1.

Food processing is the use of suitable methods and techniques to transform raw
edible substances into food for human consumption
2. The purpose of food processing are to :
a) Prevent microorganisms (e.g. bacteria and mold) from putrefying or fermenting
food
b) Prevent oxidation from spoiling food
c) Extend the shelf life of food
d) Make food looked better and tastier
e) Remove toxins
f) Prevent excess food from spoiling and going to waste
g) Produce different varieties from a single food substance , for instance milk is
processed into cheese, milk powder, butter and yogurt
h) Enable easy food distribution to consumers
i) Increase food consistency for marketing
1. A short history of food processing
a) When prehistoric humans first discovered fire, they processed food by cooking
it (burning, baking over hot stones and boiling) and later smoking it.
b) Then they leave meat, fruits and vegetable in the sun and wind to remove their
moisture
c) Much later, people discovered the salting of fish, meat and vegetables
d) Today, we use some of these main methods to process our food like canning,
drying, dehydration, freezing (first commercial use in 1842), freeze-drying,
pasteurization, fermentation or pickling and irradiation

a) Pasteurization
 1 Pasteurization is a process which slows microbial growth in food. The process was
named after its creator, French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur. The first
pasteurization test was completed by Louis Pasteur and Claude Bernard on April,
1862. The process was originally conceived as a way of preventing wine and beer
from souring.
2 Unlike sterilization, inventor Nicolas Appert, pasteurization is not intended to kill
all pathogenic micro-organisms in the food or liquid. Instead, pasteurization aims to
reduce the number of viable pathogens so they are unlikely to cause disease
(assuming the pasteurization product is refrigerated and consumed before its
expiration date). Commercial-scale sterilization of food is not common because it
adversely affects the taste and quality of the product. Certain food products are
processed to achieve the state of commercial sterility.
3 Pasteurization typically uses temperatures below boiling since at temperatures
above the boiling point for milk, casein, micelles will irreversibly aggregate (or
"curdle"). There are two main types of pasteurization used today: High
temperature /short time HTST and Extended Shelf Life (ESL) treatment. Ultra High
Temperature (UHT or ultra-heat treated) is also used for milk treatment
Pasteurization methods are usually standardized and controlled by national food
safety agencies. These agencies require milk to be HTST pasteurized in order to
qualify for the "pasteurization" label. There are different standards for different
dairy products, depending on the fat content and the intended usage. For example,
the pasteurization standards for cream differ from the standards for fluid milk, and
the standards for pasteurizing cheese are designed to preserve the phosphates
enzyme, which aids in cutting.
.

Pasteurization process

1. Products that can be pasteurized:

a) Cheese
b) Water
c) Milk
d) Beer
e) Eggs
f) Almonds
g) Juice

a) Fermentation
1. Fermentation in food processing typically refers to the conversion of sugar to
alcohol using yeast, bacteria or a combination thereof, under anaerobic
conditions.
2. More general definition of fermentation is the chemical conversion of
carbohydrates into alcohols or acids. When fermentation stops prior to complete
conversion of sugar to alcohol, a stuck fermentation is said to have occurred.
3. The science of fermentation is known as zymology. Fermentation usually implies
that the action of the microorganisms is desirable and the process is used to
produce alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer, and cider.
4. Fermentation is also employed in preservation to create lactic acid in sour foods
such as pickled cucumbers, kimchi and yogurts.

Beer fermenting at brewery

 Natto, a Japanese fermented soybean food

1. The main purpose of food fermentation:

• Enrichment of the diet through development of a diversity of flavors,
aromas, and textures in food substrates.
• Preservation of substantial amounts of food through lactic acid, alcohol,
acetic acid and alkaline fermentations.
• Biological enrichment of food substrates with protein, essential amino acids,
essential fatty acids, and vitamins.
• Detoxification during food-fermentation processing.
• A decrease in cooking times and fuel requirements.
a) Cooking
1. Cooking is the process of preparing food by applying heat, selecting, measuring,
and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure for producing safe and
edible food.
2. The process encompasses a vast range method of methods, tools and combination
of ingredients to alter the flavor, appearance, texture or digestibility of food.
3. Factors affecting the final outcome include the variability of ingredients, ambient
conditions, tools and the skill of the individual doing the actual cooking.

4. Applying heat to food usually, though not always, chemically transform it, thus
changing its flavor, texture, consistency, appearance and nutritional properties.
5. Methods of cooking that involve the boiling of liquid in a reacceptance have been
practiced at least since the 10th millennium BC, with the introduction of pottery.
a) Preservation
a) salt
1. Salting is the preservation of food with dry salt. It is related to pickling (preparing
food with brine, i.e. salty water)
2. It is one of the oldest methods of preserving food, and two historically significant
such foods are dried and salted cod (usually referred to as salt fish) and salt-cured
meat.
3. Salting is used because most bacteria, fungi and other potentially pathogenic
organisms cannot survive in a highly salty environment, due to the hypertonic
nature of salt.
4. Any living cell in such an environment will become dehydrated trough osmosis
and die or become temporarily inactivated

Preservation using salt

a) Sugaring
1. Sugaring is a food preservation method similar to pickling. Sugaring is the
process of desiccating a food by first dehydrating it, then packing it with pure
sugar.
2. This sugar can be crystalline in the form of table or raw sugar, or it can be a high
sugar density liquid such as honey, syrup or molasses
3. The purpose of sugaring is to create an environment hostile to microbial life and
prevent food spoilage. Sugaring is commonly used to preserve fruits as well as
vegetables such as ginger.
4. From time to time sugaring also has been used for non-food preservations.
5. A risk in sugaring is that sugar itself attracts moisture. Once a sufficient moisture
level is reached, native yeast in the environment will come out of dormancy and
begin to ferment the sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
6. This leads to the process of fermentation. Although fermentation can be used as a
food preservation method, it must be intentionally controlled, or the results will
tend to be unpleasant

a) Vinegar
1. Now a relatively common practice to bottle vegetables, herbs and spices in oil,
vinegar or mixture of both.
2. This is done both commercially and domestically and the products should be
refrigerated below 4°C.
3. Products which are treated in this way include chopped garlic, garlic cloves, sun-
dried tomatoes, chili, ginger and capsicum.
4. Acetic acid in the vinegar prevents microbial growth. The more concentrated
vinegar absorbs water from food and microorganisms by osmosis
5. While these products are safe if refrigerated, they represent a potential food
poisoning hazard unless certain basic precautions are taken in their preservation.
e) Canning
1. Canning is a method of preserving food in which the food is processed and sealed
in an airtight container. The process was first developed as a French military
discovery by Nicolas Appert. The packaging prevents microorganisms from
entering and proliferating inside.
2. From a public safety point of view, foods with low acidity (a pH more than 4.6)
need sterilization under high temperature (116-130°C). To achieve temperatures
above the boiling point requires the use of a pressure canner. Foods that must be
pressure canned include most vegetables, meats, seafood, poultry, and dairy
products. The only foods that may be safely canned in an ordinary boiling water
bath are highly acidic ones with a pH below 4.6, such as fruits, pickled
vegetables, or other foods to which acidic additives have been added.

(a)
 (b)
Figure (a) and (b) shows the canning of food

f) Drying
1. Drying is a method of food preservation that works by removing water from the food,
which prevents the growth of microorganisms and decay. Drying food using the sun and
wind to prevent spoilage has been known since ancient times. Water is usually removed
by evaporation (air drying, sun drying, smoking or wind drying) but, in the case of
freeze-drying, food is first dried and then water is removed by sublimation.
2. Bacteria and micro-organisms within the food and from the air need the water in the food
to grow. Drying effectively prevents them from surviving in the food. It also creates a
hard outer-layer, helping to stop micro-organisms from entering the food.
3. Many different foods are prepared by dehydration. Good examples are meat such as
prosciutto (a.k.a. Parma ham), bresaola, and beef jerky. Dried and salted reindeer meat is
a traditional Sami food. First the meat is soaked / pickled in saltwater for a couple of days
to guarantee the conservation of the meat. Then the meat is dried in the sun in spring
when the air temperature is below zero. The dried meat can be further processed to make
soup.
4. Fruits change character completely when dried: the plum becomes a prune, the grape a
raisin; figs and dates are also transformed.
5. Drying is rarely used for vegetables for use in the household however dehydrated
vegetables are often found in commercially packaged meals as well as meals made for
backpackers, hunters, military, etc. The exceptions to this rule are bulbs, such as garlic
and onion, which are often dried. Also chilies are frequently dried. Edible and psilocybin
mushrooms, as well as other fungi, are also sometimes dried for preservation purposes, to
affect the potency of chemical components, or so they can be used as seasonings.
 6. For centuries, much of the European diet depended on dried cod, known as salt cod or
bacalhau (with salt) or stockfish (without). It formed the main protein source for the
slaves on the West Indian plantations, and was a major economic force within the
triangular trade. Dried shark meat, known as Hákarl, is a delicacy in Iceland.

A collection of dried mushrooms

g) Refrigeration
1. Refrigeration slows bacterial growth. Bacteria exist everywhere in nature. They are in the
soil, air, water and the foods we eat. When they have nutrients (food), moisture, and
favorable temperature, they grow rapidly, increasing in numbers to the point where some
types of bacteria can cause illness.
2. Bacteria grow most rapidly in the range of temperatures between 40° and 140°F, the
“Danger Zone”, some doubling in number in as little as 20 minutes
3. A refrigerator set at 40°F or below will protect most foods.
4. For safety it is important to verify the temperature of the refrigerator. Refrigerators
should be set to maintain a temperature of 40°F or below.

STORAGE TIMES FOR REFRIGERATED FOODS:

FOOD REFRIGERATION TIME
Eggs
Fresh in shell 3-5 weeks
Raw yolks, whites 2-4 days
Hard-cooked 1 week
Liquid pasteurized eggs, egg substitutes Unopened, 10 days
 Opened, 3 days
Cooked egg dishes 3-4 days
Deli and vacuum-Packed products
3-5 days
Stored prepared egg, chicken, tuna, ham,
and macaroni salads
Lamb chops, and chicken breasts 1 day
Store-cooked dinners and entrees 3-4 days
Raw Hamburger, Ground and Stew
Meat

Ground beef, turkey, veal, lamb 1-2 days

Stew meats 1-2 days

Refrigeration of food

1. Food spoilage means the original nutritional value, texture, flavour of the food are
damaged, the food become harmful to people and unsuitable to eat.
2. There are 3 factors that cause food spoilage:
a) Microbial spoilage
b) Autolysis
c) Other factors
3. Bacteria are round, rod or spiral shaped microorganisms. Bacteria may grow under a
wide variety of conditions. There are many types of bacteria that cause spoilage. They
can be divided into: spore-forming and no spore-forming. Bacteria generally prefer low
acid foods like vegetables and meat. In order to destroy bacteria spores in a relatively
short period of time, low acid foods must be processed for the appropriate length of time
at 116°C (240°F) in a pressure canner. (Temperatures higher than 100°C [212°F] can be
obtained only by pressure canning.)
4. Eating spoiled food caused by bacteria can cause food poisoning.
5. Enzymes are proteins found in all plants and animals. If uncooked foods are not used
while fresh, enzymes cause undesirable changes in colour, texture and flavour. Enzymes
are destroyed easily by heat processing.
Atmospheric oxygen can react with some food components which may cause rancidity or
color changes.

6. Other factors
• Infestations (invasions) by insects and rodents, which account for huge losses in food
stocks.
• Low temperature injury - the internal structures of the food are damaged by very low
temperature.

The picture of spoiled food

SEKOLAH SULTAN ALAM SHAH

PUTRAJAYA
 PORTFOLIO:

BIOLOGY
(Form 4)

NAME: MUHAMMAD ADLI BIN BADIAU ZAMAN

CLASS: 4 USAHA

1. Food processing dates back to the prehistoric ages when crude processing incorporated
slaughtering, fermenting, sun drying, preserving with salt, and various types of cooking
(such as roasting, smoking, steaming, and oven baking). Salt-preservation was especially
common for foods that constituted warrior and sailors' diets, up until the introduction of
canning methods. Evidence for the existence of these methods exists in the writings of
the ancient Greek , Chaldean, Egyptian and Roman civilizations as well as archaeological
evidence from Europe, North and South America and Asia. These tried and tested
processing techniques remained essentially the same until the advent of the industrial
revolution. Examples of ready-meals also exist from pre industrial revolution times such
as the Cornish pasty and the Haggis
2. Modern food processing technology in the 19th and 20th century was largely developed
to serve military needs. In 1809 Nicolas Appett invented a vacuum bottling technique that
would supply food for French troops, and this contributed to the development of tinning
and then canning by Peter Durand in 1810. Although initially expensive and somewhat
hazardous due to the lead used in cans, canned goods would later become a staple around
 the world. Pasteurization, discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1862, was a significant advance
in ensuring the micro-biological safety of food.
3. In the 20th century, World War II, the space race and the rising consumer society in
developed countries (including the United States) contributed to the growth of food
processing with such advances as spray drying, juice concentrates, freeze drying and the
introduction of artificial sweeteners, colouring agents, and preservatives such as sodium
benzoate. In the late 20th century products such as dried instant soups, reconstituted fruits
and juices, and self cooking meals such as MRE food ration were developed.
4. In western Europe and North America, the second half of the 20th century witnessed a
rise in the pursuit of convenience, food processors especially marketed their products to
middle-class working wives and mothers. Frozen foods (often credited to Clarence
Birdseye) found their success in sales of juice concentrates and "TV dinners ".Processors
utilised the perceived value of time to appeal to the postwar population, and this same
appeal contributes to the success of convenience foods today.

There have seven methods of food processing:

a) Pasteurization
b) Fermentation

c) Cooking

d) Preservation

e) Canning

f) Drying

g) Refrigeration