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In this book Pareto presents the first sociological cycle theory, centered around the concept of
an elite social class.
Following the ideas of Machiavelli, he distinguished two main types of elite group:
a. "Lion elites" who were able to rule by force (for example, military regimes).

b. "Fox elites" who were able to rule by manipulation (for example, liberal democratic
regimes).
the conservativedefenders of the status quo (violent 'lions'), and the radical promoters of
change (cunning 'foxes'). In his view of society, the power constantly passes from 'foxes' to
'lions' and vice versa.





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Merton's work is often compared to that of Talcott Parsons. Unlike Parsons, who emphasized
the necessity for social science to establish a general foundation, Merton preferred more
limited, middle-range theories. According to Merton, middle-range theory starts its theorizing
with clearly defined aspects of social phenomena, rather than with broad, abstract entities
such as society as a whole. Theories of the middle range should be firmly supported by
empirical data. These theories must be constructed with observed data in order to create
theoretical problems and to be incorporated in proposals that allow empirical testing. Middlerange theories, applicable to limited ranges of data, transcend sheer description of social
phenomena and fill in the blanks between raw empiricism and grand or all-inclusive theory.


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Attitude to Goals Attitude to Means Modes of adaptation

accept

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reject

Innovation

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reject

Retreatism

reject/accept

reject/accept

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Science

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( .)CUDOS
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Communalism the common ownership of scientific discoveries, according to
which scientists give up intellectual property in exchange for recognition and
esteem.
Universalism according to which claims to truth are evaluated in terms of
universal or impersonal criteria, and not on the basis of race, class, gender,
;religion, or nationality
Disinterestedness according to which scientists are rewarded for acting in
;ways that outwardly appear to be selfless
Organized skepticism all ideas must be tested and are subject to rigorous,
structured community scrutiny.

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provides subjective meaning in human behaviour, the social process and pragmatism
Society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals
Society is nothing more than the shared reality that people construct as they interact
with one another
Sees people interacting in countless settings using symbolic communications.
Therefore, society is a complex, ever-changing mosaic of subjective meanings.

understanding the meanings that social actions have for the people being studied

Based on the pragmatic social psychology of George Herbert Mead (18631931), Herbert
Blumer(19001987) and, later, the Chicago school, sociologists developed symbolic
interactionism.

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Breaching experiments involve the conscious exhibition of unexpected behavior/violation
of social norms, an observation of the types of social reactions such behavioral violations
engender, and an analysis of the social structure that makes these social reactions possible.
The assumption behind this approach is not only that individuals engage daily in building up
"rules" for social interaction, but also that people are unaware they are doing so.

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