Fallacy

It came from the Latin word

“fallo” which means “I deceive”
and “fallere” which means
“to deceive”

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 TWO GENERAL
CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Fallacies of a 2. Fallacies not of a
Language Language
a. Accident
a. Equivocation
b. Confusion of Absolute Statement
b. Amphiboly c. Begging the Question
c. Composition d. False Cause
d. Division e. Consequent
e. Accent f. Many Questions
g. Non-Sequitur
f. Figures of Speech
h. Ignoratio Elenchi

1. Argumentum ad hominem 2. Argumentum ad populum

3. Argumentum ad misericordiam 4. Argumentum ad verecundiam
5. Argumentum ad baculum 6. Argumentum ad ignorantiam
 Equivocation
It is a fallacy consisting of using a word that has the same
spelling or sound but the meaning is different, in
different parts of the inference.
EXAMPLES
1. Every water is in liquid form.
We should water the plant everyday.
Ergo, we should plant everyday in liquid form.
2. Every pen is a writing instrument.
The cage of a pig is a pen.
Ergo, the cage of a pig is a writing instrument.

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 Amphiboly
It is a fallacy expressed in using a statement whose
meaning is ambiguous exposing it to various
interpretations.
EXAMPLES
1. My wife Jenny said to her sister Eva that she has to
go to the mall.
 Due to this formulation of the argument, we are at
the lost of who is actually being referred to as “she”. Is it
Jenny or Eva?
2. “While standing one leg, the boy played with his dog”
 Who is standing on one leg: the boy or the dog?
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 Composition
It is a fallacy of considering words or statements as a whole
when they should be considered separately. In other
words, it is an error of stating that what is true of the
parts is also true of the whole.
EXAMPLE:
Those who topped the 1999 Bar Exam are from Cebu
Jose of UST is the 1999 Bar Topnotcher
Ergo, Jose of UST is from Cebu

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 Division
• It is a fallacy of considering words or statements
separately when they should have been considered as a
whole.

EXAMPLE:

X University is vital to Catholic Education

Mr. Y is a professor of X University
Ergo, Mr. Y is vital to Christian Education

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 Accent
This kind of fallacy arises due to difference in interpretation
brought about by misplaced emphasis on a phrase, word
or syllable in a proposition.
EXAMPLE:
You may laugh as you like.
(Meaning: Others may laugh)
You may laugh as you like.
(Meaning: You are not prohibited from laughing)
You my laugh as you like.
(Meaning: It is permissible that you laugh or not to laugh)
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 Figures of Speech
This kind of fallacy is a special type of false analogy that
consist in wrongly inferring similarity of meaning from
similarity of word structure
EXAMPLE
What is immaterial is not material
and what is insoluble is is not soluble;
ergo, what is inflammable is not flammable.

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 Accident
This fallacy is involved in affirming or denying of a thing
what has been affirmed or denied only of some
accidental modification or condition of the thing or vice
versa
EXAMPLE
“You say that you ate what you bought;
but you bought a raw meat;
ergo, you must have eaten raw meat.

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 Confusion of Absolute
Statement
This fallacy uses a principle that uses absolutely true
statements but restricted by practical limitations
EXAMPLE
“Water boils at 212° Fahrenheit
ergo, water boils at 212° Fahrenheit on the top of Mt.
Everest

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 Begging the Question
This fallacy is a.k.a.as petitio principii is involved when we
assume a conclusion is proving what is not known in the
premises
EXAMPLES
All in this room are wearing shoes
but Martha is in this room
ergo, Martha is wearing shoes

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 False Cause
Also known as “non causa pro causa”
This fallacy is involved from a conclusion of causal with a
non-causal relationship under the form of “post hoc, ergo
propter hoc” (after this, therefore because of this)
EXAMPLE
Night comes before the day
ergo, night causes the day

Don’t look directly at the sun

otherwise, the sun will punish you

A man cannot think without his brain

Ergo, a man’s brain is the cause of his thought back
 Consequent
This fallacy is involved when we infer that an antecedent is
true because the consequent is true
EXAMPLE
A dog is an animal
but Moby Dick is an animal
ergo, Moby Dick is a dog

A dog is an animal
but Moby Dick is not a dog
ergo, Moby Dickis not an animal
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 Many Question
This is also known as Complex Question
This fallacy is involved when we are asking either a multiple
question as though it were a single question demanding
a yes or no answer
EXAMPLE

Have you not given up the habit of cheating in my class?

Have you stopped beating your wife?

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 Non Sequitur
It is the Latin of “it does not follow”
This fallacy is involved to true but unrelated propositions
without any connections
EXAMPLES
Cows give milk
but sheep have wool
ergo, goats chew their cud

As a student of a Catholic school, I will become a

minister later.
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 Ignoratio elenchi
It came from the Latin ignoratio = irrelevant
elencho = conclusion
This fallacy is involved when we prove other conclusions
not the issue t be concluded
It has various minor forms as presented below:
rgumentum ad hominem 2. Argumentum ad populum
rgumentum ad misericordiam 4. Argumentum ad verecundiam
rgumentum ad baculum 6. Argumentum ad ignorantiam

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 Argumentum ad hominem
This fallacy is the Latin for “attack or appeal to the man”
This fallacy is involved in court hearings when the defense
or prosecution is attacking the dignity of the person or
witness instead of weighing the evidences presented
EXAMPLE
“Your honor, it would be very difficult for us not to believe
that the accused of this murder case is not guilty,
because his father and grandfather has been convicted
of murder several years ago. And besides, the accused
is of bad moral reputation.”

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 Argumentum ad populum
This is known as “appeal to people” where popular
prejudice is preferred rather than truth and reason where
an argument may be believed by most, if not by all
people, although that argument may not be true
EXAMPLE
• “Clinically proven safe and effective…”
• “The only earth structure visible in space is the
Great Wall of China.”
• Save the user, jail the pusher
• “If you will vote for me…”

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 Argumentum ad misericordiam
This is “appeal to pity” a kind of fallacious argument that
arises when an appeal to evidence is replaced by an
appeal to pity, mercy or sympathy
EXAMPLE
“Please, just give me a 3.0 grade. Ishould not receive a
failing grade since it is my 3rd time to take this Logic
subject”

“The accused in robbery case must not be put to jail,

because he is a father of 12 children and his wife is in
the hospital suffering from stage 3 cancer.”
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 Agumentum ad vericundiam
This is “appeal to awe, modesty, shame, respect or
authority” committed by overawing people by the dignity
of those who hold the opinion without special reference
to the truth they hold
EXAMPLE
• The Roman Catholic Church… “The earth is the center
of the Universe.”

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 Argumentum ad baculum
This is “appeal to force or appeal to might” arises when one
appeal to intimidation, or use of force in order to gain
acceptance of his propositions
EXAMPLE
President of a state to the citizens: “Commit heinous
crimes and you will surely enjoy the lethal injection.”

Father to his son: “If you will not be serious with your
studies, your future will be bleak. And you can never
expect me to lift finger to help when you need me.”

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 Argumentum ad ignorantiam
The “appeal to ignorance” is committed when we infer a
false statement because it cannot be proved, true
because it cannot be refuted.
EXAMPLE
This evidence must be accepted
because it cannot be refuted

You cannot declare me guilty

since you cannot prove it.

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