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University of Puerto Rico Ro Piedras Campus College of General Studies English Department Prepared by Prof. Lydia A.

Lpez-Ruiz 2012-13 Elements of the hort tory !i"tion is #ritin$ "reated by the author from his%her ima$ination. &ne di"tionary defines fi"tion as #ritten material su"h as poetry' no(els' essays' espe"ially #or)s of ima$ination "hara"terized by e*"ellen"e of style and e*pression and by theme of $eneral and endurin$ interest. +ndeed' the e*perien"es narrated in a #or) of fi"tion may be real but the "hara"ters and situations are ima$inary. ,he prin"ipal forms of fi"tion are myths' fables' tales' le$ends' short stories' no(els and drama. ,he elements of fi"tion are the different "omponents that ma)e up a #or) of fi"tion. ,he #ord literature literally means -a".uaintan"e #ith letters/ and its t#o ma0or "lassifi"ations are poetry and prose. All literature e*plores a theme or si$nifi"ant truth as e*pressed in su"h elements as settin$' plot' "hara"ters' point of (ie#' method of presentation' di"tion and style that is memorable and indi(idual to ea"h #or) of fi"tion. 1nderstandin$ these elements "an help the reader $ain some understandin$ or insi$ht about life' human moti(es and e*perien"es. ,his insi$ht is the prin"ipal aim of an effe"ti(e #or) of fi"tion and #hen the reader is able to per"ei(e it' he%she de(elops literary 0ud$ment and enri"hes his%her life. A short story is a #or) of fi"tion usually #ritten in prose' often in narrati(e format' and of shorter len$th than a no(el. +t is often limited to a sin$le effe"t to #hi"h e(ery detail is subordinate. ,he follo#in$ elements are the most important ones to be "onsidered in the analysis of fi"tion2 I. SE I!G

,he settin$ is the total physi"al en(ironment of the story. +t is the time' and "ir"umstan"es that form the ba")$round of a story. +t in"ludes #eather' time' politi"al' so"ial and%or reli$ious "limate' lo"al or national fa"tors. ettin$ is an important element in "reatin$ or e(o)in$ mood in short stories. Atmosphere is the emotional effe"t of the settin$ #hi"h is felt as an influen"e emer$in$ not from one detail but from the #hole s"ene. ettin$s "an also be symboli" or "an ser(e metaphori"ally as an e*pression or e*tension of "hara"ter. ettin$s "an also refle"t the "hara"ters3 emotions or a"tions and may help to establish or maintain a "ertain mood. ettin$ #hi"h is presented effe"ti(ely tends to ma)e us belie(e in fi"tional "hara"ters and e(ents. 4o#e(er' settin$ may do more than "reate an illusion of reality. +t may also be a means of re(ealin$ "hara"ter to the reader. ,he en(ironment in #hi"h a "hara"ter li(es may help the reader understand that "hara"ter3s moti(es and beha(ior. +n stories #here the primary "onfli"t is internal' details of settin$ may indi"ate a "hara"ter3s state of mind.

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,he plot is the storyline' the plan' the se.uen"e of related e(ents or a"tions in a short story. An author may in"lude elements su"h as foreshado#in$' flashba")s' epiphany. A traditional plot stru"ture' ho#e(er' has a se"tion of e$positions #hi"h $i(es the readers important ba")$round information. +t is follo#ed by rising action #hi"h brea)s the e*istin$ e.uilibrium and introdu"es the "onfli"t of the story. &n"e the ma0or "onfli"t is established' the a"tion of a traditional plot $enerally mo(es to#ard a clima$' ho# the story #ill turn out. %alling action is the point at #hi"h the tension subsides and the plot mo(es to its appointed "on"lusion and resolution or denouement #hi"h re"ords the out"ome of the "onfli"t and%or establishes some ne# e.uilibrium or stability. ,he e*"itement and meanin$fulness of the e(ents in the plot arise out of some )ind of "onfli"t or stru$$le. 5ithout "onfli"t here is no plot. 6onfli"t is the opposition of for"e #hi"h ties one in"ident to another and ma)es the plot mo(e. ,his "onfli"t "an be a stru$$le of for"e outside the "hara"ter 7e*ternal "onfli"t8 or the stru$$le "ould be metal' emotional or moral 7internal "onfli"t8. +n a story there may be a sin$le "onfli"t or se(eral related "onfli"ts. ,he "entral "hara"ter in the "onfli"t' "alled the protagonist' is usually opposed by the for"es of another person' so"iety' nature' or e(en by a trait of his%her o#n "hara"ter. ,his opposin$ for"e is "alled antagonist. 9asi"ally there are three )inds of "onfli"t #hi"h "an be present in a #or) of fi"tion. ,hese are2 18 "hara"ter (ersus "hara"ter 28 "hara"ter (ersus en(ironment 7nature or so"iety8 38 "hara"ter (ersus self ometimes the endin$ of a story turns out to be the opposite of #hat a "hara"ter or the reader e*pe"ts. ,his type of endin$ is said to be ironic. An ironi" endin$ is effe"ti(e #hen the out"ome is une*pe"ted' yet "ompletely lo$i"al. ometimes the tone of the entire story is ironi". +rony in(ol(es a differen"e or "ontrast bet#een appearan"e and reality. +n other #ords' there is a dis"repan"y bet#een #hat appears to be true and #hat really is true. +rony reminds the reader that life is unpredi"table and that #hat is e*pe"ted to happen' or is #ished to happen' does not al#ays ha(e the intended result. +rony "an ma)e us smile or flin"h. +t "an be $enial or bitter. ,he types of irony are2 1. irony of situation #hen there is a "ontrast bet#een #hat is e*pe"ted to happen and #hat a"tually happens: 2. dramati" irony #hen the reader )no#s somethin$ that a "hara"ter in the story does not )no#: 3. (erbal irony #hen a "hara"ter says one thin$ and means somethin$ entirely different. III.C&'R'C ERI(' I#! ,he "hara"ters in a story are the people #ho "arry out the a"tion. 4o#e(er' the #ord "hara"ter may refer to the person in a #or) of fi"tion or to the "hara"teristi"s of a person. 6hara"ters are di(ided into t#o ma0or $roups2 ma)or or principal characters and minor or secondary characters. ,hese terms are related to the de$ree of "hara"ter de(elopment 7round or flat8 and to the amount of "han$e or la") of it 7dynami"' stati"8. 2

;a0or or prin"ipal "hara"ters are usually dynamic. ,his means that 7throu$h the story8 they under$o an important or meanin$ful "han$e in their personalities. ,hey may also be round #hi"h means the "hara"ters are "omple*' and may re(eal se(eral different and maybe "onfli"tin$ "hara"ter traits #hen (ie#ed from different an$les. ;inor or se"ondary "hara"ters are usually "onsidered static. ,hey remain the same throu$hout the story. ,hey may also be flat. !lat "hara"ters are those #ith fe# traits. Another type of minor "hara"ter is the stereotype or stoc* character. ,his "hara"ter "onforms to a familiar and predi"table formula and has so fre.uently appeared in fi"tion that his%her nature is immediately )no#n to the reader. 9ut #hether they are ma0or or minor "hara"ters' they all ha(e spe"ifi" moral' psy"holo$i"al' and physi"al traits or "hara"teristi"s in a""ordan"e #ith the role of the story. +n order for a story to seem real to the reader' its "hara"ters must seem real. 6hara"terization is the information the author $i(es the reader about the "hara"ter. ,hese "hara"ter traits "an be di(ided into the follo#in$ "ate$ories2 18 E*ternal "hara"teristi"s < in"lude a$e' ra"e' physi"al appearan"e' "i(il status' edu"ation' station in life' mannerisms' habits and spee"h. 28 +nternal "hara"teristi"s < in"lude moral "hara"ter' emotional stability' intelli$en"e' and attitudes. Authors use different methods to present their "hara"ters. ,he t#o prin"ipal methods of "hara"terization are dire"t "hara"terization 7the author tells the reader dire"tly #hat a "hara"ter is li)e8 and indire"t "hara"terization 7throu$h the "hara"ter3s a"tions and dialo$ue the author allo#s the reader to dra# his%her o#n "on"lusion about #hat a "hara"ter is li)e8. +n order for "hara"ters in a story to ha(e "redibility or belie(ability' they must beha(e li)e real people. ,he reader needs to feel that they are true to life. ,o be belie(able' "hara"ters must ha(e "onsisten"y. +f a "hara"ter under$oes a "han$e' there must be suffi"ient reason to e*plain it. A "hara"ter #ho is presented as shy and a#)#ard "annot suddenly turn into a bold' "onfident indi(idual unless there is some "ru"ial e*perien"e that ma)es "han$e possible. ,here must also be moti(ation or reason to a""ount for a "hara"ter3s a"tions. ,his moti(ation may "ome by outside for"es or by the "hara"ter3s inner needs. I+. P#I! #% +IE, ,he person #ho tells the story is "alled the narrator' and the an$le from #hi"h the story is told is "alled its point of vie-. Point of (ie# has to do #ith the -eyes/ the author uses to see the e(ents and "hara"ters and the (oi"e he%she assumes to tell the tale. A story "an be told by someone #ho is a "hara"ter in the story or by an outside obser(er. +n the "onsideration of point of (ie# there are t#o main "ate$ories to )eep in mind2 18 !irst Person Point of =ie# 7used #hen the narrator spea)s as an -+/8 ,he narrator in first person stories should ne(er be "onfused #ith the author. ,he reader must al#ays bear in mind that the narrator is "reated by the author of the story. a. -+/ as the prota$onist or prin"ipal "hara"ter narrates the e(ents in #hi"h he%she has had a "entral role. b. -+/ as a se"ondary "hara"ter or #itness #ho narrates the e(ents in #hi"h someone else has played a "entral role. 3

,he first-person point of (ie# has the ad(anta$e of addin$ immedia"y to a story. ,he reader $ets the story dire"tly from one of its "hara"ters: ho#e(er' it also has its limitations. ,he reader sees the e(ents from the (anta$e point of only one "hara"ter. ,hat "hara"ter "an re(eal his or her feelin$s' thou$hts' and obser(ations' but "annot $et into the minds of other "hara"ters. As a result' the reader must determine #hether the narrator3s impressions are to be trusted. !rom this point of (ie# a story may also be told by someone #ho is an obser(er of the a"tion rather than a main "hara"ter. ,his point of (ie# is "alled first.person o/server. +t "reates distan"e from the "hara"ters. ,he narrator "annot see into the "hara"ters3 minds and read their thou$hts. ,he narrati(e must be restri"ted to #hat "an be seen and #hat "an be inferred. 4o#e(er' the narrator is free to "omment on the a"tions and does not ha(e to be an ob0e"ti(e #itness. +n short' )eep in mind that the first-person point of (ie# is limited to #hat one "hara"ter sees' thin)s' and feels. 728 ,hird-Person Point of =ie# 7used #hen the narrator tells the story usin$ he' she' they8 A story "an be told from the third-person point of (ie# by an outside obser(er #ho does not play a role in the e(ents. ,he narrator tells the story from the (anta$e point of -he/ or -she/. ,he author may narrate the story usin$ the omnis"ient point of (ie# introdu"in$ information #here and #hen he%she "hooses thus allo#in$ the reader to mo(e from "hara"ter to "hara"ter' e(ent to e(ent' ha(in$ free a""ess to the thou$hts' feelin$s and moti(ations of the "hara"ters. ,he thirdperson narrator may be multiple omniscience or an all )no#in$ obser(er #ho )no#s #hat se(eral of the "hara"ters see' hear' thin)' and feel and #ho "omments on the a"tion. ,his )ind of obser(er is free to enter into the minds and feelin$s of the "hara"ters and to "omment on or interpret e(ents. ometimes an author tells a story in the third-person from the point of (ie# of only one "hara"ter. +nstead of learnin$ #hat some of the "hara"ters see' feel' and thin)' the reader $ets the information filtered throu$h one "hara"ter3s (ie#point. ,his third-person point of (ie# is "alled selective or limited omniscience. At other times an author may tell a story from the point of (ie# of an obser(er #ho #itnesses the a"tion but offers no "ommentary or interpretation of the e(ents. ,his obser(er tells the reader #hat the "hara"ters say or do' but does not re(eal their thou$hts and feelin$s. Readers must dra# their o#n "on"lusions about the "hara"ters from their dialo$ue and a"tions. ,his point of (ie# is "alled the o/)ective or dramatic point of vie- be"ause the narrator maintains distan"e from the story. ,he author may sele"t an inno"ent point of (ie# by tellin$ the story throu$h the eyes of a "hild. &r the author may use stream of consciousness ma)in$ the reader feel as if he%she #ere inside the "hara"ter3s mind and )no#s all of the "hara"ter3s thou$hts and rea"tions. A "onsistently maintained point of (ie# is an aestheti"ally pleasin$ as #ell as a stron$ly unifyin$ element in a #or) of fi"tion. 9ut it is also important to bear in mind the fa"t that any point of (ie# is rarely "ompletely "onsistent #ithin a #or). !or one reason or another the author "an shift momentarily' or for lon$er periods' to another point of (ie#. >

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,he theme is the "entral idea' the "ontrollin$ idea or the "entral insi$ht of a story. +t may be the author3s thou$hts about a topi" or (ie# of human nature or underlyin$ meanin$ about human nature that is de(eloped in a story. A theme may be e*pressed dire"tly or indire"tly. Althou$h not e(ery story "an be said to ha(e a theme 7mysteries and ad(enture stories are told mainly for entertainment8' theme is an important element in those stories that offer insi$ht into human bein$s. ometimes theme is e*pressed dire"tly in a story. ;ost of the time' ho#e(er' the theme must be inferred from other elements in the story. A theme is the "ontrollin$ idea behind the story. +t e*presses a point of (ie# about life or $i(es the reader insi$ht into human beha(ior. +n short' a theme is some insi$ht or $eneralization about life. ,he follo#in$ prin"iples are important #hen tryin$ to find the theme of the story2 18 ,he theme must be stated in a "omplete senten"e and not #ith one #ord or phrase. 28 ,he theme must be stated as a $eneralization about life. ?o spe"ifi" "hara"ter or pla"e should be mentioned in the statement2 5ords li)e some' sometimes' and always should be used instead of all, every, and always. 38 ,he theme must fun"tion as a unifyin$ element in the story. +t must a""ount for all ma0or details in the story. +t must be reinfor"ed by details in the story. >8 ,he theme of the story "an be stated in many different #ays as lon$ as it "ommuni"ates the (ie# of life presented in the story. @8 ,hemes should be stated in simple' but ori$inal statements. !amiliar statements or readymade phrases should be a(oided #hen statin$ the theme. ometimes' instead of e*pressin$ a theme' a story "arries a moral that is intended to tea"h some rule of "ondu"t of life < some timeless bit of #isdom about human "ondu"t. +I. 0E &#D #% PRESE! ' I#! ,he method of presentation refers to the #ay essential information is re(ealed to the reader throu$h the orderin$ of the e(ents of the story. ,he most "ommon method is tellin$ the story in chronological order. 5ithin this "ate$ory there is sometimes the episodic presentation. !i"tion is episodi" #hen there is little relationship bet#een one e(ent and another or #hen there is a la") of basi" "ontinuity or #hen the a"tion is lar$ely independent of the a"tions that "ome before or after. In media res is a method in #hi"h the story be$ins in the middle of the a"tion. 5ith this method flash/ac*s are often in"luded. A flashba") is the interruption of a narrati(e to relate an a"tion that has already o""urred. ,he term is usually applied to the flo# of memory in a parti"ular "hara"ter3s mind but it may in"lude the author3s interruption of "hronolo$i"al order as #ell. ometimes an author plants "lues' and $i(es hints of important later de(elopments in the story. ,his method of buildin$ in "lues to the out"ome of the a"tion is "alled foreshado-ing. @

+II. DIC I#! '!D S 1"E Diction is "on"erned #ith the "hoi"e and arran$ement of #ords. ,he lan$ua$e employed both in the des"ripti(e and narrati(e passa$es and in the dialo$ue of the "hara"ters must be appropriate to the )ind of story and the type of "hara"ters in(ol(ed. ,he "hara"ters must use spee"h that is appropriate to and "onsistent #ith their so"ial "lass' profession' edu"ation' and a"tions at the time they are spea)in$. ,heir lan$ua$e usa$e may in"lude ar"haisms' slan$ or diale"t. 5ords "an also ha(e literal or implied meanin$s. 5hen the meanin$ of a #ord is literal' it is "alled denotation' but #hen the #ord has an implied meanin$' its meanin$ $oes beyond denotation. ,his implied meanin$ is referred to as connotation. +n other #ords' "onnotation is the feelin$ or asso"iation that a #ord or phrase e(o)es. ,he author may sele"t lan$ua$e that is star) and unadorned or lan$ua$e that is ornate and metaphori"al. ,his depends on the author3s personality and is )no#n as his%her style. ,he attitude of the author to#ard his%her sub0e"t matter is apprehended mainly throu$h the tone he%she uses. one is the attitude of the author rather than that of his%her "hara"ters. +t is his%her attitude to#ard #hat is bein$ presented' e*pressed throu$h a literary style #hi"h "an be ironi"' bitter' sympatheti"' humorous' serious' "riti"al' affe"tionate' hostile' sar"asti"' soothin$' passionate' deta"hed or any of numerous other attitudes. ,o determine the tone of a story' the reader must e*amine the lan$ua$e the author uses and de"ide #hat effe"t the author3s "hoi"e of #ords has. -,he reader must analyze the author3s attitude to#ards the "hara"ters' the narrator and the sub0e"t matter. +s the author sympatheti" to#ard' admirin$ of' hostile to#ard' "riti"al of' sentimental about one or more of the "hara"ters or the narratorA 4o# does the author feel about an idea or a "on"eptA +s the author sar"asti" about' indifferent to' bitter about' "urious about' thrilled by' "riti"al of' outra$ed about' sho")ed by' fri$htened about' s"ornful of' sentimental about' or sad about a sub0e"t su"h as lo(e' death' marria$e' family' $o(ernment' so"ial "lass' money' reli$ion' #ar./ 7,a)en from ###.(anier"olle$e.."."a%Banalyzin$ short stories8 ,he $eneral emotional feelin$ aroused in the reader is "alled mood and may be des"ribed as happy' sad' an$ry' resentful' melan"holi"' nostal$i" or any other ad0e"ti(e that refers to feelin$s. ,he use of irony is also part of the author3s style and it is important to analyze its effe"t on the reader. ,he "hoi"e of #ords $reatly "ontributes to the impa"t of the story. +n order to add ri"hness to their #ritin$ and to stimulate the reader3s ima$ination' authors may use ima$ery and fi$urati(e lan$ua$e. +ma$es are des"riptions that appeal to our senses of si$ht' smell' sound' tou"h' or taste. +ma$es add interest and "larify meanin$. ,hey are used to "reate (i(id and pre"ise impressions or ima$es in the reader3s mind. +ma$es are "lassified a""ordin$ to the sense that is aroused by the #ords and phrases e*pressed2 1. 2. 3. >. @. C. D. (isual < sense of si$ht auditory < sense of hearin$ $ustatory < sense of taste olfa"tory < sense of smell ta"tile < sense of tou"h )inestheti" < sense of mo(ement thermal < sense of hotness or "oldness C

!i$urati(e lan$ua$e refers to #ords that "reate ima$es or "on(ey symboli" meanin$ beyond the literal le(el. +t is a deliberate departure from the ordinary' literal use of #ords in order to pro(ide fresh per"eptions and "reate lastin$ impressions. A fi$ure of spee"h is lan$ua$e #hi"h e*presses somethin$ in an unusual #ay' thus' $i(in$ spar)le and (itality to the meanin$. +nstead of statin$ an idea literally' a #riter may "on(ey a thou$ht more ima$inati(ely by usin$ these fi$ures of spee"h2 1. simile < ,his fi$ure of spee"h is easily re"o$nized be"ause t#o essentially unli)e thin$s are "ompared' usually in a phrase introdu"ed by the #ords like' as or seems. 2. metaphor < A "omparison is also made but instead of sayin$ that one thin$ is like another' it states that one thin$ is another. 3. personifi"ation < ,his fi$ure of spee"h is one in #hi"h human .ualities are $i(en to inanimate thin$s' abstra"tions or animals. >. hyperbole < ,his fi$ure of spee"h is simply a "ons"ious' intentional use of e*a$$eration. +t is also "alled o(erstatement. @. parado* < ,his is a statement that seems "ontradi"tory' e(en if a"tually #ell-founded. C. symbol < ,his may be a "hara"ter' ob0e"t or happenin$ that stands for somethin$ else. +n other #ords' it is a "on"rete or material ob0e"t that su$$ests or represents an abstra"t idea' .uality' or "on"ept. +III. # &ER USE%U" ER0S 2. allusion 3 -hen an author ma*es a passing reference to a person4 place4 or o/)ect in history4 myth4 or literature on the assumption that the reader understands the reference4 ma*ing it unnecessary for it to /e e$plained e$plicitly. 2. analo$y < a "omparison that uses a familiar or "on"rete item to e*plain an abstra"t or unfamiliar idea. !or e*ample' e*plainin$ the anatomy of the eye by "omparin$ it to a "amera. 3. ar"haism < deliberate use' for artisti" purposes' of #ords' e*pressions' spellin$s' or phrases that ha(e be"ome obsolete in the present. >. "li"hE < a phrase or e*pression that has lost its ori$inality or for"e throu$h o(eruse. @. "ollo.uial lan$ua$e < "on(ersational #ords and e*pressions that are sometimes used in #ritin$ to add "olor and authenti"ity. C. diale"t < the differen"e in sound' spellin$s' $rammar and di"tion in lan$ua$e used by people of spe"ifi" "lass or $roup that distin$uishes them from those of other "lass or $roup. D

D. ellipsis < three e.ually spa"ed dots that si$nal an omission of #ords used as a narrati(e de(ise' allo#in$ the reader to fill in the narrati(e $aps. F. emphasis < the pla"ement of #ords and ideas in )ey positions to $i(e them stress and importan"e or the use of repetition and fi$urati(e lan$ua$e to "all attention to an idea or term. G. epiphany < a sudden insi$ht' "omprehension or per"eption of reality by means of a sudden intuiti(e realization or a#areness. ,his a#areness "han$es the "hara"ter3s understandin$. 10. illustration < the use of e*amples' or a sin$le lon$ e*ample' to support or e*plain an idea. 11. inferen"e < a "on"lusion dra#n by a reader from the hints and su$$estions pro(ided by the #riter. 5riters sometimes e*press ideas indire"tly rather than statin$ them outri$ht. Readers must use their o#n e*perien"e and )no#led$e to read bet#een the lines and ma)e inferen"es to $ather the full meanin$ of a #or). 12. 0ar$on < the spe"ialized or te"hni"al lan$ua$e of a trade' profession' or similar $roup. ,o readers outside the $roup' 0ar$on is "onfusin$ and meanin$less. 13. onomatopoeia < the use of #ords that su$$est or e"ho the sound they are des"ribin$. 1>. pro(erb < a short sayin$ that e*presses a "ommon truth familiar to most people in a parti"ular so"iety. !or e*ample2 A stit"h in time sa(es nine. 1@. purpose < the #riter3s reason for #ritin$. 1C. rhetori"al .uestion < a .uestion that a #riter or spea)er as)s to emphasize or introdu"e a point. 1D. satire < #ritin$ that uses #it and irony to atta") and e*pose human folly' #ea)ness' and stupidity. 1F. se*ist lan$ua$e < #ords and phrases that stereotype or i$nore members of either se*. 1G. slan$ < the informal lan$ua$e of a $i(en $roup or lo"ale' often "hara"terized by "olorful e*pressions and short-li(ed usa$e. 20. standard En$lish < the lan$ua$e #ritten or spo)en by most edu"ated people.

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?o analysis of a #or) of fi"tion "an be "omplete #ithout analyzin$ its title. ,he title is the first indi"ation as to the meanin$ of a $i(en #or) of fi"tion. ,itles may be dire"t and ob(ious or they "an be symboli". ,hey "an point to an important idea or theme in the story. ,hey may also su$$est an emoti(e tone to the reader. ,itles "an also be allusions important to the parti"ular #or) of fi"tion or they "an point to the prin"ipal "hara"ter in the story. 5hen analyzin$ a short story' as) yourself #hy the author sele"ted that title. Ho you "onsider it appropriate or mi$ht you su$$est a more appropriate titleA 5hat other title #ould you preferA 5hyA 5. U!I 1 1nity is a term applied to all the fun"tions or settin$' plot' "hara"ter' theme' and di"tion that bind the story into a "onsistent and self-suffi"ient #hole. All details in a short story must further the a"tion and "ontribute to the final' o(erall effe"t.

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