8 Shortcircuit IEC

1996-2009 Operation Technology, nc.
Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit EC

Short-Circuit Analysis
IEC Standard
1996-2009 Operation Technology, nc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit EC Slide 2
CORTO CIRCUITO
Estndar de ANS/EEE & EC.
Anlisis de fallas transitorias

(EC 61363).
Efecto de Arco (NFPA 70E-

2000)
ntegrado con coordinacin de

dispositivos de proteccin.
Evaluacin automtica de
dispositivos.
Caractersticas principales:
Purpose of Short-Circuit
Studies
A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine

any or all of the following:
Verify protective device close and latch capability
Verify protective device interrupting capability
Protect equipment from large mechanical forces

(maximum fault kA)
2
t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination

Types of Short-Circuit Faults
Types of SC Faults
Three-Phase Ungrounded Fault
Three-Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Phase Ungrounded Fault
Phase to Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Ground Fault
Fault Current
L-G
can range in utility systems from a few percent to
possibly 115 % ( if X
o
< X
1
) of
3-phase
(85% of all faults).
n industrial systems the situation
L-G
>
3-phase
is rare.
Typically
L-G
.87 *
3-phase
n an industrial system, the three-phase fault condition
is frequently the only one considered, since this type of
fault generally results in Maximum current.
Types of Short-Circuit Faults
) t Sin( Vm v(t) +
i(t) v(t)
Short-Circuit Phenomenon

Offset) (DC
Transient State Steady
t
) - sin(
Z
Vm
) - t sin(
Z
Vm
i(t)
(1) ) t Sin( Vm
dt
di
L Ri v(t)
L
R
-
e + +
+ +

expression following the yields 1 equation Solving
i(t)
v(t)
DC Current
AC Current Symmetrical! "ith
#o AC Decay
AC Fault Current Includin$ the
DC Offset #o AC Decay!
%achine Reactance & ' ( I !
AC Decay Current
Fault Current Includin$ AC ) DC Decay
IEC Short-Circuit
Calculation IEC *+*!
nitial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current ("k)
Peak Short-Circuit Current (ip)
Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current

(b)
Steady-State Short-Circuit Current (k)

IEC Short-Circuit
Calculation %ethod
k = Equivalent V @ fault location divided by

equivalent Z
Equivalent V is based bus nominal kV and c

factor
XFMR and machine Z adjusted based on

c
max
, component Z & operating conditions
Transformer , Ad-ustment
K
T
-- Network XFMR
K
S
,K
SO
Unit XFMR for faults on system side
K
T,S
,K
T,SO
Unit XFMR for faults in auxiliary
system, not between Gen & XFMR
K=1

Unit XFMR for faults between Gen &
XFMR
Syn %achine , Ad-ustment
K
G
Synchronous machine w/o unit XFMR
K
S
,K
SO
With unit XFMR for faults on system
side
K
G,S
,K
G,SO
With unit XFMR for faults in
auxiliary system, including points between
Gen & XFMR
Types of Short-Circuits
Near-To-Generator Short-Circuit
This is a short-circuit condition to which at least

one synchronous machine contributes a
prospective initial short-circuit current which is
more than twice the generator's rated current, or
a short-circuit condition to which synchronous
and asynchronous motors contribute more than
5% of the initial symmetrical short-circuit current
( "k) without motors.
#ear-To-.enerator Short-Circuit
Far-From-Generator Short-Circuit
This is a short-circuit condition during which the

magnitude of the symmetrical ac component of
available short-circuit current remains essentially
constant.
Far-From-.enerator Short-Circuit
Factors Used in I
f
Calc

calc i
p
based on
k

calc i
b
for near-to-gen & not meshed network
q

calc induction machine i
b
for near-to-gen & not
meshed network
Equation (75) of Std 60909-0, adjusting k for

near-to-gen & meshed network

min
&
max
calc i
k
IEC Short-Circuit Study Case
Maximum voltage factor is used
Minimum impedance is used (all negative

tolerances are applied and minimum
resistance temperature is considered)
When these options
are selected
Minimum voltage factor is used
Maximum impedance is used (all positive

tolerances are applied and maximum
resistance temperature is considered)
When this option is
selected

/olta$e Factor c!
Ratio between equivalent voltage &

nominal voltage
Required to account for:
Variations due to time & place
Transformer taps
Static loads & capacitances
Generator & motor subtransient

behavior
Calculation %ethod
Breaking kA is more
conservative if the option
No Motor Decay is
selected
IEC SC *+* Calculation
De0ice Duty Comparison
%esh ) #on-%esh I
f
ETAP automatically determines mesh &

non-meshed contributions according to
individual contributions
EC Short Circuit Mesh Determination

Method 0, 1, or 2 (default)
(-. Faults
(-. Faults
Symmetrical Components
(-. Faults
Se1uence #et"or2s
0
Z Z Z
V 3
I
I 3 I
0 2 1
efault Pr
f
a f
0
+ +

g
Z if
(-. Fault Se1uence
#et"or2 Connections
2 1
efault Pr
f
a a
Z Z
V 3
I
I I
1 2
+

(-( Fault Se1uence #et"or2
Connections
0
Z Z
Z Z
Z
V
I
I 0 I I I
2 0
2 0
1
efault Pr
f
a a a a
0 1 2
,
_
+
+
+ +
g
Z if
(-(-. Fault Se1uence
#et"or2 Connections
Transformer ,ero Se1uence Connections
grounded.
solidly are er transfor !onne"ted #$
or %enerators if "ase the &e ay 'his
I
( then true are "onditions this If
)
( if greater
&e "an faults % * + "ase. severe ost
the is fault phase * 3 a %enerally
1 f3
1 0 2 1
<
<
f
I
Z Z Z Z
Solid .rounded De0ices
and (-. Faults
,ero Se1uence %odel
Branch susceptances and static

loads including capacitors will be
considered when this option is
checked
Recommended by EC for
systems with isolated neutral,
resonant earthed neutrals &
earthed neutrals with earth fault
factor > 1.4
Complete reports that include individual
branch contributions for:
L-G Faults
L-L-G Faults
L-L Faults
One-line diagram displayed results that
include:
L-G/L-L-G/L-L fault current
contributions
Sequence voltage and currents
Phase Voltages
Un3alanced Faults Display
) Reports
Total Fault Current 4a0eform
Transient Fault Current
Calculation IEC 56757!
Percent DC Current 4a0eform
AC Component of Fault Current 4a0eform
Top En0elope of Fault Current 4a0eform
Top En0elope of Fault Current 4a0eform
IEC Transient Fault Current
Calculation
L-G Faults
L-L-G Faults
L-L Faults
include:
contributions
Phase Voltages
) Reports
TE%A 8

1996-2009 Operation Technology, nc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit EC
Protecti0e De0ice Coordination
ETAP Star
ETAP START PROTECCIO# 9 COORDI#ACIO#
Curvas para ms de 75,000

dispositivos.
Actualizacin automtica de
Corriente de Corto Circuito.
Coordinacin tiempo-corriente de
dispositivos.
Auto-coordinacin de dispositivos.
ntegrados a los diagramas

unifilares.
Rastreo o clculos en diferentes

tiempos.
A$enda
Concepts & Applications
Star Overview
Features & Capabilities
Protective Device Type
TCC Curves
STAR Short-circuit
PD Sequence of Operation
Normalized TCC curves
Device Libraries
Definition
Overcurrent Coordination
A systematic study of current responsive

devices in an electrical power system.
O3-ecti0e
To determine the ratings and settings of

fuses, breakers, relay, etc.
To isolate the fault or overloads.

Criteria
Economics
Available Measures of Fault
Operating Practices
Previous Experience
Desi$n
Open only PD nearest (upstream) of the

fault or overload
Provide satisfactory protection for overloads
nterrupt SC as rapidly (instantaneously) as

possible
Comply with all applicable standards and

codes
Plot the Time Current Characteristics of

different PDs
Analysis
When:
New electrical systems
Plant electrical system expansion/retrofits
Coordination failure in an existing plant

Spectrum Of Currents
Load Current
Up to 100% of full-load
115-125% (mild overload)
Overcurrent
Abnormal loading condition (Locked-Rotor)
Fault Current
Fault condition
Ten times the full-load current and higher

Protection
Prevent injury to personnel
Minimize damage to components
Quickly isolate the affected portion of the system
Minimize the magnitude of available short-circuit

Coordination
Limit the extent and duration of service

interruption
Selective fault isolation
Provide alternate circuits

Coordination
t
I
!
,
-
!
.
. ,
-
Protection 0s: Coordination
Coordination is not an exact science
Compromise between protection and

coordination
Reliability
Speed
Performance
Economics
Simplicity
Re1uired Data
One-line diagrams (Relay diagrams)
Power Grid Settings
Generator Data
Transformer Data
Transformer kVA, impedance, and connection
Motor Data
Load Data
Fault Currents
Cable / Conductor Data
Bus / Switchgear Data
nstrument Transformer Data (CT, PT)
Protective Device (PD) Data
Manufacturer and type of protective devices (PDs)
One-line diagrams (Relay diagrams)
Study Procedure
Prepare an accurate one-line diagram (relay

diagrams)
Obtain the available system current spectrum

(operating load, overloads, fault kA)
Determine the equipment protection guidelines
Select the appropriate devices / settings
Plot the fixed points (damage curves, .)
Obtain / plot the device characteristics curves
Analyze the results

Time Current Characteristics
TCC Curve / Plot / Graphs
4.5 x 5-cycle log-log graph
X-axis: Current (0.5 10,000 amperes)
Y-axis: Time (.01 1000 seconds)
Current Scaling (.x1, x10, x100, x100.)
Voltage Scaling (plot kV reference)
Use ETAP Star Auto-Scale

TCC Scalin$ E;ample
Situation:
A scaling factor of 10 @ 4.16 kV is selected for

TCC curve plots.
Question
What are the scaling factors to plot the 0.48 kV

and 13.8 kV TCC curves?
TCC Scalin$ E;ample
/
Solution
Fi;ed Points
Cable damage curves
Cable ampacities
Transformer damage curves & inrush points
Motor starting curves
Generator damage curve / Decrement curve
SC maximum fault points

Points or "urves whi"h do not "hange regardless
of prote"tive devi"e settings(
Capa3ility < Dama$e Cur0es
t
I
I
2
2
t
%en
I
2
t
0otor
1fr
I
2
t
!a&le
I
2
t
Ca3le Protection
Standards & References
EEE Std 835-1994 EEE Standard Power Cable

Ampacity Tables
EEE Std 848-1996 EEE Standard Procedure for the

Determination of the Ampacity Derating of Fire-Protected
Cables
EEE Std 738-1993 EEE Standard for Calculating the

Current- Temperature Relationship of Bare Overhead
Conductors
The Okonite Company Engineering Data for Copper and

Aluminum Conductor Electrical Cables, Bulletin EHB-98
Ca3le Protection
2
2
1
t
A
T 234
0.0297log
T 234
1 +
1
+
]
'he a"tual teperature rise of a "a&le when exposed to
a short "ir"uit "urrent for a 2nown tie is "al"ulated &y(
3here(
-4 !ondu"tor area in "ir"ular*ils
I 4 Short "ir"uit "urrent in aps
t 4 'ie of short "ir"uit in se"onds
'
1
4 Initial operation teperature 567
0
!8
'
2
40axiu short "ir"uit teperature
5170
0
!8
Ca3le Short-Circuit =eatin$ (imits
9e"oended
teperature rise(
,8 !: 67*200!
Shielded
Ca3le
The normal tape
width is 1
inches
NEC Section 110 14 C
c! Temperature limitations: The temperature rating associated with the
ampacity of a conductor shall be so selected and coordinated as to not exceed
the lowest temperature rating of any lowest temperature rating of any connected termination connected termination, conductor, or
device. Conductors with temperature ratings higher than specified for
terminations shall be permitted to be used for ampacity adjustment, correction,
or both.
(1) Termination provisions of equipment for circuits rated 100 amperes or less,
or marked for Nos. 14 through 1 conductors, shall be used only for conductors
rated 600C (1400F).
Exception No. 1: Conductors with higher temperature ratings shall be permitted
to be used, provided the ampacity of such conductors is determined based on
the 6O0C (1400F) ampacity of the conductor size used.
Exception No. 2: Equipment termination provisions shall be permitted to be
used with higher rated conductors at the ampacity of the higher rated
conductors, provided the equipment is listed and identified for use with the
higher rated conductors.
(2) Termination provisions of equipment for circuits rated over 100 amperes, or
marked for conductors larger than No. 1, shall be used only with conductors
rated 750C (1670F).
Transformer Protection
Standards ) References
National Electric Code 2002 Edition
C37.91-2000; EEE Guide for Protective Relay Applications to
Power Transformers
C57.12.59; EEE Guide for Dry-Type Transformer Through-Fault
Current Duration.
C57.109-1985; EEE Guide for Liquid-mmersed Transformer
Through-Fault-Current Duration
APPLED PROCTVE RELAYNG; J.L. Blackburn; Westinghouse

Electric Corp; 1976
PROTECTVE RELAYNG, PRNCPLES AND APPLCATONS;

J.L. Blackburn; Marcel Dekker, nc; 1987
EEE Std 242-1986; EEE Recommended Practice for Protection

and Coordination of ndustrial and Commercial Power
Systems

Transformer Cate$ory
A#SI<IEEE C->?:6+*
Transformer Cate$ories I@ II
Transformer Cate$ories III
Transformer
t
5se"8
I 5pu8
'heral
200
2.7
I
2
t 4 1270
2
27
Isc
0e"hani"al
;451$Z8
2
t
5D*D ++8 0.<6
5D*R +%8 0.7<
=requent =ault
Infrequent =ault
Inrush
=+-

!"#$ R!T#%& OR S'TT#%& (OR OV'RC$RR'%T D'V#C'
P9I0-9# S>!?@.-9#
?ver A00 Volts ?ver A00 Volts A00 Volts or ,elow

'ransforer
9ated
Ipedan"e

!ir"uit
,rea2er
Setting

=use
9ating

!ir"uit
,rea2er
Setting

=use
9ating

!ir"uit ,rea2er
Setting or =use
9ating

@ot ore than
AB

A00 B

300 B

300 B

270B

127B
5270B supervised8

0ore than AB
and not ore
than 10B

C00 B

300 B

270B

227B

127B
5270B supervised8
'a&le C70*35a8 sour"e( @>!

Any Location on!S"pervised
Turn on or inrush current
nternal transformer faults
External or through faults of major
magnitude
Repeated large motor starts on the
transformer. The motor represents a
major portion or the transformers KVA
rating.
Harmonics
Over current protection Device 50/51
Ground current protection Device
50/51G
Differential Device 87
Over or under excitation volts/ Hz
Device 24
Sudden tank pressure Device 63
Dissolved gas detection
Oil Level
Fans
Oil Pumps
Pilot wire Device 85
Fault withstand
Thermal protection hot spot, top of oil
temperature, winding temperature
Devices 26 & 49
Reverse over current Device 67
Gas accumulation Buckholz relay
Over voltage Device 59
Voltage or current balance Device 60
Tertiary Winding Protection if supplied
Relay Failure Scheme
Breaker Failure Scheme
Recommended %inimum
Protective system
4indin$ and<or po"er system
$rounded neutral $rounded
4indin$ and<or po"er system
neutral un$rounded
Up to 6+ %/A
A3o0e 6+ %/A
Up to 6+ %/A
A3o0e
6+ %/A
Differential -
A
-
A
Time over current
A A A A
nstantaneous restricted
ground fault
A A
- -
Time delayed ground
fault
A A
- -
Gas detection
A
-
A
Over excitation
-
A A A
Overheating
-
A
-
A
Buestion
What is ANS Shift Curve?
Ans"er
For delta-delta connected transformers, with

line-to-line faults on the secondary side, the
curve must be reduced to 87% (shift to the
left by a factor of 0.87)
For delta-wye connection, with single line-to-

ground faults on the secondary side, the
curve values must be reduced to 58% (shift
to the left by a factor of 0.58)
Buestion
What is meant by Frequent and
nfrequent for transformers?
#nfre)*ent (a*lt #ncidence Z+nes f+r Cate,+ry ## - ### Transf+rmers

D Should &e sele"ted &y referen"e to the frequent*fault*in"iden"e prote"tion "urve or for
transforers serving industrialE "oer"ial and institutional power systes with se"ondary*side
"ondu"tors en"losed in "onduitE &us du"tE et".E the feeder prote"tive devi"e ay &e sele"ted &y
referen"e to the infrequent*fault*in"iden"e prote"tion "urve.

Sour"e( I>>> !76
Sour"e
'ransforer priary*side prote"tive devi"e
5fusesE relayed "ir"uit &rea2ersE et".8 ay &e
sele"ted &y referen"e to the infrequent*fault*
in"iden"e prote"tion "urve
!ategory II or III 'ransforer
=ault will &e "leared &y transforer
priary*side prote"tive devi"e
?ptional ain se"ondary Fside prote"tive devi"e.
0ay &e sele"ted &y referen"e to the infrequent*fault*
in"iden"e prote"tion "urve
=eeder prote"tive devi"e
=ault will &e "leared &y transforer priary*side
prote"tive devi"e or &y optional ain se"ondary*
side prote"tion devi"e
=ault will &e "leared &y
feeder prote"tive devi"e
Infrequent*=ault
In"iden"e ZoneD
=eeders
=requent*=ault
In"iden"e ZoneD
%otor Protection
Standards & References
EEE Std 620-1996 EEE Guide for the Presentation

of Thermal Limit Curves for Squirrel Cage nduction
Machines.
EEE Std 1255-2000 EEE Guide for Evaluation of

Torque Pulsations During Starting of Synchronous
Motors
ANS/ EEE C37.96-2000 Guide for AC Motor

Protection
The Art of Protective Relaying General Electric

%otor Protection
Motor Starting Curve
Thermal Protection
Locked Rotor Protection
Fault Protection
%otor O0erload Protection
#EC Art C7+-78 D Continuous-Duty %otors!
Thermal O/L (Device 49)
Motors with SF not less than 1.15
125% of FLA
Motors with temp. rise not over 40C
125% of FLA
All other motors
115% of FLA
%otor Protection D Inst: Pic2up
LOCKED
ROTOR
S d
1

X X "
+

PCK UP
LOCKED ROTOR

RELAY PCK UP 1.2 TO 1.2

PCK UP
LOCKED ROTOR

RELAY PCK UP 1.6 TO 2

with a tie delay of 0.10 s 5six "y"les at A0 GH8
9e"oended Instantaneous Setting(
If the re"oended setting "riteria "annot &e etE or where ore sensitive
prote"tion is desiredE the in*stantaneous relay 5or a se"ond relay8 "an &e set ore
sensitively if delayed &y a tier. 'his perits the asyetri"al asyetri"al starting "oponent
to de"ay out. - typi"al setting for this is(
(oc2ed Rotor Protection
Thermal Locked Rotor (Device 51)
Starting Time (TS < TLR)
LRA
LRA sym
LRA asym (1.5-1.6 x LRA sym) + 10% margin

Fault Protection
#EC Art < Ta3le C7+->8!
Non-Time Delay Fuses
300% of FLA
Dual Element (Time-Delay Fuses)
175% of FLA
nstantaneous Trip Breaker
800% - 1300% of FLA*
nverse Time Breakers
250% of FLA
*can be set up to 1700% for Design B (energy efficient) otor
(o" /olta$e %otor Protection
Usually pre-engineered (selected from

Catalogs)
Typically, motors larger than 2 Hp are

protected by combination starters
Overload / Short-circuit protection

(o"-0olta$e %otor
Ratin$s Ran,e +f ratin,s
Continuous amperes
9-250
Nominal voltage (V)
240-600
Horsepower
1.5-1000
Starter size (NEMA)
00-9
Types of protection Buantity #E%A
desi$nation
O0erloadE o0erload
relay elements
3 OL
Short circuitE
circuit breaker current
trip elements
3 CB
Fuses 3 FU
Under0olta$eE inherent
"ith integral control
supply and three-wire
control circuit
.round fault "hen
speci-fied): ground relay
with toroidal CT

%inimum Re1uired SiFes of a #E%A
Com3ination %otor Starter System

MAXMUM CONDUCTOR LENGTH FOR ABOVE AND
BELOW GROUND CONDUT SYSTEMS. ABOVE GROUND
SYSTEMS HAVE DRECT SOLAR EXPOSURE. 75
0
C
CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE, 45
0
C AMBENT

CRCUT BREAKER
SZE
F
U
S
E

S
Z
E

C
L
A
S
S

J

F
U
S
E

M
O
T
O
R

H
P

4
6
0
V

N
E
C

F
L
C

S
T
A
R
T
E
R

S
Z
E

M
M
U
M

S
Z
E

G
R
O
U
N
D
N
G

C
O
N
D
U
C
T
O
R

F
O
R

A

5
0

%

C
U
R
R
E
N
T

C
A
P
A
C
T
Y

M
M
U
M

W
R
E

S
Z
E

M
A
X
M
U
M

L
E
N
G
T
H

F
O
R

1
%

V
O
L
T
A
G
E

D
R
O
P

N
E
X
T

L
A
R
G
E
S
T

W
R
E

S
Z
E

U
S
E

N
E
X
T

L
A
R
G
E
R

G
R
O
U
N
D

C
O
N
D
U
C
T
O
R

M
A
X
M
U
M

L
E
N
G
T
H

F
O
R

1
%

V
O
L
T
A
G
E

D
R
O
P

W
T
H

L
A
R
G
E
R

W
R
E

250%

200%

150%

1 2.1 0 12 12 759 10 1251 15 15 6> 5

1 3 0 12 12 531 10 875 15 15 6> 6
2 3.4 0 12 12 468 10 772 15 15 6> 7
3 4.8 0 12 12 332 10 547 20 20 6> 10
5 7.6 0 12 12 209 10 345 20 20 6> 15
7 11 1 12 10 144 8 360 7+ 25 20 20
10 14 1 10 8 283 6 439 35 7+ 25 30
15 21 2 10 8 189 6 292 50 C+ 30 45
20 27 2 10 6 227 4 347 70 >+ 40 60
25 34 2 8 4 276 2 407 80 ?+ 50 70
30 40 3 6 2 346 2/0 610 100 ?+ 60 90
40 52 3 6 2 266 2/0 469 150 110 *+ 110
50 65 3 2 2/0 375 4/0 530 175 150 6++ 125
60 77 4 2 2/0 317 4/0 447 200 175 68> 150
75 96 4 2 4/0 358 250 393 250 200 6>+ 200
100 124 4 1 250 304 350 375 350 250 8++ 250
125 156 5 2/0 350 298 500 355 400 300 8>+ 350
150 180 5 4/0 500 307 750 356 450 350 7++ 400

Re1uired Data - Protection of a
%edium /olta$e %otor
Rated full load current
Service factor
Locked rotor current
Maximum locked rotor time (thermal limit curve) with the motor at ambient and/or
operating temperature
Minimum no load current
Starting power factor
Running power factor
Motor and connected load accelerating time
System phase rotation and nominal frequency
Type and location of resistance temperature devices (RTDs), if used
Expected fault current magnitudes
First cycle current
Maximum motor starts per hour
%edium-/olta$e Class E %otor Controller
Ratin$s
Class El
"ithout
fuses!
Class E8 "ith
fuses!
Nominal system voltage 2300-6900 2300-6900
Horsepower 0-8000 0-8000
Symmetrical MVA interrupting
capacity at nominal
system voltage
25-75 160-570
Types of Protecti0e De0ices Buantity
%'!
Desi,nati+n
O0erload@ or loc2ed Rotor@
or 3othE
Thermal overload relay
TOC relay
OC relay plus time delay

3
3
3
OL OC TR/O
Thermal overload relay 3 OL
TOC relay 3 OC
OC relay plus time delay 3 TR/OC
Short CircuitE
Fuses, Class E2 3 FU
OC relay, Class E1 3 ?!
.round Fault
TOC residual relay 1 GP
Overcurrent relay with toroidal
CT
1 GP
@>0- !lass >2 ediu
voltage starter
@>0- !lass >1
ediu voltage starter
Phase Galance
Current balance relay 1 BC
Negative-sequence voltage
relay (per bus), or both
1
Undervoltage:
nherent with integral
control supply and three-
wire control circuit, when
voltage falls suffi-ciently to
permit the contractor to
open and break the seal-in
circuit
UV
Temperature:
Temperature relay,
operating from resistance
sensor or ther-mocouple in
stator winding
OL
Startin$ Current of a C+++=p@ 68 2/@
6H++ rpm %otor
=irst half "y"le "urrent showing
"urrent offset.
,eginning of run up "urrent
showing load torque pulsations.
Startin$ Current of a C+++=p@ 68 2/@
6H++ rpm %otor -
0otor pull in "urrent showing otor
rea"hing syn"hronous speed
Oscill+,rap.s
Thermal (imit Cur0e
Thermal (imit Cur0e
Typical
C*rve
200 HP
MCP
?$+
Starting !urve
I
2
'
5CI8
0!P 5708
5718
t
s
t
+9
+9-
s
+9-
asy
Protecti0e De0ices
Fuse
Overload Heater
Thermal Magnetic
Low Voltage Solid State Trip
Electro-Mechanical
Motor Circuit Protector (MCP)
Relay (50/51 P, N, G, SG, 51V, 67, 49, 46, 79, 21, .)

Fuse Po"er Fuse!
Non Adjustable Device (unless electronic)
Continuous and nterrupting Rating
Voltage Levels (Max kV)
nterrupting Rating (sym, asym)
Characteristic Curves
Min. Melting
Total Clearing
Application (rating type: R, E, X, .)

Fuse Types
Expulsion Fuse (Non-CLF)
Current Limiting Fuse (CLF)
Electronic Fuse (!&" #au$t #iter)

0iniu 0elting
'ie !urve
'otal !learing
'ie !urve
Current (imitin$ Fuse
C(F!
Limits the peak current of short-circuit
Reduces magnetic stresses (mechanical

damage)
Reduces thermal energy

Current (imitin$ Action
C
*
r
r
e
n
t

(
p
e
a
/

a
m
p
s
)
t
t
a
I
pJ
I
p
t
"
t
a
4 t
"
F t
t
a
4 -r"ing

'ie
t
4 0elting 'ie
t
"
4 !learing 'ie
I
p
4 Pea2 !urrent
I
pJ
4 Pea2 +et*thru !urrent
Time (cycles)
K 1IIA*200I ?peration 'e"hnologyE In". F 3or2shop @otes( Prote"tive .evi"e !oordination
Syetri"al 90S -peres
P
e
a
2

+
e
t
*
'
h
r
o
u
g
h

-
p
e
r
e
s
100 -
A0 -
6B P= 51$9 4 1C.38
12E700
7E200
230E000
300 -
100E000
(et-Throu$h Chart
Fuse
Generally:
CLF is a better short-circuit protection
Non-CLF (expulsion fuse) is a better

Overload protection
Electronic fuses are typically easier to

coordinate due to the electronic control
adjustments
Selecti0ity Criteria
Typically:
Non-CLF: 140% of full load
CLF: 150% of full load
Safety Margin: 10% applied to Min

Melting (consult the fuse manufacturer)
%olded Case CG
Thermal-Magnetic
Magnetic Only
Motor Circuit Protector

(MCP)
ntegrally Fused (Limiters)
Current Limiting
High nterrupting Capacity
Non-nterchangeable Parts
nsulated Case (nterchange

Parts)
Types
Frame Size
Poles
Trip Rating
nterrupting Capability
Voltage
%CCG
%CCG "ith SST De0ice
'heral 0iniu
'heral 0axiu
0agneti"
5instantaneous8
(/PCG
Voltage and Frequency Ratings
Continuous Current / Frame Size / Sensor
nterrupting Rating
Short-Time Rating (30 cycle)
Fairly Simple to Coordinate
Phase / Ground Settings
nst. Override
!, 2
!, 1
I'
S' P:
S' ,and
+' P:
+' ,and
480 kV
!, 2
!, 1
I
f
430 2-
Inst. ?verride
O0erload Relay < =eater
Motor overload protection is provided by a

device that models the temperature rise of
the winding
When the temperature rise reaches a point

that will damage the motor, the motor is de-
energized
Overload relays are either bimetallic, melting

alloy or electronic
O0erload =eater %fr: Data!
Buestion
What is Class 10 and Class 20 Thermal
OLR curves?
Ans"er
At 600% Current Rating:
Class 10 for fast trip, 10

seconds or less
Class 20 for, 20 seconds or

less (commonly used)
There is also Class 15, 30

for long trip time (typically
provided with electronic
overload relays)
0
12
Ans"er
O0erload Relay < =eater
When the temperature at the combination motor starter is more than
10 C (18 F) different than the temperature at the motor, ambient
temperature correction of the motor current is required.
An adjustment is required because the output that a motor can safely
deliver varies with temperature.
The motor can deliver its full rated horsepower at an ambient
temperature specified by the motor manufacturers, normally + 40 C.
At high temperatures (higher than + 40 C) less than 100% of the
normal rated current can be drawn from the motor without shortening
the insulation life.
At lower temperatures (less than + 40 C) more than 100% of the
normal rated current could be drawn from the motor without shortening
the insulation life.
O0ercurrent Relay
Time-Delay (51 >)
Short-Time nstantaneous ( >>)
nstantaneous (50 >>>)
Electromagnetic (induction Disc)
Solid State (Multi Function / Multi Level)
Application
K 1IIA*200I ?peration 'e"hnologyE In". F 3or2shop @otes( Prote"tive .evi"e !oordination
Time-O0ercurrent Unit
Ampere Tap Calculation
Ampere Pickup (P.U.) = CT Ratio x A.T. Setting

Relay Current (
R
) = Actual Line Current (
L
) / CT
Ratio
Multiples of A.T. =
R
/A.T. Setting
=
L
/(CT Ratio x A.T. Setting)
I
+
I
9
!'
71
Instantaneous Unit
nstantaneous Calculation
Ampere Pickup (P.U.) = CT Ratio x T Setting

Relay Current (
R
) = Actual Line Current (
L
) / CT
Ratio
Multiples of T =
R
/T Setting
=
L
/(CT Ratio x T Setting)
I
+
I
9
!'
70
Relay Coordination
Time margins should be maintained between T/C

curves
Adjustment should be made for CB opening time
Shorter time intervals may be used for solid state

relays
Upstream relay should have the same inverse T/C

characteristic as the downstream relay (CO-8 to
CO-8) or be less inverse (CO-8 upstream to CO-6
downstream)
Extremely inverse relays coordinates very well with

CLFs
Situation
!al"ulate 9elay Setting 5'apE Inst. 'ap ) 'ie .ial8
=or 'his Syste
C.1A 2V
.S
3 V!
!a&le
1-45C 322 /cmil
!: * >P9
!,
I
s"
4 30E000 -
0 6
70$71
9elay( I=! 73 !' <00(7
Solution
A
Inrs"h
32< E < AIC 12 I
A 33< . C
<00
7
I I
+ 9

Transformer# A
$V
$VA
L
AIC
1A . C 3
000 E 7
I
I
+
!'
9
I
9
Set %elay#
- 77 1 . 72
<00
7
32< E < 8 70 5
1
8 3< . 1 5A$C.33< 0 . A
C . 7 33< . C B 127
>
A Inst
T&
A TA'
A
Buestion
What T/C Coordination interval should be
maintained between relays?
Ans"er
-
t
I
,
C7 Openin, Time
8
#nd*cti+n Disc Overtravel (291 sec)
8
Safety mar,in (291 sec :5+ #nst9 - 291 sec :5 #nst9)
Recloser
Recloser protects electrical transmission systems from temporary
voltage surges and other unfavorable conditions.
Reclosers can automatically "reclose" the circuit and restore normal
power transmission once the problem is cleared.
Reclosers are usually designed with failsafe mechanisms that prevent
them from reclosing if the same fault occurs several times in
succession over a short period. This insures that repetitive line faults
don't cause power to switch on and off repeatedly, since this could
cause damage or accelerated wear to electrical equipment.
t also insures that temporary faults such as lightning strikes or
transmission switching don't cause lengthy interruptions in service.
Recloser Types
Hydraulic
Electronic
Static Controller
Microprocessor Controller
Recloser Cur0es
TE%A 7
Transient Sta3ility
Topics
What is Transient Stability (TS)
What Causes System Unstable
Effects When System s nstable
Transient Stability Definition
Modeling and Data Preparation
ETAP TS Study Outputs
Power System TS Studies
Solutions to Stability Problems

4hat is Transient Sta3ility
TS is also called Rotor Angle Stability
Something between mechanical system and

electrical system energy conversion
t is a Electromechanical Phenomenon
Time frame in milliseconds
All Synchronous Machines Must Remain in

Synchronism with One Another
Synchronous generators and motors
This is what system stable or unstable means

Torque Equation (generator case)

% = mechanical torque
& = number of poles
air
= air-gap flux
#
r
= rotor field MMF
= rotor angle
Swing Equation
= inertia constant
D = damping constant
&
mec'
= input mechanical power
&
e$ec
= output electrical power
4hat Causes System Unsta3le
From Torque Equation
T (prime mover)
Rotor MMF (field winding)
Air-Gap Flux (electrical system)
From Swing Equation
Pmech
Pelec
Different time constants in mechanical and

electrical systems
4hat Causes System Unsta3le
n real operation
Short-circuit
Loss of excitation
Prime mover failure
Loss of utility connections
Loss of a portion of in-plant generation
Starting of a large motor
Switching operations
mpact loading on motors
Sudden large change in load and generation

Effects 4hen System Is Insta3le
Case 1: Steady-state stable
Case 2: Transient stable
Case 3: Small-signal unstable
Case 4: First swing unstable
Swing in Rotor Angle (as well as in V, , P,

Q and f)
A 2-Machine
Example
At = -180
(Out-of-Step,
Slip the Pole)
Synchronous machine slip poles

generator tripping
Power swing
Misoperation of protective devices
nterruption of critical loads
Low-voltage conditions motor drop-offs
Damage to equipment
Area wide blackout
.
Examine One Generator
Power Output Capability Curve
is limited to 180
Transient Sta3ility Definition
Transient Sta3ility Definition
Transient and Dynamic Stability Limit
After a severe disturbance, the synchronous

generator reaches a steady-state operating
condition without a prolonged loss of
synchronism
Limit: < 180 during swing

Synchronous Machine
Machine
Exciter and AVR
Prime Mover and Governor / Load Torque
Power System Stabilizer (PSS) (Generator)

%odelin$ and Data Preparation
Typical synchronous machine data

nduction Machine
Machine
Load Torque
Power Grid
Short-Circuit Capability
Fixed internal voltage and infinite inertia

Load
Voltage dependency
Frequency dependency
Load
Events and Actions

De0ice Type Action
Bus 3-P Fault L-G Fault Clear Fault
Branch Fraction
Fault
Clear
Fault
PD Trip Close
Generator Droop /
soch
Start Loss Exc. P Change V Change Delete
Grid P Change V Change Delete
Motor Accelerate Load
Change
Delete
Lumped Load Load
Change
Delete
MO Start
!ind Tur"ine Disturbance Gust Ramp
MG Set Emergency Main
Po"er System TS Studies
Fault
3-phase and single phase fault
Clear fault
Critical Fault Clearing Time (CFCT)
Critical System Separation Time (CSST)
Bus Transfer
Fast load transferring
Load Shedding
Under-frequency
Under-voltage
Motor Dynamic Acceleration
nduction motor
Synchronous motor
Critical Separation Time (CSST)

u
n
s
t
a
b
l
e
u
n
s
t
a
b
l
e
Cycle
Clear fault Clear fault
1 cycle
u
n
s
t
a
b
l
e
s
t
a
b
l
e
1 cycle
Clear fault Clear fault
CFC
T
Fault
u
n
s
t
a
b
l
e
u
n
s
t
a
b
l
e
Cycle
1 cycle
u
n
s
t
a
b
l
e
s
t
a
b
l
e
1 cycle
CSS
T
Separation Separation Separation Separation Fault
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Vmotor
s
Fast Bus Transfer

%otor residual 0olta$e
Fast Bus Transfer

T
transfer
10 cycles
90 degrees
E
R
1.33 per unit (133%)
E
S
= System equivalent per unit
volts per hertz
E
M
= Motor residual per unit per
hertz
E
R
= Resultant vectorial voltage
in per unit volts per hertz

Load Shedding
Motor Dynamic Acceleration
mportant for islanded system operation
Motor starting impact
Generator AVR action
Reacceleration
mprove System Design
ncrease synchronizing power
Design and Selection of Rotating

Equipment
Use of induction machines
ncrease moment of inertia
Reduce transient reactance
mprove voltage regulator and exciter

characteristics
Solution to Sta3ility Pro3lems
Application of Power System Stabilizer

(PSS)
Add System Protections
Fast fault clearance
Load shedding
System separation
Out-Of-Step relay
.
Solution to Sta3ility Pro3lems
TE%A C
=armonic Analysis
AR%O#ICAS
Exploracin de frecuencia.
Flujo Armnico de Carga.
Dimensionamiento y Diseo de
Filtros.
Evaluacin Automtica del

lmite de distorsin.
Factores de la influencia del

telfono (TF & *T)
Types of Po"er Buality
Pro3lems
4a0eform Distortion
Primary Types of Waveform Distortion
DC Offset
=armonics
nterharmonics
Notching
Noise
=armonics
One special category of power quality

problems
"Harmonics are voltages and/or currents

present in an electrical system at some
multiple of the fundamental frequency.
(EEE Std 399, Brown Book)
#onlinear (oads
Sinusoidal voltage
applied to a simple
nonlinear resistor
ncreasing the
voltage by a few
percent may cause
current to double
Fourier Representation
Any periodic
waveform can be
expressed as a sum
of sinusoids
The sum of the

sinusoids is referred
to as Fourier Series
(6-pulse)
8 "os5
13 "os
13
1
11 "os
11
1
6 "os
6
1
3 "os
7
1
5"os
3 2
1
h
h
h
d ac
t h I
t t t t t I I
+
+ +

=armonic Sources
Utilities (Power Grid)
Known as "Background Harmonic
Pollution from other irresponsible customers
SVC, HVDC, FACTS, .
Usually a voltage source
Synchronous Generators
Due to Pitch (can be eliminated by fractional-

pitch winding) and Saturation
Usually a voltage source

=armonic Sources contId!
Transformers
Due to magnetizing branch saturation
Only at lightly loaded condition
Usually a current source
Power Electronic Devices
Charger, Converter, nverter, UPS, VFD, SVC, HVDC,

FACTS (Flexible alternating current transmission systems) .
Due to switching actions
Either a voltage source or a current source

=armonic Sources contId!
Other Non-Linear Loads
Arc furnaces, discharge lighting, .
Due to unstable and non-linear process
Either a voltage source or a current source
n general, any load that is applied to a

power system that requires other than a
sinusoidal current
=armonic I and /
Classification of =armonics
Harmonics may be classified as:
Characteristic Harmonics
Generally produced by power converters
Non-Characteristic Harmonics
Typically produced by arc furnaces and discharge

lighting (from non-periodical waveforms)
Phase An$le Relationship
Fundamental Frequency
Third Order
Fifth Order
Seventh Order
Order 0s: Se1uence
Characteristic =armonics
Characteristic =armonics
contId!
=armonic Spectrum
6
=armonic-Related Pro3lems
Motors and Generators
ncreased heating due to iron and copper losses
Reduced efficiency and torque
Higher audible noise
Cogging or crawling
Mechanical oscillations
contId!
Transformers
Parasitic heating
ncreased copper, stray flux and iron losses
Capacitors (var compensators)
Possibility of system resonance
ncreased heating and voltage stress
Shortened capacitor life

contId!
Power Cables
nvolved in system resonance
Voltage stress and corona leading to dielectric

failure
Heating and derating
Neutrals of four-wire systems (480/277V; 120/208V)
Overheating
Fuses
Blowing
contId!
Switchgears
ncreased heating and losses
Reduced steady-state current carrying capability
Shortened insulation components life
Relays
Possibility of misoperation
Metering
Affected readings
contId!
Communication Systems
nterference by higher frequency

electromagnetic field
Electronic Equipment (computers, PLC)
Misoperation
System
Resonance (serial and parallel)
Poor power factor

Parallel Resonance
Total impedance at resonance frequency

increases
High circulating current will flow in the

capacitance-inductance loop
Parallel Resonance
Capacitor Gan2s
Capacitor Gan2s
Capacitor Gan2s
Say; Sevent. <arm+nic C*rrent = 36 +f 1122! = 33 !
Capacitor Gan2s
Resistance = 16 incl*din, ca>le and transf+rmer
C!( = "5R = ?@29220A5292211 =B2913
Res+nant C*rrent = 33@B2913 = 111B !
Parallel Resonance contId!
CauseE
ImpactsE
1. Excessive capacitor fuse
operation
2. Capacitor failures
3. ncorrect relay tripping
4. Telephone interference
5. Overheating of equipment
Source inductance resonates with
capacitor bank at a frequency
excited by the facilities harmonic
sources
=armonic Distortion
%easurements
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
Also known as Harmonic Distortion Factor

(HDF), is the most popular index to measure the
level of harmonic distortion to voltage and
current
Ratio of the RMS of all harmonics to the

fundamental component
For an ideal system THD = 0%
Potential heating value of the harmonics relative

to the fundamental
=armonic Distortion
%easurements contId!
1
1
1
F
F
THD
i
Where #
i
is the amplitude of the i
t'
harmonic,
and #
1
is that for the fundamental component.
Good indicator of additional losses due to

current flowing through a conductor
Not a good indicator of voltage stress in a

capacitor (related to peak value of voltage
waveform, not its heating value)
=armonic Distortion
E;ample
(ind T<D f+r t.is :avef+rm
=armonic E;ample
Find THD for this Harmonic Spectrum

Ad-usta3le Speed Dri0e D
Current Distortion
Ad-usta3le Speed Dri0e D
/olta$e Distortion
=armonic Distortion
ndividual Harmonic Distortion (HD)

- Ratio of a given harmonic to fundamental
- To track magnitude of individual harmonic
1
F
F
IHD
i
Root Mean Square (RMS) - Total

- Root Mean Square of fundamental plus all
harmonics
- Equal to fundamental RMS if Harmonics are
zero
1
1
i
F RMS
=armonic Distortion
Arithmetic Summation (ASUM)
Arithmetic summation of magnitudes of all

components (fundamental and all harmonics)
Directly adds magnitudes of all components to

estimate crest value of voltage and current
Evaluation of the maximum withstanding ratings

of a device
1
i
F ASUM
=armonic Distortion
Telephone nfluence Factor (TF)
Weighted THD
Weights based on interference to an audio

signal in the same frequency range
Current TF shows impact on adjacent

communication systems
( )
1
1
1
1
i
i i
F
F W
TIF
=armonic Distortion
*T Product (*T)
A product current components (fundamental

and harmonics) and weighting factors

H
h
h h
T I T I
1
1
) (
where (
'
= current component
%
'
= weighting factor
' = harmonic order (h=1 for fundamental)
) = maximum harmonic order to account
Triplen =armonics
Odd multiples of the

third harmonic
(h = 3, 9, 15, 21, .)
mportant issue for

grounded-wye systems
with neutral current
Overloading and TF problems
Misoperation of devices due to presence of

harmonics on the neutral
Triplen =armonics
4indin$ Connections
Delta winding provides ampere turn balance

Triplen Harmonics cannot flow
When currents are balanced Triplens
behave as Zero Sequence currents
Used in Utility Distribution Substations
Delta winding connected to Transmission
Balanced Triplens can flow

Present in equal proportions on both sides
Many loads are served in this fashion
Implications
Neutral connections are susceptible to overheating

when serving single-phase loads on the Y side that
have high 3rd Harmonic
Measuring current on delta side will not show the

triplens and therefore do not give a true idea of the
heating the transformer is subjected to
The flow of triplens can be interrupted by appropriate

isolation transformer connection
Removing the neutral connection in one or both Y

windings blocks the flow of Triplen harmonic current
Three legged core transformers behave as if they have

a "phantom delta tertiary winding
%odelin$ in =armonic
Analysis
Motors and Machines
Represented by their equivalent negative

sequence reactance
Lines and Cables
Series impedance for low frequencies
Long line correction including transposition and

distributed capacitance
%odelin$ in =armonic
Analysis contId!
Transformers
Leakage impedance
Magnetizing impedance
Loads
Static loads reduce peak resonant impedance
Motor loads shift resonant frequency due to

motor inductance
Reducin$ System
=armonics
Add Passive Filters
Shunt or Single Tuned Filters
Broadband Filters or Band Pass Filters
Provide low impedance path for harmonic

current
Least expensive
Reducin$ System
=armonics contId!
ncrease Pulse Numbers
ncreasing pulse number of convert circuits
Limited by practical control problems

Reducin$ System
=armonics contId!
Apply Transformer Phase Shifting
Using Phase Shifting Transformers
Achieve higher pulse operation of the total

converter installation
n ETAP
Phase shift is specified in the tab page of the

transformer editor
Reducin$ System
=armonics contId!
Either standard phase shift or special phase

shift can be used
Reducin$ System
=armonics contId!
Add Active Filters
nstantly adapts to changing source and load

conditions
Costly
MVA Limitation
/olta$e Distortion (imits
Recommended Practices for Utilities IEEE
>6*!E
Gus /olta$e
At
PCC
Indi0idual
Distortion
J!
Total /olta$e
Distortion
T=D J!
69 kV and below 3.0 5.0
69.001 kV through 161kV 1.5 2.5
161.001 and above 1.0 1.5
In ETAPE
Specify Harmonic Distortion Limits in Harmonic
Page of Bus Editor:
Current Distortion (imits
Recommended Practices for .eneral
Distri3ution Systems IEEE >6*!E
TE%A >
%otor Startin$
Dynamic Acceleration
ARRA#BUE DE %OTORES
Aceleracin dinmica de
motores.
Parpadeo (Flicker) de tensin.
Modelos dinmicos de motores.
Arranque esttico de motores.
Varios dispositivos de arranque.
Transicin de carga.
4hy to Do %S StudiesK
Ensure that motor will start with voltage drop

f T
st
<T
load
at s=1, then motor will not start
f T
m
=T
load
at s<s
r
, motor can not reach rated speed
Torque varies as (voltage)^2
Ensure that voltage drop will not disrupt other loads
Utility bus voltage >95%

3% Sag represents a point when light flicker becomes visible
5% Sag represents a point when light flicker becomes irritating

MCC bus voltage >80%
Generation bus voltage > 93%

4hy to Do %S StudiesK
Ensure motor feeders sized adequately

(Assuming 100% voltage at Switchboard or MCC)
LV cable voltage drop at starting < 20%
LV cable voltage drop when running at full-load < 5%

HV cable voltage drop at starting < 15%
HV cable voltage drop when running at full-load < 3%
Maximum motor size that can be started across the line

Motor kW < 1/6 kW rating of generator (islanded)
For 6 MW of islanded generation, largest motor size < 1 MW
%otor SiFin$
Positive Displacement Pumps / Rotary Pumps
p = Pressure in psi
Q = fluid flow in gpm
n = efficiency
Centrifugal Pumps
H = fluid head in feet
%otor Types
Synchronous
Salient Pole
Round Rotor
nduction
Wound Rotor (slip-ring)

Single Cage CKT Model
Squirrel Cage (brushless)

Double Cage CKT Model
Induction %otor Ad0anta$es
Squirrel Cage
Slightly higher efficiency and power factor
Explosive proof
Wound Rotor
Higher starting torque
Lower starting current
Speed varied by using external resistances

Typical Rotor Construction
Rotor slots are not parallel to the shaft but

skewed
4ound Rotor
Operation of Induction
%otor
AC applied to stator winding
Creates a rotating stator magnetic field in air gap
Field induces currents (voltages) in rotor
Rotor currents create rotor magnetic field in air gap
Torque is produced by interaction of air gap fields

Slip Fre1uency
Slip represents the inability of the rotor to

keep up with the stator magnetic field
Slip frequency
S = (o
s
-on)/o
s
where o
s
= 120f/P
o
n
= mech speed
Static Start - E;ample
Static Start - E;ample
Ser0ice Factor
Inrush Current
Resistance < Reactance
Torque Slip Curve is changed by altering

resistance / reactance of rotor bars.
Resistance by cross sectional area or

using higher resistivity material like brass.
Reactance by placing conductor deeper in

the rotor cylinder or by closing the slot at the
air gap.
Rotor Gar Resistance L
ncrease Starting Torque
Lower Starting Current
Lower Full Load Speed
Lower Efficiency
No Effect on Breakdown Torque

Rotor Gar Reactance L
Lower Starting Torque
Lower Starting Current
Lower Breakdown Torque
No effect on Full Load Conditions

%otor Tor1ue Cur0es
Rotor Gar Desi$n
Cross section Large (low

resistance) and positioned deep in
the rotor (high reactance).
(Starting Torque is normal and
starting current is low).
Double Deck with small conductor

of high resistance. During starting,
most current flows through the
upper deck due to high reactance
of lower deck. (Starting Torque is
high and starting current is low).
Rotor Gar Desi$n
Bars are made of Brass or

similar high resistance
material. Bars are close to
surface to reduce leakage
reactance. (Starting torque is
high and starting current is
low).
(oad Tor1ue D ID Fan
(oad Tor1ue D FD Fan
(oad Tor1ue D C: Pump
%otor Tor1ue D Speed Cur0e
Dou3le Ca$e %otor
%otor Full (oad Tor1ue
For example, 30 HP 1765 RPM Motor

%otor Efficiency
kW Saved = HP * 0.746 (1/Old 1/New)
$ Savings = kW Saved * Hrs /Year * $/kWh

Acceleration Tor1ue
Greater
Acceleration
Torque means
higher inertia
that can be
handled by the
motor without
approaching
thermal limits
Acceleration Tor1ue
C
Operatin$ Ran$e
Motor, Generator, or Brake

29D 192
2var
L
+
a
d
(
/
v
a
)
'erinal Voltage
'
e
r
i
n
a
l

!
u
r
r
e
n
t
'erinal Voltage
29D 192
P 4 ' 3 E -s Vt 5 terinal voltage 8 "hanges fro 0.< to 1.1 puE 3
"hanges &y a very sall aount. 'here foreE P is approx "onstant sin"e
' 5L wM8 is approx. "onstant
+
1
Ir
Rated Conditions
Constant Power
29A 192
Eva
LR
'erinal Voltage
'erinal Voltage
29A 192
9D /va
LR
Vt (p*)
Vt (p*)
9A # LR
# LR
C
#t
;V- +9 4 +o"hed * rotor ;V- at rated voltage 4 2GP
2 N !ode letter fa"tor N +o"2ed F rotor ;V- O GP
Z st 4 ;V- , ;V9 M
;V- +9 ;V,
PuE 9st 4 Zst "os P st E 1st4 Zst sin P st FFFFFF FFFF
;V9 4 rated voltage ;V, 4 ,ase voltage ;V-, 4 ,ase power
Startin$ Conditions
Constant mpedance
Starting !onditions !onstant Ipedan"e
ws w
v1
p
9
+oad
/olta$e /ariation
0
I
<0B voltage
100B voltage
ws w
0
' ' st 'J
st
'st L 5 operating voltage8 M
9ated voltage
FFFFFFFFFFFFF
9ated voltage
FFFFFFFFFFFFF
Ist L 5 operating voltage8
Torque is proportional to V^2
Current is proportional to V
I
<0B V
100B V
Fre1uency /ariation
As frequency decreases, peak torque shifts toward lower

speed as synchronous speed decreases.
As frequency decrease, current increases due reduced

impedance.
T
em
GS1 GS1 Gm
(1
(1 H (1
2
#
GS1 GS1 Gm
(1
(1 H (1
2
G4 = 112f
C
FFF
RC
-dQusta&le speed drive ( 'ypi"al speed range for varia&le torque loads su"h as pups and fans is 3$1Eaxiun is <$1 5 1.7 to A0 GH8
#um3er of Poles /ariation
As Pole number increases, peak torque shifts toward lower

speed as synchronous speed decreases.
T
em
GIS GS
Gm
2
2 P * poles
P * poles
P
9
+oad
@ro. of poles variation
GIS =
GS
FFF

2
Rotor , /ariation
ncreasing rotor Z will shift peak torque towards lower

speed.
S
R
J
C
r1
r1 r4
rB
r1 H r1 H r4 H rB
9otor F 9esistan"e Variation
%odelin$ of Elements
Switching motors Zlr, circuit model, or

characteristic model
Synch generator - constant voltage behind

X'd
Utility - constant voltage behind Xd
Branches Same as in Load Flow
Non-switching Load Same as Load flow
All elements must be initially energized,

including motors to start
%otor %odelin$
1. Operating Motor
Constant KVA Load

1. Starting Motor
During Acceleration Constant mpedance
Locked-Rotor mpedance
Circuit Models
Characteristic Curves
After Acceleration Constant KVA Load
(oc2ed-Rotor Impedance
ZLR = RLR +j XLR (10 25 %)
PFLR is much lower than operating PD.

Approximate starting PF of typical squirrel
cage induction motor:
C
O
G
'
R

(
!
C
T
O
R
<ORS' COG'R R!T#%&
Circuit %odel I
Single Cage Rotor
"Single1 constant rotor resistance and

reactance
Circuit %odel II
Single Cage Rotor
"Single2 - deep bar effect, rotor resistance and

reactance vary with speed [Xm is removed]
Circuit %odel III
Double Cage Rotor
"DB1 integrated rotor cages

Circuit %odel I/
Double Cage Rotor
"DB2 independent rotor cages

Characteristic %odel
Motor Torque, , and PF as function of Slip
Static Model
Calculation %ethods I
Static Motor Starting
Time domain using static model
Switching motors modeled as Zlr during starting and

constant kVA load after starting
Run load flow when any change in system
Dynamic Motor Starting
Time domain using dynamic model and inertia model
Dynamic model used for the entire simulation
Requires motor and load dynamic (characteristic) model

Calculation %ethods II
Static 0ersus Dynamic
Use Static Model When
Concerned with effect of motor starting on other

loads
Missing dynamic motor information
Use Dynamic Model When
Concerned with actual acceleration time
Concerned if motor will actually start

%S Simulation Features
Start/Stop induction/synchronous motors
Switching on/off static load at specified loading

category
Simulate MOV opening/closing operations
Change grid or generator operating category
Simulate transformer LTC operation
Simulate global load transition
Simulate various types of starting devices
Simulate load ramping after motor acceleration

Automatic Alert
Starting motor terminal V
Motor acceleration failure
Motor thermal damage
Generator rating
Generator engine continuous

& peak rating
Generator exciter peak rating
Bus voltage
Starting motor bus
Grid/generator bus
HV, MV, and LV bus
User definable minimum time

span
Startin$ De0ices Types
Auto-Transformer
Stator Resistor
Stator Reactor
Capacitor at Bus
Capacitor at Motor
Terminal
Rotor External Resistor
Rotor External Reactor
Y/D Winding
Partial Wing
Soft Starter
Stator Current Limit
Stator Current Control
Voltage Control
Torque Control
Startin$ De0ice
Comparison of starting conditions

Startin$ De0ice D AutoMF%R
C4 and C3 closed initially
C4 opened, C2 is closed with C3 still closed. Finally C3 is open
Startin$ De0ice D AutoMF%R
Autotransformer starting
0!!
0
-utotransforer starter
line
Vmcc
>1. 70B 'ap
VCC
326
tap
3VCC
#ST
4#ST
V
P=S' 5 with autotransforer8 4 P=S' 5 without autotransforer8
Startin$ De0ice D 9D Start
During Y connection Vs = VL / \3
Phase current y = d / \3 and 3 to 1 reduction in torque
Startin$ De0ice D Rotor R
Startin$ De0ice D Stator R
Resistor
VCC
326
tap
3VCC V
RLR
"LR
RL "L
P=S' 5 with resistor8 4 1*Rpu tap setting SM D R 1* 5P=S' without resistor8MS
4 1* 50.78M D R1*5P=S'8MS
VCC
326
tap
3VCC V
RLR
"LR
RL "L
Startin$ De0ice Stator M
Reactor
P=S' 5 with rea"tor8 4 Rpu tap setting S D P=S' 5without rea"tor8
Transformer (TC %odelin$
LTC operations can be simulated in motor

starting studies
Use global or individual Tit and Tot

V liit
'it 'ot
'
%O/ %odelin$ I
Represented as an impedance load during

operation
Each stage has own impedance based on , pf, Vr
User specifies duration and load current for each stage
Operation type depends on MOV status
Open statusclosing operation
Close statusopening operation

%O/ %odelin$ II
Five stages of operation

Opening Closing
Acceleration Acceleration
No load No load
Unseating Travel
Travel Seating
Stall Stall
Without hammer blow Skip "No Load period
With a micro switch Skip "Stall period

Operating stage time extended if V
mtr
< V
limit
%O/ Closin$
With Hammer Blow- MOV Closing

%O/ Openin$
With Hammer Blow- MOV Opening

U#SETTI#.
TRA/E(
/%TR N / (I%IT
STA(( ACC(
I
%O/ /olta$e (imit
Effect of Voltage Limit Violation

Tacc Tpos
Tra0el Tstl
TE%A 5
Short-Circuit
A#SI Standard
CORTO CIRCUITO
Estndar de ANS/EEE & EC.
Anlisis de fallas transitorias

(EC 61363).
Efecto de Arco (NFPA 70E-

2000)
ntegrado con coordinacin de

dispositivos de proteccin.
Evaluacin automtica de
dispositivos.
Types of SC Faults
Three-Phase Ungrounded Fault
Three-Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Phase Ungrounded Fault
Phase to Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Ground Fault
Fault Current
L-G
can range in utility systems from a few percent to
possibly 115 % ( if X
o
< X
1
) of
3-phase
(85% of all faults).
n industrial systems the situation
L-G
>
3-phase
is rare.
Typically
L-G
.87 *
3-phase
n an industrial system, the three-phase fault condition
is frequently the only one considered, since this type of
fault generally results in Maximum current.
Short-Circuit Analysis
Purpose of Short-Circuit
Studies
A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine

any or all of the following:
Verify protective device close and latch capability
Verify protective device nterrupting capability
Protect equipment from large mechanical forces

(maximum fault kA)
2
t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination

System Components
In0ol0ed in SC Calculations
Power Company Supply
n-Plant Generators
Transformers (using negative tolerance)
Reactors (using negative tolerance)
Feeder Cables and Bus Duct Systems (at

lower temperature limits)
System Components
In0ol0ed in SC Calculations
Overhead Lines (at lower temperature limit)
Synchronous Motors
nduction Motors
Protective Devices
Y
0
from Static Load and Line Cable
Elements That Contri3ute
Current to a Short-Circuit
Generator
Power Grid
Synchronous Motors
nduction Machines
Lumped Loads
(with some % motor load)
nverters

0
from Yg-Delta Connected Transformer
Elements Do #ot Contri3ute
Current in Po"erStation
Static Loads
Motor Operated Valves
All Shunt Y Connected Branches

) t Sin( Vm v(t) +
i(t) v(t)
Short-Circuit Phenomenon

Offset) (DC
Transient State Steady
t
) - sin(
Z
Vm
) - t sin(
Z
Vm
i(t)
(1) ) t Sin( Vm
dt
di
L Ri v(t)
L
R
-
e + +
+ +

expression following the yields 1 equation Solving
i(t)
v(t)
DC Current
AC Current Symmetrical! "ith
#o AC Decay
1996-2009 Operation Technology, nc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANS
Slide 305
AC Fault Current Includin$ the
DC Offset #o AC Decay!
1996-2009 Operation Technology, nc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANS Slide 306
%achine Reactance & ' ( I !
AC Decay Current
Fault Current Includin$ AC ) DC Decay
1) The ANS standards handle the AC Decay by varying
machine impedance during a fault.
2) The ANS standards handle the the dc
offset by applying multiplying factors. The
ANS Terms for this current are:
Momentary Current
Close and Latch Current
First Cycle Asymmetrical Current
-@SI
A#SI Calculation %ethods
Sources
Synchronous Generators
Synchronous Motors & Condensers

nduction Machines
Electric Utility Systems (Power Grids)
%odels
All sources are modeled by an internal
voltage behind its impedance.
E = Prefault Voltage
R = Machine Armature Resistance
X = Machine Reactance (Xd, X'd, Xd)
Sources and %odels of Fault
Currents in A#SI Standards
Synchronous Reactance
Transient Reactance
Subtransient Reactance
Synchronous .enerators
Synchronous Generators are modeled
in three stages.
Synchronous %otors )
Condensers
Act as a generator to supply fault
current. This current diminishes as the
magnetic field in the machine decays.
Induction %achines
Treated the same as synchronous
motors except they do not contribute to
the fault after 2 sec.
Electric Utility Systems
The fault current contribution tends to
remain constant.
O Cycle #et"or2
This is the network used to calculate momentary short-circuit current
and protective device duties at the cycle after the fault.
6 O to C Cycle #et"or2
This network is used to calculate the interrupting short-circuit current
and protective device duties 1.5-4 cycles after the fault.
7+-Cycle #et"or2
This is the network used to calculate the steady-state short-circuit
current and settings for over current relays after 30 cycles.


O Cycle 6 O to C Cycle 7+ Cycle
Utility
MPd MPd MPd
Tur3o .enerator
MPd MPd MId
=ydro-.en "ith
Amortisseur
"indin$
MPd MPd MId
=ydro-.en "ithout
Amortisseur
"indin$
+:?>QMPd +:?>QMPd MId
Condenser
MPd MPd

Synchronous
%otor
MPd 6:>QMPd
Reactance Representation for
Utility and Synchronous %achine

O Cycle 6 O to C
Cycle
R6+++ hp @ N' 6H++
rpm
MPd 6:>QMPd
R8>+@ at 75++ rpm
MPd 6:>QMPd
All others@ R' >+ hp
6:8QMPd 7:+QMPd
N >+ hp
6:5?QMPd

Reactance Representation for
Induction %achine
#oteE MPd ' 6 < (RC
pu

O Cycle Currents
Su3transient
#et"or2!
6 O to C Cycle
Currents
Transient #et"or2!
=/ Circuit Grea2er
Closin$ and (atchin$
Capa3ility
Interruptin$
Capa3ility
(/ Circuit Grea2er
Interruptin$ Capa3ility
---
Fuse
Interruptin$
Capa3ility
---
S4.R < %CC
Gus Gracin$
---
Relay
Instantaneous
Settin$s
---
De0ice Duty and Usa$e of Fault Currents
from Different #et"or2s
7+ Cycle currents are used for determinin$ o0ercurrent settin$s:
%F
m
is calculated 3ased onE
Fault X/R (Separate R & X Networks)
Location of fault (Remote / Local generation)

SC Current Duty De0ice Ratin$
=/ CG Asymmetrical RMS
Crest
C&L RMS
C&L RMS
=/ Gus
Asymmetrical RMS
Crest
Asymmetrical RMS
Crest
(/ Gus Symmetrical RMS
Asymmetrical RMS
Symmetrical RMS
Asymmetrical RMS
Comparisons of %omentary capa3ility 6<8 Cycle!
%omentary %ultiplyin$
Factor

SC Current Duty De0ice Ratin$
=/ CG
Adj. Symmetrical RMS* Adj. Symmetrical RMS*
(/ CG ) Fuse
Adj. Symmetrical RMS*** Symmetrical RMS
Comparisons of Interruptin$ Capa3ility 6 O to C
Cycle!
%F
i
is calculated 3ased onE
Fault X/R (Separate R & X Networks)
Location of Fault (Remote / Local
generation)
Type and Rating of CB
Interruptin$ %ultiplyin$
Factor
Calculate O Cycle Current I
mom@ rms@ sym
! usin$ O Cycle #et"or2:
Calculate M<R ratio and %ultiplyin$ factor %F
m
I
mom@ rms@ Asym '
%F
m
Q I
mom@ rms@ sym

=/ CG Closin$ and
(atchin$ Duty
Calculate 1 to 4 Cycle Current (
mom, rms, sym
) using Cycle Network.
Determine Local and Remote contributions (A "local contribution is

fed predominantly from generators through no more than one
transformation or with external reactances in series that is less than
1.5 times generator subtransient reactance. Otherwise the
contribution is defined as "remote).
Calculate no AC Decay ratio (NACD) and multiplying factor MF
i

NACD =
Remote
/
Total
Total
=
Local
+
Remote
(NACD = 0 if all local & NACD = 1 if all remote)
Calculate
int, rms, adj
= MF
i
*
int, rms, Symm

=/ CG Interruptin$ Duty
CG Interruptin$ 2A 0aries 3et"een %a; 2A and Rated 2A

as applied 2/ chan$es D %/Asc capa3ility:
ETAPIs comparison 3et"een CG Duty of Ad-:

Symmetrical 2A and CG capa3ility of Ad-usted Int: 2A
0erifies 3oth symmetrical and asymmetrical ratin$:
The Option of C7?:+6+-6*** standard allo"s user to

specify CPT:
.enerator CG has hi$her DC ratin$ and is al"ays

compared a$ainst ma;imum throu$h SC 2A:
=/ CG Interruptin$
Capa3ility
(/ CG Interruptin$ Duty
(/ CG ta2e instantaneous action:
Calculate O Cycle current I

rms@ Symm
II
f
! from the O cycle
net"or2:
Calculate M<R ratio and %F

i
3ased on CG type!:
Calculate ad-usted interruptin$ current I

ad-@ rms@ symm
' %F
i
Q
I
rms@ Symm

Calculate O Cycle current I
int@ rms@ symm
from O Cycle #et"or2:

Same procedure to calculate I

int@ rms@ asymm
as for CG:
Fuse Interruptin$ Duty
(-. Faults
(-. Faults
Symmetrical Components
(-. Faults
Se1uence #et"or2s
0
Z Z Z
V 3
I
I 3 I
0 2 1
efault Pr
f
a f
0
+ +

g
Z if
(-. Fault Se1uence
#et"or2 Connections
2 1
efault Pr
f
a a
Z Z
V 3
I
I I
1 2
+

(-( Fault Se1uence #et"or2
Connections
0
Z Z
Z Z
Z
V
I
I 0 I I I
2 0
2 0
1
efault Pr
f
a a a a
0 1 2
,
_
+
+
+ +
g
Z if
(-(-. Fault Se1uence
#et"or2 Connections
Transformer ,ero Se1uence Connections
grounded.
solidly are er transfor !onne"ted #$
or %enerators if "ase the &e ay 'his
I
( then true are "onditions this If
)
( if greater
&e "an faults % * + "ase. severe ost
the is fault phase * 3 a %enerally
1 f3
1 0 2 1
<
<
f
I
Z Z Z Z
Solid .rounded De0ices
and (-. Faults
L-G Faults
L-L-G Faults
L-L Faults
include:
contributions
Phase Voltages
) Reports
1996-2009 Operation Technology, nc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit EC Slide 332 1996-2009 Operation Technology, nc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANS Slide 332
1996-2009 Operation Technology, nc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit EC Slide 333 1996-2009 Operation Technology, nc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANS Slide 333
SC Study Case Info Pa$e
SC Study Case Standard
Pa$e
Tolerance
Ad-ustments
Transformer
Impedance
Reactor
Resistance
O0erload
=eater
Resistance
Temperature
Corrections
Transmission
(ine Resistance
Ca3le Resistance
Ad-ust Fault
Impedance
(-. fault
Impedance
SC Study Case Ad-ustments
Pa$e
(en$th
Ad-ustments
Ca3le (en$th
Transmission
(ine (en$th

Tolerance Len(th Len(th
Tolerance Len(th Len(th
Tolerance Z Z
onLine Transmissi onLine Transmissi
)a*le )a*le
r Transforme r Transforme
8 1 5 D T
8 1 5 D T
8 1 5 D T
t
t
t
Ad-ustments can 3e applied Indi0idually or .lo3ally
Tolerance Ad-ustments
Positi0e tolerance 0alue is used for IEC %inimum I
f
calculation:
#e$ati0e tolerance 0alue is used for all other calculations:

) in limit e temperat"r )ond"ctor Tc
) in e temperat"r *ase )ond"ctor T*
e temperat"r operatin( at %esistance %+
re tempereat" *ase at %esistance %
T*
Tc
% %
T*
Tc
% %
,AS-
,AS- Al"mi
,AS- )opper
+
+
+
+
8 1 . 22< 5
8 1 . 22< 5
D T
8 7 . 23C 5
8 7 . 23C 5
D T T
Temperature Correction can 3e applied
Indi0idually or .lo3ally
Temperature Correction
Transf+rmers
T1 "5R
PS 412
P' 412
S' 412
T1 "5R 4 12
C+:er &rid $1
1$9 4 77
L*mp1
# open grounded
.en6
Voltage Control
Design Setting:
%Pf = 85
MW = 4
Max Q = 9
Min Q = -3
System for SC Study
System for SC Study
Tmin = B2; TmaK = A2
System for SC Study
Short-Circuit Alerts
Bus Alert
Protective Device Alert
Marginal Device Limit

Type of De0ice %onitored Parameter Condition Reported
%/ Gus R 6+++ /olts!
%omentary Asymmetrical: rms 2A Gracin$ Asymmetrical
%omentary Asymmetrical: crest 2A Gracin$ Crest
(/ Gus N6+++/olts!
%omentary Symmetrical: rms 2A Gracin$ Symmetrical
%omentary Asymmetrical: rms 2A Gracin$ Asymmetrical
Gus SC Ratin$
De0ice Type A#SI %onitored Parameters IEC %onitored Parameters
(/CG
Interruptin$ Ad-usted Symmetrical: rms 2A Grea2in$
=/ CG
%omentary C)( %a2in$
%omentary C)( Crest 2A #<A
Fuse
SPDT %omentary Asymmetrical: rms 2A %a2in$
SPST S"itches %omentary Asymmetrical: rms 2A %a2in$
Protecti0e De0ice Ratin$
Run a 3-phase Duty SC calculation for a
fault on Bus4. The display shows the
nitial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current.
7-Phase Duty SC Results

Un3alance Fault Calculation
TE%A ?
Transient Sta3ility
Time Frame of Po"er System
Dynamic Phenomena
Introduction
TS is also called Rotor Stability, Dynamic

Stability
Electromechanical Phenomenon
All synchronous machines must remain in

synchronism with one another
TS is no longer only the utility's concern
Co-generation plants face TS problems

Analo$y
Which vehicles will pushed hardest?
How much energy gained by each vehicle?
Which direction will they move?
Height of the hill must they climb to go over?

Introduction contId!
System protection requires consideration of:
Critical Separation Time (CST)
Fast load transferring
Load Shedding
.
Causes of Insta3ility
Short-circuits
Loss of utility connections
Loss of a portion of in-plant generation
Starting of a large motor
Switching operations (lines or capacitors)
mpact loading on motors
Sudden large change in load and

generation
Conse1uences of Insta3ility
Synchronous machine slip poles

generator tripping
Power swing
Misoperation of protective devices
nterruption of critical loads
Low-voltage conditions motor drop-offs
Damage to equipment
Area wide blackout
.
Synchronous %achines
Torque Equation (generator case)

% = mechanical torque
& = number of poles
air
= air-gap flux
#
r
= rotor field MMF
= rotor angle
S"in$ E1uation
Synchronous %achines
contId!
Swing Equation
= inertia constant
D = damping constant
&
mec'
= input mechanical power
&
e$ec
= output electrical power
Rotor An$le Responses
Case 1: Steady-state stable
Case 2: Transient stable
Case 3: Small-signal unstable
Case 4: First swing unstable
Po"er and Rotor An$le
Classical 8-%achine
E;ample!
contId!
Parallel (ines!
Goth (ines In Ser0ice
One (ine Out of Ser0ice
E1ual Area Criterion
E1ual Area Criterion
E1ual Area - Sta3le
E1ual Area D Unsta3le
E1ual Area - Unsta3le
Po"er System Sta3ility
(imit
Steady-State Stability Limit
After small disturbance, the synchronous

generator reaches a steady state operating
condition identical or close to the pre-
disturbance
Limit: < 90
Po"er System Sta3ility
(imit conId!
Transient and Dynamic Stability Limit
After a severe disturbance, the synchronous

generator reaches a steady-state operating
condition without a prolonged loss of
synchronism
Limit: < 180 during swing

.enerator %odelin$
Machine
Equivalent Model / Transient Model / Subtransient Model
Exciter and Automatic Voltage Regulator

(AVR)
Prime Mover and Speed Governor
Power System Stabilizer (PSS)

.enerator %odelin$ conId!
Typical synchronous machine data

Factors Influencin$ TS
Post-Disturbance Reactance seen from generator.

Reactance Pmax
Duration of the fault clearing time.

Fault time Rotor Acceleration Kinetic Energy
Dissipation Time during deceleration
Generator nertia.
nertia Rate of change of Angle Kinetic Energy
Generator nternal Voltage

nternal Voltage Pmax
Factors Influencin$ TS
Generator Loading Prior To Disturbance

Loading Closer to Pmax. Unstable during acceleration
Generator nternal Reactance

Reactance Peak Power nitial Rotor Angle
Dissipation Time during deceleration
Generator Output During Fault

Function of Fault Location and Type of Fault
Solution to Sta3ility
Pro3lems
mprove system design
ncrease synchronizing power
Design and selection of rotating equipment
Use of induction machines
ncrease moment of inertia
Reduce transient reactance
mprove voltage regulator and exciter

characteristics
Pro3lems
Reduction of Transmission System

Reactance
High Speed Fault Clearing
Dynamic Braking
Regulate Shunt Compensation
Steam Turbine Fast Valving
Generator Tripping
Adjustable Speed Synchronous Machines

Pro3lems
HVDC Link Control
Current njection from VS devices
Application of Power System Stabilizer

(PSS)
Add system protections
Fast fault clearance
Load Shedding
System separation
TE%A H
(oad Flo" Analysis
F(USO DE CAR.A
Clculo de los flujos de potencia.
Diversas representaciones de las

cargas.
Clculo de los perfiles de tensin.
Correccin del factor de potencia.
Diagnstico automtico de equipos.
Correccin automtica de impedancias

por temperatura.
Clculo de prdidas activas y reactivas.

System Concepts
System Concepts
./ '
I V
S S
I V S
LL
L
+

D
1 3
D
1
3
3

(a$$in$ Po"er Factor (eadin$ Po"er Factor

nductive loads have lagging Power Factors.
Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Current and /olta$e
Po"er in Galanced 7-Phase
Systems
(eadin$
Po"er
Factor
(a$$in$
Po"er
Factor
ETAP displays la$$in$ Po"er Factors as positi0e and leadin$ Po"er Factors
as ne$ati0e: The Po"er Factor is displayed in percent:
jQ P +
(eadin$ ) (a$$in$ Po"er
Factors
P - -B P T -B
,
2
,
,
,
,
,
0V-
8 2V 5
Z
2V 3
2V-
I
,
a"tual
pu
,
a"tual
pu
Z
Z
Z
I
I
I
,
a"tual
pu
,
a"tual
pu
S
S
S
V
V
V
'
'
,
2
,
,
,
,
,
S
V
Z
V 3
S
I
ZI 3 V
VI 3 S
If you ha0e t"o 3asesE
Then you may calculate the other two
by using the relationships enclosed in
brackets. The different bases are:
I
G
(Base Current)
,
G
(Base mpedance)
/
G
(Base Voltage)
S
G
(Base Power)
ETAP selects for (FE
6++ %/A for S
G
which is fixed for the
entire system.
The 2/ rating of reference point is
used along with the transformer turn
ratios are applied to determine the
base voltage for different parts of the
system.
7-Phase Per Unit System
E;ample 6E The diagram shows a simple radial system. ETAP converts the branch
impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calculations. The LF reports show
the branch impedance values in percent. The transformer turn ratio (N1/N2) is 3.31
and the X/R = 12.14
2
,
1
,
2V
2 @
1 @
2V
Transformer Turn RatioE The transformer turn ratio is
used by ETAP to determine the base voltage for different
parts of the system. Different turn ratios are applied
starting from the utility kV rating.
To determine 3ase 0olta$e useE
2
pu
pu
9
1
1
9
1
Z
1
1
]
1
+
1
]
1
Transformer T?E The following equations are used to find

the impedance of transformer T7 in 100 MVA base.
1
]
1
9
1
x
9
pu
pu
1
,
2V
2
,
2V
Impedance ,6: The base voltage is determined by using the transformer turn ratio. The base
impedance for Z1 is determined using the base voltage at Bus5 and the MVA base.
0AC6< . 0
8 1C . 12 5 1
8 1C . 12 5 0A7 . 0
1
2
pu

+
00733A . 0
1C . 12
0AC6< . 0
9
pu

The transformer impedance must be converted to 100 MVA base and therefore the
following relation must be used, where "n stands for new and "o stands for old.
8 373< . 1 Q 1117 . 0 5
7
100
7 . 13
< . 13
8 0AC6< . 0 Q 10 33 . 7 5
S
S
V
V
Z Z
2
3
o
,
n
,
2
n
,
o
,
o
pu
n
pu
+
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_

3< . 137 Q 17 . 11 Z 100 Z B
pu
+
0AI7 . C
31 . 3
7 . 13
2 @
1 @
2V
V
utility
,

1
]
1
1A7A0< . 0
100
8 0AI7 . C 5
0V-
V
Z
2 2
,
,

< . A03 Q 3< . A0 Z 100 Z B
pu
+
8 03<2 . A Q A03< . 0 5
1A7A . 0
8 1 Q 1 . 0 5
Z
Z
Z
,
a"tual
pu
+
+

The per-unit value of the impedance may be determined as soon as the base
impedance is known. The per-unit value is multiplied by one hundred to obtain
the percent impedance. This value will be the value displayed on the LF report.
The LF report generated by ETAP displays the following percent impedance values
in 100 MVA base
(oad Flo" Analysis
(oad Flo" Analysis
(oad Flo" Pro3lem
Given
Load Power Consumption at all buses
Configuration
Power Production at each generator
Basic Requirement
Power Flow in each line and transformer
Voltage Magnitude and Phase Angle at each bus

(oad Flo" Studies
Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
Voltage Profile
Power Flows
Current Flows
Power Factors
Transformer LTC Settings
Voltage Drops
Generator's Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
Total Generation & Power Demand
Steady State Stability Limits
MW & Mvar Losses

SiFe ) Determine System
E1uipment ) Parameters
Cable / Feeder Capacity
Capacitor Size
Transformer MVA & kV Ratings (Turn Ratios)
Transformer mpedance & Tap Setting
Current Limiting Reactor Rating & mp.
MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings
Generator Operating Mode (sochronous / Droop)
Generator's Mvar Demand
Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV

OptimiFe Operatin$
Conditions
Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
Voltages are Within Rated nsulation Limits

of Equipment
Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the

Maximum Ratings
System MW & Mvar Losses are Determined
Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated

Assume V
R
Calc: = S
load
/ V
R
Calc: Vd = * Z
Re-Calc V
R
= Vs - Vd
Calculation Process
Non-Linear System
Calculated teratively
Assume the Load

Voltage (nitial Conditions)
Calculate the Current
Based on the Current,

Calculate Voltage Drop Vd
Re-Calculate Load Voltage VR
Re-use Load Voltage as initial condition until the

results are within the specified precision.
6: Accelerated .auss-Seidel %ethod
Low Requirements on initial values,
but slow in
speed.
8: #e"ton-Raphson %ethod
Fast in speed, but high requirement on
initial values.
First order derivative is used to speed up
calculation.
7: Fast-Decoupled %ethod
Two sets of iteration equations: real
power voltage angle,
reactive power voltage magnitude.
Fast in speed, but low in solution
precision.
Better for radial systems and
systems with long lines.
(oad Flo" Calculation
%ethods
$V
$VA
0LA
$V
$VA
0LA
-ff '0
1'
-ff '0
$2
$VA
%ated
%ated
%ated
%ated
1
3
3
6C76 . 0
4here PF and Efficiency are ta2en at 6++ J
loadin$ conditions
2V
2V-
1000 I
8 2V 3 5
2V-
1000 I
2V-
23
P=
8 2Var 5 8 23 5 2V-
1
3
2 2

(oad #ameplate Data

Constant Po"er (oads
In (oad Flo" calculations induction@
synchronous and lump loads are treated
as constant po"er loads:
The po"er output remains constant e0en
if the input 0olta$e chan$es constant
2/A!:
The lump load po"er output 3eha0es li2e
a constant po"er load for the specified J
motor load:
In (oad Flo" calculations Static (oads@ (ump (oads
J static!@ Capacitors and =armonic Filters and %otor
Operated /al0es are treated as Constant Impedance
(oads:
The Input Po"er increases proportionally to the
s1uare of the Input /olta$e:
In (oad Flo" =armonic Filters may 3e used as
capaciti0e loads for Po"er Factor Correction:
%O/s are modeled as constant impedance loads
3ecause of their operatin$ characteristics:
Constant Impedance (oads
1996-2008 Operation Technology, nc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 397
The current remains constant e0en if the
0olta$e chan$es:
DC Constant current loads are used to test
Gattery dischar$e capacity:
AC constant current loads may 3e used to test
UPS systems performance:
DC Constant Current (oads may 3e defined in
ETAP 3y definin$ (oad Duty Cycles used for
Gattery SiFin$ ) Dischar$e purposes:
Constant Current (oads
Constant Current (oads
Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load
.eneric (oads
Feed3ac2 /olta$e
A/RE Automatic Voltage
Regulation
Fi;edE Fixed Excitation
(no AVR action)
.enerator Operation %odes
.o0ernor Operatin$ %odes
sochronous: This governor setting allows the

generator's power output to be adjusted based on
the system demand.
Droop: This governor setting allows the generator

to be Base Loaded, meaning that the MW output is
fixed.
Isochronous %ode
Droop %ode
Droop %ode
Droop %ode
Ad-ustin$ Steam Flo"
Ad-ustin$ E;citation
S"in$ %ode
.o0ernor is operatin$ in
Isochronous mode
Automatic /olta$e Re$ulator
/olta$e Control
Droop %ode
Automatic /olta$e Re$ulator
%0ar Control
Droop %ode
Fi;ed Field E;citation no A/R
action!
PF Control
Droop %ode
A/R Ad-usts to Po"er Factor
Settin$
In ETAP .enerators and Po"er .rids ha0e four operatin$
modes that are used in (oad Flo" calculations:
If in /olta$e Control %ode@ the limits of P ) B are reached@ the
model is chan$ed to a (oad %odel P ) B are 2ept fi;ed!
In the S"in$ %ode@ the 0olta$e is 2ept fi;ed: P ) B can 0ary
3ased on the Po"er Demand
In the /olta$e Control %ode@ P ) / are 2ept fi;ed "hile B )
are 0aried
In the %0ar Control %ode@ P and B are 2ept fi;ed "hile / )
are 0aried
.enerator Capa3ility Cur0e
Field 4indin$ =eatin$ (imit
Armature 4indin$ =eatin$ (imit
%achine Ratin$ Po"er Factor Point!
Steady State Sta3ility Cur0e
%a;imum ) %inimum
Reacti0e Po"er
Field 4indin$
=eatin$ (imit
%achine Ratin$
Po"er Factor
Point!
Steady State Sta3ility Cur0e
(oad Flo" (oadin$ Pa$e
.enerator<Po"er .rid Ratin$ Pa$e
6+ Different .eneration
Cate$ories for E0ery
.enerator or Po"er .rid
in the System
.eneration Cate$ories
1
V
8 D!?S5
1
DV V
U
8 5 DSI@
1
DV V
P
1
V
8 5 D!?S
1
DV V
Q 8 5 DSI@
1
DV V
QU P I D V S
2
2
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2
2
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1

1
]
1
+
+

'

2 2
2
1 1
1
V V
V V
Po"er Flo"
E;ampleE Two voltage sources designated as V1 and V2 are
connected as shown. f V
1
= 100 /0 , V
2
= 100 /30 and X = 0 +j5
determine the power flow in the system.
I
var 73A 7 37 . 10 1 V I V
2A< Q 1000 8 A< . 2 Q 10 85 70 Q A . <A 5 I V
2A< Q 1000 8 A< . 2 Q 10 5 100 I V
A< . 2 Q 10 I
7 Q
8 70 Q A . <A 5 0 Q 100
1
V V
I
2 2
D
2
D
1
2 1

+ +
+ +

+ +

2
1
0
1
9eal Power =low
9ea"tive Power =low
Power =low
1
2
V > 5 8
1
sin

( )
V > 5 8
1
"os

( )
V
2
1
0

The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a generator supplying real power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.
S
ETAP displays 3us 0olta$e 0alues in t"o "ays
kV value
Percent of Nominal Bus kV
B <3 . I6 100 B
7 . 13
in

al o
)alc"lated
)alc"lated
$V
$V
V
$V < . 13
in

al o
$V
B <7 . IA 100 B
03 . C
in

al o
)alc"lated
)alc"lated
$V
$V
V
$V 1A . C
in

al o
$V
(+r 7*sB:
(+r 7*s3:
Gus /olta$e
(ump (oad #e$ati0e
(oadin$
(oad Flo" Ad-ustments
Transformer mpedance
Adjust transformer impedance based on possible length variation

tolerance
Reactor mpedance
Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance
Overload Heater
Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance
Transmission Line Length

Adjust Transmission Line mpedance based on possible length
variation tolerance
Cable Length
Adjust Cable mpedance based on possible length variation tolerance

Ad-ustments applied
Indi0idual
.lo3al
Temperature Correction
Ca3le Resistance
Transmission (ine
Resistance
(oad Flo" Study Case
Ad-ustment Pa$e
Allo"a3le /olta$e Drop
#EC and A#SI CHC:6
(oad Flo" E;ample 6
Part 6
1996-2009 Operation Technology, nc. - Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 426
(oad Flo" E;ample 6
Part 8
(oad Flo" Alerts
Gus Alerts %onitor Continuous Amps
Ca3le %onitor Continuous Amps
Reactor %onitor Continuous Amps
(ine %onitor (ine Ampacity
Transformer %onitor %a;imum %/A Output
UPS<Panel %onitor Panel Continuous Amps
.enerator %onitor .enerator Rated %4
E1uipment O0erload Alerts
Protecti0e De0ices %onitored parameters J Condition reported
(o" /olta$e Circuit Grea2er Continuous rated Current O0er(oad
=i$h /olta$e Circuit Grea2er Continuous rated Current O0er(oad
Fuses Rated Current O0er(oad
Contactors Continuous rated Current O0er(oad
SPDT < SPST s"itches Continuous rated Current O0er(oad
Protecti0e De0ice Alerts
If the Auto Display
feature is acti0e@ the
Alert /ie" 4indo" "ill
appear as soon as the
(oad Flo" calculation
has finished:
1996-2009 Operation Technology, nc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 431
Ad0anced (F Topics
Ad0anced (F Topics
(oad Flo" Con0er$ence
/olta$e Control
%0ar Control
(oad Flo" Con0er$ence
Negative mpedance
Zero or Very Small mpedance
Widely Different Branch mpedance Values
Long Radial System Configurations
Bad Bus Voltage nitial Values

/olta$e Control
Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be

fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.
Methods of mproving Voltage Conditions:
Transformer Replacement
Capacitor Addition
Transformer Tap Adjustment

Under-/olta$e E;ample
Create Under Voltage

Condition
Change Syn2 Quantity to 6.
(nfo Page, Quantity Field)
Run LF
Bus8 Turns Magenta (Under
Voltage Condition)
Method 1 - Change Xfmr

Change T4 from 3 MVA to 8
MVA, will notice slight
improvement on the Bus8 kV
Too Expensive and time

consuming
Method 2 - Shunt
Capacitor
Add Shunt Capacitor to Bus8
300 kvar 3 Banks
Voltage is improved
Method 3 - Change Tap
Place LTC on Primary of T6

Select Bus8 for Control Bus
Select Update LTC in the
Study Case
Run LF
Bus Voltage Comes within

specified limits
%0ar Control
Vars from Utility

Add Switch to CAP1
Open Switch
Run LF
Method 1 Generator
Change Generator from
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control
Set Mvar Design Setting to 5
Mvars
Method 2 Add Capacitor

Close Switch
Run Load Flow

Var Contribution from the
Utility reduces
Method 3 Xfmr MVA

Change T1 Mva to 40 MVA
Will notice decrease in the

contribution from the Utility
Panel Systems
Panel Systems
Panel Goards
They are a collection of branch circuits

feeding system loads
Panel System is used for representing

power and lighting panels in electrical
systems
Clic2 to drop once on O(/
Dou3le-Clic2 to drop multiple panels
A panel 3ranch circuit load can 3e modeled as
an internal or e;ternal load
Ad0anta$esE
6: Easier Data Entry
8: Concise System
Representation

Representation
Pin + is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allo"s up to 8C e;ternal load connections
Pin Assi$nment
Assumptions
V
rated
(internal load) = V
rated
(Panel Voltage)
Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3-

Phase panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel
circuit is (1/\3) times the rated panel voltage
The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire

panel is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
There are no losses in the feeders connecting a

load to the panel
Static loads are calculated based on their rated

voltage
(ine-(ine Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
-
,
!
+oad
I
,!
I
!
4 *I
,!
-
,
!

+oad,
I
,
4 I
,!
Angle by which load current
BC
lags the load voltage = 0

Therefore, for load connected between phases B and C:

S
BC
= V
BC
.
BC
P
BC
= V
BC
.
BC
.cos 0
Q
BC
= V
BC
.
BC
.sin 0
For load connected to phase B

SB = VB.B
PB = VB.B.cos (0 - 30)
QB = VB.B.sin (0 - 30)

And, for load connected to phase C

SC = VC.C
PC = VC.C.cos (0 + 30)
QC = VC.C.sin (0 + 30)
7-Phase C-4ire Panel
7-Phase 7-4ire Panel
#EC Selection
A@ G@ C from top to 3ottom or
left to ri$ht from the front of
the panel
Phase G shall 3e the hi$hest
0olta$e (.! on a 7-phase@ C-
"ire delta connected system
midpoint $rounded!
Info Pa$e
Intelli$ent 2/ Calculation
f a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
For EC, Enclosure Type
is ngress Protection
(Pxy), where P00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel
Select ANS or EC
Breakers or Fuses from
Main Device Library
Ratin$ Pa$e
Schedule Pa$e
Circuit #um3ers
"ith
Column (ayout
Circuit #um3ers
"ith
Standard (ayout
Description Ta3
First 6C load items in the list are 3ased on #EC 6***
(ast 6+ load types in the Panel Code Factor Ta3le are user-defined
(oad Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculatin$ the
total panel load
E;ternal loads are classified as motor load or static load accordin$ to the
element type
For E;ternal lin2s the load status is determined from the connected loadIs
demand factor status
Ratin$ Ta3
Enter per phase /A@ 4@ or
Amperes for this load:
For e;ample@ if total 4atts
for a 7-phase load are
68++@ enter 4 as C++
'68++<7!
(oadin$ Ta3
For internal loads@ enter the J loadin$ for the selected loadin$ cate$ory
For 3oth internal and e;ternal loads@ Amp 0alues are
calculated 3ased on terminal 3us nominal 2/
Protecti0e De0ice Ta3
Library Quick Pick -
LV Circuit Breaker
(Molded Case, with
Thermal Magnetic Trip
Device) or
Library Quick Pick
Fuse will appear
depending on the
Type of protective
device selected.
Feeder Ta3
Action Guttons
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
Paste the entire content (of the
copied row) in the selected row.
This will work when the Link
Type is other than space or
unusable, and only for fields
which are not blocked.
Blank out the contents of the entire
selected row.
Summary Pa$e
Continuous (oad D Per Phase and Total
#on-Continuous (oad D Per Phase and Total
Connected (oad D Per Phase and Total Continuous T #on-Continuous (oad!
Code Demand D Per Phase and Total
Output Report
Panel Code Factors
Code demand load depends on Panel Code Factors
The first fourteen have fixed formats per NEC 1999
Code demand load calculation for internal loads are done
for each types of load separately and then summed up

8 Shortcircuit IEC

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8 Shortcircuit IEC

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1996-2009 Operation Technology, nc.

Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit EC

Estndar de ANS/EEE & EC.

Anlisis de fallas transitorias

Efecto de Arco (NFPA 70E-

ntegrado con coordinacin de

A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine

Verify protective device close and latch capability

Verify protective device interrupting capability

Protect equipment from large mechanical forces

Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination

nitial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current ("k)

Peak Short-Circuit Current (ip)

Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current

Steady-State Short-Circuit Current (k)

k = Equivalent V @ fault location divided by

Equivalent V is based bus nominal kV and c

XFMR and machine Z adjusted based on

This is a short-circuit condition to which at least

This is a short-circuit condition during which the

Equation (75) of Std 60909-0, adjusting k for

Maximum voltage factor is used

Minimum impedance is used (all negative

Minimum voltage factor is used

Maximum impedance is used (all positive

Ratio between equivalent voltage &

Required to account for:

Variations due to time & place

Static loads & capacitances

Generator & motor subtransient

ETAP automatically determines mesh &

EC Short Circuit Mesh Determination

Branch susceptances and static

Curvas para ms de 75,000

ntegrados a los diagramas

Rastreo o clculos en diferentes

Concepts & Applications

Features & Capabilities

Protective Device Type

Normalized TCC curves

A systematic study of current responsive

To determine the ratings and settings of

To isolate the fault or overloads.

Available Measures of Fault

Open only PD nearest (upstream) of the

Provide satisfactory protection for overloads

nterrupt SC as rapidly (instantaneously) as

Comply with all applicable standards and

Plot the Time Current Characteristics of

New electrical systems

Plant electrical system expansion/retrofits

Coordination failure in an existing plant

115-125% (mild overload)

Abnormal loading condition (Locked-Rotor)

Ten times the full-load current and higher

Prevent injury to personnel

Minimize damage to components

Quickly isolate the affected portion of the system

Minimize the magnitude of available short-circuit

Limit the extent and duration of service

Selective fault isolation

Provide alternate circuits