UNIT 1 i

History and the struggle for independence

Unit 1
WLA 103/03

Malaysian Studies

History and the Struggle for Independence

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WLA 103/03 Malaysian Studies

COURSE TEAM
Course Team Coordinator: Ms. Vickneswarinee Ganisha Content Writers: Ms. Vickneswarinee Ganisha, Ms. Kalai Mathi Yesupatham, Mr. Roy Anthony Rogers and Associate Professor Jatswan Singh Instructional Designer: Professor Dr. Ng Wai Kong Academic Members: Ms. Rabikha Hasni Suparman and Ms. Jasmine Selvarani Emmanuel

COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. S. Nagarajan

EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

Dato Dr. Sharom Ahmat

PRODUCTION
In-house Editors: Ms. Koh Kah Ling and Mr. Khoo Chiew Keen Graphic Designer: Ms. Audrey Yeong

Wawasan Open University is Malaysias first private not-for-profit tertiary institution dedicated to adult learners. It is funded by the Wawasan Education Foundation, a tax-exempt entity established by the Malaysian Peoples Movement Party (Gerakan) and supported by the Yeap Chor Ee Charitable and Endowment Trusts, other charities, corporations and members of the public. The course material development of the university is funded by Yeap Chor Ee Charitable and Endowment Trusts.

2009 Wawasan Open University First revision 2011

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from WOU.

Wawasan Open University Jalan Sultan Ahmad Shah, 10050 Penang. Tel: (604) 2180333 Fax: (604) 2279214 Email: enquiry@wou.edu.my Website: www.wou.edu.my

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Contents
Unit 1 History and the Struggle for Independence
Course overview Unit overview Unit objectives Chapter 1: The early history of Malaysia
Objectives Introduction The administrative structure of the Malacca Sultanate Colonial era Suggested answers to activities 1 3 3

5 5 5 7 8 12

Chapter 2: The struggle for independence

Objectives Introduction The struggle for nationalism Suggested answers to activities

13 13 13 14 17

Chapter 3: The formation of Malaysia

Objectives Introduction Reaction towards the idea of Malaysia Suggested answers to activities

19 19 19 20 23

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Summary of Unit 1 Suggested answers to self-tests References

25 27 31

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Course Overview

elcome to WLA 103/03 Malaysian Studies. This course aims to nurture and produce thinking Malaysians who are patriotic to the nation, visionary and proud to be Malaysians. The course is also intended for you to appreciate and confront challenges associated with achieving peace and prosperity in nation building, and appreciate the roles of Malaysia in the international arena. In this course, you will learn about our nations history and struggle for independence, its system and structure for governance and the constitutional and political processes. This will be followed by the key issues in forming a bangsa Malaysia and discussions on key national policies. By the end of this course, you should be able to: 1. Explain the history and development of the nation and its ethnic groups. 2. Discuss the development of the society from the socio-cultural, political and economic perspectives. 3. Discuss the contributions of the heroes associated with the struggle and defence of the countrys independence and sovereignty. 4. Analyse the formation process of Malaysia and its impact on nation building. 5. Identify the main system of government and national administrative structure. 6. Analyse the roles and contributions of Malaysia in the international arena. 7. Identify patriotic values that will enhance your role as loyal Malaysians.

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UNIT 1 3
History and the struggle for independence

Unit Overview

elcome to the first unit of WLA103/03, History and the Struggle for Independence.

In this unit, you will learn about our nations early history, the struggle for independence and the formation of Malaysia. You will also discover information about the lives of the early inhabitants in Malaysia and the ancient kingdoms here. This will be followed by the intervention of foreign powers, the colonial era, the struggle for independence and the eventual formation of Malaysia. Make sure you have your textbook beside you as we will be referring to it quite often.

Unit Objectives
By the end of Unit 1, you should be able to: 1. Describe the key developments in the history of our nation. 2. Evaluate the effects of the Japanese invasion in Malaya and the consequences of the struggle for independence. 3. Discuss the rationale for the formation of Malaysia and the process involved.

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History and the struggle for independence

Chapter 1: The Early History of Malaysia

Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Illustrate with examples the contribution of the Malay empire to the Malacca Sultanate. 2. Evaluate the causes for the downfall of the Malacca Sultanate. 3. Discuss the factors for British intervention in the states of Malaya.

Introduction
Before we proceed to Chapter 1, let us look at the evidences of early settlements in Malaysia: the Niah caves burial sites, the Perak Man and artefacts of Hindu civilisation abound in Malaysia. Even now we are still finding new evidences of smelting of tin and other metals that were used, to assist in the construction of candi in Merbok Valley.

Figure 1.1 Candi in Lembah Bujang Source: Muhd. Bashsyar bin Abdullah, 2009

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Web References
Please read the following articles: 1. Perak Mans bones tell his story, http://allmalaysia.info/news/ story.asp?file=/2003/10/4/state/6340195&sec=mi_perak (Accessed 13 May 2009). 2. Perak Man, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenggong#Perak_Man (Accessed 13 May 2009).

Come on a journey with us as we trace the early history of Malaysia. Humans have inhabited in Malaysia for thousands of years since the Stone Age. The human activities evolved from hunting and gathering to primitive farming, subsistence agriculture, trading and manufacturing. Ancient ports also thrived along the seashores and river mouths.

Activity 1.1
Why do you think early civilisations centred on seashores or river mouths? Which were the ancient ports in Malaysia? ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________

Since the early part of the first century, powerful kingdoms existed in the Malay Archipelago. They include Old Kedah of the 5th century which was an important entreport influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism, Gangga Negara (5th century) in Parak, Langkasuka in Patani, Chih-Tu (6th century) in Kelantan and Tan-Tan in Terengganu. Other powerful kingdoms include Sirvijaya in Sumatra, Mataram in Java and Majapahit in Java (Nazaruddin et. al, 2003).

Vocabulary 1.1
Do you know what is an Archipelago?

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The Malay Archipelago which was the geopolitical region of the Malays, was characterised as a nation with one Malay language and culture. As a result, even today, we can see similarities in the languages spoken by the Malays in Malaysia, Indonesia, Kampuchea, Patani and the South of Mindanao. However, with the arrival of the colonialists from the Western world, the Malay Archipelago was fragmented according to trade, economy and political interests. The following table shows the colonisation of the various parts of the Malay Archipelago.
Colonisers English Dutch French Spanish Parts of Malay Archipelago Peninsular Malaysia, Part of the Borneo Island Indonesia Indochina The Philippines

Now, let us look at the Malay Kingdom of Malacca, an empire of advanced civilisation. After Malacca was founded by Parameswara in 1403 A.D., it grew to a great empire in the Malay Archipelago. The empire of Malacca was particularly renowned for maritime trade and the spread of Islam. Because of its famed trading traditions, the fairness afforded to all participants in trades and the reputed administration of its citizenry, Tom Pires, an apothecary from Lisbon, Portugal (Refer to: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Pires) wrote positively of Malaccas development and influence. Even the roving envoy Admiral Cheng Ho from China had entered in his travelogue, good observations of the Malacca Sultanate.

Vocabulary 1.2
What is an apothecary?

The administrative structure of the Malacca Sultanate

The organised system of government was based on the Malacca Law and the Malacca Law of the Sea. The following diagram illustrates the governance of that time.

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Sultan (King)

Bendahara

Laksamana

Temenggung

Penghulu Bendahari

Points to ponder Do you know the roles of these officials? What do you think are the similarities and differences between the system of administration of Malacca and the current system of administration in Malaysia?

When you read the textbook, pages 6 to 9, pay attention to the factors that contributed to the rise and fall of the Empire of Malacca. What do you think are the lessons to be learnt here?

Web Reference
Please read the following article about Melaka, http://www. melaka.net/history2.htm (Accessed 13 May 2009).

Colonial era
Pages 26 and 27 of the textbook provides the list of powers that have colonialised Malaysia. If you were to observe the features of dominations, it will be apparent that our nations natural sources were much sought after by these colonial powers. This would be mainly tin and spices, and as the Industrial Revolution cranked up, there was demand for more resources and colonies came in handy to support the industrial developments in Europe. As a Commonwealth country, the effects of British colonisation is profoundly felt in Malaysia. The details of the history of British intervention in the Malay states, are provided in pages 33 to 42 of your textbook.

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Activity 1.2
Can you trace the domination of the British in our country? What do you think are the effects of British colonisation in Malaysia? ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________

As a result of the colonisation, the Straits Settlements, Federated Malay States and the Non-Federated Malay States were born. Although the decade between 1910 and 1920 were years of peace, the decentralisation of power in the 1930s brought about dissatisfaction. Besides this, do you know why the distribution of power was unsuccessful? This was because during World War II, the Japanese invaded Malaya in 1942. When you read page 50 in the textbook, you will realise that the Japanese occupation was an important event in the history of our nation. It caused much upheaval on the social, economic and political arenas in our country. The Japanese administration, purportedly in support of the Imperial Japanese edit of a Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere, however was brutal and caused great sufferings amongst the populace especially those in urban and suburban areas. Food, education and businesses were affected as the Japanese occupiers repatriated rubber, timber and mineral resources to Japan to support its war efforts.

Figure 1.2 Japanese troops mopping up in Kuala Lumpur during their advance through Malaya Source: Imperial War Museum Collections (No. HU 2776), 1942, http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/File:Japanese_troops_mopping_up_in_Kuala_Lumpur.jpg

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Points to ponder Have you heard from the older generation about their experiences during the Japanese occupation? What do you think was the general feeling towards the Japanese? Do you think such sentiments still prevail?

With the return of the British when the Japanese army surrendered in Singapore on 15 August 1945, the local populace started to agitate for more powers to look after their own affairs. The subsequent agitation for bigger roles in governance and the emergence of Communist Party of Malaya added to the difficult years of British rule culminating with the declaration of Emergency by the British High Commissioner on 16 June 1948. Refer to page 52 of the textbook to know more about the Era of Emergency and how it expedited the process of achieving independence. Do try out the exercises at the end of Chapter 1 to check your understanding of The Early History of Malaysia. We will meet again in Chapter 2 to know more about The Struggle for Independence.

Summary
The Malay Kingdom of Malacca greatly influenced our countrys social, cultural and political systems. With the invasion of the colonialists, the Malay Archipelago was divided into two different entities: the British were given control over the north (Malaysia) while the Dutch had control over the south (Indonesia). The influence of the colonists left a great impact on the country. The various forms of British administration introduced, constitute the attempt of the colonialists to take over the economy of the country. The Japanese occupation caused uncertainty and chaos for the local citizens. After independence, there was a period of emergency and the local citizens rejected communism. These experiences formed the basis of building our nation.

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Self-test 1.1
1. List the five Early Kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago. a. ____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ d. ____________________ e. ____________________

2. What were the internal factors that led to the decline of the Malacca Empire? a. ____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ d. ____________________ e. ____________________ f. ____________________

3. What is the significance of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty 1824?

4. Beginning 1919, the states in Malaya were under three political units known as: a. ____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________

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Suggested answers to activities

Feedback
Activity 1.1 Water was needed for daily activities i.e., consumption, washing, cleaning, farming etc. The rivers/seas also formed the basis for transportation as well as trade. The ancient ports in Malaysia were Kuala Selinsing (Perak), Jenderam Hilir (Selangor), Santubong (Sarawak).

Activity 1.2 Go to WawasanLearn for the feedback.

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Chapter 2: The Struggle for Independence

Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Discuss the features of the Malayan Union and the factors that brought about its dissolution. 2. Compare the roles of the various organisations and individuals who were involved in the struggle for our nations independence. 3. Describe the role of the Malayan Union in awakening the spirit of nationalism.

Introduction
Let us now look at Chapter 2, The Struggle for Independence. As you know we celebrate Merdeka on the 31st of August every year. I am sure you know where and who declared Merdeka. Have you thought about the processes and struggles before we attained our Merdeka?

Figure 1.3 The declaration of independence of the Federation of Malaya by Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al-Haj Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:History_merdeka.jpg#filehistory

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Our nations struggle for independence can be divided into 2 stages:

Stage 1

Armed/bloodshed stage Began with the struggle of the Malays against the Dutch and the Portuguese. Opposition against the British colonialists.

Stage 2

Spirit of nationalism stage Literature Negotiations

For more information about Stage 1, refer to pages 43 to 48 of the textbook for an outline of our peoples armed struggle against the colonialists.

Activity 1.3
What are the factors that contributed to the local inhabitants to revolt against the colonialists? ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________

The struggle for nationalism

The nationalist struggle took a different turn by the 20th century. Table 3.2 in page 63 lists the various channels of influence and sources that brought about this change. An important event in the course of our nations history is the formation of the Malayan Union. You will notice that this is a recurring theme throughout this unit. Read pages 66 to 68 in the textbook to know about the formation of the Malayan Union to its dissolution in 1946.

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Activity 1.4
Discuss the factors that led to the failure of the Malayan Union? 1. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 2. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 3. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 4. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 5. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________

The Malayan Union was replaced with a new form of government the Federation of Malaya. This system of administration also received opposition from various groups such as AMCJA and PUTERA.
Points to ponder Why do you think there was opposition from these groups?

When you read pages 69 to 73, pay attention to what happened following the opposition to the formation of Federation of Malaya. You should also note that, in the wake of patriotism, there was a marked growth of political parties in Malaya. Following this, the negotiations for independence began. Do you know the events that took place before the Proclamation of Independence? Read pages 72 to 73 for more information, especially on the pre-independence elections. Remember to try out the questions at the end of the chapter to check your understanding of The Struggle for Independence. By reading the chapter on the struggle for independence by the Malays and subsequently the Chinese and Indian communities, you would have run away with the idea that quest for independence was an isolated Malayan story. This however is not true. You must remember that after the defeat of Japan and Germany at the end of the Second World War, many of the existing colonies saw the return of the British, Dutch and Spanish colonial masters who continued from where they left off, so to say. However, after the traumatic experiences with the departure of these colonists during the war, the local populace had begun questioning if these colonial masters had looked after their welfare during these

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trying times. The post-war era saw the rapid moves toward independence starting with India and Burma from Britain, Indonesia from Dutch, and the French colonies in Vietnam. Key figures of Asian independence movements you would like to take note of will be Mahatma Ghandi, Nehru, Chandra Bose, Ho Chi Minh, Sukarno and many others.

Summary
The struggle for independence in our country can be divided into two stages; through bloodshed and through the spirit of nationalism. The struggle and opposition gained momentum with the proposal of the Malayan Union. The Federation of Malaya then replaced the Malayan Union. Although the locals were given opportunities in the administration of the government through the Member System, political parties still took a communal stance. The victory of the Alliance (UMNO, MCA and MIC) paved way for negotiation with the British for independence. The Reid Commission was set out to draw the Constitutional framework for an independent Malaya. On 31 August 1957, Malaya was declared independent.

Self-test 1.2
1. Discuss how foreign influence fanned the spirit of nationalism among the locals. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________

2. What were the four principles of PUTERA? a. _______________________________________________ b. _______________________________________________ c. _______________________________________________ d. _______________________________________________

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3. What are the fundamental principles of our Constitution? a. _______________________________________________ b. _______________________________________________ c. _______________________________________________ d. _______________________________________________ e. _______________________________________________

Suggested answers to activities

Feedback
Activity 1.3 The local inhabitants were unhappy that they had no control over their own country. The colonisers exploited the natural resources and imposed high taxes. The British were also ignorant of the local customs which invoked the wrath of the locals.

Activity 1.4 1. Strong opposition from the Malays. 2. No strong support from the non-Malays. 3. Wrong timing. 4. Wrong introduction. 5. Opposition from former British administrators in Malaya.

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Chapter 3: The Formation of Malaysia

Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Identify the factors that brought about the formation of Malaysia. 2. Discuss the various reactions to the idea of the formation of Malaysia. 3. Discuss why there were oppositions from Indonesia and the Philippines towards the formation of Malaysia. 4. Analyse the reasons that led to the separation of Singapore from Malaysia.

Introduction
We have finally arrived at the final chapter for this unit. In this chapter, The Formation of Malaysia, you will learn how and who pioneered the concept of Malaysia. It is notable that Tunku Abdul Rahman proposed the Malaysian concept before the idea was followed up until Malaysia was inaugurated as a new nation in 16 September 1963. The following are factors that contributed towards the formation of Malaysia.

Independence through unification

Understanding for development

Ethnic balance and unity

Factors that contributed to the Formation of Malaysia United international relations Collective fight against communism

Economic cooperation

Refer to pages 80 to 82 in your textbook for further information about these factors.

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How do you think some of our neighbouring countries and Britain reacted towards the formation of Malaysia? Singapore generally accepted the formation of the new country. Reaction from the people in Sabah and Sarawak was most encouraging, though Brunei did not unanimously agree to the new country. Meanwhile, there was mixed reaction from the people in Malaya.

Activity 1.5
What was the reaction from Britain towards the formation of Malaysia? What was the reason for such reaction? ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________

Reaction towards the idea of Malaysia

As there were various reactions to the proposals to form Malaysia, special measures had to be taken towards the formation of Malaysia. You can refer to pages 86 to 88 in the textbook for more information. It is important to pay attention to the objectives of the steps taken and the effects they brought about. Bruneis withdrawal from Malaysia surprised many, including Britain and external observers. There were three fundamental reasons for Brunei to join Malaysia: 1. The speeding up of independence. 2. The strength of the wall of defense against the communist threat. 3. The provision of help to the less developed part.

What exactly then caused Bruneis withdrawal? Brunei made claims that were said to be the conditions for joining Malaysia which drew mixed responses from Malaysia.

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Activity 1.6
What were Bruneis claims that were conditions for joining Malaysia? 1. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 2. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 3. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 4. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 5. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 6. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 7. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 8. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 9. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 10. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________

There were several attempts to resolve the differences between Brunei and Kuala Lumpur. You can learn more about these consultations and discussions from pages 89 to 90. It is interesting to note that the formation of Malaysia faced external opposition, namely from the Philippines and Indonesia. Read pages 84 86 of the textbook to learn what issues were raised by these two neighbouring countries. As you read about these issues, think about the claims staked by Indonesia and the Philippines. Do you think these issues are resolved now? Can you think of any similar claims that were made against Malaysia in recent years?

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Malaysia, though officially formed in 1963, was not quite without its struggle. Dangerous racial polarisation caused social strife that soon led to the separation of Singapore. On 9 August 1965, with the passing of the Separation Act, Singapore officially left Malaysia. When you read pages 90 to 91, you should pay particular attention to the discord between the Malay and the Chinese extremists that led to the racial polarisation.
Points to ponder What do you think our government does to avoid such situations in our multicultural society today?

One interesting facet of history around the time Malaysia was formed and the failed intervention of USA in Indochina, was the development and championing of the Domino Theory in Asia. The theory in essence was a response of the Western countries to the so-called spread of Communism in developing Asia. It suggested that with the emergence of socialist or communist regimes in Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and the near dominance of the Parti Komunis Indonesia (PKI), the rest of South East Asia will also fall like a stack of dominos. Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore was one of the firm believers of the theory, and had used the island states Internal Security Act for the purpose of dismounting the (communist) tiger! So did President Macapagal of the Phillipines who used it to entrench his corrupt regime for more than its legitimate years. The formation of Malaysia could thus be one of the bulwarks to defend against the spread of socialism or communism in South East Asia. Thus when we read about the struggle for independence, we should also be aware of the context in which it was happening. After reading the summary, please attempt Self-test 1.3.

Summary
Six years after independence, Malaysia was declared a new nation in 16 September 1963. However, there were problems and suspicions from various quarters about the concept of Malaysia. Some of the important issues that had to be handled were the formation of the new nation, the status of the member countries and the Constitution. People from the prospective member countries had to be convinced as there were much opposition and resistance towards the formation of Malaysia, especially from Indonesia and the Philippines. Initially, Brunei, Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore were interested in becoming members of Malaysia. However, due to differences, Brunei pulled out at the last minute. Not long after, Singapore withdrew leaving Malaya, Sabah and Sarawak to constitute Malaysia.

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Self-test 1.3
1. Freedom through Unification was one of the factors for the formation of Malaysia. What does Freedom through Unification entail? _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________

2. What caused Singapore to sever ties with Malaysia? _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________

3. There were several attempts to resolve the differences between Brunei and Kuala Lumpur. Despite these attempts, three matters remained unresolved. These were: a. _______________________________________________ b. _______________________________________________ c. _______________________________________________

Suggested answers to activities

Feedback
Activity 1.5 Generally, the British were in agreement towards the idea of the countries in the region to merge as a nation. However, this was to protect their investments in this region as well.

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Activity 1.6 1. Citizenship. 2. Matters of religion. 3. Method of taxation. 4. Monetary autonomy. 5. Bruneis earlier investment. 6. The control of oil and other minerals. 7. Authority over education and welfare. 8. The guarantee for the security of Brunei. 9. The number of seats in the Legislature and in the Parliament. 10. The position of the Sultan and the status of Brunei within Malaysia.

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Summary of Unit 1
Summary
The Malay Archipelago constituted the socio-political entity of the Malay people. Great kingdoms, such as Kedah, Langkasuka, Srivijaya, Majapahit and Malacca, once reigned supreme in the Malay Archipelago. The Malay Kingdom of Malacca greatly influenced our countrys social, cultural and political systems before the advent of the colonialists. The influence of the Portuguese, Dutch, Siamese, British and the Japanese left a great impact on our country. British introduced various forms of administration to take over the economy of the country while the Japanese occupation created chaos. Bloodshed and the spirit of nationalism formed the struggle for independence in our country. The opposition to the proposal of the Malayan Union, saw it being replaced by the Federation of Malaya. Being a multi-cultural country, political parties took a communal position even though the Member System gave locals the opportunities to partake in the administration of the government. The victory of the Alliance (UMNO, MCA and MIC) proved the unity of the citizens and led the way for negotiation for independence. With the Constitution in place, Malaya was declared independent. After independence, there was a period of emergency as the threat of communism loomed. Six years after independence, Malaysia was formed. This formation however, was shrouded with problems and suspicions from within the proposed member countries as well as Indonesia and the Philippines. Brunei backed out just before Malaysia was declared a new nation in 16 September 1963. Singapore separated from Malaysia in 1965, as a result of racial polarisation.

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Suggested Answers to Self-tests

Feedback
Self-test 1.1 1. a. Funan b. Old Kedah c. Gangga Negara, Perak d. Langkasuka, Patani e. Chih-Tu, Kelantan

2. a. Tun Peraks death b. Tun Mutahirs weak leadership c. Sultan Mahmud was a weak ruler d. Bribery and high taxes e. Internal strife f. Attack by the Portuguese

3. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty resulted in the division of the Malay Archipelago, thus ending the Johor-Riau Empire, into two different geo-political areas.

4. a. Straits Settlements b. Federated Malay States c. Non-Federated Malay States

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Self-test 1.2 1. The Japanese (Asians) succeed in defeating the Russians (Europeans). The Young Turkish Movement led by Mustapha Kamal in Indonesia. The Movement for Revival of Islam in Egypt. The Indonesian nationalist struggle against Holland.

2. a. The Malay language be made the countrys official language. b. External affairs and defense be made a joint responsibility of the Malaysian government and the British. c. The word Malay be used as the name for the Malaysian citizenship. d. The national flag to have the Malay national colours.

3. a. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the head of Malaya while the rulers are head of the respective states. b. The Malays are recognised as sons of the soil and their special rights are guaranteed in the Constitution. c. The Malay language is to become the national language. d. A person born in Malaya, on or after independence is automatically a Malayan citizen. e. Islam is made the official religion of the Federation of Malaya but freedom of worship is guaranteed for nonMuslims.

Self-test 1.3 1. Among the five potential member countries, only Malaysia was free from outside powers. Brunei, Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore were still under the British rule. Britain, while proposing the unification of the neighbouring countries, had hinted its readiness to grant independence. Thus, their entry into Malaysia would gain them independence.

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2. The deterioration in the relations between Kuala Lumpur and Singapore was the result of racial polarisation between PAP and UMNO extremists.

3. a. The position of the Sultan of Brunei within the Council of Malay rulers. b. The status of Brunei within Malaysia. c. The financial issues of royalty from oil.

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References
Chapter 1
Andaya, B W and Leonard Y (1982) A History of Malaya, NY: St. Martins Press. Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah and Jayum A. Jawan (1997) Kenegaraan Malaysia, Serdang: Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia. Nazaruddin Mohd Jali, Marof Redzuan, Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah and Ismail Mohd Rashid (2003) Malaysian Studies: Nationhood and Citizenship, Petaling Jaya: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Chapter 2
Andaya, B W and Leonard Y (1982) A History of Malaya, NY: St. Martins Press. Jawan, J A (2006) Malaysian Politics and Government , Shah Alam: Karisma Publications.

Chapter 3
Hanna, Willard A (1964) The Formation of Malaysia , New York: American Universities Field Staff. Mohamed Noordin Sopiee (1974) From Malayan Union to Singapore Separation, Kuala Lumpur: UM Press.