deewa SchlaS tibu luhkt / bett Deewam by Winjam / to Darrbo deh / tah DebbeS es=Wahrtis lieds ghalla=ghallam attdarriet / und DebbeS ies ee=jembt (LP2, 115, 39). Apstiprins A. Veisberga atzinums: oti biei okazionlajm izmaim.. tekst ir daudz lielka stilistisk un ekspresv nozme nek paam frazeoloismam [Veisbergs 1986: 116]. Ldzgs secinjums par frazeoloismu sataist uz ceu debess, tas ir okazionls variants frazeoloismam sataist.. ceu (kaut kam, reti kdam) novec. radt vajadzgos prieknoteikumus, paldzt, veicint [LFV 2000: 48
Elga SKRZMANE. Mancea debesis: frazeoloismi Postill. I
174]. Leksmas debesis iekauana frazeoloism pierusi papildu paciltbas nozmi: ta Vpperis tha MeeS a JES u ChriS ti / und ta AS inis JES u / katters mums a=taiijis gir us to jaunu Zeu DebbeS ie / gir par mums nomaxajis.. (LP1 276277, 301). Postill virzbu uz debesm visplakaj nozm raksturo G. Mancea nostans Dievam ldzs vietas nozm, uzrunjot bazncnus k Dievam pietuvinta persona, piem., mudinot nevis iet, bet nkt un kpt debess, ar braukt (uzbraukt) debess (varianti nebraukt uz debesu; uzbraukana debess; uzbraukana vai augamkpana debess); vest (ievest) debess, uzemt debess u.tml.; tikai retumis lietots iet (ieiet) debess; k ar pretjais process nogrst no debeses elles-dzium (LP3 28, 3031). No msdienu valodas prakses atirgs Postill ir iet un nkt lietojums frazeoloism par nokanu pie Dieva, t.i., nomirt: aiziet pie Dieva.. stties Dieva priek nomirt [Tez. sv]. Konteksta ietekm mainti akcenti, turklt nozmes nianses ietekm ar gramatiskie faktori. Piem.: Wai tad tu wtz tappis / arridS an nhe dohma py Deewu DebbeS ies nahkt? (LP 1, 385, 3031); .. ta DwehS ele py Deewu DebbeS ies nahkt warr / kattru ChriS tus JES us mums nopellnijis gir. (LP1 383, 46); Ta WariS eers.. nhe ghribbeja no zittu nheneekadu Zeu wair S innaht / DebbeS ie nahkt / ka ween zaur aweems Darrbeems.. (LP2 231, 13); ChriS tus gir DebbeS ies usbrauzis / und gir mums to zeu rahdijis / und tah DebbeS es attS lehzis / aiSto Wings acka: Kur e mu / tur buhs mannam Kallpam arri buht (LP1 512, 2628). Leksma debesis frazeoloismos vairo potismu un patosu, kas raksturgs G. Mancea Postillas stilam. Izptes darbs turpins.3
LITERATRA IV Kagaine, E.; Rae, S. remes izloksnes vrdnca. 1. sj. Rga: Zintne, 1977. 536 lpp. Elksnte, G. Nominls vrdkopas Georga Mancea tekstos. Pieejams: http://www. liepu.lv/uploads/files/GITAS%20ELKSNITES_Promocijas%20darbs.pdf Karulis, K. Latvieu etimoloijas vrdnca. 1. sj. Rga: Avots, 1992. 638 lpp. LFV Laua, A.; Ezeria, A.; Veinberga, S. Latvieu frazeoloijas vrdnca. Rga: Avots, 2000. 1461 lpp.
8
aj rakst neaplkotie frazeoloismi ar komponentu debess (debess un zemes vienotb un attieksmju aspekt) tiks raksturoti turpmk.
49
Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst LKFV Caubulia, D.; Ozolia, .; Plsuma, A. Latvieu-krievu frazeoloisk vrdnca. Rga: Liesma, 1965. 673 lpp. LLVV Latvieu literrs valodas vrdnca. 2. sj. Rga: Zintne, 1973. 550 lpp. LP1, LP2, LP3 Manzelius, G. Lang-gewnschte Lettische Postill. Pieejams: http://www.korpuss.lv/senie LRB Latvieu rakstniecba biogrfijs. Rga: Zintne, 2003. 741 lpp. LVV Latvieu valodas vrdnca. Rga: Avots, 1978. 883 lpp. ME Mlenbahs, K. Latvieu valodas vrdnca. Redijis papildinjis un turpinjis Endzelns J. 1. sj. Rga: Kultras fonds, 1923. 840 lpp. Re-Dravia, V. Vrds st viet. Stokholma: Daugava, 1974. 338 lpp. Tez. llvv Latvieu literrs valodas vrdnca. Pieejams: http://www.tezaurs.lv/llvv/ Tez. sv Latvieu valodas skaidrojo vrdnca. Pieejams: http://www.tezaurs.lv/sv/ TKB Tetris un kino biogrfijs. 1. sj. Rga: Preses nams, 1999. 462 lpp. Veisbergs, A. Frazeoloismu okazionla lietoana latvieu valod. No: Latvieu valodas kultras jautjumi. 22. [laid.]. Rga: Avots, 1986, 110.122. lpp.
Phraseological Units with debes(i)s Heaven in Georg Manzels Lang-gewnschte Lettische Postill Summary
The prayers in G. Manzels book Lang-gewnschte Lettische Postill are witnessing the situation of Written Latvian in the 17th century and their authors linguistic proficiency. Phraseological units containing lexeme debess heaven have been used as keywords or main components, or as partner components and extensions, of a phraseological unit. Some phraseological word groups in the Postill are still on their way towards phraseological units in current view, but their semantic relationship is proved by the semantic potential of the respective word group to be transformed into a phraseological unit. G. Manzels prayers include phraseological units that have stood the test of time, i.e. those with characteristic fixed lexical components, stable structure, meaning transfers; those which have sporadically obtained different meanings; occasionally expanded ones with diverse meaning shades, mainly by expressiveness change. The phraseological unit debesu dvana gift from the skies has been recognized an independent phraseological unit and simultaneously a synonymic variant of the phraseological unit Dieva dvana Gods gift. Some phraseological units used in G. Manzels lifetime nowadays have been groundlessly considered non-actual and not included in modern dictionaries. Expanding a phraseological unit, the lexeme debesis the skies adds to it not only a new meaning shade and occasional character but also more poetism and pathos characteristic to the style of Manzels Postill.
50
Anna STAFECKA
Kalmes (Acorus calamus) nosaukumi Latvieu valodas dialektu atlant

Atslgvrdi: dialekts, izloksne, dialektl leksika, semantika Tpat k vairumam dialektu atlantu, ar Latvieu valodas dialektu atlanta (LVDA) materilu vkanas programmas Leksikas daa ir veidota atbilstoi leksiski semantiskajm grupm. Taj ir ar vairki jautjumi par savvaas augu nosaukumiem [Programma 1954: 122124]. K zinms, daa LVDA Leksikas materilu, tostarp augu nosaukumu, nav kartografta un ldz ar to plakam lastju lokam nav pieejama. Rakst aplkoti viena savvaas auga smargs kalmes (Acorus calamus L.) nosaukumi latvieu valodas izloksns, raksturota to izplatba, apkopotas etimoloijas nordes un reistrjumi senajs vrdncs, k ar dots izloku ilustratvais materils. K liecina auga apraksts interneta portl latvijasdaba.lv, smarg kalme ir daudzgadgs, liels (60120 cm) rumu dzimtas lakstaugs ar resnu, smargu un lojou sakneni. Ar lapm (saberot) raksturga patnja kalmju smara. Lapas zobenveidgas (ldz 120 cm, platums ldz 4 cm), ar gari nosmailotu galu. Ziedi blv vlt (510 cm) stublja galotn. Ziedi zagandzelteni, apziednis plvjains. Pie vltes pamata ir gara, zaa seglapa, kas atgdina stublja turpinjumu, un td rodas iespaids, ka vlte ir stublja vidusda. Auglis srta oga (msu klimatiskaj josl nenogatavojas); augs vairojas veetatvi ar lojoajiem sakneiem. Zied jnija beigs, jlij. Galvenokrt Vidzem (vidus un lbisk dialekta teritorij), k ar Zemgal (izloksns ap Bausku, Skaistkalni, Taurkalni) un vietumis Kurzem (galvenokrt Lejaskurzem) lieto nosaukumu kalme, kas ir ar latvieu literrs valodas vrds (skat. 1. att.). aj arel sastopami ar vairki vrda fontiskie un morfoloiskie varianti (kolme, kome, kolms, koms, kolmis, ar kalla, kai u. c.). Vrds kalme ldz ar lie. kalms un~ig. kalmus < vcu val. [ME II 142]. Izloku piemri: pa J im ar kalmem kajs ~ ~ Babt, pret blusm lituja kalmes Iecav, kalmes dikti labas, lika uz 51
lizes, ts pedeva mizei labu gar u Mrsnnos, kalmes- ts ja bija katru ~ u svdinas rtu istab Ntaur, kal m saknes jnuvra, ta var mazgt mat:us ~ Stopios, kalmes i Ju galve n zle Vecumniekos, klmes kisija pa grdu, lai blusas nedzvuo Viesien. Das Vidzemes ziemerietumu izloksns (Aloj, Nauknos, Nab, Stien u. c.) reistrts variants kolmes, EH tas dots ar no Jeriem un Limbaiem.
a-celma ~ forma kalmas pierakstta, piemram, Skult (kur di i, tur ~ var dabut kalmas), Kros (kalmas Pe l das e ze r bija, labi smar u), ar Jrcnos, Dauguos, Lugaos, Jumprav, Ldman, Sviten. Vietumis Vidzem, sevii ts rietumu vai ziemerietumu da, lieto vrieu dzimtes (parasti dsk.) formu kalmi vai kolmi. Variants kolmi izplattks Vidzemes lbiskajs izloksns, tas reistrts Id, Katvaros, Ld, Limbaos, Skult, Svtciem, Tj, Vainios u. c. Savukrt kami pierakstts Drabeos (kami, kamu sakne t jau rstniecbai), Gatart, Kos u. c., bet komi Ainaos, Aizvos, Allaos, Krimuld, Jrcnos, Tj, Vien, ~ ~ oos u. c. Izloku piemri: upe og kolmi Id, bii smar gi kalmi d ~ ~ ups ag Kos, klmus ~ sagri un izkisa pa grdu Sinol, kalmji vai rk ~ Pampos . kol mi g gar e zar malim Skult, upsmute apk til t saagui ~ ~ ~ i kolmi Svtciem, mrkus ar ag ko m oos, ko mim sakns Vien. Vairks Vidzemes ziemeaustrumu izloksns fiksts variants kai, piemram, kdriz lek kus zem mizes, ka nau kovu lopu Gaujien,
^ ^
52
Anna STAFECKA. Kalmes (Acorus calamus) nosaukumi..
kot sagr kus un iskisa gridu, navnas blusas nu Ilzen, kus plc, kad mizi ce p. lika mizes kukuli virs Trapen. Tas reistrts vl ar Zvrtav, bet ME dots ar no Alksnes. Nosaukums kalm sastopams ar Lietuv Vilkaviu un Marijampoles apkaim. Otrs plak izplattais nosaukums ir kalves vai kalvas (iespjams, vrda kalme prveidojums [ME II 146], tas veido divus plaus, kompaktus, arelus Kurzem un Zemgales rietumu da, k ar Vidzemes ziemeu da ap Smilteni un Streniem (skat. 2. att.). Gan e-celma, gan a-celma forma izplatta abos arelos, biei ts lieto vien izloksn, piemram, sakapa un pakais ~ ~ ~ istab a kalvm Cr, kalves aga gar upes ~ malm Iecav, a kalves sakn m ~ citi mazg matus Kalven, dene ag kalvas Kazdang, t s ir kal ves, ar ~ ku pils t pa Jim kajas Rundl, agr k gri za kal ves sv ku d en s ~ un ~ iskisja istabas Smilten, ts ir kalves, ku pa Jim kajs Vecsvirlauk, kalve sakn rkt Zrs. Das Kurzemes dziajs lbiskajs izloksns (Dun~ ~ dag, Puz, Ugl, Vrv, Zrs u.c.) pierakstts variants kallas (kals, kal).
Kurzem ap Aizputi, Durbi, Grobiu, Kuldgu visai kompakti izplatts ~ a kalmes nosaukums kalvene, piemram, kalvenes tm kua smak~ , pi ~ , ta dam kalveu bdans litu Dunalk, ka mes mazi b rni bijam saknes Kabil, kalvenes sakap un, ve ci cil ki tec, ~ blusm //-m labi Ta~ daios, Jus sits a kalvenm Vecpil, ts sac kalvenes platm lapm 53
Ziemup. Brt reistrts nosaukums ar sen adjektva izskau -inis: ~ kalvines ir smakutas. Savukrt Alsung, Anc, Gudeniekos, Jrkaln, ~ Pop, Uav u. c. reistrts variants kalveres , piemram, kal v r o g tde s ~ ~ ~ e di e s, uipmale s ~ a Anc, kalver s smar gas, uz sv tki m iskai ii pa pl nu ~ ^ s kalver Pop, kalvren sakin s labs priek blusam Uav. Basos, mum Plau, kompaktu arelu vis augzemnieku dialekta teritorij veido nosaukums skalbe (un t varianti skalbis, skalbs, kalbe, kalbs). Ar vrds skalbe ir ermnisms, tas aizgts no vlv. Schelp meldri [ME III 865 866]. Sievieu dzimtes forma skalbes parasti sastopama sliskajs un Vidzemes latgaliskajs izloksns, bet vrieu dzimtes forma skalbis raksturgka Latgalei, piemram, skalbi smord eg i Aizkaln, sklbji ag morks. vni skalbji, kam loba smoka, kas labi smir d Alsvi, sara skalbus azara ` mol Brzgal, skbu saknes vce prek zl m teem Groston, Jos sit r sklbm Jaunroz, skalbi opors ak. Nautrnos, vosaru skabus ieja, lai blusu nav ilbnos, uptes ml r ag sklbes Vrnav, nu k ~ sklbem pi durim koju slui sasn Vecgulben, sme ri gu ske lbu sknes ~ . lik pe den s, kr mzgajs Vecpiebalg. Variants kalbes izplatts sliskajs izloksns, retumis tas reistrts ar Latgal (Preios, Rugjos, Vinos u. c.), piemram, morks ak kalbis Gaigalav, zu vkar me s parasti ` mba pegrem klbes n iskism pa ustabm Krzdab, neplcet no d ^ ` k lbas Lubej, kab m t s so:knt Meel, kbi smro Ogr, msu mrki pieougui plli klbu Tirz. Sliskajs izloksns izplatts nosaukums elpa, elpsne un varianti. J. Endzelns hipottiski tos uzskata par aizguvumiem no vlv. Schelp meldri, sal. ar elpis Typha latifolia platlapu vilkvlte [ME IV 25; ME II 363]. Nosaukums elpa, elpis reistrts Vidzemes sliskajs izloksns (Druvien, ME tas dots no Brzaunes, Praulienas, Saikavas un Tirzas) un das Vidzemes latgaliskajs izloksns (Galgausk, Kalncempjos, Palsman), ~ . piemram, k lpu s:kn m lba sm:era Sarkaos, ar k pm :stbu ^ Jaos kisa Kus. Savukrt variants elpsne, elpsnis sastopams Zemgales sliskajs izloksns, tas reistrts ar Latgal Lvnos, piemram, klpi ak pa grouumolm Lvnos, r klpsnm cap mizi ku:kuli lk is klpsn m Dignj. Tlu rpus arela vrds elpsnes reistrts Lejasciem un Sinol. Piemrs no Sinoles (kelpem plotkas lapias un zlgankas, klmus sagri un izkisa pa grdu) liek domt, ka elpi eit apzm citu augu, nevis kalmi, iespjams, ar Lejasciem is vrds apzm citu augu. Latgal un Zemgales slisko izloku teritorij reistrti ar vairki citi kalmes nosaukumi (skat. 3. att.). Latgales austrumu izloksns (Asn,
^
54
Pild) sastopams nosaukums ajeri: ajeri pa azara moys ak, kr r dy ` ui azrs Asn. aun fiksts variants ijeri: ijerus iz mii lupstys pkie, i mii yka, bet Cibl, Istr un Rundnos pierakstts variants aleri (alery). Savukrt I. delmanes un . Ozolas augu nosaukumu apkopojum nosaukums ajeri dots no Ciblas un Rundniem, aijeri ar no Dagdas, Ezerniekiem un Nirzas, bet aleri no Bebrenes, Mrdzenes un Zvirgzdenes [delmane, Ozola 2003: 137].
Vrds ajeras ir ar lietuvieu kopvalodas vrds, Lietuvieu valodas vrdnc (LKe) tas skaidrots k purva augs ar garm, smargm lapm. is nosaukums ir aizguvums no slvu valodm auch airis (airys)). aus poln. ajer dass, cf. russ. air (Fraenkel I 4), bet izloksns tas reistrts galvenokrt Zarasu apkaim (Dusets (Duona ant jer kepta maize uz kalmm cepta), Salak (Jis stovi tiesus kai jeras vi stv taisns k kalme), ~ k ar Taurages rajon (gaios: Parnek ajer, reiks duon kepti prnes kalmes, vajadzs maizi cept). Das Latgales dienvidrietumu, k ar Zemgales sliskajs izloksns ap Laiem, Bebreni kompakti sastopams kalmes nosaukums kalavjs un t varianti. Tas ir mantots vrds un latvieu valod tiek uzlkots par aizguvumu no lietuvieu valodas (aus li. kalavija [ME II 140]; sal. lie. kalavijas, pr. kalabian [Fraenkel I 207]. Naujen, Ncgal, Lksn, Kalup, ar Bebren, Dviet reistrts nosaukums kalavjs (kalavuojs), piemram, kalavoji 55
labi smordoj Naujen, kalavajus pbarsta ustub, tlik blusas isskrida Bebren, kalavoji ak laji duboks dos. kalavojam izak volet, ty ` msa, kapava brna Kalup [KIV I 477]. Variants kalavji reistrts Rubeos (papls kalavju, mizi cepu), bet no Skaistas EH dots kalavjs, kalavijs un kalavris. Nosaukums kalavri kalmes reistrts ar tlu rpus arela Ziemerietumkurzem Zrs [delmane, Ozola 137], tau, iet, ka eit tas saistms ar iepriek aplkoto Kurzemes variantu kalveres. Lietuv nosaukums kalavijas kalme reistrts galvenokrt dienvidrietumu arel Marijampoles rajon (udvinav: Prie ms ups auga kalavjai pie msu upes aug kalmes, Daukos: Parnek kalavj, reik duona kepti (mat ant kalavj kepta duona gardu valgyti) prnes kalmes, jcep maize (uz kalmm cepta maize garga) u. c.), Altas rajon (Kroalauk: Jau visa sodelka sul kalavijais jau viss dis sazlis ar kalmm), Lazdju rajon (Kunos: Ms pelkse auga tik vieni kalavjai msu purvos aug tik vienas kalmes). Tas fiksts ar Latvijas pierobe Zarasu rajon (Salak: Vaikai aidia su alsvais kalavijais brni spljas ar zaajm kalmm). Lietuvieu valod vrdam kalavijas primr nozme ir zobens, bet 4. kalme (LKe). nosaukuma motivcijas pamat acmredzot ir kalmes zobenveida lapas ar smailu galu. Ldzba ar zobenu vistiek atspoguota das Latgales austrumu izloksns sastopamaj kalmes nosaukum zuobins: zbyny vec. p. Brigos, suk ag zbyi d aug kalmes Zvirgzden. Tau Rzn pieraksttais ilustratvais teikums it zbyi t i ilm idm liek domt, ka ar vrdu zuobins eit apzmts cits augs, iespjams, Sibrijas riss (Iris sibirica L.), kam ir zili ziedi un kas ar Latvij retumis sastopams mitrs viets vai t dekoratvo pabu d ir daudzviet kultivts augs (plak skat. latvijasdaba.lv). Vairki ilustratvie izloku piemri liecina, ka aplkotie vrdi apzm ~ vairkus augus, piemram, klbes zid, klmes n Adulien, kalves mum s dius zor te s ~ ir Grenos, klbes r rstnecb, klmes kr ag vltes eipen, kalvas ja ir divejdas Strutel. Dakrt netiek irtas kalmes un dens augs, kas zied dzelteniem ziediem, acmredzot purva skalbe (Iris pseudocarus), ar iepriek aplkotie nosaukumi nereti tiek attiecinti k ~ uz vienu, t uz otru, piemram, pues ar dze lte nim zidim ar kalvas ~ Lutrios, reizem jau jauc, bet vairk jau kalmes ir ts, kas smaro, bet kalves zied dzelteniem ziediem Meotn, zid dze ltnem zidiem ts ~ ~ e t; vini og pa mem ari un skalbes, kalm s nezid Skujen, kolmi i diu zor ~ ~ urgim, tie laikam t nesmar o, lapi t ka plnaki [dzeltenais riss, jo eit ~ neizir smargs upes skalbes no risiem]; upa tie tdi rupi un smar o
^
56
Svtciem. Retk kalmes nosaukums apzm ne tikai purva skalbi, bet ar ~ jau minto Sibrijas risu Iris sibirica, piemram, kalves zid a zilim, a nim zidim Virbos. dze lte Ar neskaidru nozmi Dunik reistrts nosaukums vilka dae: vilkadau pilns patris. Tas ir aizgts no lie. vilkdalgis (Iris); LK no rakstu avotiem vilkdalgis mints ar ar nozmi kalme. Vairki aplkotie kalmes nosaukumi fiksti ar senajs vrdncs. Kalmus- kalves Stender 1789 II: 348; kalme (Lth. kalme) der Kalmus, Ulmann 1872: 100; skalbes, skalbi = kalmji Kalmus, Ulmann 1872: 259; Kalmus, kalwenes, kalwas, kalmes, kalniji Ulmann 1880: 436. Vairki latvieu valodas izloksns saglabjuies kalmes nosaukumi, k redzams, ir kopgi ar ar lietuvieu valodu. Lietuvieu valodas materila trkuma d pagaidm o vrdu izplatbas arelus var tikai ieskict. Kalmes ilustratvaj materil atrodama ar kultrvsturisk informcija.
LITERATRA delmane, I., Ozola, . Latvieu valodas augu nosaukumi. R.: SIA Augsburgas institts, 2003. EH Endzelns Jnis, Hauzenberga Edte. Papildinjumi un labojumi K. Mlenbaha Latvieu valodas vrdncai. 1.2. sj. Rga, 19341946. Fraenkel Fraenkel Ernst. Litauisches etymologisches Wrterbuch. Band I. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitts verlag, Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1962. KIV 1998 Rena, Antoina. Kalupes izloksnes vrdnca. 1.2. sj. Rga: Latvieu valodas institts, 1998. Latvijas daba.lv http://www.latvijasdaba.lv/augi/ LKe Lietuvi kalbos odynas: http://www.lkz.lt LVDA Latvieu valodas dialektu atlants. Leksika. Autores: Brigita Bumane, Benita Laumane, Anna Stafecka. Darba zin. vad. B. Laumane. Rga: Zintne, 1999. ME Mlenbahs, Krlis. Latvieu valodas vrdnca. Redijis, papildinjis, turpinjis J. Endzelns. 1. 4. sj. Rga: Izgltbas ministrija, 19231932. Latvieu valodas dialektoloijas atlanta materilu vkanas programma. R.: Latvijas PSR ZA izdevniecba, 1954. Stender Lettisches Lexikon. In zween Theilen abgefasset, und den Liebhabern der lettischen Litterature gewidmet von Gotthard Friedrich Stender. Mitau: I. F. Steffenhagen, 1789.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Ulmann 1872 I Lettisches Wrterbuch. Erster Theil. Lettisch-deutsches Wrterbuch von Bischof Dr. Carl Christian Ulmann. Riga, 1872. Ulmann 1880 Lettisches Wrterbuch von Ulmann und Brasche. Zweiter Theil. Deutsch-lettisches Wrterbuch von Gustav Brasche. Riga u. Leipzig: Verlag von H. Brutzer & Co, 1880.
Names for Acorus calamus in The Dialectal Atlas of Latvian Summary

This article considers the distribution of names for the wild plant called sweet flag (Acorus calamus) in the sub-dialects of Latvian. It sums up etymological references and the data from older dictionaries, as well as provides dialectal illustrative material. Most parts of Vidzeme (the territory of Central dialect and the Livonian dialect of Latvian), as well as Zemgale (the sub-dialects of Bauska, Skaistkalne, Taurkalne) and some places in Southern Kurzeme use the name kalme. The same word for this plant is used in Standard Latvian. There are also several phonetic and morphological variants of this word (kolme, kome, kolms, koms, kolmis, also kalla, kai etc.). The word kalme, just like Lithuanian kalms and Estonian kalmus, is a borrowing from the German language. The second most widespread name for this plant is kalves or kalvas, most probably a modification of the word kalme. It can be observed in a compact area in Kurzeme and Western Zemgale, as well as in Northern Vidzeme around Smiltene and Streni. In Kurzeme, typical names for sweet flag are kalvene or kalvere. A wide compact area in the teritory of High Latvian dialect is formed by the German borrowing skalbe (and its variants skalbis, skalbs, kalbe, kalbs). In Selonian sub-dialects of High Latvian dialect, one observes the words elpa, elpis (Selonian sub-dialects of Vidzeme) and elpsne, elpsnis (mostly in Selonian sub-dialects of Zemgale). In the territory of Selonian sub-dialects of Zemgale, as far as in Latgale, several other names have been registered, too. In the eastern sub-dialects of Latgale, the name ajeri can be observed. The word ajerai is a Standard Lithuanian word, and is a borrowing from Slavonic languages. In some sub-dialects of South-western Latgale, as well as in Selonian subdialects of Zemgale, one can hear the name kalavjs and some of its variants. It is considered a Lithuanian borrowing. The primary meaning of the word kalavijas in Lithuanian is sword, but the secondary meaning sweet flag. The similarity between this plant and a sword is most directly reflected in some sub-dialects of Eastern Latgale, where the name for Acorus calamus is also zuobins (sword). The illustrative material contains significant culturally historical information.
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Inguna TEILNE
Emocionli ekspresvie vrdi Kalupes izloksnes vrdnc

Atslgvrdi: izloksne, vrdnca, ekspresv leksika, emocionl nokrsa, pozitvs, negatvs subjektvais vrtjums Kalupes izloksnes vrdncas autore ir dzimta kalupiete Antoina Rena, vrdncu izdoanai sagatavojis humanitro zintu doktors Alberts Sarkanis. Apjomg divsjumu vrdnca nca klaj 1998. gad. T ir relatvi pilna tipa apvidvrdu vrdnca. Leksika ir viens no galvenajiem emocionli ekspresvs informcijas realiztjiem valod. Blakus neitrliem vrdiem, ko izmanto jebkur runas situcij, ar izloksns tiek lietota ekspresv leksika. Ekspresv leksika ir vrdi, kam piemt nozmes papildkomponents ar emocionli ekspresvu nokrsu mlinjumu, humoru, cildinjumu, ironiju, nievjumu, nicinjumu, familiaritti u. tml. [VPSV 2007: 103]. Savukrt emocionl ekspresivitte izteiksmgums, ko kdai valodas vienbai (vrdam, morfmai, vrdformai, frazeoloismam, teikumam) pieir emocionls nozmes papildkomponents [VPSV 2007: 105]. Emocionli ekspresvs informcijas satura realiztji ir vrda leksisks nozmes papildkomponenti, kas izsaka runtja subjektvo, vrtjoo attieksmi pret runas objektu, adrestu, vidi. Subjektvais vrtjums var bt pozitvs: paust cildinjumu, atzinbu, patiku, sirsnbu, un negatvs izsakot prmetumu, nosodjumu, nicinjumu, izsmieklu. Tpat k latvieu (literrs) valodas vrdncs, informcija par vrdu emocionli ekspresva lietojuma ierobeojumu tiek sniegta ar izloku vrdncs. Plaks ir: remes (IV) [Elga Kagaine, Silvija Rae: 1977 1983], Kalupes [Antoina Rena: 1998] un Vainiu (VIV) [riks damsons, Elga Kagaine: 2000]. Kalupes izloksnes vrdnc (KIV) emocionli ekspresva lietojuma nordes izmantotas visai bagtgi vrdi var bt humoristiski, ironiski, mlinoi, nievjoi, nicinoi, vulgri u. tml. Saldzinjumam: Latvieu literrs valodas vdnc un Latvieu valodas vrdnc (1972; 2006) vrda 59
emocionli ekspresvo nokrsu raksturo 3 nordes humoristiski, ironiski un nievjoi, IV un VIV 4 nordes: humoristiski, ironiski, mlinoi un nievjoi. Vispirms rakst aplkoti vrdi ar 1) pozitvu emocionli ekspresvo vrtjumu, ko pau vrdi ar mlinjuma nokrsu t piemt daiem darbbas vrdiem un lietvrdiem, piemram,
tei t tecius ievirzties tei ju p i mam ei, tk g uy izradavu (tdz.) (I 383); iteit tecius izvirzties istak divi mn moei, ku reti didamys (tdz.) (I 453); nteit tecius veikt (visu attlumu) nte mat, p i ta! / tmsys nakti nasabedu, iz mam eu nteeju (tdz.) (II 89); pateit tri paiet pate, mat, ate rku! (II 187); brns ak, tu , k tu padareji! (I 220); ttks ttis re, kr ttka capura (II 499).
Dzvnieku nosaukumi ko zirgs (I 513), suk mazs sivns (II 452), suks jauns suns (II 453), suuks suuks (II 453), tpruka te, tele (II 508), tpruea govs (II 508), vu aita (II 575). K redzams no piemriem, tad mlinjuma nokrsa atzmta pie daudziem vrdiem, kuros raksturota cilvka attieksme pret mjdzvniekiem vrdos ir ietverta sirsnbas, maiguma izpausme. Vairkiem vrdiem maiguma nokrsu paldz paust attiecgi piedki: -uk-, -k-, --. Vrdi ar mlinjuma nokrsu KIV lietoti nedaudzos gadjumos. Domjams, ka vrdu, kas pau mlinjumu, Kalupes izloksn ir daudz vairk, jo sarunvalod runtjs, lai paustu pozitvu attieksmi pret nosaucamo reliju, izmanto pamazinms formas deminutvus, bet vrdnc regulri darinti lietvrdu deminutvi netiek iekauti [KIV 1998: 22]. Ieskatoties VIV, redzam, ka mlinjuma nokrsa ir gan tm pam, gan citm relijm un darbbm, piemram, uiat (I 145), nciat (II 4), muks (I 506), sievuks (II 326), kaiti (I 366), mics (I 527), miculis (I 527), mika (I 527), mia (I 527), miuks (I 527), suniti (II 375). Vrdu ar humoristisku emocionlo nokrsu KIV tikpat k nav. Vrdncas autore raksta, ka labsirdgi zobgalga attieksme (humoristiska nokrsa) var vairk vai mazk pavdt ldzs ironiskai nokrsai, piemram, sait grti strdjot, sapelnt (naudu) tre mtei zlta nade beju sai [Rena 2008: 145]. 60
Inguna TEILNE. Emocionli ekspresvie vrdi Kalupes izloksnes vrdnc
Vrdi ar humoristisku emocionlo nokrsu ir ar visgrtk nodalmi, jo humora izjta ir subjektva pardba, un to liel mr nosaka konsitucija. Iespjams, ka Kalupes izloksn humoristisk nokrsa vairk piemt individuliem vrdu lietojumiem. Atkal ielkojoties VIV, redzams, ka vrdu ar humoristisku nokrsu ir vairk. Piemram, adati() uvjas mcekle (I 7), asktot veikli aiziet (I 16), iektot ieiet, ienkt (I 245), izktot veikli iziet (I 299), muzikatbarib ziri, ziru zupa (I 542). remes izloksnes vrdnc iscrst aiziet (I 35), iscrsties tri aiziet, nokt (I 3), issist aiziet (I 49), issist 1. ar lielu apetti izst, izdzert, 2. iziet, izstaigt (I 510). 2) Negatvu vrtjumu izsaka vrdi ar nievjuma nokrsu:
izdrnavut trakojot aizskriet izdrnavi da m em g (I 57); dasakt// 1. ar plm iegdties, izgdt ka bytm lls m , u da nvalida p bytm dasak eji, 2. ar plm, grtbm us e r t zyrgu aizkt ldz kdai vietai r lelm mkm dasak (I 251); apmulinut paviri izmazgt itos drebi tik apmulinutys, a na izmozgutys (I 93); naguss tds, kam nekad nav diezgan cylvks jr naguss, ka jm mos i mos vysa ko, atsacyut// 1. nozme neitrla, 2. nozme ironiska nevienmrg gait, gzeljoties atnkt, 3. nozme nievjoa oti lielties (II 14); p ikst raudulgs cilvks ji vysu myu tuc p ikst jira, ku tik kas nabi, tu i p ikt (II 238).
A. Rena ir novrojusi tdu patnbu, ka viens un tas pats jdzieniskais saturs dakrt ir izteikts ar mantotu un aizgtu vrdu. Ja tiek pausta nievga attieksme, tad dakrt attiecgaj situcij izvlas aizguvumu, piemram, alasut skai runt, baustties, parasti dusmojoties, rjoties [Rena 2008: 144]. Vrdnc vl atrodami vrdi: p ep t piecept (pietiekami daudz) (II 205) bez ekspresijas un p aret nievjoa nokrsa piecept (pietiekami daudz) (II 237); isstp t ar plm aiznest (I 70) bez ekspresijas un istaet nievjoa nokrsa aizstiept (I 71); paert (II 123) bez ekspresijas un pacap et ironiska nokrsa paert (II 104). Negatvu vrtjumu izsaka ar vrdi ar ironisku nokrsu:
bizakys tieva, sa bize ti ju tik bizakli, nu lobu biu (I 179);
61
Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst erebet 1. pieskaroties kairint (parasti par kukaiiem) pr nakti mai blusys erebeja, 2. slepus st mn be brngi vsta pde, a e monu, ka ju naskas t vstu jr erebe (I 211); dus stiprs klepus ak, ju dabava dusua! (I 287); gdiit mazliet ieliet gdii mn nu butlkys zuu vi ko (I 352); pykc sadzis, ngrs k tu ud tuc pykc, mo r kris koji iskup i nu gltys? (II 238).
Vrdncas autore A. Rena ir rpgi iedziinjusies dadu leksmu lietojum un raksturojusi ts visai detalizti [Kagaine 2009: 95]. Vrdnc ir irtas nievjuma un nicinjuma nianses. Pati vrdncas autore atzst, ka aj raksturojum liela nozme ir autora subjektvajai uztverei un izjtai, tpat ar izloksnes zinanai. Vrdi ar nicinou emocionli ekspresvo nokrsu:
saat// bez uzaicinjuma ierasties jis naby jis, ka kr be praeonys nsaa tu (I 375); myy ` nc slinks, neizdargs cilvks to myy ` na navr idit da dorbm (I 620); m it nesaticgi dzvot devka dabava, tagat myns, kp divojt (I 623); p luut staigjot piemdt (grdu) ku go r vei, tu p luava gridu (I 214); sabuit saststt, sappt t tu nabe, tik sabui, i iti patie (II 317). apjut apmnt, apkrpt jima j i apjuja iz lidzonys vtys (I 95); jukt spcgi iesist pr golvu juktu, i napaitm (I 353); krekli vecs, slimgs cilvks kas tevi vacu krekli turi! (I 518) izvnckut izraidt, izdzt izvnckava nu utabuza, kurm nabe biletu (I 456).
oti rupjai izteiksmei noder vrdi ar vulgru nokrsu

Vulgri ir dai vrdi, kam ir tikai pejoratva nozme, bet vairk ir to gadjumu, kad viens no vrda leksiski semantiskajiem variantiem iegst vulgru nokrsu. Visplako grupu KIV veido vrdi ar nievjou un ironisku ekspresvo nokrsu, tiem seko leksmas ar nicinoas, vulgras, mlinjuma un humoristiskas ekspresvs nokrsas marjumu. 62
Inguna TEILNE. Emocionli ekspresvie vrdi Kalupes izloksnes vrdnc
Savukrt pc vrdirm ekspresvs leksikas iedaljums ir ds: darbbas vrdi (538), lietvrdi (151), 7 pabas vrdi, pa vienam vietniekvrdam (nakas (II 15)) un apstka vrdam (meki (I 619)). Rakst mints noskaidrot, kds jdzieniskais saturs ir visvairk pakauts emocionli ekspresvajam vrtjumam. Ekscerptais materils rda, ka visbagtk ekspresija piemt: verbiem iet, aiziet (kas ir viens no semantiski ietilpgkajiem vrdiem gan izloksns, gan literraj valod); verbiem ar nozmi atnkt, lietot alkoholiskos dzrienus, runt, sist; lietvrdiem, kas apzm personas rakstura pabas (parasti nosodmas) un rjo izskatu. Piemram verbi ar nozmi atnkt: nievjuma nokrsa
acaduet// atnkt bez noteikta mra, atklst(I 134); eterit// grojoties atnkt (I 142); acak acakatynut// atnkt, atbraukt (I 142); t// lni atnkt(I 143); acavlk acavet// zvalstoties, grojoties atnkt(I 453); atkutit lnm atnkt (I 125); atukut skiem soiem atnkt, atskriet (I 128); atp etit tri, strauji atnkt, atskriet urp (I 130); ~ut// nevienmrg gait, gzeljoties atnkt (I 134); acacyl acakuprut// ar saliektu, kuprainu muguru atnkt (I 137); amrnavt tri, veikli atnkt (I 148).
ironiska nokrsa
Saldzinjumam minti vrdi ar nozmi aiziet: nievjuma nokrsa

izaduet// aiziet, aizklst bez noteikta mra, parasti trokaini (I 50); izagryt// aiziet, aizbraukt bez noteikta mra (I 50); izalaet// aiziet no kdas vietas prom (I 52); izaotut// aiziet, aizklst bez noteikta mra, parasti trokaini (I 54); eterit// grojoties aiziet (I 54); izak izakakatynut// aiziet, aizklst bez noteikta mra, parasti trokaini (I 54);
63
Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst izaat// aiziet, aizklst bez noteikta mra, parasti trokaini (I 55); izdldut aiziet // aizklst (par mjdzvnieku) (I 56); erit alkohola reibum aiziet (I 62); isklek im it smag gait aiziet (I 65);
~ut// gzeljoties aiziet (I 49); izacyl izagut// gzeljoties aiziet (I 50); izajukt// aiziet, aizbraukt (I 51); ism et tri aiziet prom (I 69).
ironiska nokrsa
Ir daudz lietvrdu, kas apzm personas rakstura pabas (parasti nosodmas) un rjo izskatu. pau grupu veido kopdzimtes lietvrdi, kas izsaka nevlamas vai pat dads gradcijas pakps nejaukas cilvku pabas, asocijas ar nolojamu rcbu. Piemram, vrdi ar nievjuma nokrsu:
bloza liels smagnjs cilvks to ku bloza boba, rasna i lela (I 180); a lempis ti a ju adgo da tirumm (I 585); ragaa vj, kaulains cilvks mot ragaa, a brni ku rutuli (II 282); rka ppa nasakl to rkys (I 586); murza netrgs cilvks musu mozajm murzi mlna mu (I 628); rba nekrtgs, nevgs, neizdargs cilvks ka tuc nakorteks c ~ l vks, ka jm vyss krit nu rkys ori, to soka: i, rba! (I 585); erka raudulgs brns erka jira tuc moss brnc, kas p ikti p ikt (II 97).
Nicinjuma nokrsa piemt vrdam skpderka skopulis (II 407), ironiska nokrsa derka cilvks, kas mdz nekrtgi, nevgi ko nolikt derka, kr tu grubekli i sokms nderi (I 273). Vairki nosodoi (nievjoi) vrdi veltti slinkm, nekrtgm sievietm, piemram,
mpa nekrtga, nevga sieviete kuda tagat izatieju, agruk be ku mpa (I 222); grua netrga sieviete ji tuda grua stigi (I 327);
64
Inguna TEILNE. Emocionli ekspresvie vrdi Kalupes izloksnes vrdnc grebi neglta, veca sieviete be tik vacys grebii sagoju (I 329); cacka skaista, slinka sieviete vu pajima ku cacku, dorba to nagrip darit (I 203); kraa skaista, slinka sieviete ti kraa tik grzus, dorba nagryp darit (I 514).
Attieksmes izteikanai ir izmantota saldzinana ar objektiem dab, noteiktm relijm, pret kurm cilvkam jau ir kda attieksme. Vrda grua pirm nozme KIV ir govs mslu apa upa, savukrt grebi ir purva beka, kam ir tymss verss, kurs mudri torpi mats, kuras ir glumys, ka izvard. Nievjuma nokrsa piemt vl daudziem vrdiem:
bruss liels, resns cilvks bruss lls i rasnys, i moskuteks c ~ l vks (I 193); uiks nekrtgs, netrgs cilvks uiki p drupynava mii pa em i (I 220); klmkons liela auguma, neveikls cilvks ka t lelm, smog m slm, to soka, re, kr klmkons t (I 500); lupatks nekrtgs, nevgs, noskrandis cilvks (I 582); gs pusaudzis(I 324); juda cilvks (parasti brns), kas mdz kpelt(I 460); ubraks nolaidgs, slinks cilvks (I 585) u. c. dtuks cilvks, kas mdz nekrtgi, nevgi ko nolikt dtuks jr tys, kas nmat kr kudu drebi vi kudu riku i izm erst, ~yka (I 266); kur pal na.kas sevii labs, izcils (par iedomgu, egoistisku cilvku) sprays vysu izaukstus, ka jis na.kas bytu (II 15). asys brns, pusaudzis, kas mdz daudz kpelt, piemram, pa ogiem, kokiem re, kr asys, pa vim ep erim iskupali, ikr nasarymsts (II 596); emka oti strdgs zemkopis ar prk auru redzesloku emka sprosc cyvks, jis cyta iko nazyna, ku tik lel dorbu daret (II 584) u. c.
Ironiska nokrsa piemt vrdiem:
Nicinoa nokrsa:
65
Negatvi vrtti lieli, resni, ldz ar to neveikli cilvki, resp., slikti darba veicji (ar skaisti, bet slinki). Tiek izsmiets, nievts tas, kas atiras no valodas lietotju priekstata par aklu darba dartju. Emocionli ekspresv leksika ne tikai pau subjektvo vrtjumu, bet, iespjams, ar iespaido klaustja situcijas uztveri, k ar pieir runai individualitti. Domjams, ka Kalupes izloksn ekspresvs izteiksmes iespjas ir daudz plakas, jo vrdncs ar pam nordm ievieto tikai vrdus ar objektvi piemtou ekspresiju.
LITERATRA damsons, ., Kagaine, E. Vainiu izloksnes vrdnca. 1.2. sj. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2000. Kagaine, E., Rae, S. remes izloksnes vrdnca. 1.3. sj. Rga: Zintne, 1977 1983. Kagaine, E. Nozmgs ieguldjums latvieu dialektlaj leksikogrfij. No: Raksti valodniecb. Liepja: LiePa, 2008, 95. lpp. Latvieu literrs valodas vrdnca. 1. sj. Rga: Zintne, 1972, 13. lpp. Latvieu valodas vrdnca. Rga: Avots, 2006, 9. lpp. Rena, A. Kalupes izloksnes vrdnca. 1.2. sj. Rga: Latvieu valodas institts, 1998. Rena, A. Raksti valodniecb 1. 2. sj. Liepja: LiePu, 2008. Valodniecbas pamatterminu skaidrojo vrdnca. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2007.
Emotive Words in Dictionary of Kalupe Sub-Dialect Summary

The author of Dictionary of Kalupe Sub-Dialect is Antoina Rena. The dictionary was prepared for publication by Doctor of Humanities Alberts Sarkanis; it was published in 1998. It is a relatively full-type dictionary of regional words. Lexis is one of the main elements that renders emotive information in a language. Alongside neutral words, which are used in any speech situation, expressive lexis is used also in sub-dialects. The content of emotional expressive information is actualized by the connotational components of lexical meaning, which convey the speakers subjective, evaluative attitude towards the object, the addressee, or the setting of a speech
66
Inguna TEILNE. Emocionli ekspresvie vrdi Kalupes izloksnes vrdnc event. Subjective evaluation may be positive expressing praise, appreciation, delight, sincerity; and negative expressing reproach, condemnation, derision. In the present paper words are considered taking into account the indicators of their emotionally expressive use: words with the shade of meaning of endearment, humour, disdain, irony, contempt, and vulgarity. In the Dictionary of Kalupe Sub-Dialect the greatest group consists of words with pejorative and ironical expressivity; they are followed by lexemes marked with disdainful, vulgar, endearment and humorous expressivity. Considering the belonging of emotive words to word categories, their division is the following: verbs (538), nouns (151), 7 adjectives, one pronoun and one adverb. The author of the paper has made an attempt to clarify which conceptual content is subjected to emotionally expressive evaluation most of all. The analysis of the excerpted material testifies to the fact that the richest expressivity is characteristic of: verbs iet, aiziet (go, leave), verbs with the meaning come, arrive, to use alcoholic beverages, speak, beat; nouns denoting features of a persons character (usually condemnable) or appearance. Expressive lexis does not only convey the speakers subjective evaluation, but, probably, also influences the listeners perception of the situation in the way intended by the speaker, as well as makes ones speech sound more individual. Supposedly, the possibilities of expressivity in Kalupe sub-dialect are much greater than reflected in the dictionary since special indications in dictionaries are allocated only to words with objectively inherent expressivity.
67

( )
(1529, 1566, 1588)

: , , , , , , . , - . (1529, 1566, 1588), , , . .. [1970], .. [1966], .. [1961]. , . -. (1529, 1566, 1588). - . , . . .. , [ 1977: 140161]. , , .. [ 1977: 156]. 68
. ..
. , . , , , (: + ). , -, .. [ 1961: 238] -, . , , - , , , , , . , , ( ) , : [. 2: 1348] (. 1529-6.5.168, . 1566-1.1.15)1, (. 1529-10.5.262, . 1588-3.17.120); (. 1566-4.18.75, . 1588-3.35.131) (. 1566-3.27.56). [. : 603] , - 15641566 . : (. 1566-4.2.65) < . ziemsky [USJP 4: 998], (. 1566-4.16.73) < . zamkowy [USJP 4: 829] (. 1566-1.18.24), (. 1566-4.61.96) < . podkomorski [USJP 3: 234), (. 1588-3.22.128) < . duchowny [USJP 1: 716], (. 1588-4.42.172) < . polubowny [USJP 3: 323], (. 1588-4.52.181) < . komisarz < . Kommissar < . commissarius [D3: 163], (. 1588-7.22.33) < . grodzki [USJP 3: 1150], (. 1588-4.95.207) < .
1
, , .
69
trybunal < . tribunal [D: 325]; [. 3: 600] (. 1566-4.60.96), (. 1588-4.1.38); [. 3: 524] / (. 1529-6.19.182, 6.10.176), , (. 1529-8.2.218), (. 1566-14.27.188, . 1588-7.7.236), (. 1566-4.44.90, . 1588-9.6.255), (. 1566-4.9.69) (. 1566-4.23. 78); [. 1: 685] (. 1529-1.13.74, . 1566-14.25.187, . 1588-14.1.330) (. 1566-10.1.143, . 1588-4.64.190), (. 1566-4.57.95, . 1588-4.82.199), , (. 1588-1.27.97); [. 1: 258] (. 1529-13.2. 294, . 1588-14.24.342) (. 1566-14.18.184); [. 3: 1492] (. 1529-11. . 268, . 158812.12.317), (. 1566-14.29.188, . 1588-12.12.317), (. 1566-11.9.169), (. 1588-14.1.330), .. ; [. 2: 91] , (. 1529-3.15.118, . 1566-13.2.172, . 1588-1.5.82), .. , (. 1529-2. . 90, . 1566-3.29.57, . 1588-12.14.319), (. 1529-1.22.84, . 1566-3.24.54) < . pospolity [D: 254], (. 1588-2.23.109); [. 3: 423] (. 1529-11.1.268, . 1566-8.5.131, . 1588-8.9.250); [. 3: 1497] (. 1529-5.7.146, . 156613.5.173, . 1588-12.19.321), [. 1: 972] (. 1529-1.8.70), (. 1566-4.68.100, . 1588-4.98.209); [. 1: 1094] (. 1529-3.15.116, . 1566-3.35.60, . 1588-3.30. 126), (. 1529-4.1.122, . 15664.34.85) < . ruhm [. 2: 309]; [. 1: 538] (. 1529-1.18.80, . 1566-3.38.61, . 1588-6.9.229), (. 1529-7.11.202, . 1566-5.8.108, . 15886.7.228) < . zupeny [D: 123]. , , . , , 70
. ..
, , < . majtno [D: 195], , . , , , . , , < . list [D: 190], < . rok [D: 286] .. , : / (. 1529-1.14.74, . 1566-4.66.98), (. 1529-1.11.72), (. 1566-1.18.23), (. 15883.6.116), (. 1588-4.9.147). , , , : (. 1529-6.12.178), (. 1566-4.1.63), (. 1588-1.34.101) . : (. 1566-2.2.32) (. 1588-3.6.116) < . seym walny [: 328], (. 1529-4.1.122, . 1566-5.4. 106, . 1588-5.5.217) < . stolec [D: 308], (. 1566-9.7.136, . 1588-9.5.255) < . grunt < . Grund [D: 152], (. 1566-2.14.37, . 1588-4.65.190) < . wyrok [D: 74] .. - (: + ). , . , (. 1529-2.11.102, . 1566-1.4.17, . 1588-1.2.80). [ 7: 73], [.: 229], [ 14: 50], . karanie. (. 1529-1.1.64, . 1566-1.5.17, . 1588-4.31. 165). 71
(,1529-1.6.68, . 1566-4.41.89, . 1588-11.6.281). . . kara gardem [USJP 2: 4647]. (. 1529-2.12.104, . 156611.2.150, . 1588-14.30.345). . . traci [USJP 4: 96]. , : (. 1566-11.15.158, . 1588-11.49.304), (. 15664.35.86, . 1588-14.30.345), (. 1566-2.14.37, . 15885.16.221), (. 1566-4.52.93, . 1588-9.2.252). . , , (. 1529-1.5.68, . 1566-1.12.21, . 1588-12.9.316), (. 1529-6.18.180). .. [. 2: 490]. (. 1588-1.9.84). . . wizienie [D: 58]. (1529), (1566) (3.18.52), ... (14.4.178), (14.20.185), (1588) ... (14.11.338). / (. 1529-1.1.64, . 1566-8.7.132, . 1588-4.25.158). , , , , . , , , , (1529) : (1.1.64), (7.29.214), (1588) (11.56.306). . . stracenie [USJP 3: 1407]. .. [1: 616] : 1. , 2. . , // . , : (. 1529-1.1.64, . 1566-1.1.15, . 1588-1.1.80), (. 1588-1.14.89). 72
. ..
: (. 1529-7.29.214, . 156611.33.164, . 1588-11.17.286), (. 1529-13.1.294, . 1566-14.22.186, . 1588-14.19.340). [.: 709]. . , (. 152913.13.302, . 1566-14.14.182, . 1588-14.11.338). , : (. 1529-13.1.294, . 1566-14.25.187, . 1588-14.27.344), (. 1566-14.4.178, . 1588-3.22.122). (. 2: 1723), (.:147) ( 8: 218) . (1588) : (12.22.323), / () (4.9.147). , ( ). /, [.:3: 1336], [.: 671] [ 2: 492] : (. 1529-7.4.196, . 1566-4.70.101, . 1588-1.24.94), (. 1529-1.23.84, . 1566-1.27.29, . 1588-4.3.141), (. 1529-13.4.296, . 1566-4.21.77, . 1588-4.48.178), (. 1529-5.14.152, . 15668.1.129, . 1588-8.1.247), (. 1529-4.13. 134), (. 1529-4.9.132), (. 1529-12.5.284, . 1566-11.27.162, . 1588-9.16.261), (. 1529-5.10.150, . 1566-4.67.99, . 1588-6.6.228), (. 15296.18.180, . 1566-11.11.155, . 1588- 11.40.300), (. 1566-4.43.90, . 1588-14.4.334), (. 1566-10.3.144, . 1588-11.40.299), (. 1566-4.19.75, . 1588-4.50.180), (. 1566-10.4.145, . 1588-11.35.297), (. 1566-4.19.75, . 1588-4.64.190), (. 1566-13.2. 172, . 1588-13.2.325) . 73
, , , , (. 1529-2.8.100, 2.13.104, 6.23.186, 7.1.194, 11.1.268, . 1566-1.25.28, 11.30.163, 13.6.173, 11.2.151, . 1588-11.22.89, 11.20.287, 9.23.266). , : , , (. 1529-6.23.184, 8.13.20, 8.3.220) . : / (. 1529-5.8.148, . 1566-1.4.17, . 1588-1.4.81). , , . [.: 266]. / (. 15292.4.96, . 1566-9.9.136, . 1588-11.7.281) . [: 254] przevod prawa , ; (. 1529-5.6.146, . 1566-6.10.117, . 1588-6.15.232); (. 1529-6.3.164, . 1566-4.62.97); (. 1529-1.3.66); / (. 1529-6.1.162), ( 8: 173). , (1529, 1566, 1588) . . (: + ) ( ): , , , , , , , , , . ( , -): , , , , , . - (: + ): / , . ( 74
. ..
) , , . /, . ( ; ; ; . , , - ( , ), ( , , , , , ).
i, .. i. .: i ii . i: i xi, 1970, . 293336. , .. . : , 1973. , .. . .: . . 3. . : , 1977, . 140161. . , . C - . : .. , 1874. , .. XIV XVI . .: . : - , 1961, . 237255. , .. XVXVII . . , 1966. . , .. . -: , 1870. XIXVII ./ . .. . . 128. : , 19752008. XIVXV . 2- . : , 19771978.
75
Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst XVI- XVII .: 28- . , I i. I. . . (i. .). . 114. i, 19942008. . , .. . . 1 3. -.: , 18931903. . 1529 . .II. . 1. , . : , 1991. . 1566 1566. .: . . 23. , 1855. . 1588 1588. . . . : . USJP Uniwersalny sownik jzyka polskiego. St. Dubisz (red.). T. 14. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2003.
Set Phrases in Statutes of Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1529, 1566, 1588) Summary
An investigation into both lexis and phraseology of the East Slavonic languages of the period of their formation is of great importance for the historical lexicology. The object of research of this article is the formation of set phrases of the terminological character in the three editions of the Statute of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, 1529, 1566, 1588. The aim of the present research is a description and analysis of set phrasal units, their semantics and structure. As far as the constitutives of the set phrases are concerned, the structure of the largest group of the terms is: noun+adjective (in grammatical agreement) used either prepositionally or, most often, postpositionally. In such nominal phrases the core constituents very often are Old Russian polysemantic words or, in a number of cases, foreign words, most often Polonisms. The basic words and their attributives adjectives, as a rule, make up two-component phrasal units, they function as terminological units and belong to different thematic groups. Another structural model rather frequently occurring in the Statutes is a unit of verb+noun in various transpositions of the components. In the course of the comparative analysis of the texts of the Statutes it has been discovered that in the set phrasal units the same verbs recur, however, in combinations with different nouns. In the article, apart from the above indicated aspects of the set phrasal units, the synonymy of the phrases has also been investigated.
76
Sintija BLUMBERGA
(Ventspils Augstskola)
Ja Paklona devums tulkojumzintnes attstb Latvij

Atslgvrdi: tulkojumzintne, tulkoanas teorija, tulkoanas prakse, atdzejoana Jnis Paklons sav saldzinoi saj m paspjis padart daudz vi strdjis par vcu valodas skolotju Daugavpils vakarskol un par latu valodas skolotju Daugavpils medicnas skol, bijis tulkotjs un literatrzintnieks. No 1960. ldz 1967. gadam Jnis Paklons bijis doctjs Latvijas Valsts universittes Filoloijas fakultt, bet no 1974. gada via darba gaitas saisttas ar Daugavpils Pedagoisko instittu (tagad Daugavpils Universitti), kur vi dibinjis un izveidojis Latvieu valodas un literatras katedru, kuru vadja ldz pat ma galam. Pie Ja Paklona nozmgkajiem darbiem jmin Herders un latvieu literatra (gadagrmata Varavksne, 1978), Jauni materili latvieu un krievu literro sakaru vsturei (krjums Krievu un latvieu literrie sakari, 1982), Krievu dzeja pirmajs latvieu antoloijs (krjums Latvieu un krievu literrie sakari, 1984). Kop ar citiem Jnis Paklons tulkojis J. V. Gtes krjumu Dzeja (1983). 1973. gad Jnis Paklons aizstvja zintu kandidta disertciju Krievu dzeja latvieu valod (19441969). Sav zintniski ptnieciskaj darb vi pievrsies dailiteratras tulkoanas vstures, teorijas un prakses jautjumiem, ko aplkojis daudzs publikcijs pres, galvenokrt laikrakst Literatra un Mksla un urnl Karogs. Lai izvrttu Ja Paklona devumu tulkojumzintnes attstb Latvij, jem vr politiskie apstki, kdos Latvija atrads. Otr pasaules kara beigs Latvij tiek atjaunota padomju okupcija, kas ilgst ldz 1991. gadam. Augstk likumdoanas un izpildu vara formli pieder Latvijas PSR Augstkajai padomei un Ministru padomei, tau realitt visu nosaka Maskava. Visdadkajs dzves sfrs notiek sovetizcija, paralli latvieu valodai funkcion krievu valoda, kuras loma Latvijas sabiedrb un ietekme uz latvieu valodu arvien pieaug. 77
Jau tlt pc Latvijas iekauanas Padomju Savienb tiek nodibinta LPSR Galven literatras prvalde organizcija, kas uzrauga publikciju saturu un lemj, ko Padomju Savienbas iedzvotjs drkst last un redzt. Kaut ar PSRS Konstitcij ir rakstts, ka Padomju Savienb ir vrda brvba, faktiski pastv politisk cenzra [Avotia u. c. 2003: 360361]. Pc neilga politisk atkua XX gadsimta 60. gados atskas ideoloiskais spiediens uz radoo intelienci, aizliedzot jebkdu brvdombu. Tpat nav pieejama gandrz nekda objektva informcija par notiekoo Rietumvalsts. Btb visas ar kultru vai zintni saistts zias nk pastarpinti no krievu valod publictajiem avotiem. Aplkojot tulkojumzintnes attstbu pasaul, jsaka, ka XX gadsimta 50.60. gados ldztekus plaai tulkojumu izplatbai arvien straujk attsts tulkoanas teorija, dadas pieejas tulkoanai k zintnes nozarei un praksei, veidojas ar tulkoanu saistt terminoloija ldz ar to ar tulkojumu kritika iegst objektvku pamatu. Visum aj period arvien stingrkas pozcijas sk nostiprint tulkoanas lingvistisk teorija, tulkoana k starpkultru komunikcijas forma attsts tikai XX gadsimta 60. gadu beigs un 70. gadu skum. Runjot par tulkoanas teorijas un prakses attstbu pasaul, nevar nepiemint tulkoanas nozares uzplaukumu Padomju Savienb, ko liel mr noteica politiski apsvrumi nepiecieamba izplatt komunistisko ideoloiju viss dzves joms un padomju tautu draudzbas kultivana. Liela loma aj proces tika atvlta dailiteratrai un publicistikai. aj laik Krievij tiek izdotas gan teortiska, gan praktiska rakstura grmatas, kas pamat paredztas dadu svevalodu (piemram, vcu, angu, franu) apguvei augstskols, tau ts veidotas, lai paldztu studentiem izprast tulkoanas pamatus un autu attstt prasmes gan tehnisku, gan dailiteratras tekstu tulkoan. Laika period no 1944. gada Latvij tiek publicti dadi raksti un prskati par tulkoanu, ts lomu kultras dzv un galvenajm tulkoanas problmm, aizsktas plakas diskusijas par tulkoanas tmu gan laikrakstos Literatra un Mksla, Ca, Skolotju Avze, gan urnlos Karogs un Zintu Akadmijas Vstis, k ar Latvijas Valsts universittes zintnisko rakstu krjumos. Tulkoanas teorijas jautjumos tulkotji pamat atsaucas uz krievu tulkoanas teortiiem. Tiek propagandts relistisks tulkojums, acmredzot atvasinot o jdzienu no socilistisk relisma. T rakst Ce uz 78
Sintija BLUMBERGA. Ja Paklona devums tulkojumzintnes attstb Latvij
relismu Jnis Paklons uzsver, ka ievrojami padomju literatras zintnieki un tulkotji ir likui pamatus padomju relistisks tulkoanas (atdzejoanas) teorijai, kur ir visprinta msu labko tulkotju un atdzejotju ilggadj prakse [Paklons 1972: 4]. 1970. gad urnla Karogs redakcija aicina literatras darbiniekus, valodniekus, dzejniekus un dzejas cientjus skt sarunu par aktuliem atdzejoanas jautjumiem. Saruna par atdzejojumiem urnl Karogs ilgst veselu gadu, un publikcijs tiek aplkoti gan konkrti atdzejojumi un sniegta to kvalittes smalka analze, k ar aplkoti ar tulkoanas teoriju saistti jautjumi. Ar rakstu Atdzejojumu gradcija Jnis Paklons iesaists aktulu atdzejoanas problmu iztirzan. Vi norda, ka, izvrtjot atdzejojumu atbilstbu oriinlam, jem vr iespjam gradcija, jo ne vienmr atdzejotja mris ir radt preczu oriinla atveidojumu. Saska ar tulkoanas teoriju Jnis Paklons aplko dadus atdzejojumu paveidus, nordot, ka par atbilstou atdzejojumu var saukt tdu, kur pilngi atveidots oriinla saturs, izsakot autora idejisko nostju un mksliniecisko ieceri, ietverot to attiecg tlu sistm, ievrojot izteiksmes ldzeku lietojumu, formas patnbas, autora stila individuls savdabbas [Paklons 1970b: 138]. Ar citos rakstos Jnis Paklons pievras principilu tulkoanas problmu analzei. Rakst Gramatisks un leksisks novirzes atdzejojumos vi norda, ka, izvrtjot dzeju un atdzejojumus, pastv viens kopgs kritrijs latvieu literrs valodas normas, to izpratne un lietojums. Tomr atdzejojumos novirzes no valodas normm satopamas biek, un ts atrodamas gan fontikas, morfoloijas, ortogrfijas, interpunkcijas, gan leksikas lmen [Paklons 1970a: 4]. Kritiski izvrtjot kdu konkrtu atdzejojumu vai atdzejojumu izlasi, Jnis Paklons demonstr plaas zinanas konkrt dzejnieka dairad, k ar sniedz visaptverou informciju par ldz im veiktajiem autora darbu atdzejojumiem latvieu valod un to kvalitti. Aplkojot krievu dzejnieka Nikolaja ekrasova darbu atdzejojumus latvieu valod, Jnis Paklons run par satura un formas atbilstbu, nordot, ka atdzejotjiem vienmr btu jvads no atzias, ka galvenais nav tikai precza forml atbilstba, bet gan satura idejiski mksliniecisk ldzvrtba. Ja nav iespjas atveidot visus dzejas formas elementus, tad labk atteikties no kda nesvarga, lai nezaudtu domas izteiksmes skaidrbu (..) [Paklons 1971: 132]. No tulkoanas teorijas un prakses viedoka aktuls Jnim Paklonam iet tlu prveidojums atdzejojumos. Vi uzskata, ka ir jrun par neat79
bilstbm atdzejojuma mikrostruktr, kas skar dzejas pamatelementu tlu prveidojumu atdzejojumos. Autors norda, ka tls ir katra daidarba mazk mksliniecisk nia, kas, grupjoties un savijoties ar citiem tliem, veido visu daudzkrsaino dzejas audumu [Paklons 1972: 145]. Savos rakstos Jnis Paklons biei aplko jautjumu, kas skar leksikas slu atbilstbu atdzejojumos. Atdzejotjs nedrkst nenovrtt vrda iedarbbas spku ja jau autori tik prdomti izvlas valodas ldzekus tlu izveidei, tad ar atdzejotjiem btu rpgk japsver vrdu piederba pie dadiem leksikas sliem, lai labos atdzejojumos neienestu disonansi, kas mazina iepriekjo rindu emocionlo iedarbbu, autora stila vienotbu [Paklons 1973: 123]. Jnis Paklons run ar par literro mantojumu veco atdzejojumu apganu, izvrtanu, redianu un publicanu. Situcijs, kad sastopami agrk publicti konkrta darba atdzejojumi, jaunajiem atdzejotjiem nav jizvairs no iepriekjo kolu atradumiem, bet tiei otrdi, tie rpgi jizskata, jsaldzina ar oriinlu, jatrod kmes un novirzes, lai ts neatkrtotu. Nav jbaids rakstt agrk atdzejojuma veiksmgu vrdkopu vai atskau, ja tik t patiesi izsaka autora mksliniecisko ieceri [Paklons 1974: 5]. Lai izlemtu, vai nepiecieams kda konkrta atdzejojuma vai tulkojuma jauns variants, jem vr divi kritriji: 1) kda loma bijusi atdzejojumam/ tulkojumam t publicanas laik un 2) cik aktuls konkrtais atdzejojums/ tulkojums ir odien. Jnis Paklons uzsver, ka laik, kad strauj teorijas un prakses attstba, literro sakaru cieka izveidoans prasa, lai vismaz 50 70 gadu laik tos atjaunintu [Paklons 1978: 146]. Izvrtjot ar tulkoanu saistts aktualittes mintaj laika period, ir skaidrs, ka Latvij joprojm trkst izvrstas tulkoanas teorijas nepiecieams noskaidrot, apkopot un izvrtt padarto, lai uz veiksmgu tulkoanas prakses piemru bzes izstrdtu tulkoanas teorijas principus. Dzejnieks un atdzejotjs Rainis Remass rakst Trkstos sekundes simtdaas, runjot par atdzejoanas problmm, norda, ka oriinla stils gadu gait nezaud savu aktualitti, tau tulkojuma stils noveco samr tri, un ar nolu secina, ka mums ai jom tikpat k nav nopietnku ptjumu, jo sevii par attlkiem gadu desmitiem. Latvieu atdzejotji var atskatties gandrz uz 120 gadu praksi, bet atdzejoanas vstur, ko mdz ar saukt par tulkoanas teorijas vertikli, mums vl oti daudz baltu plankumu. Apzinoties to, pc k sav laik cents, ko panca un ko nespja pankt iepriekjs atdzejotju paaudzes, ms daudz skaidrk apjgtu, kur atrodamies odien un pc k vartu un vajadztu tiekties rt [Remass 1974: 5]. 80
Sintija BLUMBERGA. Ja Paklona devums tulkojumzintnes attstb Latvij
1978. gad Lietuv iznk Kazimira Ambrasa-Sasnavas grmata Tulkoanas zintne, kur aplkoti tulkoanas teorijas un prakses jautjumi. Tas ir pirmais da rakstura darbs lietuvieu valod. Grmat autors aplko tulkoanas jdzienu, tulkoanas zintnes objektu, tulkojuma vienbu, oriinla un tulkojuma valodas teksta loiski komunikatvs iezmes un tulkoanas veidus. Savukrt Latvij joprojm kavjas tulkoanas teorijas un tulkoanas metodiku izstrde, nav vadlniju vairkos jautjumos. 1980. gad ir sperts nozmgs solis tulkoanas teortisks bzes sagatavoan izdots Ja Paklona sastdtais mcbu materils studentu patstvgajam darbam Tulkoanas vstures un teorijas jautjumi. Darb konspektvi aplkota tulkoanas nozares attstbas vsture, skot no 3. gadsimta pirms msu ras ldz 20. gadsimta 70. gadu beigm. Materil ietverta informcija ar par tulkoanas attstbu Krievij un tulkoanas uzplaukumu Padomju Savienb, k ar zias par tulkojumiem latvieu valod (no latvieu rakstu valodas pirmskumiem 16. gadsimt ldz 20. gadsimta 70. gadiem). Autors apskata ar daus tulkoanas teorijas jautjumus, piemram, tulkojumu atbilstbu oriinlam, leksikoloijas, gramatikas un stilistikas jautjumus, tau jem vr, ka is darbs sarakstts Padomju Latvij valdos komunistisks ideoloijas apstkos un ne vienmr atspoguo relo situciju Latvij un vis Padomju Savienb, nemin vai neizce tos tulkoanas specilistus, kurus rems uzskatja par nevlamiem, tpc nepiecieams objektvks un plaks ptjums par tulkoanas teorijas un prakses attstbas tendencm Latvij, sistematizts materils, kas atspoguotu tulkojumu un tulkojumu kritikas kvalittes progresu. Nobeigum vl jpiebilst, ka Jnis Paklons bija uzscis darbu pie samr apjomgas monogrfijas Ievads tulkoanas zintn, kur autors bija plnojis aplkot tulkoanas zintnes izveidoanos, ts galvens sastvdaas, izskaidrot ts ptanas objektu un atbilstoo terminoloiju, k ar ieskict tulkoanas vstures, prakses un tulkojumu kritikas veidoanos Latvij. Tau dieml Jnim Paklonam neizdevs monogrfiju pabeigt un t netika publicta. Ms varam tikai mint, k is darbs btu ietekmjis tulkoanas teorijas un prakses attstbu Latvij un kdu impulsu devis tlkiem ptjumiem, tau neatkargi no t Jnis Paklons ir ierakstjis savu vrdu vstur, un ms turpinm godt via devumu tulkoanas teorijas un prakses attstb Latvij.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst LITERATRA Avotia, A., Blma, D., Ldaka, A. u. c. Latvijas kultras vsture. Rga: Zvaigzne ABC, 2003. 507 lpp. Paklons, J. Gramatisks un leksisks novirzes atdzejojumos. No: Literatra un Mksla, 1970a, 25. jl., 4. lpp. Paklons, J. Atdzejojumu gradcija. No: Karogs, Nr. 11, 1970b, 137.139. lpp. Paklons, J. Nikolaja ekrasova dzeja latvieu valod. No: Karogs, Nr. 12, 1971, 131.134. lpp. Paklons, J. Tlu prveidojums atdzejojumos. No: Karogs, Nr. 2, 1972, 145. 147. lpp. Paklons, J. Ce uz relismu. No: Literatra un Mksla, 1972, 28. okt., 4. lpp. Paklons, J. Leksikas slu atbilstba atdzejojumos. No: Karogs, Nr. 12, 1973, 122.125. lpp. Paklons, J. Saprast un izjust. No: Literatra un Mksla, 1974, 1. jn., 5. lpp. Paklons, J. Senai dziesmai jaunus vrdus. No: Karogs, Nr. 9, 1978, 142146. lpp. Remass, R. Trkstos sekundes simtdaas. No: Literatra un Mksla, 1974, 8. jn., 5. lpp.
The Contribution of Jnis Paklons into the Development of Translation Science in Latvia Summary
Jnis Paklons has left his name in history not only as a specialist in literature, translator and educationalist but also as an outstanding expert in the issues concerning translation theory and practice. In his research work Jnis Paklons mainly studied translation of poetry and looked for solutions for such fundamental translation problems as modification of images in poetry translations, lexical, gramatical and stylistic correspondence between the original and translation, maintenance of authors individual style and ideas. Jnis Paklons was also interested in literary heritage in digestion, evaluation, editing and publishing of old translations of poetry. Jnis Paklons has published lots of critical reviews evaluating particular translations of poetry or selected poetry works thus displaying broad and comprehensive knowledge in the given matter. When discussing translation theory Jnis Paklons refers to Russian translation theoreticians and popularizes realistic translation. In 1980 a study material for students Translation History and Theory Issues prepared by Jnis Paklons was published being the first material in Latvian of
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Sintija BLUMBERGA. Ja Paklona devums tulkojumzintnes attstb Latvij this kind and marking the beginning of a new period in translation studies in Latvia. In later years of his life Jnis Paklons started to work on a bulky monograph Introduction into Translatology but unfortunately he did not manage to finish the work and the monograph was not published. We can only guess how this monograph would have influenced the development of translation theory and practice in Latvia and what impulse would have been given to further studies. Nevertheless Jnis Paklons is a pioneer of translation studies in Latvia and we continue to honour his contribution into development of translation theory and practice in Latvia.
83
Jana BUTNE-ZARJUTA
Ptjumi latvieu un krievu antroponmik

Atslgvrdi: ptjumi antroponmik, personvrds, latvieu un krievu antroponmija Antroponmu vieta valodniecb un to specifika ir viens no aktulkajiem jautjumiem msdienu onomastik. Lai ar 1990. gad izdotaj Klva Silia Latvieu personvrdu vrdncas ievad mints, ka latvieu onomastik ldz im galven uzmanba pievrsta vietvrdiem, bet personvrdi ne sinhronisk, ne diahronisk aspekt nav plak apkopoti un apzinti (..) [Sili 1990: 5], pdjos gadu desmitos latvieu onomastikas un antroponmikas jautjumi ir diezgan plai ptti. Samr liela uzmanba tiek pievrsta iesaukm un vietvrdiem. Latvieu antroponmisti ptjumos galvenokrt pievras personvrdu vsturiskajam skatjumam un iesaukm to plakaj nozm. Msdiens Latvij ptjumus veic latvieu onomastik valodnieks Ojrs Bus (piemram, Bus O. Personvrdi, vietvrdi un citi vrdi: izptes pakpieni. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2003), jaunieu leksiku un iesaukas pta Vineta Ernstsone (piemram, Ernstsone V. Neoficilie vrdi jeb iesaukas jaunieu valod. Vrds un t ptanas aspekti. Rakstu krjums 6. Liepja: LiePA, 2002, 422. 427. lpp.), Inese Zuicka pievras iesaukm Centrllatgal (piemram, Zuicka I. Deonomastisks iesaukas Centrllatgal. XI Starptautiskais baltistu kongress. Tu materili. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2010, 203. lpp.), Ilze trausa pta Dobeles novada onomastikonu (piemram, trausa I. Iesaukas Ukru pagast. Onomastica Lettica, 3. laidiens. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2007, 131.158. lpp.), Jeena Koroova Latgales vecticbnieku izloksnes iesaukas (piemram, . . Valoda 2006. Humanitrs fakulttes XVI zintniskie lasjumi. Rakstu krjums. Daugavpils: DU Akadmiskais apgds Saule, 2006, 256.265. lpp.), 84
Jana BUTNE-ZARJUTA. Ptjumi latvieu un krievu antroponmik
Sandra Laizne pievras iesauku funkcionalittei Rzeknes novad (piemram, Laizne S. Iesauku funkcionalitte Lendu pagast. Valoda 2009. Humanitrs fakulttes XIX zintniskie lasjumi. Rakstu krjums. Daugavpils: DU Akadmiskais apgds Saule, 2009, 433. 441. lpp.), Latgalieu personvrdi ir Lilijas Jurtes ptjumu objekts (piemram, Jurte L. Kristmvrdi kdas Latgales dzimtas prstvju atmis. Valoda 2005. Humanitrs fakulttes XV zintniskie lasjumi. Rakstu krjums. Daugavpils: DU izdevniecba Saule, 2005, 29.34. lpp.), Gainas Pitkevias publikcijas velttas personvrdu prveidojumiem latvieu un krievu valod (piemram, . . Probleme de filologie slav, vol. XV. Timisoara, 2007, c. 178188), Pauls Balodis pta latvieu personvrdu etimoloisko semantiku (piemram, Balodis P. Latvieu personvrdu etimoloisks semantikas teortiskais modelis un t realizcija. Promocijas darbs. Rga, 2008), anna Bormane pievrsusies literrajai antroponmijai (piemram, Bormane . Antroponmi literr teksta tulkojum (A. Pukina dairade latvieu un vcu valod). Promocijas darbs. Rga, 2007), Linda Truevska saldzina somu un latvieu iesaukas (piemram, Truevska L. Somu un latvieu jaunieu iesaukas saldzino skatjum. Bakalaura darbs. Rga, 2010), Lidijas Leikumas publikcijas velttas Sibrijas latgalieu vietvrdiem un personvrdiem (piemram, Leikuma L. Sibrijas latgalieu personvrdi laika grieos. Latvijas Universittes raksti, 728. sj.: Valodniecba, latvistika. Rga: Latvijas Universitte, 2008, 43.80. lpp.), Laimute Balode pievras baltu onomastikas jautjumiem un ir apkopojusi latvieu antroponmikas bibliogrfiju (piemram, Balode L. Latvieu antroponmikas bibliogrfija. Onomastica Lettica, 3. laidiens. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2007, 269.280. lpp.). Lietuvieu iesaukas apzinjis valodnieks Alvds Butkus (piemram, Butkus A. Lietuvieu iesaukas: pardba un tradcijas. Valoda 2003. Humanitrs fakulttes XIII zintniskie lasjumi. Rakstu krjums. Daugavpils: DU izdevniecba Saule, 2003, 19.24. lpp.). Nozmgu devumu latvieu personvrdu izpt sniedzis Klvs Sili, vkdams un apstrddams latvieu personvrdus gan no senajiem vstures avotiem, gan no jaunk laika personu reistriem dados avotos. K. Silia Latvieu personvrdu vrdnca sniedz zias par personvrdu lietojumu 85
un izplatbu dados laikposmos un novados, k ar dod o vrdu nosactu cilmes skaidrojumu. Pagjuaj gadsimt latvieu personvrdus ptjis Ernests Blese (Blese E. Latvieu personu vrdu un uzvrdu studijas. 1929). Kurzemes un Zemgales iesaukas apzinjis Juris Plis (Plis J. Latvijas vietu vrdi un latvieu pavrdi. III, 19361939), bet Latgales iesaukm jeb palamm pievrsies Leonds Latkovskis (Latkovskis L. Latgau uzvrdi, palamas un dzymtas. I, II. Latgau izdevniecba, 19681971). Velta Staltmane ptjusi latvieu uzvrdus semantiskaj un morfoloiskaj skatjum (piemram, .. . . , 1981). Krievij antroponmik fundamentlus ptjumus veikusi Aleksandra Superanska (piemram, .B. . , 1973), Natlija Podoska (piemram, .. . , 1978; 1988), Nikolajs Petrovskis (piemram, o .. . 3- . : , 1984). Ar msdiens krievu antroponmijas jautjumi ir aktuli. Tiek plai ptts, piemram, personvrds komunikatvaj aspekt, iesaukas, izstrdti metodiski principi antroponmijas vienbu vkanai un analzei. Uzmanbas vrta ir latvieu priekvrdu doanas tradcija. Veckiem ir iespja ielkoties gan K. Silia personvrdu vrdnc, gan Gunnara Treimaa grmat Mlestb dzimis vrds, kur atrodami latvieu vrdadienu kalendr ieraksttie personvrdi. Katra vrda paniekam G. Treimanis sniedzis raksturojumu, izmantojot dzves laik krto pieredzi, un veltjis piemrotu dzejoli. Ldzgi ptjumi veikti ar krievu antroponmik. Lai ar antroponmisti pievras cilvku personvrdiem, to nomincijas sistmai, ptjumos nereti vrojama atirba antroponmikas terminoloij, jdzienu izpratn. Piemram, viens no ierastkajiem cilvka nosaukanas veidiem ir via vrds, kas biei vien sarunvalod tiek lietots prveidot form. di antroponmi tiek definti gan k iesaukas (latvieu un lietuvieu antroponmik), gan ar k atsevis neoficils nomincijas veids hipokoristikas un personvrdu dadas vrdformas (krievu antroponmik). Jsaka, ka latvieu antroponmik nav konsekvences iesaukas un personvrda prveidojuma noiran. o terminu semantika ir visai ldzga, tomr tie nosauc dadas, atirgas pardbas. Iesaukas pamat ir ts adresta kda subjektva, individula motivtjpazme. Savukrt adresta 86
Jana BUTNE-ZARJUTA. Ptjumi latvieu un krievu antroponmik
personvrdu prveidotajs forms individul motivtjpazme izpaliek, nav raksturojoas funkcijas, tikai nosauco. Lietuvieu antroponmists A. Butkus norda, ka par iesauku var kt ar personvrda variants, ja tas tiek lietots kdas patnbas izcelanai. Ja personvrda variants papildinformciju nesniedz, tas nav uzskatms par iesauku [Butkus 1995: 21]. aj gadjum tiek runts par hipokoristiku jeb hipokoristisku vrdu personvrda (parasti priekvrda) sasintu vai citdi prveidotu neoficilu formu. Ldzgs doms ir ar krievu valodniece N. Podoska, uzsverot, ka individulo vrdu vai uzvrdu prveidojums parasti netiek uzskatts par iesauku [ 1978: 50]. Riebiu novada iesauku ptniece I. Zuicka run par transonomastiskm iesaukm ts ir iesaukas, kuru pamat ir cits onms vai vairki onmi. Visbiek iesaukas tiek darintas no individulajiem vrdiem un uzvrdiem [Zuicka 2008: 413]. Ar ptniece I. trausa analiz iesaukas, kas radus no personvrdiem uz fontisko, semantisko vai onomastisko asociciju pamata [trausa 2007: 132] jeb asociatvs iesaukas, ldzgi A. Butkus ptjumam [Butkus 1995: 27]. Runjot par iesaukas un personvrda prveidojuma diferenciciju, jem vr ne tikai valodnieku uzskati, bet ar psiholingvistiskais faktors proti, pati sabiedrba lielko dau antroponmu, kas akadmiskaj literatr tiek definti k hipokoristikas, personvrda prveidojumi, uztver k iesaukas. Sarets jautjums ir ar par antroponma, proti, priekvrda, semantiku. N. Podoskas Krievu onomastisks terminoloijas vrdnc termins onomastisk semantika skaidrots k pavrda ekstralingvistisk nozme, ko veido vairki specifiski elementi [ 1978: 99]. Daudzi krievu un angu onomasti (A. Superanska, J. Karpenko, D. Mills) uzskata, ka onmiem nepiemt patstvga semantika. Savukrt angu loiis H. Dozefs uzsver, ka pavrdiem ir ne tikai nozme, bet t ir pat bagtka nek apelatviem [Bus 2003: 275]. O. Bus run par pavrdu semantikas nacionlo specifiku. Vi atzm, ka pavrdam ir denotatv nozme vai nozmes, kas no tipoloisk viedoka ir visai ldzgas sugasvrdu denotatvajm nozmm. Kaut gan O. Bus pievras toponmu semantikas izptei, vi piebilst, ka jebkuram onmam, ar antroponmam, piemt ne tikai nacionli specifiska semantika, bet ar universlas iezmes, kuru analz var izmantot (ar dam atrunm) ar ts metodes, kas jau sen prbaudtas un par labm atztas, analizjot sugasvrdu semantiku [Bus 2003: 302]. aj rakst aplkoti ptjumi latvieu un krievu antroponmik, tostarp iezmtas dadas nostdnes antroponmistu uzskatos. Pamatjautjumi 87
izskatti visprgi, skarts btiskkais, uz k pamata tiek izstrdts plaks ptjums Neoficilie antroponmi msdienu komunikcij: latvieu un krievu valodas sastatmais aspekts.
LITERATRA Bus, O. Personvrdi, vietvrdi un citi vrdi: izptes pakpieni. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2003. 310 lpp. Butkus, A. Lietuvi pravards. Kaunas: Aesti, 1995. 262 pl. Sili, K. Latvieu personvrdu vrdnca. Rga: Zintne, 1990. 349 lpp. trausa, I. Iesaukas Ukru pagast. No: Onomastica Lettica, 3. laidiens. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2007, 131.158. lpp. Zuicka, I. Riebiu novada iesauku derivcija. No: Latgale k kultras pierobea. Daugavpils: Daugavpils Universittes Akadmiskais apgds Saule, 2008, 409. 417. lpp. , .. . , 1978.
Studies of Latvian and Russian Person Names Summary

Topicality of the work is determined by a need for new theoretical and practical studies of Latvian person names, especially in the field of informal person nominations. The aim of the research work is to study the informal person nomination in most typical of functioning environments in their onomastic and sociolinguistic aspect: to focus on the informal person names segment differentiation, their research history; to analyze the issue of understanding the concept of nicknames and hipokoristic names in Latvian, Russian and other languages; to compare pupils, students and other segments of society motivation for unofficial person names and their formation. University students in their term papers, bachelors, masters papers, as well as high school students in their research activities and projects often address their parish or school nicknames, but there has not been an expanded research of unofficial person nominations for study and comparison of different segments of person names in Latvian linguistics so far. Linguistic material of changes of person names is interesting and important for their uniqueness, variability, sociolinguistic role.
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Monta FARNESTE
(University of Latvia)
Organization of Argumentative Essays in Latvian and English

Key words: argumentative essay, organization, contrastive analysis: Latvian v. English Introduction The prior research demonstrates that there are different approaches to writing in different cultures in contrast to Anglo-American way of writing, for example, in German [Clyne 1987], Lithuanian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Russian [Konovalov 2006]. It was also found that English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students in Latvia face several problems in structuring argumentative essays [Farneste 2011], namely problems in choosing an appropriate title, thesis statement, topic sentences, and supports to meet the purpose of communication. As there has been no contrastive analysis found on argumentative essays in Latvian and English, the goal of the paper is to find out what is understood by an argumentative essay (AE) and its structure in Latvian (the L1 or native language) and English (the target language). Notion of an essay in Latvian According to the dictionaries of the Latvian language, the essay means a short literary critical contemplation [Literrs valodas vrdnca 1973: 509] or a publicistic contemplation [Latvieu valodas vrdnca 1998: 213]. The dictionary of pedagogical terms, however, provides one more meaning of an essay, which is a composition used as a form of assessment at school and university. It may contain elements of research [Beickis et al 2000: 50]. It is written in different subjects at school [Lce 2011: 36]. Thus, nowadays in Latvian, two types of essays (esejas) are distinguished: a literary essay and an AE [ibid.: 3746]. An AE is defined as a composition, where the author expresses his/ her opinion about a theme and supports it as well as shows his/her emotional attitude to the problem or phenomenon under discussion [Lce 2011: 37]. As Lce [ibid.: 38] puts it, the writer must follow the opinion-arguments89
conclusions sequence. An AE has three parts: (1) an introduction, which states the aim and the main ideas; (2) a body, which comprises several paragraphs introduced by a topic sentence; (3) the conclusion or a summary of the discussed ideas, which may be complemented by a solution of a problem or further development of the idea [Beickis et al 2000: 50]. According to Lce, the introduction has three basic functions: providing information about the theme, mentioning the main idea, and indicating how the essay is developed. This part of an essay may contain quotations as well as information about the sources. As to the last paragraph, it should not only provide conclusions, but also demonstrate the writers emotional attitude [2011: 38]. Notion of an essay in English In contrast to Latvian, in Anglo-American theories we can find different views on what an AE means. According to Grabe and Kaplan [1996: 364], an argument paper is a standard genre in which they [students] take a position on an issue. The writer is supposed to consider both sides of an argument and provide a persuasive explanation for choosing one position over another [ibid: 364]. Bazerman [1989: 110112], in contrast, views an AE in a context of expressing ones opinion after reading. He indicates that the introduction of such a type of writing contains a thesis statement which shows the writers position on an issue, which is restated at the end of the essay. Sorenson [1992: 344], in her turn, distinguishes two types of essays based on the writers judgement: an opinion essay [OE] and a persuasive essay [PE]. If the first type is written to share ideas, the other has a purpose to change the readers mind. Both essays are written on a controversial theme, but the thesis statement of an OE cannot be proved or disproved, as it is a matter of the writers view (e.g. The Freedom Festival is more enjoyable than any other activity sponsored by the City of Kingston) [ibid.: 346; italics mine]. Sorenson mentions two terms persuasive and argumentative interchangeably to refer to the writing which aims at convincing the reader [ibid.: 381]. In contrast to an OE, a PE includes both arguments and their refutation with the aim to show that the writer understands the opponents claims [Smalley and Ruetten, 1990: 405406; Sorenson 1992: 381382]. It is interesting that Savage and Mayer [2005: 85] call such an essay an opinion essay, meaning that the writer expresses his/her opinion by using objective arguments. 90
Monta FARNESTE. Organization of Argumentative Essays in Latvian..
Sorenson distinguishes two approaches to structuring a PE depending on the character of opposition: weak or strong. If in the first case, it is enough to provide a position and arguments, in the other case, both the arguments and their rebuttal with additional arguments would be used to support the writers position [Sorenson 1992: 384385]. Rooks considers that arguments can be neutral and persuasive [Rooks, 1999: 177], thus an AE and a PE could be viewed as two different types of essays with different purposes of communication. Analysis of sample essays in Latvian and English To do qualitative analysis of the organization of AEs, sample essays included in books on writing were chosen, as they are given as good patterns for students to learn from. As the volume of this paper is limited, only a few samples will be discussed in detail and the paragraphs will be partly cited. The first essay Am I a patriot? (Vai es esmu patriote?) under analysis has been written in Latvian [Artas essay in Lce 2011: 3839] and translated by the author of this paper. After reading the title, it could be concluded that the purpose of writing this essay is to give an answer to the question. The introduction of the essay narrows the theme from S (sentence) 1 to the main idea (S 2) mentioned in the title and three basic supports (S 4), which are further found in the topic sentences of each body paragraph (see the signal words in bold):
e.g. (1) With patriotism I understand the feelings of love towards my kinsfolk, region, and Latvia. (2) I consider that I belong to those people who are real patriots of their country. (3) How does my patriotism show up? (4) My feelings of patriotism show up in three ways in love towards my kinsfolk, region, and Latvia
However, in the conclusion of the essay, it is seen that the answer to the question is not provided, as the writer has expanded the theme to people in general and addresses the reader by using the personal pronoun you (tavs):
e.g. (1) A country cannot exist if the largest part of inhabitants are not patriots. (2) It is especially important for young people to realise their feelings of patriotism. (3) Pride in their kinsfolk can be educated by a family. (4) It is important that inhabitants of each place in Latvia could realise the riches of their nature and culture un feel patriotism in such a way. (5) It is possible to become a patriot of Latvia by realising that your work is also some contribution to Latvia and by respecting its history. (ibid.: 40)
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Thus, the main idea which has been given in the introduction is not restated in the conclusion. Showing the writers emotional attitude it has been changed in S5 from the author as a patriot to the a reader, an inhabitant, especially young. Similarly, in the essay About Sympathy provided by Urevica, the writer introduces two cases of sympathy, as if going to write a classification essay, then the body paragraphs exemplify each of the cases, but in the conclusion the writer states what the main value of sympathy is (S1) and ends with a proposition in S2:
e.g. (1) There are different cases of sympathy, different are their ways of expression, but the main value of sympathy is the feeling of the strong shoulder, the return of belief in life, sometimes, however, for a short period of time, but nevertheless. (2) Therefore sympathy in peoples relationship should always exist as a vital, warming power. [Rihards essay in Urevica, 2010: 8081; translation mine]
The next essay Separating the Sexes, Just for the Tough Years was written in English [Oshima and Hogue 2006: 144145]. In the first paragraph of the essay, the writer introduces the theme and gradually narrows it (S1S4) to the writers position in the main clause of the thesis statement (S6) (the signal words are put in bold):
e.g. (1) The middle school years are known to be the tough years. (2) These are the years when the uneven pace of girls and boys development is most noticeable. (3) Girls are ahead of boys on all counts, and both suffer. (4) Educators debate whether separating boys and girls during these difficult years might improve students academic performance. (5) Separate classes are now prohibited ., but a change in the federal law that prohibits them is under consideration. (6) Although some parents and educators oppose same-sex classes, there is some evidence that separating boys and girls in middle school yields positive results.
In S6, it is suggested that the body of the essay will provide evidence to support the claim or proposition. As seen in the sample below, after demonstrating the knowledge of the opponents arguments, the writer gives his/her arguments by using the signal word however. The sources mentioned are cited in the brackets and provided in the footnote; thus demonstrating some research elements:
e.g. Para. 2: Opponents of single-sex education claim that test scores of students in all-girl or all-boy classes are no higher than those of
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Monta FARNESTE. Organization of Argumentative Essays in Latvian.. students in mixed classes (Study). 1 However , the research is inconclusive. Despite the fact that some. Para 3: Opponents also maintain that separate classes (or separate schools send the message that males and females cannot work together. They say that . However, such an argument Para 4: The final argument advanced by opponents of same-sex education is that it is discriminatory and, therefore, unconstitutional. However, research supports
The essay ends with a conclusion which summarises the writers arguments and restates the thesis by calling for action (the signal words: should be changed in S 8):
e.g. (1) It should be evident that the arguments against same-sex classes are not valid. (2) On the contrary, many people involved in middle education say that same-sex classes provide a better learning environment. (3) Boys and girls pay less attention to each other and more attention to their schoolwork (Marquez).5 (4) As one teacher noted . [] (8) Therefore, in my opinion, the law prohibiting same-sex classes in public schools should be changed.
Thus, the writer has introduced his/her position, supported it, and summarised at the end of the essay. Conclusions Although the analysis of essay writing is based on the discussion of a few samples, we can notice some tendencies and draw the following conclusions: In contrast to the Latvian notion AE, which means the discussion of arguments to support an opinion, an AE in English may imply not only the use of arguments, but also counter-arguments to demonstrate understanding of the opponents views. The terms an OE, AE and PE are sometimes used interchangeably in English, as they imply the discussion of a controversial theme. However, we can distinguish between a neutral argument and a persuasive argument, and in both cases the writer expresses his/her opinion on a theme; thus an AE and PE could be viewed as separate types. In both languages, the main idea of an AE is commonly stated in the introductory part and each paragraph should start with a topic sentence. Only if the opposition is strong, the writer can mention his/her position after providing the arguments for it. 93
In contrast to English, in Latvian sample essays the writer may modify the main idea in the conclusion expressed in the title or in the introduction to demonstrate his/her emotional attitude. It should be pointed out that the research should be continued to be able to generalize the findings. In further research more sample texts in Latvian and English should be analysed.
LITERATURE Bazerman, C. The Informed Writer. Using Sources in the Disciplines, 3rd edit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1989. Beickis, I.; Blma, D.; Koe, T.; Markus, D.; Skujia, V.; alme, A. Pedagoijas terminu skaidrojo vrdnca. Termini latvieu, angu, vcu, krievu valod. Rga: Zvaigzne ABC, 2000. Clyne, M. Discourse structures and discourse expectations: implications for AngloGerman academic communication in English. In: L.E. Smith (ed.) Discourse Across Cultures. Strategies in World Englishes. New York: Prentice Hall, 1987, pp. 7383. Farneste, M. Non-native students problems in structuring argumentative essays in English at tertiary level. In: Language, Learning and Teaching Chapter 14: Linguistics and Applied Linguistics. S.L. Lee and V. Tuzlukova (eds.). Athens: Athens Institute for Education and Research, 2011, pp. 159169. Grabe, W.; Kaplan, R. B. Theory and Practice of Writing. Applied Linguistics and Language Study. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1996. Konovalov, V. Transfer in the academic texts of non-English writers. In: Conference Proceedings of EATAW Athens Conference 2005 Teaching Writing On Line and Face to Face, June 2224. Athens: Hellenic American Union. [CD], 2006. Lce, R. Padomdevjs domraksta autoram 7. un 12. klas. Rga: Zvaigzne ABC, 2011. Latvieu valodas vrdnca. Rga: Avots, 1998. Literrs valodas vrdnca, 2. sjums. Rga: Zintne, 1973. Oshima, A.; Hogue, A. Writing Academic English, 4th edit. New York: Pearson Education, 2006. Rooks, G. M. Paragraph Power, 2nd edit. New York: Longman, Pearson, 1999. Savage, A.; Mayer, P. Effective Academic Writing 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Smalley, R. L.; Ruetten, M. K. Refining Composition Skills: Rhetoric and Grammar for ESL Students, 3rd edit. Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers, 1990.
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Monta FARNESTE. Organization of Argumentative Essays in Latvian.. Sorenson, S. Student Writing Handbook, 2nd edit. New York: Macmillan, 1992. Urevica, S. Rokasgrmata latvieu valod. Svargkais, kas jzina latvieu valodas lietotjiem. Rga: Zvaigzne ABC, 2010.
Argumentatvo eseju struktra latvieu un angu valod Kopsavilkums

Iepriekjie ptjumu rezultti ir pardjui, ka dads kultrs ir atirgi viedoki, k pareizi strukturt tekstu. Studenti, kuri apgst angu valodu k svevalodu, biei savos darbos neprot formult virsrakstu, galveno domu, atlast faktus t pamatoanai, lai stenotu izvlto sazias mri. ptjuma mris bija noskaidrot, kdas ir ldzgs un atirgs iezmes argumentatvo eseju rakstan latvieu un angu valod. Ptjuma rezultt tika konstatts, ka argumentatvs esejas latvieu valod raksta ar mri paust savu viedokli un izrdt savu emocionlo attieksmi par tematu, savukrt angu valod da eseja parasti ir rakstta par pretrungu tematu, izklstot gan pretj viedoka prstvju pretargumentus, gan autora argumentus. Eseju analzes rezultt tika secints, ka latvieu valod, izsakot savu emocionlo attieksmi pret aplkojamo pardbu, autors var modifict galveno domu, kas ir izteikta virsrakst vai formulta ievad. Lai ptjuma rezulttus vartu visprint, ir nepiecieams veikt plaka materila kvalitatvo analzi.
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Nedas JURGAITIS
(Staatliche Fachhochschule iauliai)
Einige Aspekte der Konzeptualisierung der Krise im Deutschen und Litauischen

Schlsselwrter: Konzept, Krise, konzeptuelle Metapher, kontrastive Analyse Das Wort Krise wurde zu einem der am hufigsten verwendeten Begriffe der vergangenen Jahre nicht nur im wirtschaftlichen oder finanziellen Sinne. Geistige Krise, Ehekrise, Wertekrise, Familienkrise, Persnlichkeitskrise, Teenager-Krise, Midlife-Crisis, Demokratiekrise, Russlandkrise, Kubakrise, Japankrise, Nahost-Krise, Vulkanaschen-Krise, Flutkrise, Regierungskrise, EHEC-Krise, BSE-Krise, kologische Krise, Wulff-Krise und andere Krisen werden sowohl in deutschen als auch in litauischen Medien behandelt. Die internationale Wirtschaftskrise seit 2007 steht bis jetzt im Mittelpunkt des ffentlichen Diskurses. Diese Aufmerksamkeit soll die konzeptuelle Welt verschiedener Vlker und Kulturen beeinflusst und Spuren in der Sprache hinterlassen haben, die in diesem Beitrag unter kognitiver Perspektive untersucht werden. Heutzutage wird ber die kommende zweite Wirtschaftskrise diskutiert, deswegen gewinnt diese Untersuchung an Aktualitt. Das Krisenphnomen kann nicht mit menschlichen Sinnen erfasst werden; man spricht ber das Konzept KRISE, das am besten durch sprachliche Mittel erschlossen werden kann. Das Objekt der Untersuchung ist der sprachliche Ausdruck des Konzeptes KRISE im Deutschen und Litauischen. In anthropologisch orientierten Untersuchungen wird behauptet, dass der Inhalt eines Konzeptes nicht nur aus Wrtern, sondern auch aus phraseologischen Verbindungen, einfachen Wortverbindungen, Satzmodellen, einzelnen Texten und der Gesamtheit der Texte besteht [Popova, Sternin 1999: 21]. Fr die geplante Untersuchung ist die Metaphorik beider Sprachen als Bereich des sprachlichen Weltbildes von groer Bedeutung. Laut V. N. Telija stellt die Metapher ein wichtiges Instrument zur Bildung des sprachlichen Weltbildes dar [Telija 1988: 4]. Die Metaphernanalyse, so viel sei hier vorweggenommen, 96
Nedas JURGAITIS. Einige Aspekte der Konzeptualisierung der Krise..
beansprucht fr sich, die Verbindungen von Sprache, Bewusstsein und kollektiven wie individuellen Bildern fr Interaktionen, Gefhle und Kognitionen rekonstruieren zu knnen [Schmitt 1995]. Das Ziel der Untersuchung ist die Erschlieung der Gesetzmigkeiten der Konzeptualisierung der Krise im Deutschen und Litauischen und der Vergleich der Fragmente des sprachlichen Weltbildes in beiden Sprachen, die im sprachlichen Ausdruck des Konzeptes KRISE verankert sind. Die in diesem Artikel vorgestellten Forschungsergebnisse sind vorerst als einleitende Bemerkungen einer geplanten Promotionsuntersuchung zu betrachten, daher werden nur kurz formulierte Schlussfolgerungen geliefert. Die Untersuchung ist nur auf den Teil des Konzeptes KRISE begrenzt, der in der Sprache verankert ist, weil der gesamte Inhalt des Konzeptes nicht nur im Sprachsystem vertreten ist. Es wird geplant, auch nur einen Teil des Konzeptes zu erschlieen, weil ein Konzept eine umfangreiche globale Denkeinheit darstellt, die keine klaren Grenzen hat. Auerdem behaupten russische Sprachwissenschaftler [Popova, Sternin 1999: 11], dass kein Forscher und keine linguistische Untersuchung die vollstndige sprachliche Reprsentation eines Konzeptes erschlieen knne; Vieles bliebe dabei unentdeckt. Bei der Planung der Untersuchung offenbarte sich das Problem der Vergleichbarkeit der Konzepte KRIZ und KRISE. An dieser Stelle sollte man ber asymmetrische Konzepte von KRIZ / KRISE im Litauischen und Deutschen sprechen, weil die Konzepte nicht bereinstimmen. Sie beinhalten nicht nur kognitive, sondern auch axiologische und kulturspezifische Informationen [Karasik 2005: 89 in Toleikien 2008: 140]. Das gesetzte Ziel wird durch folgende Aufgaben unserer Untersuchung erreicht: a) die Definition des Konzeptinhalts und des Konzeptumfangs in beiden Sprachen, damit ein korrekter Vergleich ermglicht wird; b) die Festlegung der theoretischen Grundlagen und der Untersuchungsmethodik durch Synthese der Untersuchungsergebnisse; c) die Ermittlung einer Bezugsgre; d) die Zusammenstellung des empirischen Materials fr die kontrastive Analyse; e) die vergleichende Analyse des Krisenkonzeptes in beiden Sprachen, wobei man auf die Semantik der sprachlichen Einheiten eingeht; f) Zusammenfassung und Bewertung der Forschungsergebnisse im Paradigma der ethnolinguistischen Untersuchungen. 97
Um den Inhalt des abstrakten Konzeptes KRISE zu erschlieen, bedient man sich in dieser Untersuchung der Analyse konzeptueller Metaphern. Zum Beispiel ist im Satz Schuble will Ursachen der Schuldenkrise bekmpfen die konzeptuelle Metapher KRISE IST FEIND aktualisiert. Eine auf diese Weise verstandene Metapher ist keine dekorierende Stilfigur, sondern eine Denkweise. Mit anderen Worten, unsere Sprache ist metaphorisch: ohne es zu bemerken, sagen wir die Krise bekmpfen, weil unsere Denkstrategie metaphorisch ist [Lakoff 2003]. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse werden kontrastiv behandelt, wobei man sowohl auf hnlichkeiten als auch auf Unterschiede des sprachlichen Weltbildes im Deutschen und Litauischen eingeht. Als Bezugsgre, oder tertium comparationis, dient hier das kognitive System, das aus den Elementen besteht, die einerseits auf unserer Erfahrung beruhen und die andererseits durch die sprachlichen Einheiten, d. h. durch die Seme, zu vollziehen sind. Damit kann man hnlichkeiten und Unterschiede der Sprachen unabhngig vom Standpunkt der Muttersprache beurteilen. Sonst besteht die Gefahr, dass beim kontrastiven Vergleich die Merkmale einer Sprache im Spiegel der anderen aufgezeigt werden und nicht alle Kategorien der Untersuchungssprache aufgedeckt werden. Da konzeptuelle Metaphern mit der kulturellen Erfahrung eines Volkes verbunden sind, sollte die Krisenkonzeptualisierung im Deutschen und Litauischen unterschiedlich sein [Papaurlyt 2003: 26]. Das empirische Material fr die kontrastive Analyse wird aus den Textkorpora beider Sprachen (Textkorpora des Instituts fr Deutsche Sprache in Mannheim (IDS) und Textkorpus der litauischen Gegenwartssprache der Vytautas Magnus Universitt), lexikographischen Quellen sowie aktuellsten Medientexten entnommen. Medientexte sind fr die Arbeit eine wichtige Belegquelle, weil sie die Tendenzen der Gegenwartssprache widerspiegeln [Lger 1995: 22]. Sowohl in Litauen als auch in der Welt ist die Wende vom 20. zum 21. Jahrhundert durch verschiedene negative soziale, politische und wirtschaftliche Erscheinungen gekennzeichnet. Das Krisenthema wurde jedoch erst Ende 2007 mit der Weltfinanzkrise besonders aktuell. Der berblick des Forschungsstandes zeigt jedoch, dass, durch die relative Novitt des Krisenphnomens bedingt, die Zahl der linguistischen Untersuchungen, die sich mit diesem Thema befassen, besonders im Litauischen, begrenzt ist. Im letzten Jahrzehnt wurden in Litauen einige Dissertationen angefertigt, 98
die konzeptuelle Metaphern im politischen Diskurs behandeln. Sie sind aber nicht direkt mit dem Krisenthema verbunden. Die im russischen Sprachraum verffentlichte Dissertation von T.A. Prokofjeva (2006) behandelt den sprachlichen Ausdruck des Konzepts KRISE in russischen lexikographischen Quellen und Zeitungstexten, die den Zeitraum 19982005 abdecken. Das besondere Interesse gilt hier der Russlandkrise im Jahre 1998. Die Untersuchung ist leider nur auf das Russische begrenzt. Eine spezielle Ausgabe der Zeitschrift Aptum. Zeitschrift fr Sprachkritik und Sprachkultur (2010) beinhaltet Artikel, die auf die Sprache der aktuellen globalen Finanz- und Wirtschaftskrise in deutsch- und englischsprachigen Medien unter verschiedenen Aspekten eingehen. Als Belegquellen dienen hier Der Spiegel, Der Standard, Die Presse, Wirtschaftsblatt, St. Galler Tagblatt, der British National Corpus. Der politische Diskurs ist fr die geplante Untersuchung einer der wichtigsten Belegquellen, weil die Krisenerscheinung eng mit der Politik verbunden ist. In den Aussagen der Politiker werden die Ursachen, der Verlauf und die Folgen der Krisen analysiert. Dabei bedient man sich oft der metaphorischen bertragung, zum Beispiel:
Auf Bundes- und Lnderebene bemhten sich Regierungen und Behrden, die Krise einzudmmen.
Die metaphorische bertragung geschieht nicht auf der sprachlichen, sondern auf der konzeptuellen Ebene zwischen zwei unterschiedlichen Konzeptbereichen. Auf der sprachlichen Ebene ist dieser Vorgang in verschiedenen konventionell-metaphorischen Redewendungen zu erkennen [Jkel 1997: 22]. Die ersten Recherchen in den Textkorpora beider Sprachen haben ergeben, dass die Sprache ber die Krise vorwiegend metaphorisch ist. Folgt man der kognitiven Metapherntheorie von G. Lakoff und M. Johnson, so kann man die aus den Textkorpora entnommenen Belege als ontologische Metaphern einstufen. Sie beziehen sich auf die Erfahrungen des Menschen mit konkreten Objekten und Substanzen in seiner Umwelt, die auf abstrakte Vorstellungen projiziert werden und ihnen die Eigenschaften von Objekten bzw. Substanzen verleihen. Wenn eine Erfahrung erst einmal als Entitt oder Substanz identifiziert wurde, kann man sich auf sie beziehen, sie kate99
gorisieren, sie quantifizieren und sie letztlich reflektieren [Lakoff, Johnson 1998: 35]. Sowohl im Deutschen als auch im Litauischen wird die Krise sehr oft als eine Entitt oder Substanz dargestellt. Anhand einzelner Belege darf man behaupten, dass dieser Vorstellung in beiden Sprachen unterschiedliche sprachliche Ausdrcke zugrunde liegen, zum Beispiel:
Die Krise frisst sich durch Europa recte Die Krise frisst sich immer weiter in die Realwirtschaft hinein.
Die Belege basieren auf der konzeptuellen Metapher KRISE IST WURM, die im litauischen Belegkorpus jedoch nicht besttigt wurde. Dagegen wird im Litauischen die Metapher KRISE IST RAUBTIER offenbar:
Tuo metu, kai ekonomin kriz drasko Europ... Finans kriz grauia automobili pramon.
Textbelege beider Sprachen zeugen davon, dass Eigenschaften einer Pflanze der Krise zugeordnet werden:
Mit David Harvey sprach Chad Kautzer ber Prekarisierung, Stadtentwicklungspolitik und die urbanen Wurzeln der Krise. Ekonomins krizs aknys, autoriaus nuomone, pirmiausia gldi ia, Lietuvoje, o ne u Atlanto.
Der Krisenzustand wird beidsprachig als eine Krankheit konzeptualisiert. In den untersuchten Medientexten wurden die metaphorischen Ausdrcke sich von der Krise erholen, die Krise bricht aus, krizs simptomai pasireik, skol krizs ukratas festgestellt. Zahlreiche Belege konnten unter der konzeptuellen Metapher KRISE IST FEIND zusammengefasst werden:
Die Gewerkschaften seien imstande, gegen die Krise anzugehen, sagte Ewald. Pranczijos prezidentas Nicolas Sarkozy ir Vokietijos kancler Angela Merkel pirmadien susitiks aptarti kovos su skol krize priemoni.
Die Autoren deutscher und litauischer Medientexte bedienen sich der konzeptuellen Metapher KRISE IST MASCHINE: Krisenmechanismus, die Krise programmieren, krizs mechanizmas, kriz buvo uprogramuota. In beiden Sprachgemeinschaften dienen Naturkatastrophen als Ausgangsbereich fr metaphorische Ausdrcke wie Krisenwelle, die Krise erschttert, kriz ald, sudrebino. Im deutschen Belegkorpus wurden 100
Belege exzerpiert, die die konzeptuelle Metapher KRISE IST SPRENGSTOFF bezeugen:
Krise der Landesbank sprengt den Staatshaushalt. Erst das Eingreifen der Bundespartei entschrfte die Krise.
Im Litauischen konnten dazu keine quivalenten Beispiele besttigt werden. Betrachtet man die Textbelege weiter, so kann man in beiden Sprachen die konzeptuelle Metapher KRISE IST TIEFE feststellen:
Spanien und Italien rutschen tiefer in die Schuldenkrise. Tarp mokest didinusi valstybi papuol ne tik gili kriz igyvenusios visos Baltijos alys ar Graikija, bet ir tokios stiprios alys kaip Suomija bei ekija.
Die Krise kann in beiden Sprachen als Substanz konzeptualisiert werden. Man bedient sich der physischen SCHWER-Erfahrung, die man als SCHLECHT kennt. Dies fhrt zu metaphorischen Ausdrcken wie die Krise drckt, eine schwere Krise, sunki kriz, kriz spaudia. Schlussbemerkungen. Die Recherche im IDS-Korpus ergab mehr als 3600 Krisenarten (oder Komposita mit dem Zweitglied -krise), im Litauischen dagegen einige hunderte. Dies mag daran liegen, dass die deutsche Sprache eine stark ausgeprgte Eigenschaft der Derivation und Zusammensetzung aufweist. Die Krisen werden sowohl im Litauischen als auch im Deutschen am hufigsten mit dem Oberbegriff Krise verallgemeinernd bezeichnet, obwohl es sehr viele Krisenarten gibt. Zum Beispiel wird die aktuelle Krise als Finanzkrise, Wirtschaftskrise, Bankenkrise oder als Subprime-Krise bezeichnet, aber die Medientexte bedienen sich meistens des Grundlexems Krise. Die berwiegend metaphorische Sprache ist auf das abstrakte Krisenphnomen zurckzufhren. Die Krise erscheint in den meisten Fllen in beiden Sprachen als etwas selbststndig Existierendes, Lebendiges, weil die Krise kommen, gehen, berspringen, berhren, Spuren hinterlassen, vor der Tr stehen, sitzen kann; sie hat ein Gesicht, Zhne, man hat den Eindruck, sie sei ein fremdes Wesen, das die ganze Welt, Staaten, Banken, Unternehmen und einzelne Menschen bedroht. Die untersuchten Belege zeigen, dass wir die Krise als eine Entitt oder Substanz betrachten. Wir knnen uns auf sie beziehen, sie quantifizieren, sie als Ursache sehen und in unserem Handel bercksichtigen. Die Analyse der konzeptuellen Metaphern in beiden Sprachen ergab keine Beweise fr eine positive Vorstellung des Krisenphnomens. Man 101
spricht von der Krise als Bedrohung von auen, die stndig bekmpft werden muss. Die konzeptuelle Analyse ergibt eine Dominanz zwischensprachlicher hnlichkeiten, was auf benachbarte Kulturrume (deutscher und litauischer) zurckzufhren ist.
LITERATURVERZEICHNIS Jkel, O. Metaphern in abstrakten Diskurs-Domnen: eine kognitiv-linguistische Untersuchung anhand der Bereiche Geistesttigkeit, Wirtschaft und Wissenschaft. Frankfurt/Main/Berlin/Bern: Lang, 1997, S. 22. Lakoff, G. Metaphor and War, Again. Metaphors can kill. 2003. Available: http://www.alternet.org/story/15414/ Lger, H. H. Pressesprache. Tbingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1995, S. 22. Papaurlyt, S. Sielvarto metaforos lietuvi ir rus kalbose. Filologija. Nr. 8. iauliai: iauli universiteto leidykla, 2003, S. 26. Schmitt, R. Fragmente eines kommentierten Lexikons der Alltagspsychologie. Available: http://qualitative-research.net/fqs/beirat/schmitt-1-d.htm Toleikien, R. Vilties samprata lietuvi ir vokiei kalb pasaulvaizdiuose: konceptualij metafor analiz. Filologija. Nr. 13. iauliai: iauli universiteto leidykla, 2008, S. 140. , . ., , . . . : - . -, 1999, S. 11, 21. , . . . . -, 2006. , . . . . . Available: http://linguists. narod.ru/downloads2.html. Textkorpora des Instituts fr Deutsche Sprache in Mannheim. Available: https://cosmas2.ids-mannheim.de/cosmas2-web/ Textkorpus der litauischen Gegenwartssprache der Vytautas Magnus Universitt. Accessed: http://www.tekstynas.vdu.lt/
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Some Aspects of the Conceptualization of Crisis in German and Lithuanian Summary

Crisis has become one of the most popular words of public discourse during recent decades not only in the economic but in the financial sense as well. Spiritual crisis, marriage crisis, middle-age crisis, Russian crisis, Japan nuclear crisis, Near East crisis, volcanic ash crisis, Georgian crisis, EHEC crisis, Mexico Gulf Coast crisis and other crises are in details analyzed by mass media in German-speaking countries as well as in Lithuania. Major part of attention paid by mass media to the global financial and economic crisis that started in 2007 must have had influence on the conceptual world of various nations and cultures and have left a trace in the language, which would be interesting to research. Crisis phenomenon cannot be perceived by human senses, thus we can talk about the concept of crisis, which is most effectively to be researched by analyzing language units representing it in the German and Lithuanian languages. The aim of the research is to compare the fragment of the linguistic world-view in the German and Lithuanian languages that has been fixed in the linguistic expression of the crisis concept, to set regularities of crisis conceptualization in both languages. In the present research we stick to the linguistic concept of crisis, which is a unit of collective awareness or consciousness that has linguistic expression and ethno-cultural specifics. The research embraces only this part of the crisis concept that has been fixed in the language because the entire content of the context is expressed not only in the system of a language. It is planned to research only a part of the concept because the concept is the outcome of individual cognition, generalization and categorization, a large amount unit of inconspicuous structure, whereof entirety is hard to express at one time. Not a single researcher or any linguistic research can completely reveal, fix and analyze the entire representation of a linguistic and colloquial concept in the language because there always remains something unexplored and unnoticed by the researcher. The results of the research would allow reconstructing and comparing the fragment of the linguistic world-view in the German and Lithuanian languages that has been fixed in the linguistic conception of crisis concept, would serve for ethno-linguistic research in which peculiarities of public discourse as well as its metaphoric expression are analyzed.
103

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Pragmatics of the Attributive Word-Combinations: Problems of Translations Summary

The article is devoted to the analysis of the pragmatic aspect of the attributive word-combinations. In the language of diaspora attributive word-combinations are regularly used in the form of semantics of which the influence of the Estonian language is discovered. Such word-combinations usually in the Russian language possess highly formal and functional variability. The analysis of the EstonianRussian translations of texts in different styles (officialese, scientific, advertisements, mass-media texts) demonstrates the whole range of the most frequent cases, which cause difficulties. One of the weak points are the attributive word-combinations. Their formation does not submit to the strict rules in the Russian language and it is possible to vary the forms of such word groups. The attributive word-combinations often have subjective meanings, various connotations, stylistic peculiarities. The lexical combinability of such language units is restricted, they depend on the specialized knowledge and the usual norms of frequency of the definite forms. The author of the given article pays special attention to the communicativepragmatic and cognitive-pragmatic factors which determine a choice of the attributive word-combination variant. A translator has to take into account all these parameters. The data obtained in search of the attributive word-combinations in the Russian National Corpus (www.ruscorpora.ru) were used for verification of the authors observations.
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Dace LIEPIA
Types of Equivalence in the Transfer of Legal Terminology from Latvian into English
Key words: equivalence, legal language, court, arbitration Harmonization and standardization of terms are two most important approaches in order to achieve equivalence in the use of terminology in the source language itself; however, an issue that remains largely unsolved is equivalence that should be sought in the transfer of legal terms from Latvian in English that would prevent any potential misunderstandings. To preserve the letter of the law legal translators have been traditionally bound by the principle of fidelity to the source text and yet they are subject to considerable constraints at all levels as the language of law is typically formulaic, obscure, archaic; legal discourse is culturally mediated; legal texts have a special pragmatic status. Moreover, there are profound differences in categories and concepts between legal systems: Anglo-Saxon (English) law and Roman-Germanic continental law which is at the basis of Latvian law. A significant boost to research in this area has been given by the development of European Union law generating the need for multilingual translations that would carry the same legal impact in all instances. The diversity of legal systems makes research in the field of legal terminology all the more difficult because a particular concept in a legal system may have no counterpart in other systems. Research in the area of legal translation has focused on the extent to which terms belonging to one legal system can be conveyed in the equivalent terms of another legal system. Translation theory lists a number of types of equivalence, such as stylistic equivalence, formal equivalence, communicational equivalence, linguistic equivalence, pragmatic equivalence, semantic equivalence, ontological equivalence, etc. [Gorle 1994: 170]. As a consequence terminological equivalence still continues to remain on the agenda as one of the most controversial issues the debate ranges from statements maintaining that terminological equivalence in law is a myth to statements of the fundamental impossibility and the unavoidable failure of achieving terminological 110
Dace LIEPIA. Types of Equivalence in the Transfer of Legal Terminology..
equivalence. Efforts aimed at achieving equivalence strive to give the lexis and terminology of two languages equal meaning and corresponding relevance as well as strives to endow them with the same legal effect based on legal interpretation of the source information. B. Hatim maintains that equivalence is an achievable goal, however, only if it is considered as the closest approximation to source text meaning [Hatim 2004: 8]. They also point out that full formal and dynamic equivalence is relative as there cannot be formally and dynamically equivalent target-language version of a source-language text [Hatim 2004: 8]. This is the reason, why still other scholars, among them M. Baker, consider equivalence although treated as an aid of transferring messages from the source language into the target language at the same time preserving the faithfulness of the source language text is seen as controversial, irrelevant, and even damaging [Baker 2009: 96]. It has generated the development of subtypes of equivalence to expand its application, as according to Shuttleworth and Cowie, it may ignore cultural, textual and other situational factors, which has an important role in the translation process [Shuttleworth and Cowie 1997: 50]. Over time there has been a gradual shift towards a more flexible attitude that has subsequently highlighted the need to define new criteria for equivalence specific to legal translation. Eventually it gave rise to the principle of legal equivalence [Beaupre 1986: 179] adding the consideration of the legal effect of the translation in the target culture to other criteria of equivalence. The emergence of this principle has ushered in the end of the traditional preference for an approach aimed at preserving the letter of the original as much as possible, and the shift to a more dynamic attitude. The emergence of the concept of legal equivalence has become a turning point in the history of translation in the given field. Legal equivalence is often referred to as functional equivalence and it is associated with the extent to which the same legal effect can be produced in the target language while maintaining fidelity to the source language. However, even though the principle of legal equivalence seemingly facilitates the transfer of legal concepts from the source language into the target language, these concepts although comparable may have designated certain legal differences. The term civilsieva in Latvian designates a woman cohabiting with a man in unregistered partnership and does not enjoy rights of an official spouse under civil law, and the English term traditionally used as an equivalent is common-law wife. However, under English common law a common111
law wife enjoys certain rights and in certain aspects of the law she is recognised as equivalent to a married person [Oxford Dictionary of Law 2003: 94]. The principle of legal equivalence becomes all the more relevant in the case of concepts that are specific for one legal system and where efforts are made still to retain the specific character of the concept. Another issue that still remains unsolved is the presence of synonyms employed in various texts by various translators thus in a way violating the principle of language consistency that the same equivalent is used everywhere where reference is made to a particular legal concept and it applies in equal measure to the transfer of terms from Latvian as the source language into English as the target language and from English as the source language into Latvian as the target language. Designations of official positions traditionally do not easily yield to translation and translations of designations of key official positions in Latvia bear evidence to the above as Ministru prezidents has been translated as Minister President and as Prime Minister; Augstks Tiesas prieksdtjs has had the following English equivalents in translations, Chairman of the Supreme Court, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, President of the Supreme Court, Saeimas Prieksdtjs has been Chairman of the Saeima, Chairman of the Parliament, President of the Parliament, Speaker of the Parliament while Saeimas komisija has turned into a Committee of the Saeima/Parliament following the analogy with the US Congress where all legislative work is undertaken by standing committees. At the very dawn of legislative reforms in Latvia the term britiesa designating a specific type of court dealing with guardianship and trusteeship matters [Britiesu likums 2009: Online] that had existed during the interbellum period and that was reintroduced to safeguard interests of children. In the early translations of the period required for legislative harmonization needs britiesa was translated as custody court emphasizing the custodial aspect of court jurisdiction. In the course of time other equivalents have been used family court and orphans court, the latter seeking to establish semantic equivalence with the term in the source language. However, a closer inspection of these equivalents reveals potential for misinterpretation as family court designates court in some states in the United States that has jurisdiction over family disputes, in particular if children are involved. They handle cases of child abuse and neglect proceedings, cases to determine paternity and for support of children born out of wedlock as well as proceedings to terminate custody by reason of permanent neglect, 112
proceedings on juvenile delinquency and whether a person is in need of supervision, family offenses proceedings [Blacks Law Dictionary 1991: 419]. The term Orphans court has an interesting history. The name and the idea behind Orphans Court were taken from the Court of the Orphans of the City of London. In the 17th century, this court protected the rights of minor children whose fathers had died. At this time, women could not own property, so the survival of the mother was immaterial. The practice was brought to North America by Lord Baltimore and orphans court was an organization established in the Chesapeake Bay colonies of early American settlers during the colonisation period to protect orphaned children and their right to their deceased familys estate from against claims and abuses by step-parents and others ((Cecil County Court: Online). Currently, according to Blacks Law Dictionary, modern-day orphans courts are probate courts dealing with succession issues, hearing matters involving wills of decedents estates which are contested and supervising estates which are probated judicially [Blacks Law Dictionary 1991: 760]. In both cases the jurisdiction of family and orphans courts is more extensive and it would be more appropriate to choose the equivalent custody court to ensure functional equivalence of terms. Not infrequently translations of national legislation reveal efforts to retain the specifics of a legal term in the source language rather than use internationally recognised legal terms used in international legal instruments. Arbitration as a legal phenomenon has a long-standing history dating back to Ancient Greece and Ancient China. Arbitration was recognised as a method on a global scale by the Hague Peace Conference of 1899. The Conference resulted in the adoption of the 1899 Hague Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, which was revised in 1907. The Convention served as the basis for the establishment of the Permanent Chamber of the Hague International Court of Arbitration. A considerable contribution to the development of international commercial arbitration has been given also by the International Council for Commercial Arbitration ICCA. Rules of Arbitration have been provided by the International Chamber of Commerce, effective as of 1999 (Rules of Arbitration 1999: Online). Subsequently there is considerable regulation in this particular area and a set of established, internationally recognised and used terms. However, irrespective of the above, English translations of Latvian legislation in this field reveal persisting efforts to achieve semantic 113
equivalence rather than functional equivalence the use of the semantic equivalent arbitration court instead of arbitration tribunal for the term rjtiesa; arbitration judge instead of arbitrator for the term rjtiesas tiesnesis; court panel instead of panel of arbitrators for the term rjtiesas sastvs. Amidst the diversity of legal concepts and efforts to find appropriate equivalents, it would be only wise to consider legal consequences that any inaccuracy might incur and even though it cannot be maintained that in the transfer of legal terminology from Latvian into English semantic equivalence seems to prevail, still there is evidence of efforts to achieve legal equivalence or functional equivalence. These efforts should be supported and further expanded to finally clarify the issue of appropriate equivalents and eliminate the existence of synonyms.
LITERATURE Baker, M (ed.). Routledge Encyclopaedia of Translation Studies. London & New York: Routledge, 1998. 680 p. Britiesu likums. [Accessed 23 January 2012]. Available: http://www.likumi.lv/ doc.php?id=139369 Beaupre, M. Interpreting Bilingual Legislation. Toronto: Carswell, 1986. 267 p. Blacks Law Dictionary. St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing Co. 1991. 797 p. Gorle, D. Semiotics and the Problem of Translation. Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi, 1994. 255 p. Hatim, B., Munday, J. Translation: an Advanced Resource Book. Oxon: Routledge, 2004. 373 p. Oxford Dictionary of Law. Oxford University Press 2003. 281 p. Rules of Arbitration. [Accessed 23 January 2012]. Available: http://www.iccwbo. org/uploadedFiles/Court/Arbitration/other/rules_arb_english.pdf Sarcevic, S. New Approach to Legal Translation. London: Kluwer Law International, 2000. 307 p. Shuttleworth, M. and Cowie, M. Dictionary of Translation Studies. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1997. 483 p. Cecil County Orphans Court. [Accessed 23 January 2012]. Available: http://cecilcounty.us/orphanscourt/
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Ekvivalences veidi juridisko terminu prnes no latvieu valodas angu valod Kopsavilkums
Terminoloijas harmonizcija un standartizcija ir divas svargks pieejas terminoloijas lietojuma sakrtoanai pa avotvalod. Tas pats attiecinms uz ekvivalenci terminu prnes no avotvalodas mrvalod. Anglosaku parau un romieu-vcu kontinentlo tiesbu jom pastv btiskas atirbas kategoriju un jdzienu zi. Tdjdi informcija tiek nodota ne tikai tiesbu sistmu, bet ar valodu ietvaros. Ptjumi juridisko tulkojumu jom ir vairk pievrsti terminoloiskajai ekvivalencei, cik liel mr vienai tiesbu sistmai piedergiem jdzieniem var rast ekvivalentu terminoloisku apzmjumu cit tiesbu sistm. Tiecoties saglabt likuma burtu, juridisko tekstu tulkotji tradicionli ir izturjuies ar pietti pret avottekstu un ir centuies rast vispiemrotko ekvivalentu mrvalod. Par pavrsiena punktu aj jom ir kuvusi juridisks ekvivalences jdziena pardans, kas biei vien tiek dvta ar par funkcionlo ekvivalenci, un kas terminoloijas prneses proces liek emt vr ar jdziena tiesisks sekas mrkultr, kam jbt ekvivalentm attiecg jdziena tiesiskajai ietekmei avotkultr. Juridisk ekvivalence var paldzt izvairties no interpretcijas kdm, k ar neatbilstgu sinonmu lietojuma informcijas prnes. Pagaidm t netiek konsekventi nodrointa juridisko terminu prnes no avotvalodas (latvieu valodas) mrvalod (angu valod).
115
Ilze OEHNOVIA
(Daugavpils University)
Phraseological Terminology in Latvian and English Linguistics

Key words: terminology, phraseology, phraseological unit, the use of phraseological units Nowadays technical and scientific vocabulary in general (including that of linguistics) is undergoing a great upswing of new terminology that is caused by the expansion of information technologies, application of high-technologies to various fields of scientific study, appearance and development of new scientific paradigms and the prompt development of interdisciplinary research. Scientists representing different sciences are interested in the same objects of research, and while studying them they create and use different terms for the same concepts thus bringing about a confusion that a non-specialist of their field but the one who studies the same phenomena has to disentangle. Currently a lot of scholars representing various fields of science are involved in the study of phraseology. Phraseological units are considered the phenomena of culture, and thus their functioning is investigated in the cultural context that in a number of studies is understood very widely as it is said to encompass all the possible written and spoken discourses and their perception by individuals of different ages, social classes, etc. Latvian scholar A. Laua states that phraseology is the part of a language which reflects the history of the nation and that of the humanity, a persons experience, objective reality, a particular world outlook [Laua 1992: 28]. Studying phraseology of a language one faces the problem of inconsistency of terms used in this field of study. This problem of terminology aggravates if one sets as her aim to investigate phraseology in the contrastive aspect: There have been complaints about terminological inconsistency since research on phraseology began outside of the former Soviet Union, and the objections are still heard today [Burger 2007: 10]. The very term phraseology can be used to illustrate the problem as its understanding does not meet one of the main requirements of terminology, 116
Ilze OEHNOVIA. Phraseological Terminology in Latvian and English..
namely, terms should be unambiguous [Skujia 2002], but in both English and Latvian linguistics the term phraseology is used to denote 1) the scientific discipline that studies phraseological units; 2) the totality of phraseological units in a language [VPSV 2007: 123; K 1986]. Stanislav Kavka and Jerzy Zybert [Kavka, Zybert 2004: 54] state that the term phraseology does not cover the vast domain of our interest since in common understanding it refers only to lexis, and note the fact that idiomatic expressions are based on semantic rather than lexical grounds, (..) the very term phraseology is derived from the base-term phrase, which for modern linguists has connotations of reference primarily to grammatical structures [Kavka, Zybert 2004: 55]. Instead, they advocate in favour of the term idiomatology as (..) we can be content with the way of thinking about a parallel to some other expressions of an apparently identical morphological structure. We speak traditionally of phonology, morphology, philology, and so on. Therefore the term idiomatology makes us regard the discipline as a truly linguistic one, treated as a field of science proper, i.e. one that has its objectives (goals) to probe and also its own methods of investigation [ibid.]. Still another term that is sometimes used to denominate the field of study we are interested in is idiomatics that is used to state the independence of another linguistic discipline, besides phonetics, pragmatics, and semantics [Anichkov 1992 in: Kavka, Zybert 2004: 59; ermk 1988]. The term used to denote the object of phraseological research is another significant example of the terminological inconsistency. Also in this case one can encounter a number of different terms used to denote the same phenomenon of language, such as phraseological unit, idiom, phraseologism, phraseme, phraseological expression, phraseological phrase, stable word-combination, stable phrase, set-phrase, idiomatic word-combination, etc. Not only the terms used by scholars representing different schools and scientific disciplines differ, so do also the definitions they provide for these linguistic units. Some authors differentiate between phraseologisms in a broad and a narrow sense, the distinguishing feature of phraseologisms is idiomaticity, whereas in a broad sense, collocations, proverbs and formulabased texts are included in the definition of phraseologisms (e.g. Filatkina, Hcki-Buhofer). Sometimes, phraseologisms in the narrow sense are defined as those shorter than a sentence, whereas those defined as phraseologisms in the broad sense have the characteristics of a sentence (see Liang) [Burger 2007: 11]. 117
Both in Latvian and English linguistics the term phraseologism is often used alongside the term introduced by Russian scholars, namely, phraseological unit ( ). But in the studies of English phraseology the terms idiom and phraseme are used more frequently, they are referred to the same concept as phraseologism = frazeoloisms in Latvian linguistics. The terms idiom and phraseme are used in the Latvian language, too, but their definitions are different from those traditionally provided in English: they are considered to be the sub-classes of phraseologisms. Although, we should note that also in the research of English phraseology there are studies in which idioms are viewed as a subset of phraseological units, in which an idiom is defined as a complex expression, the meaning of which cannot be derived from the meanings of its components, while a phraseological unit is an expression in which at least one constituent is polysemous [see: Weinreich 1972]. In Latvian linguistics a phraseologism is defined as a lexically indivisible combination of words that is relatively stable in respect of its composition and structure; it is fixed by the tradition of language, its meaning is usually connected with the transference of meaning of the whole word combination or its separate components, for example, pa galvu pa kaklu in a hurry, krt zobus vadz suffer hunger, mest plinti krmos to surrender [VPSV 2007: 124]. In Latvian linguistics all the phraseologisms are traditionally divided into two groups: 1) phrasemes (frazmas) phraseologisms with partial transfer of meaning [Laua 1992: 24]; phraseologisms, one component of which is used in its lexical meaning, for example, zili brnumi great miracles, slinks k maiss very lazy [VPSV 2007: 123]. 2) idioms (idiomas) phraseologisms with complete transfer of meaning [Laua 1992: 24]; phraseologisms, in which none of the components are used in their lexical meaning, for example, ar gariem zobiem unwillingly, uz karstm pdm immediately [VPSV 2007: 148]. The scholars studying phraseology of the English language use various terms: idioms = phraseological units = phraseologisms (it is interesting to note that Latvian scholars studying English phraseology also use different terms: thus A. Naciscione uses the term phraseological units [see, for instance, Naciscione 2001; 2002], but A. Veisbergs [see Veisbergs 1997; 1999] prefers the term idioms). In English philology a lot of different definitions of phraseological units have been worked out (this difference can 118
be accounted for by the aim of the particular research), but summarizing them we could define a phraseological unit as a grammatically and semantically stable, cohesive, conventionally fixed word combination with complete or partial transfer of meaning. The term phraseme in English linguistics is understood as a lexeme that forms one semantic unit although it is complex in its form, i.e., it consists of two or more lexemes. The examples presented testify to the fact that the term is attributed not only to phraseological units, but also to word combinations of non-phraseological character, comparisons and collocations, for example, so to speak, for a short time, goodness me, whats for dinner, good morning, dig your own grave, as a rule of thumb, the end of the road, pull someones leg. Although, Burger [Burger 2007: 12] states that the term phraseme is being used increasingly frequently in order to avoid using the more semantically restricted label of idiom. Sometimes, phraseologism and phraseme are both used alongside. He continues that set phrase is a widely-accepted term in English and it seems to be more appropriate as it does not collide with any other terminologies and substantiates this view stating that: Phraseme would be suitable as an international term, if Anglo-American authors could agree upon it as well. In view of the fact that English is the dominant scientific language, it can be assumed that parallel usage of phraseme and set phrase will continue. The term phraseme has the disadvantage that its suffix -eme emphasizes the systematic aspect (compare phoneme, morpheme, lexeme, texteme). It is probably impossible to cover all formulaic aspects other than idioms, collocations, etc. with this term. The term phraseme can only be used with restrictions as soon as the narrow subject of phraseology is left behind [ibid.]. As to the division of phraseological units in English linguistics we have to state that, the same as definitions, also the classifications of phraseological units are of various types. Sometimes, the term idiom is used as the generic term, and the subordinated terms are metaphorical expressions (metaforiski vrdu savienojumi), semi-idioms (dajas idiomas), pure idioms (pilnas idiomas) [Fernando, Flavell 1981], or the term phraseological units is used as the generic term for the terms idioms and phrasemes [Amosova 1963]; in the works by British and American scholars idioms are often included as a subgroup in the classification of collocations [see, for example, Howarth 1996], etc. We cannot but agree with what H. Burger writes in the introduction of the collection of articles Phraseology: Evidently, 119
the designation of subcategories is dependent on the choice of generic term. Collisions in the terminological systems can occur. This happens when one term is a generic term in a certain terminology and a designation of sub-category in another terminology. This can be observed in the cases of idiom and collocation, but also with other terms. It is always important to clarify which system the term belongs to [Burger 2007: 13]. In Latvian phraseology, on the contrary, the word combinations with rarely used meanings of components or restricted collocability (savienojumi ar auru saistmbu) are not to be considered phraseologisms, for example, gaisma svst, saule lec [Laua 1992: 25]. One of the fundamental features of a phraseological unit is that its meaning is not an analytic/compositional one, i.e. the meaning of a phraseological unit is not the sum of the lexical meanings of its components. In English linguistics to contradistinguish the compositional meaning of free word combinations and the meaning of phraseological units the term noncompositionality of meaning is being used. In Latvian the traditionally used term kopnozme could be considered to be the corresponding term. It is assumed that the meaning of a phraseological unit is based on some image, metaphorical picture [Laua 1992: 29]. The terms used to describe the image basis of phraseological units are well established and correspond in both Latvian and English linguistics: image = tls; imagery = tlainba, metaphorical picture = metaforiska glezna. To become a phraseological unit a free word combination has to undergo a rather complicated process of meaning transfer. In Latvian the term used to denote the process is nozmes prsemantizjums, which is often substituted by the term nozmes prnesums = transfer of meaning: the change of conceptual content of a word or a phrase (in the process of language development or in individual use), which is based on logical or imaginative and associative connection between the objects of reality; the main types of figurative meaning transfer are metaphor (metafora) and metonymy (metonmija) [VPSV 2007: 264]. It can also be based on hyperbola (hiperbola), litotes (litota), periphrasis (perifrze), epithet (epitets), irony (ironija), simile (saldzinjums). In Russian and Latvian linguistics the phraseological meaning (frazeoloisk nozme) is distinguished from the lexical meaning of words (leksisk nozme), the main peculiarity of phraseological meaning being the already-mentioned transference of meaning (nozmes prsemantizjums). Similarly, British and American scholars discuss the question of how dif120
ferent or still similar these two types of meaning are. The terms used to denote phraseological meaning are figurative meaning, transferred meaning, metaphorical meaning, sometimes even such terms as anomalous, isolated meaning are used. Motivation (motivcija) is another important feature of phraseological units. It is a link between the direct content of a word combination and its phraseological meaning [Laua 1992: 32]. In both Latvian and English linguistics scholars write about motivated (motivti frazeoloismi) and non-motivated phraseological units (nemotivti frazeoloismi). This link between the direct and transferred meaning is easily perceived in motivated phraseological units, while in non-motivated phraseological units it is not perceived so easily or it is not comprehended at all. This question is related to the etymology of phraseological units, which, unfortunately, has not been thoroughly studied either in English or in Latvian linguistics. The scholars views on the functioning of phraseological units also slightly differ in English and Latvian linguistics. In the studies of both languages phraseological units (frazeoloismi) are considered to function as parts of sentence (substantival, adjectival, verbal, adverbial, interjectional phraseological units = substantviski, adjektviski, verbli, adverbili, interjektvi frazeoloismi). But within the framework of English phraseological research the functions of phraseological units are being studied also in texts (discourse): the most important functions of phraseological units distinguished are: referential phraseological units fulfil the informative function (informatv funkcija), textual phraseological units carry out the text-formational function (tekstveides funkcija), and communicative phraseological units perform the stylistic function (stilistisk funkcija) [see Granger, Paquot 2008: 3742]. In Latvian linguistics scholars write about the environment of phraseologisms (frazeoloismu apkaime), in English phraseology these studies correspond to the research into the context of phraseological units or the use of phraseological units in discourse. The use of phraseological units in discourse is connected with the changes in their structure and semantics. A. Laua writes about occasional phraseologisms (okazionli frazeoloismi) individual transformations of phraseologisms, and she distinguishes structural occasionalisms (okazionlismi pc formas) and semantic occasionalisms (semantiski okazionlismi) [Laua 1992: 4445]. The scholars studying English phraseology use several terms to denote the same phenomenon: contextual use, contextual transformations [Veisbergs 1997], occasional use, occasional transfor121
mations [K 1986], creative modifications [Glser 1988], etc. A. Naciscione [2001] names this type of use the instantial stylistic use of phraseological units, and distinguishes dual actualization (the other terms used to denote it are: phraseological pun, wordplay, literalization, double exposure). In Latvian linguistics the term frazeoloisks kalambrs is used, the VPSV also includes the term kalambrs [VPSV 2007: 178] a stylistic device, a wordplay, which is based on different meanings of a word or similar or identical pronunciation of different words, extended metaphor (metaforas paplainjums), cleft use (there is no corresponding term in Latvian phraseology, we suggest using the concept parcelcija and assign it to the division of a phraseological unit into two parts by inserting a remark between its components frazeoloisma parcelcija1), allusion (alzija). Besides, we should mention also the various types of structural changes of phraseological units: addition, substitution, ellipsis, in Latvian we can use the terms papildinjums, substitcija, elipse correspondingly. Another term related to the meaning of phraseological units (as well as to that of other linguistic units), which has now come into the focus of British and American linguists is idiomaticity [Gibbs 1999]. In the dictionaries of terms in Latvian a similar term unfortunately has not been registered, though its meaning generally is the same as the meaning of the term transferred meaning (prnest nozme). The principal question in connection with idiomaticity (in Latvian we propose the term idiomtiskums) is how idiomatic phraseological units are, how great the difference between the separate lexical meanings of the components and the meaning of the whole phraseological unit is. The term idiomaticity is closely connected with the research of phraseological units in the framework of cognitive linguistics and psycholinguistics scholars are more interested not in the process of development of the meaning of phraseological units, but rather in the mechanisms that operate during recognition, perception, and comprehension of phraseological units. Languages reflect the contacts between nations and their interaction. Modern societys appreciation of innovations in any field of life, the development of interdisciplinary research, scientists aspirations to discover the undiscovered, and the new information technologies, all stimulate the transfer of knowledge between various fields of science in various languages.
During the discussion Professor Mris Balti suggested that in Latvian the term frazeoloisma eltlietojums might also be considered as a possible solution.
1
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The lexis of languages (including terminology) also undergoes changes more and more words from other languages enter native vocabularies. A lot of phraseological terms have entered Latvian (as well as English) through the Russian language. This fact is easy to account for as the Russian linguists were among the first scholars who seriously approached the research and theoretical description of phraseology. The influence of their theories is reflected in terminology that is used in research of phraseological systems of English, Latvian and other languages. It is a common recommendation to give preference to international terms as their use facilitates communication of specialists of the corresponding fields of science. But, on the other hand, there is a view that in every language it is necessary to work out its own scientific terminology. As it can be seen from all the said above, in Latvian phraseological terminology both borrowed terms and those of Latvian origin are used. Unfortunately, neither in English nor in Latvian there is any unified viewpoint or summary that would consider and analyze phraseological terms, their functions, specific character of their use and application. During the last decade there have appeared a lot of research works into the phraseology of English, but all the scholars write about the lack of unified terminological basis in phraseology. Another important concern is the scope of phraseology, i.e. whether sayings and proverbs are to be considered the object of phraseological study or they should be viewed as the object of paremiology only. The questions concerning the limits of phraseology, the influence of context on the meaning of phraseological units, peculiarities of their comprehension, etc. are interpreted differently, too; and this fact also adds to the complicacy of research into phraseology.
REFERENCES Burger, H. (ed.). Phraseology. An International Handbook of Contemporary Research. Vol. 1. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co.KG. 2007. ermk, F. On the Substance of Idioms. In: Folia Linguistica XXII/34, 1988, pp. 413438. Fernando, Ch., Flavell, R. On Idiom: Critical Views and Perspectives. In: Exeter Linguistic Studies, 5. Exeter: University of Exeter, 1981, pp. 1848. Gibbs, R.W. The Poetics of Mind: Figurative Thought, Language, and Understanding. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Glser, R. The Stylistic Potential of Phraseological Units in the Light of Genre Analysis. In: Cowie, A. P. (ed.) Phraseology. Theory, Analysis, and Applications. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988, pp. 2354. Granger, S., Paquot, M. Disentangling the Phraseological Web. In: Granger, S., Meunier, F. (eds.) Phraseology: an Interdisciplinary Perspective. John Benjamins B.V., 2008, pp. 2749. Howarth, P. Phraseology in English Academic Writing. Niemeyer, Tbingen, 1996. Kavka, S., Zybert, J. Glimpses on the History of Idiomaticity Issues. In: SKASE Journal of Theoretical Linguistics. Vol. 1, Nr. 1. Slovak Association for the Study of English, 2004. Available: http://www.pulib.sk/skase/Volumes/JTL01/ kavka.pdf (2010 01 30) Laua, A. Latvieu valodas frazeoloija. Rga: Zvaigzne, 1992. Naciscione, A. Phraseological Units in Discourse: Towards Applied Stylistics. Riga: Latvian Academy of Culture, 2001. Naciscione, A. Cohesion in Phraseology. In: Braasch, A., Povlsen, C. (eds.) Proceedings of the Tenth EURALEX International Congress, EURALEX 2002. Vol. 2. Copenhagen: Center for Sprogteknologi, 2002, pp. 534539. Skujia, V. Latvieu terminoloijas izstrdes principi. Rga: Latvieu valodas institts, 2002. VPSV Skujia Valentna (atb. red.) Valodniecbas pamatterminu skaidrojo vrdnca. Rga: Madonas poligrfists, 2007. Veisbergs, A. Idioms in Latvian. Riga: University of Latvia, 1999. Veisbergs, A. The Contextual Use of Idioms, Wordplay, and Translation. In: Delabatista, D. (ed.) Traductio. Essays on Punning and Translation, St. Jerome Publishing, 1997, pp. 155176. Weinreich, U. Explorations in Semantic Theory. The Hague/Paris: Mouton, 1972. , . . : , 1963. , . . : , 1986.
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Frazeoloijas terminoloija latvieu un angu valodniecb Kopsavilkums

Msdiens frazeoloijas jautjumu izptei pievras dadu lingvistikas nozaru specilisti. Tiek pttas gan frazeoloismu struktras un semantikas patnbas, gan to lietojums dada veida diskursos (frazeostilistika), frazeoloismu atpazanas iespjas (datorlingvistika) un uztveres patnbas (kognitv un psiholingvistika) utt. Tau dados ptjumos izmantotie termini biei vien ir atirgi, vl vairk sarejumu un terminoloijas jautjumu rodas, ja ptjums tiek veikts kontrastv aspekt. Tpc rakst ir apskatti angu un latvieu valodniecb frazeoloijas ptjumos izmantotie termini, veikts minjums skaidrot atirgo un kopgo angu un latvieu valodniecb pieemto terminu lietojum, k ar rast angu valodniecb lietoto terminu ekvivalentus latvieu valod. Uzmanba pievrsta tdiem frazeoloijas terminiem, to defincijm un variantiem k frazeoloija, frazeoloisms, frazma, idioma, idiomtiskums, nozmes prsematizjums, kopnozme, idiomtiskums, motivcija, k ar terminiem, kuri tiek izmantoti, ptot frazeoloismu funkcijas kontekst, frazeoloismu kontekstlietojuma veidus un frazeoloismu okazionls strukturls un semantisks izmaias diskurs.
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Leksmu ilgas un ilgoties semantisk analze Janua Vievska romn Vientulba tmekl un t tulkojum latvieu valod
Atslgvrdi: leksma, semantika, oriinls, tulkojums, emocijas, ilgas Viens no populrkajiem virzieniem msdienu lingvistik ir ptjumi par leksmm, kuras apzm cilvka iekjo emocionlo stvokli. Kaut ar pamatemocijas, piemram, bailes, dusmas, prieks, liel mr ir universlas, atbilstoas cilvka dabai, tomr emocijas dads valods var bt ar izteiktas dadi. Msdienu semantik ir daudz ptjumu par jtu nosaukumiem dads valods. K norda Renata Gegorikova, [..] emociju nosaukumu analze rda lielas atirbas starp valodm, lai gan emprisk bze, kas ir atkarga no cilvka psiholoijas un fizioloijas, ir kopga. [Grzegorczykowa 1999: 99] (eit un turpmk tulkojums mans D.R.). Ptnieki ir prliecinti, ka katr valod ir savs pas konkrtai kultrai raksturgs pasaules interpretcijas veids. Atirbas realittes analz var redzt, piemram, leksikas lmen, atsevios vrdos. Jo mazk ir valodu, kurs funkcion vrds, kur apzm noteiktu jdzienu, jo svargks is jdziens iet attiecgajm kultrm. [..] Starp iem svargajiem jdzieniem ir ar ilgas. [Pajdziska 2003: 7]. K raksta ptniece Anna Pajdziska: [..] pou vrdam ilgas var atrast preczu ekvivalentu tikai slvu un rumu valods. [turpat]. Ilgu tma literatr ir tradicionla. Par izptes objektu t ir kuvusi ar valodniecb. T, piemram, pou ptniece Jolanta Bujaka-Lehovia dailiteratras ilgu tl ir 3 o jtu veidus: [..] subjektvs ilgas, kas attiecas uz personu, bet to avots visbiek ir piepildta vai nepiepildta mlestba; objektvs ilgas vai ilgas pc dzimtenes; jaukts ilgas vai ilgas vientulbas un nves veidol. [Bujak-Lechowicz 2010: 53] Pou valodas vrdncas leksmas ilgas nozmju skaidrojum atklj dadus aspektus. Piemram, pou valodas skaidrojoaj vrdnc (sjp) ir dotas das leksmas ilgas nozmes: 126
Dina RUBENE. Leksmu ilgas un ilgoties semantisk analze..
1.
Skumju sajta, ko izraisa irans ar kdu, k trkums vai zaudjums. Neizmrojamas, neaprakstmas, briesmgas ilgas. Ilgas pc imenes, brniem, valsts. Bt slimam aiz ilgm. 2. Vlme sasniegt, iegt kaut ko. Ilgas pc labkas dzves. ilgoties 1. lot, bt skumjam kda trkuma d, nepietiekams kontakts ar kdu vai kaut ko. 2. Stingri vlties uzvart, lai sasniegtu kaut ko. [sjp.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=62267] Vitolda Doroevska skaidrojoaj pou valodas vrdnc ir fikstas das nozmes: 1. Sajta, ko rada irans no kda (vai k) tuva sirdij, vlme atgriezties pie k (kda) sen neredzta, zaudta. 2. Spcga vlme sasniegt, iegt kaut ko (k ldz m nav bijis). [SJP 1963: 139140] Msdienu pou valodas vrdnc (SWJP) ir dots ds ilgu skaidrojums: 1. Cieanu sajta, spes, bdas atirtbas d, nepietiekama saskare ar kdu vai kaut ko, kda zaudjums, vlme redzt kdu vai kaut ko, nostalija: briesmgas, neizmrojamas, neizturamas un neaprakstmas ilgas. Ilgas pc lgavas, pc dzimtenes, veckiem, valsts. Slims aiz ilgm. Mirt, novst aiz ilgm. Ilgas mostas ar kdu, kda sird. Acis, vrdi pilni ilgu. 2. Spcga vlme sasniegt, pankt kaut ko (k ldz m nav bijis). [SJWP 1996: 1132] Pou leksmm tsknota un tskni latvieu valod atbilst tdi vrdi k skumjas, ilgas, skumt, ilgoties. Tomr atirb no pou valodas latvieu leksmas skumjas un ilgas ir daudzskaitlinieki. Latvieu literrs valodas vrdnc ir fikstas das ilgu nozmes: 1. Psihisks stvoklis, kam raksturga dzia, parasti ar ilgstoa, tieksme, vlans (parasti pc k labka vai ar tla, grti sasniedzama). Ilgas pc laimes. Ilgas pc dzimtenes. Dzimtenes ilgas. Cilvku prem ilgas. Izraist ilgas. 2. Garastvoklis, noskaojums, kam raksturgs nemiers, skumjas, ar tieksme pc k nezinma vai tikko nojauama. [http://www.tezaurs.lv/ llvv/] Msdienu latvieu valodas vrdnc ilgas ir Psihoemocionls stvoklis, kam raksturga ilgstoa tieksme, vlans (pc k). Dzimtenes ilgas. Sajust lielas ilgas pc mjm, pc draugiem. Cilme: vrds iencis 19. gs. 90. gados senk apzmjuma ilgoans viet, plak ieviesies ar Raia dzeju. ilgoties Just dziu, ilgstou vlanos, tieksmi (ko izdart, sasniegt, iegt u. tml.); vlties, tiekties (pc k). I. ceot, redzt jaunas vietas. I. pc mjm. I. pc mlestbas. [http://www.tezaurs.lv/mlvv/] 127
K redzams, latvieu un pou izpratne par ilgm ir diezgan ldzga, lai gan latvieu vrdncs k pirm nozme leksmai ilgas ir tieksme, vlans (pc k); atzmts ar, ka tas ir psihoemocionls stvoklis. Galvenie komponenti, kas veido ilgu semantisko struktru, ir tieksme, vlans, nemiers, skumjas. Pamatojoties uz m defincijm, var secint, ka pou valod vrda ilgas pamatnozme ir ar negatvu nokrsu (skumjas, cieanas, bdas), savukrt latvieu valod pamatnozme ietver ilgstou tieksmi, vlanos (pc k). K pou, t ar latvieu valod ilgas ir tuvas skumjm, nostalijai, cieanm. Tomr ptniece Anna Kianovska raksta, ka [..] pou ilgu sajta pou valod nav konceptualizta k slimbas stvoklis. Izteiciens kds ir slims aiz ilgm tikai parda emocijas k iemeslu im nosacjumam. [Krzyanowska 2005: 52]. Balstoties uz vrdncu defincijm, lingvisti piedv irt divas galvens ilgu nozmes: 1) ilgas k irans vai zaudjuma clonis, 2) ilgas k vlme, tieksme sasniegt kaut ko [Sadowska-Dobrowolska 2010: 45]. Pou ptniece Renata Gegorikova piedv du definciju ilgu stvoklim un t ekvivalentiem dads valods: [..] nepatkams emocionls stvoklis (skumjas, ko izraisa kaut k (kda) personai vlama trkums, tukuma sajta. [Grzegorczykowa 1999: 201]. Janua Leona Vievska romn Vientulba tmekl leksma ilgas (tsknota) pards 12 reizes, bet leksma ilgoties (tskni) 24 reizes, tpc neapaubmi, t var bt viena no dominjom emocijm aj darb. Jakubs un Via (nav zinms, kds ir varones vrds, lai gan t ir viena no galvenajm varonm) iepazins internet, iemljs viens otr, un td, ka t ir mlestba no attluma, ilgojs viens pc otra, un pastvgi atkrtoja to savos ziojumos pa ICQ, pa e-pastu:
Jakub, tskniam za Tob. (57)1 Za bardzo tskniam za Tob i za bardzo si cieszyam na ten poniedziaek, eby da to sobie odebra jakiemu padnitemu serwerowi w Poznaniu. (173) [..] (on) take tskniem za Tob. (58) Jakub, es ilgojos pc tevis. (72) Biju prlieku noilgojusies pc tevis un prlieku priecjos par pirmdienu, lai autu to atemt kdam sagrautam serverim Pozna. (229) [..] (vi) ar es ilgojos pc tevis . (74)
Aiz piemra iekavs nordta lappuse.
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Jakubs, kur iepriek ir zaudjis moto sievieti, skum neticja, ka vl vartu pc kda ilgoties. Tpc ldzs leksmm ilgas un ilgoties daudzkrt ir lietots noliegums:
Od dawna by przekonany, e za nim nie tskni nikt2, i to ju od wielu lat. Tak wybra. Nie ma nic bardziej niesprawiedliwego ni nie odwzajemniona tsknota. To nawet gorsze ni nieodwzajemniona mio. Znacznie gorsze. On po Natalii nie potrafi tskni za nikim i za niczym. Jakby si wszystko ju w nim wypalio. Moe, czasami, tylko za swoimi rodzicami. W ich urodziny, rocznice mierci lub w Zaduszki. Wydawao mu si, poniewa sam nie by zdolny do tsknoty , e najbardziej godziwie jest y tak, aby nikt za nim nie tskni. (57) Vi jau sen, jau daudzus gadus bija prliecints, ka pc via neviens neilgojas. T bija via paa izvle. Nav nek netaisngka, ja jskumst pc kda, kas neizrda atsaucbu. Tas ir vl sliktk nek mlestba bez pretmlestbas. Krietni sliktk. Pc Natlijas aizieanas vi vairs ne pc viena un ne pc k nespja ilgoties. It k viss vi btu izdedzis. Varbt dakrt tikai pc veckiem. Pareizk sakot: nevis ilgojs, bet skuma viu dzimanas dien, nves gadadien vai Miruo piemias dien.Viam ita t k vi pats nespja ilgoties, godgk btu dzvot t, lai ar pc via neviens neilgojas. (73)
Vien no iepriek mintajiem tulkojuma piemriem ir vrojams ilgu semantikas paplainjums: Pareizk sakot: nevis ilgojs, bet skuma.., kura nav oriinl. Ttad aj gadjum ilgu semantika ir paplainta, tuvinot to skumjm; tomr jatzst, ka ilgoties nav tas pats, kas skumt. Tas ir atirgs jtu veids. Romn un t tulkojum ir ar citi fragmenti, kuros atspoguota ilgu saistba ar skumjm. ie abi jtu veidi vairkas reizes tekst ir rdti kop:
Ta strona bya pena smutku. Smutku i tsknoty. Nie wiedziaa za czym, ale widziaa to wszdzie: on za czym lub za kim tskni. (56) Via lapa bija pilna skumju. Skumju un ilgu. Via nezinja, vai Jakubs ilgojas pc kda, bet tas, ka vi ir ilgu pilns, bija neprprotami. (71)
Tulkojum ir lietota frze ilgu pilns, kuras nav oriinl. Ttad aj gadjum ilgas ir reprezenttas k metafora kda substance, kas piepilda cilvku k trauku. aj teksta fragment ir pardta cilvka spja ilgoties; cilvks to var pilnb zaudt, tau var ar atjaunot, jo varoa gargais stvoklis ar laiku mains:
2
Izcelta emocijas nomincija un ts realizcija kontekst (oriinl un tulkojum).
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Od koca kwietnia tskni za ni naprawd. (61) Tskni za ni w weekendy. Czua to. Z kadym weekendem wyraniej. To, jak j nazywa, co i w jaki sposb opisywa, co chcia wiedzie, zdradzao t tsknot. (123) Bet apra beigs Jakubs jau pa stam ilgojas pc vias. (77) Nedas nogals vi ilgojs. Via to juta. Katrreiz aizvien vairk, Tas, k Jakubs sauca viu, ko un k aprakstja, ko gribja uzzint, liecinja par m ilgm. (163)
No iem fragmentiem varam secint, ka ilgas var izpausties ar k psihoemocionls stvoklis, kas attsts pakpeniski. Tulkojum ir izmantota verba forma liecinja (par m ilgm), kuras nozme atiras no pou zdradzao (t tsknot). Ir dai gadjumi, kuros ilgu semantika ir atpazstama no konteksta. Vrds zdradzao (nodeva) norda, ka ilgas var bt apslptas, tau var izpausties netiei. Ilgm ir ar fiziski simptomi (troksnis auss, raudana), kurus varam redzt gan oriinl, gan tulkojum:
Tskni za Tob tak, e a mi szumi w uszach. (80) Tulia go czule do siebie, gdy pakaa z tsknoty. (164) Es tik oti ilgojos pc Tevis, ka pat auss dun. (104) Kva viu sev klt, kad raudja, ilgodams pc mjm. (216)
Ilgas ir nepatkamas jtas, romn ts saists ar citm negatvm jtm:

Nie przeczuwa, e przeczyta kiedykolwiek tak pikny tekst o mioci, tsknocie, zagubieniu, zazdroci, niewiernoci i karze za to... (139) Ba si, e utraci j bezpowrotnie, gdy ona przeczyta ten e-mail, ktry do niej wysa. Napisa go w samym centrum eksplozji zazdroci, zwtpienia i tsknoty. (141) Viam ne prt nebija ncis, ka reiz lass tik brnigus vrdus par mlestbu, ilgm, nespju iedzvoties aj pasaul, greizsirdbu, neuzticbu un sodu par to... (183) Vi baidjs neglbjami zaudt o sievieti, ja via izlass e-pastu, kuru vi nostjis. Tas bija uzrakstts brd, kad viu plosja greizsirdba, aubas un ilgas. (185)
Redzam, ka ilgas, k oriinl, t ar tulkojum, ir divreiz mintas blakus vrdam greizsirdba. Tas nozm, ka ie divi jtu veidi ir savstarpji saistti. Ilgm ir dadas intensittes pakpes. Ts var just stiprk vai mazk. Leksma ilgoties ir saistta ar apstka vrdiem: 130
Dina RUBENE. Leksmu ilgas un ilgoties semantisk analze.. Tskniam. Nieprawdopodobnie. (29) Wiesz, e ja zawsze tskniam za Tob ju troszeczk, nawet gdy bye bli sko mnie. Tskniam ju tak sobie troch na zapas. eby pniej tskni mniej, gdy ju pjdziesz do domu. l tak nie pomagao. (80) Za bardzo tskniam za Tob. (173) Ilgojos pc via. Neiedomjami. (36) Zini, es vienmr mazlieti esmu ilgojusies pc Tevis, pat ja Tu biji man blakus. Ilgojos, it k vajadztu uzkrt ilgu rezerves. Vai vlk, kad Tu dosies mjs, ilgotos mazk. Tik un t tas neldzja. (104) Biju prlieku noilgojusies pc tevis. (229)
Romn ilgas ir pretstats gaidanai. Tas ir realizts ar tulkojum:

Czeka. Czy to to samo, co tskni? (58) Przy czekaniu mleko nie traci dla mnie smaku. Przy tsknocie tak. (58) Gaidt. Varbt tas ir tas pats, kas ilgoties? (73) Gaidot piens man neliekas bezgargs. Bet ja ilgojos, tad gan. (73)
Ilgas ir saldzintas ar citm jtm:

Nie ma nic bardziej niesprawiedliwego ni nieodwzajemniona tsknota . To nawet gorsze ni nieodwzajemniona mio. Znacznie gorsze. (57) Nav nek netaisngka, ja jskumst pc kda, kas neizrda atsaucbu. Tas ir vl sliktk nek mlestba bez pretmlestbas. Krietni sliktk. (73)
Ilgas eit ir saldzintas ar neatbildtu mlestbu, un ir secints, ka ts ir daudz sliktkas par neatbildtu mlestbu. Latvieu tulkojum it lietots vrds jskumst, kas vlreiz norda uz cieu sakarbu starp ilgm un skumjm. Romn varam vrot ar ilgu pozitvo nozmi. Ilgas dzimst mlestb starp diviem cilvkiem. Tas ir viens no mlestbas simptomiem. T ir otra cilvka priecga gaidana. o nozmi, piemram, atklj teikumi:
Ludzie pragn czasami si rozstawa, eby mc tskni, czeka i cieszy si powrotem. (180) Za bardzo tskniam za Tob i za bardzo si cieszyam na ten poniedziaek, eby da to sobie odebra jakiemu padnitemu serwerowi w Poznaniu. (173) Cilvkiem dakrt gribas irties, lai vartu ilgoties, gaidt un priecties par atgrieanos. (238) Biju prlieku noilgojusies pc tevis un prlieku priecjos par pirmdienu, lai autu to atemt kdam sagrautam serverim Pozna. (229)
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Te jatzm, ka leksmas ilgoties, noilgoties tiek lietotas ar kop ar leksmu priecties, kas apstiprina ts pozitvo aspektu. K redzams, ilgu sajta dakrt var bt vlama, ja ms zinm, ka t ir pagaidu irans un pc tam seko atkaltikans prieks. Ttad s jtas ir saisttas ar ar vlmi izjust emocijas, prieku vai mlestbu. Romn Vientulba tmekl izteiktajiem vrdiem par ilgm ir pozitva ietekme uz varou emocionlo stvokli:
Kiedy jednak wyszeptaa to tskniam za tob, niepokj min i wrci mu erotyczny nastrj. (170) Poza tym to Jakub, tskniam za Tob , ktrym witaa go kadego ranka, nieustannie go poruszao. (59) Tau, kad via noukstja: Es ilgojos pc tevis, baas norima un atgriezs erotisks noskaojums. (225) Turklt vrdi Jakub, es ilgojos pc tevis, ar kuriem via ik rtu sasveicinjs, aizkustinja vienmr. (75)
Jpiebilst, ka vrdi par ilgm biei tiek izrunti ukstus, kas pieir intimitti, psiholoisk tuvuma izjtas. ie vrdi, izteikti ik dienu, mutiski vai rakstiski, ir nekas cits k varones mlestbas izpausme. Via biei izsaka os vrdus, tdjdi izrdot savas emocijas. Rezumjot leksmu ilgas un ilgoties romn Vientulba tmekl semantisko analzi, varam irt das nozmes: Ilgas ir process, kas var pieaugt vai mazinties. Tm ir dadas intensittes pakpes. Ilgas ir saisttas ar gaidanas procesu, bet, k tas izriet no varou izteicieniem, dakrt ir gaidanas procesa opozcija, jo cilvks ilgas nevar sajust, uztvert realitti, k tam vajadztu bt. Ilgas ir negatvas, nepatkamas jtas un ir saisttas ar citm negatvm jtm, piemram, skumjm, greizsirdbu, neatbildtu vai nepiepildtu mlestbu. pai ciei ilgas ir saisttas ar skumjm. Romn ilgm ir ar ir pozitva konotcija, jo ts ir saisttas ar mlestbu, dareiz var bt vlamas. aj kontekst ilgas ir pozitvas, jo ts sniedz prieku. Td var secint, ka ilgas ir ambivalentas jtas, lai gan is aspekts vrdncu defincijs nav iekauts. Tulkojum lietota ar ilgu metafora k substance, kas piepilda cilvku k trauku. Analizjot oriinlu un tulkojumu, vrojama liela ldzba ilgu semantik pou un latvieu valod, t.i., praktiski visas leksmu ilgas un ilgoties nozmes tulkojum sakrt ar oriinlu. Rakst analiztie piemri attiecas uz kopgiem ilgu izteiksmes modeiem pou un latvieu valod. 132
Dina RUBENE. Leksmu ilgas un ilgoties semantisk analze.. LITERATRA Bujak-Lechowicz, J. Kiedy i jak tsknimy? Literackie i potoczne rozumienie tsknoty w ujciu kognitywnym. In: Tsknota. Spoeczno-kulturowe mechanizmy kreowania emocji. Pod red. Boeny Ponki-Syroki i Janiny Radziszewskiej. Wrocaw 2010. Grzegorczykowa, R. Z bada nad porwnawcz semantyk leksykaln: nazwy tsknoty w rnych jzykach. In: Semantyka a konfrontacja jzykowa 2. Red. Z Gre i V. Koseska-Toszewa. Warszawa 1999. Krzyanowska, A. O polskiej tsknocie i francuskiej nostalgie, [w:] poradnik jzykowy 1, 2005. Pajdziska, A. Obraz tsknoty w polszczynie. In: Zeszyty Naukowe WSHE w odzi 2003, Jzykoznawstwo, seria I,z. 3 (41). Sadowska-Dobrowolska, K. Jak to opisa? O metodologicznych moliwociach analizy i opisu emocji w jzyku na przykadzie tsknoty w twrczoci Jzefa obodowskiego) In: Tsknota. Spoeczno-kulturowe mechanizmy kreowania emocji. Pod red. Boeny Ponki-Syroki i Janiny Radziszewskiej. Wrocaw 2010. Winiewski, J.L. Samotno w sieci. Prszyski i S-ka, 2001. Vievskis, J.L. Vientulba tmekl. Zvaigzne ABC, 2009. Vrdncas sjp sjp.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=62267 SJP Sownik jzyka polskiego. Red. W. Doroszewski. Warszawa 1963, t. 9. SWJP Sownik wspczesnego jzyka polskiego. Red. nacz. Bogusaw Dunaj. Warszawa, Wilga 1996. LLVV Latvieu literrs valodas vrdnca http://www.tezaurs.lv/llvv/ MLVV Msdienu latvieu valodas vrdnca LU Latvieu valodas institts. Red. Dr. philol. I. Zuicena http://www.tezaurs.lv/mlvv/
The Semantic Analysis of the Lexemes longing and to long for in Yanush Vishnevskys Novel Loneliness in the Net and Its Translation in Latvian Summary
Article investigates the semantic of lexemes ilgas and ilgoties in the novel of the modern Polish writer Janusz Leon Wisniewski Loneliness in a Net, and its translation into Latvian. Analyzing the context and using component analysis it is possible to draw a conclusion that in most cases in the text the lexemes have a negative connotation. But in the novel we can find also positive connotation of longing (ilgas), because it is associated with love, which is sometimes desirable. In this context, to long is something good, positive, because it gives pleasure. It can be concluded that longing is ambivalent feelings although this aspect of the dictionary definitions is not included.
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Mra VALPTERE
(Latvijas Kultras akadmija)
Leksiskie un sintaktiskie atkrtojumi latvieu un norvu sarunvalod

Atslgvrdi: sarunvaloda, atkrtojumi, latvieu valoda, norvu valoda Tipiska sarunvalodas iezme ir daudzie leksiskie un sintaktiskie atkrtojumi. Tiem sarunvalod ir dadas funkcijas un izpausmes veidi, kas saisttas tiei ar sarunvalodas uzbvi un funkcionanu. Angu valodnieks Maikls Halidejs, saldzinot rakstu valodu ar sarunvalodu, vrdus iedala funkcijas jeb gramatiskajos vrdos (vietniekvrdi, determintji, saiki, apstka vrdi, dai darbbas vrdi) un satura jeb leksiskajos vrdos. Vi run par rakstu valodas leksisko blvumu un sarunvalodas gramatisko blvumu un mazku leksisko blvumu. Vi apgalvo, ka sarunvaloda nav mazk organizta un strukturta k rakstu valoda, bet tikai citdi: sarunvalod teksts aplkojams k process, kamr rakstu valod tas ir galaprodukts. Tiei atkrtojumi un biei lietotu funkcijas vrdu izmantoana liek sarunvalodas izteikumiem ist leksiski mazk blviem, lai gan saturiski tie varbt ir tikpat bagti [Halliday 1989: 61, 62, 78]. Refert aplkotas vairkas atkrtojumu funkcijas sarunvalod. Piemri latvieu valod emti no 2005. gad veiktajm spontnm jaunieu intervijm par brnbu, skolas gadiem, jaunieu dzves uztveri utt., un norvu valod no diviem sarunvalodas korpusiem ptjuma TAUS un Oslo Universittes Teksta laboratorijas 2004.2006. g. izstrdt projekta NoTa, kur numuri iekavs pc piemra apzm respondentus, k tie fiksti pierakstos. Ojrs Bus atzm, ka daudzm valodm raksturga sarunvalodas reduplikcija un atkrtojumi, kuru uzdevums ir ekspresijas pastiprinana, dubultot segmenta aktualizcija [Bus 1984: 31]. Nereti ms tos redzam atbilds uz kdu izteikumu, kad runtjs atbild emocionli. Dakrt, lai pastiprintu teikt nozmi, atkrtojums nav identisks, bet tiek iestarpinti dai nozmi pastiprinoi vrdi.
men de var ikke../ var det no snn pen sjikanering da? nei../ det var det ikke/ absolutt ikke../ neida.. neida../ det var det ikke (TAUS A 53) [Hanssen [et.al] 1976: 23]
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Mra VALPTERE. Leksiskie un sintaktiskie atkrtojumi latvieu un.. (bet nebija../ vai bija kaut kda atklta noniecinana? n../ nebija.../ nekd zi/ n jau.. n jau../ nebija) nu un kdas attiecbas ir ar veckiem/ vai bij tdi strdi [...] ar veckiem? n/ tdi nekad nav bijui/ tdi tiem nekad nav bijui
Atkrtojumi var kalpot ar izteikuma ritmisks struktras veidoanai, k redzams nkamaj piemr.
vai tu esi mcjusies zmanu? bii, bii
Biei atkrtojumi ir uz robeas starp izteikuma ekspresijas pastiprinanu un ritmisks struktras veidoanu, kas vrojams, lietojot apgalvojuma un nolieguma partikulas atbilds, k ar lietojot nu izsauksmes vrda funkcij atkrtojum nu-nu.
briesmu ststus ststjt? jjj Informantam vaic, k tiks izmantota izgltba folklor: ststsi par folkloru? nnn
Norvu valodnieks Eskils Hansens run par aprautiem teikumiem, kas pc vairkiem iespraustiem teikumiem tiek atskti no jauna t.i., atkrtoti, dakrt mazliet prveidoti vai pielaboti. Eskils Hansens run par pamata un papildinformciju jeb metainformciju, ko runtjs iekauj runtaj vstjum. T paldz klaustjam pareizi atkodt iegto informciju. Runtjam paam jizlemj, kda papildinformcija iekaujama starp atkrtojamajiem segmentiem. Td rodas grtbas ar vstjuma strukturanu [Hanssen 1983: 12, 18].
s satt henner: / Lilly hette henner/ s satt henner bak meg p skulepulten (TAUS A 43) [Hanssen 1983: 12] (t via sdja: /viu sauca Lilija/ t via sdja aiz manis skolas sol) og jeg hadde s lange fletter/ [...] de skulle greies og kjemmes/ fovi skulle vra reine/ [...] og s hadde jeg to fletter snn/ og dm jikk ner i to lange fletter/ s dm va- helt nepp hr (TAUS A 43) [Hanssen [et.al] 1976: 30] (un man bija tik garas bizes/ [...] ts bija jemm un jsuk/ jo mums bija jbt krtgm/ [...] un t man bija divas bizes t/ un ts stieps lejup divs gars bizs/ t ts sniedzs lejup ldz ejienei).
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Ldzgi papildinformcijas iespraudumi un aprauts konstrukcijas atkrtojumi, dakrt to modificjot, vrojami ar latvieu sarunvalodas piemros.
un tad t mamma: / es pat prta ne reizi neesmu/ man nekas nav draudts/ un tad via man teica ka via noprot vai tev imen kaut kdas ir: / nu taj tagad imen, kur js dzvojat kop, kas ir tava imene/ vai tur bija kaut kdas tradcijas vai kas..?
Biei vien atkrtojumi dod runtjam laiku apdomties, tie darbojas ar k pauzes aizpildtji. K jau Maikls Halidejs apgalvojis, leksiskie un sintaktiskie atkrtojumi padara sarunvalodas tekstu leksiski mazk blvu [Halliday 1989: 65].
Informants ststa par prvkanos uz jaunu dzves vietu: es atceros ka ms braucm/ ms oti ilgi braucm/ un ms braucm ar tdu nu.. neatceros k sauc to manas marku []
Pirmaj frz konstatts braukanas fakts, otraj nordts apstklis, k braucm, treaj veids, ar ko braucm. Rakstt tekst to pau vartu uzrakstt daudz sk un leksiski blvk: Es atceros, ka ms oti ilgi braucm ar [] manu.
varu vienreiz uzvilkt uz kaut kdu nezin.../ vienreiz gad uzvilkt uz kaut kdu lielu ballti/ uzvilkt tdas augstpapu kurpes/ bet n es nevaru/ nu man vaig kedas
Sarunvalodas dialog atkrtojumi dakrt vrojami ne tikai viena runtja run, bet ar, mainoties runtjiem, nkamais runtjs var atkrtot iepriekj runtja teikto, lai preciztu sarunas tmu, k nkamajos piemros. Tas ar dod runtjam laiku apdomties.
Informantam tiek vaicts par brnbas atmim: un tagad kdu oti interesantu jauku kdu oti interesantu jauku? Informantam tiek vaicts par rotam brnb: ko js parasti spljt tdu? ko ms spljm? kda bij sodu sistma, ja tda bija? sodu sistma? /[...] nebij sodu sistmas Runjot par eksmenu autoskol: det blit spennende da ja/ det er ddsspennende/ jer er livredd nei da [NoTa, 016] (tas tau bs aizraujoi
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Mra VALPTERE. Leksiskie un sintaktiskie atkrtojumi latvieu un.. j/ tas ir nvgi aizraujoi/ esmu ausmgi prbijies) e hvis du tenker p ssen dere snakka... e/ der som du har vokst opp... e/ hvordan vil du karakterisere sprket der? der hvor jeg vokste opp? [NoTa, 008] (ja tu padom k js runjt.. / tur kur esi uzaudzis.. / k tu raksturotu valodu tur tur kur es uzaugu?
Norvu valodnieks Eskils Hansens min sintaktisks un leksisks korianas jdzienus, ko runtjs veic runas proces, kad runjot pats sevi izlabo. Ja sintaktiskaj korian tiek izmainta skotnj sintaktisk struktra, tad leksiskaj korian viens vrds tiek aizstts ar citu, bet skotnj sintaktisk struktra var palikt neskarta [Hanssen 1982: 19]. Parasti koriana notiek prteikans gadjum, un izlabot sekvence tiek atkrtota.
Par atgadjumu skol: hang flekkene min+: flettene mine fast i pulten hennes [TAUS A 43; Hanssen 1976: 30] (vias skolas sol iespieda manus traipus: manas bizes)
Dakrt kdu labojumu pavada pai izteicieni vai izsaucieni. Norvu valod visierastkie ir eller (vai), nei (n), ikke (ne), nei ikke (men) (n, bet) [Hanssen 1982: 11].
i det kottet bodde = e = liksom: ikke bodde,/ det var s stor+:/ det va ikke stort strre enn at vi fikk ei seng inn der [TAUS A 43] (taj bd dzvoja = = it k: nedzvoja/ t bija tik liel+:/ t nebija daudz lielka k vien lai ms tur iedabtu gultu iek) cik reizes nav bijis t kad man pasaka vienkri: / ne jau kad pasaka bet zinm mr atgr un tad es varju ar ilgk iet gult: / f / vlk iet gult
Ldzgi izsaucieni sastopami ar latvieu valodas piemros.

Pie korianas pieskaitmi ar runanas gait veikti precizjumi, skaidrojumi.

Informants ststa par prdzvojumiem, prvcoties uz jaunu dzvesvietu: ne jau par to mju es bdjos/ bet ka man taj mj pazuda vecaj mj pazuda Brbijas kurpte es esmu krjusi dadus srkocius kuriem ir nu t galvia../ sra galvia nu dads krss
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Informants ststa par pasniedzju nomaiu: ja viu viet nk pilngi jauni pasniedzji tas uzreiz rada tdu prrvumu/ paaudu prrvumu un aizstja pie msias izmrt temperatru/ nu pie medmsas/ izmrt temperatru
Pdj piemr otraj atkrtojum dots skks paskaidrojums un segments intonatvi sadalts. Te iespjams runt par parcelciju. Parcelcija ir teikuma liners struktras dalana vairkos izteikumos. Viena sintaktiska struktra realizjas vairks komunikatvs vienbs. Parcelts ir apvienojams ar motivtjvienbu un kop ar to veido vienu strukturlu veselumu [Lokmane 2005: 41]. Runjot par atkrtojumiem, jpiemin ar norvu sarunvalodas viena no tipiskkajm iezmm dislokcija jeb ekstrapozcija un latvieu valod tmas nominatvs. Dislokcija paredz, ka kds teikuma loceklis tiek prvietots no t parasts vietas stingraj skandinvu valodu teikuma shm pa kreisi vai pa labi, dislocto teikuma dau atkrtojot teikuma pamata da, izmantojot provrdu vietniekvrdu vai apstka vrdu [Diderichsen 1966: 186; Hagen 2004: 278, 279].
hu mamma/ hu var reingjringskone (TAUS A 43) [Hanssen 1976: 27] (t mamma/ via bija apkopja) her har vi aldri spist p kjkkenet/ her i huset (TAUS A 48) (eit ms nekad neesam dui virtuv/ eit mj)
Ar latvieu valod ar nominatvu nosaukt pardba vai priekmets tlkaj tekst tiek nosaukts vlreiz (t.i., tam ir korelts) un par to tiek sniegta plaka informcija [Lokmane 2005: 32].
Informants run par labi atalgota darba iespjm: norvu valodas zinanas/ ts.. ts ir jau kaut kas tds specializts ietami vairk Respondents pau savas domas par tipisku msdienu jaunieti: es nemku pateikt kds tas ir /nu tds jaunietis
Tau par identisku atkrtojumu varam runt, aplkojot tipisku norvu sarunvalodas iezmi identisku subjekta atkrtoanos izteikuma beigs, kas ir dislokcijas pa labi variants. Juns riks Hgens to nosauc par kopanu pa labi (hyrekopiering) un atzm, ka kopt var tikai teikuma priekmetu, ne kdu citu teikuma locekli [Hagen 2004: 279]. 138
Mra VALPTERE. Leksiskie un sintaktiskie atkrtojumi latvieu un.. jeg syns sprket her oppe er helt lreit/ jeg [TAUS A43] (es domju valoda eit aug ir allright/ es) jeg vet ikke/ jeg [TAUS A43] (es nezinu/ es) vi kom ut av det bra/ vi [TAUS A43] (ms labi ar to tikm gal/ ms)
da konstrukcija tiek uzskatta par tipiski norvisku, un latvieu valod tai ekvivalentu nav. Norvu valod t tiek izmantota neformls sazias situcijs. Secinjumi Atkrtojumi sarunvalod ir oti biei sastopama pardba un tiem ir dadas funkcijas un izpausmes veidi. Pirmkrt, atkrtojumi sarunvalod pastiprina ekspresiju, aktualiz dubultoto segmentu. Otrkrt, atkrtojumiem var bt ar ritmisks struktras veidoanas funkcija. Tas vairk attiecas uz siem, biek vienzilbes vrdiem. Trekrt, atkrtojumi runtjam dod laiku apdomties, k tlk strukturt izteikumu, tie darbojas ar k pauzes aizpildtji. Ceturtkrt, kad pc izteikuma vai izteikuma fragmenta tiek sniegta papildinformcija, tad iepriekjais segments biei vien tiek atkrtots vlreiz, lai no jauna aktualiztu diskursa tmu. Piektkrt, biei vien atkrtojumi vrojami, kad runtjs pats sevi izlabo prteikans gadjum. Sestkrt, runjot par atkrtojumiem, jpiemin ar viena no tipiskkajm norvu sarunvalodas iezmm dislokcija jeb ekstrapozcija un latvieu valod tmas nominatvs. Tau par identisku atkrtojumu varam runt, aplkojot tipisku norvu sarunvalodas iezmi identisku subjekta atkrtoanos izteikuma beigs t saukto kopanu pa labi (hyrekopiering).
LITERATRA Bus, O. Ikdienas runas specifika un ts ptana. No: Latvieu valodas kultras jautjumi. 19. laidiens. Rga: Avots, 1984, 22.24. lpp. Diderichsen P. Element@ r Dansk Grammatik. Kbenhavn: Gyldendal, 1966. 305 s. Hagen, Jon Erik, Norsk grammatikk for andresprksl@ rere. Gyldendal Norsk Forlag AS, 4. opplag, 2004. 416 s. Halliday, M.A.K. Spoken and Written Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. 109 p.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Hanssen, E [et al.] Vanli osjloml vel: ei samling tekster fra Talemlsunderskelsen i Oslo (TAUS). Oslo: Novus, 1976. 96 s. Hanssen 1 Hanssen, E. Taleglipp. Oslo: Novus, 1982. 56 s. Hanssen, E. Avbrutte setninger i taleml. Oslo: Novus, 1983. 28 s. Lokmane I. Konsituatvo saistjumu tipi msdienu latvieu valod. Promocijas darba kopsavilkums filoloijas doktora grda ieganai valodniecbas zintu nozar. Rga, 2005. 80 lpp.
Lexical and Syntactic Repetitions in Spoken Latvian and Norwegian Summary

A lot of lexical and syntactic repetitions are a typical feature of spoken language. They have different functions and ways of expression in the spoken language. Comparing written and spoken languages, the linguist M.A.K. Halliday claims that the written language displays a much higher ratio of lexical items to the total running words, whereas the spoken language uses more grammatical or function words. We can speak about the lexical density of the written language and the grammatical density of the spoken language. The spoken language is no less structured and highly organized than the written language, but in a different way. In the spoken language, the text is seen as a process, whereas in the written language it is a final product. Repetitions and frequently used function words make the utterances of the spoken language seem not so lexically dense, while in content they may be equally rich. In the spoken language, repetitions: 1) highlight the doubled segment; intensify expressiveness; 2) create the rhythmical structure of the utterance; 3) give the speaker time to think over how to structure the utterance they serve as pausefillers; 4) emphasize the theme of the discourse when additional information is given; 5) occur when the speaker corrects him/ herself in the case of the slip of the tongue; 6) occur in dislocation (extraposition), one of the most typical features of the Norwegian spoken language, and the theme nominative in Latvian. We can speak about identical repetition referring to a typical feature of the Norwegian spoken language the identical repetition of the subject at the end of the utterance the so called copying to the right (hyrekopiering). There is no equivalent construction in the Latvian language. The examples in Latvian have been taken from informal interviews with students carried out in 2005, while the examples in Norwegian are from two corpora collections of spoken language in Norway TAUS (the 1970s) and the University of Oslo Text Laboratorys corpus NoTa (20042006).
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Jnis VECKRCIS
(Ventspils Augstskola)
Josifa Brodska dzejoi atdzejojumos latvieu un angu valod: frazeoloismu funkcionli semantisk ekvivalence
Atslgvrdi: frazeoloismi, atdzejoana, ekvivalence, semantika, funkcija Rakst si aplkota frazeoloismu lingvistisk teorija, klasifikcija un funkcionli semantisks ekvivalences jautjumi, pievroties frazeoloismiem k tekstveides strukturlajiem un semantiskajiem elementiem un to savstarpjm attieksmm gan avotvalodas un teksta lmen, gan atdzejoanas situcij. Lingvistiskaj teorij tiek uzsvrta frazeoloismu specifisk btba, atspoguojot attiecgo tautas kultru, vsturi, attieksmi pret pasauli. Savukrt frazeoloismu funkcijas starpvalodu perspektv ir saldzinoi viendas tm piemt gan normatvs, gan komunikatvs raksturs [Strakien 2010: 29]. Ija Galperins frazeoloismus defin k vrdsavienojumus, kuru kopj nozme domin pr savienojumu veidojoo dau nozmi, vai ar nozme vispr nav izsecinma no atsevio dau nozmes [, cit. pc 2007]. Nataja Seina frazeoloismus defin k semantiski saisttus vrdsavienojumus, kas netiek veidoti sazias brd, bet tiek reproducti k stabilas leksiski gramatiskas vienbas ar noteiktu semantisko fonu [, cit. pc Strakien 2010: 29]. Attiecb uz tulkoanu btisks ir faktors, ka valodas lietotjiem zinmo frazeoloisma nozmi ne vienmr var izsecint no atsevio dau nozmes, radot grtbas adekvt frazeoloismu uztveran un tulkoan [ 2007]. Dailiteratras tekst, tostarp dzej, frazeoloismi kst par ldzekli stilistisko mru stenoanai, turklt to lietojums rado tekst iegst papildu motivciju, emot vr jau minto pao saikni ar attiecgs valodas kultrvsturisko vidi. frazeoloismu paba paplaina to konotatvo potencilu un ldz ar to kontekstul lietojuma iespjas. Savukrt tulkoan ir svargi saskatt stilistisko lietojumu, izprast t motivciju un rast atbilstous izteiksmes un komunikatvus ldzekus mrvalodas tekst. 141
Latvijas valodniece Anita Naisione veikusi fundamentlus frazeoloisko vienbu ptjumus, piemram, 2010. gad izdota grmata Stylistic Use of Phraseological Units in Discourse [Naciscione 2010]. Via norda, ka stabilitte un tlainba piemt vism frazeloiskajm vienbm neatkargi no to dads reprezentcijas diskurs (turpat, 31). Lai raksturotu o vienbu stilistisko lietojumu, valodniece ievie dus terminus: pamatforma (base form) frazeoloisko vienbu skumforma, ar kuru tiek saldzintas citas o vienbu formas; pamatlietojuma forma (core use) valodas lietotjam pieejam stabil frazeoloisks vienbas forma, kas atbilst s vienbas visbiek izmantotajai un btiskkajai formai un nozmei; kontekstuli stilistisk lietojuma forma (instantial stylistic use) frazeoloisks vienbas lietojums konkrt kontekst. Frazeoloismu tulkoan Aleksandrs Uhtomskis norda divas skotnjs problmas: frazeoloismu atpazana avotvalodas tekst un to interpretana atbilsto veid, emot vr, ka nereti mrvalod nav pieejami pilni frazeoloiskie ekvivalenti, turklt jizvairs no t.s. tulkotja viltusdraugiem [ 2007]. Valodnieks piedv das tulkoanas pamatpieejas: 1) pilns frazeoloiskais ekvivalents, 2) dajs ekvivalents; 3) izvles ekvivalents; 3) kalkoana; 4) burtisks tulkojums; 5) aprakstos tulkojums; 6) transkribana; 7) transliterana. Izvloties piemrotko pieeju, atbilstoais atveidojuma variants jizvlas, emot vr frazeoloisma nozmi veidojoos elementus: 1) individulais vai tlainais komponents; 2) tieais jeb priekmetiskais komponents, kas veido tla pamatu; 3) emocionlais komponents; 4) stilistiskais komponents; 5) nacionli esttiskais komponents (turpat). Krievu valodnieks Jurijs Medvedevs norda, ka atdzejoan jvro pragmatiskais faktors, jo dzej pragmatisk nozme, kas pau subjektvs (emocionls, ekspresvs, stilistisks) attieksmes, var bt svargkas nek referencil (denotatv) nozme. Atdzejoan tas nosaka nepiecieambu saglabt dzej izmantoto frazeoloismu konotciju [ 2007: 1819]. J.Medvedevs [ 2007] piedv du frazeoloismu atdzejoanas metou iedaljumu (tostarp apkopojot ar citu valodnieku izstrdto klasifikciju un defincijas): 1) kalkoana jeb ties tulkojums (Queen of tides ); 2) leksisks tulkojums avotvalodas frazeoloisma apzmana ar vienu vrdu mrvalod (put on fire ); 142
Jnis VECKRCIS. Josifa Brodska dzejoi atdzejojumos latvieu un angu..
aprakstos tulkojums frazeoloisma tulkoana atbilstoi t defincijai mrvalod; 4) kontekstuls tulkojums tulkojum izmantots konstrukcijas atbilsme avotvalodas frazeoloismam tikai konkrtaj kontekst; pai attiecas uz frazeoloismu polismijas piemriem (do homage (nozme: c , , ) aj kontekst: ); 5) antonmisks tulkojums avotvalod apgalvojuma form izteikta frazeoloisma aizstana ar nolieguma formu mrvalod; vienas avotvalodas leksmas aizstana ar ts antonmu mrvalod u. tml. (such partings break the heart they / fondly hope to heal , / ); 6) kompensana (laughs with all his soul : lai gan atdzejojum nav izmantots frazeoloisms, tomr neitrlais angu valodas vrds laugh aizstts ar stilistiski ekspresvo krievu valodas vrdu ); 7) modulcija avotvalodas vrda vai vrdsavienojuma interpretana un aizstana ar leksiski vai strukturli atirgu vienbu mrvalod (past hope, past cure, past help! ! ! !). s metodes norda uz sareto lmumu pieemanas vidi. Atdzejotjam jrod veiksmgs risinjums, kur ir emtas vr avotvalodas un mrvalodas vienbu leksiski strukturls atbilsmes, vrtjot to funkcionli semantisko ekvivalenci. Analizjot frazeoloismus J. Brodska dzejoos un to atdzejojumus latvieu un angu valod, jsecina, ka risinjumi un problmas, kas atsevios gadjumos radus, mekljot stilistiski piemrotu atveidojumu, ir atkargas ne tikai no tieajm frazeoloisko vienbu atbilsmm, bet ar no potisk stila un konteksta, kas nosaka, piemram, sintaktisko risinjumu ierobeojumus. Noteiktos dzejoos atdzejotja rcb ir bijusi atbilstoa frazeoloisk vienba mrvalod, un attiecg dzejoa potisks iezmes (piemram, pantmrs) nav lieguas iespju o vienbu izmantot: ( 2000b: 12) visu acu priek (Brodskis 2009: 57), tomr angu valodas atdzejojum ir izmantots frazeoloisms stand clear to my view (Brodsky 1967: 34), kas tomr nav uzskatms par stilistiski sinonmisku ne semantisk, ne funkcionl lmen. ( 2000e: 9) bird-brains (Brodsky 2000: 59); vistas smadzenes (Brodskis 2009: 115); 143
3)
( 2000e: 24) Wisdom Tooth (Brodsky 2000: 71); ( 2000e: 40) blessed news (Brodsky 2000: 99). ( 2000a: 56) under full sail (Brodsky 1973: 106). Savukrt, cita metode ir frazeoloisma aizstana ar semantisku un stilistisku (funkcionlu) sinonmu: ( 2000b: 21) suit the newcomer ill (Brodsky 1967: 73). Tomr cit angu valodas atdzejojum frazeoloisms nav saglabts, tdjdi pieaujot btiskku kompromisu stila un potikas lmen: fit him so imperfectly (Brodsky 1973: 35). Daos atdzejojumos atdzejotji ir preczi moduljui frazeoloismu, saglabjot nozmi, kas ir saldzinoi tuva avotvalodas frazeoloisma nozmei, tomr zaudjot t stilistisko (un potisko) vrtbu: ( 2000: 192) over outlandish earth (Brodsky 2000: 493). Tomr atdzejojumos sastopami ar ievrojami radiklku izmaiu piemri. Viena no metodm ir aprakstos tulkojums, btb piedvjot avotvalodas tekst izmantot frazeoloisma definciju: / ( 2000b: 131) charge you with wrong (Brodsky 1973: 94). Notikuo izmaiu lingvistiskaj analz ldztekus jau mintajai apraksto tulkojuma pieejai jnorda vl divi aspekti: 1) atdzejojum stila un ritma apsvrumu d btb ir izmantota eliptiska vrdkopa, jo t pamatforma ir charge someone with wrong-doing; 2) atdzejojum pilngi maints izteikuma vrsums un modalitte: lai gan gramatisk funkcija ir saglabta, tomr ir zudusi semantisk vienotba jeb tie atributvie sakari, kas pastv avottekst: paprs grkzis pretstat mrvalodas tekst pastvoajiem atributvajiem sakariem tu grkzis. Vl radiklkas izmaias notikuas avotteksta fragmenta atdzejojum angu valod:
. , , : , . ( 2000e: 28) But you lack even this: the means to utter a word. Yet, probe the matter; its better thus. Youre not in heavens debt, on heavens ledger. (Brodsky 2000: 72)
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Angu valodas atdzejojum pilngi mainta teksta sintaktisk (funkcionl) struktra, kur ldz ar to nav iespjams izmantot kdu no frazeoloisma (viens no frazeoloiskajiem ekvivalentiem latvieu valod: kda velna pc) ekvivalentiem vai stilistiskajiem sinonmiem. Savukrt citam stilistiski pazemintam frazeoloismam ( 2000d: 141) atdzejojum rasts funkcionli semantisks ekvivalents kick the bucket (Brodsky 2000: 268). Attiecb uz frazeoloismu lietojumu viena no raksturgkajm J. Brodska potikas iezmm ir nereti izmantots frazeoloismu deformcijas, ar strukturli leksiskm izmaim mainot ne vien pamatformu un paplainot konotciju, bet pat pankot polismiju. Atdzejotjam tas nozm papildu grtbas. Piemram, dzejol J.Brodskis izmantojis du leksisks sinonmijas lmen deformtu frazeoloismu: (pamatform: ) ( 2000b: 138). Atdzejojum izmantots ekvivalents frazeoloisms angu valod, tau sintaktiski modult form: balance on the thin edge of a knife (pamatforma: on a knife-edge) (Brodsky 1973: 103). Frazeoloism , , ( 2000c: 194) izmantota antonmisk deformcija (pamatform: ). Atdzejojum antonmiskums ietami saglabts: after us, it is certainly not the flood (Brodsky 2000: 437), tomr jnorda, ka angu valod frazeoloisma pamatforma ir after us the deluge. Sintaktiski deformts frazeoloisms (pc tam avottekst is frazeoloisms izmantots pamatform) ( 2000d: 138) atdzejojum with stony looks hewn out of stone (Brodsky 2000: 282) deformcija nav saglabta, turpret ir izmantots cits frazeoloisms stony look (nekustgs skatiens) un t aprakstos skaidrojums. Tomr jmin, ka angu valod ir frazeoloisms, kas preczk atbilst avotvalodas frazeoloismam: stony-faced, turklt to konkrtaj tekst neliedz izmantot ar funkcionli apsvrumi. Cits frazeoloismu leksisks un sintaktisks deformcijas piemrs: (pamatform: ) ( 2000a: 90). Angu valodas atdzejojum preczi saglabta avotteksta konstrukcija: Oedipal passions (Brodsky 2000: 64), savukrt latvieu valodas atdzejojum kaislbs k Oidipam (Brodskis 2009: 121) sintaktisks izmaias nevar uzskatt tikai par frazeoloisma pamatformas modulciju, bet atributvo sakaru izmaiu d saistba ar pau frazeoloismu ir izzudusi. 145
Vl saretka deformcija notikusi aj fragment no J. Brodska dzejoa 1972:

, , . ( 2000e: 23) Just like Thesus out from the lair in the Minos ring, coming up for air with the pelt of that menacing beast, its not a horizon I see but a minus sign on my previous life. (Brodsky 2001: 70)
A. Ranins detalizti analiz avottekst izmantotos divdabja teicienus un . Pirmais no tiem uzskatms par metaforu, kas simboliz J. Brodska emigrciju. Savukrt otra divdabja teiciena konotcijas ir pai saretas. No vienas puses, tas simboliz uzvaru pr Mnotauru nezvru, kura da tiek iznesta k trofeja. Tomr ir saskatma ar frazeoloisma (glbt savu du) deformcija. Ldz ar to uzvaras un uzvartja konotcija saduras ar bailguma un bganas konotciju, kas kst skaidra J. Brodska biogrfijas kontekst, jo via emigrcija tika interpretta ar k bgana un padoans [ 2002]. Redzams, ka atdzejojum ir pankta pirm divdabja teiciena funkcionli semantisk ekvivalence: coming up for air. Tomr avotteksta divdabja teicien ietvert daudznozmba atdzejojum ir zaudta: ir saglabta tikai uzvaras konotcija, tau nav saglabta referencil saikne ar frazeoloisma pamatformu krievu valod. Valodas faktoru zi ierobeojos ir funkcionli un semantiski atbilstoa frazeoloisma trkums angu valod ldzgas nozmes frazeoloismos (piemram, save ones hide; keep a wholwe skin) atirg tlainba un ldz ar to atirgais funkcionli semantiskais lauks nepieauj deformcijas, ar kurm vartu pankt avotvalodas teksta deformtajam frazeoloismam ldzgu daudznozmbu. Ldz ar to ir mainta modalitte, turklt tiei teksta lmen. Tas izriet no fakta, ka galvenie zudumi notikui ne paa frazeoloisma lmen t k tas avotvalodas tekst ir ievrojami deformts, atkpe no paa principa atdzejojum btu uzskatma par pieaujamu. Tau vrdkopas with the pelt of that menacing beast konotciju izzuanas d ievrojami grtk ir izpildmi optimls uztveres un interpretcijas procesa nosacjumi [cf. Gutt 2010: 300] attiecb uz izteikuma nosldzoo dau (its not a horizon I see but a minus sign / on my previous life), jo taj izteikts metaforas nozmes atkodanai jeb interpretanai ir nepiecieama avotvalodas tekst pankt daudznozmba. 146
pai jatzm vairki atdzejojumi, kuros izmantoti frazeoloismi, lai gan avottekstos to nav: / (Brodskis 2009: 54) Kad nespsi dien ar uguni atrast (pamatforma: neatrast ne ar uguni) / vairs mani (Brodskis 2009: 55); , (Brodskis 2009: 84) Dod Dievs, lai negads pa rokai tobrd (Brodskis 2009: 85); (Brodskis 2009: 94) Pirms gadiem simts ai saul nkt (Brodskis 2009: 95). Visticamk, du stilistiska papildinjuma motivciju noteicis pantmrs, tomr jnorda, ka frazeoloismu lietojums dzejas tekst ir pietiekami specifiska stila iezme, tpc dai metodei nepiecieams btisks iemesls. Dzejas tekst frazeoloismi var bt nozmga stila iezme, kstot par teksta modalittes elementu, ldz ar to frazeoloiskajm vienbm ir btiska funkcionli semantisk nozme. Atdzejojumu analze apliecina funkcionls gramatikas pamatpostultu, ka sintakse ir izteikuma funkcijas elements un izpaudums. Savukrt no teksta lingvistikas teorijas izriet, ka ar stils ir daa no teksta lingvistisks funkcijas. Atdzejotjam jspj atkodt frazeoloisks vienbas avottekst, veicot lingvistisko un pragmatisko analzi un pc tam cenoties rast pilnvrtgu atveidojumu mrvalodas tekst, izsverot iespjams atdzejoanas metodes un tajs pieaujamos kompromisus. Veicot izvli funkcionli semantisks ekvivalences lmen, jem vr visi ietekmjoie faktori, lai atbilsmes mekljumiem nebtu formls rezultts, kur, ievrojot kdu no aspektiem, acmredzami nav izsvrta citu faktoru nozmba.
AVOTI Brodskis, J. Dzejas izlase. Rga: Neputns, 2009. Brodsky, J. Collected Poems in English. Manchester: Cacanet Press Limited, 2000. Brodsky, J. Elegy to John Donne and Other Poems. London: Longmans, 1967. Brodsky, J. Selected Poems. London: Harper&Row, 1973. , . . -: , 2000a. , . . -: , 2000b.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst , . . -: , 2000. , . ( ). Pieejams: http://lib.ru/ BRODSKIJ/brodsky_poetry.txt (atvrts 05.01.2012.) , . . -: , 2000d. , . . -: , 2000e. LITERATRA Gutt, E-A. Relevance and Translation: On the Value of a Good Theoretical. In the Mind and across Minds. Newcastle:Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2010, 292.310. lpp. Naisione, A. Stylistic Use of Phraseological Units in Discourse. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2010. Strakien, M. Analysis of Idiom Translation Strategies from English into Russian. In: Kalb Studijos, Nr. 17, 2010, 29.33. lpp. , . . : , 2007. , . . .: . , Nr. 56, 2002. , . . . : , 2007.
Translations of Joseph Brodskys Poems into Latvian and English: Functional and Semantic Equivalence of Phraseologisms Summary
The paper presents a brief insight into the linguistic theory of phraseological units and their functional and semantic equivalence by examining them as structural and semantic elements of the texts world and analysing their relations at the level of the source text and target text, and in the translation situation. Phraseologisms are relatively stable collocations fixed by linguistic tradition. They reflect national culture, history, values and attitude towards the world. In the interlingual perspective their functions are relatively similar phraseologisms fulfil both nominative and communicative functions. They are not produced at the moment of communication but rather are reproduced as semantically bound collocations possessing a certain semantic background. For translation theory an important aspect is the fact that the meaning of a phraseologism known by language
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Jnis VECKRCIS. Josifa Brodska dzejoi atdzejojumos latvieu un angu.. users cannot be derived from the meaning of individual components which implies complexities in understanding in translating phraseologisms. In poetry phraseologisms can be an essential stylistic element. Thus the functional and semantic meaning of phraseologisms possesses significant importance. The analysis of translations of Brodskys poems approves the theory of functional grammar that syntax is an element and expression of the function of utterance. According to text linguistics, style is an element of texts linguistic function. The initial task of the translator is decoding of phraseological units used in the source text. The next task is a full-fledged rendition into the target language by selecting the best poetry translation method and weighting of the reasonable losses and compromises. When choosing the best variant at the level of functional and semantic equivalence, all the influencing aspects should be taken into account in order to avoid a formal solution in which adherence to one aspect indicates apparent negligence towards the others.
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Laimut BUIEN
Atributiniai vietos junginiai

Reikminiai odiai: atributinis junginys, daiktavardio linksniai, prielinksnin konstrukcija, santykinis bdvardis su priesaga -inis, veiksmaodinis daiktavardis 1. vadins pastabos. io tyrimo objektas nusakomieji atributiniai junginiai, reikiantys vietos santykius. Straipsnio tikslas parodyti, kokiomis gramatinmis ir leksinmis priemonmis realizuojami lietuvi kalbos atributiniai junginiai (toliau: AJ), kuri priklausomieji dmenys apibdina daikt pagal viet. Integravus vientis sistem vairias raikos priemones (daiktavardio linksniai, prielinksnins konstrukcijos, santykiniai bdvardiai) siekiama atskleisti ios ries atributini jungini reikms atspalvius, sinonimines igales, ikelti varijuojanias formas1. Darbe taikomas apraomasis analitinis metodas, derinant tiriamj jungini formalij, semantin bei paskirties sakinyje analiz. Tiriamoji mediaga surinkta i groins lietuvi literatros, kai kuriais atvejais naudojamasi pavyzdiais i publicistikos tekst. 2. Pagrindinis AJ dmuo konkreios (arba abstrakios) reikms daiktavardis 2.1. Vietos AJ rodo viet, plot, padt, krypt, su kuria susijs pagrindiniu dmeniu pasakytas daiktas. Priklausomuoju toki jungini dmeniu danai eina daiktavardi kilmininkas (Ng N), turintis iok tok ry su priklausymo santykius yminiu kilmininku. Neretai daikto poymis kyla i to, kad tas daiktas susijs su tam tikra viet, jai tarsi priklauso, t.y. kartu nusakoma ir daikto buvimo vieta, ir priklausymas jai kaip visumai, pvz.: alies gyventojai, miesto mogus, giri takai, ups vanduo, jros uola. Vis dlto ios ries AJ reikt skirti prie nusakomj, o ne priklausymo jungini. ia priklausymas savitas ir ne toks rykus kaip aiki posesyvin reikm turini J (odi junginiai).2
1 R. Milinait teigia, kad svarbiausias sinonim poymis skirting raik turini kalbos vienet reikminis bendrumas bema neskiria j nuo plaiai suprantam variant [Milinait 2009: 181]. 2 Kai kurie kalbininkai vietos AJ laiko posesyviniais [r. Muchin 1964: 61; ukys 1998: 126; Vaiiulyt-Semnien 2006: 151]. Vieni i toki AJ yra virt vien
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Laimut BUIEN. Atributiniai vietos junginiai
Pagal pagrindinio dmens reikm aptariamus junginius galima suskirstyti kelet pori (LKG 3, 201): 1) pagrindinis dmuo rodo augal ar gyv btyb, o priklausomasis j buvimo (ar veiklos) viet, pvz.:
Ji mst, kad visi plai g i r i v r y s snduriuoja dabar savo urvuose ir klausosi pu ir liep balso <> Vaiiul. a l i e s g y v e n t o j a i tolinosi dabar nuo to kalno kaip nuo baisiausios ligos ar maro Bil. Giedojo alyv krme, giedojo ydiniame katone, giedojo p a r k o l i e p o s e Mikel.
2)
pagrindinis dmuo reikia viet (ems paviriaus objekt, gyvenam teritorij ar daikt), kuri priklauso kilmininku pasakytai platesns apimties vietai ar daiktui, pvz.:
M i e s t e l i o l a u k a i s , p a k r m m i s , p i e v t a k a i s ir pernykia ole pasiiauusiomis eiomis skubinosi namo Katil. Studentas tuo tarpu jau jo m i e s t e l i o g a t v m i s ir keik purvyn, kuriuo jam reikjo bristi Bil. Ir tai sugausdavo v i e n u o l y n o v a r p a i Vien. Ir atsisdo ant kuln ir rankogaliu brauk aar i v e i d o r a u k l i Vaiiul.
3)
pagrindiniu dmeniu eina valstybes, alis, kontinentus reikiantys daiktavardiai (taip pat daiktavardis vjas), o priklausomuoju pasaulio ali krypties pavadinimai; ie J nurodo gretinamj daikt padt arba krypties orientyrus, pvz.: iaurs Amerika, Piet Amerika, Vakar Europa, Ryt Vokietija; vakar vjas, pietryi vjas (is daiktavardis prisijungia ir kit vietos reikms daiktavardi kilminink: lauk vjas, jros vjas). Pvz.:
<> ir sauls suvirintas, lainant rytmeio rasos, ir sumaiytas p i e t v j o Katil. J tarpais drasko, tarpais glamonja kruvinai mlynas j r o s v j a s Mikel.
Atskirai mintini tikrini daiktavardi kilmininkai, kurie reikia ne tiek priklausym, kiek ssajas su tam tikra vietove, pvz.: Gruzijos kalnai, Ispanijos liaudis, Baltijos jreiviai.
Anuka prabilo apie E g i p t o v e n t i k u s , P e r s i j o s m a g u s , T i b e t o v i e n u o l i u s , M e k s i k o s i n d n u s <> Ivan. Atveiu a tau L i e t u v o s g l i , lietuvik rtel ant tavo kapo pasodinsiu Vien. Kit dien jie aplank daug ymi V i l n i a u s v i e t Myk-Put. svok reikianiais (nedalomais) junginiais, arba kolokacijomis, pvz.: Vakar Europa, iaurs Amerika, vandens lelijos ir pan.
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2.2. Paymimuosius vietos santykius rodo ir santykiniai bdvardiai su priesaga -inis (Adjx Nx), pvz.: kieninis laikrodis, sieninis kalendorius, rytinis krantas, galins durys, virutiniai (apatiniai) dantys, centrin gatv, priemiestinis autobusas, naminis gyvulys, kambarins gls, rytiniai auktaiiai ir pan. Dauguma i jungini yra aiks pastovs pavadinimai. Pvz.:
Po Kotelnikov atidlino su paia ir su iduktere v i e t i n i s v a i s t i n i n k a s Brazauskas, itauts lietuvis <> Vien. Dabar Garva vilgteri r a n k i n l a i k r o d u k km. Deg tik nedidel s t a l i n l e m p e l Ivan. Upuolus slibinui, mergina lipo g i r i n o b e l Tts. Mano akys lapo, tekjo nosis, luosiau j kumiu, ir k n y g i n i a i o d i a i isigaubdavo, lyg pro padidinamj stikl skaitomi km.
Kai kurie tokios reikms bdvardiai konkuruoja su kilmininku, plg.: vietiniai gyventojai ir vietos gyventojai; stalinis kalendorius ir stalo kalendorius; girinis pauktis ir girios pauktis; kalninis erelis ir kaln erelis. ios formos turi identik reikm ir gali viena kit pakeisti. Tokiais atvejais, kai reikms skirtum nra, pirmenyb teikiama kilmininkui [Knikta 2001: 464]. Reikia paymti, kad vietos reikms AJ labiau ymi individuali ssaj su vieta, todl sinonimus su priesagos -inis bdvardiais nedanai tesudaro [Knikta 2001: 430]. 2.3. Atributin vietos reikm turi konkreij daiktavardi junginiai su vietininku (N Nl)3, pvz.:
Senosios akys vis krypsta kltel, dirsioja ji ir sod, auktaskliaut klojim, dukters Tekls Vizgirdiens n a m u s p u y n l y j e <> Radz. Neprailgo ir v i e n a g d v a r e , kurio vard su didele pagarba ir dkingumo kupinas turiu paymti Katil. Kyla didel a u d r a j r o j e , ir keleivis yra baims pagautas dl savo likimo Krv.
Atributins reikms vietininkai danesni publicistikoje4, o groinje literatroje reti. Kalbos norminamuosiuose leidiniuose patariama vengti vietininko daikto poymiui reikti, kai apibdinama to daikto ypatyb, o ne vieta. Tokie J keiiami lietuvi kalbai prastesniais junginiais su kilmiie junginiai susidaro tada, kai j priklausomasis dmuo (vietininkas) neturi tiesioginio ryio su sakinio tariniu (norint tai nustatyti btinas kontekstas). J dmen tarpusavio ry stiprina postpozicin kontaktin vietininko padtis. 4 Publicistikoje ypa plinta tokie ios ries J, kur vietinink prisijungia asmen ar jo pareigas ymintys daiktavardis (ambasadorius Jungtinje Karalystje, NATO pirmininkas Vienoje), taip pat reikin ar proces reikiantis daiktavardis (problema Lietuvoje, konfliktas Kosove, JAV politika Irake) [Vaskelait 2002: 97].
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ninku: konkursas Budapete ( Budapeto konkursas); kolegos Seime ( Seimo kolegos) (KP 2 [S 1]: 98). Kilmininkas vietos ypatyb nusako sklandiau, kategorikiau, net suteikdamas ries ypatybs atspalv. Nusakomieji vietininkai labai paranks, kai sakinyje nusakomj kilminink per daug ar kilmininkas kiek dviprasmis [ukys 1998: 320]5. 2.4. Daikt vietos atvilgiu apibdina prielinksnins konstrukcijos (kai jos priklauso ne nuo veiksmaodio, o nuo daiktavardio): 1) N prNg; 2) N prNac; 3) N prNi, pvz.:
1) U g n i s a n t n u o d g u l i pelenais puola em Cv. Dingsta a u d r a i k r t i n s , dingsta piktumas ir nedorumas Simon. e r m u k n i s p r i e l a n g o taip baltai ir tirtai ydjo, kad, rodos, jo akas bt varks prikrsta Cv. Patrauk rank aukiau, sugniau Juzai k o j v i r u m k e l i o Balt. 2) U tai, k per vis k e l i k a p i n e s neverk, dabar ji prapliupo aaromis ir nebegaljo susilaikyti Vien. <> eina t a k u p a l e i u p , visada dabar itaip eis Aput. Senis nebeatsako, tik dar kart prisimena, kaip surasti t i l t e l p e r g r i o v Mikel. 3) Pasilenk, patais o l y n l p o k r y i u m , kreivai primint ventinant Balt. Kiek kart per dien jis lanko didj k a p p o emuoju u o l u ! Simon. <> vaikiodavo g a t v e t i e s n a m u p o p a l m m i s ir grdavos piet nakties vaigdtu dangumi, jros dsavimu Vien.
Pabrtina, kad nusakomuosius vietos santykius rodantys kiti linksniai bei prielinksnins konstrukcijos nuo nusakomj kilminink skiriasi. Nusakomieji kilmininkai reikia esmingesnius poymius, o nusakomaisiais virt kiti linksniai atsitiktinius (plg.: miesto mogus ir mogus i miesto). 3. Pagrindinis AJ dmuo veiksmaodinis daiktavardis (Nv). i AJ pagrindinis dmuo reikia veiksm, o priklausomasis viet, kurioje tas veiksmas realizuojamas. Veiksm vietos atvilgiu apibdina: 1) daiktavardio kilmininkas Ng Nv. Tokios struktros lokalins (atstumo) konstrukcijos visai retos; jos atsiranda i veiksmaodini jungini su vadinamuoju atstumo galininku, pvz.: imto metr bgimas (plg. bgti imt metr), penki kilometr jimas [Labutis 1975: 33];
Nepateisinamas vietininko vartojimas su konkreios reikms daiktavardiais aikiai daikto riai nusakyti, pvz.: silk morkose (= su morkomis), razinos okolade (= su okoladu).
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2)
daiktavardio nagininkas Nv Ni (vaiavimas viekeliu, keliavimas jra, lakstymas laiptais, slankiojimas patvoriais, bgiojimas laukais), pvz.:
I toli atklydo rat t r i n k s j i m a s g r u o d u Katil.
3)
daiktavardio vietininkas Nv Nl, pvz.:

Teapsvarsto ir pranea man, k reikia staigus ios vaigds a t s i r a d i m a s d a n g u j e Krv. Ir mums buvo domu i pradi, o pripratom prie i u l b j i m o p a s t a l j , tai ir nuobodu be jo Jukn. Igirdau vjo i u e n i m v i n k n o s e ir maiau mediniais spinduli smgiais paiaut kryiavon <> Katil. Gal dar ijimas verguvn (iliatyvas) Katil.
4)
prielinksnins konstrukcijos a) Nv prNg; b) Nv prNac, pvz.:

(a) Tik eli m i r g j i m a s a n t g r i n d , kieme auganios liepos avimas ir dusli, tolumoje besitrankanti perknija Radz. Karalien atriai subar vaikus u p a j u o k a v i m u s p r i e s t a l o <> Simon. (b) Paskutiniai 200 ali kitojo gudriai montuoti bato pade ir buvo skirti g r i m u i V i l n i Ivan. Moterys girdi viena kitos kvpavim, rankos b r k t e l j i m p e r a p k l o t <> Jukn. Vis mat to smagaus b g i m o p e r t a n k u m y n padariniai Katil.
5)
prieveiksmis Nv Adv, pvz.:

Nors amius pakeit tavo veid ir g y v e n i m a s s v e t u r ivaizd, bet ir a dabar prisiminiau ir painau tave <> Krv. Inyko laikas. Sugniauti pirtai, galutinis atnaavimas, nuoulnus s l y d i m a s e m y n ir laimtas gyvulikasis riksmas km. Paprastumo ir odio r a d i m o s i i n i e k u r programa gyvendinama ir treiojoje knygoje Tyliniojo aidas Sp. Ir lktuvai nepuola iuo ruou, matyt, turdami pakankamai d a r b o k i t u r Katil (pagrindinis dmuo danai sukonkretjs Nv).
Groinje lietuvi literatroje nusakomj naginink ir vietinink su Nv pasitaiko tik retkariais. Dabartins publicistikos sintakss tyrimai rodo, kad junginius su kilmininku danai nukonkuruoja junginiai su vietininku ir prielinksninmis konstrukcijomis (pokylis Vilniuje, pokalbis televizijoje, permainos politikoje, darbas pramonje, pagalba i usienio, vagyst i knygyno, atvykliai i Artimj Ryt). Nusakomj vietinink reikalauja kalbos intelektualjimas, tikslumo ir ekonomijos poreikiai, daniau ioje kalboje pasitaikantys veiksmaodi abstraktai. i vietinink plitim lemia ir svetim kalb sintaks (j ypa gausu verstins publicistikos tekstuose) [Vaskelait 2002: 9495, 103]. Kalbos patariamuosiuose leidiniuose 154
paymima, kad vietininkas neteiktinas ypatybs reikimosi sriiai reikti, pvz.: Pastebta ymi nukrypim psichikoje (=psichikos nukrypim) (KP 2 [S 1]: 97). P. Knikta teigia, kad dalykinje kalboje be toki vietinink tam tikrais atvejais sunku isiversti. Vieni j priimtini be ilyg, kiti pateisinami kaip alutiniai kit raikos bd variantai [plaiau r. Knikta 2001: 492493]. Sinonimin vartosena bdinga ir AJ su Nv, rodantiems veiksmo viet: 1) vietos kilmininkus retai keiia priesagos -inis bdvardiai, pvz.: pasaulio ir pasaulin praktika; 2) vietos vietininkas ne danai keiiamas priesagos -inis bdvardiais (gydymas sanatorijoje ir sanatorinis gydymas; draudimas usienyje ir usieninis draudimas; isilavinimas Europoje ir europinis isilavinimas), daniau kilmininku (rinkimai savivaldybse savivaldybi rinkimai; posdis Seime Seimo posdis).6 Paymtina, kad priesagos -inis bdvardiai yra naujesns formos, danai atrodo dirbtinokos. J su kitais daiktavardi linksniais (galininku, nagininku, vietininku) ir linksniais su prielinksniais pirmiausia reikia paius santykius, t.y. individual santyk su veiksmu. Priesagos -inis bdvardiai ir daiktavardio kilmininkas labiau ymi apibendrint pagrindinio dmens ypatyb, turi rin, iskiriamj reikm [Knikta 2001: 420]. 4. Ivados Atributiniams junginiams, kuri priklausomieji dmenys apibdina daikt pagal viet, bdingas nemaas raikos rinkinys (daiktavardio linksniai, prielinksnins konstrukcijos, santykiniai bdvardiai). Didiausi rpest kelia priesagos -inis bdvardi vedini konkurencija su nusakomuoju kilmininku. Kai kada priesagos -inis bdvardi ir daiktavardi kilminink formos turi identik reikm ir sinoniminis i form vartojimas lietuvi kalboje yra norminis (plg.: miko pauktis ir mikinis pauktis). J pasirinkimas priklauso nuo vartosenos tradicijos, kalbos srities ir stiliaus. Vis dlto danesni tokie atvejai, kai priesagos -inis bdvardiai rodo rin daikto ypatyb (kambarins gls), o kilmininkas ymi individuali ssaj su vieta (pelki takas).
Kartais nusakomieji vietininkai kilmininku i viso negali bti keiiami (plg.: sdjimas vienoj vietoj *vienos vietos sdjimas). Jei toks keitimas formaliai ir manomas, tai pakinta i esms reikm, pvz.: komponavimas erdvje ir laike (plg. erdvs ir laiko komponavimas).
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Nusakomuosius vietos santykius rodantys kiti linksniai bei prielinksnins konstrukcijos nuo nusakomj kilminink skiriasi. Nusakomieji kilmininkai reikia esmingesnius poymius, o nusakomaisiais virt kiti linksniai (prielinksnins konstrukcijos) atsitiktinius (plg.: miesto mogus ir mogus i miesto). Atributiniai vietos junginiai su Nv pasiymi itin didele raikos vairove. Nv sudaro junginius su daugeliu daiktavardio linksni, su prielinksninmis konstrukcijomis, prieveiksmiu. Sinonimin vartosena bdinga ir AJ, rodantiems veiksmo viet. J su vairiais daiktavardi linksniais ir linksniais su prielinksniais pirmiausia rodo individual santyk suveiksmu (viepatavimas danguje). Priesagos -inis bdvardiai ir daiktavardio kilmininkas labiau ymi apibendrint pagrindinio dmens ypatyb, turi rin reikm (pasaulin praktika, kaln gyventojai).
LITERATRA Knikta, P. Kalbos vartosena ir tvarkyba. Vilnius: Lietuvi kalbos instituto leidykla, 2001. 594 p. KP 2 Kalbos patarimai. Sintaks: linksni vartojimas (S 1) / sud. R. Milinait. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidybos institutas, 2003. 131 p. Labutis, V. Kai kurios veiksmaodini daiktavardi konstrukcijos su kilmininku. In: Kalbotyra, t. 26 (1), 1975, pp. 2536. LKG 3 Lietuvi kalbos gramatika. T. 3: Sintaks / ats. red. K. Ulvydas. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1976. 1014 p. Milinait, R. Dabartins lietuvi kalbos vartosenos variantai. Vilnius: Lietuvi kalbos instituto leidykla, 2009. 246 p. , . . . : , 1964. ukys, J. Lietuvi kalbos linksniai ir prielinksniai: vartosena ir normos. Kaunas: viesa, 1998. 599 p. Vaiiulyt-Semnien, L. Morfosintaksinis posesyvumo ymjimas: vidin ir iorin posesyvumo raika. In: Daiktavardinio junginio tyrimai / Lietuvi kalbos gramatikos darbai 4. Lietuvi kalbos instituto leidykla, 2006, pp. 151178. Vaskelait, R. Daiktavardini jungini vartojimas publicistikoje. In: Kalbos kultra, ss. 75, 2002, pp. 93103.
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Laimut BUIEN. Atributiniai vietos junginiai SUTRUMPINIMAI Aput Juozas Aputis Balt Juozas Baltuis Bil Jonas Bilinas Cv Petras Cvirka Ivan Jurga Ivanauskait Jukn Vanda Juknait Katil Marius Katilikis Krv Vincas Krv Mikel Jonas Mikelinskas Myk-Put Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas Radz Bronius Radzeviius Simon Ieva Simonaityt Sp spauda km Antanas kma Tts tautosaka Vaiiul Antanas Vaiiulaitis Vien Antanas Vienuolis
SIMBOLINIAI ENKLAI N daiktavardis Nv veiksmaodinis daiktavardis Ng kilmininkas Nac galininkas Ni nagininkas Nl vietininkas Nx bet kuris daiktavardio linksnis Adj bdvardis Adjx bet kuris bdvardio linksnis Adv prieveiksmis pr prielinksnis prijungimas
Attributive Word Phrases of Place in Lithuanian Summary

The article focuses on the attributive word phrases the dependent components of which describe a thing by place (giri takai, rytinis krantas, langas sod). The research data are collected from Lithuanian fiction and periodical press. The relations of place are analysed on the basis of the lexical composition and morphological structure of a word phrase. The integration of various means of expression (noun cases, prepositional constructions, relative adjectives) to a solid system reveals the shades of meaning of the attributive word phrases under discussion, brings out the problem of synonyms and the interaction between non-standard and standard facts. The concreteness / abstractiveness of the principal component in a word phrase also plays a certain role in determining the tendencies of expression of the attribute. Attributive word phrases with a verbal noun show a particularly broad diversity of expression. Verbal nouns can come into combination with the majority of noun cases, prepositional constructions, adverb (darbas Seime, vaiavimas viekeliu, ivyka pajr, gyvenimas svetur).
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Vida ESNULIEN
Laiko konjunkcija mokslinio ir publicistinio stiliaus tekstuose

Reikminiai odiai: laiko konjunkcija, laiko sekos konjunkcija, vienalaikikumo konjunkcija, apibendrinto laiko konjunkcija Lietuvi kalbotyros darbuose laikas paprastai suprantamas kaip kategorija, kuri skiriama pagal veiksmo santyk su kalbamuoju momentu ar kito veiksmo laiku [plg. LKE 1999: 346; DLKG 1997: 290; LKG II 1971: 70 ir kt.]. Gramatin laiko kategorija reikiama ir veiksmaodio formomis, ir nurodant kalendorin dat, ir paymint rpimo veiksmo santyk su vykiu, kurio laikas inomas, ir pagal santyk su kalbamuoju momentu ir kt. [LKG II 1971: 70]. Tyrimo objektas laiko konektoriai, kuriais siejami atskiri sakiniai tekstuose. Tyrimo imt sudaro po 3600 atsitiktinai parinkt sakini, o abiej stili kartu 7200 sakini. Tyrimo tikslas nustatyti daniausiai vartojamus laiko konektorius mokslinio ir publicistinio stiliaus tekstuose, aptarti t laiko konektori reikminius atspalvius. Tyrimo metodas kompleksinis. Pagrindinis metodas apraomasis analitinis. Atliekant tyrim remtasi ir lyginamuoju metodu (lyginama laiko konektori raika ir reikms mokslinio ir publicistinio stiliaus tekstuose), vartojimo polinkiams atskleisti taikytas kiekybinis metodas. Nustatant laiko konektori reikmes, taip pat taikytas ir substitucij metodas. Laiko santykiu susijusi sakini turinys yra konkretus kalbama apie veiksmus, bsenas ir kt. Laiko konjunkcija straipsnyje suprantama kaip santykis tarp sakini, kuri vieno sakinio turinys laiko atvilgiu yra paskesnis, vlesnis, tolesnis palyginti su kito sakinio turiniu. Laiko konjunkcija paprastai reikiama prieveiksmiais. Todl raikos poiriu laiko konjunkcija itin panai gramatins kohezijos vien i pori demonstratyvin laiko referencij. Esminis j skirtumas yra tas, kad siejant sakinius laiko konektoriais antecedento nra nei paiame tekste, nei situacijos kontekste, kitaip tariant, nurodomas tik laiko santykis (plg. 1 ir 2 pvz.).
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Vida ESNULIEN. Laiko konjunkcija mokslinio ir publicistinio stiliaus.. (1) Baigs auktuosius reisros kursus Maskvoje, diplominiam darbui pasirinkot V. Krvs pjes entas ir 1983 m. j pastatt Panevio dramos teatre. Kodl tada parpo Krv? A 1 7. (2) Poniai Almai mes referuodavome apie laik turin, ypa svarbi korespondencij perskaitydavo ji pati. Tada tardavoms, kaip mogui pagelbti. LR 38 3.
1 pvz. pirmame sakinyje yra antecedentas (pavyzdyje antecedentas pabrauktas), su kuriuo ir siejamas laik reikiantis konektorius tada. 1 pvz. raikos poiriu pavartotas toks pat konektorius tada, taiau pirmesniame sakinyje laiko reikianio antecedento nra. Palyginus mintus pavyzdius, akivaizdu, kad konektoriai tada iek tiek skiriasi reikme, t. y. 1 pvz. konektorius tada nurodo konkret, pirmesniame sakinyje nurodyt laik o 2 pvz. tuo paiu konektoriumi pasakoma tik veiksm seka. Kadangi laiko konjunkcija reikiama tik tokiais konektoriais, kurie nurodo tik laiko santyk tarp sakini, konektorius nra siejamas su pirmesnio sakinio antecedentu, taip pat konektoriumi nurodomas ne konkretus laikas, o tik bendri laiko santykiai (pvz., laiko seka, vienalaikikumas ir kt.), tokie sakini siejimo atvejai negali bti skiriami ir leksinei kohezijai. Laiko konjunkcija tekste atlieka dvejop funkcij nurodomas veiksm laikas arba teksto teigini svarba. Todl kalbininkai band skirti iorin ir vidin laiko konjunkcij [plg. Halliday, Hasan 1976: 266267). Apie iorin laiko konjunkcij paprastai kalbama tada, kai tekste svarbu laiko santykiu susieti koduojam turin, pvz., konektoriumi siejama veiksm seka, plg. pvz.:
(3) Buljone auginama kultra turi pakeisti jo spalv, t. y. indikatorius fenolio raudonasis turi pakisti iki oranins arba geltonos spalvos madaug 37 inkubacijos par. Tuomet kultra perkeliama i buljono terps ant agaro terps ir subkultivuojama tam tikroje buljono terpje. KalPM 109.
Vidin laiko konjunkcija nurodo santyk tarp sakini, kuriais yra nusakomas teksto sakini svarbumas, idstymo tvarka, plg. pvz.:
(4) Taiau kai kurios opozicijos gali daniau skirti darybines ir gramatines reikmes negu leksines. Tuo, kaip sakyta ( 136), pasiymi ms priebalsi tembrin koreliacija <...>. GirdTFP 155. (5) Formaliai irint, knygoje dstoma bendrosios fonologijos koncepcija artima gerai inomoms Prahos lingvistinio brelio pairoms <...>, bet su ja nieku bdu nesutampa. Pirma, ia daugiau dmesio skiriama fonologini element identifikavimo technikai <...>. Antra
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst (ir turbt svarbiausia), fonem ir j diferencini poymi skirstymo pamatu ioje knygoje laikomi ne paradigminiai, o sintagminiai santykiai, <...>. GirdTFP 78.
Tokios ries konjunkcija bdingesn mokslinio stiliaus tekstams, iuo konjunkcijos poriu paprastai sustiprinamos moksliniam stiliui bdingi poymiai tikslumas, aikumas, glaustumas. Taiau itirta empirin mediaga neparod aiki i dviej laiko konjunkcijos pori skiriamj poymi, todl straipsnyje pateikiamos tik bendresns vidins ir iorins laiko konjunkcijos pasiskirstymo tendencijos. Straipsnyje laiko konjunkcija smulkiau detalizuojama pagal konektoriais reikiamus santykius, t. y. skiriama laiko sekos, vienalaikikumo ir apibendrinto laiko konjunkcija. 3.4.1. Laiko sekos konjunkcija Laiko sekos konjunkcija tai santykis tarp dviej ar daugiau sakini, kuri veiksmai ar bsenos vyksta paeiliui, vienas po kito:
(6) Prie dvi savaites jie buvo suimti. Ikart po lietuvi imigrant sulaikymo Vilni atvyko keli JAV pareignai ir padjo lietuviams kolegoms toliau rengti operacij. LR 83 6.
Laiko sekos konjunkcija apskritai danesn tirtose publicistinio stiliaus tekst imtyse tai pirmiausia lemia ir io stiliaus tekst turinys. io stiliaus tekstuose daugiau yra pasakojimo element, todl tokiame tekste daniau prireikia nurodyti koduojam veiksm ar bsen sek, vienalaikikum ir pan. Laiko sekos konjunkcijos raika taip pat vairesn tirtose publicistinio stiliaus tekst imtyse. Smulkesn laiko sekos konjunkcijos raika tirtose mokslinio ir publicistinio stiliaus tekst imtyse pateikta 1 lentelje. 1 lentel Laiko sekos konjunkcija mokslinio ir publicistinio stiliaus tekst imtyse
Mokslinio stiliaus tekst imtyse pavartot laiko sekos santykiu susijusi sakini skaiius (vienetai)
Stilius
Konektorius 1 tada tuomet
2 4 2
3 8,7 4,3
Publicistinio stiliaus tekst imtyse pavartot laiko sekos santykiu susijusi sakini skaiius (vienetai)
4 2 13
160
Publicistinio stiliaus tekst imtyse pavartot laiko sekos santykiu susijusi sakini skaiius (procentai)
Mokslinio stiliaus tekst imtyse pavartot laiko sekos santykiu susijusi sakini skaiius (procentai)
5 4,3 28,3
Vida ESNULIEN. Laiko konjunkcija mokslinio ir publicistinio stiliaus.. 1 paskui po to toliau ikart dar vliau pirma..., toliau..., paskui..., ... galiausiai, pagaliau 2 0 1 2 0 1 0 5 3 0 2,2 4,3 0 2,2 0 10,9 4 1 4 2 2 5 1 1 5 2,2 8,7 4,3 4,3 109 2,2 2,2
Kaip matyti i 1 lentelje pateikt duomen, laiko sekos santykiams reikti daniausiai vartojamas konektorius tuomet.
(7) Tiksliai diagnozuoti galima tiktai iskyrus ir identifikavus M. synoviae. Jei infekcija mi, i paeist pauki nesunku iskirti suklj, bet jei ji chronika, mikoplazmos nra labai gyvybingos. Patartina tada bandinius imti i pauki virutins kvpavimo sistemos dalies. KalPM 117.
Laiko sekos santykis taip pat reikiamas konektoriais paskui, po to, vliau, toliau, plg. pvz.:
(8) I ios mediagos buvo irinktos galiojanios teiss normos, jos paredaguotos, kai kurie teiss aktai sutrumpinti, i keli viena kitai prietaraujani norm atrinktos ir paliktos naujausios. Paskui, kitaip nei Pilname statym rinkinyje, jos buvo idstytos pagal M. Speranskio parengt originali dalykin sistem. MaksimLT 51. (9) Atsitiktinai itraukiamas vienas rutulys ir nebegrinamas d. Po to atsitiktinai traukiamas antras rutulys. KubTTMS 46. (10) Pridjus mitybin terp nikotinamidadenindi-nukleotido, buvo iskirtas ir identifikuotas M. synoviae S serotipas. Vliau M. synoviae buvo patvirtinta kaip atskira mikoplazm ris. KalPM 111. (11) i skilt parayti paskatino mane ne vien posdis, kuriame buvo skirstomos valstybins stipendijos, bet ir sausa informacija prajusio etadienio Lietuvos ryte Valstybs stipendij siek 500 meninink. Kitaip sakant dviej lygi stipendijoms buvo pateikta 500 paraik. Toliau raoma apie tai, kas ir kiek tu stipendij gavo. A 4 2b.
Visi aukiau pateikti konektoriai vartojami sinonimikai. Tok sinonimin i konektori vartojim pirmiausia lemia i konektori reikm. 161
Laiko sekos santykiu danai siejami ne du, o daugiau (trys, o kartais net keturi sakiniai). Tokiu atveju vartojama laiko sek reikiani konektori eil pirma..., toliau..., paskui..., ... galiausiai, pagaliau.
(12) Gretinius be pasikartojim galime gauti ir itokiu bdu. I pradi bet kaip parenkame <...> aibs element ir jo nebegriname. Po to renkame antrj gretinio element <...>, jo taip pat negriname, ir t. t. Pagaliau renkame <...> element <...>. KubTTMS 29.
Tokia konektori eile siejant sakinius pasiekiama ne tik teigini rilumo, bet drauge ir idstomi pagal svarbum. 3.4.2. Vienalaikikumo konjunkcija Vienalaikikumo laiko konjunkcija tai santykis tarp dviej ar daugiau sakini, kuri veiksmai, bsenos vyksta tuo paiu metu.
(13) Kloakoje, Fabricijaus liaukoje vystosi udegimas ir limfofolikulin reakcija. Btent tada kiauiniai ukreiami M. meleagridis. KalPM 125.
Vienalaikikumo konjunkcija mokslinio stiliaus tekstuose daniausiai reikiama konektoriais tuomet, tada, kart, dabar. Publicistinio stiliaus tekstuose vienalaikikumo santykiui reikti daniausiai vartojamas konektoriai tuomet ir dabar. 3.4.3. Apibendrinto laiko konjunkcija Apibendrinto laiko konjunkcija tai santykis tarp dviej ar daugiau sakini, kuri antruoju sakiniu susumuojama, kas buvo pasakyta pirmesniu sakiniu, pvz.:
(14) Per mongolus totorius Rusija ilgam liko izoliuota nuo Vakar. Mintas izoliavimasis dl ortodoksinio Rusijoje paplitusios religijos pobdio tebetruko ir jai atkrus nepriklausomyb, nes, suskilus XI a. viduryje krikionybei, suiro vienintelis Rusijos ryi su Vakarais kanalas, js per katalikikj Rom. Pagaliau Rusijoje ilg laik nepasireik veiksniai, ypa skatin teiss paang Vakar Europoje. MaksimLT 50.
ia, kaip rodo pavyzdys, yra galutinio laiko tako (momento tarpo) nuoroda. Todl apibendrinto laiko konjunkcija paprastai baigiama viena mikrotema, o kartais net tema. Apibendrinto laiko konjunkcijos raika mokslinio ir publicistinio stiliaus tekstuose pateikta 2 lentelje. 162
Vida ESNULIEN. Laiko konjunkcija mokslinio ir publicistinio stiliaus..
2 lentel. Apibendrinto laiko konjunkcija mokslinio ir publicistinio stiliaus tekst imtyse

Mokslinio stiliaus tekst imtyse pavartot apibendrinto laiko santykiu susijusi sakini skaiius (vienetai)
Stilius
Konektorius pagaliau galiausiai
4 1
Mokslinio stiliaus tekst imtyse pavartot apibendrinto laiko santykiu susijusi sakini skaiius (procentai)
27 6,7
Publicistinio stiliaus tekst imtyse pavartot apibendrinto laiko santykiu susijusi sakini skaiius (vienetai)
9 1
Empirins mediagos analiz rodo, kad tokia apibendrinto laiko konjunkcija tirtuose tekstuose nra dana, itin neproduktyvi ios konjunkcijos raika.
LITERATRA Dabartins lietuvi kalbos gramatika. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidybos institutas, 2005. Halliday, M. A. K., Hasan, R. Cohesion in English. London and New York: Longman, 1976. Lietuvi kalbos enciklopedija. / Sud. V. Ambrazas ir kt. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidybos institutas, 1999. Lietuvi kalbos gramatika. T. 2. Vyr. red. K. Ulvydas, V. Ambrazas, A. Valeckien. Vilnius: Mintis, 1971. ALTINIAI GirdTFP Girdenis, A. Teoriniai fonologijos pagrindai. Vilnius: Petro ofsetas, 1995. KalPM Kaluina, V. Pauki mikoplazmozs. Vilnius: Margi ratai, 1998. KubTTMS Kubilius, J. Tikimybi teorija ir matematin statistika. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla, 1996. LR Lietuvos rytas. MaksimLT Maksimaitis, M. Lietuvos teiss altiniai 19181940 metais. Vilnius: Justitia, 2001. A iaurs Atnai.
Publicistinio stiliaus tekst imtyse pavartot apibendrinto laiko santykiu susijusi sakini skaiius (procentai)
60 6,7
163
Temporal Conjunction in the Texts of Scientific and Publicistic Style Summary

Temporal conjunction shall be understood as the relation between the sentences with a sentence of time the content is a folow-up, later, a further comparison with the other contents of the sentence. Temporal conjunction is usually expressed by adverbs. Therefore, temporal conjunction by the expression is similar to one of the sub-types of grammatical cohesion to the demostrative temporal reference. The essential difference between them is that the connectors linking sentences as antecedents are neither in the text nor the context of the situation, in other words, given only as the relation of time. The time sequence of conjunction represents the relationship between two or more sentences of the action or state going on in sequence, one after another. The time sequence of conjunction of general publicistic style common in the studied samples of texts is primarily determined by the style and content of the texts. The text style is more narrative elements, so this text is often necessary in coded sequence of actions or states, simultaneity and so on. Simultanic time conjunction is the relationship between two or more sentences with actions and status happening at the same time. Generalized time conjunction of time is usually completed in one microtheme, and sometimes even the subject.
164
Vidas KAVALIAUSKAS
Dl lietuvi kalbos paprastj daiktavardi dumblas, gandras, rakandas, urvas kiriavimo realiosios vartosenos
Reikminiai odiai: paprastieji daiktavardiai, kiriavimo norma, kiriavimo variantai, realioji vartosena, bendrin lietuvi kalba 1. Kai kuri paprastj daiktavardi kiriavimo norma bendrinje lietuvi kalboje nra stabili kodifikuota kiriavimo norma ne visada palaikoma realiosios vartosenos. Didjantis atotrkis tarp kalbos vartotoj vartosenos ir nustatytos kiriavimo normos veria kiriavimo norm kodifikuotojus vertinti populiaresnius kiriavimo variantus sistemikumo poiriu. Kiriavimo variantai, kaip konkuruojantys tarpusavyje, neeidiantys kalbos sistemos, gali bti teisinami [r. Girdenis 1970: 66]. Rengiant naujj bendrins lietuvi kalbos odyn, Valstybins lietuvi kalbos komisijos (VLKK) Tarties ir kiriavimo pakomis perirjo visus keblesnius paprastj daiktavardi kiriavimo atvejus ir 2003 m. pasil priimti Rekomendacij (Dl kai kuri pirmini (paprastj) daiktavardi kiriavimo Nr. K-2 r. Pakerys 2003: 45; http://www.vlkk.lt/lit/nutarimai/tartiskirciavimas/rekomendacija2.html) patikslinti 45 toki daiktavardi kiriavimo normas. Rekomendacija priimta atsivelgus fragmentikus realiosios vartosenos duomenis, kalbos sistemikumo, nuoseklaus normos keitimo per variantus principus. Atskir platesni realiosios vartosenos tyrim Lietuvos regionuose nebuvo atlikta. Siekiant isiaikinti, kaip realioji vartosena palaiko mint VLKK nutarim, 20092010 m. buvo atliktas eksperimentinis tyrimas, kuriame dalyvavo 500 respondent i 3 skirting Lietuvos vietovi, t. y. Lazdij ir Molt rajon, Prien miesto. Tyrimo rezultatai parod, kad daugum pakeist ar patikslint paprastj daiktavardi kiriavimo norm palaiko realioji vartosena [r. Kavaliauskas, Paliuknait 2011: 425435]. Vis dlto kai kuri daiktavardi patikslintas kiriavimo normas realioji vartosena remia tik i dalies teisinti nauji antrieji kiriavimo variantai yra daug daniau vartojami u pagrindinius. I toki daiktavardi ypa isiskiria dumblas, gandras, rakandas, urvas. 165
io darbo tikslas patikrinti, kaip kasdienje kalboje kiriuojami ie 4 paprastieji daiktavardiai. Tyrime dalyvavusi respondent buvo praoma perskaityti sakinius, kuriuose tarp kit odi buvo ir tiriamasis daiktavardis. Tiriamiesiems skaitant sakinius, anketose buvo ymima, kaip jie kiriuoja rpim daiktavard (buvo teikti tokie sakiniai: Reikia su dumblais maiyti; Su gandrais isikl; Per rakandus negaliu praeiti, Laps emn urvus kasa). Gauti rezultatai, atspindintys tirt daiktavardi realij vartosen, buvo dar lyginami su Antano Pakerio anksiau Vilniaus pedagoginiame universitete atliktais student kiriavimo polinki tyrim ir 5 Lietuvos universitet vykdomo projekto Jaunimo kiriavimo polinkiai duomenimis. Pagrindinis io darbo metodas respondent apklausa, anketavimas, gaut rezultat analiz, lyginimas su ankstesniais ir naujausiais tyrim rezultatais, tiriamj daiktavardi kiriavimo normos fiksavimo kalbinje literatroje pervalga. Realiosios vartosenos tyrimai turi praktin vert j rezultatais gals pasinaudoti kiriavimo norm kodifikuotojai. 2. Paprastojo daiktavardio dumblas kiriavimas nra nusistovjs ~ lingvistinje literatroje galima rasti skirtingus kiriavimo variantus: dumblas 2 D1 158; D2 135; D3 137; D4 137; LKR 195; LV 241; Kamantaus~ kas 1929: 34; Pakerys 1994: 18; Vaitkeviit 2004: 27; dumblas 4 ~ Skardius 1968: 36, 60; Vaitkeviit 2001: 319; dumblas 2, 4 Btnas ~ 1931: 62; LKT 89; dumblas 4, 2 LK II 835. VLKK, atsivelgusi paprastojo daiktavardio dumblas vartosenos tendencijas, greta pagrindinio ~ 2-osios kiriuots varianto teisino ir 4-osios kiriuots variant: dumblas ~ 2 dumblas 4. Atliktas io daiktavardio realiosios vartosenos tyrimas 3 skirtingose Lietuvos vietose parod, kad Komisijos sprendimas i dalies yra remiamas naujasis 4 kiriuots variantas, anksiau laikytas kiriavimo klaida, yra akivaizdiai labiau palaikomas (r. 1 lentel ir 1 pav.): 1 lentel Kaip respondentai kiriavo daiktavard dumblas
dumblas (2) ~ dumblas (4)
~
Lazdij rajonas 3 (1,5 %) 197 (98,5 %)
Molt rajonas 24 (16 %) 126 (84 %)
Prienai I viso 15 (10 %) 42 (8,4 %) 135 (90 %) 458 (91,6 %)
166
Vidas KAVALIAUSKAS. Dl lietuvi kalbos paprastj daiktavardi..
~ dum blas ~ dum blas
1 pav. Daiktavardio dumblas kiriavimo polinkiai 20112013 m. penki Lietuvos universitetai (Vytauto Didiojo universitetas, Vilniaus universitetas, Lietuvos edukologijos universitetas, Klaipdos universitetas, iauli universitetas) vykdo projekt Jaunimo kiriavimo polinkiai. Projektu mginama pirm kart kompleksikai itirti jaunimo kalbos kiriavimo polinkius. Preliminars jaunimo kalbos tyrimai rodo, ~ kad naujasis 4 kiriuots variantas dumblas irgi yra labiau palaikomas. I 160 tyrime jau dalyvavusi student (VDU 43 studentai, LEU 42, U 34, VU 28, KU 13) 129 rinkosi naujj 4 kiriuots variant (80,6%), 31 studentas palaik pagrindin 2 kiriuots variant (19,4%) (studentams buvo siloma perskaityti sakin Keli dumblais une). Neabejotina, kad tokios tendencijos bus fiksuotos ir kit iame projekte dalyvausiani student kalboje. Beje, tik 4 kiriuots (kaip vienintel) daiktavardio dumblas variant yra sil P. Skardius, V. Vaitkeviit [Skardius 1968: 36, 60; Vaitkeviit 2001: 319], 4 kiriuots variantas (kaip pagrindinis) nurodomas akademiniame Lietuvi kalbos odyne (LK II 835). 3. Kalbinje literatroje daiktavardis gandras daniausiai nurodomas esantis 2 kiriuots: gadras 2 D1 196; D2 162; D3 164; D4 164; LK III 98; Btnas 1931: 62; Kamantauskas 1929: 38; Vaitkeviit 2001: 342. Kiriavimo variantai buvo fiksuoti tik keliuose leidiniuose: gadras 2, 4 LKT 102; gadras 4 LKR 203; LV 260; Skardius 1936: 51. Kartais gal net netariame, kad nekamoji kalba jau yra gerokai nutolusi nuo kai kuri odi kodifikuotos kiriavimo normos. Sakysim, daugelyje odyn nurodoma, kad daiktavardis gadras yra 2 kiriuots, t. y. reikt kiriuoti gadrai, gadr, gadrams, gadrais O nekamojoje ~ ~ ~ kalboje danai girdime sakant gandrai, gandr , gandrms, gandrais [Pakerys 2003: 45]. Apie gyvojoje kalboje iplitus 4 kiriuots variant dar 1970 m. ra ir J. Senkus (Senkus, 1970, 57). 2003 m. VLKK greta pagrindinio 2 kiriuots varianto teisino ir 4 kiriuots variant, kaip sistemik ir remiam realios vartosenos: gadras 2 gadras 4 (tokie kiriavimo 167
variantai jau nurodomi ir naujausiuose akcentologijos darbuose r. Mikulnien, Pakerys, Stundia, 2008, 41). Anksiau kiriavimo klaida laikyt 4 kiriuots variant akivaizdiai labiau palaik ir ms tyrime dalyvav respondentai (r. 2 lentel ir 2 pav.): 2 lentel Kaip respondentai kiriavo daiktavard gandras
gadras (2) gadras (4) Lazdij rajonas 3 (1,5 %) 197 (98,5 %) Molt rajonas Prienai I viso 8 (16 %) 0 (0 %) 11 (2,2 %) 142 (84 %) 150 (100 %) 489 (97,8 %)
~ gan dras ~ gan dras
2 pav. Daiktavardio gandras kiriavimo polinkiai 4 kiriuots variant visikai palaiko ir studentai: gadras 4 54 studentai (100 %), gadras 2 0 (0 %) [r. Pakerys 1994: 26]. Tokius paius rezultatus parod ir projekto Jaunimo kiriavimo polinkiai dalyviai visi 160 student i 5 Lietuvos universitet rinkosi tik 4 kiriuots daiktavardio variant (studentai turjo garsiai perskaityti sakin Sodyboj gandr nebra). Taigi gyvojoje kalboje aikiai vyrauja 4 kiriuots variantas (gan~ ~ drai, gandr , gandrms, gandrs), 2 kiriuots variantas spariai besitraukiantis i aktyvios vartosenos. Kai kuriuose ankstesniuose odynuose (LKR 203; LV 260), akcentologijos literatroje [Skardius 1936: 51] buvo fiksuojamas tik 4 kiriuots io odio variantas. Ateityje reikt sukeisti io daiktavardio kiriavimo variantus vietomis arba palikti tik akivaizdiai labiau remiam 4 kiriuots variant. 4. Paprastai mokslinje literatroje, odynuose nurodoma, jog pirminis daiktavardis rakandas kiriuojamas pagal 2-j kiriuot: rakadas 2 LV 463; D2 649; D3 641; D4 641; LKT 220; Kamantauskas 1929: 98; Smoczyski 2007: 498; Vaitkeviit 2001: 886. Kiriavimo variantai fiksuoti akademiniame odyne: rakadas 2 ir rakndas 1 LK XI 99. 168
Vidas KAVALIAUSKAS. Dl lietuvi kalbos paprastj daiktavardi..
VLKK teisino abu kiriavimo variantus tokius, kokius teik LK: rakadas 2 ir rakndas 1. Realioji vartosena labiau palaiko pastovaus kiriavimo variant (r. 3 lentel ir 3 pav.): 3 lentel Kaip respondentai kiriavo daiktavard rakandas
rakadas (2) rakndas (1) Lazdij rajonas 1 (0,5 %) 199 (99,5 %) Molt rajonas Prienai I viso 0 (0 %) 0 (0 %) 1 (0,2 %) 150 (100 %) 150 (100 %) 499 (99,8 %)
~ rakan das rakndas
3 pav. Daiktavardio rakandas kiriavimo polinkiai Pateikti tyrimo rezultatai rodo, kad kalbanioji visuomen labiau remt naujai teisint 1 kiriuots variant rakndas. Student kiriavimo polinki tyrimas irgi rodo tvirtaprads aknies varianto dominavim: rakndas 1 54 studentai (85,7 %) ir rakadas 2 9 (14,3 %) [r. Pakerys 1994: 26]. 5. Lingvistinje literatroje, odynuose daniausiai buvo fiksuojamas tik 3 kiriuots daiktavardio urvas variantas: rvas 3 Skardius, 1941, 490, 540; LKR 362; LV 568; D1 891; D2 877; D3 872; D4 872; LKT 290; Skardius 1936: 86; Smoczyski 2007: 706; Vaitkeviit 2001: ~ 1136; Vaitkeviit 2004: 31; rvas 3 ir urvas 4 Skardius 1941: 376; ~ rvas 3, 1, urvas 4 LK XVII 541; Kamantauskas 1929: 134. Gyvojoje kalboje populiar tvirtagals aknies 4 kiriuots variant 2003 m. teisino ~ VLKK jis nurodomas kaip antrasis kiriavimo variantas: rvas 3 urvas 4. Kalbos vartotojai i dalies remia tok sprendim naujasis kiriavimo variantas daug daniau vartojamas kalboje (r. 4 lentel ir 4 pav.):
169
4 lentel Kaip respondentai kiriavo daiktavard urvas

rvas (3) ~ ur vas (4) Lazdij rajonas 2 (1 %) 198 (99 %) Molt rajonas Prienai I viso 28 (18,7 %) 16 (10,7 %) 46 (9,2 %) 122 (81,3 %) 134 (89,3 %) 454 (90,8 %)
rvas
~ ur vas
4 pav. Daiktavardio urvas kiriavimo polinkiai Tyrimo rezultatai rodo, kad kalbanioji visuomen akivaizdiai labiau remia antrj, tvirtagals aknies 4 kiriuots, variant. Panas rezultatai gauti ianalizavus 160 student, dalyvavusi realiosios vartosenos tyrimo projekte Jaunimo kiriavimo polinkiai (jaunimui buvo pasilyta perskaityti sakin Kurmiai urvus kasasi) absoliuiai daugumai labiau priim~ tinas VLKK teisintas antrasis kiriavimo variantas: urvas (4) 150 student (93,8 %) ir rvas (3) 10 (6,2 %). 6. Ivados. Valstybin lietuvi kalbos komisija 2003 m. pakoregavo 45 paprastj daiktavardi kiriavimo normas. Realiosios vartosenos tyrimai 3 skirtinguose Lietuvos regionuose, student apklaus duomenys parod, kad kai kuri daiktavardi patikslintas normas visuomen remia tik i dalies. Daiktavardi dumblas, gandras, rakandas, urvas labiau palaikomi antrieji kiriavimo variantai. Remiantis realiosios vartosenos polinkiais tikslinga bt j kiriavimo normas dar kart patikslinti sukeiiant ~ ~ esamus variantus vietomis: dumblas 4 ir dumblas 2; gadras 4 ir gadras ~ 2; rakndas 1 ir rakadas 2; urvas 4 ir rvas 3.
LITERATRA IR ALTINIAI Btnas, P. Lietuvi kalbos akcentologijos vadovlis. Kaunas: Sakalo bendrovs leidinys, 1931. D1 Dabartins lietuvi kalbos odynas, atsak. red. J. Kruopas. Vilnius: Valstybin politins ir mokslins literatros leidykla, 1954.
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Vidas KAVALIAUSKAS. Dl lietuvi kalbos paprastj daiktavardi.. D2 Dabartins lietuvi kalbos odynas, atsak. red. J. Kruopas. Vilnius: Mintis, 1972. D3 Dabartins lietuvi kalbos odynas, vyr. red. St. Keinys. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidykla, 1993. D4 Dabartins lietuvi kalbos odynas, vyr. red. St. Keinys. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidybos institutas, 2000. Girdenis, A. Bendrins kalbos normos ir j kodifikacija. In: Kultros barai 1 (61), 1970, 6567 psl. Kamantauskas, V. Trumpas lietuvi kalbos kirio mokslas. II dalis. Kirio odynas. Kaunas: vyturio bendrov, 1929. Kavaliauskas, V., Paliuknait, G. Dl VLKK koreguot paprastj daiktavardi kiriavimo norm. In: Lituanistica 4 (86), 2011, 425435 psl. LKR Lietuvi kalbos raybos odynas, ats. red. J. Lazauskas. Kaunas: Valstybin enciklopedij, odyn ir mokslo literatros leidykla, 1948. LKT Lietuvi kalbos tarties odynas, sud. V. Vitkauskas. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidybos institutas, 2001. LK II Lietuvi kalbos odynas 2, ats. red. J. Kruopas. Vilnius: Mintis, 1969. LK III Lietuvi kalbos odynas 3, ats. red. K. Ulvydas. Vilnius: Valstybin politins ir mokslins literatros leidykla, 1956. LK XI Lietuvi kalbos odynas 11, vyr. red. K. Ulvydas. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1978. LK XVII Lietuvi kalbos odynas 17, vyr. red. V. Vitkauskas. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidykla, 1996. LV Lietuvi kalbos vadovas, sud. P. Skardius, St. Barzdukas, J. M. Laurinaitis. Mnchen: Lietuvi tremtini bendruomen, 1950. Mikulnien, D., Pakerys, A., Stundia, B. Bendrins lietuvi kalbos kiriavimo inynas. Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto leidykla, 2008. Pakerys, A. Akcentologija 1. Kaunas: viesa, 1994. Pakerys, A. Kaip kiriuoti. In: Gimtoji kalba 8, 2003, 45 psl. Senkus, J. Aktuals kiriavimo klausimai. In: Kalbos kultra 19, 1970, 5569 psl. Skardius, P. Bendrins lietuvi kalbos kiriavimas. Kaunas: viesos spaustuv, 1936. Skardius, P. Lietuvi kalbos odi daryba. Vilnius: Lietuvi kalbos institutas, 1941. Skardius, P. Lietuvi kalbos kiriavimas. Chicago: Pedagoginis lituanistikos institutas, 1968. Smoczyski, W. Sownik etymologiczny jzyka litewskiego. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla, 2007.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Vaitkeviit, V. Lietuvi kalbos tarties pagrindai ir odynas. Vilnius: Pradai, 2001. Vaitkeviit, V. Bendrins lietuvi kalbos kiriavimas. Kaunas: viesa, 2004. VLKK rekomendacija Dl kai kuri pirmini (paprastj) daiktavardi kiriavimo (2003 m. gegus 29 d. (Nr. K-2)). Available: http://www.vlkk.lt/lit/nutarimai/ tartis-kirciavimas/rekomendacija2.html
On Actual Usage of Accentuation of Lithuanian Simple Nouns dumblas, gandras, rakandas, urvas Summary
The accentuation norm of certain simple nouns in Standard Lithuanian is not stable the codified accentuation norm is not always supported by actual usage. The growing gap between the actual usage of language users and the established accentuation norm forces the codifiers of accentuation norms to evaluate more popular accentuation variants in terms of systemization. Accentuation variants, which compete between themselves without prejudice to the language system, can be officially approved (see Girdenis, 1970, 66). When compiling the new dictionary of Standard Lithuanian, the Subcommittee of Pronunciation and Accentuation of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language revised all more problematic cases of accentuation of simple nouns; in 2003 it proposed to adopt the Recommendation to revise the accentuation norms of 45 nouns of such type. The recommendation was adopted with reference to fragmentary data of actual usage, the principles of language systemization and consistent change of norms through variants. No individual more comprehensive studies of actual usage were carried out in Lithuanian regions. To find out the extent to which actual usage supports the aforementioned resolution of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language, in 20092010 an experimental survey was carried out; 500 respondents from 3 different Lithuanian localities participated in the survey. The survey results revealed that actual usage supports the majority of accentuation norms of simple nouns that were changed or corrected. However, actual usage supports the corrected accentuation norms of certain nouns only partially the newly established secondary variants are far more popular than principal variants. The nouns dumblas, gandras, rakandas, urvas stand out from such nouns. With reference to the tendencies of actual usage, it would be appropriate to repeatedly correct their ~ accentuation norms by reversing the order of the existing variants: dum blas 4 and ~ ~ dumblas 2; gadras 4 and gadras 2; rakndas 1 and rakadas 2; ur vas 4 and rvas 3.
172

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Russian : Pragmatical Aspect Summary

Russian adverb goes back to Old Russian prepositional form just the time for; necessary where the last syllable was reduced. The constructions with this adverb included nominative / genitive of object or infinitive and also dative of subject. In the 19th century beside them accusative of object appeared and now is normative in literary language. Modal meaning of + infinitive differs depending of grammatical person and tense. The most interesting is negative form + infinitive / imperative with regard to the second person in present. It may play the role of prohibitive imperative and in colloquial speech infinitive may be omitted.
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Regna KVATE
(auu Universitte)
Lietuvas un Latvijas vietvrdu atveides gramatiskie aspekti

Atslgvrdi: citvalodu pavrdi, vietvrdu atveide, lietuvieu valoda, latvieu valoda, gramatiskais aspekts Plasazias ldzekos izplattie citvalodu pavrdi k viens no nacionlo specifiku raksturojoas leksikas sliem sagd ne mazums grtbu. To rakstba cit valod saska ar s valodas gramatisko sistmu un pareizrakstbas noteikumiem ir jautjums, ar kuru nkas sastapties, nosaucot citvalstu eogrfiskos objektus resp. lietojot vietvrdus dads publikcijs. Pati vietvrdu grupa nav viendabga: tie ir gan pilstu un apdzvotu vietu nosaukumi, gan upju un ezeru nosaukumi, gan kalnu nosaukumi u. tml. Savukrt pc t, kdu un cik zinmu objektu nosaukumi tiek analizti, var runt par makrotoponmiem un ru vrdiem (mikrotoponmiem) [VPSV 2007: 225; 47]. Reizm no vietvrdu piederbas vienai vai otrai semantiskajai grupai ir atkarga to atveide: mrvalod (atveides valod) jatspoguo avotvalodas (oriinlvalodas) specifika, bet pc formas jatbilst pavalodas rakstbas un gramatiskajm normm. Lietuvas un Latvijas vietvrdu savstarpjas lietoanas jautjums pai aktualizjies laik, kad stenojami dadi starpvalstu kopprojekti. Nereti to rezultts ir publikcijas, piemram, trisma marrutu apraksti, cevei u. tml. izdevumi, kuros daudz loklu nosaukumu, ko ldz im retk ir bijis jatveido otraj baltu valod. Par lietuvieu un latvieu personvrdu atveidi otraj baltu valod ldz im interese ir bijusi samr liela (par to plak sk. Kvate 2011), tau abu valstu vietvrdu atveides teorijai un praksei velttu specilu publikciju ir mazk (lietuviski sk. Baluod, Garva 1986; Kvayt 2003; 2011; latviski sk. Kvate 2005; 2007; 2008; 2010), reizm tie minti rakstos, aplkojot pavrdus kopum. Daa abu valstu vietvrdu fiksti dads, vispirms divvalodu vrdncu eogrfisko nosaukumu pielikumos [LLV 1964: 842860; 1995: 601602; LLK 1977: 731758; 2003: 802 804], k ar das specifisks vrdncs, piemram, tradicionli atveidoti Latvijas vietvrdi ir iekauti specils Lietuv izdotajs vietvrdu vrdncs 182
Regna KVATE. Lietuvas un Latvijas vietvrdu atveides gramatiskie aspekti
[LTrV 2002: 138139; VK 1994; V 2002]. Ptjuma mris ir noskaidrot abu baltu valodu vietvrdu savstarpjs atveides gramatiskos aspektus galotu, izskau u. tml. atbilsmes. Gan latvieu valodas patskau un ldzskau atveides lietuviski, gan lietuvieu valodas latviski likumsakarbas vietvrdos ir tdas paas k personvrdos, tpc par tm netiks atsevii runts. Rakst, izmantojot sastatjuma un aprakstoo metodi, analizti dados Lietuvas un Latvijas preses izdevumos un trisma ceveos iekautie vietvrdi, k ar noteikumos reglamentto prasbu ievroana praks. LIETUVAS VIETVRDI LATVISKI. Lietuvieu valodas vietvrdu galotu atbilsmes daudzos gadjumos ir tdas paas k citiem pavrdiem, tomr tiei par tm jrun, skot atveides analzi. Visvienkrk latviski atveidot sievieu dzimtes vietvrdus ar galotnm -a un -, (pdj atveidojama ar -e): Ignalina N 22.12.2008., 61, Linkuva AB 15, Palanga N 27.08.2007., 6, Klaipda (Klaipda) N 29.10.2007., 6, Kernave (Kernav) K 2008/8, 190, Pabrade (Pabrad) D 04.0.2004., Btie (Bting) N 11.09.2006., 38, irvenas ezers (irvenos eeras, irvena) AB 11. Gramatiski k svargk jmin da Lietuvas vietvrdu atveides norma: vietvrdi, kuri lietuvieu valod ir vrieu dzimtes vrdi (tiem raksturgas galotnes -as, -is, -ys, -us), latvieu valod kst par sievieu dzimtes lietvrdiem (parasti ar galotni -a), piemram, pilstu nosaukumi Via (Vilnius) N 22.28.02.2003., 14., Kaua (Kaunas) N 22.28.02.2003., 14., Pakroja (Pakruojis) AB 14, Paneva (Panevys); upju nosaukumi Nemuna (Nemunas) AB 26 u. tml. Tau aj vrieu dzimtes vietvrdu grup ir vairki izmumi. Vietvrdi ar galotni -is var bt atveidojami latviski ar ar galotni -e: Galilaue (Galilaukis)2 D 05.09.2005., Mosde (Mosdis) AB 10, Joniele (Joniklis; sal. Pc 17 km bs jnogrieas no cea, lai iebrauktu pilsti ar pamazinmo vrdu J o n i e l e jeb lietuNo preses citti tikai vietvrdi nominatv, neatkargi no t, kd locjum bijui tekst, izemot gadjumus, kad plaks konteksts paldz labk atklt analzes aspektu. Teikumos attiecgais pavrds retints. Kvadrtiekavs minta avotvalodas forma, ja t atiras no atveidots, un aiz zmes = pareizais atveidojums, ja vietvrds nepareizi atveidots. Tlk sasinjums un laikraksta datjums atbilstoi izdevuma valodai vai urnla numurs un lappuse; atifrjumu sk. avotu sarakst. 2 Apdzvota vieta Zarasu rajon. Savukrt Ignalinas rajon ir ldzgi nosaukta apdzvota vieta, tikai sievieu dzimt, Galilauk (W). Abi vietvrdi latviski tiktu atveidoti viendi.
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viski J o n i k e l i o m i e s t e l i s) AB 14, eimele3 (eimelis; sal. eimele LLK 1977, 758; LLV 1964, 860; 1995, 601 un eime, eimele LLK 2003, 808) AB 16; Nemunle (Nemunlis) AB 26 (sal. Robea starp abm kaimivalstm 76 kilometrus iet pa Mmeli, ko leiu pus sauc par N e m u n l i AB 17). Galotne -is var bt ar sievieu dzimtes rdtjs ar t latviski atveidojama ar galotni -e: Nre (Nris) (tekst ar nomenklatrvrdu Nres upe) K 2009/8, 185. Interesants ir Lietuvas vietvrds ventoji, radies no pabas vrda ar noteikto galotni tam latvieu valod atbilst tradicionla (viena no retajm) forma Sventja AB 4. Reizm tiek maints skaitlis visi Lietuvas vietu nosaukumi, kuri ir vrieu dzimtes un beidzas ar finli -ikis, atirb no iepriek aplkotajiem vietvrdiem, kst par daudzskaitliniekiem resp. iegst galotni -i (iespjams, ka du maiu ietekmjusi analoija ar ldzga tipa nosaukumiem Latvij, piemram, Dzirvanii, Stupelii u. tml.): Jonii (Jonikis) AB 14, Radvilii (Radvilikis) AB 23, Rokii (Rokikis) AB 42. Tau par o vietvrdu atveides normu btu vrts diskutt, pai tpc, ka galotne -is ir raksturga ar latvieu valodas vrieu dzimtes lietvrdiem. Savukrt latvieu valodas izskaa -ii atbilst lietuvieu izskaai -ikiai, piemram, Alkii (Alkikiai) (sal. Aiz agares cea pagrieziena 4 km tlk pie cea bs A l k i u c i e m a t s, latvieiem pai interesants, jo kop aizpagju gadsimta skuma A l k i o s ir dzvojui msu tautiei un dzvo vl joprojm AB 20). Galotne -ys ir raksturga gan vrieu dzimtes vienskaita, gan sievieu dzimtes daudzskaita vietvrdiem, bet, atveidojot latvieu valod, abu dzimu nosaukumi kst par sievieu dzimtes vienskaita pavrdiem: Pasvale (Pasvalys) AB 13 (sal. Marcinkonys Marcikone). Savukrt, ja Lietuvas vietvrds ir vrieu dzimtes daudzskaitlinieks ar galotni -ai, tas dzimti nemaina un atveidojams ar attiecgu latvieu valodas lietvrdu daudzskaita galotni -i: Druskininki (Druskininkai) K 2009/11, 195, Zarasi (Zarasai) AB 50, Jauni (Jauninai) AB 24, Jodeii (Jodeikiai) IR 14, Rudii (Rudikiai) IR 14, Maeii (Maeikiai) N 11.09.2006., 38, Trai (Trakai) AB 36; Sartu ezers (Sart eeras, ar Sartai) AB 47.
3 is vietvrds latvieu valod sastopams ar sk form eime (sk. vrdncas); acmredzot to vartu uzskatt par tradicionlu formu, ko lieto vietjie iedzvotji un pierobeas latviei.
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Sievieu dzimtes daudzskaitlinieki vietvrdi ar galotni -os atveidojami k latvieu valodas IV deklincijas lietvrdi daudzskaitl, piemram, Dusetas (Dusetos) AB 47. pau vietu starp Lietuvas vietvrdiem ieem saliktie vietu nosaukumi. To atveides tendence ir atveidot mrvalod abus komponentus: Nemunles Radvilii (Nemunlio Radvilikis) AB 17, Kuru Nrija (Kuri Nerija) N 27.08.2007., 6 (ar Kuru nrija AB 7). Tau publikcijs tie reizm prtulkoti, pat darinot salikteus, piemram, Jaunakmene (Naujoji Akmen; sal. viss vrdncs Naujoji Akmene LLV 1964, 853; 1995, 600; LLK 1977, 747; 2003, 806) AB 19. Raksturga iezme, kas konstatta, analizjot dadas publikcijas plaks nek parasti ir nomenklatrvrdu lietojums, resp., biei tiek nosaukts vietas tips pilsta, upe. du izvli daji var izskaidrot ar to, ka mazk jloka vietvrds (parasti pietiek ar enitva locjumu), turklt sveais nosaukums tiek piesaistts konkrtam objektam un kst vieglk uztverams, piemram, .. ja atptnieku skaits netiks regults, N e r i n g a s pilsta Kuru kps drz vairs neatirsies no Palangas .. N 27.08.2007., 6; 12 km pirms agares brauksim garm mazajam S k a i s t g i r e s ciematam .. [Skaistgirys4; = Skaistire LLK 1977, 752; 2003, 807] AB 18; Akmen vajag redzt dabas un kultras parku, kas k aura josta stiepjas gar D a b i e n e s upes krastu AB 20; Zmgi, ka Krusta kalns ir izveidojies ldzenum .. kuru no vienas puses ieskauj K u l p e s upte un ts pieteka NNL 16. Analizjot savkto materilu, uzmanba pievrsta ar vietvrdiem simboliskajos nosaukumos, kur tie atbilstoi nordjumiem jlieto avotvalod: emaitijos keliai D 27.01.2004., Vilniaus baldai N 23.12.2004, 5. pai problemtiski ir gadjumi, kad vietvrdos ir kdas specifiskas lietuvieu valodai raksturgas diakritiskas zmes analze liecina, ka parasti ts izlai. Latvij tda iespja ir paredzta: ja simbolisk nosaukuma oriinlvaloda ir latalfabtisks rakstbas valoda, nosaukumu patur oriinlrakstb, piemram, aviosabiedrba Lufthansa (ir pieaujams burtus, kuru nav latvieu alfabt, aizstt ar latviskajiem (piemram, no lietuvieu Nerys Neris5, Snaig Snaige) [Skujia 1993, 18], kas ir diskutjams
Skaistire ir pilstia Joniu rajon (W). Minta kdaina avotvalodas forma. Lietuvieu pavrds Nris upes nosaukums un dzejnieces Salomjas Buinskaites-Buienes (Salomja Buinskait-Buien) pseidonms latviskojams k Nre (sal. Vi, Nres upes labaj krast, kur gandrz desmit gadus stvja pussagruvis nams, ko piecus gadus remontja un atjaunoja,
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jautjums, bet nav raksta objekts. Praks vrojama liela dadba vienas avotvalodas iezmes saglabtas, piemram, i k mkstinjuma zme, bet citas saknes patskai ar diakritiskajm zmm vai galotnes k locjumu rdtji ne: Klaipedos baldai (Klaipdos baldai) N 23.12.2004., 5, iauliu plentas (iauli plentas) D 27.01.2004., eupe (eup) D 26.10.2005, Kauno Diena6 N 04.12.2006, 6. No gramatikas viedoka svargs ir jautjums par vrdu krtu tdos teikumos, kuros lietoti simboliskie nosaukumi, tau latvieu tekstos s normas neievroanas gadjumi konstatti reti: Ramna Butauta vadb iauliai komanda [= komanda iauliai] divs pdjs sezons izcnja Lietuvas empionta bronzas medaas D 26.10. 2005. (sk. par latvieu simboliskajiem nosaukumiem lietuviski). Vl saretk ir tad, ja simboliskais nosaukums tiek tulkots tad ar vietvrdu latvisko: Druskininku dzejas rudens (Druskinink poezijos ruduo) K 2008/ 11, 186, k btu pareizi, un Drusininku dzejas rudens K 2009/11, 195. Liela ir Maeiu pilstas nosaukuma lietoanas dadba simboliskajos nosaukumos: Labj Tvzemes savienba aktualizja jautjumu, vai is darjums nav atalgojums par soljumu prdot Krievijas naftas kompnijai M a e i u n a f t u [= Maeiki nafta] D 26.10.2005.; K nek Pakss sasniedza politisks popularittes Olimpu tiei 1999. gada ruden, kad, protestjot pret a/s M a e i k i u n a f t a s privatizcijas dokumentu parakstanu, vi atkps no premjera amata N 22.28.02.2003., 9. Runjot par Lietuvas vietvrdu locanas patnbm latvieu valod, jsecina, ka ar nopietnm problmm saskarties nav ncies, ja tie pareizi atveidoti nominatv. Ja t nav izdarts, parasti tie netiek locti vai ar locti nepareizi: Pagriezienu uz akmeu kolekciju nords zme pie tilta pri L e v o u p e i [Lvuo; = Lvene sal. LLV 1995, 599; LLK 1977, 744; 2003, 806] pilstas centr AB 13; Kad aiz Ventas [apdzvota vieta] bsim nolaivojui 6,2 km, upei pievienosies A v i l i s u p t e [Avilys7; = Avile] IR 23; Atce uz mjm ved cauri Pasvalei, .. kas tpat k msu Piebalga savu nosaukumu ieguvusi no mazs S v a l i j a s u p t e s [Svalia; = Svaa] NNL 19, Labiekrtota atptas vieta pie R u b i a i e z e r a [Rubiki eeras = Rubiu ezers] T.
ovasar durvis vrusi Nacionl mkslas galerija K 2009/8, 185, savukrt simboliskaj nosaukum tas paliek nemaints. 6 Laikraksta nosaukums pc latvieu valodas tradcijas; lietuvieu valod ar lielo burtu rakstms tikai pirmais vrds. 7 Upe Akmenes rajona pavaldbas teritorij, Ventas kreis krasta pieteka (W).
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LATVIJAS VIETVRDI LIETUVISKI. Lietuvieu valod Latvijas vietvrdi parasti tiek atveidoti divjdi: 1) tiek mintas vietvrdu lietuvisks formas, ko lieto vietjie lietuviei un 2) tiek transkribtas latvieu formas ja lietuvisko formu nav vai ar ts nav pietiekami prbaudtas, ir maz izplattas. Daa lietuviskotu nosaukumu ir tdi, ko zina un lieto vairums lietuvieu, piemram, Daugpilis (latv. Daugavpils) (Baluod, Garva 1985, 64). Ptjumi liecina, ka samr daudz vietu, kuras tiek dvtas senkos lietuviskos nosaukumos, ir Latgal (plak sk. Kvate 2010). Daudzas tradicionls formas atrodamas vrdncu pielikumos, tau ts ir ar izplattas plasazias ldzekos: Bausk (Bauska) K 2009 07 30, Liepoja (Liepja) K 2008 06 26, Daugpilis (Daugavpils) KP 2009/3, 30; Dauguva (Daugava) KP 2009/3, 30. Gan pres, gan tristiem adrestajos izdevumos lietuviskoti atbilstoi to atveides normm dadu semantisko grupu vietvrdi. Sievieu dzimtes galotnes -a un -e atveidotas tpat k iepriek mints Lietuvas vietvrdu atveides aprakst: pilstu nosaukumi Kandava K 2011 01 08, Agluona (Aglona) V 2009 05 18, 77, Ryga (Rga) K 2009 12 10, Sabil (Sabile) K 2011 01 08, Kuoknes (Kuoknese) KP 2009/3, 32, Varv (Vrve) K 2007 01 12; upju nosaukumi Venta K 2007 01 12, Gauja K 2010 02 05, Rieup (Rieupe) K 2011 01 08, Pelnup (Pelnupe) LA 81; ezeru nosaukumi Paps eeras (Papes ezers) K 2007 02 27. Vrieu dzimtes lietvrdu galotne -s tiek aizstta ar -as, savukrt galotne -us saglabjas, piemram, Tukumas (Tukums), Saldus (Saldus) K 2012 03 14. Vietvrdos ar -ciems, -kalns galotne -s ldz 2004. gada noteikumu grozjumiem tika aizstta ar -is, piemram, agarkalnis (agarkalns) KP 2003/12 54, iespjams, pc analoijas ar lietuvieu vietvrdiem (sal. Taurakalnis, Perknkiemis). Jaunka norma ir lietot ar galotni -as (sal. uzvrds Sudrabkalns (VLKK 2004, 169), tomr pres joprojm domin atveide pc vecka parauga: agarkalnis KP 2010/3 26; Ozolkalnis (Ozolkalns = Uozuolkalnis) KP 2010/3 26. Latvijas vietvrdu atveides patnba lietuvieu valod vietvrdi ar lietuviskoto komponentu -pilis, kas latvieu valod ir sievieu dzimt, priet vrieu dzimtes locjumu paradigm (kaut gan vrds pilis ar lietuvieu valod ir sievieu dzimtes), piemram, Ventspilis (Ventspils) en. Ventspilio, (sal. V e n t s p i l i o ekipa gijo rekordin 12 tak persvar .. K 2010 02 25), Salaspilis (Salaspils) en. Salaspilio K 2010 02 27, akuz. Salaspiliu KM 20012002 9/10 25. 187
Daudzi Latvijas vietvrdi ir daudzskaitlinieki, kuru vrieu dzimtes galotne -i lietuviski atveidojama ar -ai, bet sievieu dzimtes -as, -es un -is attiecgi ar -os, -s un -ys. Sievieu dzimtes daudzskaitlinieku starp Latvijas vietvrdiem nav daudz, dai no tiem iekauti noteikumos: Pliavinios (Pavias), Grundzals (Grundzles), Csys (Csis) (VLKK 2004, 169). Analiztais materils rda, ka tiei tipa pilstu nosaukumi sagd vislielks grtbas (par to lietoanu sk. tlk). Tpat k atveidojot Lietuvas vietvrdus latviski, ar Latvijas vietvrdu atveid sastopami gadjumi, kad tekst nosaukumiem pievienoti nomenklatrvrdi miestelis, up: Planuojama Radvilikyje atidaryti Bausks rajono kultros centr, o Bausks rajono V e c s a u l s miestelyje Radvilikio atstovyb P 2010 02 12; P e l n u p s up (Pelnupe) T. iet, ka praks nav viegli lietuviskot galotnes tekst vietvrdi arvien biek konstatti latvisk form, ldz ar to nereti netiek locti: ioje vietoje moni gyventa dar I tkstantmetyje prie Krist, apie tai liudija ir archeologiniai radiniai, dabar saugomi A i z k r a u k l e [Aizkraukle = Aizkraukl, en. Aizkraukls] miesto muziejuje KM 2004/8 20; Tokiu bdu diskriminuojami ne tik Lietuvos, bet ir kit valstybi vejai, kurie iuo metu laukia vaiavimo Latvijos teritorij Smlyns-M e d u m i [Medumi = Medumai, en. Medum] pasienio ruoe N 2006 11 28; Miesto prieigose yra dvaras bei B i r i n i [Brii = Byriniai, en. Byrini] pilis .. KM 2004/9 23, domesnis L a u k a l n s [= Laukalnas], ant kurio XIX a. pradioje stovjusi puoni neogotikin angliko stiliaus barono Tyzenhauzo pilis KP 2007/10, 74. Reizm izvlta nepareiza galotne vrojama tendence daudzskaitliniekus atveidot vienskaitl (ldzgas nepareizas konkrtu vietvrdu formas sastopamas dados izdevumos). Ldz ar to rodas problmas, os vietvrdus lokot: K e m e r i s [emeri = Kemeriai] KP 2004/7 17, K e m e r e [= Kemeri] nacionaliniame parke, kurtame 1997 metais, veisiasi daugyb ret gyvn ir pauki bei randama ret augal ri KM 2006/5 29; Didiulis spdis K e m e r i o [= Kemeri] nacionalinis parkas, kai viesite Jrmaloje, nepatingkite usukti KP 2004/7 17; Duonos vent K a u g u r y j e [Kauguri = Kaugurai, lok. Kauguruose], kurioje galima paragauti vairiausios latvikos duonos, stebti, kaip ji kepama KM 2004/5 29, Jis i V e c u m n i e k i o miestelio [Vecumnieki = Vecumniekai, en. Vecumniek] kaljimo pabgo 1999 metais .. N 2005 02 23, Latvijoje, P l a v i n e miestelyje [Pavias = Pliavinios, en. Pliavini] vykusio tarptautinio moter futbolo turnyro nugaltojomis tapo iauli Gintros-Universiteto ko188
manda K 2005 05 07. Prsteidza negaidts un vl tekst apsplts piemrs ceojumu urnl, kur autors vienu raksta Trys dienos Latvijoje nodau nosaucis Preila, bet ne prie jros un sk to ar du teikumu: Dar vienas lietuvikas vietovardis P r e i l a KP 2010/08, 59. Pie Baltijas jras Lietuv patiem ir tda vieta, tau jem vr, ka Latgales vietvrds ir vrieu dzimtes daudzskaitlinieks un lietuviski tas atveidojams daudzskaitl Preiliai (par to informciju var atrast ar lietuvieu vrdncs; sk. V 2002, 298). Starp Latvijas vietvrdiem pau vietu ieem Csis s pilstas nosaukums lietuviski rakstoiem sagd grtbas gandrz vienmr. Saska ar atveides principiem lietuviski tas jatveido k sievieu dzimtes lietvrds daudzskaitl Csys, tau praks t gads samr reti. Lietuvas preses izdevumos is vietvrds oti dadi lietots gan vienskaitl un daudzskaitl, gan sievieu un vrieu dzimt: nom. C e s i s [= Csys] turist laukia visus metus KM 2004/6 40; C s i s [= Csys] KM 20012002/9/10 25; en. C e s i o [= Csi] pilis iandien yra geriausiai ityrinta kryiuoi laikmeio pilis .. KM 2004/6, 41; Konferencijos darbotvark .. Pasienio region (iauli ir C i e s i o [= Csi]) pltros strategij analizs pristatymas K 2005 09 10; C s [= Csi] miesto pakratyje yra iuo metu spariausiai Latvijoje besipleiantis slidinjimo centras agarkalnis KP 2003/1/2 54; akuz. C e s [= Csis] su kitu kryiuoi kurtu miestu Valmiera jungia puikiai isilaiks madaug trisdeimties kilometr ilgio dvirai takas .. KM 2004/ 6 4; lok. C e s y j e [= Csyse] pasiruome pripuiamas valtis kelionei .. K 2007 05 18. Reizm ir grti pateikt, vai nominatv mintais vietvrds pareizi atveidots, jo gan sievieu, gan vrieu dzimtes daudzskaita enitva formas sakrt abos gadjumos Csi. Kaut gan jpiebilst, ka sievieu dzimtes daudzskaitlinieki ar galotni -ys ir ar starp Lietuvas vietvrdiem, piemram, Marcinkonys u. c. (tiesa gan, latviskojot tie kst par vienskaita sievieu dzimtes nosaukumiem par to sk. iepriek), tpc nebtu grti pareizi lietot ar Csu vrdu. Pavisam jauna tendence, kas vrojama Lietuv rakstt Latvijas vietvrdus avotvalodas form, tau tos loct. Tas nerada prpratumus, ja formas sakrt, bet ir gadjumi, kad vietvrd pards latviskas diakritiskas zmes, bet galotne ir lietuviska. Tda pieeja konstatta kultras urnl Krantai: Pavyzdiui, mokytoja Maiga Putnia, ilgus metus dirbusi R j i e n o s vidurinje mokykloje, rinko savo gimtosios S i n o l s tarms mediag, jos indlis sudaro apie 200 000 korteli. Labai didel darb nuveik 189
ms darbuotoja Elga Kagaine r e m j e (ileistas net tritomis r e m s tarms odynas), o ms koleg Brigita Buman msi N c o s tarms tyrim ir mediagos rinkimo Kr 2006/4, 15. Vietvrdi ar Latvij ir izplatti simboliskajos nosaukumos, tpc jpievr uzmanba to atveidei lietuviski. Kopum spk ir nostdne, ka tie rakstmi avotvalodas form: Liaudies taikomojio meno studija B n e VBAT, Ventspilio gyventojas Marekas Leitis ios savaits pradioje pagavo milinik lydek .. ra laikratis V e n t a s B a l s s K 2007 01 12, Latvijos slidinjimo trasos O z o l k a l n s savininkas Girtis Kalkis diaugiasi, kad smarkiai Latvij nuskriaudusi ekonomin kriz jo versl kliud labai menkai K 2010 02 05. Tau eit biek nek latvieu valodas materil nkas saskarties ar vrdu krtas neievroana, ldz ar to teksti kst grtk uztverami: Po poros valand vaiuojame kit, u puskilometrio esant O z o l k a l n s s l i d i n j i m o c e n t r KP 2010/3, 26, O z o l k a l n s slidinjimo trasa rengta u 50 kilometr iaur nuo Rygos esaniame Csi miestelyje K 2010 02 05. Ne vienmr simboliskie nosaukumi ir oriinlrakstb, tie tiek ar tulkoti: .. sukame prie plataus R a z n o e e r o [= Raznos eeras], poilsin R a z n o s g u l b i s [= Rznas gulbis] KP 2010/08, 61, Turnyre varsi Latvijos empion Saldaus Saldus, Plavine P l a v i n e [= Pliavinios en. Pliavini; = Pavias] .. K 2005 05 07, Gamtos parkas Dauguvos vingiai (Dabas parks Daugavas loki) LA 82. Secinjumi. Ptjum analizti vieni no svargkajiem gramatiskajiem aspektiem galotu atveide un atveidoto formu precza lietoana. Apkopojot Lietuvas vietvrdu atveides latvieu valod un Latvijas vietvrdu atveides lietuvieu valod analzes datus, jsecina, ka kopum domin tendence tos pielgot mrvalodai. Tau izskattie materili auj izteikt piemumu, ka nav viegli piemrot praks teortiski noteikumos fiksts Lietuvas un Latvijas vietvrdu atveides normas. Simboliskajos nosaukumos lietotos vietvrdus abs valods ir tendence rakstt avotvalod, tau neatveidot specifisks diakritisks zmes. Atveidojot lietuviski Latvijas nosaukumus, aktuls ir jautjums par vrdu krtas izvli.
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Regna KVATE. Lietuvas un Latvijas vietvrdu atveides gramatiskie aspekti AVOTI AB Apceo Baltiju! Lietuva. Kuru Nrija. emaitija. Suvalkija. Dzkija. Auktaitija. Lauku Avzes tematiska avze. 2008 / 5. D Diena (laikraksts). FV Foto Vyzdys (urnls). I Ieva (urnls). IR Iepazsti Rietumzemgali! 9 trisma marruti Dobeles, Akmenes un Joniu rajonos. Dobeles rajona padome, 2006. K Karogs (mneraksts). Kr Krantai (kultras mnerakts). KM Kelioni magija (urnalas). KP Kelions ir pramogos (urnalas). LA Tavas skaistks brvdienas Latgal un Auktaitij (projekta buklets). ML Mokslo Lietuva (laikraksts). N Neda (nedas urnls). NNL Nedas nogale Lietuv. Kuru kpas. emaitija. Nemunas loki. Via. Auktaitija. Lauku Avzes tematiska avze. 2009 / 5. K iauli kratas (laikraksts). P iauliai plius (nedas laikraksts). T Turizmas Ryt Auktaitijoje ir Latgaloje. Vandens malonumai. 2010 (projekta buklets). V Veidas (urnls). VBAT Vidurio Baltijos amat turizmo marrutai. Turistinis emlapis. LITERATRA Baluod, L., Garva, K. Latvijos gyvenamj viet vard lietuvikieji atitikmenys. No: Kalbos kultra 49. Vilnius, 1985, 6373. Kvate, R. Par Latgali lietuviski: vietvrdu atveide. No: Via Latgalica 3. Rzekne: Rzeknes Augstskola, 2010, 36.50. Kvate, R. Par Zemgali lietuviski: vietvrdu atveide. No: Raksti V. Starptautisks zintnisks konferences Zintniskie lasjumi . Eliasa Jelgavas vstures un mkslas muzej materili. Sast. G. Putiis. Jelgava: . Eliasa Jelgavas vstures un mkslas muzejs, 2008, 121.130. Kvate, R. Latvieu pavrdu lietoana lietuvieu valod. No: Valoda 2005. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst . Zintnisko rakstu krjums XV. Red. S. Murne. Daugavpils: izdevniecba Saule, 2005, 41.46.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Kvate, R. Lietuvieu pavrdu lietoana latvieu valod. No: Valoda 2007. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst. Zintnisko rakstu krjums XVII. Atb. red. S. Polkovikova. Daugavpils: Daugavpils Universittes Akadmiskais apgds Saule, 2007, 169.175. Kvate, R. Lietuvieu un latvieu personvrdu atveides gramatiskie aspekti. No: Valoda 2011. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst. Zintnisko rakstu krjums XXI. Atb. red. S. Polkovikova. Daugavpils: Daugavpils Universittes Akadmiskais apgds Saule, 2011, 124.134. Kvayt, R. Dl Latvijos vietovardi vartojimo iauli krato spaudoje. No: Kalbos aktualijos IX. iauliai: V iauli universiteto leidykla, 2011, 2736. Kvayt, R. Latvijos vietovardiai Lietuvos spaudoje. No: Kalbos kultra 76. Vilnius, 2003, 114120. LKKN Lietuvi kalbos komisijos nutarimai 19771998. Vilnius, 1998. LLK 1977 Balkeviius, J., Kabeika, J. Latvilietuvi kalb odynas. Vilnius. LLK 2003 Latvilietuvi kalb odynas. Sud. A. Butkus. Kaunas: Aesti. LLV 1964 Bojte, A., Subatnieks, V. Lietuvieu-latvieu vrdnca. Red. Jons Balkevis. Rga: Latvijas Valsts izdevniecba. LLV 1995 Balode, L., Balkevis, J., Bojte, A., Subatnieks, V. Lietuvieulatvieu vrdnca. Rga: Zintne. LTrV Lietuviki tradiciniai vietovardiai (Gudijos, Karaliauiaus krato, Latvijos ir Lenkijos). Vilnius, 2002. Skujia, V. Valsts valodas prasmei lietvedbas dokumentos. Rga: Biznesa komplekss, 1993. VK Vietovardi kiriavimo odynas. Sud. M. Razmukait, V. Vitkauskas. Vilnius, 1994. VLKK Dl Valstybins lietuvi kalbos komisijos prie Lietuvos Respublikos Seimo 1997 m. birelio 19 d. nutarimo Nr. 60 Dl lietuvi kalbos raybos ir skyrybos pakeitimo. No: Kalbos kultra 77. Vilnius, 2004, 169170. VPSV Valodniecbas pamatterminu skaidrojo vrdnca. Sast. aut. kol. V. Skujias vad. Rga, 2007. V Vietovardi odynas. Sud. A. Pupkis. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidybos institutas, 2002. W Wikipedia (interneta enciklopdija). Pieejams: www.wikipedia.org
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Grammatical Aspects of Rendering Lithuanian and Latvian Toponyms Summary

The article discusses the correctness of toponym usage found in various Lithuanian and Latvian press and tourist publications. The research employs comparative and descriptive methods. Summarizing the research done on rendering Lithuanian place names into the Latvian language and Latvian place names into Lithuanian, it can be concluded that on the whole a tendency prevails to render these names into a target language. Lithuanian toponyms rendered into Latvian usually correspond to the general rules, e.g. most of masculine Lithuanian place names become feminine in Latvian, while rendering Latvian place names into Lithuanian both traditional and transcribed forms are being used. However, the analysed material allows to make an assumption that it is not easy to apply in practice theoretically regulated norms of rendering Lithuanian and Latvian names into another Baltic language. In Lithuania a recent tendency is not to decline Latvian place names, but to use them in nominative case. In the symbolic place names in Lithuanian and Latvian it is accepted to use their original spelling while skipping the language specific diacritic marks. Rendering LithuanianLatvian symbolic names a problem of word order in a sentence arises.
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Inga LAIZNE
(Rgas Stradia universitte, Biznesa augstskola Turba)
Akuzatvs latvieu valodas k svevalodas apguv

Atslgvrdi: akuzatvs, cittautiei, rzemnieki, objekta nozme, galotne Ievads Viena no izplattkajm kdm, mcoties latvieu valodu k otro valodu vai k svevalodu, ir nepareiza lietvrda locjuma izveide. Katrs lietvrds saistjum ar citiem vrdiem iegst noteikta locjuma formu. Locjums rda, kdas ir lietvrda attieksmes pret citiem vrdiem teikum, ttad locjum izpauas lietvrda sintaktisks funkcijas [Smiltniece 2004: 174] Viens no locjumiem, kas sagd grtbas, mcoties latvieu valodu k otro valodu vai k svevalodu, ir akuzatvs. Rakst ir analiztas izplattks kdas, lietojot akuzatvu. Raksta ptjuma objekts ir divas latvieu valodas apguvju grupas cittautiei un rzemnieki (somi, zviedri, norvi, vciei un angi). ds daljums ir izvlts td, ka atiras valodas apguves process cittautieiem un rzemniekiem, turklt autorei ir praktisk darba pieredze ar abu grupu prstvjiem. rzemnieki ir Rgas Stradia universittes Medicnas fakulttes studenti. Latvieu valodu vii mcs trs semestrus pirmaj un otraj studiju gad. Iepriek vii latvieu valodu nav mcjuies. Kontaktu ar latvieu studentiem viiem nav. rpus nodarbbm vii dzird latvieu valodu uz ielas, sabiedriskaj transport, veikal u. tml. Pirmaj semestr studentiem ir 60 kontaktstundas (vienas kontaktstundas garums ir 45 mintes), otraj semestr ir 10 kontaktstundas un treaj semestr 40 kontaktstundas. Parasti studenti ir vecum no 19 ldz 23 gadiem. Cittautiei galvenokrt mcs latvieu valodu, lai saemtu valsts valodas prasmes apliecbu (A un B lmenim). Vecums un izgltbas lmenis ir dads ir gan cilvki ar augstko izgltbu, gan ar tdi, kam ir 8 klau izgltba. Valodas apguvji ir vecum no 18 ldz 65 gadiem. Mcbu laik vii visi ir bezdarbnieki. Katram lmenim ir 160 kontaktstundas, nodarbbas notiek katru dienu pa 4 kontaktstundm 6 nedu garum. Latvieu valodas zinanu lmenis pirms kursu skuma ir dads citi prot latvieu valodu 194
Inga LAIZNE. Akuzatvs latvieu valodas k svevalodas apguv
diezgan labi, citi zina tikai daus vrdus. Reizm valodas apguvji saprot latvieu valodu un var taj last, bet baids runt, jo biei vien viiem ir psiholoisk barjera. Latvieu valodas lietoana rpus nodarbbm ir atkarga no katra valodas apguvja. Raksta mris ir saldzint divas latvieu valodas apguvju grupas (cittautieus un rzemniekus), pievrot uzmanbu tam, k valodas apguvji lieto akuzatvu. Latvieu valodas k otrs valodas vai k svevalodas apguve ir ptta diezgan maz. Nav sistmiska prskata par gramatisko kategoriju vai teikuma tipu apguvi. Plaks ptjuma praktiskais ieguldjums btu paldzba pedagogiem, kas mca latvieu valodu k otro valodu vai k svevalodu. Jdzienu svevaloda un otr valoda skaidrojums Klra Krama (Claire Kramsch) valodai k mcbu priekmetam, ja run par ts apguvi, noir etrus pastvanas veidus: 1) dzimt valoda jeb pirm valoda; 2) otr valoda; 3) valoda k svevaloda; 4) mantojuma valoda. Otr valoda ir valoda, kas tiek mcta imigrantiem un minorittm apkrtn, kur t ir vado valoda, piemram, angu valoda Amerikas Savienotajs Valsts, franu valoda Francij. Valoda k svevaloda tiek mcta cilvkiem, kas ir samui pagaidu uzturans atauju attiecgaj valst, piemram, mcbu nolkos vai profesionlu nodomu vadti. Mantojuma valoda ir valoda, kas tiek mcta kdas etnisks grupas locekiem, kuri alkst iepazties ar viu senu kultru [Kramsch 2008: 45]. Latvij ir pieemts, ka cilvks, kura dzimt valoda nav valsts valoda, uzlko majorittes valodu par otro valodu, tdjdi izrddams lojalitti un cieu zemei, kuru izvljies par savu dzvesvietu. Turklt jdziens otr valoda nenorda uz valodas apguves secgumu, skaitliski t var bt ar tre vai pat ceturt valoda, ko cilvks apgst savas dzves laik. Pasaules teortiskaj literatr jdziens otr valoda pardjs 20. gadsimta 50.60. gados, Latvij 1995. gad, kad Latvieu valodas apguves valsts programmas pamat tika izvirzts mris ar 1996. gadu ieviest pilngi jaunu mcbu priekmetu latvieu valoda k otr valoda (LAT2) [Laiveniece 2006: 42]. Jdziens otr valoda ar nozmi majorittes valoda, kas jprot minorittei, nefunkcion viss valsts, piemram, Vcij attiecb uz viesstrdniekiem un imigrantiem run par vcu valodas k svevalodas apguvi. Zvied195
rij jdziens zviedru valoda k otr valoda ieviess 1982. gad. Lietuv relatvi nesen ska irt lietuvieu valodu k svevalodu (rzemniekiem) un lietuvieu valodu k otro valodu (mazkumtautbu prstvjiem, kuri run lietuviski) [Laiveniece 2006: 4243]. Rakst ir saldzintas latvieu valodas apguves patnbas cittautieu un rzemnieku auditorijs,pai akcentjot akuzatva locjuma izpratnes veidoanu. Akuzatva izteikanas ldzeki latvieu un cits valods Latvieu valod locjuma rdtjs ir galotne, turklt vrda galotne ietver ar dzimtes un skaita nozmi. Vrdu lokot, saglabjas t leksisk nozme un dzimte, skaita nozme mains reiz ar pretstatjumu vienskaitl un daudzskaitl. Mainoties skaitlim, nemains vrda locjuma gramatisk nozme. Katram locjumam latvieu valod ir noteikta nozme, kas izteikta ar gramatisko formu. Akuzatvam t ir objekta nozme, piemram, apmeklt muzeju [Paegle 2003: 37]. Ar krievu valod locjuma rdtjs ir galotne. Krievu valod ir atirgi locjumu jautjumi, jautjot par dzvm btnm un jautjot par dadiem priekmetiem, pardbm vai jdzieniem. Lietvrdiem, kas apzm dadus priekmetus vai jdzienus, daudzskaita akuzatv ir tda pati galotne k nominatv. Lietvrdiem, kas apzm dzvas btnes, vrieu dzimtes vienskaita akuzatv un vism dzimtm daudzskaita akuzatv ir tda pati galotne k enitv [Krasnais, Puule, Silakalne 2004: 2535]. Akuzatva galven nozme krievu valod ir objekta nozme. Perifras akuzatva nozmes ir laika, mra un atkrtojuma nozme [ 1980: 482]. Angu valod ir sastopams tikai enitvs, tau locjumu kategorija angu valod var tikt izteikta ar prepozcijm vai vrdu krtu, bet ne galotni, k tas ir latvieu un krievu valod. Piemram, akuzatvu angu valod var saskatt d teikum John killed Bill (Dons nogalinja Bilu). Akuzatvs angu valod rda teikuma tieo objektu. Norvu valod vairs neizir locjumus, k tas ir latvieu valod. Svarga ir vrdu krtba teikumos, k ar prievrdu lietoana. Latvieu valodas laika akuzatvu norvu valod iespjams tulkot k i + konstrukcija ar prievrdu vai ar k nominlkonstrukcija bez prievrda [Dannemarks 1995: 30]. Piemram,
Via tur bs vienu nedu. Hun skal vre der ei uke. Hun skal vre der i ei uke.
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Zviedru valod lietvrdiem ir divi locjumi pamatforma un enitvs. Prjos locjumus izsaka, lietojot konstrukcijas ar prievrdiem, bet akuzatvu bez prievrda [Sellebrante 1994: 19]. Vcu valod lietvrdiem gan vienskaitl, gan daudzskaitl ir etri locjumi nominatvs, enitvs, datvs un akuzatvs. Katram locjumam teikum ir sava nozme. Svarga loma ir ar artikulam, jo locjumu galotu skaits ir neliels un dakrt ne katram locjumam ir galotne. Akuzatvs tiek izteikts ar prievrdu [Ziedi 2009: 127, 151]. Akuzatva lietojums cittautieu un rzemnieku sacerjumos Rakst analiztie kdainie teikumi ir emti no cittautieu un rzemnieku sacerjumiem. Kopum ir 38 piemri no cittautieu sacerjumiem un 25 piemri no rzemnieku sacerjumiem. rzemnieki rakstja sacerjumus par tematu Viena diena man dzv, savukrt cittautiei rakstja sacerjumu, kur bija jsaldzina divi sludinjumi un jizvlas viens no piedvjumiem, vai ar bija jraksta sacerjums par kdu situciju. Informcija par to, ko piedv katrs sludinjums vai situcija, bija dota. Cittautiei varja saldzint dus sludinjumus: atrakciju parks Saulte un viesu nams Rakari; picrija ili pica un krodzi Trs vri; ceojums uz ipti un ceojums uz Turciju; krodzi Smaids un restorns Vecpilsta; kino Rga un koncerts Liepj. Lietvrds akuzatv saistjum ar prejoiem verbiem apzm darbbas tieo objektu. Cittautieiem, mcoties latvieu valodu, izplatta kda ir akuzatva nelietoana pc darbbas vrdiem. To var redzt ajos piemros:
Es paemu brniem saldjums.1 Ms izvljmies koncerts Liepj. Brni dzers limonde, ms ar sievu kafiju. Ir divi piedvjumi, kur brvdiens svint dzimanas diena.
Es izvljos ipte, es vienmr gribju apskatt piramdus. aj teikum formli ir lietots akuzatvs, uz ko norda galotne, tau vrds piramda ir lietots k vrieu dzimtes lietvrds, jo ir lietota vrieu dzimtes daudzskaita akuzatva galotne.
Es domju, ka es paemu ldzi savu draudzene. Ms iesim uz kafejnca. Analiztajos piemros ir atsttas kdas tikai akuzatva lietojum, prjs kdas ir autores labotas, lai btu uztverams tiei akuzatva nepareizais lietojums.
1
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Es gribu nogarot slavenu Turciju saldumi. Tur ms skatsim skaisti dabas skati, pastsim labi un gargi dieni. Tur var organizt ballte.
Es svinju svtku ar draugiem. aj teikum lietvrds ir lietots pareiz locjum, proti, akuzatv, tau nepareiz skaitl. Iespjams, tas ir td, ka krievu valod vrds svtki var tikt lietots gan vienskaitl, gan daudzskaitl, atirb no latvieu valodas, kur to var lietot tikai daudzskaitl. Visticamk, das kdas rodas tpc, ka valodas apguvju apzi pastvoais krievu valodas modelis apgrtina akuzatva lietojumu latvieu valod. Krievu valod lietvrdiem, kas nosauc priekmetus, vienskaita (vrieu un nekatra dzimte) un daudzskaita (visas dzimtes) akuzatv ir tdi pati galotne k vienskaita un daudzskaita nominatv.
Tlk ms aizbrauksim pie jras, pastaigsim pa pludmalas, meklsim dzintara un prles. Vasar es gribu atvainjuma laika pavadt rzems. Ms kop ar viiem pavadsim oti priecg laik.
ajos teikumos vairs netiek lietota nominatva forma, k tas bija iepriekjos teikumos. Daji tas vartu bt skaidrojams ar krievu valodas ietekmi, piemram, vrds laiks krievu valod tiek lietots sievieu dzimt, td ar latvieu valodas apguvjs vrdu laiks lieto sievieu dzimt, k tas redzams otraj piemr. Lai krievvalodgajiem btu vieglk izprast akuzatva nozmi un to pareizi lietot, bija juzraksta sacerjums, emot vr du informciju.
Krodzi Smaidspiedv: dadus gaas dienus, jauku atmosfru, tematiskus paskumus. Restorns Vecpilsta dieni dadm gaumm. Plaas telpas banketiem. Prsteigumi jubilriem.
Sacerjum ir jbt ietvertam abu sludinjumu saldzinjumam un izvles pamatojumam, kur pavadt brvdienas. Apraksts par krodziu Smaids bija preczs, jo, prrakstot sludinjuma tekstu, tas nav jmaina. Savukrt, aprakstot restorna Vecpilsta piedvjumu, bija jizmanto akuzatvs, kuru pareizi lietoja tikai dai kursanti.
Restorns Vecpilsta piedv dieni dadm gaumm, plaas telpas banketiem un prsteigumi jubilriem.
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di teikumi bija sastopami gandrz katra kursanta darb, turklt da kda tika pieauta ar citos ldzgos sacerjumos, piemram,
Viesu nams Rakari piedv atpta gan lieliem, gan maziem, izjdes ar poniju, skaisti dabas skati un gargi dieni. Atrakciju parks Saulte piedv dadi karusei un saldumu tirdzi. Akuzatvs jlieto ar tad, ja bija japraksta sava izvle. Piemram, Es izvlos krodzi Trs vri. Es izvlos restorns Vecpilsta. Es izvlos viesu nams Rakari.
Apskatot os piemrus, jsecina, ka krievvalodgajiem ir grti uztvert un pareizi lietot akuzatvu pat tad, ja tekst vai uzdevuma nosacjumos pards pareizs akuzatva lietojums t visprgaj nozm, kad lietvrds norda prejou verbu tieo objektu. Ldz ar to latvieu valodas k otrs valodas apguves proces cittautieiem is uzdevums nepaldz. Biei vien krievvalodgie nelieto akuzatvu aiz prievrda uz, kas norda virzienu, piemram,
Es brauku atpsties uz viesu nams Rakari. Ms iesim uz saldumu tirdzi un visi dsim saldumi. Brvdiens var iet uz atrakcijas parks Saulte. Ms iesim uz kafejnca. Uz ipte biete maks tikai 170 lati. Uz Turcija biete maks 230 lati. Es brauku uz Rg. Mani draugi brauks Liepj uz koncert.
Pdjos teikumos aiz prievrda uz nav lietota nominatva forma, k bija iepriekjos teikumos, bet gan lokatva forma. Citkrt ir izlaista prepozcija uz, k ar netiek ievrots akuzatva lietojums.
Es gribu braukt karsta Turcija. Ms visa imene ar sievu un brniem gjm krodzi Trs vri. Bet koncerts Liepj ms neiesim. Kad ms brauksim Rg, obligti apmeklsim krodzi Smaids.
Mana sieva saka par vlanos aiziet kaut kd izstd, muzeju vai koncertu. aj piemr vrdi muzeju un koncertu ir lietoti pareiz form. 199
Lietvrds akuzatv apzm ne tikai objektu, uz kuru attiecas teikum izteikt darbba, bet izsaka ar laika nojgumu. Tas var nordt gan uz noteiktu, gan nenoteiktu laika vienbu. Tiesa, latvieu valod du gadjumu nav daudz. Tomr ar tdos teikumos kursantu darbos ir kdas. Piemram,
Ms piemm lmumu braukt ar automanu pari dienai agrk nek sks koncerts. Man jau nebija atvainjums gandrz pieci gadi. Nkamaj vasar es gribu pavadt rzems.
T k latvieu valod ir diezgan reti sastopams akuzatvs laika nozm, krievvalodgajiem nav pietiekami daudz modeu, no k mcties. Dareiz akuzatvs lietots teikumos, kur tas nav nepiecieams, piemram,
Restorn Vecpilsta ir gargas augu sulas, kokteius, kafijas, gargas karbondes, salti un dadi dieni.
Man garo aliku un sarkanvnu. aj teikum vajadztu bt nominatvam. Ar rzemniekiem, mcoties latvieu valodu k svevalodu, biei vien ir problmas ar akuzatva lietoanu, tas netiek lietots tad, kad to vajadztu. Apskatot rzemnieku sacerjumus, jsecina, ka visbiek netiek lietots akuzatvs, rakstot par prtiku, piemram,
Es du jogurts, parasti melleu vai plmju jogurts.
Pc lekcijm es du pusdienm kafejnc. aj teikum gan nav izmantota nominatva forma, kas vedina domt, ka students ir minjis lietot kdu locjumu.
Pusdiens es du prtikas no mjm. Brokasts es du rupjmaize un siers. Es dzeru dens un apelsns sula. Vakaris es du lasis un salti. Es dzeru meln tja ar pienu. Man patk st mana putra ar mellenm. Es gatavoju rsi ar vistas gau.
Ms parasti dzeram kokakola zero un denu. aj teikum var redzt akuzatva lietojumu, apskatot vrdu dens, tau ir izvlta nepareiza akuzatva galotne, aizmirstot, ka vrds dens ir izmums un to loka pc otrs deklincijas parauga. 200
Pusdiens es prku vienu dubultais hotdogs. aj teikum var redzt, ka skaita vrds ir lietots akuzatv, tau pabas vrds un lietvrds ne. Tas vrojams ar citos piemros, kur kds no vrdiem teikum tiek lietots pareiz locjum, aj gadjum akuzatv, tau prjie vrdi netiek lietoti. Tas mudina domt par valodas apguvja motivciju (runjot gan par cittautieiem, gan rzemniekiem) lietot vienu vrdiru pareiz locjum, bet prjs, kuras ar vajadztu saskaot aj locjum, nelietot pareizi. Vai t ir vienkri sakritba vai ar ir vrdiras, kurs kdu noteiktu locjumu ir vieglk lietot nek cits. Dakrt ir lietots akuzatvs teikumos, kur btu jlieto nominatvs, piemram,
Man oti garo gau.
Man negaro tju un augu sulu. Ldzgas kdas sastopamas ar krievvalodgo sacerjumos. oti biei vrojamas kdas ar tad, ja rzemnieki run par savm studiju gaitm, piemram,
Pc lekcijm es studju anatomija un histoloija. Es studju medicna Rgas Stradia universitt. Es mcos anatomija. Man nepatk histoloiju. Pc pusdienm man ir molekulrs bioloijas lekciju.
Pdjos divos piemros lietvrds tiek lietots akuzatv, lai gan aj gadjum tos vajadztu lietot nominatv. Gan cittautiei, gan rzemnieki reizm izlai prievrdus teikum un ldz ar to nelieto akuzatvu vai nelieto akuzatvu kop ar prievrdu, piemram,
Es eju uz universitte pc brokastm. Jau brnb es gribju kt par rste. Es dodos uz fitnesa.
Iespjams, ajos teikumos netiek lietots akuzatvs, jo norvu, zviedru un vcu valod akuzatvu izsaka, lietojot konstrukcijas ar prievrdiem.
Pc lekcijm es eju bibliotka. Nkamais brvdienas es lidou Vcij.
Latvieu valod ir sastopams ar izplatjuma un mra akuzatvs, kas izsaka telpisku nojgumu vai apzm ko sveramu vai mrmu. Parasti to 201
lieto kop ar skaita vrdu, pabas vrdu vai vietniekvrdu [Smiltniece 2008: 188]. rzemnieki sacerjumos reizm mina lietot ar o akuzatva nozmi, tau nepareizi, piemram, Brokasts es du saldskbmaizes, bannu un es dzeru viena glze piena. T k latvieu valod izplatjuma un mra akuzatvs nav plai izplatts, rzemniekiem nav pietiekami daudz modeu, no k mcties. Mcoties latvieu valodu, rzemnieki nelieto akuzatvu, runjot par vecumu, piemram, Es esmu divdesmit divi gadi veca. oti reti vii veido du teikumu Man ir divdesmit divi gadi, jo angu valod, runjot par vecumu, teikums tiek veidots di I am 22 years old. Rakst apskatts kdas auj secint, ka valodas apguv ir svargi iemcties nevis formu pau par sevi, bet ts lietojumu teikum, respektvi, sazi. Abu grupu prstvji spj izveidot pareizu akuzatva formu, tau ne vienmr vai pat diezgan reti to pareizi lieto sazi. Secinjumi Saldzinot gan cittautieu, gan rzemnieku latvieu valodas apguves procesu, jsecina, ka ir sastopamas ldzgas kdas, proti, akuzatva nelietoana aiz prejoiem darbbas vrdiem un atseviiem prievrdiem, k ar akuzatva lietoana tajos gadjumos, kur vajadztu lietot nominatvu. Cittautieiem akuzatva formas veidoanu latvieu valod apgrtina krievu valodas modelis, kur biei vien akuzatva galotne sakrt ar nominatva galotni. Gan cittautiei, gan rzemnieki biei vien lieto akuzatvu tajos gadjumos, kad btu jlieto nominatvs. Dzimtajai valodai, k ar valodai, kur tiek skaidrota apgstams valodas gramatika, ir liela nozme valodas apguves proces.
LITERATRA Dannemarks, N. Norvu valodas gramatika. Apgds Norden, 1995. Ziedi, E. Vcu valodas praktisk gramatika. Rga: Zvaigzne ABC, 2009. Kramsch, C. Applied Linguistic Theory and Second/Foreign Language Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education. Second Edition. Springer, 2008. Krasnais, M., Puule, V., Silakalne, G. . Krievu valodas gramatikas rokasgrmata. Zvaigzne ABC, 2004. Laiveniece, D. Latvieu valodas apguves teortiskie aspekti. No: Metodiskie ieteikumi latvieu valodas apguvei (bez starpniekvalodas). I lmenis. Liepja, 2006.
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Inga LAIZNE. Akuzatvs latvieu valodas k svevalodas apguv Paegle, Dz. Latvieu literrs valodas morfoloija, I daa. Rga: Zintne, 2003. I. : , 1980. Sellebrante, H. Zviedru valodas gramatika. Apgds Norden, 1994. Smiltniece, G. Lietvrds. No: Latvieu valodas gramatika: koncepcija, prospekts, atseviu nodau pirmvarianti, diskusijas materili. Rga, 2008.
Accusative Case in Acquisition of Latvian as Second Language Summary

One of the most common mistakes, made in learning Latvian as a foreign language is usage of a wrong case of the noun. Each noun, used together with other words, obtains the form of a certain case. The case ending shows the relation of the noun to other words in the sentence, hence, the case reveals syntactical functions of the noun. One of the cases creating difficulties in acquisition of Latvian is Accusative. In the article, two groups of people learning Latvian are compared Russian speakers and other nationalities (Finns, Swedish, Norwegians, Germans and English). This division was chosen due to the fact that the language acquisition process differs between Russian speakers and other nationalities, in addition, the author has a practical work experience with both groups. Comparing both Russian speakers and other nationalities one should conclude that similar mistakes occur, namely, avoidance of usage of Accusative after transitive verbs and certain prepositions, as well as usage of Accusative instead of Nominative. The reason of the mistake is different. The Russian speakers connect Latvian with Russian where Accusative ending is often the same as Nominative, but other nationalities most commonly relate it to English which does not have Accusative ending, therefore they do not use it in Latvian. It suggests that the native language, as well as the language of instruction used in language teaching is of great significance in language acquisition process. Apart from that, concrete mistakes appear which are more characteristic to one or other language learning group.
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Anda MEISTERE
Lietvrda dzimtes izpratne pirms paaudzes latvieu valodas mcbgrmats

Atslgvrdi: lietvrda dzimte, kopdzimtes lietvrdi, dzimu sistmas izmumi, latvieu valodas mcbgrmatu 1. paaudze Rakst pc Dz. Paegles latvieu valodas mcbgrmatu paaudu sistmas skatta 1. paaudzes 2. puse koncentros rakstts grmatas (1889 1907; 18741889 publicts ar lineru vielas sadaljumu analiztas 2011. gada refert konferenc Vrds un t ptanas aspekti Liepjas Universitt), akcentti izmantotie termini, kopdzimtes lietvrdu un t. s. dzimtes sistmas izmumu izpratne un citas btiskkas piezmes. Visi autori (sk. literatras sarakst) lieto terminu krta, lielkoties vria/sievia. K. Mlenbahs k pirmais o nosaukumu dod ar msdienu izskau ieu vrieu/sievieu, tpat k prjie 1. paaudzes autori pc via (urzns, Abuls, Bahs, Burkins), izemot R. Cukuru, kas palicis pie vria/sievia krta. J. Kalni izveidojis ar jaunu terminu krtas galotnes: Lielk tiesa vrias krtas vrdu beidzas uz s, turpretim sievias krtas uz a vai e. Skaas s, a un e sauc par krtas galotnm [Kalni 1890: 16]. Lietvrdu nosauc ar vrdiem: lietu=vrdi/lietuvrdi/ lietu vrdi (Skuja, Laimi, Zulekss&Zle, Mlenbahs), lietas vrdi (Bahs), lietu/lietas vrdi (Cukurs, urzns, Abuls, Burkins), btbas vrdi (Laimi, Kalni), dakrt lieto internacionlismu substantvs (Skuja, Bahs). Sievieu dzimtes vrdi ar galotni s lielkoties aplkoti k izmumi: Lietu vrdi, kuru locana atiras no parasts [trekninjums AM]: acs, lksts, krts dai lietu vrdi ar galotni s pieder pie sievieu krtas [Burkins 1904: 43], bet . Zulekss, H. Zle, K. Mlenbahs, R. Cukurs, M. urzns un J. Bahs tos rda k dau no loiskas dzimu sistmas, piem.: . Zulekss un H. Zle dod piemrus, t.sk. ar sievieu dzimtes vrdus ar galotni s: a) gans.., brzi-, sun-is.., al-us u.c.; b) grmat-a.., skolniec-e, ziv-s, ac-s [trekninjums AM] un paskaidro, ka lietvrdi ir: 1) vrias krtas k piemr a un 2) sievias k piemr b ar galotnm a, e, s. [Zulekss, Zle 1891: 7] Vii ir pirmie, kas, skatot dzimti nevis pc locanas celmiem, 204
Anda MEISTERE. Lietvrda dzimtes izpratne pirms paaudzes..
bet gan galotnm, sievieu dzimtes aprakst ievieto ar galotni s, nevis min k izmumu. Teju visi autori uzsver ar vrieu dzimtes vrdus ar pretjas dzimtes galotni. Daa msdiens gan uztverami citdk k kopdzimtes vrdi: bende (k vrieu dzimtes vrdu min Laimi, Mlenbahs, Cukurs2, Bahs, Burkins), varmka (Laimi, Cukurs2), lauva (Cukurs2, Abuls, Bahs); citi iemantojui vrieu dzimtes galotni: kapteine kapteinis (Cukurs2) (sal. 1. paaudzes skum di tika lietoti ar superintendente, rste, vagare, strasta u.c.); viengais, ko ar msdiens uztver k vrieu dzimtes vrdu ar galotni a, ir puika (tas toties ne reizi nav mints 1. paaudzes skuma grmats). To, skot ar A. Laimiu, min visi autori, kas skata dus vrdus; visbiek k pirmo, bet dakrt k primro dod lauva un puika tikai k otro (Abuls, Bahs). Vrieu krtas vrdus ar a/e neskata J. Skuja, . Zulekss un H. Zle, un J. Kalni, kur neatspoguo ar sievieu dzimtes vrdus ar s. Turklt ie vrdi netiek apzmti ar terminiem, piem., nekrtnieki u. c., ko aktvi izmantoja 1. paaudzes 1. puses mcbgrmatu autori. Tpat k vrieu dzimtes vrdu ar galotni a/e, ar kopdzimtes vrdu dzimtes noteikan uzsvrta vietniekvrda tas/t un vienskaita datva galotnes nozme. Izmantots nosaukums kopgas krtas [lietu] vrdi (Skuja, Cukurs, Abuls) vai ar dota defincija bez konkrta apzmjuma: dai lietu vrdi pieder abiem dzimumiem (Laimi), dai lietu vrdi ar galotni -a var bt gan vrieu, gan sievieu krtas (Mlenbahs) u.tml. Visi autori dod vrdus ar a (ppa, nejga, aua, nepraa, tiep()a, snaua, vka), A. Burkins min ar galotni e: dai [lietu vrdi] ar a, e [pieder] pie vrieu krtas vai abm, bet bez piemriem. Viengi J. Skuja dod vrdu ar e bende, ko, k mints, citi skatjui k vrieu dzimtes vrdu. Interesanti, ka R. Cukurs sintakses grmat run par kopkrtas vrdu saskaoanu ar pabas vrdiem: kopgas krtas vrdos pabas vrds pieldzina savu galotni dabiskai krtai. Tdi nejgas (vrii). Tdas nejgas (sievii) [Cukurs 1897: 16], lai gan neskaidro, kas ir kopgas krtas vrdi. J. Kalni un M. urzns kopdzimti neskata. Daudzi autori izce dabisko dzimti dzvnieku un cilvku nosaukumos, ts atirbu no gramatisks dzimtes: Dab iziram starp cilvkiem un citiem dzvniekiem vrieu un sievieu krtu, k: .. puisis un meita, gailis un vista, vrsis un govs utt. Bet valoda uzlko it visus priekmetus, ar nedzvas lietas t, it k tie btu vai nu vrieu.. jeb vai sievieu.. krtas [Mlenbahs 1895: 7]; ar R. Cukurs dod cilvku un dzvnieku nosaukumus 1. tvs.., saimnieks, auns, gailis. 2. mte.., saimniece, aita, vista, tad 205
teoriju: Dab iziram tikpat starp cilvkiem, k ar starp dzvniekiem vriu un sieviu krtu. T ar lietu vrdi ir vrias (1) un sievias (2) krtas, turpina ar piemriem, ar gramatisks dzimtes rdtjiem un pievieno atbilstou definciju par nedzvu lietu daljumu krts un ts noteikanu pc galotnes. Citviet izce, ka atsevias saknes vrdi dada dzimuma dzvnieku nosaukanai ir mjdzvniekiem/mjputniem un ldzg aspekt skata ar personu nosaukumu dzimti, ilustrdams ar plau radniecbas nosaukumu sarakstu: dievers (vra brlis), msca (vra msa) utt. [Cukurs 1898: 2324]. T k koncentrisks grmats vrdiras skata sintaks, dzimtes aspekts nereti pardts subjekta un predikta saska utt., piem., J. Kalni min pat terminu galotu saskaa: ja teikuma priekmets ir vrias krtas, tad ar izteicjam no pabas vrdiem jpieem vrias krtas galotne; ja priekmets ir sievias krtas, tad ar izteicjam no pabas vrdiem jpieem sievias krtas galotne. o galotu viendbu sauc par galotu saskau, seko uzdevums, kur pabas vrdam jliek galotne vai ar lietvrdam jpievieno pabas vrds: Zilons liel_, zeme apa_ .. Izteic.., kds ir teikuma priekmets: .. nazis, bols, ledus.. pue, oga [Kalni 1890: 16]. Ar R. Cukurs izce lietvrda k subjekta saskau ar prediktu: Lietas vrds k predikts dod subjektam lietu vrdam plaku nozmi un patur savu galotni, neraugoties uz subjektu .. Ieva ir koks. Galds ir istabas lieta.. Tomr ja subjekts ir persona jeb par personu domta lieta, tad predikts lietas vrds pievienojs vrias krtas vrdam ar vriu, sievias krtas vrdam ar sieviu galotni. Kristaps Kolumbus ir Amerikas atradjs. Dido (sievietes vrds) bij Kartgas dibintja..., ar lietvrda saskau ar atribtu: ja viens un tas pats pabas vrds k apzmtjs attiecas uz diviem vai vairk lietu vrdiem, kas iezm personas katru sav dzimum, tas stdms vri krt: Cienjami kungi un kundzes! [Cukurs 1897: 11] vi viengais uzsvris, ka vria krta ir valdo: Run parasts tpc ar daudz sieviu krtu apzmtjus vrdus lietot ar vriu krtas galotni, k: tas meitens, tas sieviets. Uz sievieti aizrdot, pat dareiz sakot: vi [Cukurs 1898: 2223]. Vrieu krtu k valdoo ilustr ar ar dzimtes un skaita lietojumu uzrunas konstrukcijs vai ar runjot par kdu treo personu: Cientu personu, ko run piemin, ar parasts daudzskaitl apzmt: Kungs mj? Kalps: N, vii ir izbraukui. Vai mte vesela? N, vii vl ir slimi. .. Tpat ar nesaka: Cienjam kundze, vai js paas esat to redzjuas.., bet: Cienjam kundze, vaj Js pai to esat redzjui [Cukurs 1898: 5051]. 206
Anda MEISTERE. Lietvrda dzimtes izpratne pirms paaudzes..
Parasti doti ar jautjumi un/vai uzdevumi (izemot Skuju, Burkinu, kam tdu nav, un Mlenbahu, kam ir tikai jautjumi), piem., P. Abuls vispirms izsaks par lietvrda saskau dzimt ar tas/t, dod piemrus, tad uzdevumu: Kuram no sekojoiem vrdiem varam pielikt tas, kuram t? Ozols.., drznieks, skaudba.. Pc nkam paragrfa par lietvrdu locanu atkal ir uzdevums un lietvrda apskata beigs jautjums, cik krtu tam ir [Abuls 1905: 913]. Nodaas beigs jautjumi atkrtoanai par vielu kopum, ar par krtu: Cik krts [lietvrds] iedals? Kdas galotnes ir vrieu krtas lietu vrdiem? Sievieu? [Abuls 1905: 52]. Toties J. Baham visi uzdevumi vienuviet t krtas apskat [Bahs 1902: 3] nordts, ka jskats 18. uzdevums grmatas beigs: Uzraksti vrieu krtas lietu vrdus 5 ar katru galotni. Uzraksti sievieu krtas lietu vrdus 10 ar a, e, 5 s. Uzraksti sekoos lietu vrdus un pieliec katram priek tas, t: darbs, roze.., puika, izkapts, medus [Bahs 1902: 43]. Tobrd, 80. gadu beigs, oficil valsts valoda ir krievu. J. Kalni, kur pas ar ar to, ka neizmanto citu pielietoto induktvo metodi (balstanos uz piemriem, lai izsecintu valodas likumu), bet gan, lai ar ir pret valodas likumu mehnisku kalanu, vispirms iepazstina ar teoriju un to papildina ar piemriem, ir pirmais (vl ar Cukurs, urzns, Abuls), kas sasaista mcbu vielu ar krievu valodu: norda terminus un atbilstoi tematikai akcent krievu valodas patnbas, piem.: Galotu saskaas likumi vrojami ar cits valods. Ja krievu valod .. sievias krtas teikuma priekmets beidzas uz a, ar izteicjs pieem galotni a [Kalni 1890: 17]. Paaudzes ietvaros jizce M. urzna rokasgrmata, jo t ir pirm latvieu valodas mcanas metodika. Jmca saldzinjum ar krievu valodu, 1. rii ierasti veltot vienkram nepagarintam teikumam, teikuma virslocekiem; 2. vienkram pagarintam teikumam, nosakot citus teikuma locekus; 3. saliktam teikumam [urzns 1901: 4142]. Doti vielas pasnieganas paraugi: Krta: 1) Koks. Vi augsts .. 2) Pue. Via skaista. .. Kdu personu apzm vrds vi? K sacsi par skolnu, personu apzmdams? Atkrto? K sacsi par skolnieci, personu apzmdams?.. Izlasi vlreiz visus uzraksttos piemrus! Kdi vrdi te vrieu, kdi sievieu krt? Atkrto? Cik pavisam krtu? Kdas? Ja zinm vrda viet var likt vrdu vi, kd krt tad vrds? K pazt vrieu krtu? K pazt sievieu krtu? em vrdu un saki, kd krt is vrds? Pc tam jizraksta vrieu un sievieu krtas vrdi [urzns 1901: 48] ttad vielas mcana skama ar piemru doanu, juzdod daudz ldzgu jautjumu, lai iegaumtu, jatkrto. Atkrtojoie jautjumi par lietvrda 207
dzimti ir ar, runjot par pabas vrdu krtas aspekt [urzns 1901: 56]. Mcanas paraug akcentti ar abu dzimu vrdi ar pretjas dzimtes galotni [urzns 1901: 6364].
LITERATRA Abuls, P. Latvieu valodas mcba pilstu un lauku skolm. 2 das. (uzlab. 2. izd.) Rga: enfelds, 1905. 128 lpp. Bahs, J. Latvieu valodas mcba skolm ar daudz uzdevumiem rakstu darbam. Rga: Joneks & Poliewskijs, 1902. 64 lpp. Burkins, A. sa valodas mcba ar uzdevumiem domu rakstos pagasta skolm. Rga: Zelti, 1904. 87 lpp. Cukurs, R. Latvieu valodas teikumu mcba (sintaksis), ar daudz rakstu darbu uzdevumiem. Priek divklasu tautas skolm. Rga: Brzi, 1897. 56 lpp. Cukurs, R. Latvieu valodas vrdu un pareizrakstbas mcba (etimoloija un ortogrfija) ar daudz rakstu darbu uzdevumiem. Rga: Brzi, 1898. 114 lpp. Kalni, J. Latvieu valodas mcba: riis 1. (2. prstr. izd.) Rga: Grothuss, 1890, 84 lpp. urzns, M. Latvieu valodas metodika. I. Rakstu darbi. II. Valodas mcba. Rokasgrmata skolotjiem. Csis: Ozols, 1901. 78 lpp. Laimi, A. Latvieu valodas mcba tautas skolm. (2. prlab. izd.) Rga: Pcu ederts, 1890. 62 lpp. Mlenbahs, K. Latvieu valodas mcba. Rga: Pcu ederts, 1895. 70 lpp. Skuja, J. Vadons latvieu valodas mcb pagastu skolm. 3 koncentriskos rios. Rga: Jkonsons, 1889. 72 lpp. Zulekss, ., Zle, H. Vadonis latvieu valodas mcb un rakstu darbos pagasta skolm. Kuldga: Cimmermans, 1891. 56 lpp.
Comprehension of Genders of Nouns in the First Generation of Latvian Language Text Books Summary
This article represents research about 2nd part of 1st generation of Latvian language text book generations that have been worked out by Dz. Paegle including books with a concentric division of material (18891907; books printed from 18741889 with a linear division of material have been previously studied by the author), the article is focused on terms used, common gender nouns and exceptions of gender system etc.
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Anda MEISTERE. Lietvrda dzimtes izpratne pirms paaudzes.. All researched language text book authors use the term krta, mostly vria/sievia. K. Mlenbahs (1895) is the first to use that word with todays ending ieu vrieu/sievieu krta, as like other authors of 1st generation, whose works came out after him, except for R. Cukurs (1897, 1898) who kept vria/sievia krta. Female gender names with the opposite gender ending -s mostly have been researched as exception, apart for . Zulekss, H. Zle, K. Mlenbahs, R. Cukurs, M. urzns and J. Bahs, who showed it to be a part of logical system. Mostly authors emphasize male gender names with the female gender ending and common gender names, mainly to determinate their gender, they emphasize how these words concord with the pronoun tas/t and/or advise to look at the singular dative ending. Many authors emphasize the difference of natural and grammatical gender; as the material is divided concentricly and parts of speech have been revealed in syntax, the aspect of gender has frequently been shown in concord with subject and predicate and so on. At that moment the official state language was Russian, thats why in some books collateral Russian terms are used.
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Veronika RUA
Latvieu valodas daji lokm divdabja un nelokm divdabja ar -ot(ies) veidots reduplikatvs konstrukcijas
Atslgvrdi: reduplikcija, reduplikatv konstrukcija, daji lokmais divdabis, nelokmais divdabis Latvieu valod tiek lietoti vrdu savienojumi ar emocionli ekspresvu nokrsu, ko pank ar gramatiskiem ldzekiem: kdas morfmas vai visa vrda atkrtoanu. Procesu, kad pastiprinjuma izteikanai izmanto saknes, celma vai visa vrda atkrtoanu, sauc par reduplikciju [VPSV 2007: 322; 2004: 213; Ntia 2008: 125]. Reduplikcija uzskatma par morfoloiski sintaktisku vai biei vien ar stilistisku pardbu, turklt morfoloiskais, sintaktiskais un stilistiskais aspekti parasti ir nesaraujami saistti [Ntia 2000: 173]. Reduplikatvs konstrukcijas ir, piemram: lai dara ko dardams, lai iet kur iedams, lai dom ko domdams u. c. dos savienojumos visbiek funkcion dadas verba formas. Produktvs reduplikatvo konstrukciju veidoanas elements ir daji lokmais divdabis ar -dams, -dama, -damies, -dams, un dakrt ts veido ar nelokmais divdabis ar -ot(ies). Daji lokmais divdabis un nelokmais divdabis ar -ot(ies) reduplikatvs konstrukcijas veido savienojum ar ts paas saknes darbbas vrdu nenoteiksm vai kd no personas formm. dos savienojumos ir pastiprinta darbbas vrda formu nozme. Latvieu valodniecb reduplikcija ptta maz: skotnji o procesu ir aplkojis J. Endzelns [Endzelns, Mlenbahs 1907: 151; Endzelns 1951: 264266], akadmiskaj Msdienu latvieu literrs valodas gramatik jau aplkots divdabis reduplikatvajs konstrukcijs [MLLVG I 1959: 659], reduplikatvs konstrukcijas ar divdabjiem ir skatjusi A. Eihe [Eiche 1983: 72], samr plas ptjums par reduplikciju latvieu valod ir D. Ntiai [Ntia 2000: 173177]. Msdienu latvieu literrs valodas gramatik, aplkojot divdabi reduplikatvajs konstrukcijs, teikts: Stvdams blakus 210
Veronika RUA. Latvieu valodas daji lokm divdabja un nelokm..
ts paas saknes verba fintajai formai, divdabis izsaka norises intensitti [MLLVG I 1959: 659]. Tpat das konstrukcijas raksturo A. Eihe, norddama, ka divdabis pastiprina fint verba nozmi [Eiche 1983: 72]. Reduplikcija tlaini tiek nosaukta par splm ar saknm un vrdiem, kas liecina par valodas jaunradi un vrda meistaru prasmi [Ntia 2000: 177]. Izveidots vienas saknes vrdu vai vrdformu kombincijas atklj gan valodas bagtbu, gramatisks sistmas iespjas, dod iespju izteikt dadas nozmes nokrsas, stilistiskas un emocionli ekspresvas nianses, pai uzsvrt kdu aktvu (vai pasvu) darbbu. Reduplikatvs konstrukcijas visbiek tiek lietotas dailiteratr un sarunvalod. Piemram:
Te cilvks ne domdams neko nevarja izdomt. (V. Belevica) Viai elegantais un pielaiztais Majors nemaz nepatk, pai nepatk zilie vaigi un zods, jo, lai vi skujas k skdamies, brdas vieta redzama. (V. Belevica)
Dadi ir pamieni, k reduplikcija tiek izmantota darbbas vrdu formu nozmes pastiprinanai. Reduplikatvajs konstrukcijs divdabji, pai nelokmie, pieir savdabgu nokrsu. Divdabis ar -ot veido konstrukciju gribot negribot, piemram:
Gribot negribot [skot strdt Daugavpil, jaunajai rstei] ncs iemcties krievu valodu, kas atstmusi mal vias pieticgo latu valodu, jo visa dokumentcija nu bija jpilda krievu valod. (Latgales Laiks, 2011) Kad brni patiesi smejas, gribot negribot jsmejas ldzi, un tas maina visdrmko dvseles stvokli darbba maina izjtas. (Mjas Viesis, 2009) Gribot negribot daudzi sk meklt ldzbu abs sieviets, kas pai uzjundja pc pazioanas par oficilu saderinanos un pavasar gaidmajm kzm. (Mjas Viesis, 2011)
Par daji lokmajiem divdabjiem reduplikatvajs konstrukcijs D. Ntia raksta: Gan ar nenoteiksmi, gan personu formm pastiprinjuma funkcij un reiz visprinjuma nozm saists divdabji ar -dams, -dama [..] [Ntia 2000: 176]. dos savienojumos daji lokmais divdabis var nostties gan aiz personu formas, gan ts priek, piemram:
Un t viam kljas vienmr, lai dara ko dardams. (V. Belevica) Reizm skolotjai licies, ka no Billes vartu iznkt rakstniece. Bet n Bille neieskats cilvkos. Tpc lai dara ko dardama, tikai lai neraksta. (V. Belevica)
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Cit cea lkum k dejodams pret izdejoja sudrabpelk kaok trpies zais. (S. Kaldupe) Aiz tilla kds paklusm iespurcs, atkal drusku pagrudzinja un tad klusinjis balsi ldz ddojoam, intmam ukstam, negaidti ieska neapolitnieu dziesmiu, no kuras teksta vai nu izpildtja vjs dikcijas, vai savu vl vjko itlieu valodas zinanu d dieml sapratu tikai vienu vrdu, ko mklainais dziedonis izrunja stiepti un tksmgi, k garot izgarodams, ar lielu iejtu, degsmi un, gribtos apgalvot, pat saldkaisli, un tas bija visprzinmais vrds amore. (R. Ezera) Dls lgdamies ldzs, lai atdod viam mobilo telefonu. (Sarunvalodas piemrs) Bet es varu dart ko dardama, nav un nav labi, dibenistab li runja mammucis. (V. Belevica) J, dzejous. Bille skusi rakstt, lai gan skolotja teikusi dari ko dardama, tikai neraksti. (V. Belevica) Pameita ielej deni saujs, cer cerdama, ka viena lste prvrtsies trejdevis [..]. (S. Kaldupe). Dari cik dardams, tik un t saimnieks nav apmierints [..]. (Latgales Laiks, 2010)
Konstrukcijas dart ko dardams, notikt kas notikdams, lai iet kur iedams, lai dom ko domdams u. tml. formli atgdina frazeoloiskus teicienus. D. Ntia uzskata, ka tiem piemto frazeoloismu pazme ir diskutabls jautjums: diem vrdsavienojumiem ir paa emocionli ekspresva nokrsa, un dakrt formli semantisks stabilittes d var diskutt par tiem piemtoo frazeoloisma pazmi [Ntia 2000: 176]. K liecina mintie piemri, pc o visbiek lietoto reduplikatvo vrdsavienojumu modea tiek veidoti savienojumi ar citas nozmes vrdiem atbilstoi saturam: lai skujas k skdamies (V. Belevica), k dejodams izdejoja (S. Kaldupe), k garot izgarodams (R. Ezera) u. c. Fintais verbs reduplikatvajs konstrukcijs dakrt tiek lietots vljuma izteiksm, kas visam teikumam pieir vljuma modalitti, piemram:
Lai btu k bdams, ne jau slaicgs sakars un ne jau banls romns ir via ceturt vlns, un ne pavirs flirts, kas atstj pairu sajtu. (R. Ezera) Lai skrietu kur skriedami, tie mani jaunie, redzsi tik un t kdreiz atgriezsies mjs. (Sarunvalodas piemrs) Lai notiktu kas notikdams, es jau nu neatkpos no saviem uzskatiem. (Sarunvalodas piemrs)
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Ir reduplikatvas konstrukcijas, kuras veido daji lokmais divdabis vai nelokmais divdabis ar -ot(ies) kombincij ar lietvrdu, ar dubultu noliegumu u.c.:
Ne domdams neizdomsi, ko ie bija iecerjui. (Mjas Viesis, 2009) Pamal pardjs mkonis, apbrnojami tri augdams augum. (Mjas Viesis, 2010) Domjot neizdomsi to, ko ie zni uzbvja. (Latgales Laiks, 2010) Billei t neliks, Billei ita,ka melleu tpat katru gadu tik daudz, ka riebj. Ka mellenes ne nddams neizndsi, tpat k suusnes, svs alksnenes un birzgs brzlapes. Visdu mea drazu. (V. Belevica)
A. Blinkena ptjum Latvieu interpunkcija reduplikatvs konstrukcijas ar daji lokmo divdabi aplko pieturzmju lietoanas sakar: Ja divdabis ar izskau -dams kop ar kdu attieksmes vietniekvrdu vai apstka vrdu pastiprina ts paas saknes darbbas vrda personas formu, is savienojums nav savrupinms (Blinkena 2009: 301). Piemram:
Lai rt notiek kas notikdams. (Sarunvalodas piemrs) Lai cilvki dom ko domdami par mani, bet es rkoos pc sava prta. (Sarunvalodas piemrs) Guldams jau neizgulsi lielu rocbu. (Sarunvalodas piemrs) Sapodams nenosaposi tdu notikumu pavrsienu. (Ievas Ststi. 2010) Lai via dara cik dardama, tomr rezultta nav. (Latgales Laiks, 2009) Iet k iedams viiem tai tlaj zem. (Latgales Laiks, 2010)
Reduplikatvs konstrukcijas ar daji lokmo divdabi dakrt tiek fakultatvi savrupintas, tdjdi atgdinot divdabja teicienus:
Vi jau gu, stvus stvdams. (V. Belevica) Via tri mets prom, skrieus skriedama. (Mjas Viesis, 2009)
Lai panktu vl lielku emocionli ekspresvo slodzi, reduplikatvs konstrukcijas var tikt parceltas. di gadjumi visbiek vrojami sarunvalod, piemram:
K vii to dabja gatavu? Ne domdams neizdomsi. (Sarunvalodas piemrs) Kur tad is spruks? Lai skrien kur skriedams. (Sarunvalodas piemrs) Neveicas viai, neveicas. Lai dara ko dardama. (Komentrs internet)
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Ttad latvieu literraj valod samr izplattas ir reduplikatvs konstrukcijas ar daji lokmo divdabi, retos gadjumos ar nelokmo divdabi ar -ot(ies), kas parasti pastiprina darbbas vrda nozmi, teikuma satur ienes pau emocionli ekspresvu nokrsu.
LITERATRA Eiche, A. Latvian Declinable and Indeclinable Participles. They Syntactic Function, Frequency and Modality. Stockholm, 1983. Endzelns, J. Latvieu valodas gramatika. Rga, 1951. MLLVG I 1959 Msdienu latvieu literrs valodas gramatika, I. Rga: LPSR ZA izdevniecba, 1959. Ntia, D. Reduplikcija latvieu valod. No: Vrds un t ptanas aspekti. Rakstu krjums, 4. Liepja, 2000, 173.178. lpp. Ntia, D. Visprgs morfoloijas problemtikas apskats. No: Latvieu valodas gramatika: koncepcija, prospekts, atseviu nodau pirmvarianti, diskusijas materili. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2008, 113.147. lpp. VPSV 2007 Valodniecbas pamatterminu skaidrojo vrdnca. Rga, 2007. , . . , 2004. AVOTI Belevica V. Bille. Rga, 2004. Ezera R. Zemdegas. Rga, 1977. Kaldupe S. Saullkta stundas pasakas. Rga, 2003. Daugavpils novada laikraksts Latgales Laiks, 2008.2011. g. Laikraksts Diena, 2008.2010. g. urnls Mjas Viesis, 2007.2011. g. Sarunvaloda un interneta resursi.
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Reduplicative Constructions Created by Means of the Partially Declinable Participle and the Indeclinable Participle Ending in -ot(ies) in Latvian Summary
There are word combinations with emotional and expressive colouring used in Latvian; this colouring is achieved by grammatical means, namely, the repetition of a morpheme or the whole word. The process in which the repetition of the root, the stem of a word or the whole word is used to express intensification is termed reduplication. The created reduplicative combinations of words or word forms having the same root reveal both the riches of the language and the possibilities of the grammatical system, as well as provide the possibility to express various shades of meaning, stylistic, emotive and expressive nuances, make a special emphasis on a particular active (or passive) activity. Reduplicative constructions are most frequently used in belles-lettres and colloquial speech. A productive element in the development of reduplicative constructions in Latvian is the partially declinable participle ending in -dams, -dama, -damies, -dams and sometimes they are created by means of the indeclinable participle ending in -ot(ies). In most cases the partially declinable participle and the indeclinable participle ending in -ot(ies) make reduplicative constructions when used in combination with the infinitive or some person form of a verb of the same root, as well as in combination with another participial form or in combination with a noun. It is the meaning of the verb form that is usually emphasized in the combinations of this kind. Reduplicative constructions are, for instance, lai dara ko dardams, lai iet kur iedams, lai dom ko domdams, ne sapodams nenosaposi, augdams augum, gribot negribot, etc.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst , C. ( ). .; . . . . . : , 2003. 156 . , . . . .: . : , 2001, 1, . 5279. . . I. : , 1980. 784 .
The Morpheme - as Evidence of Intralinguistic Interaction Between Lexical Semantics and Grammatical Categories Summary
The study of the Russian morpheme - shows that everything within a language closely interacts. This morpheme has a wide range of different meanings, which are formed on the basis of an opposition of lexical and grammatical (passive) -. In light of intralinguistic interaction, the paper discusses the system and normative restrictions of the formation and usage of imperfect and perfect passive forms with -. Liberalization causes native speakers to violate the rules of the language for passive forms of both types in everyday speech, on television, and in internet texts (especially in forums). Such violations are primarily characteristic of spontaneous speech as well as wordplay, which is perceived as such only against the background of already established standards. The intralinguistic interaction of lexicon and grammar in the passive is caused by the connection between word forms and their semantic and stylistic components. When the grammatical component comes into conflict with the lexical and stylistic components, the conflict is usually resolved with the normative prohibition of the grammatical form in favor of the lexical-stylistic component. Due to this, in the case of homonymy the passive form is not considered normative, even if it is permissible from the point of view of grammar. Although in general the Russian passive continues to be strengthened as a grammatical phenomenon, the postfix - is developing its own semantics, because the elimination of the subject in the two-part passive construction helps to emphasize the spontaneity of the process.
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Dzintra ULCE
(Liepjas Universitte)
Lielie skumburti latvieu valod: vsturiskais aspekts

Atslgvrdi: lielie skumburti, burtu funkcijas, lietojums, nozme, vsturiskais aspekts Lielo skumburtu lietoanas pamat galvenokrt ir konkrts valodas ortogrfijas likumbas, kas izveidojus ilgk vsturisks attstbas rezultt. Lai vartu kompetenti spriest par rakstbas problmm pareizj valodas attstbas posm, ne mazk svargs ir ieskats jautjuma vsturiskaj izpt, k ar atirgo teortisko nostdu analze latvieu valodniecb ilgk laika posm. Latvieu valod, tpat k cits valods, kurs izmanto latu alfabtu, ir lielos un mazos burtus. Tie pamat atiras grafiski rakstbas veida vai augstuma zi, piem., C c, V v, O o (augstums), A a, B b, R r, (augstums un veids), B b, D d, L l (veids). Valodnieciskaj literatr mazie burti tiek saukti ar par minuskuiem [VPSV 2007: 235], savukrt alfabta lielie burti jeb majuskui (pretstat mazajiem burtiem) valodas attstbas gait ir ieguvui noteiktas funkcijas un tos lieto paos gadjumos teikuma skum, pavrdos u. c. [VPSV 2007: 225]. Lielie burti k pas grafisks ldzeklis tika izmantots jau viduslaikos, kad mki-prraksttji ska bagtgi izkrsot, izrott un izgreznot teksta pirmo burtu, t dvto inicilburtu, lai pieirtu uzraksttajam lielku vizulo izteiksmbu [Mutore 2007a: 235]. Ar vlk grmatu iespiedji apzinjs, cik liela nozme piemt vrdam, kas ir uzrakstts ar lielo skumburtu. T priekrocba ir efektivitte, un lietotjs td veid var jau iepriek prognozt sev vlamo rezulttu. Ldz ar to jau no paiem pirmskumiem izveidojs divi pretji koncepti lielais skumburts k atirbas un godbijbas zme, mazais burts k civils sabiedrbas prstvtjs, parasts pc btbas [Mutore 2007a: 239]. Valods ar latu rakstbu nereti gan lielie, gan mazie burti tiek lietoti k simboli ar savu noteiktu semantiku. Das valods is materils ir tik plas, ka tas tiek apkopots specils vrdncs (jpiebilst gan, ka vienburta vrdncas vl ir bibliogrfisks retums). 2007. gad ar latvieu valod tika 223
izdota Vienburta vrdnca [Bankavs 2007], kur iekauts ap 800 vienbu, kas raksturgas dadm zintu nozarm, piem.,
A amprs (fizik), asinsgrupas apzmjums (medicn), komandu iedaljums grups (sport), vitamni (vitaminoloij), zodiaka zmes Auns apzmjums (astroloij); C vitamni (vitaminoloij), kapacitte (fizik), hepatta vruss (medicn), romieu cipars (matemtik), nestandarta, ar ieplstas olas apzmjums (lauksaimniecb), miskais ekvivalents (mij).
Lielajiem burtiem, tpat k mazajiem, galven funkcija ir bt par skaas apzmjumu rakstb [Strautia, ulce 2009: 63]. Pamatojoties uz lielo burtu specifisko uzdevumu tekst, valodnieciskaj literatr ir izdaltas das lielo burtu lietoanas funkcijas: 1. Gramatisk funkcija. 2. Leksiski semantisk (jdzienisk) funkcija. 3. Stilistisk funkcija [Porte 1970: 3571]. Minto funkciju pamat ir viens mris neprprotamk un skaidrk atspoguot tekst pausto domu, atvieglot uzrakstt teksta uztveri un novrst iespjamos satura prpratumus, k ar pardt raksttja individulo attieksmi pret izsakmo pardbu. Katras funkcijas raanos un attstbu var ptt ar ilgk vstures period. Parasti valodniecb lielka uzmanba tiek pievrsta lielo burtu gramatiskajai un leksiski semantiskajai funkcijai. Ar lielajiem burtiem var apzmt jaunas valodas vienbas skanos, piem., ievadt teikumu, un tad to lietojums ir saistts ar pieturzmm. aj gadjum rakstbas tradcijas ir stabilas un parasti laika gait nemains, piem.,
Ar ko is pavasaris jums atiras no iepriekjiem? Ar kdm izjtm to sagaidjt? [Sieviete 2008, jn.]
Lielie un mazie burti rakstb var diferenct nozmgas valodas vienbas, piem., sugasvrdus un pavrdus liepa/Liepa, balodis/Balodis, gailis/ Gailis, lcis/Lcis, magone/Magone, ieva/Ieva, mtra/Mtra, gundega/ Gundega. Lielo burtu lietojums rakstbas vstur var mainties gan lingvistisku, gan ekstralingvistisku faktoru ietekm. Piem., kop latvieu rakstbas izveides pirmskumiem 16. gs. ilgu laiku lielo skumburtu lietojumu ietekmja vcu valodas rakstbas likumi. Izmaias rakstb, respektvi, lielo un mazo burtu lietoan bija vrojamas ar turpmkajos gadsimtos. Tas ir atkargs k no socilajiem, t ekonomiskajiem, politiskajiem un citiem 224
Dzintra ULCE. Lielie skumburti latvieu valod: vsturiskais aspekts
apstkiem, piem., trkst laika iedziinties literrs valodas norms saistb ar lielo skumburtu lietoanu un nekritiski tiek premti citu valodu paraugi. Valodas vsturisk izpte pierda, ka politisko apstku ietekm ie procesi notiek oti strauji, piem., pc Latvijas okupcijas 1940. gad jau pusgadu vlk E. Blese darb Nordjumi latvieu pareizrakstb raksta: Asociciju sakar jatzm, ka jraksta: Sarkan armija (var rakstt ar: Sarkan Armija) [Blese 1941: 108]. Tpat ir uzsvrti jaunizveidotie valstu nosaukumi un to rakstba, piem., Padomju Krievija, Padomju Latvija, Igaunijas Padomju Socilistisk Republika [Blese 1941: 94]. Galvenie faktori, kas ietekm liel skumburta lietojumu, ir: 1) burtu specifisk funkcija tekst, 2) konkrts valodas rakstbas tradcijas, 3) valodas lietotju konvencija (vienoans), 4) sabiedrbas attieksme pret attiecgo pardbu, 5) citu valodu rakstbas ietekme. Dads valods laika gait ir izveidojuies atirgi lielo burtu lietoanas nosacjumi. T, piem., franu valod ar lielo skumburtu raksta tautbu nosaukumus: un(e) Franais(e), une Lettonne, angu valod ar lielo burtu raksta mneu un dienu nosaukumus, tautbu un valodu nosaukumus, piem., March, September, Sunday, Tuesday, Latvian, Russian, Lithuanian, k ar personas vietniekvrdu I (es). 20. gadsimta pirms puses plakie ptjumi par lielo skumburtu lietoanu dados nosaukumos k svargko kritriju izvirza konvencijas (vienoans) principu, saistot to ar tradciju un attiecg nosaukuma struktru [piem., Endzelns, Mlenbahs 1907; Blese, Ptersons 1933; Blese 1941]. s likumbas savs atbilds ir akcentjis ar Jnis Endzelns Rgas Latvieu biedrbas valodniecbas nodaas sds no 1933. gada ldz 1942. gadam. Protokolu izpte liecina, ka pat viena nosaukuma pareizrakstba ir prasjusi diskusijas vairku gadu garum, piem.,
vczemes egle (valodnieku domas dals par liel skumburta lietojumu, lmums netiek pieemts sk. 1935. gada 14. novembra sdes prot. Nr. 392.), vczemes egle (sk. 1939. gada 7. decembra sdes prot. Nr. 505.), Vczemes egle (sk. 1942. gada 18. marta sdes prot. Nr. 544.).
Nosaukumu daudzveidba un to atirg rakstba ar msdiens auj secint, ka prlieku bie un nevajadzg lielo burtu rakstba dados nosaukumos liek vlreiz prdomt lielo burtu rakstbas principus latvieu 225
valod [Hira 2008: 306]. Pareizj valodas praks nav daudz tdu izdevumu, kuros meklt atbildes uz pareizrakstbas jautjumiem saistb ar lielo skumburtu lietojumu, galvenokrt tiek izmantoti divi 20. gadsimta 90. gados izdoti normatvi avoti: Latvieu valodas pareizrakstbas un pareizrunas vrdnca [1995] un pavrdu rakstba [1998]. Liel skumburta lietoanas daudzveidba liel mr izriet ar no sabiedrbas attieksmes pret attiecgo pardbu, piem., reliijas jom tas ir mainjies pat vairkkrt, un to pierda konstattie rakstbas varianti:
dievs/Dievs, bbele/Bbele, baznca/Baznca ak, dievs!/ak, Dievs!, paldies dievam!/paldies Dievam! Liel Piektdiena/Liel piektdiena, Otrs Lieldienas/Otrs lieldienas Jaun Derba/Jaun derba/jaun Derba Vec Derba/Vec derba/vec Derba
Msdiens sakrlaj sfr ieteicams ir liel burta lietojums, piem., Lieldienas, Liel Piektdiena, Dievs, Jaun Derba. Savukrt pc Otr pasaules kara pai pareizrakstbas likumi noteica jauno padomju reliju rakstbu ar lielajiem burtiem krievu valodas ietekm:
Latvijas Padomju Socilistisks Republikas Augstk Padome, Padomju Socilistisko Republiku Savienba, Padomju Savienba, Liel Oktobra Socilistisk Revolcija, Padomju Armija, Jras Kara Flote.
Skot ar 19. gadsimta beigm, attstjs paradums darint abreviatras no vrda vai cita lingvistiska segmenta resp. nosaukuma, ko veido vairki vrdi. K atzst Anna Mutore, ptot liel skumburta nozmi abreviatru veidos latvieu, franu un krievu oficilaj rakstu valod, tad Eirop tradcija galvenokrt izplatjs pc Pirm pasaules kara, un t bija saistta ar komunikcijas attstbu dads zintu un administratvs prvaldes joms [Mutore 2007b: 202]. Savukrt, krievu rakstu valod abreviatru lietoana kuva par btisku sazinans ldzekli tiei pc 1917. gada revolcijas. Jaunajos politiskajos apstkos ts tika uztvertas k tautas, revolcijas un visu novatorisko ideju izpausmes tls, piem.,
(padomju tautas ekonomika), (revolucionr komiteja), (Tautas banka).
Msdiens ar latvieu valod abreviatras izmanto valstu, organizciju, iestu, uzmumu u. c. nosaukumu skam pierakstam laika un telpas ekonomijai, piem., Ls vai LVL (Latvijas lats), EDSO (Eiropas Drobas 226
Dzintra ULCE. Lielie skumburti latvieu valod: vsturiskais aspekts
un sadarbbas organizcija), SOK (Starptautisk Olimpisk komiteja), GNP (Gaujas Nacionlais parks), RTU (Rgas Tehnisk universitte), KNAB (Korupcijas novranas un apkaroanas birojs). Kaut ar atsevios gadjumos abreviatru formas var sagdt grtbas to atifran, tomr ts padara izteiksmi kompaktu un ir neatemama sastvdaa zintniskaj terminoloij. Materilu izpte liecina, ka aizskumi lielo burtu izmantoanai stilistiskaj funkcij redzami jau paos pirmajos iespiestajos latvieu rakstu pieminekos [Bergmane, Blinkena 1986: 187]. ajos tekstos var konstatt, ka autori ar lielo skumburtu ir centuies rakstt ar tos vrdus, kuri lastjam vartu bt svei, nezinmi un iegaumjami, tpc tiem ir jpievr lielka uzmanba [Bergmane, Blinkena 1986: 188]. Sevii izplatta ir sugasvrdu rakstba ar lielajiem skumburtiem literatr, pieirot tiem personificjuma nozmi pasaks, teiks, fabuls un dailiteratr (parasti prozas sacerjumos). Tda rakstbas tendence ir izturjusi laika prbaudi un joprojm ir vrojama ar jaunkajos izdevumos, piem.,
Reiz Ckas kundze kop ar savu draudzeni Aitas kundzi devs uz veikalu iepirkties. Ckas kundzei bija ldzi grozs, bet Aitas kundzei somia. Ce vias satika Zoss jaunkundzi, kura gaui raudja. Kpc tu raudi? prasja ldzjtg Aitas kundze. Ak, man rt kzas, atbildja Zoss jaunkundze. Skaistais Kaa kungs grib mani prect... un via ska raudt vl gauk [Zandere 2007: 1113].
Tradicionli personificjumi ir sastopami brniem domtajos sacerjumos par dabu, dzvniekiem un putniem, tau dai autori pieir dzvu btu pabas un spjas pat ikdieniiem priekmetiem, ar tdu izteiksmes veidu radot neparastbas sajtu un ieinteresjot lastju, piem.,
Glui saucis Tramvajs atgriezs pie Cruputena. [..] Cruputentis pameta skatienu apkrt un ieraudzja Pastkastti. Klausies, Pastkastt! Vai tu, ldzu, neaizskrietu uz veikalu un nenopirktu bannu? Vienu viengu, tas tau nebs par smagu. Un ms tev dosim treo dau, glui dabiski, to lielko [Cielna 2001: 15].
Satriskaj stil lielais skumburts jau izsenis tiek lietots kdas kritizjamas pardbas izcelanai, taj pa laik nordot ar uz zinmu pardbas personifikciju. Ar du rakstbas veidu var pankt, ka autora teksts iegst tlainu, dzvu un emocionli iedarbgu nokrsu, piem.,
ajos laikos viss var bt Brauc pa ielu tramvajs AIDS. Nevius man rodas smaids:
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Ja te tramvajus t sauks, Drz pa Rgu TRIPERS brauks. [Artavs 2002: 48]
Katras leksiski semantisks grupas resp. nosaukumu rakstbas attstbu ar lielo vai mazo skumburtu var ptt daudz dzik un nopietnk, piem., valodnieks K. Mlenbahs 1903. gad rakst Pareizrakstbas jautjums [Mlenbahs 2011: 106110] ir aplkojis problemtisko jautjumu par tautu nosaukumu rakstbu. Vi atzm, ka tautbu nosaukumus vartu uzlkot gan par sugasvrdiem, gan par pavrdiem, tau, saldzinot ar jautjuma izpratni krievu valod, latvieu valodas skolotjam 20. gadsimta skum rads problmas, jo, piem., krievu valodas stund franczis jraksta ar mazo skuma burtu, bet latvieu valodas stund tas pats vrds jpalielina ar lielo burtu, t. i., tas pats vrds vien stund juzlko par sugas vrdu, otr par pavrdu [Mlenbahs 2011: 109]. da atirga rakstba traucja valodas sekmgu apguvi, tpc vajadzja atrast risinjumu, un K. Mlenbaha prognozes aj pareizrakstbas jautjum ir izrdjus patiesas, jo tautbu nosaukumus latvieu valod vairs neuzskata par pavrdiem un tos neraksta ar lielajiem skumburtiem. Apkopojot analizto materilu (gan valodniecisko literatru, gan valodas praktisk lietojuma piemrus), var secint, ka lielo skumburtu priekrocba ar vsturisk skatjum ir to efektivitte un valodas lietotjs td veid var niansti izteikt vstjuma saturu, k ar sasniegt vlamo rezulttu.
AVOTI Artavs, V. Gabalii bez kauliem. Rga: SIA Lauku Avze, 2002. Cielna, M. Pilstas Pasakas un Pasaules Pasakas. Rga: Preses nams, 2001. Zandere, I. Ko teica Gaia kungs. Rga: Liels un mazs, 2007. LITERATRA Bankavs, A. Vienburta vrdnca. Rga: Avots, 2007. 139 lpp. Bergmane, A., Blinkena, A. Latvieu rakstbas attstba. Rga: Zintne, 1986. 434 lpp. Blese, E. Nordjumi latvieu pareizrakstb. Rga: Pedagoisko rakstu apgdniecba, 1941. 172 lpp.
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Dzintra ULCE. Lielie skumburti latvieu valod: vsturiskais aspekts Blese, E., Ptersons, V. Latvieu pareizrakstbas rokas grmata. Rga: Valters un Rapa, 1933. 460 lpp. Endzelns, J. Profesora J. Endzelna atbildes. Rgas Latvieu biedrbas valodniecbas nodaas su protokoli 19331942. ASV: RAMAVE, 2001. 257 lpp. Endzelns, J., Mlenbahs, K. Latvieu gramatika. Rga: K. J. Smaa apg., 1907. 248 lpp. Hira, Dz. Lielo burtu lietoana un daas citas nosaukumu veidoanas grtbas: teorija un prakse. No: Letonika. Otrais kongress. Valodniecbas raksti. 1. Rga: LU aentra LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2008, 306.317. lpp. pavrdu rakstba. Rga: LR Valsts valodas centrs, 1998. 53 lpp. Latvieu valodas pareizrakstbas un pareizrunas vrdnca. Rga: Avots, 1995. 945 lpp. Mlenbahs, K. Pareizrakstbas jautjums. No: Darbu izlase. 2. sj. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2011, 106.110. lpp. Mutore, A. Liel skumburta semantisk nozme lingvistiskaj un ekstralingvistiskaj aspekt XX gadsimt. No: Linguistica Lettica. 16. laidiens. Rga: Latvieu valodas institts, 2007a, 235.254. lpp. Mutore, A. Liel skumburta loma abreviatras veidos latvieu, franu un krievu oficilaj rakstu valod. No: Vrds un t ptanas aspekti. 11. Liepja: LiePA, 2007b, 202.207. lpp. Porte, T. Lielie burti msdienu latvieu valod. Rga: Zintne, 1970. 174 lpp. VPSV Valodniecbas pamatterminu skaidrojo vrdnca. Rga: LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2007. 623 lpp.
Capital Letters in the Latvian Language: The Hictorical Aspect Summary

In Latvian, as well as in other languages using the Latin alphabet, we distinguish capital and small letters. Capital letters as a special graphical tool were used already in the Middle Ages to give the written text a more visual expression. Capitalisation function study in diachronic perspective helps to understand and make competent judgements on developmental processes in modern Latvian. The main factors influencing the use of capitalisation are 1) specific function of letters, 2) writing tradition, 3) convention (agreement) among language users, 4) public acceptance of the phenomenon, 5) impact of other languages. Summarising of the analysed material (both linguistic literature and practical language application examples) can lead to conclusion that capitalisation advantage is efficiency, and in this way the language user can make the message content nuanced as well as achieve the desired result.
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Jurga TRIMONYT BIKELIEN

Lietuvi liaudies dainyno refren struktra

Pagrindiniai odiai: refrenas, skiemuo, sudedamieji segmentai, garsaodinis refrenas, kvazileksinis refrenas, kvazidarybinis refrenas, samplaikinis refrenas vadins pastabos Tyrjams visada doms buvo ir yra leksins sistemos paribio reikiniai tai yra tie kalbos enklai, kuri vieta leksikos sistemoje danai apibdinama klausimu: ar tai odis ar ne, ar jis turi reikm ar neturi. Lietuvi kalboje, kaip ir kitose, egzistuoja fonotaktikos taisykli leidiamos, taiau danai nerealizuotos struktros, kurias danai upildo ne tik skoliniai, tarmi leksika, tikriniai odiai, bet ir emocin ekspresin leksika, kartais leksins sistemos paribio reikiniai [Girdenis 2003: 9; Zabarskait 1999: 25] burt formuls, keiksmaodiai, garsaodiai, msli odiai, vaik leksika, refrenai ir kt. Apie tai, kad refrenai, kaip odio savybi turintys kalbos enklai, laikytini leksins sistemos paribio reikiniu, viena i pirmj lietuvi kalbotyroje yra raiusi Jolanta Zabarskait [Zabarskait 1999: 25]. Dabartins lietuvi kalbos odyne refrenas apibdinamas kaip pasikartojanti dainos ar eilraio dalis, priedainis [DLKe]. Tarptautini odi odyne refrenas aikinamas kaip [pranc. refrain] poetinio vokalinio krinio [dainos, balads] teksto ir melodijos dalis, kuri dsningai kartojasi tam tikrose jo vietose [T 2001: 632]. Kilms poiriu refrenai yra afektiniai motoriniai kalbos elementai, patyr kalbos raidos evoliucij ir gij leksemoms bding ypatybi [Sauka 1982: 111; Zabarskait 1999: 26]. Refrenai nra padriki kalbos elementai jie paklsta ir fonotaktikos dsniams kalbos lygmeniu, ir harmonijos dsniams meniniu lygmeniu. Refren struktros tyrim iki iol nra atlikta. io tyrimo objektas lietuvi liaudies dainose pasikartojanti teksto dalis, turinti sunkiai apibriam reikm (kartais jos visai neturinti) ir daniausiai lietuvi kalbos gars jungimuisi, skiemens sudarymo taisyklms paklstani kalbin raik1.
Visose kalbose odius ir skiemenis sudaro ne atsitiktins, o reguliariosios fonem kombinacijos [Girdenis 1995: 98; 2003: 68]. Priebalsiai laikomi periferine skiemens
1
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Jurga TRIMONYT BIKELIEN. Lietuvi liaudies dainyno refren..
Tyrimo tikslas inagrinti Lietuvi liaudies dainyno2 refren struktr sudedamuosius segmentus. Udaviniai: a) inagrinti refren skiemen skaii; b) atlikti refren sudedamj segment statistin analiz. Tiriamoji mediaga refren tyrimams i LLD irinkti refrenai, kuri kalbin raika atitinka (ar bent i dalies atitinka) lietuvi kalbos gars sintagminius reikalavimus, reikm sunkiai nusakoma arba visai neaiki. LLD skelbta ne tik tradicins dainos, bet ir naujj ami dainuojamoji tautosaka vairialypis, sudtingas ir domus reikinys, tai tarsi seno ir naujo lydinys [LLD XV 6]. I naujovik dain sklindantys t laik atgarsiai rodo savitus pokyius literatroje ir folklore, j abiej savotik suartjim ir tarpusavio sveik [r. ten pat, 7]. Tiriamj imt sudaro refrenai, rinkti i septyniolikos LLD tom. Itirta daugiau negu 2000 vairios struktros refren. Tyrimo metodai straipsnyje nagrinjamoji problema yra susijusi ir leksikologijos, fonologijos ir fonetikos sritimis. Darbe naudojami i mokslo srii metodai ir vartojami j terminai. Atliekant refren tyrim naudojami apraomasis, statistinis, gretinamasis metodai. Refren skiemen ir sudedamj segment tyrimas 1. Refrenas, susidedantis i jaustuk ir onomatopj, paiu pirmykiu bdu ireikiantis mogaus nusiteikim auksmu, yra senesnis negu kiti dainos odiai. LLD refrenai gali bti skirstomi grupes ir pogrupius pagal struktr (refren struktriniai elementai analizuojami iame straipsnyje) ir j susiformavimo bd. Pagal susiformavimo bd skiriami: 1) garsaodiniai refrenai; 2) kvazileksiniai (motyvuoti ir nemotyvuoti) refrenai; 3) kvazidarybiniai refrenai; 4) samplaikiniai refrenai.
dalimi, kuri gali eiti ir prie centr, ir po jo arba j supti i abiej pusi, taiau lietuvi kalboje priebalsiai negali patys vieni sudaryti skiemens [Girdenis 1995: 165; 2003: 118]. Fonem junginiai turi bti sudaryti pagal tam tikras taisykles, jiems visada bdinga vienokia ar kitokia struktra fonotaktika, kuri leidia nustatyti sintagminius santykius ir fonem klases. 2 iame straipsnyje cituojant Lietuvi liaudies dainyno tekstus pateikiamas dainyno tomo sutrumpinimas, skliausteliuose dainyno santrumpa LLD, po jos nurodomas dainyno tomo numeris ir puslapis, pvz., KID3 (LLD XII 223) visi sutrumpinimai ir altini sraas pateikti straipsnio pabaigoje.
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Tiriamojoje mediagoje vyrauja garsaodiniai refrenai (90,4%). Beveik devynis kartus maiau vartojama kvazileksini refren (8,5%). Kvazidarybini refren, turini baigmen, pana formalj darybos formant, pasitaiko gana retai (0,8%), itin nedaug samplaikini refren (0,3%). 2. Lietuvi liaudies dainose refrenai vartojami danai ir yra vairi form. Refren fonetins struktros elementai labai vairs. Liaudies dainose vartojama toki kalbini element, kurie tiesiogiai priklauso nuo melodijos, danai natralus tekstas, reikiantis atitinkam mint, virija nustatyt skiemen skaii, arba prieingai, jam trksta skiemen, prireikia kaip nors ivengti skiemen pertekliaus arba trkumo, tada pasitelkiama fonetika (balsio pakartojimas, balsio pridjimas, balsio praleidimas, nukirtimas, balsi sutraukimas [LTS 1971: 33]3. Refrenai gali bti vienskiemeniai ir daugiaskiemeniai: dviskiemeniai, triskiemeniai, keturi ir daugiau skiemen (r. 1 paveiksl).
45,00% 40,00% 35,00% 30,00% 25,00% 20,00% 15,00% 10,00% 5,00% 0,00% Vienas skiemuo Du skiemenys Trys skiemenys Keturi skiemenys ir daugiau
1 paveikslas. Refren skiemen skaiius (%)

Fonetikos darbuose teikiama nemaai skiemens apibri. Skiemuo kalbos srauto atkarpa, kurios garsai sudaro minimal artikuliacin, akustin ir funkcin vienet [Pakerys 1986: 302; 2003: 207]. Skiemuo didesnis nei fonema elementas, kur sudaro balsis ir fakultatyviai prie j ar po jo einantys kiti sudedamieji skiemens struktriniai elementai [Hartman 1998; taip pat r. Rubba 2000; Richey 2003]. Daniausiai skiemens ribos nustatomos pereinant fonologin lygmen: fonologinio skiemens riba eina ten, kur prasideda didiausia vidinio priebalsi junginio dalis, savo struktra sutampanti su atitinkamu odi pradios junginiu [Girdenis 2003: 147].
24
232
I paveikslo matyti, kad tirtuose Lietuvi liaudies dainyno tekstuose vyrauja dviskiemeniai refrenai (43,5%), pvz.: jvar DD1 (LLD VI 331), naidum VkD (LLD I 175), kkal D2 (LLD XIII 484), rta DD1 (LLD VI 234), rylia VD1 (LLD II 544), lili VD5 (LLD XI 100), lylia VD5 (LLD XI 65), drula drula (LLD, T. XVI, 1993, 757), capu lapu VkD (LLD I 467) ir t. t. Kartais jiems bdinga reduplikacija. i odio formavimo priemon rodo refreno ikonikum: forma ir reikm tampa panas vienas kit kiekybiniu atvilgiu. Reduplikuoti refrenai koduoja pakartojim, o tai padeda aktualizuoti pat refren. Antrj pozicij pagal vartojimo dan uima vienskiemeniai refrenai (31,2%), pvz.: a VkD (LLD I 402), ai KID1 (LLD III 343), o VD2 (LLD IV 237), oi VD1 (LLD II 275), vai VD3 (LLD V 156), tram D3 (LLD XIV 363), gar VkD (LLD I 255), kius VkD (LLD I 139). Vienskiemeni refren vartojama vaik, eimos, karinse-istorinse, vestuvinse dainose. Triskiemeniai refrenai vartojami reiau (19,6%), pvz.: dabita VD4 (LLD VIII 148), dobill D1 (LLD VII 91), mtauto KID1 (LLD III 694), bitela D1 (LLD VII 91) ir t. t. Daugiaskiemeni keturi, penki ir daugiau skiemen refren vartojama itin retai (5,7%), j struktra vairi. io tipo refrenai dani vestuvinse pirlyb, humoristinse didaktinse, darbo, karinse istorinse dainose, pvz.: aguonle DD1 (LLD VI 233), petrukinaida VkD (LLD I 189), bruknela VD2 (LLD IV 325), dobilutli KID1 (LLD III 131). Neabejotina, kad refren skiemen skaiius yra susijs su lietuvi liaudies dainos posmo odi skiemen skaiiumi [plg. rus liaudies dainas plaiau r. donjeva, http://ivgi.rsuh.ru/folklore/publications.htm]. 3. Lietuvi liaudies dain refren sudedamj segment formules, kuri gausu dain tekstuose, galima sieti ir su dainos melodija, atlikimo bdu, netgi laiku, kada dainos atliekamos (dirbant, veni metu, aidiant ar pan.). inoma, didel tak daro ir dainos ritmas. Ritmo poveikis neabejotinai yra vienas svarbiausi faktori, veikiani refreno sandar. Ritmas judjim daro suskaiiuojam [mitien 2006: 51]. Refrenus gali sudaryti vienas segmentas, pvz.:
r jojo ont kemel(), krvrbam, Sosisokio sau osel(), krvrbam, VD2 (LLD IV 206) Ko tujei, kunigli, Sudaiio, Ilgai pamigli, Sudaiio? Mieg bemigantem, KID1 (LLD III 692)
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Lietuvi liaudies dain refrenus sudaro ir du, trys, keturi, penki, ei ir daugiau sudedamj segment, pvz.:
Reiks t vilk pavaiinti, Fidirai fidirai, Ir u stalo pasvadinti, Ikaka ikaka. GD (LLD XV 208) Sustinka tevel Tarpu varteli, ito ito, ito linago. D3 (LLD XIV 48) Ta mano mamun buvo bagota, turjo oel labai kudlot, O trenge renge, nazarai trabaldai udi tudi, trengela vengela Oelis kudlotas. VkD (LLD I 205) Su berneliu bekalbunti, Auksa iedais bemainunti, Dzingul dzingul dzinguliukai, Dzinguliukai dzingt dzingt dzingt. KID1 (LLD III 373)
4. Atlikta refren sudedamj segment statistin analiz, apskaiiuotas j danis, pasiskirstymas nagrintuose Lietuvi liaudies dainyno tekstuose. Refren sudedamj segment pasiskirstymas pateikiamas lentelje (r. 1 lentel). 1 lentel Refren sudedamj segment pasiskirstymas (%)
Vienas segmentas 8,5% Du segmentai 19,8% Trys segmentai 21,5% Keturi segmentai 24,6% Penki ei ir daugiau segmentai segment 11,0% 14,6%
I lentelje pateikt statistins analizs rezultat matyti, kad vyrauja keturi ir trij sudedamj segment refrenai (24,6% ir 21,5%), kiek reiau vartojami dviej sudedamj segment refrenai (19,8%). Ketvirtj pozicij pagal vartojimo dan uima ei ir daugiau sudedamj segment refrenai (14,6%), reiau tirtojoje mediagoje vartojami penki sudedamj segment refrenai (11,0%). Vieno segmento refren rasta maiausiai 8,5%. Tyrimo ivados Atlikus refren skiemen ir sudedamj segment analiz, galima pateikti ias tyrimo ivadas: 1. Refren skiemen skaiius yra susijs su lietuvi liaudies dainos posmo odi skiemen skaiiumi. Lietuvi liaudies dainyno tekstuose vyrauja dviskiemeniai refrenai (43,5%), antrj pozicij pagal vartojimo 234
2.
3.
dan uima vienskiemeniai refrenai (31,2%), triskiemeniai refrenai vartojami reiau (19,6%), daugiaskiemeni keturi, penki ir daugiau skiemen refren vartojama itin retai (5,7%). Tiriamojoje mediagoje vyrauja keturi sudedamj segment refrenai (24,6%). Gana danai vairi tip dainose vartojami trij segment refrenai (21,5%). Dviej sudedamj segment refren vartojama kiek reiau (19,8%). eis ir daugiau sudedamj segment turini refren vartojimas ne toks danas (14,6%). Penki sudedamj segment refren yra 11,0%. Reiausiai Lietuvi liaudies dainyno tekstuose vartojami vieno segmento refrenai (8,5%). Lietuvi liaudies dain refren sudedamj segment formules, j struktr galima sieti su dainos melodija, atlikimo bdu, ritmu.
LITERATRA
Adonjeva: Available: http://ivgi.rsuh.ru/folklore/publications.htm. DLKe Dabartins lietuvi kalbos odynas (http://www.lki.lt/dlkz/). Girdenis, A. Teoriniai lietuvi fonologijos pagrindai. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidybos institutas, 2003. Hartman, J. VV: onset, Nucleus, Code. 1998. Available: http://www.kith.org/ logos/words/upper2/VVowels.html), (irta 2011-12-01). LTS Lietuvi tautosakos stilius ir anrai. Vilnius: Vaga, 1971. Pakerys, A. Lietuvi bendrins kalbos fonetika. Vilnius: Enciklopedija, 2003. Richey, C. Syllables, 2003. Available: http://www.stanford.edu/~colleenr/ling113/ handout10.pdf), (irta 2012-01-21). Rubba, J. Syllable Structure in English, 2000. Available: http://cla.calpoly.edu/~ jrubba/phon/syllables.html), (irta 2012-01-16). Sauka, D. Lietuvi tautosaka. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1982. mitien, G. Eilrai skaitymas. In: mogus ir odis 8 (4), 2006, p. 5159. T Tarptautini odi odynas. Vilnius: Alma litera, 2001. Zabarskait, J. Refrenai: kelios pastabos apie viet leksikos sistemoje, fonotaktik, fonosemantik. In: mogus ir odis 1 (1), 1999, pp. 2531.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst ALTINIAI IR J SUTRUMPINIMAI Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. I: Vaik dainos. Vilnius: Vaga, 1980. 759 p. (VkD) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. II: Vestuvins dainos, kn. 1: Pirlyb dainos. Vilnius: Vaga, 1983. 885 p. (VD1) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. III: Karins-istorins dainos, kn. 1. Vilnius: Vaga, 1985. 955 p. (KID1) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. IV: Vestuvins dainos, kn. 2: Sutartuvi jaunojo ileistuvi dainos. Vilnius: Vaga, 1988. 574 p. (VD2) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. V: Vestuvins dainos, kn. 3: Mergvakario ir jaunojo sutiktuvi dainos. Vilnius: Vaga, 1989. 670 p. (VD3) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. VI: Darbo dainos, kn. 1: Rugiapjts, aviapjts ir griki rovimo dainos. Vilnius: Vaga, 1993. 589 p. (DD1) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. VII: eimos dainos, kn. 1. Vilnius: LLTI, 1994. 616 p. (D1) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. VIII: Vestuvins dainos, kn. 4: Jaunosios iekojimo ivaiavimo jungtuves dainos. Vilnius: LLTI, 1994. 629 p. (VD4) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. IX: Karins-istorins dainos, kn. 2. Vilnius: LLTI, 1995. 639 p. (KID2) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. X: Jaunimo dainos. Meils dainos. Vilnius: LLTI, 1995. 548 p. (JD) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. XI: Vestuvins dainos, kn. 5: Sugrimo i jungtuvi jaunosios apdovanojimo dainos. Vilnius: LLTI, 1996. 644 p. (VD5) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. XII: Darbo dainos, kn. 2: Lauk ir nam darb dainos. Vilnius: LLTI, 1997. 686 p. (DD2) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. XIII: eimos dainos, kn. 2, Vilnius, LLTI, 1998. 678 p. (D2) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. XIV: eimos dainos, kn. 3. Vilnius: LLTI, 1998. 643 p. (D3) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. XV: Dainos apie gamt. Vilnius: LLTI, 2000. 719 p. (GD) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. XVI: Humoristins didaktins dainos: dainos apie girtuoklyst. Vilnius: LLTI, 2002. 903 p. (HD) Lietuvi liaudies dainynas, t. XVII: Karins-istorins dainos, kn. 3. Vilnius: LLTI, 2003. 634 p. (KID3)
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Lithuanian Folk Songbook Refrain Structure Summary

Researchers have always been and are still concerned with peripheral phenomena of the lexical system the language signs that have their position in the lexical system defined by the following question: Is it a word, or not? and Does it have a meaning, or not? Refrains are not some random elements of language they follow both the laws of phonotactics at the language level, and the rules of harmony at the artistic level. An analysis of refrain syllables and components has led to the following research conclusions: 1. There is a direct link between the number of syllables in a refrain and the number of syllables in the words of one stanza of a folksong. The texts of the Lithuanian Folk Songbook are dominated by disyllabic refrains (43.5%), followed by monosyllabic refrains (31.2%), whilst trisyllabic refrains are not so wide-spread (19.6%), and multisyllabic refrains of four, five and more syllables only occur on extremely rare occasions (5.7%). 2. Four-component refrains prevail throughout the subject material, accounting for 24.6 per cent of all refrains. Three-component refrains are quite abundant in different types of songs as well (21.5%). The usage of two-component refrains is somewhat less frequent (19.8%). Refrains that have six or more components are used scarcely (14.6%), and five-component refrains account for 11.0 per cent of all refrains. Single-component refrains represent the smallest group of refrains within the texts of the Lithuanian Folk Songbook, accounting for just 8.5 per cent of all refrains. 3. The formulae of refrain components in Lithuanian folksongs and their structures are tied with the melody, type of performance and rhythm of the song.
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Teres ALEKNAVIIT
(Vytautas Magnus University)
Multimodality: A Theoretical Overview

Key words: multimodality, social semiotics, mode, visual representation Introduction It has been thought for a long time that the visual belongs to the sphere of art; however, an apparent shift from the textual material towards the visual may be noted, as more and more data are transferred to the electronic form, which usually combines text and graphical representation. This combination of different modes is referred to as multimodality, which is especially broadly discussed by Gunther Kress, Theo van Leeuwen and other scholars. The aim of this paper is to introduce the main issues analysed by the multimodality theory, as it is comparatively new and has not been widely applied in the Baltic countries. The concept of multimodality In his books Gunter Kress constantly emphasizes that the role of the visual material has changed: for a long time language was viewed as the main medium of transmitting meaning; however, in the contemporary world the visual has reached a position of equality in many and a position of dominance is some areas, while written language sometimes has the role of a commentary only [Kress 1997: 5, Kress and van Leeuwen 2006: 121]. Rose also notes that the visual has become central to the cultural construction of social life in contemporary Western societies, as the people are surrounded by different sorts of visual technologies: photography, film, video, digital graphics, advertisements, newspaper pictures, etc. Accordingly, the construction of scientific knowledge about the world has also been based on images rather than on written texts [Rose 2001: 67]. As a response to the changing world and the emergence of new technologies, the theory of multimodality has been created. Kress, the leading person in the field, defines multimodality as the idea that communication and representation always draw on a multiplicity of semiotic modes of which language may be one [Kress 2001: 6768]. The definition contains two main ideas: several modes are involved in communication and language 238
Teres ALEKNAVIIT. Multimodality: A Theoretical Overview
is only a mode among others, i.e. it does not always have the central role. Kress and van Leeuwen also claim that the multimodality of written texts has been ignored; nevertheless, information comes in numbers, in images, in the binary code of current electronic technologies and, still, in language [Kress 1997: 1, Forceville and Urios-Aparisi 2009: 3]. Thus human societies use a variety of modes of representation: each mode has a different representational potential and a social valuation in particular social contexts [Kress and van Leeuwen 2006: 123]. Different modes also serve different functions, as, for instance, language may inform about the events and image about the content [Kress 2001: 6971, Norris 2004:xxi]. The multimodal approach does not mean that the importance of language is downplayed. It is still a significant mode, but only one of many others. As Kress et al. put it, meaning is made in all modes separately, and at the same time, that meaning is an effect of all modes acting jointly [Kress et al. 2001: 1]. The linguists take a new look at language: they claim that the present time requires a new perspective on language [Kress et al. 2001: 8]. Elements of visual representation According to Kress and van Leeuwen [1996: 7375], the Hallidayan ideational function is realized by decomposing the visual messages into elements, a procedure which is similar to decomposing linguistic clauses into processes, participants, and circumstances. Baldry continues with this notion and claims that, according to the systemic-functional tradition of multimodality, meaning is built up as a series of functional units, typically, subphrases, phrases, but also potentially macrophrases, minigenres and genres [Baldry 2004: 84]. Thus the units in a multimodal document are decomposable and the meaning and function of each of them may be described. He summarizes the research of other linguists and distinguishes two complimentary perspectives for the analysis of multimodal documents. The first perspective distinguishes three semiotic systems, i.e. written language, visual paralanguage (font, type, layout, etc.), and different images (drawings, paintings, photographs, maps, graphs, charts, etc.). Thus the key element in this approach is language and other modes serve the function of complementing it. The second perspective views multimodal pages as essentially visual entities. As Bateman claims, as accounts of language, its 239
graphological form, and punctuation can consider visual elements to function paralinguistically, we can also consider certain textual elements and formatting options to be paravisual [Bateman 2008: 104]. In this case, spatial possibilities (similarity/difference, proximity/difference or grouping/ nongrouping) may also achieve similar meanings indirectly by co-opting the possibilities of text-based typography and formatting. Visual representation involves several elements: participants, actions/ processes, and shapes. In the visual mode, either one element or a combination of several elements may be used. The participants may be interactive or represented: in the first case they are in the act of communication (e.g. speak, work), while in the second case they are the subject matter. Furthermore, the participants usually engage in one or another action or process, which is visually realized as a vector, standing for an action verb. However, in many cases the information is represented graphically and the shapes may also have a particular meaning attributed to them. For instance, squares and rectangles are the dominant shapes in contemporary world; they may be associated with the mechanical and technological order and the world of human construction [Kress and van Leeuwen 2006: 4573]. A parallel may be drawn between a sentence and the combination of these elements, which produces meaning, however, expressed differently from the one in the written form. While analyzing the images, much attention should be paid to the participant or Carrier, as Kress and van Leeuwen put it. Dyer provides a list of aspects that should be considered: representation of bodies (age, gender, race, hair, body, size and looks); representations of manner (expression, eye contact and pose); representation of activity (touch, body movement and positional communication); props and settings [Dyer 1982: 96 104 quoted in Rose 2001: 7577]. Of course, this list is not finite, and more variables may be included in the analysis. Lister and Wells [2002: 6576] also focus on the methodological issues of the research of the visual and claim that first the location of the image should be defined, which relates to other features, and the interpretation of the image. Second, the purpose of the looking should be analyzed, as this provides information as to how and why the image will be used and defines the purpose of the image itself. Third, the context of production should be defined; in this case the focus is on the intentions of others and institutional and social contexts. Fourth, the form and meaning of the 240
image are discussed by taking into consideration pictorial, photographic, social conventions and codes. Position of the viewer In addition to the participants in the images, the relationship between the producer and the viewer is very important, as the reproduced images always intersect with the social context of their viewing; moreover, different images are associated with different kinds of spaces. The way of seeing differs, for example, at home, in the living room, and the art gallery [Rose 2001: 15]. In addition, Lister and Wells claim that the viewing position constructed via camera cannot be seen as ideologically neutral [Lister and Wells 2002: 83]. Kress and van Leeuwen especially emphasize the importance of the eye-contact of the person (sometimes animal or even an object) depicted in the picture and the viewer. A direct look creates an immediate contact; however, the meanings of the eye-contact are unlimited, as in face-to face communication. In addition, distance may also create a certain relation between the person or object depicted and the viewer: a close shot or close-up indicates a close social distance, while, for instance, in diagrams, the human figure is almost always shown in a medium long or long shot emphasizing the impersonal distance. According to the researchers, size can also suggest social relations between the viewer and objects, buildings and landscapes: a close distance indicates engagement, while a far distance suggests detachment; various combinations of distance are also possible [Kress, van Leeuwen 2006: 117121]. The same may be expressed by representing the object from one or another angle: the horizontal angle expresses involvement, while the oblique angle has the meaning of detachment. Double messages may be achieved when the body is angled away from the viewer and his/her head and/or gaze is turned towards the viewer or vice versa. In addition, a high angle makes the subject look small and insignificant, while a low angle makes it look imposing and awesome [Kress, van Leeuwen 2006: 136140]. Composition Composition is one more aspect that should be discussed in analyzing texts from a multimodal perspective because a combination of elements may suggest additional meanings and contribute to the process of meaning making. Bateman highlights the need to devote attention to all elements on the page; in another case, when there is some selection or invention, it 241
is impossible to avoid anecdotal interpretation [Bateman 2008: 21]. Kress and van Leeuwen distinguish three systems related to composition: information value, salience, and framing. The first one is information value, which relates to the placement of elements on the left/right, top/bottom, centre/ margin; this adds specific information and values to the image, and this way orientational metaphors may be formed [Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 1422]. Chandler [2006: 87] also speaks about special syntagmatic relations, which involve above/below, in front/behind, close/distant, left/ right, north/south/east/west and inside/outside, which create a certain meaning. After analyzing a number of examples Kress and van Leeuwen [2006:179196] come to the conclusion that left and right elements relate to the given and the new information, while the vertical compositional axis also carries some connotation: up is associated with goodness, virtue, happiness, health, life, high status, having control or power, consequently down is associated with badness, depravity, sickness, death, low status, being subjected to control or power, etc. [Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 14 22]. In most cases, the information is polarized as given/new and ideal/ real; however, centre and margin are two more possibilities common to the Asian cultures. The centre means the nucleus of information to which all elements are subservient. The combination, either linear or non-linear, of these elements is also common [Kress and van Leeuwen 2006: 179 196]. In addition, paradigmatic relations were emphasized by structuralists, and their aim is to identify the existing oppositions: I-other, active-passive or whole-part. Second, salience refers to the attraction of the viewers attention to different degrees; this includes positioning in the foreground or background, relative size, tonal value, sharpness, and other variables. While analyzing salience, the meaning and intensity of colours are important, as they are the markers of modality. The term modality comes from linguistics and refers to the truth value or credibility of statements. Visual modality, according to Kress and van Leeuwen, is the dominant criterion for what is real and what is not is based on the appearance of things, on how much correspondence there is between what we can normally see of an object <> and what we can see of it in a visual representation [Kress, van Leeuwen 2006:158]. Thus colours play an important role: if the colour is more saturated, it is judged as exaggerated and when it is less saturated, it is judged as less real or ghostly, and therefore modality is lower. In 242
other words, the more colour is reduced, the lower the modality, and if a picture can create the illusion of the real, the modality is higher. However, it is also noted that modality is a system of social deixis which addresses a particular kind of a viewer, or a particular social/cultural group, and provides through its system of modality markers an image of the cultural, conceptual, and cognitive position of the addressee [Kress 1997: 94, Kress, van Leeuwen 2006: 172]. This way, image dependence on the cultural or interdisciplinary context is emphasized. Third, framing devices connect or disconnect elements and signify that they belong or do not belong together [Kress and van Leeuwen 2006: 179196]. The existence of several planes may signal social relationship, ideological content or add to the positioning of figures in the picture, thus creating parallels, oppositions, or other meanings related to structure [Hodge and Kress 1991: 60]. In addition to framing, the use of similar colours has the same effect of connecting the signs [Rose 2001: 84]. Colours The use of colours is also significant, as the selection of a particular colour in a text to show the connection between the word and the topic is not paralinguistic but it carries an additional piece of information. An example could be hypertext, which combines text, which is underlined, and bold type, and this represents a possible rhetorical link with something related in the text [Bateman 2008: 105]. Suda also highlights the importance of colours, which are the most powerful tool to highlight information. There are two ways to make the information stand out. The first one is using a single colour within a black and white or a single hue graph. Even though only one colour is used, its intensity, transparency, or lightness amplify or mute the information. Another way is to increase its pixel width. If one line in a graph is thicker, it receives more value and stands out from other lines [Suda 2010: 4547]. The use of colours may also cause some problems. First, the usage of many colours in graphs may cost a lot when the document is printed (e.g. advertisements). Second, too many colours may suggest a distasteful design. Suda also raises the question of colour blindedness: if too many colours or shades are used, this may lead to misinterpretation of data [Suda 2010: 5761]. Thus, if used properly, colours are a powerful tool to highlight the more important or hide the less significant aspects. 243
Conclusion Multimodality is a comparatively new trend in linguistics which has not received much attention. The theory claims that meaning is composed by a combination of various modes, such as language, pictures, photos, diagrams, etc. The analysis of different variables (e.g. participants, actions, graphs, charts, narrativity, etc.) can reveal the full message of a text, as the visual information reveals new aspects and contributes to the meaning expressed by language.
LITERATURE Bateman, J.A. Multimodality and Genre: A Foundation for the Systematic Analysis of Multimodal Documents. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008, 104 p. Baldry, A. P. Phase and Transition, Type and Instance: Patterns in Media Texts as Seen through a Multimodal Concordancer. In Multimodal Discourse Analysis: Systemic Functional Perspectives. Ed. K. L. OHallaron. London: Continuum, 2004, 84 p. Bell, P. Content Analysis of Visual Images. In Handbook of Visual Analysis. Ed. T. van Leeuwen and C. Jewitt. London: SAGE Publications, 2002, 115 p. Chandler, D. Semiotics: The Basics. Routledge: New York, 2006, 87 p. Forceville C. and Urios-Aparisi E. Introduction. In Multimodal Metaphor. Ed. C. Forceville and E. Urios-Aparisi. Berlin: Mouton and Gruyter, 2009, 3 p. Hodge, R. and G. Kress. Social Semiotics. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1991, 61 p. Kress, G. Sociolinguistics and Social Semiotics. In The Routledge Companion to Semiotics and Linguistics. Ed. P. Cobley. London and New York: Routledge, 2001, 6768 pp. Kress, G. Multimodality: A Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary Communication. London: Routledge, 2010, 35 pp. Kress, G., Jewitt, K., Ogborn, J. and Ch. Tsatsarelis. Multimodal Teaching and Learning: The Rhetorics of the Science Classroom. London and New York: Continuum, 2001, 28 pp. Kress, G. and T. van Leeuwen. Reading Images: the Grammar of Visual Design. Second edition. Routledge: London and New York, 2006, 121 p. Kress, G. and T. van Leeuwen. The Semiotic Landscape. In Images: A Reader. Ed. Manghani, S., Piper, A. and J. Simons. London: Sage Publications, 2006, 73 123 pp Lakoff, G. and J. Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. The University of Chicago, 1980, 1422 pp.
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Teres ALEKNAVIIT. Multimodality: A Theoretical Overview Lister, M. and L. Wells. Seeing Beyond Belief: Cultural Studies as an Approach to Analysing the Visual. In Handbook of Visual Analysis. Ed. T. van Leeuwen and C. Jewitt. London: SAGE Publications, 2002, 6576 pp. Norris, S. Analysing Multimodal Interaction: A Methodological Framework. Routledge: New York and London, 2004, xxi. Rose, G. Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Materials. London: Saga Publications, 2001, 65, 7577 pp. Suda, B. A Practical Guide to Designing with Data. Penarth: Five Simple Steps, 2010, 4574, 5761 pp.
Multimodalumas: teorin apvalga Santrauka

Multimodalumo teorija pakankamai nauja ir plaiai neanalizuojama tema. Straipsnyje apvelgiami pagrindiniai aspektai, kurie, anot ios teorijos krj, kuria teksto prasm: t galima padaryti tiek tekstu, tiek parakalba (riftu, raidi dydiais, formatavimu), tiek vaizdu, grafine mediaga ir t.t., nors tradicikai buvo manoma, kad prasm kuria tik tekstas. Kalbos reikm toli grau nenuvertinama, taiau pabriama, kad ji tik vienas i bd, kuriantis reikm. Taigi straipsnyje taip pat aptariamos paios teorijos itakos, susintetinamos pagrindini autori mintys apie vaizdins reprezentacijos aspektus, pagrindiniai i j aptariami detaliau: veikjai, veiksmai, grafin mediaga, kompozicija, spalvos. Analizuojant vaizduojamus veikjus, atsivelgiama tokius kintamuosius kaip amius, vilgsnis, poza, aplinka, veiksmai ir t.t. Vaizduojami veiksmai prisideda prie teksto naratyvumo krimo (daniausiai paveikslliai, nuotraukos ne tik iliustruoja tekst, bet ir atskleidia visai naujus aspektus). Kompozicikai velgiama tekstins ir vaizdins mediagos pateikim: iuo atveju galima pritaikyti duotosios ir naujos informacijos princip, o kai kuriais atvejais sukuriamos kognityvins metaforos. Spalvin gama ypa svarbi reklamose, tekstuose, kuriuose dominuoja vaizdin mediaga bei grafikuose, nes iuo atveju galima manipuliuoti ar netgi ikreipti duomenis.
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Natalja CIGANKOVA, Zigrda VINELA

Specialised Corpora Structural and Functional Variability in Sociolinguistic Studies of Variation in English
Key words: sociolinguistics, linguistic variation, specialised corpora, comparability Introduction The article addresses the methodological issues concerning the use of specialised corpora in sociolinguistics. The authors aim to investigate the trends in corpus-based sociolinguistic research, reveal the causes of the problem of research fragmentation and results incomparability and suggest possible solutions. The authors use the words structural and functional throughout the research not as the terms in their traditional meaning in linguistics, but rather as metaphors referring to the architecture of the corpora and their functionality matching the practical needs of researchers. Ten sample specialised corpora have been analysed against the selected criteria in an attempt to conceive the idea of an optimal structural organisation of a specialised corpus that would enable the best possible functionality of it as a research object in corpus-based sociolinguistic variation research. The results of the analysis and recommendations for comparable corpora compilation are presented below. Background Many scholars emphasise that sociolinguistic research and corpus linguistic methodology could be highly compatible and could successfully collaborate. McEnery and Hardie [2012: 117], for example, notice that there has been considerable overlap between variationist sociolinguistics and corpus linguistics. Moreover, Gilquin and Gries [2009: 8] clearly state that corpora are a supreme tool for linguistic data analysis. The scholars point out the obvious advantages of corpora use, in contrast with experimental sociolinguistic research. They emphasize that the use of large range of data coming from natural contexts enables the investigation of the cases which have been previously impossible or very difficult to investigate with experimental research design. In addition, the application of 246
Natalja CIGANKOVA, Zigrda VINELA. Specialised Corpora Structural..
corpora makes such studies more objective and raises external validity of research. It is especially true when the research is conducted with multifactorial statistics [e.g. Biber 2006]. Furthermore, the development of corpus linguistics and the sophistication of the tools it uses to address a range of research questions in sociolinguistics have originated the emergence of a new sub-discipline in applied linguistics proposed by Baker (2010) corpus sociolinguistics (Fig. 1).
Applied Linguistics Sociolinguistics Corpus Linguistics
Corpus Sociolinguistics (Baker, 2010)
Figure 1. Disciplinary context of corpus sociolinguistic research The proposed new discipline is supposed to cover the sociolinguistic domains, e.g. social, family, workplace, political, religious and crosscultural interaction. These domains, according to Baker (2010), have determined the research topics in corpus sociolinguistics: analysing demographic variation, comparing language use across different cultures, examining language change over time, studying transcripts of spoken interactions, and identifying attitudes or discourses. Therefore, Baker is completely convinced that corpus sociolinguistics has much to offer to enhance sociolinguistic research. The problem, however, lies much deeper in the fact that sociolinguistics is far from a homogeneous research field. Although corpus linguistic methods have proved to be very useful in diachronic research, they have recently become less attractive for sociolinguists doing synchronic studies. The causes of that have been analysed by McEnery and Hardie [2012: 115 118], who draw their conclusions on the basis of four conducted surveys of the literature on corpus-based research into sociolinguistic variation. 247
The scholars revealed that while diachronic variation has been firmly based on the study of corpora (e.g. the Brown Family, the Helsinki Corpus) with the application of general research methodology comparing text samples across time, the studies of synchronic variation considerably differ in their research focus. Furthermore, synchronous approaches to sociolinguistic variation also differ. According to Eckert (n.d.), the search of sociolinguists for social meaning in language use comes in three waves. The first wave the survey era is characterised by the investigation of broad patterns of correlation between social and linguistic variables (Labov 1966, and further Labovian studies). The macro-sociolinguistics of the first wave is where we can draw strong connections between sociolinguistic and corpus linguistic methods and practice where the quantitative large-scale analysis of corpora is most helpful [Kendall 2011: 369]. Corpus-based methods seem to work well also for the sociolinguists of the second wave, who are mostly interested in developing the local picture (e.g. Milroy, 1980) by applying ethnographic approach to study local patterns of language use in smaller groups of speakers or writers. It is the third wave with its practice and the stylistic perspective (Eckert, 2000) where the sociolinguists are the most reluctant to use corpora, as they are interested in the investigation of language use in communities of practice rather than in revealing the social stratification. It is the fine-grained, local scale of research practiced by the sociolinguists of the third wave, focusing on language users identity, gender, ethnicity and individual styles, where the quantitative large-scale analysis of corpora seems to be the least applicable. According to Kendall,
Coverage and replicability are two major tenets (and advantages) behind corpus-based work. Yet, it appears to be an impossible task to make replicable and generalizable, especially through corpus-based methods, the ethnographic and instance-specific knowledge a researcher must gain in order to understand the actual creation and negotiation of social meaning on the ground. [Kendall 2011: 370]
McEnery and Hardie [2012: 117] point out other distinctive reasons for the so far considerably modest use of corpus linguistics methodologies. The first reason is connected with the fact that sociolinguistics is predominantly interested in the variation in pronunciation, but the most of the spoken language corpora are without phonetics transcription. The second reason, as noted by Eckert (n.d.), refers to the difference in the level of analysis. Though the studies focusing on social variables and those re248
garding register variables are often both quantitative and comparative, different levels of granularity are applied by their authors. Variation sociolinguistics is less interested in the analysis of variation at the level of text than at the level of individual speaker. Finally, there is one more issue that is worth mentioning: terminological clashes between sociolinguists and corpus linguists, preventing their fruitful collaboration. According to Kendall [2011: 364], corpus linguists often use sociolinguistics as a cover term for any research involving extra-linguistic factors of language variation while sociolinguists may not recognise such research as true sociolinguistic. On the other hand, sociolinguists over-generalise the term corpus, applying it to almost any collection of data, which would not be recognised as such by corpus linguists. Gries (2006), for example, proposes a radial-category approach to defining corpus linguistics, in which a corpus is defined as a collection of texts produced in a natural communicative setting, and which is balanced, machine-readable and representative with regard to a particular variety, register, or genre. Most of the sociolinguists corpora do not comply with this definition. Moreover, these corpora are unconventional, i.e. they do not conform to any conventions of corpus compilation, which causes research fragmentation and incomparability [Beal et al. 2007; Kendal 2011]. Notwithstanding the evident lack of coordination in regard of corpora compilation principles, there are distinctive common features of corpus linguistics and variation sociolinguistics, as McEnery and Hardie (ibid.) admit. The overlapping of interests includes the statistical methods that are used in both corpus linguistics and variation sociolinguistics as well as the growing trend in sociolinguistic research material sampling: compilation and description of data in the way it is done in corpus linguistics. Therefore, the authors of this article consider that it is important to make a step further and to analyse different specialised corpora in detail to reveal their possible potential to foster and the drawbacks that might hinder the specialised corpora use in sociolinguistic research. Analysis of corpora Ten English specialised corpora selected for this study (See Appendix 1) were the corpora relevant to the field of sociolinguistics, created in educational institutions and used mainly for research purposes. Though the two below mentioned studies could be regarded as complimentary, the choice of the corpora for this research and its purpose differ from the 249
study previously conducted by a group of Latvian language technology researchers, who strived to investigate a range of existing general corpora of various languages to develop a model for creating comparable corpora for machine translation [Skadia et al. 2010]. They were looking for the best solution for the architecture of a corpus of general use of the Latvian language while this research focuses on the comparison of English specialised corpora to reveal possible potential solutions for sociolinguists. The goal of this research, therefore, is the investigation of the structural and functional variability of ten English specialised corpora. The comparison of corpora was conducted according to the following criteria: (1) general characteristics (corpora size); (2) structural characteristics (mode of discourse; domains, registers and genres represented in the corpus); (3) functional characteristics (corpora annotation, marking and informants profile details as well as the practicality of corpora use in sociolinguistic research). The analysed specialised corpora considerably vary in size, starting from ELISA corpus, hardly reaching the universally recognised for specialised corpora minimum of sixty thousand words, closely followed by DCPSE, and finishing with a BLOG corpus, approaching the size of a hundred and forty million words. A decisive factor in the size variation is, evidently, the ease of data compilation for the blog corpus in contrast with live speech recording and transcribing difficulties faced by the creators of corpora of spoken language, such as ELISA, DCPSE, Switchboard and BASE, the latter, nevertheless, reaching a decent size of more than one and a half million words. While the size of ICE and Loyola University CMC corpus does not go beyond one million words, BAWE, FRED and PICAE considerably exceed this number (see Appendix 2). However, the variation in size between the corpora is not as crucial as the lack of balance in their structure. The results of the corpora structural analysis reveal their significant variability. According to the mode of discourse represented in the corpora, they fall into three groups: while BLOG, BAWE and CMC corpora contain only written language samples, BASE, DCPSE, ELISA and Switchboard, comprise only spoken language and/or transcriptions. In contrast, FRED, ICE and PICAE corpora contain the samples of both written and spoken language though the parts are not comparable in size. In two of the corpora representing both discourse modes, FRED and PICAE, the written language samples noticeably outweigh the amount of spoken language samples. Another feature of variability is that in the four corpora comprising spoken discourse DCPSE, 250
ICE, Switchboard and PICAE this discourse is represented in the orthographic transcription whereas only three corpora BASE, FRED and ELISA contain recordings alongside with the transcription. Thus, only the data from the latter three corpora can be used in sociolinguistic research aiming to capture the informants spoken language phonetic variation. This considerably reduced the representativeness and comparability of the corpora. In addition, a noticeable variability between the analysed corpora has been found in the domain, register and genre representation, as different categorisation principles were applied to the building of corpus architecture in many cases (Appendix 2). Five corpora comprise the texts belonging to various domains (Blog, DCPSE, ELISA, FRED, Switchboard), four corpora represent academic domains (PICAE, BAWE, BASE, CMC Loyola University) and one, ICE, displays national varieties of English. This variability is even more prominent in the register and genre representation by the corpora. Moreover, the corpora representing the same, for example, academic domain, contain the texts the genre and register of which vary across these corpora and thus they are not comparable. Even greater differences have been identified in the functional characteristics of the corpora. Marking up the informants profiles according to at least some of the social categories, such as gender, age, ethnicity and language proficiency level is present in all the analysed corpora though the representation of different social groups is far from equal. For example, Blog corpus contains equal number of male and female informants in each of the three age groups (age 1317, 2327 and 3347), but in ELISA male informants prevail over female informants, which is essential for the control of variables, especially in quantitative studies. Moreover, parts of speech annotation (POS) and grammatical parsing have been applied in 5 corpora (BASE, BAWE, ICE, DCPSE, Switchboard) while semantic annotation is rather rare and coding for speech/communicative acts only occasional. There is no consistency, however, in the use of terminology by the corpora designers, the terms mark up and annotation being sometimes used interchangeably. Additional problems may be caused by the differences in the practicality of the corpora use for sociolinguistic research. Even if nine corpora can boast of open access, it has to be noted that there are considerable variations as to the way the corpora data can be extracted. For example, BASE and BAWE corpora data are available through sketch engine, Blog and CMC Loyla University corpora texts are available for downloading, 251
Switchboard corpus data can be extracted with the help of NXT tools, FRED corpus data can be reached through concordance. As possible solutions to the revealed problems Gilquin and Gries [2009: 9] suggest using corpus-based and experimental methodologies in conjunction with each other while Kendall [2011: 383] recommends to develop sociolinguistically rich, unconventional corpora, to make those corpora publically available to researchers, and to work towards developing best practices for the corpus-like treatment of sociolinguistic (spoken language) data. It is not quite clear, however, how these proposals can help avoid research compartmentalisation and increase external validity and comparability of research results. Conclusions The conducted comparison of the analysed corpora against the selected criteria revealed that the problem of research fragmentation and incomparability of results is caused by the variability in functionality and structural composition of unconventional sociolinguistic corpora, heterogeneous character of compiled linguistic data and different granularity levels of analysis. The facilities offered by corpus sociolinguistics are underestimated by sociolinguists and are underused because of a number of reasons including the methodological inconsistency of corpora design and use. The main revealed problem, however, is that of practical use of incomparable corpora to obtain at least somewhat comparable research results. It is not just technical (e.g. types of corpus annotation) but human a lack of coordination (unified approaches, coordinated criteria, replicable methodologies, reusable corpora, etc.) between researchers from different disciplines, institutions and research groups. If sociolinguistic corpora were designed according to coordinated criteria, it would be possible to achieve consistency and comparability of the results in corpus-based sociolinguistic research. More coordination among researchers and the development of unified principles of specialised sociolinguistic corpora compilation are necessary. In the case of sociolinguistics, the comparability of findings is crucially important, as unclear criteria or seemingly unreliable research results may cause the emergence of new discourses and raise unnecessary tension in the society. The problem, however, is still waiting for the solution. As Kendal puts it, ... corpora and corpus-based methods have an important and still growing place in sociolinguistic research. Yet, the similarities are often approximate, and the connections often still indirect [Kendal 2011: 365]. 252
Natalja CIGANKOVA, Zigrda VINELA. Specialised Corpora Structural.. LITERATURE Baker, P. Sociolinguistics and Corpus Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010. Bauer, L. Inferring variation and change from public corpora. In: Chambers, J. K., Trudgill, P., Schilling-Estes, N. (Ed.). The Handbook of Language Variation and Change. Malden, MA / Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. Beal, J. Creating corpora from spoken legacy materials: variation and change meets corpus linguistics. In Renouf, A. and A. Kehoe Corpus Linguistics: Refinements and Reassessments. Rodopi, 2009, pp. 732. Beal, J., Corrigan, K., Moisl, H. (Ed.). Creating and Digitizing Language Corpora. New York / Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave-Macmillan, V. 1: Synchronic Databases, V. 2: Diachronic Databases, 2007. Biber, D. University Language: A. Corpus-based Study of Spoken and Written Registers. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2006. Biber D., Conrad S. and Reppen R. Corpus Linguistics. Investigating Language Structure and Use. Cambridge University Press, 1998. Childs, B.; van Herk, G.; Thorburn, J. Safe harbour: Ethics and accessibility in sociolinguistic corpus building. In: Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, 2011, V. 7 (1), pp. 163180. Eckert, P. (n.d.) Three waves of variation study: The emergence of meaning in the study variation. Under review. Available: http://www.stanford.edu/~eckert/PDF/ ThreeWavesofVariation.pdf. Eckert, P. Linguistic Variation as a Social Practice: The Linguistic Construction of Identity in Belten High. Blackwell, 2000. Gries, S. Exploring variability within and between corpora: Some methodological considerations. In: Corpora, 2006, V. 1 (2), pp. 109151. Gilquin, G. and Gries. S. Corpora and experimental methods: a state-of-the-art review. In: Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, 2009, V. 5(1), pp. 126. Kendal, T. Corpora from a sociolinguisitc perspective. In: Revista Brasileira de Lingustica Aplicada, 2011, V.11 (2). Kilgarriff, A. Comparing corpora. In: International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 2001, V. 6 (1), pp. 137. Labov, W. The Social Stratification of (r) in New York City Department Stores. Center for Applied Linguistics. Washington, DC. 1966. Available: http://www. stanford.edu/class/linguist62n/labov001.pdf Mair, Ch. Corpus Linguistics Meets Sociolinguistics: the role of Corpus evidence in the Study of Sociolinguistic Variation and Change. In Renouf, A. and A. Kehoe Corpus Linguistics: Refinements and Reassessments. Rodopi, 2009, pp. 3347.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst McEnery, T. and Hardie, A. Corpus Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012. Milroy, L. Language and social networks. Oxford: Blackwell, 1980. OKeeffe, A., McCarthy, M. The Routledge Handbook of Corpus Linguistics. London, New York: Routledge, 2010. Skadia. I, Aker, A., Giouli, V., Tufis, D., Gaizauskas, R., Mieria, M., Mastropavlos, N. A Collection of Comparable Corpora for Under-resourced Languages. In Skadia, I. And Vasijevs, Human Language Technologies: The Baltic Perspective. 2010, pp. 161168.
Specializto korpusu strukturl un funkcionl variabilitte angu valodas variatvuma sociolingvistiskaj izpt Kopsavilkums
Rakst apskattas angu valodas specializto korpusu lietojuma problmas sociolingvistikas ptjumos. o korpusu k izptes objektu strukturl un funkcionl daudzveidba un konkrti lingvistisks informcijas un korpusu granularittes lmeu atirbas sociolingvistikas ptjumos, nosakot valodas lietojuma varicijas, ir devuas nekonsekventus un fragmentrus rezulttus. raksta mris ir angu valodas specializto korpusu funkcionlo un strukturlo atirbu izraisto problmu izpte un iespjamo risinjumu apzinana. Ptjum analiztais materils ir pc noteiktiem kritrijiem izraudzti desmit angu valodas specializtie korpusi. Konstatjot korpusu strukturls un funkcionls patnbas, tiek pttas to strukturanas pieejas, kas nodrointu o korpusu k ptjuma objektu pilnvrtgu izmantoanu valodas lietojuma izpt. Ptjuma rezultt ir konstattas gan strukturls, gan ar funkcionls atirbas visos desmit pc vienotiem kritrijiem izraudztajos specializtajos korpusos. Turklt iegtie rezultti atklj jaunkajos korpusa lingvistikas kvantitatvos empriskajos ptjumos [Biber 1990; Kilgarriff 2001; Gries 2011] akcenttos risinjumus kvantitatvi saldzinmu rezulttu ieguvei nepiecieama cieka ptnieku sadarbba, izstrdjot vienotus specializto korpusu izveides principus, pie tam saglabjot o korpusu k ptjuma objektu unikls patnbas to izmantoanai specifiskiem kvalitatviem ptjumiem sociolingvistik.
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Appendix 1 The List of Analysed Corpora

(The numbers in the list correspond to the numbers in the table in Appendix 1) Blog Authorship Corpus J. Schler, M. Koppel, S. Argamon and J. Pennebaker (2006). Effects of Age and Gender on Blogging in Proceedings of 2006 AAAI Spring Symposium on Computational Approaches for Analyzing Weblogs. [Accessed on 20.10. 2011] http://u.cs.biu.ac.il/~koppel/BlogCorpus.htm 2. British Academic Written English Corpus (BAWE), developed at the Universities of Warwick, Reading and Oxford Brookes under the directorship of Hilary Nesi and Sheena Gardner (Warwick), Paul Thompson (Reading) and Paul Wickens (Oxford Brookes), with funding from the ESRC (RES-000-230800). [Accessed on 20.10.2011] http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al/ research/collect/bawe/ 3. Corpus of Loyola University Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) Compiled by Goldstein-Stewart, J. et al. at Loyola College, Maryland. [Accessed on 20.10.2010] http://cmccorpus.cs.loyola.edu/ 4. The British Academic Spoken English (BASE) Hilary Nesi (Warwick), Paul Thompson (Reading) [Accessed on 20.10.2011] http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/ fac/soc/al/research/collect/base 5. The Diachronic Corpus of Present-Day Spoken English (DCPSE) created in University College London by Bas Aarts, Sean Wallis et al. Reference: R 000 239 643 [Accessed on 20.10.2011] http://www.ucl.ac.uk/english-usage/ projects/dcpse/index.htm 6. English Language Interview Corpus as a Second-Language Application (ELISA) developed at the University of Tuebingen and the University of Surrey [Accessed on 25.10.2011] http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/elisa/html/elisa_index.html 7. Freiburg English Dialect (FRED) Corpus (specialised) compiled by Bernd Kortmann et.al. University of Freiburg [Accessed on 25.10.2011] http:// www2.anglistik.uni-freiburg.de/institut/lskortmann/FRED/index.htm 8. International corpus of English (ICE) Christiane Meierkord at Ruhr-University of Bochum, Germany. [Accessed on 25.10.2011] http://ice-corpora.net/ice 9. Pearson International Corpus of Academic English (PICAE) created by Kirsten Ackermann, David Tugwell and Lexical Computing. Ltd. [Accessed on 25.10. 2011] http://vu-nl.academia.edu/JohnHALDEJONG/Papers/551618/ Research_Summary_PICAE-the_Pearson_International_Corpus_of_ Academic_English 10. American Telephone Conversation Corpus (Switchboard) Created by Calhoun, S., Carletta, J., Brenier, J., Mayo, N., Jurafsky, D., Steedman, M. and Beaver, D. as a part of Penn Treebank Project of University of Pennsylvania. [Accessed on 25.10.2011] http://groups.inf.ed.ac.uk/switchboard/ index.html 1.
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Structural and Functional Characteristics of the Analysed Specialised Corpora
Appendix 2
Ona Laima GUDZINEVIIT

(iauli universitetas)
Lietuvi kalbos substantiva communia kalbos etiketo poiriu

Pagrindiniai odiai: lietuvi kalbos substantiva communia (SC), pejoratyvin reikm, kalbos etika ir etiketas Kalboje atsispindi tautos mstysena, istorija, kultra, psichologija. Bendraujant per kalb atsiskleidia panekov santykiai, irykja socialinis kontekstas. Panekov elgesys privalo atitikti priimtas bendravimo nuostatas, elgesio normas, taigi ir j kalba turi bti derama. moni grups, kolektyvo gyvenimo bd elgsen, pasaulir ir kt. slygoja kultra bendrja prasme. Kalbos etiketas tai nusistovjusios kalbinio bendravimo normos, rodanios mandagius ar pagarbius panekov santykius [epaitien 2007: 256], kitaip sakant kalbin mandagumo iraika [Ibid.: 20]. Straipsnio tikslas aptarti lietuvi kalbos substantiva communia (SC) kaip pejoratyv vartosen kalbos etiketo poiriu. Lietuvi kalboje esama toki daiktavardi, kurie, reikdami asmen, neturi lyties reikms. Tai bendresns reikms daiktavardiai, kuriais galima pavadinti ir vyrikosios, ir moterikosios lyties asmen (pvz.: akpla, ~ vlkata, marmalas). Formos atvilgiu vieni j yra vyrikosios gimins (pvz., marmalas), o kiti moterikosios (pvz., valkata), taiau viename kontekste jie bna vyrikosios, kitame moterikosios gimins, pvz.: jis akipla / ji akipla [r. Gudzineviit 2005: 481487]. Kuriam (t. y. kurios lyties) asmeniui is vertinimas priklauso, matyti i derinamj odi. Gramatikose, odynuose, kituose mokslo leidiniuose aptariam daiktavardi esm nusakoma teisingai, taiau dl pavadinimo vis dar diskutuojama prasta vadinti lotyniku terminu substantiva communia (odynuose trumpinama scom., toliau straipsnyje SC), t. y. akcentuojama specifin daiktavardi klas, ne treioji gimin [isamiau r. Gudzineviit 2009: 272281]. Substantiva communia tai daniausiai nekamosios kalbos, tarmi odiai. Taiau iandien nekamosios kalbos ir tarmini odi vartosenos ribos susimaiiusios. Tarmi leksika visada spalvingesn negu bendrins kalbos odiai. Stilistikai neutrali SC beveik nra [isamiau r. Gudzine257
viit 2006: 260275]. SC semantiniame turinyje gldi identifikuojamoji sema mogus (vyras, moteris) ir apibdinamoji sema (arba kelios semos). Konotacins semos tai kalbanij poirio pavadinam daikt ar reikin atspindys, emocinis jo vertinimas, kuris gali bti teigiamas arba neigiamas. Svarbiausias SC poymis jais reikiama subjektyvi (daniausiai neigiama) asmens (gyvio) charakteristika. iais daiktavardiais ypatyb irykinama, kalbtojas emocingiau ireikia savo vertinim, poir. SC pejoratyvai mogaus santyk su tikrove galima matyti i vartojam odi atrankos, vartojimo bdo, aplinkos ir kit dalyk. Renkantis odius veikia daug dalyk: intencija, aplinkybs, odi prasms skirtumai, kontekstas ir kt. Kiekvienas pasakymas visada turi tam tikr ilokucin gali <...>: kalbtojas juo k nors teigia, ada, klausia, prao, skatina ir pan. ir siekia paveikti panekov, kad is elgtsi, mstyt ar veikt taip, kaip to nori kalbtojas [Jakaitien 2010: 146]. Ypa paveiki yra emocin-ekspresin leksika. Kaip teigia E. Jakaitien, adresato emocins reakcijos visada jautriausios emocin komponent turintiems stimulams [Ibid.: 161]. Dauguma SC turi menkinamj, niekinamj reikmes yra pejoratyvai. Neigiamas adresanto (kalbtojo) santykis su adresatu (panekovu), neigiamas jo vertinimas ireikiamas: 1) pajuokiant, ironizuojant; 2) pravardiuojant; 3) vartojant vulgarizmus; 4) barant (keikiant). Pajuokiamai ir ironikai vartojami SC Kalboje vartojama odi, kuriais norima asmen pavadinti pajuokiamai, iek tiek paiepti, pvz.: ventnevalg scom. (2) 1. juok. kas tik dedasi nevalgs, 2. niek. venteiva; platnos scom. (2) kas plaia nosimi: Plungs platnos eml. Ironikai vartojamais SC ireikiama pajuoka, paaipa, paiepiama smojingai, kartais netiesiogiai, pvz.: kariva scom. (1) 1. r. kareivis: ituose pokalbiuose dalyvavo vienas senas kareiva r., 2. iron. nevyklis karys: Imperialistiniai karivos D; 2 nuda scom. (1) kas geras, puikus, pagrstas (iron.): neka kap tikras nuda: bk tai ir jis vyras Al. Ironijos reikimo priemons perkeltin reikm, priesagos. 258
Ona Laima GUDZINEVIIT. Lietuvi kalbos substantiva communia..
Pravardiuojant vartojami SC Vardas, pavard atlieka nominatyvin funkcij, mog vardija, bet jo necharakterizuoja. Vardas rodo liaukiamus ar linkimus mogaus bruous, pravard turimus, kartais priskiriamus ypatumus. Pravard tai papildomas neoficialus asmenvardis, individualizuojantis enklas. Nauj pravardi galima susikurti, ypa vartojant odius perkeltinmis reikmmis. Grupinmis pravardmis laikomi ne tik asmenvardiai, bet ir bendriniai asmen pavadinimai [plg. Butkus 1995: 21]. Btent iame sluoksnyje esama ir SC. Tikrosios pravards yra labiau individualizuotos, o SC abstraktesni, tinka ir vyrui, ir moteriai. Dauguma pravardi mog paiepia, niekina. Kaip teigia A. Butkus, pravards motyvu eina iskirtinis mogaus bruoas. Kolektyvo norma laikomas daugumos bruoas, vidurkis. Nukrypimai nuo normos vertinami prieikai, tad kandi pravard yra prieikumo, tam tikro protesto iraika. Itin dideli reikalavimai keliami ivaizdai, ypa veidui, galvai, taip pat vairiems pomgiams, dorovei, sakomam odiui, bdo bruoams [Ibid.: 120]. Taigi pravard atsiranda pirmiausia kaip bendrinis odis, kuriuo galima apibdinti kiekvien mog, turint toki ypatyb. Pravarde is odis tampa tada, kai sumaja jo denotat skaiius ir jis gyja asmenvardio funkcij [Ibid.: 34]. Daugelis SC irykina daniausiai neigiamai vertinam asmens ypatyb, vartojami isakant savo nuomon, nuostat kito asmens atvilgiu, taiau to asmens neindividualizuojant. Keletas sutampani pravardi ir SC pavyzdi1:
sa 1. apiplys, apsiskarmaliavs; f. (p. 350) 1 plev sa scom. Plev (1), pleves (2) menk. 1. kas eina atsilapojs, atsisagsts: Usisagstyk sa! Rs. 2. nerimtas mogus, vjavaikis, paplavnas: skvernus, plev sa Vlkv. Maa nauda i jo tikras plev
Vlkata 1. visur valkiojasi; 2. kakas vieai j taip kart pavadins ~ (p. 435) vlkata scom. (1), valkata (1), valkat (2) niek. 1. kas benamis, bastosi, bastnas, perjnas: Tai toks vlkata mogus K. Toks ~ girtuoklis valkata ms kaiman atsikl Krs. Zrza visad paniurs, nepatenkintas (p. 454) 2 zrza scom. (1) 1. verksnys: Tus mano zrza tik zurza ir zurza Drsk. 2. kas nuolat nepatenkintas, burbeklis, zirzeklis: Tokio zrzos da nemaiau, zurzia ir zurzia Krs. Visos (monos) zrzos, visos vyrus da Drsk.
1
altiniai: A. Butkus. Lietuvi pravards (1995) (odynas); Lietuvi kalbos substantiva communia odynas / Sud. O. L. Gudzineviit (2011).
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A. Butkus teigia: Daniausi pravardi motyvai, t. y. pravardinis lietuvio portretas, rodo, kurie bruoai mums nra tipiki, vadinasi, i tikrj yra reti arba nepageidautini [Ibid.: 124]. Vulgariai vartojami SC Vulgarizmai tai odiai, turintys stipri neigiam konotacij panekovo atvilgiu. Vulgarizmais daniausiai laikomi tam tikr organ, fiziologini proces pavadinimai [plg. Jakaitien 2005: 257]. Yra lietuvi kalboje ir vulgariai vartojam SC, kai pabriamas: a) nederamas ar net fiziologinis veiksmas, nemandagus elgesys, pvz.: bezdykl scom. (2) vulg. oro gadintojas Dn 46; skystatrida scom. (1) vulg., niek. kas niekus plepa, plepys, kartakois: Ta ms kaimyn tokia skystatrida Kps.; b) kai kurios kno dalys, pvz.: rr sf. (4) 1. vamzdis, 2. vulg. upakalis, ~ subin, raukai // scom. apie kvail mog: Eik tu, rra, neplepjs Pns.; subnlanda scom. (1) vulg. pataiknas: Subnlanda mogus, kursai u save vyresniam nestengas ties pasakyti, jam subin lenda Plik. Kai kurie daiktavardiai tarmse, ypa emaii, atlieka tik nominatyvin funkcij, taiau perkelti kit kontekst gali gyti stilistini atspalvi. SC kaip keiksmaodiai Keiksmai iurkts, baramieji odiai ir posakiai, ireikianty neigiam kalbaniojo santyk su panekovu, rodantys jo kalbsenos laisvum, perkaitusias emocijas, nesivarym [Jakaitien 2005: 257]. Lietuviki keiksmaodiai daniau bna maikts nei pikti. Tai lm ms protvi pasaulira. Lietuviai iaip sau nesikeikdavo, nes buvo tikima, kad prakeikimai pildosi. Priklausomai nuo keiksmuose reikiamo emocinio intensyvumo (piktumo laipsnio), kur pirmiausia lemia turinys, intencija ir itarimo intonacija, vairuoja ir keiksm forma bei tipai [ukien 2010: 106107]. iandieniniai keiksmai skirti neigiamam poiriui reikti. Keiksmaodiai tikrovs nevardija, o tik ireikia kalbtojo jausmus, pojius. Net ir nesuprantami keiksmai perimami kaip tam tikro aunumo rodiklis, suprantami kaip pasiprieinimo normoms, taisykli nepaisymo raika. Keikiantis, plstantis pasakoma ir SC. Vieni odiai vartojami tiesiogine, kiti perkeltine reikme. odynuose nurodomas keiksmaodi menkinamasis, niekinamasis reikms atspalvis, danai bdingas vulgarumas, pvz.: klevrka scom. (1) itia (pldimo odis): Kol ta klevrka parsivilks 260
i miesto, ir vakaras ateis Vvr.; klirka sf. (1) 4. scom. apsileidlis, susivllis, velni klirka sakoma, plstant k; mla scom. (1) nek. 1. kas be reikalo daug juokiasi, 2. niek. pldimosi odis: Tokio mlos man nereik Kl. Eufemizmai velnesni, neutralesni odiai, vartojami vietoj iurktaus, nevankaus odio ar posakio, pvz.: iia scom. (1) J, Slnt euf. kas danai iuiia, lapinasi. Keiksmaodiai danai tariami ypatinga intonacija, pavyzdiui, intensyvs ilgi priebalsiai neprastai sutrumpint balsi fone danai yra pykio iraika, neretai tokiais atvejais suprieakinami ir delabializuojami balsiai, o itsti balsiai normali ar susilpnint priebalsi fone yra nuolankumo, nusieminimo iraika [plg. Girdenis 1995: 2627]. Taigi monms bendraujant svarbus ir verbalinis, ir neverbalinis (gestai, mimika, laikysena) lygmenys. moni susvetimjimas, nihilizmas, egocentrikumas, savanaudikumas ir kt. lemia tai, kad ir nekamoji kalba darosi vulgaresn, agresyvesn. odis (pravard, keiksmas ir pan.) atsiranda kaip reakcija stimul iskirtin asmens bruo, elges. B. Jasinaits nuomone, keiksmai kalboje funkcionuoja kaip savotiki neigiam emocij aibolaidiai. Tokiais posakiais reikiama odin agresija, kuri, palyginti su fizine, jau yra ingsnis civilizacijos link [Jasinait 2010: 378]. Kartais pravardiavimas gali atlikti ir socialins kontrols paskirt siekiama, kad bt paisoma griet standarto reikalavim [r. Butkus 1995, 2325]. Taigi pravard taip pat yra odins agresijos priemon. Ji gali bti suteikiama ne tik silpnesniam u save, bet ir pranaesniems monms, taip slepiant savo menkavertikum. Kalbos etiketas, kaip kalbin mandagumo iraika, atspindi socialins grups subkultr. Nuo sen laik kaimo aplinkoje mandagumo kalbin raika prasmingesn, svarbesn, o miesto aplinkoje daugiau kalbins agresijos. Kalba, kalbjimas glaudiai susij su asmenybs pairomis, sitikinimais, jausmais, vertybinmis orientacijomis, priklauso nuo etins kultros visumos. Kartais su mandagumu tapatinamas oficialumas. Efektyvi komunikacij lemia daug dalyk: socialiniai vaidmenys, veiksm koordinavimas, empatija ir kt. [plg. Karalinas 2008]. Bendros elgesio taisykls, normos neprivalo bti fiksuotos vairiuose kodeksuose, nes svarbiau tai, kas sukaupta tautos, perduota eimos, kas jau yra asmenybs savastis, asmenybs dalis. R. Koeniauskien pabria: <...> etika primena atsakomyb u itart od, u galimus to odio padarinius kitam mogui; etiketas ugdo btin pakantum panekovui, skatina su juo kalbtis mandagiai ir pagar261
biai. Visa tai sudaro kultring mogaus kalbjim [Koeniauskien 2006: 247]. I. Hilbig nuomone, <...> jokia bendruomen negali bti nemandagi, nes kiekvienai rpi darnus ir efektyvus bendravimas. Taiau tos paios kultros atstovai nebtinai turi tas paias vertybes, laikosi t pai poiri bei nuostat [Hilbig 2008: 13]. odiai patys savaime nra nei mandags, nei nemandags.
LITERATRA Butkus A. Lietuvi pravards. Kaunas: AESTI, 1995. epaitien G. Lietuvi kalbos etiketas: semantika ir pragmatika. iauliai: V iauli universiteto leidykla, 2007. Hilbig I. Mandagumas kaip reliatyvus kalbinis, socialinis ir kultrinis reikinys. In: Acta Linguistica Lithuanica, LVIII (2008), pp. 115. Jakaitien E. Leksikografija. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidybos institutas, 2005. Jakaitien E. Leksikologija. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla, 2010. Jasinait B. ventieji ir nelabieji frazeologijoje ir liaudies kultroje. Vilnius: VU leidykla, 2010. Girdenis A. Teoriniai fonologijos pagrindai. Vilnius: Petro ofsetas, 1995. Gudzineviit, O. L. Lietuvi kalbos substantiva communia kontekste. In: Lietuvi katalik mokslo akademijos suvaiavimo darbai, t. 19, kn. 1, 2005, pp. 481 487. Gudzineviit, O. L. Substantiva communia lietuvi ir latvi kalbose: stilistinis aspektas. In: Lietuvi ir latvi gretinamosios stilistikos klausimai. iauliai, 2006, pp. 260275. Gudzineviit, O. L. Substantiva communia: pavadinimo ir turinio problema. In: Acta humanitarica universitatis Saulensis, 8 (2009), pp. 272281. Karalinas S. Kalbos vartojimas ir socialinis kontekstas. Vilnius: Lietuvi kalbos institutas, 2008. Koeniauskien R. odio, elgesio ir jausmo kultros derm. In: Kalbos kultra. 2006, nr. 79, pp. 240248. Lietuvi kalbos substantiva communia odynas / Sud. O. L. Gudzineviit. iauliai: V iauli universiteto leidykla, 2011. ukien R. Obscenikos leksikos vieta student kalboje: keiksm vartojimas ir vertinimas. In: Santalka. Filologija. Edukologija, 2010, t. 18, nr. 2, pp. 105111 [interaktyvus] [irta 2012-01-03]. Available: http://dspace.vgtu.lt/handle/1/120.
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Language Etiquette Aspects of Lithuanian Substantiva Communia Summary

While communicating language reveals relations between the speakers, the social context is also highlighted. Language etiquette is the expression of linguistic politeness. The Lithuanian language has nouns which denote a person but have no meaning of gender. These are nouns of more common meaning, they are used to ~ name both a male and female person (e. g.: akpla, vlkata, mar malas). According to the form some of them are of masculine gender (e. g., marmalas), others are of feminine gender (e.g., valkata), however, in some contexts they are masculine, in other feminine, e.g.: jis akipla / ji akipla. The pronoun shows what person (i.e. of what gender) this evaluation belongs to. Substantiva communia most often are words of the spoken language, dialectal words. The most important feature of SC is that they express subjective (most often negative) characteristic of a person (creature). These nouns highlight the feature, the speaker expresses emotionly his / her evaluation and attitude. Most of SC have derogatory, contemptous meanings they are pejoratives. The negative relation of a speaker (addresser) and a listener (addressee), his / her negative estimation is expressed: 1) while sneering, ironizing; 2) nicknaming; 3) using vulgarisms; 4) scolding (cursing). Language etiquettee reflects the subculture of a social group. Language and speech are closely related to the point of view, beliefs, emotions, values of a person. The effectiveness of communication is determined by a lot of things: social roles, coordination of actions, empathy, etc. Common rules of behaviour, norms have not neccessarily be fxed in various codes, what is stored by nation, passed by family, what is the identity of a person is of greater importance. Community can not be impolite because it cares about nice and effective communication. However, the representatives of the same culture not always have the same values, keep to the same views and attitudes. Words by themthelses are neither polite nor impolite.
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Nataja JUNDINA
Zur Geschichte des Fremdwortbegriffes

Schlsselwrter: Fremdsprache, Sprachkontakt, Begriff, Lehnwort, Konnotation Es ist bekannt, dass die Sprache ein offenes, sich stndig entwickelndes System ist, das fr seine Vernderung und Bereicherung stndig neue Elemente braucht. Diese Elemente gelangen auf unterschiedlichen Wegen in die Sprache. Einer dieser Wege ist die bernahme neuer Wrter und Wendungen aus anderen Sprachen. Die menschliche Sprache ist ein Teilbereich wenn auch ein hchst bedeutsamer des menschlichen Lebens; sie ist keine unvernderliche Gre, sondern ein flexibles Gebilde mit der Fhigkeit, exakt den Bedrfnissen der Sprecher zu entsprechen. Sprachen verndern sich daher kontinuierlich, beeinflusst beispielsweise von auersprachlichen Vernderungen der Lebenswelt. bernahmen und Integrationen sind so gesehen ein natrlicher Bestandteil des Wesens von Sprachen und so auch die deutsche, die in ihrer Historie unter anderem aufgrund ihres exponierten Siedlungsgebietes in Zentraleuropa stndiger Beeinflussung durch Nachbarsprachen unterworfen war [Otto 2009: 21]. Die Vlker befinden sich im stndigen Kontakt (wirtschaftlichen, kulturellen, politischen, gesellschaftlichen usw.), was die Sprachen beeinflusst und sich weiter entwickeln lsst. K. Otto zitiert in diesem Zusammenhang Walter von Wartburg Nichts spiegelt so getreu das seelische und geistige Wesen eines Volkes wider wie seine Sprache. An den sprachlichen Beziehungen zwischen Volk und Volk knnen wir daher ermessen, wie gro die Tragweite ihrer kulturellen Beziehungen gewesen ist [Otto 2009: 6]. Der Entlehnungsprozess ist ein mehrdimensionaler, komplizierter Vorgang, welcher das Zusammenspiel von unterschiedlichen Faktoren darstellt. Weinreich hat erkannt, dass der Wandel von Sprachen in Kontaktsituationen nicht nur auf den Kontakt von Sprachen, sondern vor allem auf den Kontakt ihrer Sprecher zurckzufhren sei . Els Oksaar baut auf Weinreichs Ansatz auf und fordert, man msse das gesamte Spektrum an psychologischen, kulturellen, politischen und geographischen Bedingungen betrachten und nicht nur die sprachlichen [Utsch 2007: 25]. Die Existenz der Sprache setzt zahlreiche 264
Nataja JUNDINA. Zur Geschichte des Fremdwortbegriffes
Kontaktsituationen voraus, die Sprache kann nicht in einem isolierten Raum fortleben. Die deutsche Sprache ist keine Ausnahme und ist von fremden Einflssen auch nicht frei. Der internationalen Stellung des Deutschen widmet man in der Fachliteratur groe Aufmerksamkeit. Nach B. Kettemann liegen die Schtzungen des Gesamtwortschatzes der deutschen Sprache im Bereich von mehreren Millionen Wrtern. Dazu tragen verschiedene Fachwortschtze bei, z. B. aus den Bereichen Architektur, Biologie, Chemie, Elektronik, Genetik, Kunst und Literatur, Medizin, Musik, Neurowissenschaften, l- und Gasindustrie, Pharmazeutik, Recht, Schule, Sport, Verwaltung, Zivilschutz. Diese Fachwortschtze machen zwischen 1 und 10 Millionen Wrter aus. Der Allgemeinwortschatz des Deutschen selbst wird wohl ber eine halbe Million Wrter betragen. Von diesen 500. 000 Wrtern sind laut Duden Fremdwrterbuch (1982) etwa 100. 000 Fremd- oder Lehnwrter [vgl. Kettemann 2002: 62]. Da die Zahl der Wrter fremden Ursprungs in der deutschen Sprache so hoch ist, stellen sie einen Untersuchungsgegenstand dar, der im Laufe der Jahre seine Aktualitt nicht verloren hat und das stndige Interesse der Sprachforscher an diesem Thema begrndet. Die Untersuchung des Fremdsprachigen ist seit Jahren Gegenstand einer intensiven linguistischen Auseinandersetzung und einer lebhaften Fachdiskussion. Im Zentrum dieser Auseinandersetzung stehen in der Regel Fremdwrter und Lehnwrter und deren grammatische, phonetische, semantische und seltener pragmatische Eigenarten und Besonderheiten, Kriterien der Abgrenzung voneinander, die Einstufung dieser Lexik als integriert oder nicht-integriert in der Nehmersprache, Genusschwankungen bei den entlehnten Wrtern, Einflsse des Fremdsprachigen auf Deutsch u.a.m. Fremdsprachiges Wortgut beschftigt nicht nur Sprachwissenschaftler, sondern auch breitere Kreise der ffentlichkeit. Entlehnungen sind eines der linguistischen Themen, die nicht nur in der wissenschaftlichen Forschung, sondern auch in der interessierten ffentlichkeit sowie in Verlagswesen und Lexikographie auf groe Resonanz stoen [Scherer, Holler 2010: 1]. Man kann also behaupten, dass Fremdwortbernahmen zu einer Frage von nationaler Geltung geworden sind. Aber in erster Linie ist es doch ein linguistisches Problem, welches von den Fachleuten intensiv diskutiert wird. Die Eigenart der linguistischen Debatte besteht darin, dass es in Bezug auf viele Fragen wenig Konsens gibt. Das betrifft auch die linguistische Auseinandersetzung mit den Begriffen Fremdwort und Lehnwort. Diese 265
Begriffe werden unterschiedlich definiert. Grundstzlich werden Fremdwort und Lehnwort so verstanden: Fremdwort als ein Wort, das in Lautung, Intonation oder Orthographie noch nicht an das System der deutschen Sprache angepasst ist und noch deutliche Kennzeichen der Quellensprache trgt. Das Lehnwort hat im Unterschied zum Fremdwort die Kennzeichen seiner fremden Herkunft verloren. Nach R. Muhr sind Fremdwrter solche Wrter, die in Schreibung und Aussprache dem Deutschen nicht angepasst sind oder seinen Strukturen nicht entsprechen und daher deutlich als neues Wort erkennbar sind [vgl. Muhr 2002: 32]. Lehnwrter hingegen sind Wrter, die meistens in Schreibung und Aussprache dem Deutschen schon angepasst sind oder seinen Strukturen entsprechen und daher oft nicht mehr als Lehnwort erkennbar sind [vgl. Muhr 2002: 33]. Das Problem aber besteht darin, dass es nicht immer mglich ist, das Fremdwort vom Lehnwort zu unterscheiden; eindeutige Kriterien fr diese Unterscheidung sind nicht immer zu bestimmen. Eine lngst gefhrte Diskussion ber die Abgrenzungskriterien zwischen Lehnwort und Fremdwort scheint noch heute kein Ende gefunden zu haben. Im Laufe von mehreren Jahren haben die Sprachwissenschaftler, die sich mit diesem Thema befassten, darauf verwiesen, dass deutliche und einwandfreie Kriterien fr diese Unterscheidung eigentlich fehlen. Heute suchen Linguisten die Schwierigkeiten der genauen Unterscheidung zwischen Lehnwrtern und Fremdwrtern in der Vermischung synchroner und diachroner Analyseverfahren und auch darin, dass der bergang zwischen zwei Wortklassen allmhlich ist Ein grundlegendes Problem bei der Erforschung von Entlehnungen ist die Abgrenzung nativer versus nicht-nativer Einheiten und Strukturen. Diese Abgrenzung wird zudem erschwert durch die Vermischung synchroner und diachroner Fremdheitsaspekte, die im Bereich der Entlehnungen geradezu symptomatisch ist [Scherer, Holler 2010: 2]. K. Otto betont, dass Lehnwort und Fremdwort sich nur hinsichtlich ihrer ausdrucksseitigen Stufe der Integration in den Wortschatz der untersuchten Sprache unterscheiden. Eine Zuordnung aufgrund der Undeutlichkeit der Kriterien ist in manchen Fllen nur schwer mglich. Eine Abgrenzung kann auch aus anderen Grnden wenig sinnvoll sein. Unter die Fremdwortkategorie fallen beispielsweise Wrter, die bereits seit lngerer Zeit im Deutschen vorhanden sind [vgl. Otto 2009: 16]. Die angefhrten Meinungen zeugen davon, dass fremde Wrter unterschiedlich lange in die Nehmersprache integriert werden; dieser Prozess umfasst mehrere Phasen Das Abgrenzungsproblem zwischen Fremdwr266
tern und Lehnwrtern im Deutschen hat eine weitere Ursache darin, dass der bergang zwischen beiden Wortklassen offenbar nicht kategorial, sondern kontinuierlich ist. Der Unterschied zwischen Fremdwrtern und Lehnwrtern scheint daher nur im Grad der Anpassung bzw. der Integration fassbar zu sein, wobei die graduelle Abstufung nicht nur lexikalische Entlehnungen, sondern nicht-native Einheiten auf allen grammatischen Ebenen betrifft [Scherer, Holler 2010: 3]. In dem Beitrag wird der Versuch unternommen, die Geschichte der linguistischen Diskussion ber Fremdwort und Lehnwort zu verfolgen. Die Fremdwortdiskussion im Deutschen ist sehr alt. B. Kettemann verweist darauf, dass sie mit dem verstrkten Sprachkontakt innerhalb Europas in der Neuzeit eingesetzt hat und vom aufsteigenden Brgertum und dessen zunehmender Alphabetisierung getragen wurde. Fremdwrter gibt es allerdings schon, seit es Sprachen gibt und seit diese Sprachen miteinander in Kontakt treten [vgl. Kettemann 2002: 55]. Auch A. Grote ist der Meinung, dass der Import fremdsprachlichen Wortguts in eine Sprache dem Kontakt der beteiligten Sprachen bzw. ihrer Sprecher entspringt. Die Entlehnung wird als Konsequenz von Sprachkontakt beschrieben. Die Betrachtung der Sprachkontaktsituationen macht auf die Beteiligung politischer, kultureller, gesellschaftlicher und wirtschaftlicher Faktoren an den Lehnvorgngen aufmerksam [vgl. Grote 2002: 18]. Was den Terminus selbst betrifft, so erwhnt J. Spitzmller, dass man bereits im 17. und 18. Jh. von fremden Wrtern gesprochen hat, aber das Kompositum Fremdwort eine Schpfung des frhen 19. Jahrhunderts ist. Die ersten derzeit bekannten Belege finden sich 1815 bei dem Philosophen und Puristen Karl C. F. Krause [vgl. Spitzmller 2005: 161]. Bei Krause steht der Ausdruck in einem eindeutig puristischen Kontext und ist deutlich pejorativ markiert. Er stammt aus dem sich in dieser Zeit verstrkenden nationalistisch-puristischen Diskurs und wird offensichtlich als Stigmawort gebildet und gebraucht. Auch das Kompositum Fremdwrterbuch, nur ein Jahr nach dem Erstbeleg von Fremdwort erstmals auf einem Buchtitel belegt, entstammt diesem Diskurs. Im Kontext des Nationalismus erzeugt sowohl fremdes Wort als auch Fremdwort pejorative Konnotationen, was die ihnen oft beigefgten Antonyme eigentlich deutsch, natrlich deutsch, pur deutschrecht deutsch, rein deutsch, kerndeutsch verdeutlichen. Der Antagonismus deutsch-fremd verstrkt die pejorativen Konnotationen des Stigmawortes Fremdwort, da Deutsch im Nationalsozialismus ein Hochwertwort war. Als Schlagwort gelangt die Bezeichnung auch in die Sprach267
wissenschaft, wird dann aber, sptestens mit deren Distanzierung von puristischen Positionen in der zweiten Hlfte des 20. Jhs., zum Terminus. Allerdings verschwanden die expressiven Bedeutungsanteile nie vllig, was einer der Grnde dafr war, dass der Terminus innerhalb der Sprachwissenschaft seit Ende der 60-er Jahre sehr umstritten ist [vgl. Spitzmller 2005: 161162]. B. Kettemann schreibt, dass der Begriff Fremdwort vom Philosophen K. C. F. Krause (17811832) geprgt und durch Jean Paul (17631825) in der Zeitschrift Hesperus (1819) verbreitet wurde. Er bezeichnet einen aus einer fremden Sprache in die Muttersprache bernommenen Ausdruck, meist zugleich mit der durch ihn bezeichneten Sache, der im Unterschied zum Lehnwort sich in Aussprache, Schreibung oder Form noch nicht an das System der Muttersprache angepasst hat, als Fremdwort. Das Datum ist hier wichtig, denn es ist die Zeit der Befreiungskriege (18121819). In der Zeit danach hat das Gefhl der Romantik, das Sich- Zurckbesinnen auf deutsche Wurzeln, zum ersten Mal dazu gefhrt, fremde sprachliche Elemente als ein nationales Problem zu sehen [vgl. Kettemann 2002: 56]. K. Otto weist darauf hin, dass die Beschftigung mit Lehneinflssen und Fremdwrtern kein neuer Untersuchungsgegenstand ist; seit vielen Jahrhunderten zhlt das Thema bereits zu den Klassikern der Sprachforschung. K. Otto fhrt eine Reihe von interessanten Tatsachen an: Bereits J. W. von Goethe beschftigte sich mit der Fremdwortproblematik. Er empfand fremdes Wortgut nicht als schdlich fr die Muttersprache, sondern als eine Bereicherung. Er war der Meinung, die Gewalt einer Sprache sei, dass sie das Fremde verschlingt. Fr Jacob Grimm waren fremdwortkritische Tendenzen nicht fremd. Fremdes Wortgut steht hier in eher negativem Sinnzusammenhang: Alle Sprachen, solange sie gesund sind, haben einen Naturtrieb das Fremde von sich abzuhalten und wo sein Eindrang erfolgte, es wieder auszustoen, wenigstens mit den heimischen Elementen auszugleichen. Die Pflicht der Sprachforschung sah J. Grimm darin, dem malosen und unberechtigten Vordrang des Fremden Widerstand zu leisten. Die Aussage Lessings zur Sprache eines Zeitgenossen ist als eindeutige Kritik eines bertriebenen Gebrauchs von Fremdwrtern aufzufassen. Nach Lessing erregt der bertriebene Gebrauch der Fremdwrter beim Leser nur Ekel. Resmierend schreibt K. Otto, dass seit jeher ber die Zerrttung der Muttersprache geklagt wird. Der Fremd- und Lehnworteinfluss auf die 268
deutsche Sprache erweist sich dabei mehr oder weniger als ein stark polarisierendes Thema. Die Diskussion spielt sich im Wesentlichen zwischen zwei kontrren Standpunkten ab, der Betonung der Vorteile einer bernahme und Verwendung von Fremdwrtern auf der einen Seite und der mehr oder weniger heftigen Kritik daran auf der anderen Seite. Die Kontroverse zwischen eher zurckweisenden Haltungen in Bezug auf die bernahme fremden Wortmaterials ber gemigte Standpunkte bis hin zu unkritischer Einstellung zeigt sich heute im gegenwrtigen Diskurs um die Anglizismen im Deutschen. Also, trotz seiner bereits betrchtlichen Historie ist das Thema Entlehnung hchst aktuell und lngst nicht erschpft [vgl. Otto 2009: 67]. So finden wir den von J. W. von Goethe artikulierten Gedanken ber die Fhigkeit der Sprache, fremde Sprachelemente zu assimilieren, in der modernen Version des deutschen Publizisten und Sprachexperten D. E. Zimmer. Die Sprache lebe, solange sie imstande ist, Fremdwrter zu Lehnwrtern zu machen. Wenn aber die Sprache diese Fhigkeit verliert, gert sie in Gefahr [wiedergegeben nach Spitzmller 2005: 165]. Mit anderen Worten vertritt D. E. Zimmer die Meinung, dass die Sprache ein selbstregulierendes System sei, das im Normalfall fremdsprachiges Wortgut leicht verdauen knne. Die anderen Linguisten sprechen in Anlehnung an H. Dunger ber die Gefahr, die mit den Fremdwortbernahmen verbunden ist. H. Dunger hat in seinem Artikel Wider die Englnderei in der deutschen Sprache, welcher 1899 in der Zeitschrift des Allgemeinen deutschen Sprachvereins erschien, geschrieben: Vielfach hrt man die Ansicht aussprechen, der Kampf gegen die Fremdwrter sei jetzt nicht mehr ntig; jeder Deutsche sei gegenwrtig davon berzeugt, da es seine Pflicht sei, entbehrliche Fremdwrter zu vermeiden. Wie wenig richtig dies ist, wei jeder aufmerksame Beobachter der Sprache. ... Wir haben nicht nur mit den alten Feinden immer noch zu kmpfen, sondern mssen auch neue Eindringlinge abwehren, die keck von allen Seiten Einla in unsere Muttersprache begehren. Besonders auffllig ist in der jngsten Zeit das Einmengen neuer Fremdwrter aus dem Englischen [zit. nach Kettemann 2002: 55]. Da der Terminus Fremdwort mit negativen Konnotationen verbunden ist, vermeiden manche Linguisten seinen Gebrauch berhaupt. Auerdem ist der Fremdwortbegriff, wie oben angedeutet wurde, recht umstritten Allerdings ist dieser Fremdwortbegriff recht vage ... [Spitzmller 2005: 163]. J. Spitzmller schreibt z.B., dass man hufig den Begriff Fremdwort 269
durch Lehnwort ersetzt, und Lehnwort hufig schlicht als Synonym fr Fremdwort gebraucht wird [vgl. Spitzmller 2005: 164]. Dies bedeutet vermutlich, dass alle Fremdwortbernahmen Lehnwrter sind, aber einen unterschiedlichen Assimilationsgrad besitzen. Das besttigen die Worte von K. Otto ber einige Schwierigkeiten, die die traditionelle Terminologie in sich birgt. Aufgrund dieser Problematik bevorzugt sie eine allgemeinere Fremd- und Lehnwortauffassung. Diese beinhaltet unter anderem, auf den Terminus Fremdwort zugunsten der Begriffe Entlehnung, Lehnwort und Transferenz zu verzichten, die als Synonyme verwendet werden. Als Lehnwrter in diesem Sinne gelten dann grundstzlich alle Wortentlehnungen aus fremden Sprachen [Otto 2009: 18]. Auch A. Grote verzichtet auf den Gebrauch dieses Terminus und begrndet das wie folgt: Die Verwendung des Terminus zur Referenz auf ein entlehntes Wort wird bewusst vermieden. Die an ihn geknpften Kontroversen werden hier gleichwohl aufgegriffen [Grote 2002: 20]. Aber anschlieend bemerkt A. Grote, dass alle Versuche, den Gebrauch des Terminus vllig auszuschlieen, momentan sinnlos seien. Sie schreibt, dass der umstrittene Terminus trotz hufiger Ablehnungsbekundungen dennoch bestndig Anwendung findet und zwar mittels der Bezeichnung eines fr das Deutsche spezifischen Nachschlagewerks: das Fremdwrterbuch [Grote 2002: 20]. Im Duden-Fremdwrterbuch wird der Versuch unternommen, den Fremdwortbegriff exakt zu definieren. Fnf Merkmale knnen demzufolge ein Wort als fremd charakterisieren. Ein Fremdwort muss mindestens eines der fnf im Duden-Fremdwrterbuch genannten Merkmale der Fremdheit besitzen, um der Definition zu entsprechen. Die Bestimmung des Lehnwortes ergibt sich dann ex negativo. Das bedeutet, dass die Begriffe Fremdwort und Lehnwort in der Fachsprache auch knftig Verwendung finden werden und die Fachdiskussion bezglich dieser Termini nicht beendet ist, obwohl man schon heute deren Fragwrdigkeit erkannt hat.
LITERATUR Grote, A. Entlehnung bersetzung Vernetzung: Entlehnung als bersetzungbezogenes Phnomen am Beispiel der internetspezifischen Computersprache. Peter Lang: Frankfurt am Main, 2002.
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Nataja JUNDINA. Zur Geschichte des Fremdwortbegriffes Kettemann, B. Anglizismen allgemein und konkret: Zahlen und Fakten. In: Muhr, R., Kettemann, B. Eurospeak. Der Einfluss des Englischen auf europische Sprachen zur Jahrtausendwende. Band 1. Peter Lang Verlag: Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Wien, 2002, S. 5587. Muhr, R. Anglizismen als Problem der Linguistik und Sprachpflege in sterreich und Deutschland zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts. In: Muhr, R., Kettemann, B. Eurospeak. Der Einfluss des Englischen auf europische Sprachen zur Jahrtausendwende. Band 1. Peter Lang Verlag: Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Wien, 2002, S. 954. Otto, K. Eurodeutsch Untersuchungen zu Europismen und Internationalismen im deutschen Wortschatz. Eine Arbeit aus der Perspektive der Eurolinguistik am Beispiel von Zeitungen aus Deutschland, sterreich, der Schweiz und Sdtirol. Logos Verlag: Berlin, 2009. Scherer, C., Holler, A. Strategien der Integration und Isolation nicht-nativer Einheiten und Strukturen. Walter de Gruyter: Berlin, New York, 2010. Spitzmller, J. Linguistik. Impulse & Tendenzen. Metasprachdiskurse. Einstellungen zu Anglizismen und ihre wissenschaftliche Rezeption. Walter de Gruyter: Berlin, New York, 2005. Utsch, S. Sprachwechsel im Exil. Die linguistische Metamorphose von Klaus Mann. Bhlau Verlag: Kln, Weimar, Wien, 2007.
Of the Term Foreign Word History Summary

Borrowings comprise an effective way of vocabulary enrichment. No language lives its independent life. Speakers of one language are in constant economic, social, political, and cultural contacts with speakers of other languages, that contributes to language development by adding new elements. That is why the study of borrowings is as old as languages themselves. Lehnwort (a borrowed word) and Fremdwort (a foreign word) are main kinds of borrowings. The latter is causing fierce debates because some linguists find the term Fremdwort arbitrary. The article overviews the history of the argument from the appearance of the term Fremdwort up to the present state of the art.
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Kerttu KIBBERMANN
English in the Education Systems of Estonia and Latvia: An Overview of Language Attitudes of Students
Key words: language attitudes, language spread, English influence, education English is a foreign language in Estonia and Latvia that has grown more in importance during the last two decades as compared to other foreign languages. In Kachrus (1985) model of World Englishes, which divides the world into the inner, outer, and expanding circles, Estonia and Latvia belong to the latter. In the expanding circle English is spoken as a foreign language and until recently, the primary aim was to learn it in order to converse with native speakers. However, recent research (e.g. Ljosland 2007) has demonstrated that in several European countries English is undergoing a shift the lingua franca of the world is now sharing with local languages their functions, or even overtaking some. This article presents the results of the study of language attitude towards English in Estonia and Latvia, conducted in 2010. The reasons for focusing on education are twofold: first, education has a significant role in spreading the socially acceptable ideology, and second, education, especially higher education, is greatly affected by English. Earlier research has focused on language attitudes towards the official language, or Russian the largest minority language in Estonia and Latvia, as well as the regional lingua franca [Pavlenko 2008: 301]. However, with the spread of English, another foreign language carrying great economic value is gaining ground in Estonia and Latvia, thus it should not be neglected from the sociolinguistic discussions. Theoretical considerations Language attitudes are subjective evaluations of languages, language varieties, dialects, etc. that are held by individuals and groups. As modern linguistics is based on the doctrine of arbitrariness, language attitudes are considered to reflect social perceptions of their speakers [Edwards 1999: 102]. Facts may show that speakers of a language have a higher socio272
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economic status than speakers of some other language, but the evaluation of their language as superior is purely subjective and lacks a factual basis [Myers-Scotton 2006: 120]. Attitudes are mostly learned during socialisation. Parents, friends, peer groups, education, work, and the mass media have a profound effect on the formation and maintenance of attitudes, as people tend to adjust their attitudes to those of the groups they belong to (Garrett 2001). In order to differentiate between publicly expressed and privately held attitudes, Kristiansen (2010) divides attitudes into overt and covert ones. Respondents who are aware of research topic and the presence of researcher are likely to produce overt attitudes that mirror the communitys public discourse and often discussed viewpoints on the attitude towards object. In contrast, covert attitudes are part of everyones private discourse that can clash with the official language ideology and are expressed only in authentic contexts. Data and method This article studies the overt language attitudes of students. Todays students have been exposed to the Anglo-American cultural impact since their childhood, which plays an important role in the formation and maintenance of attitudes. Moreover, official policies rest mostly on the opinions of prestigious social groups. Students as young intellectuals are likely to influence the future developments of their societies. In order to minimise the number of subjective factors, only the data from students who consider Estonian and Latvian their mother tongue are analysed. In order to collect first-hand quantitative data, a questionnaire was designed and distributed to informants in their mother tongues. A total of 102 students returned the questionnaire, out of which 46 were from Estonia and 56 from Latvia. At the time all respondents were pursuing Bachelors or Masters degrees. Respondents were drawn from different institutions of higher education to guarantee a wide range of responses. The data were analysed with SPSS 15. The final results are presented as means in tables below, accompanied by standard variation and the number of cases. The differences between groups were tested for significance with the Mann-Whitney test. The results indicate statistically significant difference when p < 0.1 and contribute to the relative ordering of the data. The mean scores are not important per se. 273
Analysis and discussion Firstly, both Estonian and Latvian students favour intensifying teaching English in educational establishments, but the latter expressed considerably stronger attitudes towards the issue than the former, as summarised in Table 1 (1a). These results could indicate the lack of English classes in the current curricula in Latvia. However, taking into account that foreign language lessons both in Estonia and in Latvia have to start in the third form, but commonly begin already in kindergarten, and that English is the first foreign language for 67% of the pupils attending primary schools in Estonia and Latvia, and for 96% of the secondary school students in Estonia and 97 % in Latvia (Eurostat news release 139/2010), nothing signals the insufficiency of English at Latvian educational establishments. The other line of reasoning might depart from the poorer command of English among Latvian respondents. Indeed, Latvian respondents indicated poorer knowledge of English than Estonian respondents, but both groups considered English to be their best known foreign language. Interestingly, no correlation was found between the answers to the statements and the knowledge of English. Thus Latvian students wish to increase the importance of English at schools and universities independent of their language skills. Table 1 The role of English in educational establishments1
(1a) English should be taught more intensively at schools and universities than it is at the moment; (1b) The government of Estonia/Latvia should open and support secondary schools with English as the sole medium of instruction; (1c) The government of Estonia/Latvia should open and support bilingual secondary schools with Estonian/Latvian and English as the media of instruction. (1a) Mean N Std. dev.
Mann-Whitney U: 569.000, p = 0.000
Estonia 2.35 37 0.676
Latvia 1.77 53 0.669
Respondents were asked to evaluate statements on a 5-point scale: 1 strongly agree, 2 agree, 3 disagree, 4 strongly disagree, 5 no opinion.
1
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Kerttu KIBBERMANN. English in the Education Systems of Estonia.. (1b) Mean N Std. dev.
Mann-Whitney U: 890.500, p = 0.076
Estonia 2.95 41 0.805
Latvia 2.70 54 0.690
(1c) Mean N Std. dev.

Mann-Whitney U: 767.000, p = 0.009
Estonia 2.21 38 0.704
Latvia 1.85 55 0.591
Next, respondents were asked to give their opinion on the fact of national government opening monolingual English schools and bilingual schools with English and Estonian/Latvian as media of instruction. According to the results summarised in Table 1 (1b, 1c), students from both countries agree with opening bilingual schools and discard the idea about English-medium schools. A careful look at the data reveals that Latvian respondents exhibit greater agreement with both ideas than Estonian students. 91% of Latvian students either strongly agree or agree with the statement about opening Latvian-English bilingual schools, whereas only 61% of Estonian respondents share the opinion. The tendency of Latvian students to favour English also becomes obvious in the choice of language for educating their children. Table 2 (2a) shows that more than half of the Latvian respondents would get their children enrolled in an English-medium school, if it had the same teaching standards as a Latvian-medium school. Most of Estonian students were against the idea, and only one fifth agree with it. If Latvian students in fact acted according to their present attitudes in the future, a large-scale language shift could occur. Shifting the language of education, one of the most prestigious domains of language use, could lead to diglossia and eventually result in a societal language shift. However, it has to be kept in mind that there is no linear link between attitudes and behaviour, and students can change their attitudes by the time they face sending their children to school. What these results show is that Estonian students do not assign such huge personal importance to English in the future world as Latvian students.
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Table 2 English-medium education for the respondents and their children

(2a) I would enrol my children in an English-speaking school if it had the same teaching standard as an Estonian/Latvian-medium school; (2b) I would rather receive my university education in English than in Estonian/Latvian. (2a) Mean N Std. dev.
Mann-Whitney U: 599.500, p = 0.004
Estonia 2.89 36 0.887
Latvia 2.35 51 0.796
(2b) Mean N Std. dev.

Mann-Whitney U: 742.500, p = 0.007
Estonia 2.93 40 0.797
Latvia 2.47 53 0.823
When proceeding to higher education, major differences between approaches adopted by Estonia and Latvia become obvious. The Estonian government supports English in higher education rather enthusiastically, whereas the Latvian state is more concerned with protecting the sociolinguistic functions of Latvian. For example, all doctoral studies can be completed in English at Estonian universities. In 2010, only 9% of doctoral dissertations were defended in Estonian, whereas 87% of dissertations were written in English (Klaas-Lang 2010). By contrast, it is quite uncommon to write doctoral dissertations in English in Latvia. In this light it is quite surprising that neither Estonian nor Latvian students are keen on acquiring their university education in English. However, Table 2 (2b) shows that Latvian respondents are again in greater favour of English-medium university education than their Estonian counterparts, who answered this question rather unfavourably. People tend to confer prestige on languages that they relate to higher social status and socio-economic advantages. It can be explained with the human quest for mobility as prestigious languages are thought to give their speakers access to socio-economic benefits [Myers-Scotton 2006: 121]. Thus it is highly possible that Latvian students favour English because of its prestige. The explanation indicates the integrative attitudes of Latvian 276
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students towards English. The wish to speak English in order to gain the advantages accorded to English speakers shows clearly a desire to identify with the group. Summary As the comparative study of the language attitudes of students towards English in the education systems of Estonia and Latvia indicates, Estonian students tend to have better English skills than Latvian students, but the latter seem to favour English in more. Latvian students consider English to have a vital position in education in Latvia and find it necessary to intensify the teaching of English and in English. Latvian students consider English especially important for their future children, as the majority of them would send their children to an English-medium school. Similarly to languages, language attitudes are never static. Political and socio-economic transitions lead to attitude change. The study was conducted at the time when both Estonia and Latvian were in deep economic crisis. In Latvia it was accompanied by a political crisis characterised by extremely low trust in the Latvian state. Being insecure about their nation might have led Latvians to look up to other, possibly mightier, nations and their languages as a way out of the unsatisfying status quo. Thus the high prestige conferred on English could have been based on political and socio-economic factors and the attitudes are likely to change together with the economic and political situation.
LITERATURE Edwards, J. Refining our Understanding of Language Attitudes. In: Journal of Language and Social Psychology. 1999, 18(1), pp. 101110. Eurostat News Release. In the EU, Nearly 80% of Children were Studying a Foreign Language at Primary School in 2008, Sept 24, 2008. Available: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3-24092010-AP/EN/324092010-AP-EN.PDF. Garrett, P. Language Attitudes and Sociolinguistics. In: Journal of Sociolinguistics. 2001, 5(4), pp. 626631. Kachru, B. Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle. In: English in the World: Teaching and Learning the Language and Literature. Cambridge: CUP & the British Council, 1985, pp. 1130.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Klaas-Lang, B. Eesti keel likoolis ja teaduses. In: Sirp. 2011, 36(3362). Kristiansen, T. Conscious and Subconscious Attitudes towards English Influence in the Nordic Countries: Evidence for Two Levels of Language Ideology. In: International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2010, 204, pp. 5995. Ljosland, R. English in Norwegian Academia: A Step towards Diglossia? In: World Englishes. 2007, 26(4), pp. 395410. Myers-Scotton, C. Multiple Voices: An Introduction to Bilingualism. Malden & Oxford: Blackwell, 2006, pp. 457. Pavlenko, A. Multilingualism in Post-Soviet Countries: Language Revival, Language Removal and Sociolinguistic Theory. In: International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 2008, 11(34), pp. 140.
Angu valoda Igaunijas un Latvijas izgltbas sistm: ieskats studentu attieksms Kopsavilkums
Angu valoda Igaunij un Latvij ir svevaloda, kuras lietoana publisks un privts sfrs ir pieaugusi pdjo divdesmit gadu laik vairk nek citu svevalodu lietoana. aj rakst tiek saldzinoi analizti 2010. gad veikt Igaunijas un Latvijas studentu lingvistisks attieksmes ptjuma rezultti, kas attiecas uz angu valodas lomu izgltb. Pirmkrt, izgltba ir svarga socili pieemams ideoloijas izpltan, un, otrkrt, angu valodai ir nozmga ietekme izgltb, pai augstkaj izgltb. Ptjum izmantotie dati ir iegti anketanas rezultt. Ptjum piedaljs 102 studenti no Igaunijas un Latvijas, kuri nordja igauu vai latvieu valodu k savu dzimto valodu. Analzes rezultt ir noskaidrots, ka Igaunijas un Latvijas studentu attieksmes pret angu valodas lomu izgltb btiski atiras. Igaunijas studenti ir apmierinti ar pareizjo situciju Igaunijas izgltbas sistm, tau Latvijas studenti, neraugoties uz savu angu valodas zinanu pavrtjumu, vlas palielint angu valodas lomu Latvijas izgltbas sistm un uzskata angu valodu par btisku savu topoo brnu izgltb. di rezultti vartu bt skaidrojami ar ptjuma veikanas laiku, jo 2010. gad Latvij bija dzia ekonomiska un politiska krze. Pc sociolingvistu domm, cilvki parasti uzskata par prestim ts valodas, kuru runtjiem ir augsts socilais un ekomiskais statuss. Iespjams, ka Latvijas studenti krzes laik deva priekroku angu valodai, jo tiek uzskatts, ka ekonomiski un socili vrtgu valodu prasmes dod ts runtjiem iespjas, ko citu valodu prasmes nedod.
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Elna KRASOVSKA
(Latvijas Kultras akadmija)
Metonmijas mijiedarbba ar citiem tropiem: I Visprjo latvieu dziesmu svtku plakts

Atslgvrdi: metafora, metonmija, kalambrs, alzija, nozmes veidoana Raksta mris ir analizt stilistisko pamienu saistbu ar kultras un vstures pardbm, veidojot latvieu identitti. Ptmais materils ir I Visprjiem latvieu dziesmu svtkiem velttais plakts1 (H. ics, 1873) ar Jura Alunna2 (18321864) tekstu Nevis slinkojot un pstot. Rakst izmantota kognitvo lingvistu pieeja, kas uzskata stilistiskos pamienus par btisku domanas un konceptuls sistmas dau [sk. Lakoff [1980] 2003, Gibbs [1993] 2002]. Plakts ciei saistts ar Pirmo tautas atmodu3, kuras aptuvenais laika posms ir no 1850. ldz 1890. gadiem [Baumanis 1946: 21]. Viens no slavenkajiem notikumiem ir ststs par Krijni Valdemru, kur Trbatas Universitt pie savm durvm pieliek viztkarti: Krijnis Valdemrs, latvietis. Pirms tautas atmodas idejas nesji ir jaunlatviei. Pirmais jaunlatviea vrdu iegst Juris Alunns par savu 1856. gad izdoto dzeju krjumu Dziesmias. Jura Alunna mris ir pierdt, ka latvieu valoda der ar
T k viss plakts ir liela izmra un neliel melnbalt zmjum detaas nav viegli uztvert, k ar rakst ir dadu plakta dau analze un attli, visu plaktu eit neievietoju. Visu plaktu var apskatt http://dziesmusvetki.lndb.lv/objekti/01-01.jpg vai http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/lv/d/da/Dziesmusvetku_plakats_1873.jpg 2 Juris Alunns bija tulkotjs, un dzejolis nav paa Alunna sacerts. Oriinlo dzejoli sacerjis ehu autors Frantieks Ladislavs elakovskis (17991852). Taut J. Alunnu piema k autoru, jo taj laik autortiesbu jautjums nebija aktuls. 3 Skka informcija par o plaktu nav atrodama, bet interesanti, ka latvieu Vikipdij Pirms atmodas sada teikts, ka is plakts ir Alegorisks Pirms atmodas laika attls [Vikipdija: Pirm atmoda]. Neuzskatu Vikipdiju par pilngi uzticamu avotu, bet aj gadjum tas ir viengais avots, kas sniedz tiei du skaidrojumu par alegoriju, kur btb ir patiess, k rda raksta autores veikt turpmk analze.
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literatrai, ne tikai zemnieku vajadzbm, k apgalvo vciei, latvieu valodu saucot par Bauersprache (zemnieku valoda) [rmanis [1998] 2008: 161].4 Tautas atmodas galvens idejas sum bija das: 1. Latvieu pienkums un tiesbas cnties pc savas nacionls kultras, [..] vislielko vrbu piegrieot skolai [..]. 2. Latvieu saimniecisk spka radana [..]. 3. Latvieu nacionls ideoloijas izveidoana [..]. 4. Latvieu politisk spka radana [..] [Spekke, [1948] 2008: 268]. Jaunlatvieu kustba veicinja latvieu nacionlo identitti, kas definta uz kopgas etnisks izcelsmes, valodas un kultras pamata. Jaunlatvieu nopelns ir tas, ka latvieu ncija nesaplda ne ar krievu, ne vcu nciju [Apals, 2011: 103]. Antonijs Smits (Anthony D. Smith) norda, ka ncijas un nacionlisma jdzieni nav tikai ideoloijas vai politikas formas, bet gan kultras pardbas, kas ciei saisttas ar nacionlo identitti, kas ir daudzdimensiju (multidimensional) koncepts, saistts ar pau valodu5, jtm un simboliku [sk. Smith 1991]. Romantisk nacionlisma laikmet tautas vljs pierdt, ka ir svargas ncijas ar slavenu pagtni. 1877. gad kds baltvcu komenttjs skaidroja, ka latvieiem nav nacionl eposa tpc, ka vii nekad pagtn nav izdarjui neko tdu, par ko btu vrts dziedt [Kasekamp, 2010: 77]. Tpc 1888. gad Andrejs Pumpurs radja latvieu nacionlo eposu Lplsis. Analizjam plakta un dzejoa Nevis slinkojot un pstot galven doma latvietim jbt aklam un jpaldz uzcelt savu valsti stipru un bagtu. Dzejoa pirm panta vizul reprezentcija redzama 1. attl (skat. attlus pielikum). Pirm panta verblie tropi galvenokrt ir lingvistisks metaforas6: prta gaisma nozm zinanas un kt pie prta gaismas nozm apgt zinanas.
4
Augusts Deglavs Rg piemin o nosaukumu: Ach red doch nicht die dumme Bauersprache! via biedrs to apsauca. Das ist ja nur Sprache fr die Schweine... U, kur tu iet?!... (Ak, nerun jel to muo zemnieku valodu, t jau ir tikai valoda priek ckm...) [Deglavs 1983: 189]. 5 Raksta mris ir koncentrties uz pau (stilistisku) valodas lietojumu, nevis socioloiskiem vai antropoloiskiem aspektiem. 6 Konceptul metafora no lingvistisks metaforas atiras ar to, ka vienu konceptu saprot cita koncepta ietvaros. Metaforiskais prnesums jeb projekcija notiek no
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Elna KRASOVSKA. Metonmijas mijiedarbba ar citiem tropiem: I Visprjo..
Gaisma ir oti svargs koncepts latvieu kultr. Gaismas pils koncepts ir raksturgs latvieu kultrai un domanai. Tas balstts leend par nogrimuu pili, kas bijusi gudrbas pulis. 19. gadsimt t ieguva jaunu simbolisku nozmi un tai bija svarga loma romantisk nacionlisma kustb, lai atmodintu latvieu identitti un kultru. Epos Lplsis pardta nogrimus Burtnieku pils, kas ir gudrbas un gargo drgumu krtuve. Lplsis izsaka trs galvens idejas par brvbu, kolektvo atmiu un gudrbu [Kalve and Naisione 2010: 127130]. Andrejs Pumpurs piedv Burtnieku pilij gudrbas simbolu, jo Lplsis ierodas Burtnieku pil: No tva stts e mcties zias Slaveno Burtnieku gudrbas skol [Pumpurs 2008: 17]. Ar Auseklis run par gaiu tautas pili, Gaismas kalna galotn, pieminot tautas gara greznumus, kas tur noglabti [Alunns, Pumpurs, Auseklis 2000: 87]. Gaismas pils koncepts vl joprojm ir btisks valodas un kultras elements, skot ar jauno Nacionls bibliotkas ku un beidzot ar cilvku ikdienas sarunm [sk. Kalve and Naisione 2010]. Latvieu valod ir daudz vrdu savienojumu ar komponentu gaisma, kuriem ir figuratva nozme. Tabul atspoguoti trs visizplattkie: 1. tabula Pirmais pants. Verblie tropi: Izteicieni ar gaismu7
Izteicieni ar komponentu gaisma gais cilvks gais prts gaia galva figuratv nozme gudrs/izgltots/labs cilvks gudrs/izgltots/attstts prts prts cilvks apdvints/tds, kam viegli padodas mcbas/attstts prts galva prts cilvks trops metafora metonmija
metonmija
viena konceptul domna (conceptual domain) uz otru no mrdomna (target domain) uz avotdomnu (source domain) (struktra A ir B) [Krasovska 2011: 166]. Piemram, no lingvistiskajm metaform partija izcns uzvaru vlans, zaudjus partijas negrib padoties, partija izkritusi no populrko partiju trijnieka, saskaiei turas lderos, zatleriei strauji zaud, var atvasint konceptulo metaforu POLITIKA IR SPORTS. 7 eit un turpmk tekst pie tabulm, ja nav nordts citdi: raksta autores veidota tabula.
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Vrdu savienojums Tauta zied un tauta ze nozm to, ka tauta attsts un sasniedz labkljbu, k parda tabula: 2. tabula Pirmais pants. Verblie tropi: ziedt un zelt
ziedt un zelt ziedt figuratv nozme bt augsti attsttam/ labi nodrointam/labi klties/ bt prtikuam labi attstties/bt lielisk stvokl trops metafora
zelt
metafora
Balstoties uz lingvistiskajm metaform un latvieu kultras mantojumu, var atvasint konceptuls metaforas ZINANAS IR GAISMA un ZINANAS IR PRTICBA. Apskatot pirm panta vizulos tropus, jpievras jaunajam cilvkam, kur stv tekstam blakus. Viu var uztvert k metonmu8, kur prstv visus jaunos un izgltotos cilvkus, latvieu tautas cerbu. T ir konceptul metonmija DAA prstv VESELUMU9. Alzija uz Aristoteli k prta gaismas nesju skatma 2. attl, alzijas avots Aristotelis no Rafala sienas freskas Atnu skola 3. attl. Platons un Aristotelis atrodas freskas centr starp citiem augsti izgltotiem vriem. Vii prstv filozofiju (metonmiska saistba E.K.), kas renesanses laik augstskols bija viena no etrm zintniskajm fakulttm [tukenbroka un Tepere 2007: 748]. T ir metonmiska de10: Aristotelis filozofija zintne zinanas.
Konkrts metonmijas lietojums. Konceptul metonmija no lingvistisks metonmijas atiras ar to, ka lingvistisk metonmija ir attiecinoa (referential) (norda uz kaut ko, piem., uz tuvu vai radniecgu lietu, to pau nenosaucot E.K.), bet konceptul metonmija ir konceptula opercija, kur nesjvienba (vehicle entity) prstv mrvienbu (target entity) [Kvecses 2002: 148, Evans 2007: 141142]. Metonmijai raksturgas tuvbas asocicijas (associations of contiguity). 10 Metonmisks des (chained metonymies) iesaista vairk nek vienu konceptulo prbdi (conceptual shift), kad var bt iesaistti vairki konceptulie domni, jo viens metonmisks elements ved pie cita metonmiska elementa, t veidojot metonmisku struktru [sk. Hilpert 2007].
8 9
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Eea vizulajam attlojumam ir svarga loma plakta nozmes veidoan (meaning construction). Nozmes veidoana ir konceptualizcija. Tas nozm, ka valoda pati nozmi neveido (encode), bet vrdi ierosina (prompt) nozmes veidoanu, sakrtojot konceptuls opercijas un nostiprinot fona zinanas (background knowledge). Nozmes veidoana drzk ir process, nevis kas konkrts, ko var izteikt ar valodu [Evans 2007: 141] (skat. 4. attlu). Eelis ir vizul metonmija un metafora, jo eelis ir gan debesu un gaismas prstvis, gan svtbas prstvis tautai. Metonmiju vizuli var attlot k pardts 5. attl. is un nkamais modelis darbojas kognitvs lingvistikas konceptuls metaforas teorijas satvar. Metaforu vizuli var attlot k pardts 6. attl. Turpinot eeu tmu, japskata vizuls alzijas uz putti eeliem. Putto (itu valod puistis, dsk. putti) ir glezn vai skulptr attlots kails, apags puisns, kas var prstvt gan eeli, gan laicgu btni. Putti eeli ir aizgti no gotiskajiem eeiem brnu veidol, kuri vispirms pardjs renesanses mksl. Tie ar biei vrojami baroka laika darbos [tukenbroka un Tepere 2007: 996] (skat. 7. attlu). Putti eeli var bt gan ar sprniem, gan bez, t k eit redzamie eeli ir bez sprniem, jsecina, ka tie ir cilvkbrni. 8. attl var vrot eelus, kuri mcs, ttad cenas kt pie prta gaismas. Ieskatoties rpgk, var redzt, ka H. ica plakt eeli ir zni un meitenes. Plakta kreisaj pus ir zni, bet labaj meitenes. Telpisko orientciju var apskatt, emot vr socili semiotisko pieeju. pieeja uzskata, ka rietumu kultras vizulo komunikciju ietekm tas, ka ms rakstm no kreiss uz labo pusi, un informcija parasti nk no sttja un iet pie uztvrja, no avota uz galamri, no zinms uz jauno informciju [Kress and Van Leeuwen [1996] 2006: 4; 183185]. ai gadjum tas nozm, ka agrk izgltbu parasti ieguva zni, bet tagad, lai uzceltu jaunu un stipru valsti, izgltb jbt vienldzbai, un t jiegst ar meitenm. Stilistiski putti eeli ir skolas brnu metonmi, kas nkotn veidos tautas izgltotos vrus un sievas. Nozme veidojas, mijiedarbojoties lingvistiskajai metaforai, kas izteikta verbli kt pie prta gaismas un vizuli izteiktajai alzijai uz putti eeliem, kuri ir abu dzimumu skolas brnu un nkotnes valsts clju metonmi (skat. 9. attlu).
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Tagad jpievras otrajam pantam (skat. 10. attlu). Otr panta verblie tropi prsvar saistti ar hiperbolu, metaform un metonmisku di. 3. tabula Otrais pants. Verblie tropi: Ja ikviens stu
figuratv nozme visi latviei skt dart to, kas paldzs tautai augt labs darbs savai tautai (ar izgltba), kas dzs asnus un augs zelta kvieu krjums labu darbu kopums savai tautai (ar iegta izgltba) st grauds attstba (izaugsme) kvieu krjums Ja ikviens stu ikviens st vesels grauds Trops Hiperbola Metafora Metafora Metafora metonmiska de
Otr panta vizulais trops ir alzija, kas veido asociciju virkni. Pie otr panta ir vrs, kur vartu bt muias kalps vai brvzemnieks izejamajs drns, izsakot domu, ka ar izgltbu iespjams iegt labku stvokli sabiedrb. Saldzinjum ar putti eeliem is vrs neizskats prk jauns, tdjdi jizdara secinjums, ka mcties nekad nav par vlu. Otraj pant svarga loma ir verblajm un vizulajm metaform, kuras saisttas ar struktru, kas vizuli attlota plakta centr. Struktra ietver dzejoli, un uz ts pakpuies ar putti eeli, nordot, ka td veid pie prta gaismas kstot tiks celta latvieu valsts. Vizuli struktru veido barokl stil darints rmis ar akanta lapm, to apvij ar ziedi, pardot dzvu un nedzvu vienbu savanos (skat. 11. attlu). Dadas lingvistisks metaforas par valsts celanu: celt valsti, bvt valsti, taist valsti, konstrut valsts modeli auj atvasint konceptulo metaforu VALSTS IR CELTNE. Konceptul metafora VALSTS IR AUGS sakojas gan vrda augt polismij11, gan citos izteicienos par valsts auganu: valsts aug, valsts ze un plaukst, valsts zied un ze. Dzejolis vst par kvieu graudiem, kuri ikvienam ir jsj, tpc ikkatram pilsonim ir jpieplas, lai valsts augtu. Lingvistisks metaforas atspoguo konceptuls metaforas, kas pastv tautas doman: var atvedint konceptulo meta11
Augt nozm gan augt bioloiski, gan attstties [LVV 2006: 143144].
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foru CILVKI IR DRZNIEKI vai CILVKI IR CELTNIEKI, jo latvieu valod biei izmanto izteicienus cilvki kopj valsti, cilvki ce valsti vai cilvki bv valsti. Otr panta vizulo tropu vairkumu veido dadas konceptuls metonmijas (skat. 12. attlu). Vizulie tropi prsvar ir alzijas un konceptuls metonmijas INSTRUMENTI PRSTV DARBBU: 4. tabula Konceptuls metonmijas: INSTRUMENTI PRSTV DARBBU
Mrvienba mcties Instruments/ldzeklis Nesjvienba grmata globuss pildspalva lpsta cirvis izkapts enkurs Darbba Mrvienba lasana eogrfijas mcans Rakstana rakana cirana pauana Kuoana
strdt
Ir divas galvens mrvienbas metonmijm, kuras atspoguo svargkos darbbas veidus, kas paldzs uzcelt jauno valsti un veds pie labkljbas darbs un mcbas (skat. 13. attlu). Stilistiski sjjs ir metafora un kalambrs, jo vi prstv gan izgltbu un labus darbus tautai (metafora), gan zemniecbu. Sjjs vizuli attlots burtiski, ttad pretstattas figuratv un burtisk nozme, kas veido kalambru (skat. 14. attlu). Dieml graudu vezuma attls nav pilnb saglabjies, bet t nozmi var saprast. Graudu vezums ar ir metafora un kalambrs. Labo darbu kopums savai tautai vai iegta izgltba ir metafora, kas lietota vienlaicgi ar labbas pauanu un zelta kvieu krjuma vkanu, kas attlota vizuli un burtiski, veidojot kalambru. Pamatojoties uz Latvijas kultras un vstures mantojumu, var identifict du multimodlo12 tropu tklojumu (network):
Multimodls ir tds, kas darbojas vismaz divos semiotiskajos kodos, piemram, verblaj un vizulaj.
12
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5. tabula Multimodlo tropu tklojums

VERBLI VERBLI UN VIZULI VIZULI
Konceptuls metaforas Gudrba

ZINANAS IR GAISMA
Konceptuls metaforas Struktra

VALSTS IR CELTNE/AUGS
Alzijas Eelis, putti eeli, Aristotelis Metonmi: Instrumenti: lpsta, cirvis, izkapts, enkurs. Mcbu ldzeki: piezmju bloks, pildspalva, globuss. Kalambri: Zemes kopana (burtiski) un izgltba, un labi darbi (metaforiski)
ZINANAS IR PRTICBA
CILVKI IR CELTNIEKI/DRZNIEKI
Daai tropu nozme veidojas tikai verblaj reprezentcij, daai tikai vizulaj, bet svargko tropu nozme veidojas verbls un vizuls reprezentcijas mijiedarbb. Secinjumi Analizjot I Visprjiem latvieu dziesmu svtkiem veltto plaktu, raksta autore nonk pie diem secinjumiem: 1. Konceptulo metaforu eksistence latvieu valod ir izteikta ne tikai verbli, bet ar vizuli, veidojot tropu tklojumu multimodlaj diskurs, mijiedarbojoties metaforai, metonmijai, kalambram un alzijai. 2. Vizulie tropi domin pr verblajiem tropiem. 3. Analiztajiem tropiem prsvar nozme veidojas verbls un vizuls reprezentcijas mijiedarbb. 4. Konceptul metafora ZINANAS IR GAISMA ir dzii iesakojusies latvieu identitt un kultr.
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Elna KRASOVSKA. Metonmijas mijiedarbba ar citiem tropiem: I Visprjo.. LITERATRA Alunns, J., Pumpurs, A., Auseklis: Izlase. Sakrtojusi Lejniece, G. Rga: Zvaigzne ABC, 2000. 103 lpp. Apals, G. Pterburgas Avzes: Latvieu pirm saskare ar Eiropas politiskajm idejm. Rga: Zvaigzne ABC, 2011. 176 lpp. Baumanis, A., editor. Latvian Poetry. Augsburg: A. Baumanis, 1946. 133 pp. Deglavs, A. Rga II. Rga: Zvaigzne, 1983. 530 lpp. Evans, V. A Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics. Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press, 2007. 239 pp. Gibbs, R. W. Jr. The Poetics of Mind: Figurative Thought, Language and Understanding. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [1994] 2002. 527 pp. rmanis, U. Latvieu tautas piedzvojumi. Rga: Atna, [1998] 2008. 344 lpp. Hilpert, M. Chained Metonymies in Lexicon and Grammar: A Cross-linguistic Perspective on Body Part Terms. In: Radden, G.; Kpcke, K.-M.; Berg T. and Siemund, P., editors, Aspects of Meaning Construction. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2007, 7798 pp. Kalve, A. and Naisione, A. Metaphorical Traces of the Sun and Light in Latvian Language and Culture. In: Teters, D., editor, Metamorphoses of the World: Traces, Shadows, Reflections, Echoes, and Metaphors. Riga: Metamind, 2010, 121 132 pp. Kasekamp, A. A History of the Baltic States. London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. 251 pp. Kvecses, Z. Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. 285 pp. Krasovska, E. Kognitvs pieejas priekrocbas figuratvs valodas izpt. No: Vrds un t ptanas aspekti: rakstu krjums. 15 (1). Liepja: LiePA, 2011, 163. 173. lpp. Kress, G. and Van Leeuwen, T. Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. London: Routledge, [1996] 2006. 291 pp. Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, [1980] 2003. 276 pp. Pumpurs, A. Lplsis, latvju tautas varonis: Tautas eposs. Rga: Zvaigzne ABC, 2008. 152 lpp. LVV Latvieu valodas vrdnca: 30 000 pamatvrdu un to skaidrojumu. Sastdtji: Blia, R.; delmane, I.; Grase, I.; Guevska, D.; Rozentrauha, I.; Skujia, V. un n, D. Rga: Avots, 2006. 1211 lpp. Smith, A., D. National Identity. London: Penguin Books, 1991, 227 pp. Spekke, A. Latvijas vsture. Rga: Jumava, [1948] 2008. 382 lpp.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst tukenbroka, K. un Tepere, B. 1000 edevru Eiropas glezniecb: 13001850. Rga: Ja Rozes apgds, 2007. 1008 lpp. Vikipdija: Pirm atmoda. Pieejams: http://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirm%C4% 81_atmoda
Metonymy in Interaction with Other Tropes: The Poster of the First Latvian National Song Festival Summary
The article focuses on the interaction of stylistic patterns (metaphor, metonymy, pun and allusion) in verbal and visual discourse and their role in meaning construction. The article is an attempt to examine some of the underlying structures of figurative language and their contiguity links, and the correlation of tropes with cultural and historical occurrences, and the identity of the Latvian nation. National identity is shaped via different entities, and one of the most important identity constituents is national literature. The analysis is based on a poem by the prominent Latvian poet Juris Alunns (18321864) By Not Being Lazy and Rotting (Nevis slinkojot un pstot) which is part of the historic poster dedicated to the first Latvian National Song Festival (1873). The period from 1848 to 1870 is known for the First National Awakening when the main objectives were creation and development of Latvian national culture, paying special attention to the national language and schooling. The central idea of the poem By Not Being Lazy and Rotting is be hard-working and make your state strong and wealthy. A whole network of tropes can be identified, drawing upon the history and culture of Latvia. The song reveals how to be a good Latvian and serve your country best. The most important tropes like metaphor and allusion rely on metonymic links. The meaning of conceptual metaphors like STATE IS A BUILDING and PEOPLE ARE BUILDERS or KNOWLEDGE IS LIGHT are constructed in the interaction of verbal and visual tropes. These conceptual metaphors are deeply ingrained in the Latvian identity and culture.
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Pielikums Attli
1. attls. Nevis slinkojot un pstot pirmais pants13
2. attls. Pirmais pants. Vizulie tropi: alzija uz Aristoteli

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3. attls. Pirmais pants. Vizulie tropi: Rafala Aristotelis14
eit un turpmk tekst pie plakta, ja nav nordts citdi: fragments no I Visprjiem latvieu dziesmu svtkiem veltt plakta (H. ics, 1873. g.) ar Jura Alunna (18321864) tekstu, kur saglabts: http://dziesmusvetki.lndb.lv/objekti/01-01.jpg 2011. gada 4. novembr. Plakta oriinls atrodas Skiespieddarbu un attlizdevumu noda, Latvijas Nacionlaj bibliotk. 14 Fragments no Rafala (14831520) sienas freskas A tnu skola, kur saglabts: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Sanzio_01.jpg 2010. gada 30. jnij. Freskas oriinls atrodas Vatikn, Vatikna muzej, Stanza della Segnatura.
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4. attls. Pirmais pants. Vizulie tropi: Eelis
5. attls. Pirmais pants. Vizulie tropi: Eelis metonmija15
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Autores ilustrcija, izmantojot programmu Microsoft PowerPoint.
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6. attls. Pirmais pants. Vizulie tropi: Eelis metafora16
7. attls. Pirmais pants. Vizulie tropi: Putti eeli

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8. attls. Pirmais pants. Vizulie tropi: Putti eeli mcs
9. attls. Pirmais pants. Vizulie tropi: Nozmes veidoana17
10. attls. Nevis slinkojot un pstot otrais pants

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11. attls. Otrais pants. Vizulie tropi: Struktra
12. attls. Otrais pants. Vizulie tropi: Metonmijas
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13. attls. Otrais pants. Vizulie tropi: Sjjs
14. attls. Otrais pants. Vizulie tropi: Vezums
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(Universit Parisl Sorbonne Panthon)

: , , , , , , , , . , . . , . , , . , , . - . - - . 15 6 . , , , . ( ), , , 25 - , . 295
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-2 / weil ich keine Zeit habe / ( ) -1 / / - / sie hat zugegeben ( ) //
296
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-3: / Diese Eindruck habe ich nicht gehabt (: ) / - / / /
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, . , . -3 , . zur richtigen Zeit am richtigen Ort ( ) : in richtige Zeit / da richtige Stelle ist. Ort () Stelle (), , , . 297
, , :
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, , . 19- -4 - - : + :
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. :
-5: ein/ Krieg / / / / ( )
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sich erinnern (.) se souvenir (.) Ich erinnere mich nicht (.) = Je ne me souviens pas (.) = .
, , , () . : je suis endormi ( , me sendormir ) je me suis endormi. Ich zweifle ( ), Ich zweifle mich. . , , , (Pass compos) avoir (), tre () (participe pass) . avoir , , tre () se , . , , , - , . 299
. : . , , , ? . . , 1812 , ( 50 . . , , ) [ 1986: 77]. , , - . . . . . . : . ( ) : Butter ( . . Beurre .) l (. lhuile, . oil) . , . . : - . , .. . . : , . , , . , . , Konto , , , 300
-. ..
. . . . Er ist Blau (: . , ) , ( ). , . : Blau ( ) . , , (). (.. ) . . ? (. ordinateur ) , . - ( . Je suis fatigu) , - . : ? ( ) ( ) () . -, : ( . clochard), / ( . Penner). , (Le pouvoir dachat), die Kaufkraft. , , . . : , apr (apritif), clodo ( clochard), dj ( djeuner), prof , ( professeur), gynco ( gyncologue), 301
formide ( formidable), Monop ( Monoprix ) .. .. , , , :

prof dj ( , , 2006). Mon prof a demand une ptite modif ( , , 2010).
, - . . ( ). , , 2 1 2 . . - , . .
Weinreich, Uriel. Sprachen in Kontakt. Mnchen: Beck, 1976. . : , 1986.
The Impact of Bilingualisms on the Spontaneous Speech of Russian Speaking migrs of Distant Countries Summary
This paper studies coexistence of different linguistic, cultural and national stereotypes of a bilingual person, languages interaction in colloquial syntax and oral speech of Russian-speaking immigrants in France and Germany.
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Lina MURINIEN
(Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences)
Lithuanian Language Etiquette: Inherited and Borrowed Greetings and Farewell Formulas
Key words: language etiquette, greetings, farewell formulas It is common knowledge that no nation can normally function without referring to certain ways of greeting people and saying good-bye on parting. But matters of etiquette both linguistic and non-linguistic vary from nation to nation. Thus the very concept of etiquette may acquire different treatment in the Christian or Muslim, African or European tradition. And vice versa: the closer the nations are in terms of their history, language, and religion, the more common grounds can be identified in their manifestations of etiquette. The present article is devoted to the discussion of the forms of Lithuanian language etiquette, in particular to the forms of greeting and farewell formulas1. Greetings The most frequently used forms of greeting in Lithuanian are: labas rytas (good morning), laba diena (good afternoon), labas vakaras (good evening). These formulas signal the specific time of day. Similar formulas are found in other languages as well, like labrt, labdien, labvakar (in Latvian), , , (in Russian), or Guten Morgen, Guten Tag, Guten Abend (in German), and good morning, good afternoon (in English), bonjour, bonsoir (in French). When viewed from the historical perspective, these formulas can be traced back to the occasion of wishing for a good day (morning or evening). It should be noted that these formulas of greeting is a relatively recent phenomenon in the Lithuanian language. Giedr epaitien, professor of
Issues of Lithuanian etiquette in its different forms of manifestation have been studied by Giedr epaitien [2007], Birut Jasinait [1999, 2006 and some later works], Antan Kuinskait [1990], and other authors. The most recent works are those of Inga Hilbig [2010] and Egl Gudaviien [2007].
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iauliai University, has done research on the Lithuanian letter-writing mode in the period approximately between WW I and WW II (i.e., the period from 1918 to 1941), in other words, that period can be referred to as the one before soviet occupation. The obtained data of the research speak for the fact that the educated people of Lithuania at that time avoided using formulas with explicit wishing for a good day. Instead, formulas of religious type like garb Jzui Kristui (Glory to Jesus Christ) and tegul bus pagarbintas Jzus Kristus (Let us worship Jesus Christ) were considered as indications of good manners [epaitien 2007: 119, 122123). This kind of awareness seems genuinely natural as pre-soviet Lithuania had been a country of deep-rooted Catholic faith. Nowadays, these formulas of greeting are still used when addressing representatives of clergy. That is how, in the course of time, Catholic content-laden formulas of greeting were gradually replaced by good day in both formal and nonformal communication. Formulas of this particular character function in several grammatical variants; first, there are nominative-type combinations, like labas rytas, laba diena, labas vakaras, second, there are also accusativetype combinations used, like lab ryt, lab dien, lab vakar. The mixedtype variants, with the nominativetype for labas rytas, labas vakaras, but with the accusative-type for lab dien are used by the majority of dialects in Lithuania (See [epaitien 2007: 118] as well as other quotes from sources used by the author). People in the north-west of Lithuanian (Samogitia) use only the accusative-type variants, which are, naturally, pronounced without the long vowel sound at the end of the word as it is typical of this dialect to strongly reduce the unstressed ending of the word. In the standard language, in turn, the nominative-type variant forms are more common in all the three formulas, i.e., laba diena is commonly used side by side with labas rytas and labas vakaras. The situation can be accounted for by both linguistic and extralinguistic factors. The linguistic factor is pre-conditioned by the logics of language development and the pressure that is executed by the language system itself. As the majority of Lithuanian dialects tend to use the nominative-type variant in labas rytas, labas vakaras, the formula laba diena is chosen by analogy. On the other hand, in the standard language, it is rather difficult to pronounce the accusative-type form lab dien with a long unstressed vowel sound a in the word-final position. Mention should be made here of the fact that the dialects of the Lithuanian language have survived up to the present day, 304
Lina MURINIEN. Lithuanian Language Etiquette: Inherited and Borrowed..
and, while speaking in their own dialect, many Lithuanians tend to shorten unstressed ending of the word and, in this case quantitative reduction takes place. Thus, the dialect form of the accusative-type variant (lba ~ diena) with a short ending, when pronounced in spontaneous speech, ~ approaches closely the dialect form of the nominative-type (lba diena) with its stress shifted from the ending onto the first syllable. In this way the dialectal accusative turns into nominative, and the stress shift, when the speaker switches into the standard language, is self-corrected by the speaker while restoring the long stressed vowel in the word-final position in the nominative case. The latter case could be attached to the extralinguistic factor that is responsible for the linguistic change. In recent years, it has become quite obvious that some change is taking place in the use of these greeting formulas. The new formula sveiki (hello) is becoming fairly frequently-used nowadays. Some ten years ago this formula (sveikas sg., masc.; sveiki pl., masc.; sveika sg., fem.; sveikos pl., fem.) was commonly used only in non-formal situations. As a rule, the addressee is also used alongside the greeting word: sveikas, Jonai; sveiki, vaikinai; sveika, Ona; sveikos, merginos. This adjective agrees with the addressee in number and gender. The plural nominative form sveiki, which does not require an addressee, is treated as a polite plural form of greeting, and it is stylistically marked; it is considered to be more appropriate while greeting relatives, good friends, companions [epaitien 1996: 29; 2007: 121]. In recent years, however, the form sveiki is obviously expanding its boundaries of functioning. It is possible to observe how this form of greeting is gradually passing into the domain of more formal communication. What is more, this form has been increasingly used alongside its addressee, for instance, sveiki, Jonai; sveiki, Ona; sveiki, profesoriau; sveiki, profesore. In this way, the formula sveiki has been replacing laba diena. The adjective sveiki (pl., masc.), in the mentioned above combinations, by its grammatical functions is very much like the word labas. The latter has ceased to function as an adjective, it can rather be treated as an interjection [epaitien 2007: 119] as it has lost gender and number distinctions: labas, Jonai; labas, vaikinai; labas, Ona; labas, merginos. But in terms of their communicative functions, the words labas and sveiki remain on different planes. The word labas has retained its non-formal character and is used in the corresponding communicative situations whereas the word sveiki has been undergoing the process of transfer and is moving from 305
non-formal use into a considerably more formal situation of use. Thus the formulas sveiki, Jonai; sveika, Ona are no longer used to address only close friends or relatives but we rather use them to address our colleagues or other well-familiar people whom we also address by the plural form of you on other occasions. Therefore, the word sveiki is gradually becoming a greeting formula in formal use and thus it tends to oust the formula laba diena. This kind of change could have been pre-conditioned by two factors. The first one, the inner factor, arises out of the language-inherent processes of development, and the second factor comes from outside, due to the influence of other languages, especially English, and we will discuss it further on. Language can be said to have the inherently-specific capacity to get adjusted to the changing outward world and develop new linguistic phenomena. The modernization of our daily life and the use of newly-designed electronic devices have nearly ousted hand-written letters. Although we have not carried out a specifically focused research, it is more than evident that the majority of present-day electronic letters begin with sveikas sg., masc.; sveika sg., fem.; sveiki pl., masc. The first two variants are characteristic of non-formal communication, with the addressee often mentioned, and the singular form of the pronoun you is always used. This form is generally chosen while communicating with relatives and close friends (of the same age group as a rule). And the form sveiki, as it has already been mentioned, is more typical of a formal situation, and the addressee here is always the plural form of you, for instance Hello, Ann, Id like to ask you when exactly your plane lands? (Sveiki, Ona, norjau js pasiteirauti, kada tiksliai leidiasi js lktuvas?) We could accept this form as completely normative and accurate if there were no addressee mentioned in it (Sveiki, norjau js pasiteirauti...), with the polite plural form of the adjective sveikas, -a. Now, with the addressee explicitly stated, the form becomes doubtful in terms of its accuracy as the commonly accepted form in cases like this has been the formula Laba diena / Lab dien, Ona, norjau js pasiteirauti... On the other hand, the latter formula does not always correspond to the communicative situations of the writer and addressee for the simple reason that when the writer uses labas rytas in his e-mail, he is not at all sure whether the addressee will be reading the letter in the morning or some later time in the day. 306
The increasingly more frequent use of the formula sveiki can also be accounted for by the influence of English. The greeting formula hello is fairly common in English e-mails. This kind of use does not require the mention of the time of day and thus facilitates creating a kind of intermediary situation of communication in terms of its formality2. Formulas of saying good-bye/parting In the present-day Lithuanian language the two main formulas for this kind of occasion are viso gero and sudiev3 (good-bye/farewell). The first one also functions in the form of its lexical variant viso labo and in its morphological variant viso geriausio. The second formula has its spelling variant sudiev and the specific word-building variants sudie, su dievu. Historically, the first formula can be traced back to wishing good (labas). The Dictionary of Lithuanian has recorded quite a number of meanings of the word labas both in the noun position (1) and in the adjective position (2), some of those meanings being: prosperity, benefit, wealth, treasure, etc (1), and having positive features, good, fair, worthy, dear, etc (2). The meaning of the second formula sudiev goes back to wishing somebody to stay with god, i.e., to be taken care of by god. The latter formula had nearly fallen out of use in soviet times. It was mainly due to political reasons because people had been prosecuted for their religious faith, and this formula of parting had been simply avoided. In the long run, under the influence of both the political situation and the Russian language as there exists the formula in Russian gradually the formula viso gero got established in Lithuanian. On advice of some experts of the Lithuanian language etiquette [Kuinskait 1990: 23], a more appropriate formula viso labo, should rather be chosen in this case as it is of genuine Baltic origin. The word labas is not merely an old Baltic word, it matches much better the whole paradigm alongside labas rytas, laba diena, labas vakaras.
It could be noted that, among other meanings of the word hello (also hallo, hello), this particular meaning is given in The Oxford Dictionary of Current English [1996]: int. expression of informal greetings, in later editions of other English dictionaries, however, like Longman Exams Dictionary [2006], this meaning is no longer marked as informal. 3 There are many more formulas of greeting and parting but we will restrict ourselves to these few in this study.
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In the 1990s, after Lithuania had regained its independence, the educated part of Lithuanian population tried to bring back into everyday use the formula of parting4 sudiev. Unfortunately, the word has not yet been fully accepted by all users. The conceptual meaning of this formula has undergone considerable changes. In the present-day Lithuanian, this formula is commonly used with reference to long-term parting. Here are a few examples from the internet media: (1) President Valdas Adamkus arrives in Brussels not only to solve important political matters, but also to bid farewell to the European leaders. ( Europos Sjungos vadov susitikim Briuselyje Prezidentas Valdas Adamkus atvyko ne tik sprsti svarbi klausim, bet ir itarti sudiev5 ali vadovams). On 1819 June, V. Adamkus participates in the European Council as head of the state for the last time. (Birelio 1819 dienomis V. Adamkus paskutin kart dalyvauja Europos Vadov Taryboje kaip alies vadovas); (2) Sudiev, Estija, jau niekada daugiau nebepamatysiu Tavs. (Farewell, Estonia, for ever); (3) J. Marcinkeviiui sudie tar valstybs vadovai (The highest officials of the Respublic of Lithuania come to bid farewell to J. Marcinkeviius (the heading of a newspaper article on the funeral of the poet)6. However, the opinion that the formula sudiev applies only to the two types of communicative situations in the context of religious rituals (1), and while bidding farewell to people on parting for ever (2) is not sufficiently grounded. The same kind of formula is used in many languages of Europe, cf. the Spanish adis, the Italian addio, the French adieu, the Swedish adj, the Portuguese adeus. Historically, all these words can be traced back to the Latin phrase ad deum (with god, next to god); also compare the English good-by, good-bye, which means God be with you. However, in the course of centuries, the religious aspect of the meaning of
One of Lithuanian linguists, who wrote about the need of bringing back the formula sudiev into active use before the 1990s, was Aleksas Girdenis, professor of Vilnius University (see [1989, 1991, cf. 2001: 364365]). We tend to follow his treatment of this formula in the present article. 5 The underlining of words here and further on is mine. 6 My personal observation can also serve to witness that: if I pronounce sudiev to my students after the lecture in the middle of term, they often display the reaction of surprise: Are you not coming to us soon again? That gives me a chance to dwell more on the meaning, use, and compatibility of Lithuanian formulas of parting.
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the phrase has disappeared. Nowadays, people in different European countries use this phrase extensively on parting, and the phrase has become part of the general cultural tradition in Europe. Hopefully, this tradition is being revived in Lithuania as well. Conclusions The formulas of religious character in the Lithuanian language have not entirely disappeared, though they are more commonly found among the passively known ones. The formula sveiki has become more common than the greetings that indicate precise time of day. The formula sveiki has gravitated from contexts of non-formal use into the more formal use. The spread of the formula sveiki could be accounted for by the influence of the English language. At present, the most dominant formula of parting in Lithuanian is viso gero. The older Lithuanian formula sudiev, which had become a variant of passive vocabulary in soviet years, is being again more commonly used nowadays.
LITERATURE epaitien, G. Kalbos etiketas ir mokykla. iauliai: iauli pedagoginis institutas, 1996. epaitien, G. Lietuvi kalbos etiketas: semantika ir pragmatika. iauliai: iauli universiteto leidykla, 2007. Girdenis, A. Ar grinsime vartosen sudieu? In: Gimtoji kalba. Vilnius: MELI, 1991. Nr. 7. Girdenis, A. Kalbotyros darbai. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidybos institutas, t. 3, 2001. Girdenis, A. Sudieu. In: Gimtasis kratas. Vilnius, 1989. Nr. 30 (1167). Gudaviien, E. Lietuvi kalbos direktyvai, Humanitarini moksl daktaro disertacija. Vilniaus universitetas, 2007. Hilbig, I. Lietuvi ir angl lingvistinis mandagumas: praymai. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla, 2010. Jasinait, B. tavo sveikat, mano yvat! (Tradiciniai vaii linkjimai). In: Lithuanistica. Vilnius, 1999. Nr. 2 (38). Jasinait, B. Medias Ryt Lietuvos folkloro formulse. In: Baltistica. Vilnius, 2006. XLI (2).
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Kuinskait, A. Lietuvi kalbos etiketas. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1990. Longman Exams Dictionary. Longman, 2006. Oxford Dictionary of Current English. Oxford University Press, 1996.
Lietuvieu valodas etiete: mantots un aizgts sasveicinans un atvadans formulas Kopsavilkums

Formulu, kurs tiek nosaukts diennakts laiks (labas rytas labrt, laba diena labdien, labas vakaras labvakar), viet lietuvieu valod arvien biek tiek lietots sveiki sveiki. Pirms gadiem desmit is vrds ir bijis vairk raksturgs neoficilas komunikcijas situcijai, bet palaik tas arvien biek vrojams oficil komunikcij. Formulas sveiki izplatans var bt saistta ar angu valodas ietekmi. Lietuvieu valod palaik domin atvadans formula viso gero visu labu. Vecais sudiev ardiev padomju period bija izskausts un reti lietojams, bet tagad manmas ples ieviest to atpaka aprit. Nav pamatots uzskats, it k formul sudiev esot reliiska semantika un ka t iederoties tikai divs situcijs: 1) bazncas ritulos un 2) atvadoties uz visu laiku. Ldzgu formulu lieto vairkums Eiropas tautu, sal. spu adis, itu addio, franu adieu, zviedru adj, portugu adeus. Vsturisk skatjum visi ie vrdi btu latu vrdkopas ad Deum pie Dieva; ar Dievu; Dievam blakus tulkojumi. Tau gadsimtu gait reliijas un dievbijguma nozme ir mazinjusies. Eiropas tautas ikdien lieto mintos vrdus, un t ir Eiropas kultras tradcija.
310

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: , , , , , , , , . , , , . , . , , , , , - [ 1956: 185]. , , , () . , , , , , , , , , () - . , , ( ) (), , , .
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst ! ! - !.. - ... ..
j, . , , , , . , ; . , ; , , , . , , , : , , , ( , ), . / . , -, ( ) (. nakone), , . , , , , , 314
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst , .. . , 2011, c. 24. , . . : , 1956. 450 .
Wedding Communication in Russian and Serbian Linguo-Cultures Summary

The article deals with a comparative study in the field of marriage communication in Russian and Serbian linguo-cultures in axiological, symbolic, organizational and pragmatic aspects. The main constituents of marriage communication in Russian and Serbian linguo-cultures reveal similarities, which are due to close relationship and common religion, still, each single research aspect contains specific features.
316

( )

: , , , , ( ) , . , . , (, ), , . . : , ,/ ! .. , : : , , , ? , , , ( ?) [ 1997: 303]. [ 1975: 328]. , (.: , [ 3: 581], , [ 2: 166]. , , , , , . , , . 317
: , , . , . : , , , , [ 1975: 467]. .. [ 1997: 304]. , - . , : ( , ), (, ), (, ), ( ). . , , : 508 [ 2001: 321]. . . [ 2004: 230]. , , . . . : , , , , . , , -, , , , . [ 2004: 125] .. : , , . , . , . , 318
. ..
. , , - [ 2008: 241]. : , , , [ 1997: 683], , , , [ 2002: 361, 2009: 126], . , , [ 2002: 539]. . : , . , : [ 1989: 384]. , , : , , (). , , [ 14: 285]. , . . - [ 1985: 337]. , , : . ! , ! (. : , () , , -, , , ?) [ 15: 118]. . , (. : !), , . , . ( ) . , ; : (. ). 319
, - . : , : , ; , ; , [ 4: 8]. , : [ 4: 8]. : [ 4: 8]. , , . , , . : , . , , . , (. : : , ; (), !) [ 4: 8]. (.) , , [ 3: 581]. , : , : , , , -, [ 3: 299]. , ( ), , (. : ). : , () : , , , , , 320
. ..
- , . [ 1: 170]; ! [ 1990: 40]; , . [ 1990: 284]; , , , , , , , ! [ 2000: 85]. , , , : , ( 15: 11). : . (, ) : , . . , . : , , () , () (. : , [ 4: 8]). . , (. : ): , , - , - , [ 14: 457]; : [ 14: 99]. , , , , : , , , , . : . , ! , [ 14: 147]; , , , , , , , , , , , ... [ 15: 31]; - 321
[ 15: 68]. : , , , ; , - , , , , [14: 99]. : , : , . , , [ 14: 282]; : . , , . , , . [ 14: 283]. (, , , ) , , . -. , . (1. , , . 2. -, -. [ 4: 657] (. , , , , ( , ). , , : , , . . . , , , . , , [ 1994: 64]. . , : , 322
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! () ! ! [ 1907]. , ; : , , , . , ? [ 14: 46] (. : ; - , [ 10: 116]. () , [ 4: 8], : , : [ 1990: 10]. [ 2002: 539] (. : , [ 4: 8]). , , , . , , , , : : . , , , [ 14: 289]. , , , , , , , . : , () , , , , , , ; , , . 323
Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst A. . . . , , 4, 1907. Available: http://dugward.ru/library/blok/beliy_nechajan. html [20.09.2012]. . . , 1990. e . . , 1990. 1982 , . . 4- . . 14. . 1981. . . , 1989. .. . 30- . . 10, 1415. , 1974. . : . , -,1994. . . , , 1996. . . , 2004. . 4- . : , 1981. . . .: . . , 1991. 2002 . 2- . . 1. , 2002. CC . : , 1975. . . .: , 2000, 10. .. : . , 1997. . . . Filologija. VJ iauliu universiteto leidykla 2009, 14. 2001 . . , , 2001. . . 12- . . 3. , 1979. . . . . 22- . . 1. , 1978. .. . . 5- . . 5. : , 2008. . : . , 2004. . . . , 2002. . 3- . . 3. , 1985.
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The Verbalization of Emotional Concept Joy in the Russian Language Summary

The paper deals with the specificity of the emotional joy concept verbalization in the Russian language. The name of the concept is in the center of description. The name of the concept joy has few synonyms but it is actively involved in pairs of antonyms. The most significant conceptual features of the concept were revealed after analysis of proverbs and primarily of Dostoevskys individual style. Joy acts as a vital feeling, a desirable condition, it may disappear. Its lack is uncomfortable, it has transcendental nature. It is impossible to define and comprehend. It is brief and associated with youth, health, etc. This feeling is multi-dimensional: on the one hand, it reflects some sort of physical or the state of mind, on the other hand a state of spiritual joy that comes from the outside. It is the joy of being aware of the existence of God and the harmony of existence. The lost spiritual joy is associated with light and its return requires efforts and opens in suffering.
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Jeena TRETJAKOVA
(Daugavpils University)
Metaphor Study: Cognitive Linguistic Approach

Key words: metaphor, cognitive, meaning, domain, conceptual metaphor The field of Cognitive Linguistics is relatively new and it still leaves some space for debates and discussions as to the concepts to be studied and stances to be held within the framework of the field. The branch itself was shaped as a separate trend in linguistic studies in the late 1970s early 1980s. There is no single theory or methods used and admitted unanimously by linguists of the branch, thus the field of Cognitive Linguistics remains rather flexible and open to new approaches. There should be a line of difference drawn between Cognitive Linguistics capitalized and non-capitalized. Dirk Geeraerts emphasizes the importance of such differentiation between the two, pointing out that cognitive linguistics is inherent in a range of other disciplines, namely, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, culturology, etc. Thus the separate branch of linguistics should be given a capitalized name [see Geeraerts 2007: 47]. The term cognition refers to all kinds of mental activity, as V. Evans puts it: cognitive relates to all aspects of conscious and unconscious mental function. In particular, cognition constitutes the mental events (mechanisms and processes) and knowledge involved in a whole host of tasks ranging from low-level object perception to high-level decision-making tasks. [Evans 2007: 17]. These processes may include various types of human mental activity, i.e. attention, remembering, language acquisition, processing, concept formation, problem solving, etc. So it is not surprising that the term cognitive may be inherent in a rather vast cluster of disciplines. Grady defines Cognitive Linguistics as the study of ways in which features of language reflect other aspects of human cognition [Grady 2007: 188]. As regards Cognitive Linguistics, the field of its interests is rather broad and the relationships between the language and thought and those between the world and the human mind are the key issues. Language is perceived not merely as a means of communication but rather as a way of conveying, storing and processing of information. It is understood as a 326
Jeena TRETJAKOVA. Metaphor Study: Cognitive Linguistic Approach
mediator between the world and the mind and can serve as a reflection of the human perception of the objective reality. Language is studied through the human knowledge of the world and is perceived as an epistemological basis of such knowledge. That means that language reflects our vision of the world and knowledge of the existence. For a metaphor study this stance can be of great importance. How is metaphor perceived and understood? Why do metaphors differ from language to language, from culture to culture? What makes the grounds for metaphor formation? The key answer here would be that metaphor is able to display our perception of the world being formed on an experiential basis. Metaphor in these terms provides knowledge of the objective reality through the language. All the aforementioned makes it obvious that among the main areas of research in Cognitive Linguistics is that of meaning. Meaning is given four aspects of study, i.e. 1) perspective of the meaning; 2) dynamics and flexibility of the meaning; 3) meaning as being encyclopedic and non-autonomous; 4) meaning based on usage and experience [see Geeraerts 2006: 16]. 1. Meaning can be regarded as not just mere reflection of the world but as the means of formation of the world. It is able to interpret the world projecting a kind of perspective on it. The idea may easily be understood from the following illustration. If sitting in a garden you wish to explain where the trees are planted you may say either of the sentences: They are behind the house and They are in front of the house which at the first sight might seem rather contradictory. However, they just express two various perspectives, we can grasp the meaning through the analysis from the viewpoint. That makes various trajectories of the utterance which may in some circumstances provide specific knowledge and comprehension of the situation. 2. The second aspect is obvious within the framework of the modern changing world. The world brings new phenomena and innovations and the language has to adapt to the circumstances by creating new denotations. Thus, language should be flexible and open to acquiring new meanings. As concerns metaphor, this aspect of meaning can work well in case of term formation for new devices or innovations. We clearly realize that metaphor alone designates openness of the language. If language users are 327
able to express various phenomena in a set of figurative linguistic expressions, the language proves to be open to the acquisition of new meanings. 3. Since the language is reflection of our world perception, it is an integral part of our knowledge of the world. It means that language absorbs all the knowledge humans have of the world. Here it should be mentioned that the biological aspect of human beings gains its reflection in the language, too. Not only overall human experience shapes the language, the personal attitudes plant their grains as well. Another issue to be mentioned here is that we are also a part of society, thus the language reflects the knowledge of the whole group as well, not just that of an individual. As regards the application of this idea to metaphor, we might note that metaphor perception and its adequate delivery to the recipient is not possible without knowledge of the world. Metaphor will not provide any sense to the hearer if the ideas involved are out of his domain-dependent knowledge, i.e. knowledge of a specific area or source domain employed for the metaphor formation. 4. Experiential basis of the meaning implies that language is also shaped through our experience. The main idea is that there should be actual language analyzed and not that found in sentence patterns or in single meanings provided in dictionaries. This approach clearly demarcates the study of the language in use from that of the language structure. The fourth aspect of meaning can explain reasons, or we could put it, prerequisites, for metaphor occurrences. We might surmise that it relates to the third aspect of meaning discussed since our knowledge of the world has been formed through none other than our knowledge and perception of the world, the way we see, analyze, and comprehend concepts arising and phenomena existing. We may argue that metaphor can thread through historical perspective and provide reflection of the human existence. This can be illustrated by the following metaphorically oriented term: fork (En) torbalsta daka (Lv) (Ru). The example is interesting as it presents metaphoricity in all the languages involved with the Russian language being different in its concept. The term designates one of the upper elements in the tower body that bears a strong resemblance to the definite piece of cutlery. On the other hand, in the Russian language metaphoricity is presented by another term that can be translated into English as horns, 328
which also explicates obvious visual resemblance to the element of the construction. We might assume that the perspective of the notion is different for the bearers of the languages involved. Shape resemblance remains the key prerequisite for the terms metaphoricity, but the background is different, which might be explained only by various views of the world of the culture representatives. Metaphor has acquired a new perspective of study and analysis in Cognitive Linguistics. It stopped being viewed at as solely a linguistic trope used for enrichment and individualization of language and gained a new approach to research. As Grady puts it: the term metaphor is understood to refer to a pattern of conceptual association, rather than to an individual metaphoric usage or a linguistic convention [Grady 2007: 188]. In other words, metaphor is not simply a linguistic phenomenon, but rather a pattern of thought. This justifies the broad scope of disciplines involved into metaphor study, i.e. psychology, art, culturology, neurology, etc. Indeed, such a serious approach to metaphor study started in the 1980s with G. Lakoffs introduction of a completely new theory of metaphor. He initiated an innovative approach to conceptualization of metaphors, providing arguments for metaphors nesting in mind and not its mere formation in the language [see Lakoff 1993]. G. Lakoff made the concept of metaphor resound differently, namely, as a cross-domain mapping in the conceptual system. The term metaphorical expression refers to a linguistic expression (a word, phrase, sentence) that is the surface realization of such a cross-domain mapping [Lakoff 1993: 203]. The term mapping has been employed from mathematics to refer to systematic metaphorical correspondences between interrelated ideas. The mappings are considered to be the set of correspondences and they have a definite structure. G. Lakoff introduces mnemonic designation of the mappings giving them the following form: TARGET-DOMAIN IS SOURCEDOMAIN or TARGET-DOMAIN AS SOURCE-DOMAIN. We should perceive metaphor as projection of one object through the conceptual metaphor from the source domain to the target domain. The idea is that such naming of the mapping (if we take LOVE IS A JOURNEY, for example) is used to map a set of corresponding linguistic metaphoric expressions. Lakoff points out the necessity of distinguishing between the name of the mapping and mapping itself, with the former being simply a graphic designation of a general metaphor projected from the source domain to 329
the target domain and the latter being a set of correspondences conforming with it. To make it clearer, we would refer to the name of the mapping as to the conceptual metaphor which in its turn should provide linguistic expressions, or in other words, metaphors as such, to reflect the mapped object. The mapping is strictly structured, which implies that the objects from the source domain are to be given correspondences in the target domain, and, which is even more complicated and essential, there should be correspondence between the relations, properties, behavior, etc. of the objects. In other words, the elements projected from the source domain should reflect all their inherent features upon entering the target domain. On the other hand, it can be said that the elements penetrating into the target domain from the source domain may by no means interfere with its structure, they should preserve the same systematic layout. This is what Lakoff has named the Invariance principle [Lakoff 1993: 215] and following it we might assume that the correspondences coherent to the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY may be as follows: travelers are lovers, vehicles are love relationships, bad road is equal to difficulties in the relationships, journey destination is the final state of love affair, etc. Thus we might produce the following metaphors: We are going nowhere; Our love has reached a deadlock; Their love ship has hit an iceberg; etc. Let us analyze the following sentence: This promotion has helped him move to the top of the ladder. We might assume that the conceptual metaphor projected from the source domain could have been as follows: SUCCESS IS A CONSTRUCTION. Career is perceived as a building, or a structure having elements that can be transferred through metaphoric projection to the target domain of success and achievements and deliver the target idea with the greatest precision. Thus, according to the aforementioned, we might project other metaphors from the same domain retaining the same source domain and the structure of it, for example, He built his business up through hard work and big wish; or The news of this incident has indeed shaken the foundations of their reputation. The elements characteristic of the objects in the source domain of Building/Structure (i.e. foundations, building process, ladder, etc.) have been projected to the target domain preserving their inherent features (moving up the ladder means reaching the height; constructing a building and making successful career imply hard work and patience; some disaster may damage the foundation of the construction like an unpleasant situation can deteriorate your business, etc.). 330
Such an approach to the research of metaphor provides a much more extensive analysis of metaphor occurrence, its background, motives, purposes of use, etc. It encourages a linguist to take a deeper look at it and deviate from a bare semantic analysis of a metaphoric expression. Simultaneously, a successful detection of a conceptual metaphor may also enable forming other metaphoric expressions, which by all means will provide benefit for the language development. Despite all the arguments provided for the benefit of the theory of conceptual metaphor, there are still doubts and criticism expressed by some scholars as to the theorys universal functioning in relation to all metaphors [see Gibbs, Perlman 2006: 211228]. The objections to this theory are mainly focused on the inability to find a unique single conceptual metaphor within the mapping. For illustration purposes we might analyze the following conceptual metaphor widely discussed by the supporters of the theory: ARGUMENT IS WAR. The metaphors projected can be as follows: 1) He has tried to defend his point of view; 2) It was not easy to win this argument; 3) His target was to persuade them, etc. and there might be various conceptual metaphors found for them, i.e. 1) ARGUMENT IS WAR; 2) ARGUMENT IS SPORTS; 3) ARGUMENT IS FIGHT. This makes us believe that there is some kind of subjectivity which may work differently in perception of one and the same metaphor. On the other hand, the source domains of the conceptual metaphors provided above demonstrate some common elements that have most probably served for the projection of such mappings. These might be notions of victory, opposition, defense, attack etc. that by all means are inherent in all the mappings involved and thus have contributed to diversification in formation of the conceptual metaphors. Indeed, there is some grain of truth in such claims, though it might be assumed that the idea of the conceptual metaphor can anyway serve as a departing point for metaphor detailed analysis. In such a case the categories emerging in relation to the certain source and target domain could be scrutinized for identification of some common features that would reveal the essence of the metaphorized concept. If we come back to the target domain of ARGUMENT and the source domains that could have been employed for projecting the conceptual metaphor (i.e. WAR, SPORTS, FIGHT), then the common features involved in their structure would be as follows:
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there are rivals in all the domains these may be players of opposing teams, or individual opponents in sports, enemies in war or fight (in the argument there should be at least two opposing sides, too); the actions involved in all the source domains can be aimed at the attack and defense (in the target domain of ARGUMENT the opinions are either defended or points of view are brought forward, which could be equaled to attack, to prove your point of view); the overall aim of the processes in the source domains is to win (in the target domain the sides are interested in persuading others and advancing their theory); all the actions can be performed according to a definite strategy (in the target domain the argument can also be accompanied by a strategy with the achievement of the final goal, i.e. victory). These were just few examples of the coincidences in elements involved in the three source domains mentioned above, although, we can believe there may be more metaphors found within the scope. We believe that this proves nothing more than the experiential basis of metaphor as such. Why does the target domain of ARGUMENT seem to have such a variety of source domains if not for the reason of our diversified perception of the world? The projection of a conceptual metaphor is no doubt conditional on our cognition, i.e. on our knowledge of the world, recognition of processes, and analysis of phenomena. Since the founders of the theory (Lakoff, Johnson, Turner, et al.) have employed a set of mathematic terms in their study of metaphor, we could use the term of many-modal approach in reference to the theory of conceptual metaphor. As concerns metaphor study within the framework of Cognitive Linguistics, such a diversified approach within a definite scope could be applied. Conclusions Cognitive Linguistics is a multi-dimensional field of linguistics involved primarily in the study of interrelations between the world and the human mind. The branch is relatively new and is still open to the acquisition of new ideas, theories, methods, and approaches. The term cognitive is inherent in a set of other sciences, thus it is not surprising that Cognitive Linguistics has absorbed stances provided by psychology, neurology, culture studies, pragmatics, etc. This diversity of ideas makes the field of Cognitive Linguistics attractive, especially to the linguists involved into the research of metaphor. Despite the fact that metaphor is among the earliest linguistic 332
tropes studied, it gained a new wave of research at the end of the previous century. With the theory of conceptual metaphor the field of that particular study has broadened and opened new horizons to the experts. Hundreds of research works have been made so far on conceptual metaphor, support and criticism have been expressed concerning the theory but it is still open for discussion. Projection of the mapping from the source domain to the target domain is a challenge to a linguist, but it is a fascinating task and successful projection can contribute to revealing the prerequisites of metaphor formation. In performing the task one has to conform to the principles of retaining the structure of the target domain when it is perceived with the elements of the source domain, the Invariance principle should be observed by all means. Furthermore, a well-formed mapping can expand metaphor and provide a further set of metaphors resulting from the same source domain.
LITERATURE Cervel, M. S. Topology and Cognition: What Image-schemas Reveal about the Metaphorical Language of Emotions. Lincom Europa, 2003 Evans, V. A Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics. Edinburgh University Press Ltd, Edinburgh, 2007. Geeraerts, D. A Rough Guide to Cognitive Linguistics. In: Geeraerts, D. (ed.). Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings (pp. 128). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. Berlin, 2006. Geeraerts, D., Cuyckens, H. Introducing Cognitive Linguistics. In: (ed.). Geeraerts, D., Cuyckens, H. The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics (pp. 3 21). Oxford University Press, 2007. Gibbs, R. W., Perlman, Jr. and M. The Contested Impact of Cognitive Linguistic Research on the Psycholinguistics of Metaphor Understanding. In: Kristiansen, G., Achard, M. et al. (ed). Cognitive Linguistics: Current Applications and Future Perspectives (pp. 211228). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. Berlin, 2006. Gibbs, R.W. Researching Metaphor. In: Cameron, L., Low, G. (ed.). Researching and Applying Metaphor (pp. 2947). Cambridge University Press, 1999. Grady, J. E. Metaphor. In: Geeraerts, D., Cuyckens, (ed.). H. The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics (pp. 188213). Oxford University Press, 2007. Lakoff, G. The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor. In: Ortony, A. Metaphor and Thought. Second Edition (pp. 202252). Cambridge University Press, 1993.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst Renton, N. E. Metaphorically Speaking: a Dictionary of 3,800 Picturesque Idiomatic Expressions. Warner Books Edition, 1992. Briedis, J. (ed.). Polytechnic Dictionary. Jelgava: SENDERS R, 1999. Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Availebla: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/
Metaforas izpte: kognitvs lingvistikas pieeja Kopsavilkums

Kognitv lingvistika ir samr jauna zintne un t ir atklta idejm, jaunu pamienu ievieanai un diskusijm. Ir atzts, ka lingvistikas joma apvieno sev vairkas disciplnas, un daudzas no tm ietekm ar tos ptjumus, kas notiek kognitvs lingvistikas ietvaros. Termins kognitvs attiecas uz visiem mentlajiem procesiem, t.sk. domanu, uztveri, atmiu, valodas apganu utt. Td acmredzama ir kognitvs lingvistikas saikne ar citm zintnm, tdm, piemram, k psiholoija, socioloija, kulturoloija, neiroloija utt. Kognitvs lingvistikas prstvji iesaists dados ptjumos, bet viens no galvenajiem o ptjumu virzieniem ir vrda nozme. Tpc nav brnums, ka metafora ar ietilpst kognitvs lingvistikas intereu lok. Darb ir apskatti etri nozmes aspekti (pc D. Graerta piedvts klasifikcijas) un to korelcija metaforai. Graerts ir 1) nozmes perspektvu, 2) nozmes dinamiskumu un elastgumu, 3) nozmes enciklopdisku un neautonomu aspektu, 4) un nozmes balstanos uz pielietojumu un pieredzi. D. Leikofa konceptuls metaforas teorija tiek analizta un ilustrta piemros, un uzmanba pievrsta ar ts kritikai. Leikofs uzsvra domu par to, ka metafora piemt vism dzves sfrm un ts veidoans notiek prt, nevis valod. Leikofs ir avota domnu, kura objekti tiek izmantoti metaforas veidoanai un prcelanai uz mra domnu. Leikofa teorija veicina plaku metaforas veidoans, ts raans clou un mru izpti. Neskatoties uz to, ka metafora tiek ptta jau kop Aristotea laikiem, msdienu lingvistik t piedzvo jaunu ptanas vilni, piesaistot sev interesi dads joms, t.i., politik, ekonomik, militraj sfr, biznes, k ar dads zintnes joms. Rakst izanalizti konceptuls metaforas teorijas pamatprincipi, to problemtika un aktualitte.
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Ways to Transform Precedent-Related Phenomena in Modern Russian Media and Advertising Texts Summary
The article analyzes modern Russian media and advertising texts. The author proposes a classification of methods of transformation of precedent phenomena based on the analysis of scientific literature (works by Olga Fokina, Eugenya Perfilieva, Kwon Sung Man, Farida Rahimova) and own research. Seven major ways of the above mentioned transformation can be allocated: 1) replacing of a component; 2) widening; 3) truncation; 4) changes of the functional modality; 5) contamination; 6) mixed transformation; 7) the zero transformation (interdiscursive transposition). Some of these methods (distribution, truncation, replacement of components, contamination) correspond to the traditional methods of transformation of phraseological units allocated and relevant to the precedent-related statement. Other (no transformation) are related to the operation of precedent names in different types of discourse. The same logic operation results in different types of transformations with the use of various resources of the language. Thus, the replacement of a component can be carried out on the basis of the formal, semantic or formal-semantic context and different language mechanisms can be used. The author raises questions of linguistic terminology used to describe the methods of transformation of precedent-related phenomena. The paper outlines the prospects of the study of precedent phenomena. Questions of precedent and phraseologization relations, the composition of precedent-related phenomena deserve a special study.
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The Magic of Words: Efficient Communication Summary

Efficient communication requires usage of definite methods to affect the target group. In this task it is important to choose the correct technique. It is possible to create different working techniques by using the sensual associative fields and by practising the principle of keywords (e.g. taste, colour, smell) that match with certain senses tactile, visual, vestibular etc. Keywords are widely used in figurative sense. They confer the text with significance and perceptibility by creating sensual associations and generating the emotions that encourage the audience to make the desirable decision of the professional communicator.
351
Hans-Harry DRIGER
(Universitt Vilnius, Geisteswissenschaftliche Fakultt Kaunas)
Es war einmal... Grimms Mrchen und die interkulturelle Kommunikation

Schlsselwrter: Linguistik, interkulturelle Kommunikation, Mrchen, Brder Grimm, Realienbezeichnungen, deutsche Sprache Einleitung und Ziel des Beitrages Das Ziel des vorliegenden Beitrages besteht darin, die in den Mrchen der Sammlung der Brder Grimm vorhandenen Realienbezeichnungen zu erfassen, sie hinsichtlich der mit ihnen verbundenen Rezeptionsprobleme zu charakterisieren und Vorschlge zu formulieren, wie mit diesen Realienbezeichnungen in der intra- und interkulturellen Kommunikation umgegangen werden kann. Realienbezeichnungen stellen im Allgemeinen eine spezifische Menge lexikalischer Einheiten des Wortschatzes einer Einzelsprache dar, deren semantisch-kognitive Besonderheiten durch lexikografische Analyse, Kollokationsanalyse und semantisch-kognitive Rekonstruktion erarbeitet werden knnen, um die mit ihnen verbundenen Rezeptionsprobleme zu umreien, wodurch es mglich sein wird, Lsungsvorschlge zum sachgerechten Verstehen der Realienbezeichnungen zu formulieren. Die Spezifik der Realienbezeichnungen in den Kinder- und Hausmrchen (KHM) der Brder Grimm besteht darin, auf Wissen zu referieren, das nicht (mehr) mit den Wissensstrukturen der Gegenwart kompatibel ist. Diese Verstehensprobleme betreffen deshalb in erster Linie die Mrchenrezeption in der deutschen Sprach- und Kulturgemeinschaft; in zweiter Linie beispielsweise beim bersetzen der Mrchen in andere Sprach- und Kulturgemeinschaften. Theoretischer Rahmen Das Mrchen gilt als epische Gattung (auch Genre) und wird hierbei charakterisiert als phantastische, realittsberhobene, variable Erzhlung, die sich vom Mythos durch das Fehlen der Gttersphre und von der Sage durch das Fehlen konkreter historischer und geografischer Bezge abgrenzen lsst. Als Hauptkennzeichen des Mrchens werden im Allgemeinen genannt Raum- und Zeitlosigkeit, Aufhebung der Natur- und Kausalgesetze 352
Hans-Harry DRIGER. Es war einmal... Grimms Mrchen und..
als eine Selbstverstndlichkeit (z. B. Verwandlungen, sprechende Tiere, Pflanzen oder Gegenstnde) und das Auftreten von Fabelwesen wie Riesen, Zwerge, Hexen, Drachen [vgl. Metzler Literatur Lexikon 1990: 292]. Gleichwohl erscheinen in Mrchen bestimmte Requisiten, die oft wesentlicher Teil der Mrchenhandlung sein knnen, die aber auf jeden Fall Gegenstnde der durch das Mrchen vermittelten Kultur (Alltags-, staatlich-gesellschaftliche, hfische Kultur u. .) sind und somit ein Indiz fr historische Authentizitt darstellen. Folgt man nun der Auffassung von den Mrchen als kulturhistorische und sozialgeschichtliche Quellen [vgl. Metzler Literatur Lexikon 1990: 293], knnen die Mrchen gerade durch das Auftreten jener Requisiten zur Erarbeitung von Vorstellungen ber die zurckliegenden historischen Epochen genutzt werden, die sich i. w. S. als Mittelalter bezeichnen lassen. Um zu verstehen, dass die KHM nicht nur ein Bild der Zeit der Grimms i. e. S. liefern, sondern sehr oft in das Mittelalter zurckverweisen, seien hier nur kurz zwei Beispiele zur Erluterung genannt:
(1) Feldschlange (54)1: Geschtz des 15. bis 17. Jahrhunderts mit kleinem Kaliber und relativ langem Rohr. [Brockhaus in Text und Bild 2002]; (2) Batzen (15): Der Batzen wurde zu einer weit verbreiteten Zwischenwhrung zwischen den zahlreichen in Europa kursierenden groen und kleinen Silbermnzen. Da die sddeutschen Batzen zum Teil von sehr unterschiedlicher Gte waren, sprachen sich die Reichstage von 1522 und 1524 gegen diese Mnzen aus. In Sddeutschland wurden sie noch bis 1536 geprgt, jedoch mit der Reichsmnzordnung 1559 verboten. [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batzen [16.02.2012]]
Der Untersuchung, die in diesem Beitrag vorgestellt wird, liegt die Mrchensammlung der Brder Grimm zugrunde, die unter dem Titel Kinder- und Hausmrchen weltweit bekannt geworden ist. Diese Sammlung hat seit dem ersten Erscheinen 1812 mehrere, zum Teil deutlich berarbeitete Ausgaben und Auflagen erfahren. In meinen Untersuchungen sttze ich mich auf die Ausgabe letzter Hand mit den Originalanmerkungen der Brder Grimm von 1857, in einer Neuauflage von 2010 (s. Quellenverzeichnis). Diese Ausgabe letzter Hand enthlt die 200 kanonisierten Mrchen, zehn Kinderlegenden und 28 Mrchen, die in frheren Ausga1
Die Zitierweise fr die Kinder- und Hausmrchen erfolgt durch Angabe der Nummer des Mrchens in runden Klammern, die aufgrund der Kodifizierung immer dasselbe Mrchen meint.
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ben enthalten waren, doch in der Ausgabe von 1857 fehlen und dieser Neuauflage von 2010 als Anhang hinzugefgt wurden. Somit ergibt sich die Tatsache, dass die KHM ein abgeschlossenes Korpus bilden, was fr die intendierten Untersuchungen von Vorteil ist, da die inhaltliche Qualitt (im Sinne einer kulturhistorischen und sozialgeschichtlichen Quelle) und die sprachliche Gestaltung der Mrchen eng an den Zeitraum ihrer Sammlung, schriftlichen Fixierung und Drucklegung (18121857) gebunden sind. Dies zwingt allerdings zur Benutzung zustzlicher Quellen, wenn es wie in der Einleitung genannt um das Verstndnis jener spezifischen Menge lexikalischer Einheiten, den Realienbezeichnungen, geht. Als solche zustzlichen Quellen wurden zeitgenssische Wrterbcher (DWB, Adelung), die Originalanmerkungen der Ausgabe letzter Hand und einige moderne Nachschlagewerke benutzt (s. Quellenverzeichnis). Kommunikativ gesehen, stellen die Mrchen eine spezielle Rezeptionsvorgabe dar, woraus bestimmte Rezeptionsprobleme resultieren knnen, die allerdings nicht direkt mit der Erzhltechnik der Mrchen zu tun haben, z. B. Handlungsfolge, Figurenkonstellation, Polarisierungen wie Arm Reich, Gut Bse, Schn Hsslich [vgl. Metzler Literatur Lexikon 1990: 292], sondern eher indirekt mit speziellen lexikalischen Einheiten, die oftmals entscheidende Komponenten des Erzhlens wie Personenkategorien oder Requisiten bezeichnen sowie auf historisch-kulturelle Sachverhalte referieren. Bei der Rezeption der Mrchen entstehen Kommunikationsprobleme: 1. beim Auftreten von Archaismen, also aus heutiger Sicht veralteter Bezeichnungen, z. B. Verwandtschaftskategorien, oder bei Lexemen, die einem Bedeutungswandel unterlagen (z. B. Bezeichnungen von Kleidungsstcken), wobei Wrterbcher der Gegenwartssprache nur bedingt zum Verstndnis dieser Ausdrcke beitragen; 2. durch die Einbindung der bezeichneten Begriffe in historische Wissensstrukturen, die dem Wissensstand des Mittelalters entsprechen, wobei jenes Wissen heute in Vergessenheit geraten ist, nicht immer dem aktuellen Wissen entsprechen muss oder auch durch moderneres Wissen ersetzt wurde, z. B. Wissen ber Handwerke, Rechtswissen und Rechtsauffassungen, Wissen ber soziale Hierarchien, Wissen der Alltagskultur; 3. durch die Tatsache, dass Realien als Requisiten im Mrchen verwendet werden, die es heute nicht mehr gibt, und dass es sich bei den Bezeich354
nungen der Realien in der Regel um deutsches Erbwortgut handelt, das in seiner morphematischen Struktur oftmals aus nur einem etymologisch nicht immer eindeutigen Basismorphem (z. B. Ktze, Mus, Knecht, Magd, Lot) oder aus Zusammensetzungen und Ableitungen mit solcherart Basismorphemen besteht (z. B. Hausknecht, Viertelpfund, Schurzfell, Klafter, Batzen, Gesindel); 4. durch die Verwendung von Bezeichnungen, die fr die Welt der Mrchen typische und notwendige Realien erschaffen, zu denen es in der wirklichen Welt sowohl des Mittelalters als auch der Gegenwart keine Entsprechungen gibt, z. B. die o. g. Fabelwesen. Die hier unterschiedenen Rezeptionsprobleme 1 bis 3 sind auf die eine oder andere Weise mit Realien und ihren Bezeichnungen verbunden. Wenn man der allgemeinen Definition von Realien als kulturspezifische Gegenstnde und Handlungen [vgl. Nord 1993: 224] folgt, wird klar, dass die Realien per se und de facto zum Wissensbestand einer Sprach- und Kulturgemeinschaft gehren, innerhalb dieses Wissensbestandes definierbar und dort stets kommunikativ verfgbar sind, also mit entsprechenden Bezeichnungen auf sie referiert und rekurriert werden kann. Durch diese gelegentlich auch exklusive Zugehrigkeit zu einer Sprach- und Kulturgemeinschaft stellen Realien und ihre Bezeichnungen ein spezifisches bersetzungs- oder (allgemeiner) ein Sprachmittlungsproblem dar. [Driger 2010: 36 f.] Solcherart Sprachmittlungs- oder Kommunikationsprobleme betreffen zunchst die intrakulturelle Kommunikation, wenn wir intrakulturell auch in einer historischen Dimension verstehen. Schullehrplne und hnliche Dokumente des deutschen Schulsystems2 weisen Mrchen (und andere, historisch ltere literarische Texte) explizit als Unterrichtsstoff auf, so dass zumindest vermutet werden kann, dass gegenwrtige Schulkinder im deutschen Sprachraum bei der Mrchenrezeption auf die o. g. Rezeptionsprobleme stoen. In zweiter Linie zeigen sich dann diese Probleme mit den Mrchen bei ihrem Einsatz im DaF-Unterricht oder bei der bersetzung, wobei die Mrchen in die interkulturelle Kommunikation eingebunden werden und das Problem der bersetzung oder bertragung von Realienbezeichnungen aktuell wird.
URL: http://www.standardsicherung.schulministerium.nrw.de/cms/upload/uedeutsch/docs/ modul_1/teil-3.pdf [16.02.2012] fr Nordrhein-Westfalen.
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Realienbezeichnungen Ungeachtet verschiedener Klassifizierungsmodelle von Realien3 und ihrer Bezeichnungen, kann man aufgrund der einfachen Erzhlstruktur der Mrchen [vgl. Kindlers neues Literatur-Lexikon 1996: 916] induktiv bestimmte Bereiche von Realien herausarbeiten, die mit den Komponenten des Erzhlens im Mrchen korrespondieren. Diese Komponenten sind Personen, Handlungsort, Handlungszeit, Handlungsverlauf, Requisiten der Personen, Orte und Handlungen. Fr die nachfolgenden Analysen habe ich drei Realienbereiche ausgewhlt: Personen; Mae Mengen Mnzen; Objekte und Ttigkeiten aus dem Alltagsleben. 1. Personen Personen sind fr jegliches Genre der erzhlenden Literatur notwendig, denn eine Geschichte erzhlen bedeutet, Personen handeln zu lassen, wobei deren Handeln die Geschichte ausmacht und vorantreibt. Der Bereich Personenbezeichnungen erscheint in den Mrchen nicht homogen, sondern lsst sich unterteilen in: 1. Personenkategorien, im Falle der Mrchen sind es oft typischerweise Bezeichnungen der Herrscher Kaiser, Knig, Herzog, Graf, Baron (19), Hofleute (20), Hofstaat (50) und der Beherrschten, wobeiletztere mit Berufsbezeichnungen einhergehen: Knecht (34), Hausknecht (45), Magd (13), Kchenmagd (21), Kammermdchen (4), Kammerjungfer (6); 2. Eigennamen, die entweder aus Gattungsbezeichnungen hervorgegangen sind Rapunzel (12) oder regional bekannte Varianten von Personennamen waren (und mglichweise noch sind): Frau Holle (24)4 und durch die KHM eine weitere Bekanntheit erreichten; 3. Schimpfwrter, die als Ausdruck bestimmter Sprecherabsichten mit einer negativen Bewertung der bezeichneten Personen verbunden sind,
Eines der Modelle wre das von Vlachov/Florin [s. 2009: 4972], auf das aber hier aus Platzgrnden nicht eingegangen werden kann. Ebenso geeignet sind systematische Darstellungen des Wortschatzes, wie sie fr das Deutsche in Gestalt von systematischen Wrterbchern, z. B. von Dornseiff Der deutsche Wortschatz nach Sachgruppen, entwickelt wurden. 4 Zu Frau Holle sind regionale Variationen anzunehmen. URL: http://woerterbuchnetz. de/cgi-bin/WBNetz/Navigator/navigator_py?sigle=DWB&lemid=GH11524& mode=Vernetzung&hitlist=&patternlist=&sigle1=DWB&lemid1=GH11524& sigle2=GWB&lemid2=JH06722 [21.02.2012].
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so dass hierdurch besonders fr den Fortgang der Mrchenerzhlung Bewertungskonzepte ausgedrckt werden, die meist auf die o. g. strenge Polarisierung, vor allem bezglich moralischer Konzepte, z. B. GutBse, referieren: Spitzbube (4), (7), Taugenichts (4), Wicht (4), Bsewicht (13), (36), Gesindel (38), (46), Lumpengesindel (10). 2. Mae Mengen Mnzen Vor der Einfhrung des metrischen Masystems in Deutschland per Gesetz zum 1. Januar 1872 wurden bis dato in den deutschen Staaten bis zu 300 verschiedene Ma-, Mess-, Mengen- und Mnzsysteme (Whrungen) verwendet [s. Trapp 1996: 2226], so dass festzustellen ist, dass die Ausgaben der KHM der Brder Grimm von der ersten bis zur Ausgabe letzter Hand unter den Bedingungen eines sehr heterogenen Mess- und Whrungssystems aufgezeichnet und publiziert wurden. Diese Besonderheit des deutschen Sprach- und Kulturraumes kann als ein spezifisches Realienund somit auch Sprachproblem betrachtet werden, denn auch die neuesten Auflagen der KHM sind in dieser Hinsicht unverndert geblieben. Intrakulturelle Rezeptionsprobleme dieser speziellen Realienbezeichnungen sind also durchaus zu erwarten, auch wenn einige nichtmetrische Bezeichnungen wie Pfund, Zentner, Dutzend, Spanne immer noch im aktiven und passiven Sprachschatz der Deutschsprecher zu beobachten sind. Doch die KHM enthalten als Texte zeitgebunden an die erste Hlfte des 19. Jahrhunderts und als Mrchengeschichten zeitverweisend auf den Zeitraum vom spten Mittelalter bis zum Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts [vgl. Kindlers neues Literatur-Lexikon 1996: 916] Realienbezeichnungen, die von der Lexikologie als Historismen oder im Zusammenhang mit dem Bedeutungswandel betrachtet werden [vgl. Schmidt 2008: 212217], wie Lot (20), Klafter (47), Taler (4), (7), Dukaten (36), Batzen (15), Heller (4), Groschen (7), Kreuzer (45), Scheidemnze (7). Gerade die Ma-, Mengen- und Messeinheiten stellen die Leser der KHM vor Verstndnisprobleme, wenn beispielsweise im Tapferen Schneiderlein (KHM 20) die Titelfigur zur Verkuferin sagt: Das Mus scheint mir gut, wieg sie mir doch vier Lot5 ab, liebe Frau (...). oder in Von dem Wacholderbaum (KHM 47) die bse Mutter am Schluss sagt: Ach, dass ich tausend Klafter unter der Erde wre, damit ich das nicht hren msste.
Alle nachfolgenden Hervorhebungen in den Mrchenzitaten vom Autor des Beitrages.
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Anders gesagt, wie viel Mus kauft das Schneiderlein, wenn es vier Lot kauft; wie tief unter der Erde will die bse Mutter sein?6 3. Objekte und Ttigkeiten aus dem Alltagsleben In diesem Bereich finden sich so unterschiedliche Sachverhalte wie Handwerk, Hausbau, Handel, auch das Militrhandwerk, juristische und kriminelle Handlungen sowie die damit verbundenen, oftmals handlungsnotwendigen Gegenstnde, Ausrstungen, Kleidungsstcke kurz: die Requisiten. So zeigt sich der fr den deutschen Sprach- und Kulturraum (und wohl auch fr Mitteleuropa) typische lndliche und kleinstdtische Hausbau, der oft den beruflichen Anforderungen entspricht, auch in den KHM, z. B. Untertr (15), Hahnenbalken (27), Hintertr (13), (21), Schallloch (4) oder gelegentlich in einem Satz: In der Htte war ein kleiner Vorplatz und eine kleine hbsche Stube und eine Kammer. (19) Das mittelalterliche Handwerk spielt in vielen Mrchen eine handlungstragende Rolle, wobei Berufsbezeichnungen wie Mller, Tischler, Drechsler, Schneider, Schuhmacher/Schuster, Schmied heutzutage natrlich bekannt sind, aber wenn deren Requisiten eine Rolle spielen, dann knnen sich durchaus Verstehensprobleme ergeben, z. B. bei Schnitzbank (4), Elle (12), Schurzfell (47), Hafen (23), Ktze (46) oder auch bei speziellen Einzelverrichtungen wie das Garn schlittern (13). Zum Verstndnis bestimmter Bezeichnungen kann das Erfassen der im Text der KHM zu den Realienbezeichnungen gegebenen Kollokationen beitragen, besonders bei offensichtlich homonymen Wrtern wie Hafen oder potenziell missverstndlichen Bezeichnungen wie Ktze:
(3) Das Wrstlein blieb beim Hafen, sah zu dass die Speise wohl kochte (...). (23) Hafen = Brattopf / Bratpfanne7; (4) (...) sah aus wie ein armer schwacher Bettler und trug eine Ktze auf dem Rcken, als wollte er milde Gaben darin sammeln. (46) Ktze = Korb, Rckenkorb8. Ein Lot sind 14 bis 18 Gramm (s. URL: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lot_(Einheit) [22.02.2012]); ein Klafter ist etwa 1,80 Meter (s. URL: http://de.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Klafter [22.02.2012]). 7 URL: http://woerterbuchnetz.de/DWB/?sigle=DWB&mode=Vernetzung&lemid= GH00574 [21.02.2012] 8 URL: http://woerterbuchnetz.de/DWB/?sigle=DWB&mode=Vernetzung&lemid= GK11735 [21.02.2012]
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Speisen und Getrnke sind nicht minder wichtige Requisiten, doch sind die meisten davon noch nicht der Archaisierung unterworfen. Verstehensprobleme knnen jedoch aus regional gebundenen Bezeichnungen resultieren, die erst oder gerade durch die KHM eine berregionale Verbreitung fanden, z. B. Schwarzsauer (47)9. Einen Sonderbereich des Handwerks bildet das Militrhandwerk im mittelalterlichen Verstndnis, wobei ehemalige oder im Dienst stehende Soldaten aller damaligen Art in Haupt- oder Nebenhandlungen der Mrchen vorkommen, z. B.
(5) Schildwache (7), (19), (45); (6) Das will ich dir sagen, antwortete der Khler, wenn du mit der Hand darauf klopfst, so kommt jedesmal ein Gefreiter mit sechs Mann, die haben Ober- und Untergewehr, und was du befiehlst, das vollbringen sie. (54)
Der Ausdruck Gefreiter bezeichnet einen niederen militrischen Rang mit geringen Kommandorechten. Die Bezeichnungen Obergewehr und Untergewehr referieren auf die Arten von Waffen, die der mittelalterliche Soldat entweder oberhalb oder unterhalb der Grtellinie trug.10 Bedeutungswandel und lexikalisch-semantische Archaisierung Gewissermaen als ein Komplement zu den Realienbezeichnungen sind in den KHM Lexeme vorhanden, die aus heutiger Sicht der Archaisierung und dem Bedeutungswandel unterliegen. Das betreffende Wortgut referiert auch, aber nicht ausschlielich auf Realien. Ein anschauliches Beispiel hierfr ist Rock, dessen zweite Bedeutung nach DUW als veraltet markiert ist. Doch in den Mrchen ist mit Rock (7), (20), (36) stets ein Kleidungsstck fr Mnner gemeint, das durch verschiedene Zusammensetzungen in Sorten eingeteilt erscheint: Lumpenrock (7), Pelzrock (13); mnnliche Kinder tragen dann passend das Rcklein (15). Ein weiteres aufflliges Beispiel ist Lust, das vor allem in Zusammensetzungen erscheint Jagdlust (11), Lustwldchen (19) und in den KHM nicht in der modernen, ein Verlangen oder eine Laune ausdrckenden BeURL: http://woerterbuchnetz.de/DWB/?sigle=DWB&mode=Vernetzung&lemid= GS20946 [20.02.2012] 10 URL: http://woerterbuchnetz.de/DWB/?sigle=DWB&mode=Vernetzung&lemid= GO00173 und URL: http://woerterbuchnetz.de/DWB/?sigle=DWB&mode= Vernetzung&lemid=GU10468 [22.02.2012]
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deutung, sondern in der fr die KHM zeitgenssischen Bedeutung angenehme Empfindung, Freude, Vergngen (Duden. Das Herkunftswrterbuch) auftritt. Der Bedeutungswandel ist aber auch bei Adjektiven zu beobachten, z. B.
(7) Aber der getreue Johannes sprach: ich bin nur der Diener von einem reichen Kaufmann: was ich hier habe ist nichts gegen das, was mein Herr auf seinem Schiff stehen hat, und das ist das knstlichste und kstlichste, was je in Gold ist gearbeitet worden. (6),
wobei knstlich im Sinne von kunstvoll verwendet wird. Der Archaisierung unterliegen aufgrund der Tatsache, dass seit der Erstausgabe der KHM 200 Jahre vergangen sind, zahlreiche Lexeme der KHM. An deren Stelle traten fr den aktuellen allgemeinen Sprachgebrauch Bezeichnungen, die auf die gleichen, nach wie vor existierenden Sachverhalte referieren, z. B.
(8) Base (2), (14) > Cousine; (9) Gevatter / zu Gevatter bitten (2), (39), (42), (44), (48) > Pate / Taufpate sein; (10) Totenlade (4), (9) > Sarg.
Schlussfolgerungen Insgesamt ergibt sich bei einer lexikalisch-semantischen Betrachtung der KHM, dass ein bedeutender Teil des Wortschatzes in den Mrchen Realienbezeichnungen sind. Die gegenwrtigen Rezeptionsprobleme der Mrchen basieren auf zwei Hauptcharakteristika der Mrchentexte und der in ihnen vorkommenden Realienbezeichnungen. Aufgrund ihrer Entstehungsgeschichte erscheinen die Texte zum einen zeitgebunden an die erste Hlfte des 19. Jahrhunderts und zum anderen als Mrchengeschichten zeitverweisend auf den Zeitraum vom spten Mittelalter bis zum Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts. Die meisten Realienbezeichnungen referieren auf Handlungs- und Personenrequisiten und liefern dadurch i. w. S. Hinweise zum Verstndnis des mittelalterlichen Lebens. Da sich jedoch die Gegenstnde des in den Mrchen beschriebenen Lebens und der erzhlten Handlungen und Ereignisse deutlich vom gegenwrtigen Leben unterscheiden, ergeben sich primr intrakulturelle und sodann beispielsweise beim bersetzen interkulturelle Rezeptionsprobleme hinsichtlich der Realienbezeichnungen in den KHM. Gelst werden knnen diese Verstehensprobleme je nach der Art der Realienbezeichnungen auf unterschiedliche Weise, doch 360
sollte diese Problemlsung mit lexikographischen Recherchen beginnen, woraus sich als nchster Schritt die Rekonstruktion vergangener Wissensstrukturen in umfassenderem Sinne ergeben muss, denn auch Mrchen erfllen die Funktion der Wissensvermittlung [vgl. Pge-Alder 2011: 33]. Fr Realienbezeichnungen, die auf Personenkategorien und Objekte (Requisiten) referieren, ist die Rekonstruktion von Kenntnissen ber gesellschaftliche Machtverhltnisse, Sozialstrukturen, Berufe/Ttigkeiten und die Lebensweise im Mittelalter notwendig, da sich das mittelalterliche Gefge von Kenntnissystemen hinreichend deutlich vom gegenwrtigen Wissens- und Kenntnisstand unterscheidet. Fr Realienbezeichnungen, die spezielle Handlungskonzepte ausdrcken (z. B. Beschimpfungen), ist die Rekonstruktion von Kenntnissen ber persnliche, gesellschaftliche und juristische Kommunikationsstrategien der Bewertung / Beurteilung notwendig, um Graduierungen / Abstufungen der Bewertungs- oder Beurteilungsintensitt feststellen und richtig verstehen zu knnen.
QUELLEN Grimm, Jacob; Grimm, Wilhelm (2010): Kinder- und Hausmrchen. Ausgabe letzter Hand mit den Originalanmerkungen der Brder Grimm. Mit einem Anhang smtlicher, nicht in allen Auflagen verffentlichter Mrchen und Herkunftsnachweisen hrsg. von Heinz Rlleke. Stuttgart: Reclam. 3 Bde. [Original: 1857] [= KHM]. Grimm, Jacob; Grimm, Wilhelm (19982004): Deutsches Wrterbuch. URL: http://www.dwb.uni-trier.de/ [22.02.2012] [Original: 18521960] [= DWB]. Adelung, Johann Christoph (2009): Grammatisch-kritisches Wrterbuch der hochdeutschen Mundart. URL: http://lexika.digitale-sammlungen.de/adelung/online/ angebot [22.02.2012] [Original: 1811]. Duden. Deutsches Universalwrterbuch (2006). Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut & F. A. Brockhaus AG. 6., berarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage (CDROM) [= DUW]. Duden. Das Herkunftswrterbuch (2005). Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut & F. A. Brockhaus AG. 3., vllig neu bearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage (CDROM). Brockhaus in Text und Bild 2002 (2001). Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut & F. A. Brockhaus AG (CD-ROM).
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst LITERATUR Driger, Hans-Harry (2010): Zum Begriff und zu Problemen der Realien und ihrer Bezeichnungen. In: Vertimo studijos, Nr. 3, S. 3652. Kindlers neues Literatur-Lexikon (1996). Bd. 6. Hrsg. von Walter Jens. Mnchen: Kindler. Metzler Literatur Lexikon (1990). Hrsg. von Gnther und Irmgard Schweikle. Stuttgart: Metzler. 2., berarbeitete Auflage. Nord, Christine (1993): Einfhrung in das funktionale bersetzen. Tbingen, Basel: Francke. Pge-Alder, Kathrin (2011): Mrchenforschung. Theorien, Methoden, Interpretationen. Tbingen: Narr. 2., berarbeitete Auflage. Schmidt, Wilhelm (2008): Deutsche Sprachkunde. Ein Handbuch fr Lehrer und Studierende mit einer Einfhrung in die Probleme des sprachkundlichen Unterrichts. Paderborn: IFB Verlag. 8. Auflage. Trapp, Wolfgang (1996): Kleines Handbuch der Mae, Zahlen, Gewichte und der Zeitrechnung. Stuttgart: Reclam. 2., durchgesehene und erweiterte Auflage. Vlachov, S.I.; Florin, C.P. (2009): Neperevodimoje v perevode. Moskau: R. Valent.
Once upon a time... Grimms Fairy Tales and The Intercultural Communication Summary
The aim of the article is to record German culture-bound words in The Complete Fairy Tales by the Brothers Grimm to explore the communicational problems connected with these culture-bound words. As a conclusion, the author will give some advice on how to handle an understanding of culture-bound words in the present intracultural and intercultural communication. In general, culture-bound words represent a specific amount of lexical items in a certain language. Culturebound words and their semantic-cognitive features can be analyzed through lexicographic and collocational analysis leading to their semantic-cognitive reconstruction in order to elaborate ways of understanding them. One of the special features of the culture-bound words in The Complete Fairy Tales by the Brothers Grimm is to refer to knowledge and knowledge structures that are not compatible with the knowledge structures of the present. Thus, the connected problems of correctly understanding the fairy tales in all parts affect the intracultural communication, but can be solved by lexicographical research, acquisition of specialized medieval knowledge.
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: , , , . , , . - . . 1922 . , , , , , , . , . . XX . , ( ). , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , . .. , , , , , , , [ 1998: 193]. 363
. : , , -. , . , . , . , .. , .. , .. , . . . .. , , . , , , , , [ 2010]. .. [ 1971: 180]. .. , , , , , , , . , , [ 1989: 41]. .. , , , , [ 1998]. , . ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ). , - [ 1990: 588589]. ( , , ) . , , 364
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, , , : , , , , , . , , , (, 118). . , : , (, 46); , (, 25) . , , , : : (, 163). , , ( ) ( ) . () . - , , , ( ) . . , - : , (, 128); (, 25) . 366
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+ : (, 38); (, 96) . , : ( , 122); ( , 98); ( , 82). , : , , () .: (, 153); (, 200) . , - , , : . (, 45); (, 40); (, 10), (, 112) . , 24 15 % - . , , , , . . , . 367
Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst , .. . : , 2010. 352 . , .. . : , 1998. 224 . , .. . : , 1971. 276 . / . .. . : , 1990. 682 . , .. . : , 1987. 352 . , .. . : , 1968. 48 . , .. . : , 1989. 156 .
Speech Stereotypes and Clichs in the Russian-Speaking Periodical Press of Belarus Summary
The problem of studying the language of press is of current importance and practical significance. The development of information technologies as well as the Internet spreading force journalists dealing with periodicals, including Belarusian ones, search for new forms of attraction. A journalists ability to create a necessary level of attraction in his article depends not only on knowing the facts but also on effective use of various communication means, elements of different language levels. Modern journalistic genre, which reflects political and economic events, problems of current importance, is characterized by plenty of ready to use speech patterns and expressions. Among them we cant but mention various stereotype constructions which are well-known by all the native speakers. The necessity to report about the news from different fields of life led to working-out of a definite way of presentation and to forming a number of stereotype speech expressions. The purpose of the given article is to analyze the functioning of speech stereotypes and clichs, to define their place and role in Russian-speaking Belarusian periodicals. The analysis of facts proves that speech stereotypes and clichs, used in Russian-speaking newspapers, characterize the social and political as well as economic fields of life. Journalists skills should be revealed in proper use of communicative stereotypes, their variation and combining with other linguistic units within a newspaper article.
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373
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The Word Rossiyane in Contemporary Russian Speech: The Semantic and Pragmatic Aspects Summary
The article touches upon the semantic asymmetry between the modern Russian words russkiye (subst. pl., ethnonym) ethnic Russians; East Slavic ethnic group native to Russia, russkiy (adj.) of or pertaining to ethnic Russians and rossiyane (subst. pl., demonym) citizens or inhabitants of the Russian Federation, rossiyskiy (adj.) of or pertaining to the Russian Federation. In 18th and early 19th cent. rossiyane was synonymous with russkiye but expressive and marked as bookish and poetical form, and only in the late 1980s and early 1990s the first word has become the modern meaning mainly in wide use of mass media and official discourse. However there is no term rossiyane in the legislation of the Russian Federation. In Russian society there is a stereotype that the term was coined by Boris Yeltsin therefore the negative attitude to him is reflected in connotation of this word. Thus Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Oleg Trubachyov meant the word rossiyane to be artificial and lifeless as against the russkiye, although the former would have to satisfy the need to designate citizens of Russia. Moreover there is a case of enantiosemy in the word rossiyane, since it usually means non-Russian inhabitants of the Russian Federation (it is noted as a language fact by Gasan Gusejnov and Fyodor Girenok). Some Russian linguists (Irina Vepreva, Natalia Kupina) suppose that connotative nuances of this word tend to disappear, but the analysis of its usage in contemporary RuNet suggests otherwise.
374
Jeena JERMOLAJEVA
(Rgas Ekonomikas un kultras augstskola)
Jaunieu literr dairade krievu valod

Atslgas vrdi: jaunieu literr dairade, profesionlais atbalsts Valodas pilnvrtgas pastvanas prieknoteikums ir nemitga valodas izmantoana jaunrad. Viens no vissvargkajiem valodas jaunrades veidiem ir dailiteratra. Kaut gan sabiedrb visaugstk tiek atzta profesionl literr dairade, t balsts uz daudz plaku pamatu uz amatieru literatru. paa vieta neprofesionu literatr ir jaunieu dairadei. Paizpausme valodas forms ir viens no personbas paattstbas psiholoiskiem pamatldzekiem [ 2007: 85]. Tekstu sacerana sekm etnisks identittes veidoanos, attsta intelektuls prasmes, jtas un esttisko gaumi. Skolna vai studenta literr dairade var ar kt par pirmo pakpienu profesionla literta tapanas proces. Raksts ir veltts Rgas jaunieu dairadei, kas rakstta krievu valod. Ptjumam ir 2 uzdevumi: 1) ptt, cik izplatta ir pusaudu un jaunieu aizrauans ar literro dairadi, 2) analizt s darbbas profesionli pedagoisk atbalsta veidus un iespjas. Ptjum iegts atzias ir attiecinmas ar uz jaunieu dairadi latvieu valod. Ptjuma gait tika izstrdtas trs anketas ar daji strukturtiem jautjumiem: a) skolniem un studentiem (aptauj piedaljs 117 skolni un studenti no 16 ldz 30 gadiem, apmram viends cilvku skaits humanitraj un socilekonomiskaj/tehniskaj virzien), b) profesionliem litertiem (32 anketas), c) krievu literatras un valodas skolotjiem (aptaujti 22 skolotji). Skolnu un studentu anket bija jautjumi: vai Js kdreiz sacerjt tekstus pc savas iniciatvas? Kad skt sacert? Kpc? Kam pardjt tekstus? Kda bija reakcija? Kpc prtrauct sacert? Vairk k 20 gadus vadot jaunieu radoo klubu, autorei ir bijusi iespja piesaistt ptjum profesionlus litertus rakstniekus, urnlistus un augstskolu studentus, kam ir literras publikcijas. Viiem bija piedvta plaka anketa ar papildus jautjumiem par profesionls tapanas procesu, par skolas mcbu nozmi radoo spju attstb u. c. 375
Skolotji sama ar jautjumus par viu pau literro dairadi. Skolotjiem bija ar piedvts hipottiski novrtt, cik daudzi no viu skolniem (procentuli) sacer un vai iepazstina ar savu jaunradi. Bija ar jautjums, vai vii uzskata skolnu literrs jaunrades attstanu par savu profesionlo pienkumu. Pozitvas atbildes gadjum skolotji nosauca faktorus, kas samazina viu darba efektivitti aj jom, k ar piedvja paskumus un ldzekus, kas vartu veicint o darbbu. Anketana pardja, ka jaunieu aizrauans ar literro dairadi ir augsta. Nekad ar to nav nodarbojuies tikai 9% jaunieu humanitraj virzien un 17% socilekonomiskaj. Joprojm turpina sacert tekstus 62% un 40% jaunieu (skat. 1. att.). Vienlaikus jnorda, ka skolotju hipottiskie vrtjumi par viu audzku dairades intensitti apmram divreiz atpaliek no iem datiem.
1. attls. Pusaudu un jaunieu nodarboans ar literro dairadi Daudzi respondenti ir prtraukui tekstu saceranu: humanitraj virzien tdi ir 29%, socilekonomiskaj 44 %. Prtraukanas iemeslus var sadalt iekjos (veidojs citas intereses, pardjs sasniegumi cits joms, attstjs pakritiskums utt.) un rjos (parasti t bija apkrtjo cilvku attieksme pret jauniea dairadi). Atbildot uz jautjumu Kam Js pardjt savus tekstus? visbiek tika nosaukti draugi, interneta kopienas, tuvinieki, literatras skolotji, citi. 16 jauniei no 51 humanitr virziena prstvjiem ir pardjui savus tekstus literatras skolotjam, socilekonomiskaj virzien no 50 cilvkiem ar skolotju ir sadarbojuies trs. Labku rezulttu sniedza litertu anketas (sk. att. 2.). Kopum var konstatt, ka viss grups (ar paiem skolotjiem) is rdtjs ir diezgan zems. 376
Jeena JERMOLAJEVA. Jaunieu literr dairade krievu valod
2. attls. Sadarbba ar skolotju Skolnu un skolotju zemais sadarbbas lmenis vismaz daji ir saistts ar objektviem faktoriem. Pirmkrt, pusaudu un jaunieu subkultrai sabiedrbas straujo prmaiu apstkos ir raksturga tendence iekapsulties, noslgties no pieauguo pasaules; jauniei tai pretstat veido savu Es [ 1988: 348]. Otrkrt, zinma loma ir literrs dairades specifikai: vrdi skaidrk nek skaas un vizulie tli atklj jauniea dzves apstkus, demonstr dzii slptas jtas un domas. Ir tomr ar citi iemesli. Daudzas atbildes un komentri liecina, ka jauniei neuztver savu dairadi un skolas valodas un literatras kursu k divas tuvas sfras. Tiem, skolnu mksliniecisk paizpausme nav prioritte mcbu priekmetu standartos, daudz vairk ir akcentta daidarbu uztvere (interpretcija, analze) un argumentcijas prasmes [LR MK Noteikumi Nr. 715, 2008]. ai zi literatras kurss atpaliek no citiem esttisk cikla kursiem. Vizulaj mksl un mzik mkslinieciskajai paizpausmei ir veltta lielka uzmanba, turklt o priekmetu skolotji nereti pai strd mkslas jom [ 2010: 27]. Litertu ankets bija daudz pateicbas vrdu skolai un skolotjiem. Vairki literti dom, ka mcbas labk veicintu skolnu literro dairadi, ja tiktu pievrsta lielka uzmanba msdienu literatrai un maintu proporcijas starp literatrzintnisko dau un pau skolnu dairades pieredzi, starp dzimto un rzemju literatru. Skolotji savs ankets atzst, ka skolnu dairadei nepievr lielu uzmanbu. K iemeslu vii min laika trkumu. Skolotji pamana apdvintos skolnus un cenas paldzt viiem attstt jaunrades potencilu, bet izgltbas standarta un programmas d uzspie saspringtus mcbu grafikus, tpc skolnu brvs rados darbbas veicinanai paliek maz laika. For377
mlaj izgltb tiem grti atbalstt skolnu literro dairadi, jo sistma ir vairk virzta uz vidjo skolnu. Grtbas rada ar fakts, ka formls izgltbas apstkos klas ir dads skolnu motivcijas lmenis dairadei. Vairki skolotji atzina, ka nav psiholoiski un metodiski gatavi im darbam. Gandrz viss ankets bija atzmts, ka im jautjumam uzmanbu nepievr ne sagatavojot skolotjus, ne izstrdjot IZM standartus un programmas, ne skolotju metodiskajs apvienbs un tlkizgltbas kursos. Bija ar tdi skolotji (6 no 22), kuri neuzskata skolnu dairades veicinanu par savu pienkumu. Plakas iespjas pusaudiem un jaunieiem attstt dairades prasmes sniedz intereu izgltba pulcii, klubi, studijas utt. Neformls izgltbas brvais raksturs [Kravale 2006: 7] saskan ar izpratni par mkslu k cilvka visaugstks rados brvbas jomu. Intereu izgltb nav centraliztu standartu, mcbu programmu izstrd nodarbbu vadtjs saska ar dalbnieku vlmm un iespjm, nevienam neliek atzmes par via daidarbiem. Brvu mksliniecisko paizpausmi veicina brvprtga ldzdalba un iespja apvienoties nodarbbs dadu vecumu pusaudiem un jaunieiem. Intereu izgltbai ir labas perspektvas jaunieu literrs dairades veicinan, tomr palaik is potencils nav pilnb izmantots. Apskatot intereu izgltbas programmas Latvij, var secint, ka literro studiju un pulciu ir daudz mazk, nek mzikas vai mkslas profila kolektvu. Tiem intereu izgltbas pedagogiem, kuri strd aj jom, trkst profesionls komunikcijas; sen nav bijui un nav ieplnoti tdas ievirzes tlkizgltbas kursi. Daji tas ir saistts ar to, ka atirb no vizuls mkslas un mzikas pedagoijas literrs dairades pedagoija faktiski nav izstrdta. Tomr ir ar pozitva pieredze. Viens no intereu izgltbas programmu piemriem literrs dairades jom ir Rgas Pukina liceja Jaunieu radoais klubs ARS, kas strd no1989. gada. Mrauditorija ir 8.12. klau licejisti, bet nodarbbs biei piedals absolventi, citu mcbu iestu skolni, pieaicintie draugi. Nodarbbu tematika atbilst dalbnieku daudzveidgajm interesm: literr dairade, mzika, vizul mksla. Kluba darbbas galvenie virzieni: padziinta iepazans ar klasisko un msdienu kultru; mkslas darbu (tekstu, skadarbu, zmjumu, kolu utt.) radana un to apsprieana; jauno litertu, mkslinieku un mziu dairades prezentcijas; daidarbu atlase un sagatavoana publicanai Pukina liceja almanah ARS. Almanahs ir kluba darbbas lietiais rezultts un spcgs stimuls tlkai attstbai. Kop 1989. gada ir izdoti 16 numuri, saturs ir licejistu dzeja, proza un grafika; dareiz piedaljs liceja skolotji. ARS divreiz ir 378
Jeena JERMOLAJEVA. Jaunieu literr dairade krievu valod
ieguvis balvas Latvijas skolu urnlu konkursos, vairki t autori ir bijui LRS konkursa Aicinjums laureti, daudzi absolventi ir profesionli literti, mkslinieki un urnlisti. Pamatojoties uz ilggadgo kluba vadanas pieredzi un uz novrojumiem par jaunieu attstbas procesu, var secint, ka veiksmga darba galvenais prieknosacjums ir rado gaisotne: dalbnieku un vadtja kopg aizrauans ar mkslu, rados darbbas prieks, savstarpj ciea un uzticans. Vadtjam ir svargi veicint dalbnieku paorganianas procesu. Tiei rado gaisotne un demokrtiskais stils saskarsm ar dalbniekiem paldz veiksmgi risint tdas saretas problmas k, piemram, jaunieu daidarbu novrtana un kopgo esttisko kritriju izstrde. Pastv ar citi atbalsta veidi jaunieu dairadei. Attstbu lieliski stimul dadi literrie festivli un konkursi jaunajiem autoriem. Piemram, Daugavpil Krievu valodas un literatras skolotju metodisk apvienba organiz literros konkursus skolniem un reizi gad izdod urnlu ar viu darbiem. Latvijas Krievu valodas un literatras pasniedzju asocicija organiz literrs jaunrades konkursu skolniem un studentiem krievu kultras un izgltbas svtku ietvaros, labkos darbus public krievu avzs un specil izdevum. Dai literrie almanahi ar mekl jaunos autorus un public viu darbus: un Daugavpil, dzejas krjumi Ludz, Rzeknes dzejas almanahs, u. c. ie konkursi un publikcijas ir oti nodergi: tie populariz jaunieu literro dairadi, atklj talantgus autorus. Dieml ldzgu izdevumu un konkursu nav daudz. Jaunajiem autoriem ir ar nepiecieami regulri kontakti ar profesioniem. Protams, tagad ir iespja pardt un apspriest savu dairadi tmeka literrajs kopiens, tomr ne vienmr tur var saemt profesionlu konsultciju. Daos aspektos situcija ir kuvusi sliktka, nek t bija pirms 20 gadiem. Vairs nav literro rubriku avzs, jo 90. gados likvidja literro konsultantu tata vietas. Prtrauca darbu krievu jauno autoru seminrs, kas vairkas desmitgades strdja Latvijas Rakstnieku savienb. Tiem, kas raksta latvieu valod, situcija ir labka: LRS ar dadu fondu paldzbu joprojm organiz jaunajiem autoriem konkursus, seminrus un vasaras nometnes, kur dalbniekiem ir iespja noklausties kompetentu specilistu lekcijas par literr procesa aktualittm, dzirdt savu darbu novrtjumu, k ar piedalties kopgajos literrajos lasjumos. Tomr nepietiekam finansjuma d pdjos gados ar o paskumu skaits samazins. 379
1. 2. 3. 4.
Secinjumi Daudzi pusaudi un jauniei iesaists literraj jaunrad, bet ne skolas mcbu proces, ne intereu izgltbas nodarbbs vii nesaem pietiekamu profesionu atbalstu. Nepietiekams ir valsts un pavaldbu atbalsts jaunieu literrs dairades veicinanas paskumiem, ir maz iespju publict jaunieu darbus. Jaunieu dairades veicinanai ir vajadzga skolotju sagatavoanas programmu koriana un profesionlu litertu piesaistana darbam ar jaunajiem autoriem. Ir nepiecieami ptjumi literrs dairades pedagoij.
LITERATRA
Kravale, M. Jaunieu neforml izgltba Latvij. Promocijas darba kopsavilkums. Daugavpils: DU, 2006. 23 lpp. LR Ministru kabineta Noteikumi Nr. 715 par valsts visprjs vidjs izgltbas standartu un visprjs vidjs izgltbas mcbu priekmetu standartiem. Pieejams: http://www.likumi.lv/doc.php?id=181216 , . : . .: , , . : , 2010, . 3537. , . . . . : ,1988. 429 c. , .. . : , 2007. 255 .
Youths Creative Writing in Russian: Professional Support Summary

The paper is devoted to the creative writing of young people of Riga in Russian. The following problems are set: to find out to what extent literary creative work is widespread among young people; to analyze ways of professionally supporting this creative work. The survey of 117 students has shown a high level of enthusiasm for creative writing among them. However, only few of them have shown their works to their school teachers. The reason is that creative writing is paid little attention to in the course of languages and literature. The system of interest education gives more opportunity for the development of creative writing of young people. However there are far fewer literary studies
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Jeena JERMOLAJEVA. Jaunieu literr dairade krievu valod in Latvia than musical or artistic ones. Organization of literary competitions, publishing of the best works in journals and literary miscellanies also favors the development of creative writing. On the whole, the situation of support of creative writing has got worse in the last 20 years: literary columns in newspapers have been closed, no seminars for young authors writing in Russian are held. To promote youths creative writing, it is necessary to correct the educational program for language and literature teachers, to get professional writers involved in work with young authors, to increase the state support of youths creative writing and opportunity for publication of works by young authors.
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Genovait KAIUKIEN
(iauli universitetas)
Irena KRUOPIEN
(Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija)
Leksikos ypatumai Mykolo Kariausko poezijoje

Pagrindiniai odiai: Mykolas Kariauskas, tarm, poezijos kalba, iaurs panevikiai, leksika, tarmybs Mykolas Kariauskas ir jo poetins kalbos savitumas Mykolas Kariauskas poetas, prozininkas, vertjas, Lietuvos raytoj sjungos narys, ryt auktaitis, iaurs panevikis, teisininkas, gims 1939 metais virgdje, Pasvalio rajone. Krybinis debiutas eilrai rinkinys Klevo medus, iais metais paymsiantis 40 met sukakt. is, kaip ir dauguma kit jo poezijos rinkini, yra pagrstas istoriniais faktais, etnografinmis detalmis, biografiniais motyvais, taip artimais iaurs panevikio dvasiai ir mentalitetui. iuo metu yra ileista per 25 jo knygas: keliolika poezijos rinkini, poem knyg, pasak vaikams, kelioni apybrai, ukrainiei, rus, vengr autori vertim ir kt. Kariausko kryboje vyrauja socialiniai motyvai, apmstoma tautos dabartis ir istorija; eilraiai sukurti lyrine epine maniera su atviromis publicistinmis deklaracijomis, emocingomis refleksijomis. Taiau naujosios iuolaikins poezijos kontekste autorius domus ne vien dl k tik pamint poetini ypatybi, leidini recenzijose danai akcentuojamas kitas jo krybos aspektas, kalbinis bandymai reformuoti kalb. Kariausko kryboje, ypa poezijoje, apstu naujadar, negirdt tarmini odi, nepriekaitingai liejam krinio kontekst, taip jam suteikiant nepakartojamo gyvumo, savito skambesio bei muzikalumo: pilaga, pelenija, vidupievs, viesuojas, vaginiai vaga, metrauja altjanios metgs, jaukurai, kaiksta senmergl, arjos iruos liekuoja ir kt. Kaip vykusiai yra pasaks pats poetas, tie odiai turi bti itraukti i po slenksio. I po slenksio, kuris dabar numintas, ant kurio kapojamos malkos [Akelaitien, Kaikaryt 2011]. Anot literatrologo Justino Kubiliaus, M. Kariausko kryboje galime velgti nor itraukti gyvenimo akn, susigrinti patirt rykia ir skaudia detale, gilinti savj vietov, materializuoti dvasi daikto, garso ar augalo vytjimu... [Kubilius 2006]. 382
Genovait KAIUKIEN, Irena KRUOPIEN. Leksikos ypatumai Mykolo..
Savitai pateikiami ir kai kurie eilrai pavadinimai, tarsi sukuriantys dviprasmik interpretacijos galimyb: Nuo-staba, At-gaila, Tikjimas, Ne-btis, I-malda ir kt. doms ir labai ilti yra poeto atsivrimai kalbos, gimtosios tarms, literatros krinio kalbos klausimais, kuri nemanoma nepacituoti, nes tai tarytum himnas, tarsi giesm pastaraisiais metais ypa niekinamai ir susinamai gimtajai kalbai ar tarmei1. Anot poeto, odis turt bt vartais visas gelmes. kalnus jo neukelsi. odis mogaus, ems vaisius. Jo nieks negali pavergti. Gali j atrasti, bet negali privatizuoti. Mes kalbam, bendraujam odiais, kurie labai sekls, neturi vidini prasmi, klis, o juk odiai savyje yra sukaup galing energij, jg. Tapybin jg. Kai kam kaimas turi savo kvail, o man kiekvienas kaimas turi savo tarm, ne visi j supras, ne visi j igirs. Kaimai turi savo slaptaodius, kaip kokius ramenis, savo runas, savo dainas. Tarm yra ir moni mstymas, tarm ne garsas, tarmj didi filosofija. Tarm ne sau gyvena, ji ilgaam. Tarm yra kalbos slaugytoja, sergtoja, gaivintoja. Visos tarms subga up kalbos. Tarms vert jos ertmj, ji turi savo banyi erdv. Medis, i kurio dar neipjov lent, yra kaip gyvas, iltas, suprantamas, nors ir pargriautas, nukirstas. Kai iskros lentas, jis bus jau ne medis, bus medinis, su keistu -iniu, neinau ar lietuviku. Taip su tarme. Tie kaimai ir miesteliai yra ems biografijos dalels, jos gyvenimai, jos mintys, isakytos visu balsu, siruob atmintin. Negaliu sivaizduoti kalbos spalvos, tarsi bespalv, o tarm vienos spalvos neturi, ji glta. Neretai, susirads kok od, nustembu, kad ne visos jo prasms vardintos. Kurdamas poezij, remiuosi igyvenimais. Nors ir graiausi vaizdai, jeigu nesukelia joki igyvenim, jeigu negirdiu moni toj aplinkumoj, ji ir lieka tuia, dykaied. Pradedu mstyt, kad daug odi eilratyje priartina, pagreitina krinio, eilraio, romano prat.... Trumpai tariant, Mykolas Kariauskas yra ne tik odio meistras, gebantis i umarties prikelti, atgaivinti beinykstant od arba, esant reikalui, nepriekaitingai nukaldinti nauj, bet ir labai atsakingas ir smoningas kalbos vartotojas. Leksika. Mykolo Kariausko poezijos leksiniai ypatumai Leksikos terminu suprantama kalbos odi visuma, kurio svok, be bendrj odi, taip pat eina frazeologizmai, vairios kalbos atmainos
ia ir kitur cituojamos poeto Mykolo Kariausko mintys, ratu pateiktos klausimus, suformuluotus Editos. Jurgaityts ir Genovaits. Kaiukiens 2010 metais.
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(tarmi, socialini dialekt, idiolekt ir pan. pavyzdiai) [Lietuvi kalbos enciklopedija 1999: 356]. Pagal tai, koki socialin padt turintys visuomens atstovai ir kur odius vartoja, yra skiriami du leksikos sluoksniai visuotin (arba bendrataut) ir specialioji leksika [Jakaitien 2010: 173]. Bendrataut leksikos vartojimo sfera yra neribota, j supranta visi lietuvi kalba kalbantys mons. Specialiosios leksikos sfer riboja tam tikri socialiniai veiksniai gyvenamoji teritorija, profesija, priklausomumas kuriai nors socialinei grupei ir kt. Specialioji leksika, kuriai priklauso ir tarminis leksikos sluoksnis prieingai yra inoma tik apibrtoje tarminje teritorijoje, taiau stilistiniais sumetimais ji gana danai vartojama groinje literatroje. Poetiniam meniniam stiliui yra bdingas vaizdingumas, kuriam ireikti yra pasitelkiami vairs kalbos itekliai: ir stilistikai neutrals, ir knyginiai, ir nekamosios kalbos [uperka 1983: 115]. Liaudies kalbos svarbum groinei krybai, jos gyvybingumui ne kart yra akcentavs ir Juozas Pikilingis. Anot jo, groinje literatroje vietini nekt odiai (tarmybs) atlieka trejop paskirt: 1) individualizuoja veikj kalb, 2) parykina vietos kolorit, 3) raikiau perteikia krinio esm [Pikilingis 1975: 104]. Dvi pastarosios tarmybi ypatybs itin svarbios ir akivaizdios Kariausko kryboje. domesn tarmin Kariausko leksika rinkta i 7 jo poezijos rinkini: Vyni kalnas (1978), Kaita (1982), I lelij balt (1989), Sausio eilraiai (1992), Grkelis (1999), Kriktai (2005), Kada parsiklausim namo (2007) ir 2 redaguot knyg2. I irinktos mediagos matyti, kad Kariausko poezijos kalbins raikos pagrind sudaro ekspresyvioji (vaizdingieji veiksmaodiai, posakiai, frazeologizmai, deminutyvai) ir tarmin leksika (tarmybs, senieji barbarizmai, hibridai bei j tarmins formos), o iskirtinumo jai suteikia itin autoriaus pamgti kai kurie odi darybos bdai (vairs vediniai, driniai) ir kt. Ekspresyvioji leksika Ekspresyvumas viena i kalbos iraikos priemoni ypatybi, veikianti vaizduot ir (arba) emocijas [uperka 1983: 19]. Tai odiai, kurie ne tik pavadina veiksm, daikt, reikin, bsen ar pan., bet ir suteikia
Straipsnyje remiamasi bakalaurants Jurgaityts surinkta mediaga, tik ia ji yra kitaip interpretuojama (plg. Jurgaityt 2010), taip pat Irenos Kruopiens redaguot Kariausko knyg Erki krmas pamariuos. Vilnius: Gimtasis odis, 2008 ir Ukum pukum Vilnius: Versus aureus, 2009 leksikos pavyzdiais.
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apie t od papildomos emocins, ekspresins arba modalins informacijos [Zabarskait 2006: 171]. Kariausko poezijoje gausu ekspresyviosios leksikos pavyzdi. Ypa didel j dal sudaro vaizdingieji veiksmaodiai, kai kuri i j net nra ufiksuota Lietuvi kalbos odyne: aldti3 aidti, skambti, gausti; ambryti vampsti; apleipti apsilpti, apalpti; atseikti atmatuoti saiku; atsikazoti pasikaiyti; berklauti skrosti; berti nokti; bodti nemgti; brigzti spurti; daukinti dvakinti; dvyluoti blukti; imalti padaryti duobt; itrinkti nuplauti, iplauti; kaikti cypti; kaukti; karkluoti raizgyti, karglioti; kvkioti rkti; lagenti ristele vaiuoti; lapnoti godiai sti; linkuoti sibuoti; mazgoti plauti; nairytis vilgioti i panir, dbioti; nukrapnoti nulyti; nuzaunyti nunekti; pakauti kiek sigerti; pakieminti pavieti; parpulti parkristi; parsiklausti grti; pipeliuoti keikti; priakti prisirpti, prinokti; riogsoti bti; sdti, stovti be reikalo, nieko neveikiant, karksoti; skatotis garsiai kalbti; sktrioti sksioti; skrobsoti tnoti; alventi alti, paalti (truput); aliuoti skraidyti, lakioti bitms; ikinti barstyti, be reikalo okinti; iulenti dvelkti; vebeldiuoti neaikiai kalbti ar tarti garsus, vaikikai kalbti; tabaluoti maskatuoti; tavaruoti mirguliuoti; tlinti pamau eiti; usilaumoti storai apsivilkti; varstakiuoti spoksoti; iesti daryti, kurti. Pavyzdiui, Ambrina unes; Berklauja ant diendario meitel; Ima berti sauied gl; Vjuj atbrizg smilgos / Ms trokimams basiems; Daukantas / po laikus ir laukus daukinja; Lietus itrinks / U piev il; Kaiksta senmerg; Mnuo nairos / Veido savo / Kas j itaip / Ibuiavo; Buvau i savo pasak seniai ijs / tavo erd, Lietuva, pakiemint; agarj vyns / Juodai priako; Tik riogsome / Lyg prie pitols / Tautos pakelj; Sustoju prie kelio tarytum nesavas, / Skatojuos, visiems dalinu; Skrendi, sktriojies, vjus gaudai; Sutavaravo / Pro rudenio alsuojanius lapus; iedeliui suskaudjus / Nualvens ir gyvens; Sode aliuoja bluojanios bits, / Pakvimpa tyla ajerais; Tvysta, oi tvysta / vyreliu grstas; Utuk keli / Piev upelis. Kita Kariausko ekspresyviosios leksikos dalis frazeologins tarmybs, vaizdingieji posakiai ar palyginimai: daki iekoti; ieiti aitais iklysti i doros kelio; ieiti gunklom pasidaryti nelygiam; kaip pklys prie vj; karpyti blakstienom; parai su zvaneliais; paventinti rau udroti; pains ikna degut susidraugaus; pernyktis sniegas; zuikiai miDl vietos stokos pateikiamuose pavyzdiuose aikinamos tik nutolusios odi reikms.
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kius veiia; vjus gaudyti niekais usiimti; velnias nag ino ir pan., kuri reikm danai nusako pats eilraio kontekstas. Pavyzdiui, Vis daki ieko, alai, damaliuoja; Sapnuosi dar ilgai ijs aitais; Vaikai bekelniai / Blakstienom karpo; Kieman ijs / Eini kaip aklas / Pklys prie vj / Udegs pekl; Prie kalnel kelias / Parai su zvaneliais; Darbymeio idj / Paventinti rau; I pernykio sniego / Atsigrs miego; Einam Krinin / Velnias nag ino ir kt. Gausu Kariausko poezijos kalboje ir deminutyvini form, ypa su priesagomis -elis, -el, bdingomis io krato nekamajai kalbai [Kaiukien, vambaryt-Valuien, Kruopien 2008: 3637], suteikianiomis jai iskirtinio velnumo pojt, parodaniomis tam tikr io krato moni charakterio savitum [Macien 2005: 115]. Dalis i odi yra nelietuvikos kilms, bet gerai inomi ir vartojami ne tik iaurs paneviki, bet ir kit lietuvi kalbos tarmi atstov: alaslis; aniuolliai; aparl; boelis; erkazinlis; dzkelis; gojeliai; karel; karoliukas; kiemelis; kvietkel; paveiksllis; Petronl; senmergl; sodelis; ryelis; albierlis; irgelis; mogelis ir pan. Pavyzdiui, ilkarskyls Marijos iedlapiai kaip aniuolliai; Kitus gi paleido jau ant aparls; Stovi kieme boelis; Rupkini erkazinli; Atminties gojeliai; Trys lietuvikos dainos, / Ten / Kiemelis, / irgelis, / Karel. Tarmin leksika Tarmi odiai yra svarbiausias bendrins kalbos turtinimo altinis, taiau dl nuolat vykstanios bendrins kalbos ir tarmi interferencijos neretai bna sunku pasakyti, ar odis yra tarmyb, ar jau priklauso bendrinei leksikai [Jakaitien 2010: 180]. Anot Pikilingio, n vieno kito leksinio sluoksnio odis nra atidavs tokios didels duokls tiek literatrins (bendrins) kalbos, tiek groins literatros kalbai, kaip tarmybs [Pikilingis 1975: 97]. Straipsnyje prie tarmins leksikos skiriamos tarmybs (dialektizmai), senieji barbarizmai ir hibridai bei kai kurios tarmins odi pateikimo formos, gana danos Kariausko poezijoje. Kaip etnografins tarmybs, bdingos auktaii iaurs paneviki plotui, mintinos ios: balymas pernykt sausa ol; grebstas; gryia; jurtas drumstas; kt; liuoba; maklyn; priemen; radasta; ryelis; sarmata; skeberlis; spalgena; uor; verden ir daugyb kit tarmje vartojam odi, kuri apstu Kariausko poezijoje. Pavyzdiui, Rado ardydami u grebsto; sibrido jurtas bangeles; aidia u kts vaikai; Talkoni pakluons priemenes svaigino; Skleidias baltos radastos i ru386
pi koj; Ten skuba moteris, ryel pasimus; Bet miesto galvos, spjov sarmat, / Toliau peiojo laurus jo vainiko; Ant smala aplieto plokio stogo usikepurnjs skeberlis; Atsikelia girgdantys vartai / Po spalgenom ms raiste; Aplus uor. Paaly / Pakinktai net lapi kaip markiniai; Varstakiuoja pievose verdens. Pakankamai didel Kariausko poezijos leksikos dal sudaro barbarizmai senieji nelietuvikos kilms odiai, suteikiantys kalbai savotiko archajikumo. Pasak Ritos Milinaits, skoliniai gali bti paranks ir dl kit prieasi, pavyzdiui, kai lietuvikas atitikmuo atrodo per tiesmukikas ar norima kaip nors ypatingai apibdinti personaus [Milinait 2004: 4344]. Be jau mint deminutyvini barbarizm, Kariausko poezijoje galima rasti ir kitoki, daniausiai susijusi su kasdiene buitimi, banytinmis ventmis ar apeigomis: abrsai; apaa Marijos vent; grabnyia; kazlas; latras; miiolas; nigd; ndnastis; seklyia; smertis; sodialka; mikis; pitol; ulioti ir kt. Pavyzdiui, Vidn krykelj per apa smen; Matei, / Kaip ydi rtos / Ir grabnyios; Kakada kazlais ij, / Geleim pakilti vilsis; Nepilnamet latr; Skroblus skroblo / Nigd nemats; Parms galv miiol; I ndnasties: neiduok su noru savs; Kaip seklyios lange; Sodialkos ajeruos. Atpainti iaurs paneviki tarm padeda ir kai kurios auktaitikai vartojamos odi formos su sumiusiomis linksniavimo paradigmomis, tarminmis fonetinmis ypatybmis (gars atliepimais, priebalsio l kietinimu, gars imetimais) ir pan.: nemigail; rudenio; sesuva; un; vyn; saulasdis; gelkelis; pamalas. Pavyzdiui, Nemigail kelio / Gaila upelio; Juodj strazd sesuva; Gelkel, nubgant per arimus; Prasided zeveriuks, rusk ne kerzs laukan...; Ot bos bals su bundelom, ot bos bals... Sudurtiniai odiai Kariausko kryboje labai dani sudurtiniai odiai: kai kurie i j jau retai tarmje vartojami, kai kurie ir paties autoriaus sukurti: auktamik; bulviakopis; diendaris; dubaklonis; durnarop; galksn medio virn; gyvabala; gelkelis; graudmolis trapus molis; jaunamart; kaiaol; krykelis; kuragalys; labdarys; linmarka; markapiai; meduneis; metg; pajodarga; pasiutpolk; rasabrauk; rugviet; saulasdis; sauied; sengir; svilaviet; ilkarskyl; unkelis; takaol; vienkiemis; viekrant; aliagir; vyrduob ir kt. Pavyzdiui, A pavargau nuo to bulviakopio; Dubaklonio ied kalbjimuos; Durnaropm gydo; Girelkos gyvabaloj; 387
Jurginai atausti jaunamari kasom; Vaikysts kuragaliai blausiai rusena; I alinjanio kalvio rank / Rasabrauks lpos; Kaip varpins altos viekrantj. Vietoj ivad Susipainus su pagrindiniais Mykolo Kariausko poezijos leksiniais ypatumais, aikiai matyti, kad jie neatsiejamais saitais yra susij su gimtja Krinino tarme didiausiu jo krybinio kvpimo altiniu ir versme, todl straipsn nortume baigti paties poeto odiais, pasakytais apie j: Tarms nra namisdos, jos vaikto, kaip ukurins ar preikai. Gal taip jos kursto savo amel, atsigimdo paios. I kur atatvanas, neinau, pas mus, kai uliedavo palieknes, pavasariais, sakydavo pataps, o ruden kakodl atatvans, gal tada atatvinsta, atatvanas, atgal atatvinsta. Tekuoja tai laktingalos gieda. Toks odis jos skleidiamam garsui nusakyti. Man atrodo, kad tekuoja yra artimesnis odis tai muzikai, kur liejasi kaip pavasarinis srautas negu prastinis iulba. Visi paukiai iulba, o ji tekuoja, kakas daug daugiau. Kakam buvo svarbiau tai pastebti ir taip pasakyti. Tai i tvuko kalbos tie odiai. I odyno odi nerenku, pasitikrinu, danai randu, kad reikia visai ne t, kaip a esu girdjs. Net nepanaiai. Bet odynus skaitinju, ne tik lietuvi, bet ir kit kalb. Dainorliai pasitobulina poet odius ir dainuoja, kaip patogiau. Taip ir su tarme. Pakeiia koki nepatogi raidel, kitas ne taip nugirsta ir jau, irk, naujas tarmikas odis i to paties graudmolio.
LITERATRA Akelaitien, G., Kaikaryt, A. Kad kalba tapt gyvenimo duona. In: Literatra ir menas, 2011-03-11, Nr. 3322. Ambrazas, V. ir kt. Lietuvi kalbos enciklopedija. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidybos institutas, 1999. Jakaitien, E. Leksikologija. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla, 2010. Jurgaityt, E. Tarmybi ypatumai Mykolo Kariausko kryboje. Bak. d. iauliai: U, 2010. Kaiukien, G., vambaryt-Valuien, J., Kruopien, I. Moterikos lyties asmen pavadinimai lietuvi kalboje. In: Valoda dadu kultru kontekst, t. 18. Daugavpils: Saule, 2008, pp. 2841. Kubilius, J. Ideginti tylos laukai. In: iaurs Atnai, 2006-02-04, Nr. 783. Macien, J. Deminutyv stilistika. iauliai: iauli universiteto leidykla, 2005.
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Genovait KAIUKIEN, Irena KRUOPIEN. Leksikos ypatumai Mykolo.. Milinait, R. Skolini verts motyvacija. In: Girien, J. ir kt. Skoliniai ir bendrin lietuvi kalba. Vilnius: LKI, 2004, pp. 3055. Pikilingis, J. Lietuvi kalbos stilistika, t. 2. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1975. Zabarskait, J. Ekspresyvioji lietuvi kalbos leksika ir vartosenos odynai. In: Aikinamj bendrins kalbos odyn aktualijos. Vilnius: LKI, 2006, pp. 170180. uperka, K. Lietuvi kalbos stilistika. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1983. ALTINIAI Kariauskas, M. Vyni kalnas. Vilnius: Vaga, 1978. Kariauskas, M. Kaita. Vilnius: Vaga, 1982. Kariauskas, M. I lelij balt. Vilnius: Vaga, 1989. Kariauskas, M. Sausio eilraiai. Vilnius: Vaga, 1992. Kariauskas, M. Grkelis. Vilnius: Danielius, 1999. Kariauskas, M. Kriktai. Vilnius: Gimtasis odis, 2005. Kariauskas, M. Kada parsiklausim namo. Vilnius: Kronta, 2007. Kariauskas, M. Erki krmas pamariuos. Vilnius: Gimtasis odis, 2008. Kariauskas, M. Ukum pukum. Vilnius: Versus aureus, 2009.
Lexical Characteristics of Mykolas Kariauskas Poetry Summary

Mykolas Kariauskas, a resident of the northern Panevys district, is a wellknown Lithuanian poet, the author of 13 collections of poetry, 3 books of poems, fairy tales for children and a selection of travel essays, the translator of the writings by Ukrainian, Russian, and Hungarian authors. The writings by M. Kariauskas are fraught with neologisms and unheard-of dialect words that perfectly merge into the context of the poem, imparting vibrancy, distinctive sound, and musicality to the literary work. The dialect and other forms of vocabulary in M. Kariauskas poetry are considered in the paper based on the authors collections of poetry Kada parsiklausim namo, Kaita, Vyni kalnas, Grkelis, Kriktai, Sausio eilraiai, I lelij balt. Excerpts from interviews with the poet are presented. On the basis of the study conducted, it can be concluded that the linguistic expression of M. Kariauskas poetry consists of expressive vocabulary (figurative verbs, phrases and idioms, diminutives) and dialect vocabulary (dialectisms, ancient barbarisms, hybrids and their dialect forms), and is distinguished for certain ways of word formation (compound words, etc.) the author is extremely fond of.
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Velga LAUGALE
(Liepjas Universitte)
Pirmsskolas izgltbas iestu simboliskie nosaukumi

Atslgas vrdi: iestdes nosaukums, pirmsskolas izgltba, simbols Pirmsskolas izgltbas iestu simbolisko nosaukumu izpte ldz im padziinti nav veikta. Rakst aplkoti nosaukumu izveides principi, galvens tematisks grupas, k ar ieskicts ptjums par to raistajm asocicijm. Termini pirmsskolas izgltbas iestde [PTSV 2000: 132] un brnudrzs [PTSV 2000: 28] tiks lietoti k sinonmi turpmk PII. Vrds simbols [vcu Symbol, fr. symbole < lat. symbolum < gr. symbolon zme] tiek lietots oti plai dads cilvku darbbas sfrs. Svevrdu vrdncas latvieu valod fiks pat etrus [SV 1999: 719] un piecus [SV 1969: 597] dadus vrda leksiski semantiskos variantus. Gan semiotik, gan filozofij, gan valodniecb tiek uzskatts, ka simbols ir zme, kura skotnj nozme tiek izmantota, lai izteiktu (preciztu) kda cita vrda saturu [, 2001: 9697]. Piemram, viens un tas pats vrds k simbols, pievienots dadiem nomenklatras vrdiem, var veidot atirgu nozmi pastiprinou vrdu savienojumu, piemram, taksometru firma Viesulis vai radt prprotamas asocicijas friztava Viesulis. Latvieu valodniecb tiek uzskatts, ka simbolisks iestdes nosaukums ir nosacts nosaukums, ko parasti raksta pdis, kursv vai cit grafisk izclum [pavrdu rakstba 1998: 14]. LR Uzmumu reistra dokumenti liecina, ka ar izgltbas iestu sarakst pau ergonmu grupu veido jauktie nosaukumi ar simbolisko sastvdau, t. i., simboliskie nosaukumi, kur vrdiskais apraksts, kas atklj ar nomenklatras vienbu nosaukt objekta btbu, norda uz t individulm atirbas pazmm, bez kurm o terminu var lietot tikai visprino nozm. pai daudz simbolisko nosaukumu ir pirmsskolas izgltbas iestu grup, jo is ir viens no retajiem izgltbas posmiem, kur Latvij pieaug gan audzku, gan ar izgltbas iestu skaits. Ptjuma skum 2008./ 2009. mc. gad 605, bet 2011./2012. mc. gad jau 616 brnudrzi un 408 no tiem ir simboliskie nosaukumi (t. i. 67%). 390
Velga LAUGALE. Pirmsskolas izgltbas iestu simboliskie nosaukumi
Ikdienas praks gan run, gan rakstos simboliskais nosaukums tiek lietots k patstvgs organizatorisk veidojuma apzmjums, piemram, Saulte u. c., neminot nomenklatras vrdu [Laugale 2009: 4649]. lietojuma patnba jem vr dodot vrdu jaundibintajm iestdm. Brnudrzu simboliskajos nosaukumos vrojama atkrtoans, kas pc uzmumu nosaukumu veidoanas nosacjumiem nav pai vlama pardba, resp., vienveidbas d zd nosaukuma informjo funkcija. obrd Latvij ir 19 brnudrzi ar nosaukumu Saulte, 13 Pasacia, 11 Bitte un Sprdtis. Pdjos gados arvien biek tiek atvrtas privts iestdes, vism tm ir simboliskie nosaukumi. To izveid vrojama iestu dibintju brva improvizcija gan formas, gan rakstbas zi, piemram, m PIPARI, M Skolia, BONA DEA, RIS, Podsolnuh. (Piezme: simboliskie nosaukumi vis tekst rakstti atbilstoi uzmuma reistr sastopamajai rakstbai.) Dieml ne vienmr ir emts vr Nolikums par valsts valodas lietoanu nosaukumos un informcij [LR MP lmums Nr. 462, 04.11. 1992.]. Plaais analizjamais materils dod iespju PII nosaukumos ietvertos simbolus analizt atbilstoi valodnieciskaj literatr jau iedibintajai nosaukumu strukturli gramatiskajai klasifikcijai, aujot konstatt gan simboliskajos nosaukumos ietilpstoos produktvkos vrddarinanas modeus, gan nosaukumu sintaktisks konstrukcijas. Vismazk ir pirmatngo vrdu, piem.: Alfa, Clis, ba, Draugi, Drta, Jancis, Laiva, Mra, Msa, Panda, Randa, Ris, Saime, Stris, Tince, Zle. Lielko grupu veido dada veida atvasinjumi. Ar priedkiem atvasinti vrdi netika konstatti, tau 90% simbolisko nosaukumu izmantotas deminutvu izskaas. Visproduktvks deminutvu izskaas Latvij brnudrzu nosaukumu veidoan ir -te, -tis. Ts sastopamas 48% nosaukumu no skaita. Deminutviem, kas beidzas ar izskam -tis, -te, ir pamazinjuma un mlinjuma nokrsa [MLLVG I 1959: 130], piemram, Eglte, Griezte, Lste, Liente, Papardte, Pasaulte, Prlte, Ppente, Saimte, Sprte, Straumte, un nosaukumi ar izskau -tis: Ausekltis, bectis, Cltis, Crultis, Gailtis, Jumtis, Kamoltis, Kastantis, Krikstis, Lctis, Mazultis, Ritentis, Rtis, Sapntis, Sienztis. Otra lielk izskau grupa (50 nosaukumi) ir -i, -ia, -ias gan ar rela pamazinjuma, gan ar emocionli subjektva vrtjuma nozmi 391
[MLLGV I 1959: 112]. Ptmaj materil kopum konstatti 27 nosaukumi, tie lietoti gan vienskaitl ar izskau -ia: Austria, Birztalia, Blzmia, Cerbia, Daugavia, Dzilnia, Gaismia, Laismia, Liepia, Liesmia, Memalia, Urdavia, Valodia, Vasaria, Vrpia, gan daudzskaita form ar izskau -ias: Kripatias, LIESMIAS, savukrt, viens nosaukums ir daudzskaitlinieks: Dzirnavias. Izmantota ar ir ar vrieu dzimtes izskaa vienskaitl -i: Auri, Asni, Avoti, Brzi, Burti, Graudi, Kamoli, Nami, Pumpuri, Saulstari, Strauti, Tauri, Ziedi, un vrieu dzimtes daudzskaitl ar izskau -ii: Langstii, Liepziedii. Abas s deminutvu izskaas -ia/ as un -i/i kop veido 42% no visiem pirmsskolas izgltbas iestu simboliskajiem nosaukumiem. Retk ir izmantota deminutvu izskau -tis, -te daudzskaita forma -i (8 nosaukumos): beci, Celi, Ri, Upi. Tie ir tikai 6% no visiem nosaukumiem. Izskaa -uks latvieu literraj valod ir mazproduktva, izskaa sastopama tikai 2 nosaukumos: Puks, Zuks. Vien pirmsskolas izgltbas iestdes nosaukum ir izmantota deminutvu izskaa -ele: Annele, tikai viens brnudrza nosaukums ir ar deminutvu izskau -ns daudzskaita form Saulni, t nozme saules brni. Ne visos gadjumos iepriekmints izskaas simboliskajos nosaukumos ir ar pamazinjuma nokrsu. T var bt zudusi, ja vrdam ir termina raksturs vai tiek nosaukta konkrta relija, piem., pues Mrpute, Margrietia, putns Zlte, kukainis Jtrpi, apdzvota vieta Langstii. Jatzm, ka brnudrzu nosaukumu veidoan ir izmantota tikai neliela daa no iespjamajm lietvrdu deminutvu izskam. Nav izmantotas izskaas: -elis, -ene, -ti, -tia, -ns. Retk konstatti bez pamazinjuma piedkiem atvasinti vrdi, kuru semantika ir saistta ar kaut ko mu, mazu un brniem labi pazstamu, piemram, ipars, Minka, Clis. Dakrt pamazinjums ir divkrs iestu nosaukumu simbolos ietvertie vrdi gan nosauc nelielus priekmetus, gan uz to norda deminutva izskaa, piemram, Zemente, Dzpari, Dzintari. Neliel da pirmsskolas izgltbas iestu nosaukumu veidoan izvlta vrdu savienoana salikteos, konstatti 13 di saliktenosaukumi: Liepziedii, Mazputni, Memalia, Pumpurdrzs, Saulstari. Ar 9 no iem nosaukumiem izmantotas deminutva izskaas. 392
28 no reistrtajiem nosaukumiem ir vrdu savienojumi. Ar tiem raksturgi, ka viens (Laumias studija, Mazi k jra, Saules ligzdia) vai vairki (Anstis un Grietia, Ru nami) elementi lietoti pamazinjuma form. Simboliskie nosaukumi, kuri veidoti k vrdu savienojumi, ir garki, tau deminutvu izskaas abos komponentos rada pozitvas asocicijas (emocijas) un pastiprina muma, maiguma un sirsnbas jtas. Nosaukuma funkcij lietots pat vienkrs nepaplaints teikums Pt, vjii! Plaais ekscerptais materils auj konstatt PII simbolisko nosaukumu biek lietots tematisks grupas. Problemtiski nosakms tematiskais iedaljums ir nosaukumiem, kuru pamatnozmes ir leksiskie homonmi, piemram, Mrte (meitenes vrds vai kukainis), Ievia (koks vai personvrds), tpat ar Madara, Gundega (pue vai personvrds) u. tml. Bez konkrts iestdes nosaukuma izvles motivcijas noskaidroanas var tikai mint, kura no derivatvo homonmu nozmm izmantota, sal. Vilntis sne vai dens svrstba; Zlte putns vai ozola auglis. Literrie tli Kpctis, Sprdtis, Annele, Anstis un Grietia, Buratno, kstte, Karlsons, Krikstis, Rtis, Sarkangalvte, Vinnijs Pks ir pazstami dadm paaudzm, katrai no tm ir jau zinma kda informcija un atbilstoi pirmsskolas iestdes specifikai rodas ar tiem saisttas asocicijas. Dzvnieku nosaukumi tautas uzskatos atbilst zinmm cilvku fiziskm vai gargm pabm, piemram, lapsa, auns. Zoonmi k struktrelementi ietilpst ar frazeoloismos. Visbiek sastopami frazeoloiskie saldzinjumi, kuros parasti saldzinjum ar dzvnieku nosaukumu domin negatva nozme, lai raksturotu rjo izskatu vai ar uzsvrtu sliktu rakstura pabu. Saldzinoi maz LLVV sastopami saldzinjumi ar izteikti pozitvu nozmi [Migla 2009: 459461] Tematiskaj grup, kur ietilpst ar dzvniekiem saistti nosaukumi, sastopami ne tikai Latvijas dzvnieki, piem., Vverte, Eztis, Lctis, bet ar Latvija dabai neraksturgas dzvas btnes Delfns, Panda. ie dzvnieki sastopami dads brniem domts films, kur labi saprotas, paldz viiem, ir labi draugi, izraisa spcgas, patkamas emocijas un asocicijas. Dakrt uz iespjamo nozmes izpratni norda papildinformcija iestdes nosaukum. Piem., Rgas kristgais brnudrzs Jri, kur izmantots kristgais simbols. Pozitvi vrtjams fakts, ka putnu nosaukumi, kuri izmantoti PII nosaukumu veidoan, ir Latvij sastopamie putni: Crultis, Dzilna, Gulbtis, 393
Vlodzte, Griezte, Strtis, tdjdi piesaistot uzmanbu nacionlm dabas vrtbm. Kukaii parasti nesaists ar kaut ko jauku un patkamu, izvlti tikai tdi kukaii, kuri pc savas btbas ir vai nu skaisti, piem., Jtrpi, Taurentis, vai ar asocijas ar pozitvm rakstura pabm, piem., Bitte, Kamente, Skudria. Augu nosaukumi. Konstatti gan puu nosaukumi: Gundega, Magone, Mllpe, Ppene, Pienene, gan uztur lietojamais Sparelis, ogu nosaukumi: Avente, Dzrvente, Vnodzia, Zemente, koku nosaukumi, piem.: bele, Eglte, Kadiis, Liepa, Pldzis un ar tiem saisttie nosaukumi: bols, Asns, Atvase, Pumpurs, Rieksts, Zle. Apkopojot nosaukumus, kuros sastopami personvrdi un augu nosaukumi, var tikai piekrist valodniecei Inesei delmanei, ka latvieu valod jau izsenis vrojama abpusja tendence gan nosaukt augus, kas cilvkam vrtgi un nepiecieami dados personu vai ar personm saisttos vrdos, gan ar dot jaundzimuajiem skaistu augu, sevii puu vrdus [delmane 1998: 86]. Personvrdi visbiek izmantoti tie, kuri bijui populri iepriekj gadsimt un nav zaudjui popularitti, piem., Katrna, Drta. Izmantoti gan senebreju cilmes vrdi Anna, Ieva, Jnis, gan latviskas cilmes personvrdi: Austra, Laima, Mra. Latvieu kultrai raksturgie tipiskie mitoloiskie tli sniedz informciju, ka brni tiek sargti un viiem tiek mctas pamatvrtbas, sal. Ausekltis, Jumtis, Laima, Mra. Toponms PII nosaukumu simbolos mints samr reti. Dakrt nosaukums saskan ar vietvrdu, kura nosauktaj teritorij t atrodas, piem., Ezerciems, Krimulda, Langstii, Vecauce, konstatts ar plaka reiona apzmjums Kurzemte (Dundag). Debess ermei: Saulte, Zvaigznte, Ausekltis, Blzmia, Varavksne, Saulstari, Galaktika, Dardedze. T k simbols ir zme, kas slpj neizsmeamas tla pabas, simboliskie nosaukumi var radt atirgas asocicijas. Asociatvo eksperimentu par iem nosaukumiem Liepjas Universitt veikusi studente Signe Vasijeva. Dada vecuma, dzimuma un dadu profesiju prstvjiem, 100 aptaujtajiem respondentiem, tika piedvti uzmumu nosaukumi ar atbilu variantiem par iespjamo piemrotbu konkrtas nozares specifikai, piedvjot iespju pierakstt savu variantu. Aptaujtie netika informti, ka anket piedvti tikai konkrti PII simboliskie nosaukumi. Rezultti liecina, ka lielkajai daai respondentu ar brnudrzu saists latviskas cilmes vrdi, 394
kas izraisa tradicionlas asocicijas, piem., Msmjas, Dzpari, Pasaku nami u. tml. Ieskats ptjum par simbolisko nosaukumu raistajm asocicijm auj spriest, ka ne vienmr nosaukums izvlts veiksmgi (Akmens ligzda, BONA DEA), jo aptauja liecina, ka respondentiem tie saists ar cita veida uzmumiem, piem., Akmens ligzda brnudrzs 2, santehnikas veikals 29, juristu birojs 11, viesnca 39, celtniecbas uzmums 2, apbedanas birojs 3, kapu piemineku izgatavoana 4, trisma apskates objekts 1, brnunams 1, juvelierizstrdjumu veikals 1, restorns un viesu mja 3, lauku veikals 1, zooveikals 1, Hitlera rga ligzda, cietums 1. Ldzgi ar PII nosaukums BONA DEA brnudrzs 0, spa salons 61, eko produktu veikals 17, saimniecbas preu veiklas 18, aprbu veikals 2, kafejnca 5, rzemju prtikas produktu veikals, apbedanas birojs 1, prtikas veikals 1, meksiku virtuve 1, skaistumkopanas salons 3. Lai gan simbolisk nosaukuma uzdevums nav tiei raksturot iestdes profilu un galvens funkcijas, ir svargi, lai iestdes nosaukums sptu atspoguot pirmsskolas iestdes darbbas veidu, btu atirgs no ldzgu iestu nosaukumiem, btu viegli iegaumjams, nebtu prk gar, piesaisttu vecku interesi, btu viegli izrunjams ar paam brnudrza audzknim.
LITERATRA delmane, I. Personvrdi latvieu augu nosaukumos. No: Linquistica Lettica Nr. 2. Rga: Latvieu valodas institts, 1998, 78.86. lpp. pavrdu rakstba. Rga: LR Valsts valodas centrs, 1998. 53 lpp. Laugale, V. Izgltbas iestu nosaukumi latvieu valod: lingvistiskais aspekts. Promocijas darba kopsavilkums filoloijas doktora grda ieganai valodniecbas zintu nozares latvieu sinhronisks valodniecbas apaknozar. Liepja: LiePA, 2009. 122 lpp. Migla, I. Frazeoloismi ar dzvnieku nosaukumiem Latvieu literrs valodas vrdnc. No: VALODA 2009. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst. Zintnisko rakstu krjums XIX. Daugavpils: Saule, 2009, 459.463. lpp. Msdienu latvieu literrs valodas gramatika, I. daa. Rga: LPSR ZA izd., 1959. 829 lpp. Pedagoijas terminu skaidrojo vrdnca. Rga: Zvaigzne ABC, 2000. 248 lpp. Svevrdu vrdnca. Rga: Liesma, 1969. 701 lpp. Svevrdu vrdnca. Rga: Jumava, 1999. 879 lpp. , . . . o: , 2001. 208 .
395
Symbolic Names of Preschool Educational Institutions Summary

In Latvian linguistics there is an opinion that symbolic name of an institution is a relative name, which is usually enclosed in quotation marks, written in italics or another graphic design. Until now in-depth study of preschool institutions symbolic names has not been conducted. In the school year 2011/2012 616 nursery schools were registered in Latvia, from among them 408 (67%) have symbolic names. 90% of them are noun diminutive forms. Commonly found suffixes: -tis/ -te, -i/-ia, seldom used: -uks, -ele. The suffixes: -elis, -ene, -ti, -tia, -ns have not been used. 13 compound nouns are used, for example, Msmjas, Pumpurdrzs, and different construction word combinations Mazas mas pdias, Mazi k jra and even sentences: Pt, vjii! Semantic words included in name symbols are associated with something small, as shown both by the diminutive suffix and the tiny thing or being designated by the symbol the name contains, for example, Zemente, Dzintari. According to their content they can be conditionally divided into thematic groups: literary characters, celestial bodies, birds, flowers, berries, trees, place names, boys and girls names, etc. Insight into associations created by the study on symbolic names suggests that not always the name is successfully chosen (Akmens ligzda, BONA DEA). Although the task of the symbolic name is not to describe the institutions profile and main functions directly, it is important that the name of the establishment could reflect the type of activity at the preschool institution, would be different from names of similar institutions, easy to remember, not too long, would attract parents interest, would be easy also for the nursery school student to pronounce.
396
Nijol LITEVKIEN
(iauliai State College)
Anatomical Terms in J. Basanaviius Manuscript and Medega musu tautiszkai vaistinykystai

Key words: anatomical term, terminology, equivalent, grammatical forms Anatomical terminology is a base for medical communication. It is elaborated into a nomenclature in Latin. Its history goes back to 1895, when the first Latin anatomical nomenclature was published as Basilensia Nomina Anatomica. It was followed by seven revisions (Jenaiensia Nomina Anatomica 1935, Parisiensia Nomina Anatomica 1955, Nomina Anatomica 2nd to 6th edition 1960-1989). The first revision, Terminologia Anatomica, (TA) created by the Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology and approved by the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists, was published in 1998 [Kachlik et al. 2008: 459466] Lithuanian anatomical terminology from the seventeenth century to the modern times can be divided into four stages. The initial stage is represented by the old extant anatomical treatises by K. Sirvydas. The first folk names are found in his work Dictionarium trium linguarum. In the second stage Jonas Basanaviius collected and published nearly 270 Lithuanian and Russian medical terms choosing their Latin equivalents. The third stage of the development in the early 20th century was marked by the significant work of Jurgis ilinskas and some anatomical textbooks were written by P. Avionis, the translation of N. Tonkovas textbook by S. Pavilonis and A. Jurgutis, Practical Latin-Lithuanian Dictionary by V. Kulieis, Latin-Lithuanian Dictionary by K. Jokantas. In the fourth stage The Dictionary of Medical Terminology by V. Astrauskas, S. Biziuleviius, S. Pavilonis, A. Vaitilaviius and A. Vileiis was published. Lithuanian medical terminology is not old, but rather accordant. The development and perfection of medical terminology is a long and thorough work initiated at the beginning of the century by P. Avionis, V. Laas and further by V. Astrauskas, S. Biziuleviius, S. Pavilonis, A. Vaitilaviius, A. Vileiis [Molyt 1997: 134]. Anatomical terminology has been compiled gradually. The first folk names are found in K. Sirvydas work Dictionarium trium linguarum, edited in 1620 [Pavilonis 1993: 100]. Jonas Basanaviius 397
collected and published nearly 270 Russian and Lithuanian medical terms choosing their Latin equivalents. He was the father of Lithuanian medical terminology. According to G. esnys, Jonas Basanaviius (18511927) is the originator of the professional nomenclature as the system of denotates. The manuscript of Anatomijos ir medicinos vardyno mediaga (The Material of Anatomical and Medical Nomenclature) is still extant in the Institute of Lithuanian literature and Folklore [esnys 2002: 57]. It is considered to be a draft of medical dictionary in which 700 terms are collected. The list of medical terms in the manuscript can be divided in three parts. The first part of the manuscript entails Russian and Latin medical terms set in alphabetical order. For this purpose he used some Russian dictionary of medical terms or the words were collected from an encyclopedia. In the second part Lithuanian anatomical terms, their explanations, translations into other languages are presented. The third part comprises lists, extracts from his publications or heard words [esnys 2001: 16]. This not published material is considered to be a draft of Lithuanian medical terminology, a storehouse of our terminology. Some of the terms are still used by doctors [Valanit 2002: 107]. 170 Russian, Lithuanian, Latin anatomical terms are listed in Basanaviius manuscript The Material of Anatomical and Medical Nomenclature. Lithuanian anatomical terms can be grouped into the following groups. One third of all the terms of the manuscript entail simple Lithuanian anatomical terms identical to those of the MT. For example, antakis supercilium (BM) antakis (MT522); ausis auris (BM) ausis (MT65); bamba umbilicus (BM) bamba (MT565); branduolys nucleus (BM) branduolys (MT382); burna os, oris (BM) burna (MT398); kaulas os (BM) kaulas (MT398); kirknis inguien (BM) kirknis (MT272); kraujas sanguis (BM) kraujas (MT491); kremzl cartilago (BM) kremzl (MT92); lieuvis lingua (BM) lieuvis (MT311); mazgas nodus (BM) mazgas (MT379); nosis nasus (BM) nosis (MT364); padas planta (BM) padas (MT440); pirtas digitus (BM) pirtas (MT149); snarys articulatio (BM) snarys (MT58); skla sperma (BM) skla (MT504); sil sutura (BM) sil (MT523); skliautas fornix (BM) skliautas (MT210); smakras mentum (BM) smakras (MT334); irdis cor (BM) irdis (MT121); onkaulis costa (BM) onkaulis (MT124); vartai porta (BM) vartai (MT452); viduriai viscera (BM) viduriai (MT592); vokas palpebra (BM) palpebra (MT409); arna intestinum (BM) arna (MT276). 398
Nijol LITEVKIEN. Anatomical Terms in J. Basanaviius Manuscript..
Some Latin terms have several Lithuanian equivalents. The authors efforts to find the most suitable terms were not successful. In some cases the author put a question mark alongside the terms that were unclear. For example, blunis, kasa lien, splen (BM) blunis (MT303,506); gerkl, stempl (?) trachea (BM) gerkl (MT547); maktis, iedas (?) vagina (BM) maktis (MT573); ment, lopeta scapula (BM) ment (MT493); revelis, griovelis, vaga (?), grabut sulcus (BM) vaga, vagel (MT519). It is worth mentioning that J. Basanaviius denominated generalities of vestibular apparatus (antkaulis, kremzl, raumuo, sausgysl), points related to the relief of bones (vaga, skiauter, antis, sil, momuo, skliautas), some of the bones (onkaulis, ment, noragas, priekalas), some points of internal organs (raukl, vartai, nervs, plauiai, lieuvlis, stempl, tiesioji arna, taukin, maktis, varpa) perfectly [esnys 2001: 16]. The following part of the paper will focus on several most interesting aspects of different simple Lithuanian anatomical terms. One third of anatomical terms in J. Basanaviius manuscript are simple (see Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Facsimile of J. Basanaviius manuscript: the following terms have not been rooted in the present terminology
Source: The Fund of the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore.
Lithuanian anatomical terms different from those in the MT. Most of the terms of this part have not been rooted in the present anatomical terminology. For example, gomur, gomur, nasrai, skiltis (MT316); gerkls bronchi (BM) bronchas(MT81); gomur, nasrai, gerkl pharynx (BM) rykl (MT433); glitesos, glytys mucus (BM) gleivs (MT348); gurklis struma (BM gys (MT81); krtin thorax (BM) krtins lsta (MT541); maumonys fonticulus (BM) momenlis (MT209); nasrai, gomur fauces (BM) iotys (MT200); petys humerus (BM) 399
astikaulis (MT249) pda tarsus (BM) iurna (MT531); perklodai diaphragma (BM) perdanga (MT147); petys humerus (BM) astikaulis (MT249); raukinys, raukl plica (BM) klost (MT444); virgalvis vertex (BM) momuo, virn (MT588); andas maxilla (BM) virutinis andikaulis (MT327). J. Basanaviius did not find Lithuanian terms to denote some organs, body structures. For example, gelaa glandula (BM) liauka (MT225); keblas (?) skeleton (BM) griauiai (MT502); gyvgysl arteria (BM) arterija (MT50); klepas, atlapas, lopas valvula (BM) votuvlis (MT 575); kul scrotum (BM) kapelis (MT495); lenta (krtins) sternum (BM) krtinkaulis (MT511); lieuvlis (?) epiglottis (BM) antgerklis (MT180); rop (kaulas) patella (BM) girnel (MT421); sietuol retina (BM) tinklain (MT482); vieta, namai placenta (BM) placenta, nuovala (MT439); viliokas clitoris (BM) varput (MT110); ryelis ligamentum (BM) raitis (MT304). As far as the use of Lithuanian term gerkl is concerned, it can be noted that the author of the manuscript could not find a precise Latin equivalent. For example, gerkl, stempl trachea (BM) gerkl (MT547); gomur ar nasrai, gerkl pharynx (BM) rykl (MT433). The Latin terms trachea and pharynx denoted gerkl. J. Basanaviius did not succeed in choosing the names of foot, hand, meninx, the term throat was still indefinite, the spleen and pancreas were confused, the Lithuanian terms of eye structure were considered as suggested by P. Avionis in his famous book Aki lig vadovas (The Guide of Eye Diseases), published after the authors death (1940) [esnys 2001: 16]. Several Lithuanian terms kiauinukas, inkstukas, poutas, inkariukas were chosen for the Latin term testiculus (testiculus (testis) sklid MT536). The Lithuanian terms koser (larynx gerklos MT296), raukinys, raukl (plica klost MT444), sietas (cribrosum s. ethmoideum retinis, akytas MT126) have not been rooted in the present anatomical terminology. J. Basanaviius did not manage to translate some Latin terms further rooted in as lstel, sraig, kriaukl, kiauid. To name glands he suggested several words gelaa, grumulas, irniukas, virukas. He held the opinion that liauka is a pigs organ [esnys 2001: 17]. Anatomical terms terpvietis (tarpviet), speniukas (spenelis), skiautiuk (skiauter) and some other terms of J. Basanaviius approximate the present usage. In conclusion of this part it could be remarked that a certain part of simple Lithuanian anatomical terms of J. Basanaviius manuscript different 400
from the terms of the MT were the origin of the present anatomical terminology. Furthermore, in J. Basanaviius manuscript we find twenty Lithuanian words without Latin equivalents. The author attempted to form some derivatives with prefixes pa- , ant-, per-. For example, bulis pabulys; gerkl pagurklis; kaklas pakakl, ankakl, perkakl; kiau pakauis; kinka pakinkis; liauka paliaukys; nagas pernag; slpsnis paslepsnis; onas anton, paon; petys papet; pirtas antpirtis; andas paand (see Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Facsimile of J. Basanaviius manuscript, some anatomical terms were formed by adding prefixes
This may be understood as an attempt at forming Lithuanian anatomical terminology using well-known word formation methods. On the other hand, J. Basanaviius tried to use Lithuanian words, and did not try to use borrowings. Only some of the derivatives of this list are used in present terminology: pagurklis, pakakl, pakauis, paon. Some anatomical terms are given with the names of people who used these words. For example: Jukneviius and Bruoien from Pilvikiai, emaitien from Vilkavikis circuit, Vainys from Bartninkai and emait (18451921), doctor K. Grinius (18661950), priest J. iogas (18691935). J. Basanaviius used F. Kur401
aitis Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language published in 1883 [esnys 2001: 17]. He had doubts on how to use some terms, e.g. whether to use the term petys (as it was used by Kuraitis and Grinius) or petkaulis. Compound Lithuanian anatomical terms in J. Basanaviius manuscript make the fifth part of all the amount of anatomical terms. As far as the identity and differentiation of J. Basanaviius terms and the terms of the MT are concerned, it could be noted that only some compound terms are identical. For example, miego arteria a. carotis (BM) a. carotis (communis) (bendroji) miego arterija (MT51); minktasis gomurys palatum molle (BM) minktasis gomurys (MT407); pirmutiniai dantys, pieniniai, pirmaeiliai dantys dentes lactei s. decidui (BM) pieniniai dantys (MT140); uosls nervas n. olphactorius (BM) n. olphactorii uosls nervas (MT369) (see Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Facsimile of J. Basanaviius manuscript: the variety of anatomical terms in Lithuania

Different compound terms make the major part of all the terms of the manuscript. For example, balsins striunos chorda vocalis (BM) plica vocalis balso klost (balso styga) MT445, kylinis kaulas os sphenoideum (BM) os sphenoidale pleitakaulis (MT399), paandinis gelaonis glandula submaxillaris (BM) glandula submandibularis paandin 402
liauka (MT225), trynikinis nervas n. trigeminus (BM) nervus trigeminus triakis nervas (MT373), storoji arna colon (BM) gaubtin arna (MT114). J. Basanaviius did not misuse adjectives with the suffix -inis, , he used nouns in genitive [esnys 2001: 17]. According to the principles of international terminology, the preference to the forms of genitive of a noun should be given, not adjectives with the suffix -inis, -. The genitive is more suitable to determine dependency or to define the origin [Gaivenis 1994: 16]. For example, alkns kaulas os ulnae (BM) ulna alknkaulis (MT564), kulies kaulas os femoris (BM) femur launikaulis (MT201), lyties intaisos organa genitalia (BM) lytiniai organai (MT396), moteriki lyties intaisai org. genitalia feminae (BM) moterikieji lytiniai organai (MT396), pilvo vidurin plv (pilvin plv) peritoneum (BM) pilvaplv (MT428), pirto kauliukas phalanx digiti (BM) phalanx pirtakaulis (MT431), sdjimo kaulas os ischii (BM) sdynkaulis (MT398), irdies kamarait ventriculus cordis (BM) irdies skilvelis (MT586). The genitive of a noun is more sapid, can express more aspects than the equivalent adjective with the suffix -inis, -. Adjectives with the suffix -inis, - and attributive genitives of a noun are so close in their meanings that it becomes not clear which of them should be used. [Skardius 1935: 84]
Fig. 4. Facsimile of J. Basanaviius manuscript: the terms stil used in medical terminology
403
As far as the word order of compound terms of the manuscript is concerned, an inverse word order prevails (lat. inversion inversion, reversion, permute places; inversio verborum conversion of (ordinary) order of words). For example, baltymas akies sclera (BM) (akies) odena (MT494), duob akies orbita (BM) akiduob (MT496), dant smegens gingiva (BM) dantenos (MT224), inkstas vidurinis ren (BM) inkstas (MT480), kopios bubnelio scala tympani (BM) bgninis laiptas (MT493), puslinkis sklins vesiculae seminales (BM) sklins pslels (MT590), plv raumen fascia (BM) jungiamojo audinio plv (MT198), skliautas kiauo fornix (BM) skliautas (MT210), slankstukas nosies septum narium (BM) septum nasi nosies pertvara (MT498), eiva blauzdos fibula (BM) eivikaulis (MT204), eiva rankos radius (BM) stipinkaulis (MT471), tutuma bubnelio cavum tympani (BM) bgnin ertm (MT96). Usually, components of Lithuanian two-word terms are: attribute + modifier, of Latin two-word terms: modifier + attribute. In this aspect Lithuanian terminology of anatomy, botany, zoology differs from Latin terms, where specific attributes follow modifiers [Gaivenis 2002: 31]. In the second stage Jonas Basanaviius collected and published nearly 270 Lithuanian and Russian medical terms, chose their Latin equivalents. The third stage of the development in the early 20th century was marked by the significant work of Jurgis ilinskas and some anatomical textbooks were written by P. Avionis, the translation of N. Tonkovas textbook by S. Pavilonis and A. Jurgutis, Praktikas lotynikai-lietuvikas odynas (Practical Latin-Lithuanian Dictionary) by V. Kulieis, Lotynikai-lietuvikas odynas by K. Jokantas. K. Jokantas started to prepare Latin-Lithuanian Dictionary (1936) upon the request of the President of the Republic of Lithuania A. Smetona who asked him to do this job. At the beginning of the dictionary the author dedicated some words of glorification to the President in Latin. According to K. Jokantas, the dictionaries of A. Juka, J. lapelis and Kuraitis were incomplete and small, and were of no use. Latin words or expressions can be translated if an adequate word or expression has a precision meaning. Medical Terminology by V. Astrauskas, S. Biziuleviius, S. Pavilonis, A. Vaitilaviius and A. Vileiis was published. The most significant work in the regulation of Lithuanian anatomical terminology was produced by Jurgis ilinskas. 404
Jonas Basanaviius left two significant works related to medical terminology: a published one and a manuscript. The published material Medega musu tautiszkai vaistinykystai as a separate edition appeared in America in 1898. 228 Lithuanian names of human body parts, diseases, symptoms were presented in the publication. A certain part of the terms had Latin equivalents, some had only folk definitions. The basis for Mediaga ms tautikai vaistininkystei was Meislovas Davainis-Silvestraitis (18491919) work Collection of different diseases, heard of people who live in Raseiniai parish, Kalnj district [esnys 2001]. The author of the work stated that D. Silvestraitis had sent him a collection of diseases. This collection involves 159 diseases. Some of them were described too widely, some of them had only pathological symptoms of particular diseases. V. Bakutis helped D. Silvestraitis to question people and to make notes. Though both of them were not experts, the notes made by them are significant for professionals. All the diseases described by D. Silvestraitis, some annexes of J. Basanaviius were published with the help of Januas from Fig. 5. Facsimile of Birai. In case the author of the work J. Basanaviius Medega could not find the precise Lithuanian musu tautaiszkai vaistininword, the explanation of the word was kystai. The Title Page presented. The letter O. signified names Source: The Fund of the Institute of of the diseases recorded in Okabaliai, Lithuanian Literature and Folklore. R. signified names of the diseases recorded in Raseiniai, B signified names of the diseases recorded in Birai. J. Basanaviius respected D. Silvestraitis style and language, he tried not to make any changes to the collected terms. According to J. Basanaviius it was more practical to write the words in alphabetical order. In his opinion, Lithuanians know all the diseases, and have an original particular terminology. 405
277 medical terms are presented alphabetically (including synonyms and variants). Thereafter a Latin word is presented. In some cases Latin terms are not presented. In such cases only an explanation of the word is given or a question-mark used. Not all the words of the publication denote diseases, we can find some anatomical terms as well. Three groups of anatomical terms can be distinguished in J. Basanaviius Medega musu tautiszkai vaistinykystai [Zemleviit 2002] a) Anatomical terms identical to the terms of MT; b) Anatomical terms different from the terms of MT; c) Anatomical terms similar to the terms of MT. 24 anatomical terms were found in J. Basanaviius Medega musu tautiszkai vaistinykystai. 10.52 percent of anatomical terms are identical to the terms of Medicinos termin odynas, published in 1980. The following part of the paper will focus on several most interesting aspects of different Lithuanian anatomical terms. As far as the use of Lithuanian term gimda is concerned, it can be noted that the author of the publication could not find the precise Latin equivalent. J. Basanaviius named it gimtin (JB9). J. Basanaviius did not find Lithuanian terms to denote some organs, body structures (see Table 1). Table 1. Different terms of J. Basanaviius Medega musu tautiszkai vaistinykystai with the of Medicinos termin odynas, published in 1980
Latin Terms of JB* 1 uterus JB9 papila mammae JB11 lien JB 12 brachium JB 13 ganglion JB 15 Meaming 2 gimtin O. karpa O. kasa O. kuksztena R. narikaulis O., kiti vl visokias neoplasmas: atheroma, myoma ir t.t. Terms of MT** 3 uterus MT571 papila mammae MT411 lien MT 303 brachium MT78 ganglion MT218 Meaning 4 gimda krties spenelis Blunis 1) astas, 2) ranka 1) Nervinis mazgas, 2) sausgysls makties arba snarins kapsuls mazgas
406
Nijol LITEVKIEN. Anatomical Terms in J. Basanaviius Manuscript.. 1 vulva JB16 2 nibre O. 3 vulva r. pudendum femininum MT464 os coccygis MT398 vesica urinaria MT589 pustula MT466 regio lumbalis MT478 MT does not contain such a term intestina MT327 enteron MT176 maxilla MT327 bucca MT82 extremitas MT195 anus MT42 4 moters ioriniai lytiniai organai stuburgalis lapimo psl plinlis juosmens sritis
coccygis JB21 a) vesica urinaria, b) pustula JB22 regio lumbalis JB27 pars lumbalis columnae vertebralis JB27 intestina, entera JB31
pirdukaulis O. pusl O.
strnos O. strenukaulis A. strenkaulis O. vedarai O.
arnos, arnynas arna, viduriai
maxilla JB32
andas O.
extremitas superior JB32 a) anus, b) nates JB36
ast O. subin O.
virutinis andikaulis andas galn iang, analin anga
Conclusion The paper offers a new view of the development of Lithuanian anatomical terminology. It is concerned in greater detail with the originator of Lithuanian anatomical terminology J. Basanaviius. His original manuscript Anatomijos ir medicinos vardyno mediaga and his printed work comprise a new stage in the evolution of Lithuanian anatomical terminology. Medical terms of the manuscript can be divided in three parts. The first part entails medical terms written in alphabetical order. The second part consists of Lithuanian medical terms and their equivalents in Russian, German, and Latin. The third part comprises different heard words or words used in his prior publications. The majority of the written terms are simple terms. One third of all the terms of the manuscript comprise simple Lithuanian anatomical terms identical to those of the MT. Compound Lithuanian 407
anatomical terms in J. Basanaviius manuscript make the fifth part of all the amount of anatomical terms. Different compound anatomical terms make the majority of all the terms of the manuscript. As follows from the review of J. Basanaviius manuscript Anatomijos ir medicinos vardyno mediaga, a part of Lithuanian anatomical terms are deeply rooted in the present anatomical terminology. A certain part of the terms came into the Dictionary of Medical Terms. In case of some anatomical terms, only their grammatical forms have been changed. In any case, it can be confirmed that the material of the manuscript was the basis for the process of the evolution of Lithuanian anatomical terminology.
RESOURCES BM Basanaviius, J. Anatomijos ir medicinos vardyno mediaga. MT Astrauskas, V. et al. Medicinos termin odynas. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1980. REFERENCES esnys, G. Jonas Basanaviius prie lietuvikojo medicinos vardyno itak. In: Mokslas ir gyvenimas 11, 2001, 1617. esnys, G. Lietuvikojo anatomijos vardyno istorijos metmenys. In: Terminologija 9, 2002, 5565. Kachlik, D., Baca,V., Bozdekova, I., Cech, P., Musil, V. Anatomical terminology and nomenclature: past, present and highlights. In: Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy 30, 2008, 459466. Kvayt, R. Mokomasis terminologijos odynlis. iauliai: U leidykla, 2005. Molyt, E. Daniausios medik terminijos klaidos. In: Terminologija ir dabartis: Mokslo darbai, 1997, 134143. Pavilonis, S. Lietuvikosios anatomijos terminologijos evoliucijos apybraia. In: Acta musei historiae medicinae et pharmacicae Lituaniae 1, 1993, 100105. ORahilly, R. et al. Basic Human Anatomy. Dartmouth. Retrieved May 6, 2009. Available: http://www.dartmouth.edu/~humananatomy/part_1/chapter_1.html Valanit, J. Didis humanitaras ir didis daktaras, tarnavs Eskulapui ir Lietuvai. In: Medicina 38, 2002, 103107. Wulff, H. R. The Language of Medicine. In: Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 97, 2004, 187188.
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Anatomijos terminai J. Basanaviiaus rankratyje ir Medega musu tautiszkai vaistinykystai Santrauka

Anatomijos terminijos raida prasideda nuo Hipokrato rat antikoje. Lietuvikosios anatomijos terminijos formavimas prasidjo XVII amiuje. Anatomijos terminija, isami mogaus kno dali pavadinim sistema buvo kaupiama palaipsniui. Lietuvikosios medicinos terminijos pradininkas buvo J. Basanaviius. Straipsnyje analizuojami J. Basanaviiaus rankraio Anatomijos ir medicinos vardyno mediaga ir Mediaga ms tautikai vaistininkystai anatomijos terminai. J. Basanaviius surinko lietuvik ir rusik anatomijos termin, parinko lotynikus atitikmenis. Straipsnio tikslas yra aptarti J. Basanaviiaus rankrai ir Medicinos termin odyno anatomijos termin sutapties ir skirties aspektus. Daroma ivada, kad dalis rankraio termin sutampa su Medicinos termin odyno terminais, jie prigijo iuolaikinje anatomijos terminijoje, didioji dalis termin skiriasi.
409
Ilga MIGLA
Frazeoloismi Via Lca romn Stroika ar skatu uz Londonu

Atslgvrdi: frazeoloismi ar dadiem komponentiem, frazeoloiskie saldzinjumi, okazionli prveidoti frazeoloismi 2010. gad, kad iznk V. Lca grmata, A. Jundze paredz divas versijas par to, kas notiks turpmk ar o darbu: Pirm ja o tekstu sagremos, tas iespjams saems kdu literro balviu par lielko gada prsteigumu vai labko debiju. Td gadjum darbs nostsies tur, kur tam pienktos stvt ldzs Ivara Zviedra filmai Bgums. (Laimas Muktupvelas ampinjonu Derba tomr ir vairk literatra.) Iespjams ar, visnota femns literrs aprindas Stroiku noslps [..]. [Jundze 2010: 11]. Ir stenojusies pirm versija. Romns ir piedzvojis gan grmatas 2. laidienu, gan uzscis skatuves gaitas, gan izdots audiogrmat. Grmatu atzina par visvairk lasto latvieu autora romnu 2010. gad. Darbs ir samis vairkas lastju balvas. V. Lctis ir rakstnieka pseidonms, un intervijs vi slpjas aiz la maskas. Izteikti minjumi, ka aiz vrda slpjas mzikas urnlists un mziis A. Runs. Autors agrk ir nodarbojies ar mziku un strdjis celtniecb, bet 2004. g. aizbraucis strdt uz Londonu. Un lidost izlastais F. Beigbedera 14.99 lika apjaust, ka vartu du grmatu uzrakstt ar latviski. Romns turpina latvieu literatr pirms desmit gadiem L. Muktupvelas ampinjonu Derb aizskto tmu par latvieu piedzvojumiem darba gaits rzems. Tau V. Lca romns atiras ar savu valodu. Aktieris V. Daudzi atzst, ka ierunt romna tekstu ir bijis grti, jo teikumi ir gari ar neskaitmm piebildm u. tml. [Daudzi 2011]. A. Jundze uzsver, ka daiem lastjiem vartu rasties vlme skt debates par romn izmantoto slengu [Jundze 2010: 11]. Grmatas darbbas vidi un katru personu paldz raksturot frazeoloismi; tie paspilgtina daidarba un varou runas ekspresivitti. Valodnieki, ptot frazeoloismus, ir secinjui, ka dadu valodu frazeoloismos do410
Ilga MIGLA. Frazeoloismi Via Lca romn Stroika ar skatu uz Londonu
min frazeoloismi ar dzvnieku komponentiem. V. Lca romn ir fiksti tikai dai frazeoloismi ar dzvnieku komponentiem, piem., rets putns [L 2010: 176], k ar saldzinjumi, piem., [sieviete] zumja k aptrakusi mua [L 2010: 89]. Darb nav izmantoti frazeoloismi ar augu, drzeu, ogu u. tml. komponentiem. Romn domin somatiskie frazeoloismi, piem., ar komponentu sirds: em pie sirds [L 2010: 98], izkratt sirdi [L 2010: 79], ar komponentu mats: par matu [L 2010: 32], mats mat [L 2010: 65], ar komponentu da: izjust uz savas das [L 2010: 21/22], paglba manu du [L 2010: 174], k ar ar komponentu acs: ne acu gal [L 2010: 116], ar komponentu roka: lauzt rokas [L 2010: 23], ar komponentu pirksti: skats caur pirkstiem [L 2010: 142], ar komponentu galva: galva gja ri [L 2010: 47], ar komponentu kakls: dabs pa kaklu [L 2010: 109], nervi: krist uz nerviem [L 2010: 110], varacis: nekpj uz varacm [L 2010: 109]. Romn domin sarunvaloda un slengismi. Ir fiksti vairki sarunvalodas un vienkrrunas frazeoloismi ar dadiem komponentiem: emt pier [L 2010: 7], sagjis sviest [L 2010: 173], uz siu [L 2010: 114], mest pa lampu [L 2010: 67], bs tt [L 2010: 67], akns iesdies [L 2010: 135], sadot pa purnu [L 2010: 57], k ar dai teikuma konstrukciju frazeoloismi, piem., velns lai parauj [L 2010: 141]. Daudzie frazeoloiskie saldzinjumi un autora individuli veidotie saldzinjumi bagtina varou runu un darbbas aprakstu. Visbiek viens no frazeoloisk saldzinm izteiciena komponentiem ir verba form: [vilciens] ness k bulta [L 2010: 49], nokrt k no gaisa [L 2010: 80], bga k velns no krusta [L 2010: 93], nokt k uz burvja mjiena [L 2010: 20], turties k vrs [L 2010: 78], auga k snes [L 2010: 52]. Maz ir saldzinjumu ar adjektva komponentu: (draudzene) cieta k klints [L 2010: 172], karsts k ell [L 2010: 141]. Romn nav fiksti saldzinjumi, kuros btu sastatti substantvi. V. Lca darb ir sastopams tikai viens frazeoloisms, kura komponents ir personvrds: Neticgais Toms [L 2010: 43]. Romn ir viens izteiciens vrdkopa no latu valodas perpetuum mobile mgais dzinjs[L 2010: 69]. Autors ir oti iecienjis atsauces uz citiem darbiem. Ir pazstams Bbeles citts Kas no jums bez grka, lai pirmais met akmeni uz viu! [Ja 8: 211], kuru sarunvalod lieto dados variantos. V. Lctis izmanto o cittu, lai uzsvrtu, ka nenosoda darba koli, kas lasa pornogrfiskos urnlus: 411
Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst (1) Es bi palrju uz pupu urnlu, kas vdja zem Valdas lab elkoa, bet noklusju. Lai pirmais met ar akmeni... Un td gar. [L 2010: 145].
V. Lctis reizm cit dzejas rindas, piem.,

(2) Ko lai dara, virs zemes nav taisnbas. [L 2010:117].
Rakstnieks sav darb mina sablvt vairkus cittus vien teikum:

(3) Kulturls un valodas barjeras taj mirkl sagruva drups. Mums viena asins, tev un man, bdu manu lielu bdu, dalta bda pusbda... Bet dalta desa pusdesa. [L 2010: 82].
o teikumu veido 3 citti: citts no cita daidarba R. Kiplinga Dungu grmatas populra teiciena: Mums viena asins tev un man, tad seko citts no latvieu tautasdziesmas un visbeidzot mints latvieu sakmvrda fragments: dalta bda pusbda (piln sakmvrda formula: dalta bda pusbda, dalti prieki dubulti prieki). Acmredzot autors t uzsver kopgo dadu tautbu cilvkiem. Un uz teikuma bzes veido savu ironisko domu graudu: dalta desa pusdesa. Romn frazeoloismi ir sastopami ne tikai tradicionlaj form, bet ar okazionli variti. Latvieu valodnieki [Naisione 1973, Orlovska 1982, Veisbergs 1986, Vogina 2009] ir ptjui okazionli prveidotus frazeoloismus dados anros. V. Lca romn ir gan semantiski prveidoti, gan strukturli semantiski prveidoti frazeoloismi. Darb ir izdevies fikst tikai vienu semantisk prveidojuma formu frazeoloisma literarizciju (burtiskojumu). Ar literarizcijas paldzbu V. Lctis pievr uzmanbu frazeoloismu komponentu tieajm un prnestajm leksiskajm nozmm, kpinot darba emocionalitti. Latvieu valodas slenga vrdnc ir fiksti frazeoloisma savrt ziepes vairki slenga varianti savrt mslus, savrt sdus [LVSlV 2006: 422] ar nozmi nepareizi rkojoties, sagdt nepatikanas (sev un citiem). Savukrt V. Lctis, nedaudz strukturli prveidojot frazeoloismu atmetot verbam vrt priedkli sa-, turpina domu, pamatojoties uz frazeoloisma tieo nozmi, tdjdi uzskatmi raksturojot vidi un ts valodu:
(4) Ko lai dara [..]. Vieni sdus vra, citi sme [L 2010: 117].
Ar frazeoloismu skatties (raudzties) patiesbai acs [LFV 2000: 44] autors ir burtiskojis, papildindams to ar citu cilvka ermea daas nosaukumu sleng: 412
Ilga MIGLA. Frazeoloismi Via Lca romn Stroika ar skatu uz Londonu (5) Paskatsimies patiesbai sej, nevis paka; noteikti no ts izliets asins js vismaz kdu litru esat par velti izljui. Nezinanas pc [L 2010: 76].
Darb ir sastopami vairki frazeoloismu strukturli semantiskie prveidojumi: aizstjums, frazeoloisma paplainjums, alzija, elipse, atvasinjums un noklusjums. Aizstjums. Autoram ir tuva splans ar jau pazstamiem frazeoloismiem un cittiem no grmatm, filmm. Ikviens no mums sarunvalod lieto cittus no pazstamm filmm. Piem., no filmas Sprdtis ir kuvis populrs citts Gulbti, gulbti, kustini kjias, ved mani uz laimgo zemi! V. Lctis, rakstot par latvieu strdniekiem Lielbritnij, kuri cer atrast darbu, aizstj pazstamo komponentu gulbti ar (auto, lidmanas) trumu. Tdjdi rakstnieks pank lielku stilistiskku ekspresvo iespaidu:
(6) Ms uzgriezm Metallica ldz galam un atgzmies sdekos. trum, trum, aizved mani ldz darbam uz laimgo zemi [L 2010: 12].
Frazeoloisma paplainjums. V. Lctis paplaina frazeoloismu, pievienojot vrdus vai vrdkopas frazeoloisma skum vai ar t beigs. Pazstamo frazeoloisko saldzinjumu k konfekte, ko lieto sakot par ko oti skaistu, labu (biek par jaunu sievieti, mju) [LFV 2000: 546], autors ir paplainjis ar adverbu pilngi, tdjdi vl vairk uzsverot automanas skaistumu:
(7) T mana ir pilngi k konfekte [L 2010: 13].
Vrdncs ir fiksts frazeoloisms nocelt (noraut, noemt) no deguna (ar degungala) [LFV 2000: 219], kas V. Lca darb ir papildints ar komponentu prieka:
(8) Noteikti tie bija vienkrie angu raboagas, kuriem es noclu no deguna priekas iespju nopelnt naudu rinu nomaksanai [L 2010: 22].
Autors izmantojis alziju, lai ar kdu frazeoloisma elementu raistu netieu atsauksmi, mjienu uz frazeoloisma radto tlu. Romn ir fiksta atsauce uz sakmvrdu viena karote darvas saboj mucu medus, kas darb ir atpazstams vrdkopas form darvas karote:
(9) Vis aj interesantaj un dinamiskaj paskum darvas karoti iemaisja Agris [L 2010: 56].
Vienreiz darb ir izmantota elipse frazeoloisma prveidojums, kur no frazeoloisma tekst pards vien dai komponenti. Romn sakm413
vrds no vilka bgot, uz lci krt jeb no vilka bgot, lcim rkl ieskrien ir pardts koncentrtk veid:
(10) Tikldz izsprucis no ofisa, vi no vilka uzkrita lcim. Taj pa dien darb tika pieemta vesela brigde leiu namdaru [L 2010: 87].
Vairkkrt romn rodams frazeoloiskais atvasinjums. Rakstnieks okazionli maina frazeoloisma komponentu formu, piem., pazstamajam frazeoloismam likt mier (mieru) [LLVV 1980: 4, 701] romn verba likt viet lieto nominlo komponentu likana:
(11) Ncs solt stbu un mier likanu, lai k ar negribtos tikt va no t spiediena, ko via bija sakpinjusi [L 2010: 79].
Reti romn ir izmantots noklusjums. Parasti noklus frazeoloisma beigu dau (sk. 3. piemru). Noslgum jsecina, ka V. Lca darb daudz ir izmantoti frazeoloismi. Autors ir izmantojis frazeoloismus tradicionlaj form (nozmgu vietu ieem somatiskie frazeoloismi) un ar okazionli prveidotus (gan semantiski, gan strukturli semantiski prveidotus), lai raksturotu vidi un varou runu. pai juzsver autora tieksme sablvt dadus, lastjam viegli atpazstamus, cittus no Bbeles, dailiteratras, folkloras u. tml. V. Lctis lieto ne tikai jau zinmus sakmvrdus, parunas, bet veido pats savus domu graudus.
LITERATRA Berelis, G. Literatras gada balva 2010. Finlisti. Vilis Lctis: caur reipa putekiem mans ce. Pieejams: http://berelis.wordpress.com/2011/05/17/ literaturas-gada-balva-2010-finalisti-vilis-lacitis-caur-regipa-putekliem-mans-cel/ Daudzi Vilis Daudzi ierunjis klausmgrmatu Stroika ar skatu uz Londonu. Pieejams: http://www.diena.lv/kd/literatura/vilis-daudzins-ierunajis-klausam gramatu-stroika-ar-skatu-uz-londonu-13921946 Jundze, A. Vilis Lctis un latvju leibors. No: Neatkarg Rta Avze, 2010, Nr. 236, 13. okt., 11. lpp. L Lctis, V. Stroika ar skatu uz Londonu. 2. laidiens. Rga: Mansards, 2010. 197 lpp. LFV Laua, A., Ezeria, A., Veinberga, S. Latvieu frazeoloijas vrdnca. Rga: Avots, 2000. LLVV Latvieu literrs valodas vrdnca. 4. sj. Rga: Zintne, 1980.
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Ilga MIGLA. Frazeoloismi Via Lca romn Stroika ar skatu uz Londonu LVSlV Bus, O., Ernstsone, V. Latvieu valodas slenga vrdnca. Rga: Norden AB, 2006. 575 lpp. Naciscione, A. 1973. Some Instantial Changes of Phraseological Units in the Works by G. Chaucer. In: Geniusas, A. Issues of English Linguistics. Riga: LU, 1973, p. 2348. Orlovska, . Frazeoloiskie okazionlismi E. Salenieka romn T vii strdja. No: Leksisks un gramatisks inovcijas. Zintniskais rakstu krjums. Rga: LVU, 1982, 79.90. lpp. Veisbergs, A. Frazeoloismu okazionla lietoana latvieu valod. No: Latvieu valodas kultras jautjumi. Rga: Avots, 1986, 111.122. lpp. Vogina, L. Valodas ldzeku aktualizcija reklms. No: Valodniecba: latvistika un somugristika. LU Raksti 746. sj. Rga: LU, 2009, 133.139. lpp.
Phraseological Units in the Novel by Vilis Lctis Stroika ar skatu uz Londonu Summary
The novel carries on the theme of L. Muktupvelas work ampinjonu Derba which was started ten years ago in the Latvian literature and initiated the theme about the adventures of Latvians working abroad. However, the novel by V. Lctis differs by its language. The work incorporates a wide use of slang words. The peculiarities of the writers style include long sentences with countless remarks. The setting of the book and every protagonist are characterized with the help of phraseological units; they brighten the expressiveness of the novel and the speech of characters. The novel has a set of several phraseological units with the components of animals. Somatic phraseological units are the dominant ones in the work (with the components heart, hair and skin). The author has used several colloquial and slang phraseological units with various components as well as several sentence structure phraseological units. The author has highly approved references to other works, for example, the Bible, Latvian folk songs, citations from movies, etc. The occurrence of phraseological units in the novel is not only in the traditional form but also nonce diversity. They are both, semantically transformed phraseological units [the literalization of a phraseological unit], and structurallysemantically transformed phraseological units [substitution, the expansion of a phraseological unit, allusion, etc.].
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ivil NEMICKIEN
(Vilnius University Kaunas Faculty of Humanities)
Ambiguity of Temporal Adverbials in Written Form of the Language

Key words: temporal adverbials, ambiguity, adverb, for-phrase Human languages are full of ambiguous words humans seem to effortlessly select the appropriate meaning when faced with ambiguity [Stevenson, 2003: 36]. Though the phenomenon of ambiguity has been investigated through several angles by many linguists, it still leaves a lot of space for further research. The knowledge of syntax which is responsible for the arrangement and connection of words within the sentence [Matthews 2000: 1] is especially advantageous for disambiguation of discourse. The aim of the article is to investigate how the location of time adverbials in the sentences with Simple tenses affects their meaning in respect of ambiguity. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics [2009: 8] defines adverb in the following way: it is the grammatical category that serves to modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs and whole clauses semantically. Adverbs cannot be declined thus are often grouped with prepositions and conjunctions. Adverbs form a very heterogeneous group, which yields to various classifications. F. Kiefer [1992] in his work The Grammar of Adverbials gives the following information about adverbials: adverbial is a collective term for several syntactic functions with various semantic realizations: an adverbial characterizes a verbal action, process or state of affairs with respect to time, place, kind, manner, etc. These semantic functions correspond to the classification of temporal, spatial, modal, causal, conditional, and consecutive adverbs. In this research, the term temporal adverbials will be used for adverbial groups. It serves as an umbrella term for a heterogeneous group, structurally embracing separate lexemes (for, in, at, since) and word phrases (for three months, in ten weeks). The term in this sense is employed by many linguists (Dowty, Moens, Kenny, Taylor, Vendler, Hitzeman and many others). 416
ivil NEMICKIEN. Ambiguity of Temporal Adverbials in Written Form..
Temporal adverbials, according to Hitzeman [1995], can be classified into measure terms, clock calendar terms and particularizing noun phrases [Hitzeman 1995: 35]. Measure terms express an amount of time, such as two hours, 63 seconds, several days. Clock calendar terms express times or dates, including unique dates, such as 11 September, 2001; 11 March, 2004; this Sunday, etc. Clock-calendar terms are divided into subcategories, according to whether they express time, day, month, year, or seasons. Particularizing noun phrases include unique events: World War II, that party, fatal Monday, etc. Prepositions that head temporal adverbials are lexically marked with those features that their objects are endowed with. The feature of duration is of particular interest. Certain adverbials are sensitive to whether their object expresses a single punctual point, or an interval of some duration. Thus, the adverbials have the feature + duration. For example, for requires + interval duration expression, such as an hour (for an hour) and is unacceptable with a punctual (- duration) expression, as in # for noon, while at requires a punctual duration expression: at noon but # at an hour. Ambiguity is a fact discussed in contradictory ways. In creative writing, ambiguity is rated as a literary device which enriches the text by implicit meaning. However in scholarly writing, where clearness is obligatory, ambiguity is judged as a stylistic error that lowers the quality of the language and causes misinterpretation. According to John Lyons, linguistic ambiguity depends upon the structure of the language system, differentiating between the meanings that are encoded in language and those which can be inferred from how language is used on a particular occasion, i.e. the difference between semantics and pragmatics [Lyons 1971: 391]. Although ambiguity is fundamentally a property of linguistic expressions, it may occur in the use of language. According to Kent Bach, ambiguity can occur even when speakers words are unambiguous. There are potential or real ambiguities in much of what is heard, written, or read. Linguistic ambiguity may emerge for several reasons: referential expressions, grammatical structures or separate words. It can occur on various language aspects, levels, and forms. Temporal adverbials are especially liable to ambiguous interpretation. According to Janet Hitzeman, the sentences with temporal adverbials 417
headed by for, at, after and before are ambiguous because they offer several readings. Let us first examine the ambiguity of for phrase.
Mary has worked in Rome for three years.
The ambiguity is caused by several reasons. First of all the content of three years can be interpreted in two ways:
There is some three-year interval in the past during which Mary worked in Rome; Mary works in Rome at speech time and has done so for three years preceding speech time. [Hitzeman 1995: 89]
The ambiguity of this sentence can be explained both in terms of an ambiguity of the for-phrase itself and in terms of an ambiguity of the perfect tense. We shall analyze both. For-phrase as well as other temporal adverbials in English are ambiguous because they are interpreted differently depending on their syntactic position. I part II part quantifier
}
in Rome PP
}
Mary N has worked VP [intrans] 418
The author divides this syntactic tree into two parts and a quantifier and those two parts are interpreted in different semantic correlates. Reading (1) in which Mary works in Rome at speech time and has done so for three years preceding speech time is associated with sentence level attachment of the adverbial, while the other reading, (2) in which there is some three year interval preceding the speech time during which Mary worked in Rome, is associated with VP-level attachment of the adverbial. The ambiguity arises because on a sentence level for-phrase expressing three years interval must be interpreted as a particular time interval and on a VP level for phrase, the interval can be interpreted as any three-year interval in the past. If the two parts of the tree are exchanged and the adverbial phrase comes to be placed at the beginning (or in a higher position of the tree): For three years Mary has worked in Rome the only reading available is the one in which Mary still works in Rome at speech time. When the adverbial is syntactically located externally to VP, the time at
}
for three years Adv P
which the eventuality occurs is interpreted as specific, and when the adverbial is attached at VP level, the time at which the eventuality occurs is interpreted as non specific [Hitzeman 1995: 89]. This shows how semantics of adverbials depends on their syntactic position. As it has been mentioned above, the aim of this research is to develop Janet Hitzemans discussion and prove that temporal adverbials cause ambiguity not only in perfect tenses, but simple tenses as well. The practical investigation of the ambiguity of temporal adverbials in written form of the language was attempted, namely, in belles-lettres style. It is common knowledge that written language needs more precision, is more elaborate and syntactically more complex. It was interesting to see how temporal adverbials behave in this form of language and the J. Fenimore Coopers novel The Spy served the purpose. J. Fenimore Coopers novel The Spy belongs to classical world literature. It covers 397 pages of printed text. The total sum of the sentences, comprising temporal adverbials in Simple tenses, is 250. The analysis is focused on the place of temporal adverbials in the sentence. Since the sentences predominantly are long and complex (for example, the opening sentence of chapter XXIX includes 104 words) the mono-predicative sentences and mono-predicative portions of complex sentences served as the object of investigation. The hypothesis was raised that if a temporal adverbial stands initially, it refers to position definite time and is not ambiguous. If the temporal adverbial stands finally or follows the Subject Predicate group, it is ambiguous, includes two readings because the time of the event is left more open. Quantitative observations come first. They revealed unexpected results. Temporal adverbials standing initially amount to 212; the number of those standing in the final position in sentence or following the Subject Predicate group is relatively insignificant all in all 23 sentences. It is interesting to note that, while observing the text of the novel, one more position of temporal adverbials was noticed. We shall call it middle position. The number of such sentences is very small; we have managed to find only 15 of them. The majority of temporal adverbials we are going to analyze are the same as delineated in the theoretical part: during, for, while, at, before, after, in, and on. During was found in 22 sentences. It is always followed by a noun. Thus, for instance: 419
Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst During the examination the most tense interest prevailed among the hearers (p. 303).
For appeared in 12 sentences. It is usually followed by a NP: a moment, an instant, some time, an hour, several minutes, the first ten minutes, a long time, the first time, etc. Thus, for instance:
For the first ten minutes all but the captain of dragoons found themselves in a situation much to their liking. (p. 170)
While is included in 22 sentences. It is usually followed by NP or an ing-form: while learning, while gazing, while sleeping. Thus, for instance:
While leaning in the doorway, gazing in moody silence at the ground, his ear caught the sound of a horse (p. 287) While my father lived there was one to read my heart. (p. 183)
There are cases when while is premodified by in a little which turns the adverbial into a measure term:
In a little while, my child, you will be alone (p. 137).
At appears in 25 sentences. The distributional formula of at is rather interesting. It has a double function: position-definite time usage and generic usage. While expressing a position definite time it is followed by a nominative group, such as: this moment, one moment, the time, the present time, the appointed hour, the same instant, this happy age, the time of our tale. Thus, for instance:
At the appointed hour, our heroine appeared in the drawing room, clothed in a robe of pale blue silk. (p. 169)
When used in a generic sense it expresses habituality. It is usually followed by a noun used in Plural, such as at times, at midnights, etc. Thus, for instance:
At times, only, I believe, sir, replied Mr. Wharton cautiously. He is seldom here. (p. 78)
After recurs 21 times. It is usually accompanied in the text by a NP, such as a pause, a few preliminary conditions, the danger, this scene. Thus, for instance:
After a few preliminary conditions they will set to residence arrangement (p. 151).
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Other adverbials may precede after: a few weeks after, a twelve month after, a moment after, till after, for some time, etc. There are some cases when the adverbial is used in a more condensed form: afterwards, or never afterwards:
Afterwards, neither woman nor peddler was to be found (p. 79). Never afterwards did the opposing armies make the trial of strength within the limits of Westchester (p. 132).
Before was spotted in 20 sentences. When used with accompaniment the adverbial is usually followed by an ing-form: before parting, before taking leave, before answering. Thus, for instance:
Before parting, Dunwoodie repeated his caution to keep a watchful eye on the inmates of the cottage. (p. 232)
However, before, just like after, was found to be preceded by other temporal phrases, such as: many weeks, ten years, two hours and ten minutes, three hours, some time, once, some half hour, etc.
He died about two hours and ten minutes before the cock crowed (p. 145).
In appears 20 times in the monopredicative sentences. It forms a part of a longer temporal expression, such as: in an instant, in the next moment, in the meantime, in the meanwhile. Rare are the cases when in is used to indicate the length of time: in ten minutes, or a concrete date, in 1814. Thus, for instance:
Then meet me in ten minutes, said Frances, greatly relieved by unburdening her mind. (p. 362)
Other adverbials, such as on, till, until, are not frequently used. The rest of temporal adverbials in the novel are particularizing noun phrases. This is a large and varied group: nearly an hour, towards evening, some time, the following morning, the time that, all this time, this very day and many others. Of some interest are adverbials including predication: it was at the close of a storm day, as the moment of the trial approached, a few hours were passed, the time that Burgyne was taken, a long time was spent and many others.
It was at the close of a storm day in the month of September, that a large assemblage of officers was collected (p. 387)
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The first part of the sentence is an elaborate temporal phrase, serving for the text which follows it. They are usually embedded in complex sentences. The temporal adverbial occupies the middle locale mostly in composite sentences as if hooking two or more predications, one of which necessarily appears in Perfect tenses, especially Past Perfect. Since the focus of our research is temporal adverbials in Simple tenses, these sentences remained outside the limits of the analysis. As it has been mentioned above (and is seen from illustrations) the overwhelming majority of temporal adverbials (phrases) in Simple tenses occur initially, thus refuting the idea of ambiguity. This can be accounted for by the fact that in narrative the order of events is very important and the initial position of a temporal adverbial disambiguates the sentence giving precision to the authors message. On the contrary, in nature descriptions in which emotiveness and poetic quality take the upper hand over sequential narration, temporal adverbials are found in sentence final position, or they follow the Subject Predicate group. We shall adduce the following illustrations.
The surface of the water which was lashing the shores with boisterous fury, was already loosing its ruffled darkness in the long and regular undulations before ceasing altogether (p. 66). The moon will not rise till after midnight. (p. 243) This gentleman here-favoured us with his company during the rain. (p. 74)
In these three cases adduced above, we can presuppose ambiguity from purely logical, not narrative reasoning. All three instances before ceasing the rain, till after midnight, during the rain can be interpreted deictically depending on the authors\readers stance concerning position definite and non-position definite time. All of them include ambiguity while referred to time closely following the time of reference (R) or distancing it further away on the time axis. The present research can be concluded by the following statements: (1) The sentences with temporal adverbials are potentially laden with ambiguity, mostly dependent on the place of the adverbial in the given structure. (2) Syntactic ambiguity depends on the correlation between three features of eventuality: S (speech time), R (point of reference) and E (the time at which the event occurs). In Simple Present and Simple Future speech 422
time and reference time are simultaneous and they both precede the time at which the event occurs. In Simple Past reference and event are simultaneous and they both precede speech time. (3) Ambiguity emerges depending on the place of temporal adverbial in the sentence. If the adverbial stands initially, the reading places greater constraint on the time of E (the time at which the event occurs) leaving no space for ambiguity. If the temporal adverbials stand in the final position of the sentence, the reading places less constraint on the time of E which opens up a possibility for a double interpretation. (4) Ambiguity of temporal adverbials can be explained by means of time deixis which indicates that temporal expression is relative to the context of the utterance. (5) In literary text, due to the importance of narrative sequence, temporal adverbials predominantly stand in the initial position in the sentence, leaving no space for ambiguity. However, in emotive, poetic descriptions temporal adverbials stand in the final position or follow the Subject Predicate group pressing less constraint on the time of eventuality which in a way allows ambiguous interpretations. (6) When temporal adverbials stand in the final position in the sentence (or follow Subject Predicate group), they are loaded with ambiguous interpretations. The tool of ambiguity serves for avoiding precision or obligation, taking refuge in flexible time indication or overall generalization.
LITERATURE Hitzeman, J. A constraint-based grammar of English temporal Connectives. ESPRIT Basic Research Project 6665 R2.3. Dandelion, 1995. Matthews, P.H. Syntax. Cambridge University Press, 2000. Kiefer, F. The Grammar of Adverbials. In Kiefer. F. (ed.) Hungarian Linguistrics. Benjamins, Amsterdam, 1992. Lyons, J. Semantics. Cambridge: CUP 1995. Linguistic Semantics, 1971. McArthur, T. Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Stevenson, M. Word Sense Disambiguation. In The Case for Combinations of Knowledge Sources. CSLI Publications, Center for the Study of Language and Information Stanford, California, 2003. Source Fenimore Cooper. The Spy. A Tale of the Neutral Ground Moscow: Progress Publisher, 1975.
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Dviprasmikumo faktorius laiko prieveiksmiuose raytinje kalboje Santrauka

Prieveiksmis tai gramatin kategorija, kuri paymi veiksmaod, bdvard, kitus prieveiksmius ar vis sakin. Prieveiksmiai yra ne linksniuojami, todl danai grupuojami su kitais prielinksniais ir jungtukais. Jie formuoja heterogenines grupes, todl gali bti labai vairiai klasifikuojami. Straipsnis silo F. Kiefer pateikt prieveiksmi klasifikacij, kurioje terminas prieveikmis yra bendras terminas, atliekantis kelet sintaktini funkcij ir teikiantis vairias semantinias iraikas. Prieveiksmis apibdina veiksmaodio veiksm, proces, bv atsivelgiant veiksmo viet, r, bd ir pan. ios semantins funkcijos leidia klasifikuoti prieveiksmius erdvinius, modalinius, kauzalinius, slyginius ir nuosekliuosius. Laiko prieveiksmiai, anot J. Hitzman, savo ruotu gali bti klasifikuojami mat, kalendorinius ir specifikuotas laiko frazes. Straipsnyje analizuojamas laiko prieveiksmi dviprasmikumas groins literatros tekstuose. inoma, kad raytiniai tekstai reikalauja didesns iraikos tikslumo, ia kalba visada esti mantresn ir sintaktikai sudtingesn. Laiko prieveiksmi elgsena tiriama J. Fenimore Cooperio romane nipas. Laiko prieveiksmiai, stovintys sakiniuose, kuriuose veiksmas yra ireiktas paprastaisiais esamojo, btaisiais ir bsimaisiais laikais, gali suteikti posakiui dviprasmikumo. Dviprasmika interpretacija yra galima, jei prieveiksmis nurodo laik, kuris nra suprantamas kaip specifinis takas laiko ayje. Tai vyksta tada, kai laiko prieveiksmis stovi sakinio pabaigoje arba bent jau eina po veiksniotarinio odi grups.
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Intermediate Categories in Modern Russian Lexicon Summary

The article deals with the analysis of the differentiation of polylexemes and multifunctional words. The research material entails texts of the Russian massmedia and advertizing slogans. The modern Russian lexicon reveals the existence of so-called intermediate categories or formations, which stand out of their structure. An intermediate category represents the essence of new, unstable forms. The article studies intermediate categories and polylexemes as representations of intermediate category. Any intermediate category represents the essence of the new, unstable forms. Polylexeme is a language unit combining Cyrillic and Latin characters. Polylexeme represents a kind of incorporation complex, and the incorporation can be of several types: Russian lexeme, a morpheme, a quasimorpheme. Experiments with a linguistic sign separation of the plain of expression from the plain of meaning lead to occurrence of new units combining Cyrillic and Latin characters thus creating a special sign a polylexeme in the language structure. The incorporation can be of several types: Russian lexeme or a morpheme is incorporated; English words are incorporated (GO); Words from other languages are incorporated in a Latin indePENdent Pen; Character or a symbol is incorporated (I the foto of husky it). As a semiotic system, language reveals changes of functional relations of signs: language replaces one expressive form by another, tries new, not ordinary linguistic formations. Nevertheless, many aspects of this problem stay open to question and demand a further study.
431

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Individual Sports Nicknames Summary

Thearticle is devoted to the study of individual sports nicknames (based on sport Latvian and Russian sites, such as www.sportacentrs.com; www.sports.ru; www.allhockey.ru; www.sportbox.ru; www.sport-express.ru). Sports nicknames are individual and group nominations. They function in a sports environment in which objects are nominated sports clubs, athletes, coaches, administrators, sports clubs, journalists, commentators and experts. The main nominators are fans who give nicknames not only to the preferred athletes, but also to their rivals. Individual sports nicknames depend on the type of sports. There are many nicknames among football players, hockey players, boxers, tennis players, but there are almost none among gymnasts and chess professionals. They express all kinds of expectations from the athlete from disparaging to diminutive, among other things, they are complementary and reflect the image of the athletes level of achievement. Semantics of the nicknames is always well readable and understandable to others. Sports nicknames are motivated by anthroponyms, characteristic features of the object category, facts of the biographies of athletes, associations with famous people, movie or book characters, and nicknames are the result of the language game.
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Svetlana POLKOVIKOVA
Valodniecbas rakstu nosaukumi

Atslgvrdi: zintniskais stils, teksts, virsraksts, pragmatika, akadmisk rakstana Prasme veidot zintnisku tekstu, apzinoties un respektjot stila patnbas, ir viena no ptnieka profesionlajm pamatkompetencm. Lai zintnisks darbbas process btu loisks un sakargs, t rezultti iespaidgi un nozmgi, autoram noteikti jpievr uzmanba akadmisks rakstanas prasmes pilnveidoanai un izkopanai, jo zintniskaj diskurs ideju apmaia notiek pirmm krtm rakstveid. Akadmisk rakstana ir jmcs janaliz raksttais, jidentific kdas vai pat jprraksta teksts. H. Zenkevis, kritiski izvrtjot zintnisko izdevumu un publikciju kvalitti, norda, ka joprojm vrojama pavira attieksme pret valodu, kas trauc autoram pietiekami preczi un neprprotami izteikties un ar lastjam skaidri uztvert autora domu. Raksturgkie trkumi ir slikta, grti saprotama valoda, biei vien skot jau ar darba nosaukumu [Zenkevis 2004: http://www.lza.lv/ZV/zv041900.htm]. Prasmei rakstiski izklstt savas idejas ir btiska nozme ptnieku profesionlaj izaugsm un ts attstanai btu pieirama prioritra nozme specilistu sagatavoan, tomr dieml jatzst, ka joprojm trkst literatras par to, k veidot dada tipa zintniskus tekstus. Patiesb, k akcent O. Zgurska, eit notiek intuitva pamcba, bez teortiskas bzes un metodoloiska pamatojuma. Nereti studjoie un jaunie zintnieki savas publikcijas, disertcijas un monogrfijas veido, izmantojot esoos paraugus vai vienkri kopjot to struktru. Lai ar lingvistik ir uzkrta liela pieredze zintnisko tekstu analz, dieml izstrdtas zintnisk teksta rakstanas metodikas vl nav [ 2011: 35]. Publikcijas ir viens no zintnisk darba produktivittes un kvalittes rdtjiem. ... publikcija ir pai nozmga k ptniecisk procesa rezumjums, bez t ptniecisko darbu btb nevar uzskatt par pabeigtu. Publikcijas paldz visai preczi raksturot darba novitti un t zintnisko vrtbu, k ar konkrt specilista, ptnieka zintnisk darba lmeni kopum, raksta H. Zenkevis [Zenkevis 2003: 18]. Interneta vietns ir atrodamas 440
Svetlana POLKOVIKOVA. Valodniecbas rakstu nosaukumi
das atzias: Bez publikcijm zintne ir mirusi; Zintnisk ptjuma galamris ir publikcija; Ptnieku darba novrtjuma pirmais kritrijs ir publikcijas; Zintnisks eksperiments vai cita veida ptjums nav pabeigts, kamr rezultti nav publicti; Zintnieks kst pazstams (vai t ar paliek nepazstams), pateicoties savm publikcijm u. c. [http://www. llu.lv/getfile.php?id=2139]. ai sakar vr emams I. Rozenvaldes un I. Jansones viedoklis, ka autori, kas dom, ka ar spou, neordinru ideju vien viiem izdosies piesaistt lastju uzmanbu, vienkri alojas. Faktiski notiek neredzama, bet oti sva konkurences ca par lastju ieinteresanu. Akta laika trkuma apstkos lastjs neiedziinsies tekst, kura pamatdomu vi nebs uztvris saj virsraksta lasanas brd [Rozenvalde, Jansone 2003: 46]. Savukrt G. Smiltniece akcent: Dzvojot milzg informcijas apjoma piepildt telp, kda t ir msdiens, indivdam ir svarga informcijas atlase Raksttaj pres pirmie vstjumu sniedzji un lastja uzmanbas piesaisttji ir virsraksti. Tie liel mr nosaka cilvka tlko izvli last attiecgo rakstu vai ne, tpc tiem koncentrti un lakoniski vajadztu informt par rakstu saturu, vienlaikus piesaistot uzmanbu un radot interesi [Smiltniece 2007: 242]. Te viet mint ar psihologu atzinumu, ka apmram 80% lastju plasazias ldzekos izlasa tikai virsrakstus [ 1989: 3]. K rakstts interneta vietn: Pirmais iespaids ir visspcgkais iespaids; Virsrakstu izlass 1000-i lastju, kamr pau rakstu nedaudzi, ja vispr kds... [http://www.llu.lv/getfile.php?id=52817]. Tdjdi virsrakstam k teksta komponentam raksturga paa pragmatika (valodas pragmatisk funkcija t ir valodas, ts vienbu funkcionana run, proti, konkrtais, individulais izmantojums, ko nosaka runtja mri, nolki izteikt savu attieksmi un ietekmt citus [Ntia 2007: 143]), no kuras ir atkargs tas, vai tiks sasniegts paredzamais rezultts. Zintnisk teksta autoram jem vr ne tikai savi komunikatvie nolki, proti, atklt kdu mentlu saturu, bet ar lastja, izvloties tdus valodas ldzekus, kuri autu optimli sasniegt izvirztos mrus un motivt lastju intelektulai darbbai [, 2011: 22]. Zintnisk teksta pragmatisk funkcija vispirms realizjas skaidr teksta strukturan. Parasti rels rakstanas process neatbilst dau secbai gatav tekst, un katrs ptnieks laika gait izvlas sev vispiemrotko pieeju. Tomr autoram, modeljot savu tekstu, jpatur prt, ka virsraksts saldzinjum ar citm kompozicionlajm vienbm ir pakauts lielkiem formliem ierobeojumiem. T, kda rakstu krjuma prasbs ir teikts, ka 441
zintnisk teksta virsraksts nevar bt prk visprgs un ar ne prk ss; virsrakstam jbt ne garkam par 15 vrdiem un nevajadztu prsniegt izvietojumu divs rinds [http://www.llu.lv/getfile.php?id=52817]. Zintnisks literatras apkopojums auj secint, ka latvieu valodniecb virsraksti analizti tikai marginli galvenokrt iespiestaj pres un interneta ziu portlos (sk., piemram, A. Kalnaa 2006; G. Smiltniece 2007), bet valodniecbas rakstu nosaukumi lingvistisk aspekt ldz im nav tikui ptti. im nolkam ekscerpti un analizti 315 valodniecbas rakstu nosaukumi latvieu valod, kas publicti rakstu krjumos Baltu filoloija, Linguistica Lettica, Vrds un t ptanas aspekti, Valoda dadu kultru kontekst (2006.2011. gads). Zintnisk teksta jdzienisko vienotbu nodroina ptjuma temats, kas parasti ir mints virsrakst. K atzst U. Eko: Trpgs virsraksts ir ptjuma koncepcija [ 2003: 126] vai Virsraksts tiek identificts ar zintnisku problmu, tas iezm ptjuma asi [ 2003: 127]. Virsraksts savas kompozicionls specifikas d, pirmkrt, izvirza ptjuma tematu pirmsteksta stipraj pozcij, otrkrt, veic apsteidzou funkciju, koncentrjot lastja uzmanbu uz ptjuma tematu un orientjot viu turpmk teksta izklst. Lai gan no struktras viedoka ekscerptie virsraksti ir diezgan atirgi, tie visi realiz informatvo funkciju un atklj ptjuma tematu, kuru virsrakst prezent t.s. atslgvrdi jeb teksta jdzienisks struktras pamatelementi. Atslgvrdi, k uzsver N. Bolotnova, ir autora aktualiztie leksiskie ldzeki, kuri ir btiski zintnisk teksta satura un idejas realizan. Atslgvrdi ir saskares punkti starp autoru un lastju [ 2009: 51]. Teksta lingvistik run par vairkiem teksta informatvuma paaugstinanas veidiem. Viens no tiem ir integrjoais veids. aj gadjum informatvums tiek pankts ar teksta informcijas kompresiju, kad informciju atklj ar minimliem valodas ldzekiem [: http://www.moitezis. ru/blog/view/363]. Apkopojot ekscerpto materilu, jsecina, ka kvantittes zi vismazko grupu (4 piemri, t.i., apmram 1%) veido valodniecbas rakstu nosaukumi, kuri sastv no diviem pilnnozmes vrdiem: Adverbu gradcija; Lingvistika un izgltba; Prievrdu semantika; Problmjautjumi pareizrun. Skaitliski vairk 20 ekscerptu (apmram 6%) ir virsrakstu, kurus veido trs pilnnozmes vrdi, piemram, Iesaukas Riebiu novad; Jaunvrds procesu dinamik; Kalku vieta leksik; Latvieu reklmas zem442
Svetlana POLKOVIKOVA. Valodniecbas rakstu nosaukumi
teksts; Priedkverbu konjugcijas maia; Sintaktisk obligtuma jdziens; Sventjas izloksnes partikulas u. c. Protams, si virsraksti ir lakoniskki un struktras zi vienkrki. Virsraksta lakonisms tiek pankts ar valodas ldzeku atlasi, tas semantiski noslogo katru vrdu un auj izvairties no liekiem paskaidrojumiem un precizjumiem. Reducti virsraksti ir semantiski ietilpgki, tajos nav mintas vairkas teksta izpratnei nepiecieams nianses, jo nosaukumi liel mr ir orientti uz lastja fona zinanm un interpretcijas prasmm. Tomr dakrt ds reducts virsraksts lastjam var ist visprgs, neskaidrs un mklains. Lastjs pc virsraksta prognoz teksta saturu, tau pc t izlasanas saprot, ka ir kdjies. Virsrakstam jbt tdam, lai tas neprprotami atkltu informciju, kas bs izklstta sekojoaj tekst, lai ikviens lastjs vartu skaidri saprast, kas tas ir par ptjumu un ko autors vljies pateikt. Protams, reducti virsraksti ir viegli uztverami, tie auj tri iepazties ar rakstu krjuma saturu un identifict rakstus, tau ne vienmr spj nodroint adekvtu teksta interpretciju. Valodniecbas rakstu nosaukumi, kurus veido vairk nek 10 pilnnozmes vrdu, ir 39 ekscerpti (apmram 12%). Lk, dai visplako virsrakstu piemri: Augu un dzvnieku apzmjumi vcu un latvieu valod G. Mancea un G.F. Stendera vrdncs un to saldzino analze; Daas modalittes izteikanas iespjas instrukciju tekstos vcu valod un to atveide latvieu valod; Fontikas mcbu satura izmaias latvieu valodas mcbu grmats pamatskolai 20. gadsimta 40. gados; Personu apzmjumi vcu un latvieu valod G. Mancea un G.F. Stendera vrdncs un to saldzino analze; Salikteu lietojums un to tulkoanas iespjas sadzves tehnikas lietoanas instrukcijs vcu un latvieu valod u. c. ai sakar var runt par teksta informatvuma paaugstinanas diferencjoo veidu, kad informatvumu sasniedz, palielinot teksta apjomu. Tas nozm, ka teksts ldz ar btiskkajiem jdzieniskajiem elementiem ietver dada veida papildinformciju [: [http://www.moitezis.ru/blog/view/363]. Domjams, ka autors, veidojot plaus virsrakstus, cenas ski iztirzt pausto domu, iekaujot nosaukum ar precizjou vai sekundru informciju. dus virsrakstus var uzlkot par raksta temata detaliztu raksturojumu, jo tie jau pirmstekst akcent vairkus teksta jdzienisks struktras elementus. Tdos virsrakstos var bt mints valodas nosaukums, piemram, latvieu un lietuvieu valod; latvieu un vcu valod; latvieu, franu un 443
krievu valod u. c.; gadskaiti: 16811735; 19. gs. 50.70. gados; 1922. gada; 20. gadsimta 40. gados; 2005. gada u. c.; lingvistiskie piemri: adjektvi zils, za, sarkans; gausa, gausgs, gausint; em, emt vai emiet vai kda cita informcija. Bez aubm, viens no galvenajiem principiem valodas ldzeku izvl ir tas, lai virsrakstos paust informcija btu pietiekami skaidra, viegli uztverama un lai lastjs nebtu maldints [Smiltniece 2007: 242], tomr, iet, nevajadztu virsrakst mint visas teksta izpratnei nepiecieams nianses. Lai ar eksplicti virsraksti ir skaidrki un neprprotamki, kas saaurina teksta interpretcijas iespjas, sareta izteiksme sk ldzinties zintnisk raksta satura izklstam, nevis nosaukumam. K apgalvo D. Ntia: Zintnes teksti, protams, nav dailiteratra, un zintniekam nav jbt dzejniekam vai rakstniekam. Zintnisks valodas stilam ir raksturgi gan svevrdi un termini, gan smagnjas sintaktisks konstrukcijas. Tau o tekstu saretbai ir jizriet no satura un nav jbt specili konstrutai, lai stenb slptu satura pieticbu un vienkrbu. Ir jprot par saretm lietm runt vienkri. Bet vai ar t nav prasme par vienkro izteikties sareti un tapt par zintnieku? [Ntia 2007: 178]. Jpiebilst, ka vidji valodniecbas rakstu nosaukumu veido 56 pilnnozmes vrdi (visplak ekscerptu grupa ir piemri, kuros virsraksts sastv no 5 pilnnozmes vrdiem, tdu ir apmram 21%), piemram, Darbbas vrda nkotnes formas un modalitte; Lietuvieu simboliskie nosaukumi latvieu tekstos; Produktvie Rucavas izloksnes lietvrdu piedki; Valodas varicijas intoncijas stilu izpausm; Atststjuma izteiksmes formu lietojums preses rakstos; Interjekcijas mutvrdu run: leksiski semantiskais aspekts; Sievieu dzimtes radniecbas nosaukumu lietojums publicistik; Vides faktora loma latvieu valodas lietojum u.c. di virsraksti korekti prezent turpmko tekstu, tajos nav vrojama semantiska prpilnba, k ar virsrakstu struktra ir viegli uztverama. Preczi valodas ldzeki, kas izraudzti virsrakstam, iezm galvenos posmus teksta jdzieniskaj izklst, orient lastju un veicina teksta izpratni. Virsrakstos, k tas btu vlams, dominjoi ir tikai fakti. Pc piemru analzes var secint, ka, lai ar virsraksta informatv funkcija ir galven, autors savu komunikatvo mru realizcij nedrkst ignort ar pragmatisks funkcijas nozmi. Konstrujot virsrakstu, autoram jizvlas tdi izteiksmes ldzeki, kuri maksimli autu sasniegt komunikatvi pragmatisko efektu. 444
Svetlana POLKOVIKOVA. Valodniecbas rakstu nosaukumi LITERATRA Ntia, D. Valodniecbas jautjumi. Rga, 2007. Rozenvalde, I., Jansone, I. Gatavojam publikciju. Par ko jdom? No: Zintnes valoda: konferences materili / Valsts prezidentes dibint Valsts valodas komisija. Rga: Rasa ABC, 2003. Smiltniece, G. Abreviatras preses izdevumu virsrakstos. No: Vrds un t ptanas aspekti. Rakstu krjums 11. Liepja: LiePA, 2007, 242.248. lpp. Zenkevis, H. Ieskats zintnisko izdevumu un publikciju kvalitt. No: Zintnes valoda: konferences materili / Valsts prezidentes dibint Valsts valodas komisija. Rga: Rasa ABC, 2003. Zenkevis, H. Ieskats zintnisko izdevumu un publikciju kvalitt. No: Zintnes Vstnesis: 2004. gada 22. novembris: 19 (290). Pieejams: http://www.lza.lv/ZV/ zv041900.htm , . : -. : : , 2009. , ., , . - : . : .. , 2011. , . : . -, 2011. .. . : - . . -, 1989. , . O ( ). Pieejams: [http://www.moitezis.ru/ blog/view/363]
Titles of Articles in Linguistics Summary

The ability to create a scientific text, being aware of and respecting the peculiarities of its style, is one of the basic competences of the scientists professional work. In order to make a process of scientific work more logical and its results more impressive and important, the author should pay close attention to the improvement and perfection of academic writing skills, as communication of scientific ideas and the science moving forward, occurs primarily in writing. The academic writing is to be studied the written is to be analysed, the mistakes are to be identified, the text is to be rewritten, because a poor writing manner can slow or stop the research disclosure.
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst One of the indicators of scientific work productivity and quality are publications. The publication is particularly important as a summary of the research process, without which the essence of the research work cannot be regarded as complete. The real consistency of writing usually does not correspond to the sequence of parts in a completed text, so every scientist in the course of time selects his / her own most appropriate approach. However, the author, while modelling his / her text, should take into consideration that a title, in comparison to other structural, semantic and compositional units of the text, is subjected to the more formal restrictions. In this respect, the title, as a text component, is characterized by the special pragmatics, on which depend whether the authors intention will have been realized and whether the scientific text will be adequately perceived. The empirical material consists of 315 titles of articles in linguistics in Latvian, which are analysed from the communicatively pragmatic point of view. The choice of the topic of the research was motivated, on the one hand, by the fact that Latvia still lacks literature in methodology on creating a scientific text, but, on the other hand, by the fact that titles of articles in linguistics have not been analysed in the linguistic aspect yet.
446
Irita SAUKNE
Okazionlismi daos Latvijas radio raidjumos: semantiski derivatvais aspekts

Atslgvrdi: radio raidjumi, okazionlisms, konteksts, vrddarinanas pamiens Valodas vrdu krjums, sinonmiskas izteiksmes iespjas, iet, ikvienam valodas lietotjam rada iespjas izteikties preczi, trpgi, komunikatvajam nolkam atbilstgi. Tomr gan plasazias ldzeku valoda, gan ikdienas sazias situciju fiksjumi rda, ka ar pierastiem, visiem zinmiem vrdiem un nozmm nepietiek. Lai dadus notikumus, apkrtjs dzves norises atkltu interesanti, prliecinoi, atmi paliekoi un ttad veiksmgk uzruntu mrauditoriju, preses, televzijas, radio urnlisti (un nereti ar intervjams personas, raidjuma viesi) rada tikai noteiktam tekstam, konkrtai lietoanas reizei piemrotus vrdus okazionlismus. aj rakst uzmanba pievrsta daiem Latvijas radio raidjumos lietotajiem okazionlajiem darinjumiem. Tie ir ekscerpti no Latvijas radio 1. programmas raidjumiem Krustpunkt, K labk dzvot u. c. (2007. 2010. gads). ie raidjumi aptver plau jautjumu loku, tajos notiek diskusijas, intervijas, ar telefonintervijas, izskan dadi uzaicinto viesu, ekspertu, ar klaustju viedoki. Okazionlismus darina gan raidjuma vadtji (pai H. Burkovskis), gan ar viesi, kurus urnlistu atraistba, prasme vadt sarunu mudina tikpat radoi izmantot dadus izteiksmes ldzekus. Radio, tpat k jebkuram plasazias ldzeklim, ir savas noteiktas specifiskas iezmes. Radiournlists, mediju un komunikcijas kultras ptnieks S. Kruks uzsver radio operativitti, iespju tri maint programmu, reajot uz notikumu, bet vienlaikus ar nespju ldzinties televzijai emocionalittes un presei analtiskuma zi [Kruks 2005: 3132]. Klausoties radio, ir nodarbints dzirdes kanls, tau dzirdes uzmanba ir trausla, tpc klausans ir nenoturga Skanot radio, cilvki... pievr tam uzmanbu, dzirdot pau stimulu: neparasts troksnis, intrijos vrds, skaums [Kruks 2005: 32]. Savukrt angu un ameriku plasazias l447
dzeku valodas ptniece T. Dobrosklonska atzst, ka radio valodas galven patnba ir verbls un skau ietekmes sistmas savienojums [ 2008: 17]. Lai noturtu auditorijas uzmanbu un piesaisttu jaunus klaustjus, vienldz svarga ir gan raidjuma tma, fona mzika, gan ar runas tehnikas izkopana un valodas prasmgs lietojums. Valodas ldzeku prdomta atlase vr dzvku lasto vai runto tekstu, piesaista klaustju uzmanbu ar neparastu vrdu savienojumu vai vrdu. Tomr radio raidjumos, saldzinot ar preses tekstiem, okazionlismi ir sastopami retk (raksta autores rcb esoaj kartotk ekscerptie okazionlismi no preses tekstiem veido 82%, no radio raidjumiem 13% un televzijas raidjumiem 5%). Radio raidjumos okazionlismi lietoti retk vairku iemeslu d pirmkrt, mutvrdu runa ir mazk sagatavota, rakstot urnlisti var rpgk apsvrt valodas ldzeku izvli, lai izmantotu vai darintu komunikatvajam nolkam vispiemrotko vrdu, otrkrt, raidjuma vadtjam vai viesim jbt oti prasmgam, lai vartu spontni radt vrdus, kas btu labskangi un semantiski preczi. Okazionlismi runas lmea pardba vairkkrt ir analizti valodnieku ptjumos. Vcu valodniecb lieto ne tikai terminu okazionlisms, bet ar citus apzmjumus, kas spilgti atklj o individulo darinjumu btbu, t.i., Augenblicksbildung (acumirka darinjums) un Textwort (teksta vrds, ttad vrds, kas ciei saistts ar noteiktu tekstu). Ar krievu valodniecb okazionlismu apzmanai izmanto vl citus nosaukumus, piemram, lai uzsvrtu, ka vrdam ir autors, os darinjumus dv par individulajiem neoloismiem vai autora neoloismiem [ 1988: 42], savukrt apzmjums v rdi viendieni [ 1998: 283] akcent du darinjumu so mu, to piemrotbu noteiktam kontekstam un sasaisti ar konkrtas runas situcijas mru sasnieganu. Izmantojot latvieu, vcu, krievu valodniecb izteiktos atzinumus par okazionlismiem, to pazmes ir apkopotas tabul Okazionlismu tipiskks pazmes. Nordts pazmes ir attiecinmas uz visiem okazionlajiem darinjumiem neatkargi no to piederbas pie noteiktas vrdiras. Ekscerpjumi no radio raidjumiem (un tpat ar citiem plasazias ldzekiem) rda, ka visvairk, protams, ir lietvrdu. Tas saistts ar lietvrdu pamatfunkciju, respektvi, nosaucjfunkciju, tau ir fiksti ar okazionli pabas vrdi, tpat darbbas vrdi un apstka vrdi. 448
Irita SAUKNE. Okazionlismi daos Latvijas radio raidjumos..
Okazionlismu tipiskks pazmes

Latvieu valodniecb Okazionlismi ir autora darinjumi [Vulne 2002: 197] okazionlie jaunvrdi darinti konkrtam vienam vienreizjam lietojumam [Bus 1998: 38] jauns vrds, kas darints stilistisku funkciju stenoanai literr tekst vai runas situcij [VPSV 2007: 267] ciei saistti ar noteiktu kontekstu, dareiz pat situciju [Laua 1969: 181] parasti ir ciei saistti ar noteiktu kontekstu [Soida 1975: 144] okazionlisms ir gadjumvrds, tam piemt nejaubas raksturs [Laua 1969: 196] nekst par leksisks sistmas sastvdau [VPSV 2007: 268] veidoti pc valod esoiem paraugiem [Laua 1969: 181] nereti prkptas vrddarinanas normas [VPSV 2007: 267] mrtiecga vrddarinanas normu neievroana [Bus 1998: 39] Vcu valodniecb Okazionlismi ir noteikta autora darinjumi [Heusinger 2004: 3233] okazionlie neoloismi ir vienreizji darinjumi noteikt komunikatv situcij, vlk netiek atkrtoti izmantoti [Rmer, Matzke 2003: 39] noteiktam tekstam radti vrdi, ir semantiski atkargi no teksta [Barz, Schrder 1997: 2] kontekst parasti ir pilngi saprotami [Heusinger 2004: 33] rodas spontni, ir spcgi izteikta kontekstatkarba [Bussmann 1990: 543] saistti ar tekstu [Fleischer u.a. 1996: 92] neietilpst zus, valodas vrdu krjum [Heusinger 2004: 33] Krievu valodniecb Ir zinms vrda autors [ 1976: 10] vienreiz lietoti noteikt darb [ 1989: 164; . 2005: 27] radti noteiktam runas aktam [ . 2005: 27] raduies konteksta ietekm, sazias situcij un ir saprotami kontekst [ 1998: 283] ekspresvi vrdi, kas var pastvt un ir saprotami tikai noteikt kontekst [ 1976: 19] saprotami ar rpus konteksta [ 1988: 42] tiek no jauna producti, nevis reproducti [ 1976: 20] nekst par valodas sistmas vienbm [ 1989: 165] darinan izmantoti produktvi vai neproduktvi modei [ 1998: 283]
aj rakst derivatvi semantisk aspekt tiks analizti dai ekscerptie okazionlie lietvrdi un darbbas vrdi. Lietvrdi ir izmantoti personu, procesu, stvoku, darbbu rezulttu nosaukanai. Izmantojot dadus vrddarinanas pamienus, k vien449
kros (sufiksciju), t kombintos (bisufiksciju, interfiksli sufikslo) ir radti vrdi, kas tekst ievie kdus negaidtbas, prsteiguma elementus. Sufikscijas ce ir tapis darinjums lietussardznieki, kuru motiv salikts lietvrds. di vien vrd ir nodvti 2007. gada lietussargu revolcijas dalbnieki. Ar sufiksciju tpat ir darinti deverbli substantvi, to atvasinan izmantoti piedki -an-, -um-. Ar piedkli -um- ir atvasints okazionlisms prdotumi. T k lietvrds apzm darbbas rezulttu un ir lietots daudzskaitl, tam teikum saskatmas ar konkrtas nozmes nianses. Raidjuma Tirgus laukums (12.04.08.) vadtjs, aicinot zvant pirkt un prdot gribtjus, sacja: ... bs veiksmgi pirkumi un ar prdotumi. Okazionlisms lietots ar nozmi mantas, priekmeti, kas ir prdoti. Konkrtais derivts ir darints, izmantojot lokm cieams krtas pagtnes divdabja formu. Okazionlisma raanos ir balstjis teikum iepriek lietotais vrds pirkumi, tdjdi pankot vrdu sasples elementus. Izmantojot sufiksu -an-, darints okazionlais lietvrds krzana (jatzm, ka ir fiksts ar verbs krzt). Raidjuma K labk dzvot (28. 01.10.) viesis, analizjot ekonomisko krzi un ts raans clous, nordja: ... es to saprotu krzana k slimoana ir jizslimo. Okazionlais darinjums lietots ar nozmi atraans krz, un tas apzm procesu, ar stvokli. Interfiksli sufikslais pamiens izmantots, darinot okazionlismu parinieki. Sufikss -niek- ir tipisks personu nosaukumu darinanas piedklis un ar to atvasina mints grupas lietvrdus no verbiem, lietvrdiem, adjektviem, skaita vrdiem un apstka vrdiem [Mllvg 1959: 143146]. Okazionlajiem lietvrdiem ir savas noteiktas patnbas. aj gadjum izmantota netipiska motivcija okazionlisma parinieki motivtjvrds ir palgvrds, proti, prievrds par, lietvrda sakni un piedkli -niek- savieno primrs interfikss. A. Kalnaa, runjot par nomenu darinanu (piem., rdzinieks, ncenieks), iesaka lietot alomorfa un submorfa jdzienu, i un e piemros atzstot par submorfiem [Kalnaa 2004: 47]. Msdienu valodas gramatiks rokasgrmats, mcbu grmats prskatos par lietvrdu piedkiem un atvasinjumu nozmm, kur ir nordtas ar galvens atvasinanas iespjas, k motivtji minti ir tikai patstvgas nozmes vrdi [Ceplte, Cepltis 1991: 2531; Kalme, Smiltniece 2001: 6774]. Mintais individulais darinjums ir izmantots, lai apzmtu 450
personas pc to uzskatu sistmas. Raidjum Krustpunkt (05.11.07.) t vadtjs A. Tomsons, dodot vrdu uzaicintajiem viesiem, aicinja: Tad lai nu izsaks tautas sapulces pretinieki un parinieki. Okazionlisms lietots ar nozmi personas, kas atbalsta kdu paskumu, ir par t sarkoanu (2007. gada novembr Rg, Doma laukum, notika tautas sapulce, kuras dalbnieki protestja pret valdbas rcbu, neieklausanos sabiedrbas viedokl). Iespjams, ka okazionlisma darinanu ir ietekmjis iepriek izmantotais lietvrds pretinieki, kas norda uz k neatbalstanu, nolieganu, t ietekm tapis vrds, ar kuru apzmti paskuma atbalsttji. di vrdu pri ir sastopami ar preses tekstos, piem., marsiei un zemiei. Kop pagju gadsimta beigm jaunu vrdu, pai terminoloisks leksikas darinan, nostiprins apsteidzo bisufiksl derivcija tas ir paplaints modelis, kuru izmantojot, deverblais lietvrds apsteidz darbbas vrdu [Skujia 1993: 8384; Vulne 2002: 59]. Ar o pamienu darints lietvrds pldoana. Raidjum Labrt! (10.04.10.) intervja Latvijas kartes izveidotju tiem tristiem, kas ceo kjm. Tika pieminti dadi trisma veidi un ar pavasara pldi, urnlists ierosinja runt ar par pldu trismu un veidot ar ... pldoanas karti. Okazionlisms pldoana lietots ar nozmi pldu skarto vietu atzmana kart. Darinot lietvrdu ar -an-, kuriem nav motivtjverba, ir saglabta iem derivtiem raksturg vrddarinanas nozme, t.i., darbbas, procesa nosaukana. is derivts sasaucas ar citiem ldzgiem darinjumiem, kas jau tiek plai lietoti, piem., putnoana putnu vroana. Radio raidjumos ir fiksti dai okazionli darbbas vrdi, kuri ir darinti, izmantojot sufiksciju. Valodas ldzeku ekonomijas ietekm ir radti vien vrd izteikti stvoka, darbbas nosaukumi denominli atvasinjumi krzt bt, atrasties krz, fitnesot nodarboties ar fitnesu, empionot turpint piedalties dads sacensbs pc empiona titula ieganas. Ekscerptais materils rda, ka okazionlismu darinan visbiek izmantots morfoloiskais vrddarinanas pamiens. Btiska ir sazias situcijas, konteksta loma. Teikum iepriek lietotais uzulais vrds k skanjuma un leksisks nozmes vienba ierosina indivda apzias mehnismus radt jaunu, okazionlu vrdu, izmantojot to pau derivatvo pamienu un formantu (pirkumi un prdotumi, pretinieki un parinieki), tdjdi veidojot savdabgu vrdu sasaisti noteikta efekta pankanai un patnj veid vrot dzvku raidjuma valodu. 451
Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst LITERATRA Barz, Schrder. Nominationsforschung im Deutsch. Frankfurt am Main, 1997. Bus, O. Okazionlie jaunvrdi msdienu publicistikas tekstos funkcionl skatjum. No: Linguistica Lettica. Latvieu valodas institta urnls. 2. Rga: Latvieu valodas institts, 1998, 38.42. lpp. Bussman, H. Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft. Stuttgart, 1990. Ceplte, B., Cepltis L. Latvieu valodas praktisk gramatika. Rga: Zvaigzne, 1991. 240 lpp. Heusinger, S. Die Lexik der deutschen Gegenwartsprache. Mnchen, 2004. Kalme, V., Smiltniece, G. Latvieu literrs valodas vrddarinana un morfoloija. Lokms vrdiras. Liepja: LiePA, 2001. 293 lpp. Kalnaa, A. Morfmika un morfonoloija. Rga: LU Akadmiskais apgds, 2004. 127 lpp. Kruks, S. Radiournlistika. Rga: Valters un Rapa, 2005. 230 lpp. Laua, A. Latvieu leksikoloija. Rga: Zvaigzne, 1969. 138 lpp. Msdienu latvieu literrs valodas gramatika, I. Fontika un morfoloija. Rga: Latvijas PSR Zintu akadmijas izdevniecba, 1959. 830 lpp. Rmer, Ch., Matzke, B. Lexikologie des Deutschen. Eine Einfhrung. Tbingen: Gunter Narr Verlag 2003. 226 S. Skujia, V. Latvieu terminoloijas izstrdes principi. Rga: Zintne, 1993. 224 lpp. Soida, E. Inovcijas un valodas attstba msu diens. No: Inovcijas dados valodas lmeos. Rga, 1975, 131.161. lpp. Valodniecbas pamatterminu skaidrojo vrdnca. Rga: Valsts valodas aentra, LU Latvieu valodas institts, 2007. 623 lpp. Vulne, A. Okazionlo salikteu aktualizcija P.rmaa dzej. No: Valoda un literatra kultras aprit. LU Zintniskie raksti. 624. sjums. Rga, 192.204. lpp. Vulne, A. Par dam vrddarinanas problmm. No: Valoda un literatra kultras aprit. LU Zintniskie raksti. 650. sjums. Rga 2002, 58.68. lpp. , .. . , 1989. 215 . , .. . : , 2008. 115 . , .. . : , 1976. 119 . , .., .., , .. . : , , 2005. 166 . . . : , 1998. 703 . . .. . , 1988.
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Occasionalisms in Some Latvian Radio Programmes: Semantically Derivative Aspect Summary

Mass media language proves that journalists quite often produce different individual words to express their opinion in the most interesting and easy to remember way with an aim to attract and hold the attention of the target audience. The present article analyses the occasional nouns and verbs used in some programmes of Latvian Radio in 20072010, e.g. in In the Point of Intersection (Krustpunkt), How to Live Better (K labk dzvot), etc. The ability of the anchormen to use various means of expression encourages the guests of the programmes to be creative as well. Using a variety of word-formation techniques, both simple (e.g. suffixation) and combined (e.g. bi-suffixation, interfixal-suffixal), the journalists produce words that introduce elements of unexpectedness and surprise in the text being uttered. Occasional nouns are featured by a set of certain characteristics. Thus the motivated word in the occasionalism prinieki is a preposition par, but the occasionalism pludoana does not have any motivated word. Occasional verbs empionot, fitnesot, krzt are denominal derivatives. In the produced occasionalisms, there is a tendency for the economy of language means. Occasionalisms indicate the willingness of the journalists to denote with a single word the idea that usually can be expressed through a word combination or explained through description.
453
Olga SHOSTAKA
The Relationship between Language and Literary Context in Some of Ernest Hemingways Short Stories
Key words: repetition, symbol, style, concise, metaphor, epithet, narrative, motivation, theme, expressive means, plot, diverse, lost generation
He is one of those who, honestly and undauntedly, reproduces the genuine features of the hard countenance of the age [The Nobel Citation]
The exceptional style of Hemingway, which brought the world fame to its creator, became the model for imitation for generations of writers. The authors mode of writing is characterized by its simplicity of language, conciseness, concreteness, lack of emotionality and adorning, and prevalence of nouns and verbs. By such an innovative style Hemingway demonstrates that the truth about war should be presented in a very simple manner so that not to distract the reader from the fundamental things. The dreadful reality of war life cannot be depicted by such linguistic stylistic devices as metaphors and epithets because in that case it may convert into fiction or look like fairytale [Shishkanova 1961: 84]. His style is marked by the economy of language that made him an outstanding writer of short stories. His vigor as a writer was all the more enhanced by his passionate interest not only in the effect of war, but also in hunting, fishing, and other sports. His narrative skill and imaginative power were appreciated for the ability to transcribe mood and give life and individuality to any variety of characters or setting. B. Kukharenko states: Ernest Hemingways importance as a creator of a unique style, as a speaker for the lost generation, as humanitarian and antifascist cannot be overestimated [Kukharenko 1987: 5]. In his novels and short stories Hemingway proves that it is of no importance whether the purpose of war was motivated by high ideas or not, because no motivation will ever justify the damage suffered by people participating in it. War can only destroy, kill and give rise to the so called lost generations. We shall begin the thematic and linguistic analysis with some of the most outstanding Hemingways short stories Old Man at the 454
Olga SHOSTAKA. The Relationship between Language and Literary Context..
Bridge and Cat in the Rain. Cat in the Rain is as formally and as economically structured as a classic ballet. Every detail of speech and gesture carries a full weight of meaning [Hagopian, 1975: 230]. In the opening paragraph we learn that the two Americans are isolated people: they did not know any of the people they passed and their hotel room looks out on an empty square. In this isolation they are about to experience a crisis in their marriage, a crisis involving the lack of fertility, which is symbolically foreshadowed by the public garden fertility dominated by the war monument death. In the good weather there was always an artist, but the rain, ironically, inhibits creativity; there are no painters here, but the war monument glistens in the rain [Hagopian, 1975: 230]. Analyzing the language of Ernest Hemingways short stories it is necessary to pay a special attention to repetition, which is used extensively and intensively, and is one of the most typical and favorite expressive means exploited by him. Repetition can be a most effective way of creating atmosphere or of pointing to a theme in a story. It can take the form of repetitive language as in the insistent, sorrowful repetition by the old man in Old Man at the Bridge: I was taking care of animals, [p. 311], I was taking care of animals, I was only taking care of animals [Finkelshteen 1971: 313]. And you had to leave them? I asked. Yes. Because of the artillery. The captain told me to go because of the artillery [p. 312]. The purpose of the use of the repetition in the example above is to emphasize the importance of the business which the old man was dedicated to. This man was ONLY taking care of animals [p. 313]. The linguistic stylistic device reinforces the idea that the old man had nothing to do with politics. He lived peacefully with his animals, taking care of them and that only because of the artillery he was forced to leave them. We observe the striking alliterative repetition of consonants in Cat in the Rain: Anyway I want a cat, I want a cat, I want a cat now. I want is repeated sixteen times. This enhances the descriptive and thematic impact of the story. The reader clearly sees that the main character is longing for a cozy home, for looking female, and for having a child. The noun cat is repeated thirteen times within the story. Kitty and poor Kitty was repeated seven times. On the whole 4% of the vocabulary units of the story Cat in the Rain contain the word cat, The sum of the wants that do reach consciousness amounts to motherhood, a home with a family, and an end to the strictly companionate marriage with George. She wants her hair, which is clipped close like a boys to grow out, but George says, I like the way it is. Since the close-cropped hair 455
styles of the twenties was preceded by matronly buns, it would appear that the American girl wants to be like her mother when she says, I want to pull my hair back tight and smooth and make a big knot at the back that I can feel. Interwoven with this symbol of maternal femininity is her wish for a kitty, now an obvious symbol for a child. But George apparently prefers the world of fiction to the real world of adulthood: Oh, shut up and get something to read. Darkness descends and the rain continues to fall. [Smith 1975: 233] The thematic impact of rain is created through repeated references to rain throughout the story: It was raining. The rain dripped from the palm trees The sea broke in a long line in the rain and slipped back down the beach to come up and break again in a long line in the rain. [p. 159] It was raining harder [p. 160] and still raining in the palm trees [p. 162]. The author presents rain in changing ways, first It was raining [p. 159], but further on It was raining harder [p. 160], this parallels the shifting mood of the main character, she becomes more and more excited and wants still more than only the cat. She wants to eat at a table with my own silver and I want candles. And I want it to be spring and I want to brush my hair out in front of a mirror and I want a kitty and I want some new clothes. [p. 162] In the same story, repeating several times the word like the author makes the reader pay attention to the fact that the American wife feels drawn to the hotel-keeper. The poor woman got so tired of the husbands indifference that even the slightest kindness of a strange man makes her feel really important,of supreme importance [p. 161], the phrases that might appropriately be used to describe a woman who is pregnant. For example, She liked the deadly serious way he received any complaints. She liked his dignity. She liked the way he wanted to serve her. She liked the way he felt about being a hotel-keeper. [p. 160] The noun pain in the story Nobody ever Dies is repeated six times in order to emphasize how the delicate touches of woman may cure the unbearable pain of war wounds, how her warm hands and soft lips make the soldier feel at home in a strange place. If there is somebody who loves you, no injury may hurt and no enemy can defeat you. Near the loving heart the all-in hero can no longer feel pain. The situation changes when Enrique hears the hostile siren and it, in a moment, breaks the illusion of happiness and arouses all the pain in the world [p. 447]. The word pain is very important in a sense that, because of being 456
mentioned many times, it seems to penetrate into the very depth of consciousness and makes us feel it very keenly as the hero does. For example, Then in the dark on the bed, holding himself carefully, his eyes closed, their lips against each other, the happiness there with no pain, the being home suddenly there with no pain, the being alive returning and no pain, the comfort of being loved and still no pain; so there was a hollowness of loving, now no longer hollow, and the two sets of lips in the dark, pressing so that they were happily and kindly, darkly and warmly at home and without pain in the darkness, there came the siren cutting, suddenly, to rise like all the pain in the world. [p. 477] Almost every paragraph of Hemingways Soldiers Home contains numerous repetitions of the words such as: like, would like, and want. By means of repetition, the author reveals the essence of the plot. We read: He liked to look at them (girls) from the front porch as they walked on the other side of the street. He liked to watch them walking under the shade of the trees. He liked the round Dutch collars above their sweaters. He liked their silk stockings and flat shoes. He liked their bobbed hair and the way they walked. [p. 105] Having returned from the war, Krebs, the main character of the story, felt great apathy. He got tired of all the lies told to him, of misunderstanding and of his mothers precepts. He wanted to have a quiet life without hardships and negative consequences. Now the atmosphere of dull, monotonous life, Krebs passiveness and lack of interest is again created with the help of repetition: He would have liked to have a girl but he did not want to spend a long time getting her [p. 106]. He would like to go to Kansas City and get a job. [p. 112] Hemingways repetitions are both numerous and diverse and in addition they are very meaningful. Thus, the functions of repetition are: to attract the readers attention to the key words of the authors narration, to create the necessary atmosphere, to hint at certain events or emotions, etc. There is a fairly straight-forward example of the role of repetition in Hills Like White Elephants, a story in which a man tries to persuade his mistress to have an abortion. There are certain key words in the dialogue like simple and key phrases like I dont want you to do it if you dont want to. For example:
Well, the man said, if you dont want to you dont have to. I wouldnt have you do it if you didnt want to. But I know its perfectly simple. And you really want to?
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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst I think its the best thing to do. But I dont want you to do it if you dont really want to. And if I do it youll be happy and things will be like they were and youll love me? I love you now. You know I love you. I know. But if I do it, then it will be nice again if I say things are like white elephants, and youll like it. Ill love it. I love it now but I just cant think about it. You know how I get when I worry? If I do it you wont ever worry? I wont worry about that because its perfectly simple. Then Ill do it. Because I dont care about me. What do you mean? I dont care about me. Well, I care about you. Oh, yes. But I dont care about me. And Ill do it and then everything will be fine. I dont want you to do it if you feel that way.
The drama here is implicit rather than explicit, but it is clear that the man doesnt love the girl he indicates it by saying I love you now and I love it now too close together [OConnor 1975: 85]. Different layers of meaning are expressed in the stories of Ernest Hemingway by the use of powerful and complex symbols. The deeper we investigate the symbolism, the better we see that it reveals wide personal and social issues which Hemingway is concerned with. It is evident that, for example, Cat in the Rain is not a story about love of animals, but cat is a symbol of a lonely, miserable representative of the lost generation. The American wife feels the same discomfort as the cat in the rain. Rain is a symbol of tears, misfortune, sorrow, and bad luck. Another meaning of a symbol cat is cozy home, cat is a symbol of domestic comfort here and a child, the conscious thought of whom never crosses the mind of the American wife, but the feelings associated with it sweep through her. The title of the above-mentioned story is symbolic in itself. It can be interpreted in the following way: just like a cat in the rain feels unprotected and helpless, the American wife feels lonely and tired of her husbands indifference. The young woman dreams of warm-heartedness, kindness, and of her own home. Therefore she so passionately wants to get the poor kitty. When there is a small furry animal in the family it seems more full-fledged. At the moment the American wife discovers that the cat is gone, she is no 458
longer described as the American wife but as the American girl, it is almost as if she were demoted in femininity by failing to find a creature to care for. [Hapogian 1975: 231] Symbolic is the title of Hills Like White Elephants. The story looks backward and forward, backwards to the days when the girl said that the hills were like white elephants and the man was pleased, and forward to a dreary future in which she will never be able to say a thing like that again. The war monument helps to depict the uncomfortable, homeless postwar world, in which the fates of young people were far from being fortunate. The war monument may also serve as a symbol of oncoming discord in the family in Cat in the Rain. A Canary for One is a story of symbols for traps and cages. The American couple is trapped in the compartment with the American lady; they are trapped by their memories and exposed nerves and by the train itself, a rapide rushing toward Paris not the Paris of romantic fiction, but the city where they must separate: coming into Marseilles The train left the station in Marseilles After it was dark the train was in Avignon The train left Avignon In the morning the train was near Paris The train was much nearer Paris The train passed through many outside of Paris towns The train was now coming into Paris [Hemingway 1987: 260] Then the train was in the dark of the Gare de Lyons. At the end was a gate, the author tells us as he describes the journeys end in Paris. Does this gate release them from their old way of life, is it the gate of a new cage, or is it both? The canary is trapped in its cage; the American ladys daughter (for whom the canary is a present) is trapped by her mothers prejudices and her own weakness. The daughter had been in love with a young man of good birth and ambition. Though the American lady admits, He was from a very good family He was going to be an engineer She broke up the romance because he was Swiss: I couldnt have her marrying a foreigner Someone, a very good friend, told me once, No foreigner can make an American girl a good husband. So now she is bringing her daughter a canary for one, for a spinster, not for a man and wife [Smith 1975: 233]. But the strongest cage is reserved for the American lady. It is a cage of deafness, pettiness, intolerance, and fear, mainly fear fear of foreigners, of missing trains, of train wrecks. For example: All night the train went 459
very fast and the American lady lay awake and waited for a wreck. [Hemingway 1987: 261] The dead is a symbol of immortality and life in Nobody ever Dies and On the American Dead in Spain. Dead soldiers symbolize immortality because they never die in the grateful hearts of the survivors. Fearlessly fighting against the tyranny and fascism, they sacrificed their lives for social benefit. They died, so that others could live. Hemingway teaches us to honour the memory of the fallen heroes but not to mourn over them, because they live in the Spanish earth, and they will live as long as the earth lives. [p. 392] Thus they will live forever. The dead heroes are unconquered because the earth cannot be subjugated and the dead are a part of it now. Since almost all Hemingways stories have an open end, symbols help the reader to guess the possible endings. Hemingways symbolism makes the reader read between the lines in order to understand the hidden sense. Because of the limitations to the length of the article, it appeared to be impossible to touch upon other linguistic features that are especially prominent in the stories and which are characteristic of Hemingways tough, peculiarly American style of writing. That style which at its best, is a superb vehicle for revealing tenderness beneath descriptions of brutality. [Ivor Brown in The Guardian] His short stories are presented in inimitable manner of clipped action and laconic dialogue. Hemingway became a legend during his lifetime, but though there were many imitators there was never truly a School of Hemingway, because the standard he set was too strict.
LITERATURE Hagopian, John V. Symmetry in Cat in the Rain. Duke University Press, 1975. Hemingway, E. The Snows of Kilimanjaro. Penguin Books, 1970. Hemingway, E. Selected Stories. Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1971. Kukharenko, B. Practice in Text Interpretation. Moscow. Prosveshchenie, 1987. Kukharenko, B. Text Interpretation. Moscow. Prosveshchenie, 1988. Marcus, S. A World of Fiction. Pearson Longman. University of California Berkeley, 2006. OConnor, F. A Clean Well- Lighted Place. Duke University press, 1975. Shishkanova, M. Modern English and American Short Stories. International Relations Institute Publishing House, Moscow, 1961. Scribners, Ch. Sons. The Complete Short Stories of E. Hemingway. New York, 1987.
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Saikne starp valodu un literro kontekstu daos Ernesta Hemingveja sststos Kopsavilkums
Izcilais ameriku rakstnieks E. Hemingvejs iepazina karu nevis no grmatm, bet kltien pats bdams aktvs kara darbbu dalbnieks. Tpc vi daudz raksta par kara postoajm sekm, par t negatvo ietekmi uz cilvku dzvi. Via darbos atainotais zudus paaudzes sindroms ir joprojm aktuls ar msdiens. E. Hemnigveja sststu valodu raksturo ts vienkrba, koncentrta forma, konkrtba, emocionalittes un izskaistinjuma trkums un lietvrdu un darbbas vrdu prsvars. Via stilu saldzina ar aisbergu, no kura virs dens redzama tikai niecga t daa. Lasot Hemingveja darbus, jprot atklt to, kas apslpts starp rindm. Via sststos risints problmas nav tiei izteiktas, lastjam ts ir jatklj. Visbiek lietotie valodas stilistiskie pamieni ir simbolu izmantojums un dada veida atkrtojumi. o apgalvojumu balsta du ststu lingvistiski stilistisks analzes rezultti: Old Man at the Bridge, Cat in the Rain, A Canary for One, Hills like White Elephants, Soldiers Home, Nobody Ever Dies, un On the American Dead in Spain.
461
Valentna TAERKO
Die Gestaltung des Dialogs im frhen prosaischen Schaffen von Th. Storm
Schlsselwrter: Novelle, einleitender Dialog, Mittel, Sprecher- und Hrerrolle Das Objekt dieser Forschung bilden vier Novellen von Storm, die in der Zeitspanne von 16 Jahren geschrieben wurden. Das sind die Novellen Im Sonnenschein (1848), Spte Rosen (1860), Abseits (1862) und Von jenseit des Meeres (1865). Viele Forscher, unter ihnen die bekannten K.-E. Laage, R. Fasold und D. Jackson, haben die von Storm dargestellten Erinnerungen in verschiedenen Aspekten analysiert. Alle genannten Novellen weisen eine Rahmenkonstruktion auf, in der die Erinnerungen die Kerngeschichte bilden. Es soll erwhnt werden, dass die Erinnerungen einleitenden Dialoge bei den Forschern auer Acht geblieben sind. Deshalb bilden die Dialoge in den Rahmengeschichten den Gegenstand dieser Forschung. Die Dialoge in stormschen Novellen wurden laut den von J. Schwitalla bestimmten Kriterien eines Dialogs ausgewhlt. Zu den wichtigsten Merkmalen eines Dialogs gehren folgende Voraussetzungen: An Dialogen beteiligen sich mindestens zwei Menschen, die Sprecher- und Hrerrollen werden ausgetauscht, die Teilnehmer des Dialogs konzentrieren ihre Aufmerksamkeit aufeinander [vgl. Schwitalla 1979: 37]. Wie oft betont wird, ist es fr eine dialogische Interaktion notwendig, dass die Sprechenden sich gegenseitig ihre Zugnglichkeit mitteilen [vgl. Schwitalla 1979: 45]. In diesen vier Novellen sind die Sprechenden bereit, miteinander zu reden. Nur in der chronologisch ersten Novelle beginnt das Gesprch spontan. Die spteren Novellen nehmen in ihrem Umfang zu, und es gibt den geuerten Wunsch des potenziellen Hrers, dem Dialogpartner ber ein bestimmtes Thema zuzuhren. In der Idylle Spte Rosen kann man eine dreimalige Initiierung des Gesprchs mit dem bergang zu den Erinnerungen finden: 1) So hat es kommen mssen, sagte ich endlich... [Storm 1972, 1: 622] 2) Es mag dir Mhe genug gekostet haben, sagte ich. [ebda: 623] 462
Valentna TAERKO. Die Gestaltung des Dialogs im frhen prosaischen..
Was war das, Rudolf? sagte ich und nahm die Hand meines Jugendfreundes, sage mir es, wenn du kannst. [ebda] In den angefhrten Beispielen steigt die emotionale Intensitt, wobei von einer allgemeinen Aussage zu einer direkten Ansprache mit freundlicher Teilnahme gewechselt wird. In der Novelle Abseits geht es zuerst um die Themen, die fr ein alltgliches Gesprch charakteristisch sind. Aber in diesem Fall ist die Sprecherin mehr zu einem tieferen Gesprch aufgelegt, denn ihre Repliken sind ausfhrlicher als die Fragen oder Repliken des Hrers. Ihre Repliken enthalten 13 bis 87 Wrter, seine Repliken lediglich 5 bis 38 Wrter. Auerdem spricht sie in ihrem einleitenden Dialog 8-mal, whrend er nur 6-mal etwas sagt. Manchmal wird seine nichtverbale Reaktion beschrieben. In der Novelle Von jenseit des Meeres ist die Zeit fr die beiden Gesprchspartner begrenzt, denn der Erzhler muss laut der Handlung bald wegfahren. Deshalb beginnt er mit seinen Erinnerungen nach zwei kurzen Fragen des Hrers und einer herzlichen Bitte, von seiner Braut zu erzhlen. Auf solche Weise kann man schlussfolgern, dass die Lnge der einleitenden Dialoge von der Zeit abhngt, die den Sprechenden nach der Absicht des Autors zur Verfgung steht. Es kann bemerkt werden, dass die Zeit sich von Novelle zu Novelle beschleunigt. Wenn die Protagonisten in der kleinen Novelle Im Saal sich die Zeit leisten konnten, um miteinander gutmtig zu scherzen, hat der Protagonist aus der Novelle Von jenseit des Meeres nur einige Stunden, um seine Seele auszuschtten. Die Industrialisierung Deutschlands hat ein schnelleres Lebenstempo mit sich gebracht, denn die dargestellten Personen werden in ihren Handlungen und Entscheidungen immer abhngiger von der Uhr/Zeit. Ein Dialog hinterlsst einen positiven Eindruck, wenn das Thema, zu dem gesprochen wird, fr alle Sprechenden relevant ist. Obwohl am Anfang der Novelle Im Saal angedeutet wird, dass im Familiensaal sich viele Familienmitglieder versammelt haben, verluft das Gesprch fast ausschlielich zwischen der Gromutter und dem Enkel. Es bleiben somit Zweifel, dass es mglich sein knnte, den beiden Sprechenden zuzuhren oder an ihrem Gesprch mit Fragen oder Zwischenrepliken teilzunehmen. Ob dieses Gesprch fr die Anwesenden, die sich seit langer Zeit gut kennen, wichtig ist, bleibt unklar, denn es gibt nur einen richtigen Interessenten, den Enkel, der die Rolle des Hrers bernimmt. 463
3)
Auf das Ziel des Freundes aus der Idylle Spte Rosen, Rudolf zu einer ausfhrlicheren Erzhlung zu verleiten, wurde schon hingewiesen. In der Novelle Abseits verluft der Dialog schwankend, indem mehrere Themen (Brief, mgliche Einladung, Stadt, Senator und seine Familie, Metas Familienstand, der Tod ihres Brutigams, der Tod des Lehrersohns) kurz angesprochen werden, bis es endlich zu einer Erinnerungserzhlung von Meta kommt. Daraus kann man schlussfolgern, dass der Dialog mit Mhe verluft und nach allen Regeln der natrlichen Dialoggestaltung bald enden sollte. Dieser Dialog spielt eine sehr wesentliche Rolle fr die Erklrung der weiteren Handlung; darin werden die wichtigsten Informationen ber Raum, Zeit und Protagonisten mitgeteilt. Aber hinsichtlich der Dialogsteuerung braucht das Gesprch neue Initiationen, um zu dem vom Autor gewnschten Thema zu gelangen. Das Einfhrungsgesprch in der Novelle Von jenseit des Meeres kommt direkt auf das vorgesehene Thema, weil dies fr die beiden Beteiligten sehr relevant ist. Die beiden Vettern stehen in freundlicher Beziehung zueinander und die Rede ist von der Braut des Sprechers, d.h. ihrer zuknftigen Verwandten. Zusammenfassend kann darauf hingewiesen werden, dass Storm in seinen frheren prosaischen Werken die dargestellten Dialoge etwas geknstelt organisiert. Die grten Probleme entstehen bei der berleitung des Dialogs zu der monologischen Rede eines Sprechers. Die letzte von den zu analysierenden Novellen zeigt eine mgliche Lsung dieses Problems, indem die Protagonisten in Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen gestellt werden. Bei der natrlichen Dialoggestaltung ist noch ein Aspekt wichtig, den man wie folgt formulieren kann: ... eine dialogische Handlung ist eine, deren Beendigung gleichzeitig das Recht oder sogar die Pflicht fr den Adressaten enthlt, darauf (verbal, nonverbal oder aktional) einzugehen [Schwitalla 1979: 54]. Die nonverbale Reaktion der Dialogteilnehmer kommt dreimal in der Novelle Abseits vor. Storm gebraucht dafr folgende Mittel: 1) Der alte Mann sah mit groen teilnehmenden Augen zu ihr hinber. [Storm 1972, 2: 151] 2) ... ihr Gast schwieg noch immer; aber um seine Lippen zuckte es, als stiege ein Schmerz auf, den er vergebens zu bekmpfen suchte. [ebda] 3) ... sie bemerkte, da ihr Gast einen Blick des Vorwurfs auf das Bildchen an der Wand warf. [ebda: 153] 464
Auch im kurzen einleitenden Gesprch aus der Novelle Von jenseit des Meeres gibt es eine nonverbale Reaktion des Sprechers: Er schttelte den Kopf. [ebda] Im Vergleich zu diesen spteren Novellen begleiten nonverbale Reaktionen die meisten uerungen der Protagonisten in den frheren Werken Im Saal und Spte Rosen. Dieser Prozess der Psychologisierung der Darstellung spiegelt auch die allgemeine Entwicklung der Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts in Richtung Realismus wider, dessen wichtiges Merkmal die psychologisch wahrheitsgetreue Darstellung der Gestalten war. In der lngeren Novelle Abseits fehlen an manchen Stellen sowohl verbale als auch nonverbale Reaktionen der Gesprchsteilnehmer. Die auf solche Weise entstehenden stillen Pausen verursachen im Dialog einen Themenwechsel, sobald das alte Thema erschpft ist und keiner der Teilnehmer mehr das Wort ergreifen will [vgl. Schank 1981: 58]. Im Dialog muss die Sprecher-Hrer-Rolle mindestens einmal ausgetauscht werden. Diese Bedingung wird als eine der wichtigsten in der dialogischen Rede angesehen [vgl. Schwitalla 1979: 70]. In dieser Hinsicht unterscheidet man sprachliche dialogaufrechterhaltende uerungen, die sich auf die bernahme der Sprecherrolle beziehen und den Fortgang des Dialogprozesses gewhrleisten. 1. Mittel zur Gewinnung der Sprecherrolle: 1) Zustimmungssignal ja mit inhaltlicher Wendung des Themas:
Ja, sagte die Gromutter, Ich habe es [das Meer] oft gehrt; es ist schon lange so gewesen. [Storm 1972, 1: 485]
2)
Zustimmungssignal ja und nonverbales Mittel (Vermeidung des Blickkontaktes):

Ja, sagte sie dann, indem sie auf ein getuschtes Profilbildchen blickte, das in einem Strohblumenkranze ber der Kommode hing. Vor Jahren, Herr Lehrer; aber es kam anders, als wir gedacht haben. [Storm 1972, 2: 152]
3)
verbale Explizierung:
Ich mag es Ihnen wohl erzhlen, fuhr sie fort. [ebda] Doch, fuhr er fort, Sie wollten ja erzhlen! [ebda: 153] Setz dich und habe Geduld, sagte er, so sollst du alles wissen. [ebda: 176]
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1)
2. Mittel, den Hrer aufzufordern, die Sprecherrolle zu bernehmen: Vollendung eines initiierten Aktes, eine Fragestellung und Wiederholung von uerungsstellen des aktuellen Sprechers mit Frageintonation:
Gebaut? Was war denn frher hier? Frher? wiederholte die Gromutter, dann verstummte sie eine Weile... [Storm 1972,1: 485]
2)
Beendigung eines initiierenden Aktes mit Fragestellung:

... ich, der sogar mit Kastanien und Kirschensteinen Handel trieb, wurde ein Mann der Wissenschaft; und du wo sind deine Trauerspiele geblieben, die du als Sekundaner schriebst? [Storm 1972, 1: 622]
3)
Wiederholung von uerungsstellen des aktuellen Sprechers mit Frageintonation:

Mhe? wiederholte er langsam; es ist vielleicht das Wenigste, was es mich gekostet hat. [ebda: 623]
4)
Verbales Mittel (Fragestellung):

Wollen Sie nicht lesen, liebe Mamsell? fragte er endlich. [Storm 1972, 2: 151] Aber, sagte der Lehrer und legte den Teelffel sorgfltig ber die geleerte Tasse, hie es nicht vor Jahren einmal, da Sie den ledigen Stand htten verrcken wollen? [ebda:152]
5)
Sprechersignale mit zustimmungsforderndem Charakter:

Ja, ja, sagte er, der alte Ehrenfried, wie er leibte und lebte, der Herr Senator haben bis zu seinem Tode groe Stcke auf ihn gehalten; ich habe manches Pckchen Schnupftabak von ihm zugewogen bekommen. Die Haushlterin nickte. [ebda]
1)
3. Mittel, die das Ende des eigenen Sprecherbeitrags ankndigen: Beendigung eines Themas mit folgendem Abheben der Stimme bei einer Frage:
Was wollt ihr denn? Wollt ihr alle mitregieren? [Storm 1972, 1: 490]
2)
paralinguistisches Mittel (stille Pause) und verbales Mittel (Schlusssignal so):

Rudolf schwieg einen Augenblick; dann sagte er leise, indem er vor sich in das Abendrot blickte, das schon mit seinem letzten Schein am Himmel stand: So habe ich noch aus dem Minnebecher getrunken, einen tiefen, herzhaften Zug; zu spt aber dennoch nicht zu spt! [Storm 1972, 1: 632]
466
Es fllt auf, dass bei Storm die dialogaufrechterhaltenden Mittel fehlen, die den aktuellen Sprecher zur Beendigung seines Beitrags bewegen knnen. Auerdem berwiegen die einleitenden Repliken ber den abschlieenden Worten, was man im Verhltnis 9 zu 2 sehen kann. Zu den dialogthematischen Steuerungshandlungen gehren alle Akte, mit welchen ein aktueller Sprecher entweder einen oder mehrere Dialogpartner zu bestimmten verbalen Handlungen zu bewegen versucht, oder damit zeigt, wie er auf einen solchen Steuerungsversuch antwortet. Diese Steuerungsakte bestimmen das Thema oder das Objekt der gemeinsamen Aufmerksamkeit aller Dialogpartner. In dieser Hinsicht ist es wichtig festzustellen, in welchen Momenten der Handlung dialogthematische Steuerungen der Gesprchspartner vorkommen und wie sie gestaltet werden. Als gesprchsinitiierend kann man folgende Flle bezeichnen: 1. Informieren:
Das ist das Meer, sagte die junge Frau. [Storm 1972, 1: 485] So hat es kommen mssen, sagte ich endlich [...], ich, der sogar mit Kastanien und Kirschensteinen Handel trieb, wurde ein Mann der Wissenschaft; und du wo sind deine Trauerspiele geblieben, die du als Sekundaner schriebst? [Storm 1972, 1: 622] Die Frau Senatorin hat sie [Pfeffernsse] mir herausgeschickt, sagte sie lchelnd, sie backt sie alle Jahr zu Weihnachtabend. [Storm 1972, 2: 151] So la mich bei dir bleiben. Meinen Schlaf hole ich morgen im Wagen auf der Heimfahrt nach. Und wenn du willst, erzhle mir von ihr! Ich kenne sie ja nicht; und la mich wissen, wie alles so gekommen ist. [ebda: 176]
2.
Werten:
Es mag dir Mhe genug gekostet haben, sagte ich. [Storm 1972, 1: 623]
3.
Gefhlsexpression:
Was war das, Rudolf? sagte ich und nahm die Hand meines Jugendfreundes, sage mir es, wenn du kannst. [ebda]
Die Textauszge, in denen es um Informieren geht, sind allen vier Novellen entnommen, was davon zeugt, dass Storm drei Schemen fr den Dialoganfang ausgewhlt hat. Im Fall des Informierens wird meistens das zuerst angebotene Thema im Weiteren nicht entwickelt, statt dessen wird 467
ein neues Thema besprochen, aber dank dem ersten Thema kommt eine Kommunikationsbeziehung der Gesprchspartner zustande. Nur in der Novelle Abseits wird direkt das vorgeschlagene Thema angesprochen. Thematischer Anfang der Dialoge mit Werten oder Gefhlsexpression kommt bei Storm selten vor. Wie die Forschung zeigt, vermeidet der Schriftsteller eindeutige Einschtzungen der handelnden Personen und offene Gefhlsuerungen. Als Antworten auf eine Gesprchsinitiierung oder respondierend kann man folgende Flle einschtzen: 1. Begrnden:
Der Enkel sagte: Gromutter, wir wollen den alten Saal ganz umreien und wieder einen Ziergarten pflanzen; die kleine Barbara ist auch wieder da. Die Frauen sagen ja, sie ist dein Ebenbild; sie soll wieder in der Schaukel sitzen, und die Sonne soll wieder auf goldene Kinderlocken scheinen... [Storm 1972, 1: 490] Es ist heute ein Tag des Friedens, sagte sie, und ihre sonst so milde Stimme klang scharf; ich mag nicht in die Stadt. [Storm 1972, 2: 151]
2.
Informieren:
Ich bin zuletzt im Juni dort gewesen, seitdem nicht wieder, fuhr sie fort; wir hatten hier keine Blumen; aber in den Grten der Stadt und auch im Hause unsers alten Brgermeisters blhten sie... [ebda] Wir sind mit dem Senator aufgewachsen, begann sie wieder, mein Bruder und ich; wir waren Nachbarskinder. [ebda]
Alle oben angefhrten Textauszge sind Einleitungen zu den lngeren Textabschnitten, in denen monologische berlegungen und nachfolgende Erinnerungen vorkommen. Nur in der Novelle Im Saal wird der Enkel in seinen berlegungen unterbrochen. Alle anderen Auszge bereiten den Leser auf die Darlegung und Beschreibung der Ereignisse vor. Dass unter den respondierenden Mitteln die Gefhlsuerung fehlt, ist ein charakteristischer Zug des ganzen frhen prosaischen Schaffens von Storm. Zusammenfassend soll darauf hingewiesen werden, dass Storm das Ziel verfolgt, die dargestellten Dialoge der gesprochenen Rede mglichst anzugleichen. Der Leser soll dadurch das Gefhl seiner unsichtbaren Anwesenheit bekommen und die Gesprchsteilnehmer als lebendige Menschen wahrnehmen. Diesem Ziel dienen die mannigfaltigen Mittel der Dialoggestaltung, die der Schriftsteller in seinen Werken benutzt.
468
Valentna TAERKO. Die Gestaltung des Dialogs im frhen prosaischen.. LITERATUR Storm, T. Smtliche Werke. Berlin und Weimar: Aufbauverlag, Bd. 1, 2, 1972. Aust, H. Novelle. Stuttgart, Weimar: Verlag J.B. Metzler, 2006. Schank, G. Untersuchungen zum Ablauf natrlicher Dialoge. Mnchen: Max Hueber Verlag, 1981. Schwitalla, J. Dialogsteuerung in Interviews. Mnchen: Max Hueber Verlag, 1979.
The Formation of the Dialoque in the Early Prose of Th. Storm Summary
The article is devoted to the analysis of one of the aspects of T. Storms works, namely dialogues in a frame narration of four early short stories. The considered dialogues which have not been analysed by known researchers of Storms works (for example, K.E. Laage, R. Fasold), do possible transition to the central narration of one of the protagonists. At least two people are necessary for participation in the dialogue, the listener and speaker should change roles during the communication, participants of a dialogue should show attention to what is stated by the partner in the dialogue. The work shows close interrelation of linguistic and literary methods of the analysis of the literary text on a private example of a short dialogue. Special attention is given to the exposition image (all analyzed dialogues occur a fan or at night that creates especially suitable situation for the story about rather personal events), length of dialogues (depending on available participants of dialogue of time), and as to the importance of a subject for dialogue on which the dialogue structure as a whole depends. In the verbal and nonverbal ways of initiation and dialogue maintenance on examples of texts of short stories are shown. The analysis of dialogical speech of protagonist of the Storm shows that the author gradually improves the skill of the prose writer, giving to dialogues in later works nature of reliability, leaning on the general rules of the natural organization of dialogical speech.
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Vidas VALSKYS
Vietininko vartosenos religinio pobdio tekstuose ypatumai

Pagrindiniai odiai: vietininkas, inesyvas, religiniai tekstai Vietininkas nelabai plat semantikos lauk turintis linksnis. Dabartinje vartosenoje jis daniausiai vartojamas vietos, gerokai reiau ir leksikai riboiau, nes lemia daiktavardio kamiene slypinti sema [ukys 1998: 294], laiko reikme (pradioje, pabaigoje, senovje, praeityje etc.). Kitos bdo, bvio (su atspalviais) vietininko reikms dabartinje vartosenoje vis reiau pasitaiko. Straipsniu siekiama atkreipti dmes vairius religinio turinio ir paskirties tekstus, kuriuose vietininkas (turimas galvoje inesyvas vidaus esamasis vietininkas) vartojamas savitai, kiek kitonikiau nei prastoje vartosenoje, pasvarstyti tokios vietininko vartosenos specifikum ir veiksnius, slygojanius kai kuri reikmi didesn produktyvum. Straipsnyje remiamasi pavyzdiais i vairi religinio pobdio tekst krikionikos periodins spaudos ir tinklalapi, Dabartins lietuvi kalbos tekstyno, Naujojo Testamento vertimo ir kt. Gerokai daniau nei prastoje kalboje religiniuose tekstuose pasitaiko vadinamasis asmens vidaus vietininkas. Galima bt iskirti tris nemaas tokios semantikos vietinink grupes: 1) vardiais reikiami asmens vidaus vietininkai, pvz.:
Aplinkui dykuma, ir tavo Dievas tavyje ART, 2010; Js esate Marijos avesio spinduliai, ir jos grois atsispindi jumyse ART, 2007; <...> viskas, k galiu tai leisti Tau manyje ilaikyti savo od. Leisti Tau manyje isilaikyti... Tekst.; Pirmj ami krikionys kankiniai, rydamiesi gyvybs aukai dl tikto Gyvenimo, vadovaudavosi samprata: ne mes itveriame kankinimus, o Kristus, kuris kenia mumyse ART, 2009;
2)
bendrini daiktavardi, paprastai moni pavadinim, asmens vidaus vietininkai, ypa moguje (monse), asmenyje, pvz.:
Tikiu dievikja kibirktimi moguje ART, 2010; Ir iame asmenyje mes randame vienyb ART, 2010; O Tvas nori, kad visuose monse mes paintume brol Krist ir veikliai, odiais ir darbais, j myltume
470
Vidas VALSKYS. Vietininko vartosenos religinio pobdio tekstuose ypatumai Tekst.; Meil Dievui parodome myldami mog. Diev mylime monse, o mones dl Dievo Tekst.;
3)
tikrini ar tikriniams religiniame diskurse prilygstani daiktavardi asmens vidaus vietininkas, pvz.:
Visuomet vienas prie kit yra Dievo gailestingumas Jzuje Kristuje ir ms menkumas KEL, 2011; tai kodl mirusi ir palaidot bei prikelt Kristuje gyvenimas yra ventj gyvenimas ART, 2010; Kas yra itas nuo ami Dieve paslptas slpinys, kurio regimas enklas knas? ART, 2010; Iganymas yra ten, kur dangus ir em susijungia Dievo Snuje bernardinai. lt; Krinija savo garbs pilnatv pasieks siknijusiame Dievo Snuje, kuriame knikai gyvena visa dievysts pilnatv (Kol 2, 9) zodistarpmusu. lt; Marijoje yra siknijusi tobula itikimyb ventajai Dvasiai, kuri yra kiekvieno paaukimo kvpja ir ugdytoja bernardinai. lt; Visi mokyklos studentai buvo pakriktyti ventojoje Dvasioje vikipedija. lt; Jei mes norime duoti dvasini vaisi, mums reikia mirti Viepatyje! mesijas. lt.
Tokia leksikai ribota (kaip matyti i pavyzdi), bet sintaksikai gana produktyvi vietininko vartosena religins tematikos tekstuose gali bti slygota ir pamatuota keliais dalykais. Pirmiausia dert minti teologin, mistin tokios kalbins raikos prasm ji ypa danai pasitaiko apatalo Pauliaus laikuose, todl pabriama 1989 m. laidos Naujojo Testamento (kun. . Kavaliausko vertimas ir kun. V. Aliulio redakcija) komentaruose. Antai pateikiamas toks Pauliaus laiko romieiams kalbos paaikinimas: Kristuje Jzuje labai Pauliaus mgstamas posakis, kuris reikia: be galo glaudiai susivienijs su Kristumi Jzumi, jame paskends, gyvenantis jo malone ir jo mintimis [NT 1989: 375]. Kitas pirmojo laiko korintieiams komentaras: Bti Kristuje Jzuje Pauliui reikia bti gyvu jo mistinio kno nariu [NT 1989: 397]. Laiko efezieiams inaoje paaikinama: Net 35 kartus iame laike Paulius pavartoja savo mgstamj formul Jzuje Kristuje (jame). Tai vad. mistinis vietininkas, kuris reikia: mes esame paslaptingai ir labai intymiai suvienyti su Kristumi ir tik dl ios vienybs turime antgamtin gyvyb ir visas iganymo malones ir viltis [NT 1988: 452]. Panaiai apie mistin vietinink, jo prasm ir svarb teigia ir kun. S. Buauskas [Sabaliauskien 2011: 37]. Perkeltin, metaforik, teologikai ir stilistikai pakylt prasm asmens vidaus vietininkas gyja ir evangelijos pagal Jon vertime, pvz.:
O jeigu darau ir manimi netikite, tikkite darbais, kad paintumte ir suprastumte, jog Tvas manyje ir a jame Jn 10, 38; Nejau tu netiki,
471
Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst kad a esu Tve ir Tvas yra manyje?! odius, kuriuos jums kalbu, ne i savs kalbu. Manyje esantis Tvas daro savuosius darbus Jn 14, 10.
Naujajame Testamente ir su juo ateinanioje krikionybs tradicijoje Kristus suvokiamas kaip krikioni vienovs centras, ir tam vaizdiui atskleisti vietininko raika ypa patogi ir, matyt, artimiausia patikimiausiu ir tiksliausiu ventojo Rato tyrintoj laikomo graikiko NT altinio kalbos dvasiai:
Nebra nei ydo, nei graiko; nebra nei vergo, nei laisvojo; nebra nei vyro, nei moters: visi js esate viena Kristuje Jzuje Gal 3, 28; Kaip tu, Tve, manyje ir a tavyje, tegul ir jie bus viena mumyse Jn 17, 21; Mums, gyviesiems, dl Jzaus nuolat gresia mirtis, kad Jzaus gyvyb pasirodyt ms mirtingame kne. itaip mumyse veikia mirtis, o jumyse gyvyb 2 Kor 4, 1112.
Vadinamasis mistinis vietininkas vartojamas ir dano apatal laiko pradios ir pabaigos formulse, pvz.: A, Tercijus, io laiko suraytojas, sveikinu jus Viepatyje Rom 16, 22; Mano meil jums visiems Kristuje Jzuje 1 Kor 16, 24; Paulius, Dievo valia Kristaus Jzaus apatalas, ventiesiems, gyvenantiems Efeze, ir itikimiausiems Kristuje Jzuje Ef 1, 11. Taigi, tokios konstrukcijos tampa vienais i pirmj krikioni banyios etiketo element. itaip gausiai Naujajame Testamente ir kituose kanoniniuose ratuose vartojami asmens vidaus vietininkai ilgainiui vis labiau plito liturgijoje, maldose, kituose banytiniuose tekstuose, todl m stabarti ir tapo viena i specifikiausi religinio diskurso gramatins raikos priemoni. Skaitant tokius tekstus ar j klausant, negalima teigti, kad jis vartojamas pernelyg mantriai ir sureikmintai. Kaip teigia kai kurie teologai, asmens vidaus vietininkas, kartu su kitomis stilistinmis priemonmis, padeda geriau ireikti santyk tarp mogaus ir Dievo [Sabaliauskien 2011: 38]. Gausiau nei kitur religinio pobdio tekstuose vartojami ir bdo ar bvio (su papildomais reikms atspalviais ar be j) vietininkai.
Bdas: Mes visi buvome pakriktyti vienoje Dvasioje, kad sudarytume vien kn 1 Kor 12, 13; A pavedu jums ms ses Feb, ji yra Kenchrjos banyios diakon; priimkite j Viepatyje <...> Rom 16, 12; Sakau ties Kristuje, nemeluoju <...> Rom 9, 1; Bdas su objekto atspalviu: Vyrui mirus, ji laisva ir gali tekti u ko nori, kad tik Viepatyje2 1 Kor 7, 39;
1
J. ukys panaaus tipo vietininkus (pvz., Ramyb jums visiems, kurie esate Kristuje, Dieve), nors ir pripasta kaip sigaljusius i tradicijos, vis dlto silo keisti esate su Kristumi, su Dievu [1998: 312].
472
Vidas VALSKYS. Vietininko vartosenos religinio pobdio tekstuose ypatumai Bdas su vietos atspalviu: Taigi kriktu mes esame kartu su juo palaidoti mirtyje <...> Rom 6, 4; Bdas su vietos ir priemons atspalviais: Juk tai Dievas Kristuje sutaikino su savimi pasaul <...> 2 Kor 5, 19; Bdas su bvio (bsenos) atspalviu (paprastai abstrakij daiktavardi, ymini mogaus vidines ar iorines bsenas3 [DLKG 1997: 554], vietininkai): Prieingai: visa, kuo mes pasirodome Dievo tarnai, didiai kantrs sielvartuose, negandose, suspaudimuose, plakimuose, kaljimuose, smyiuose, sunkiuose darbuose, budjimuose, badavimuose; pasirodome tyrumu, imintimi, pakantumu, gerumu, ventja Dvasia <...> 2 Kor 6, 46; Neturte4 suelp mane i Makedonijos atvyk broliai 2 Kor 11, 9; Kita vertus, a suvokiau, jog tam, kad galiau atlikti Dievo darbus kartu su Juo, a privalau gyventi vienybje su Dievo irdimi kunigas. lt; Parayta: jis sugauna protinguosius j gudrybje 1 Kor 3, 19; Eucharistija yra vienybs ir laims sakramentas malonje gyvenantiems krikionims Tekst.; Bvis: Jumyse neturi viepatauti nuodm: js ne statymo, bet malons galioje Rom 6, 14; Bvis su bdo atspalviu: Jie uriko ant jo: Tu visas gims nuodmse ir dar nori mus mokyti?! Jn 9, 34; Gal mums pasilikti nuodmje, kad gaust malon? Rom 6,1.
Kaip matyti i pavyzdi, tokie bdo (ar bvio) vietininkai religinio pobdio tekstuose gana paplit. Kas toki j vartosen lemia? Senj teologini rat sintaks nagrinjusi I. E. ekmonien teigia, kad daugelis j versti i lenkik altini, todl juose gausu vairi slavikos kilms sintaksini konstrukcij, tarp j ir su vietininku [ekmonien 2010: 29]. Daugelis I. E. ekmoniens teikiam pavyzdi i ties abejoni nekelia jie yra paodiui iversti i lenk kalbos, taiau ar yra pakankamas pagrindas visas tokias konstrukcijas su vietininkais laikyti verstinmis? io tyrimo duomenys kreipia akis iekoti kit toki konstrukcij radimosi ir paplitimo dabartiniuose religinio pobdio tekstuose altini. Kadangi krikionybs pamat sudaro Naujasis Testamentas ir jame skelbiamas Kristaus mokymas, daugelis jo teigini ir j raikos bd dabartinius religinius tekstus veikiausiai atkeliavo btent i jo lietuviko vertimo. Geriausiu lai2
ios eiluts komentaras: Viepatyje u krikionio [NT 1989: 405]. Dabartins lietuvi kalbos gramatikoje aptariami tik veiksmaodiniai junginiai su bdo vietininkais [DLKG 1997: 554], o bdo aplinkybs reikme vartojami bdvardini jungini vietininkai visai neminimi (r. cituojam pavyzd 2 Kor 6, 46). 4 is vietininkas turi ir laiko atspalv.
473
komas ir dabartinje katalik liturgijoje oficialiai vartojamas gero lietuvi kalbos mokovo kun. eslovo Kavaliausko i graik kalbos verstas Naujasis Testamentas5 (pirmas leidimas 1972 m., antras 1989 m.), kuriuo iame straipsnyje remiamasi. Galima teigti, kad asmens vidaus, bdo ir bvio vietininkai dabartiniuose religiniuose tekstuose gausiai vartojami dl Naujojo Testamento sintakss takos. Konstrukcijos su tokiais vietininkais yra tam tikro banytinio diskurso, netgi tam tikro ikilmingojo, oficialiojo stiliaus (kalbdamas apie Ilskis ramybje tipo vietininkus toki minties raik iskiria ir pateisina J. ukys [1998: 301]) kalbins raikos priemons, padedanios savitai, taigi ikilmingiau, pakiliau, drauge ir estetikiau, taikliau nusakyti tam tikras mogaus bsenas, jo santykio su Dievu niuansus ir pan. Pakeitus jas kitokiais raikos bdais, tas spdis gerokai sumenkt (plg. Mes visi buvome pakriktyti vienoje Dvasioje, kad sudarytume vien kn Mes pakriktyti viena Dvasia...), netekt tam tikro teologinio svorio ar i viso ikreipt mint, nes ji tapt kitonikai suvokiama, interpretuojama. Kartais toks vietininkas lieka, ko gero, vienintelis manomas minties raikos bdas (Vyrui mirus, ji laisva ir gali tekti u ko nori, kad tik Viepatyje 1 Kor 7, 39 ar Eucharistija yra vienybs ir laims sakramentas malonje gyvenantiems krikionims Tekst. Aptarus ir panagrinjus vietininko vartosen religinio pobdio tekstuose, galima padaryti kelet ivad: 1. Bendrins kalbos periferijoje ar net paribyje esantys asmens vidaus, bdo ir bvio (su atspalviais) vietininkai gerokai labiau paplit krikioniko turinio kalboje ir laikytini savitu ir reikmingu toki tekst sintakss elementu. 2. Nemaai konstrukcij su tokios semantikos vietininkais linkusios stabarti ar jau gerokai apstabarjusios, tapusios savotikomis formulmis, vartojamomis liturgijoje, maldose, apeigose, etikete ir pan. 3. Daugelis asmens vidaus (teolog vadinam mistiniais vietininkais) ir bdo (ar bvio) vietinink yra ikilmingojo banytinio stiliaus savastis, todl kaip stilistikai ymtus juos galima bt vertinti ir bendrins lietuvi kalbos normos poiriu.
ALTINI SANTRUMPOS ART urnalas Artuma KEL urnalas Kelion su Bernardinai. lt Tekst. Dabartins lietuvi kalbos tekstynas (prieiga internete: http://donelaitis.vdu.lt) Kaip raoma antro NT leidimo pratarmje, is vertimas palankiai vertintas ir prof. Prano Skardiaus [NT 1989: 5].
5
474
Vidas VALSKYS. Vietininko vartosenos religinio pobdio tekstuose ypatumai LITERATRA ekmonien, I. E. Teologini rat vietininkas. In: Specialybs kalba: sakinys ir tekstas. Vilnius: Mykolo Romerio universitetas, 2010. DLKG Dabartins lietuvi kalbos gramatika (red. V. Ambrazas). Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidykla, 1997. NT Naujasis Testamentas (pareng kun. V. Aliulis ir redakcin kolegija). Salzburg, 1989. Sabaliauskien, D. Asmens vidaus vietinink vartojimo spaudoje polinkiai. Bakalauro darbas. Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas, 2011. ukys, J. Lietuvi kalbos linksniai ir prielinksniai: vartosena ir normos. Kaunas: viesa, 1998.
Usage Peculiarities of the Locative Case in Religious Texts Summary

The present article is dedicated to attracting readers attention to different texts having religious contents and purposes where the locative case is used in a peculiar way, a more peculiar way than it is usually applied. Another purpose of the article is to turn the readers attention towards the specific character of the usage of such a locative as well as factors predetermining larger productivity of some phenomena. The article is based on Christian periodical press, as well as websites, text databases, translations of the New Testament, etc. Religious texts have a peculiarity of much higher frequency of the so-called inner locative expressing the inner state of a person, when compared to ordinary language. It is possible to distinguish three large semantic groups of such locatives, i.e. locatives expressed in the form of pronouns as well as proper and common nouns (Aplinkui dykuma, ir tavo Dievas tavyje; Visuomet vienas prie kit yra Dievo gailestingumas Jzuje Kristuje ir ms menkumas). Locatives expressing a persons characteristics and a persons mode of living are used more frequently in religious texts in comparison with other texts (Mes visi buvome pakriktyti vienoje Dvasioje, kad sudarytume vien kn). The research data allow stating that such locatives existing in the periphery of standard Lithuanian make a common and peculiar syntactic means of religious texts that helps convey some specific states of a human being and nuances of the human-divine interrelationship. Quite a number of such formations that include locatives having such semantics have a tendency to form stable constructions and become a kind of formulae used in Christian liturgy, prayers, rituals and etiquette.
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Makettjas: Marina Stoka, Vita totaka

Izdevjdarbbas reistr. apliecba Nr. 2-0197. Parakstts iespieanai 14.12.2012. Pastjuma Nr. 54. Iespiests DU Akadmiskaj apgd Saule Saules iela 1/3, Daugavpils, LV5400, Latvija.

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[ 1972: 588]. , ( , ..). , ( [ 2002: 132] ). , . , , . , , ( ) , , , . , . . , , : . , , , . , , , , , . , . , , , . . 20

, ! , : , , , .. , , , , . , , , ! , , , , ( ). , ! : , , ! , ! , : , , , , , , ! (, , ). , ! , ! ! , . ! , , , ! ! , , ? ! , , , , , , . , . , , , , -. .. [ 2011: 8]. .. , , [ 2009: 9, 12]. , ! , , , ! ! , , . 21

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Valoda 2012. Valoda dadu kultru kontekst , .. ( ). . . . . . . , 2011. , .. ( ). .: . , 2009.

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oti rupjai izteiksmei noder vrdi ar vulgru nokrsu

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