405 CHAPTER 8

848 Glycerin at 40C with r 1252 kg/m3 and m 0.27 kg/m s is flowing through a 4-cm-diameter horizontal smooth pipe with an average velocity of 3.5 m/s. Determine the pressure drop per 10 m of the pipe. 849 Reconsider Prob. 848. Using EES (or other) software, investigate the effect of the pipe diameter on the pressure drop for the same constant flow rate. Let the pipe diameter vary from 1 to 10 cm in increments of 1 cm. Tabulate and plot the results, and draw conclusions.

855C Define equivalent length for minor loss in pipe flow. How is it related to the minor loss coefficient? 856C The effect of rounding of a pipe inlet on the loss coefficient is (a) negligible, (b) somewhat significant, or (c) very significant. 857C The effect of rounding of a pipe exit on the loss coefficient is (a) negligible, (b) somewhat significant, or (c) very significant. 858C Which has a greater minor loss coefficient during pipe flow: gradual expansion or gradual contraction? Why? 859C A piping system involves sharp turns, and thus large minor head losses. One way of reducing the head loss is to replace the sharp turns by circular elbows. What is another way? 860C During a retrofitting project of a fluid flow system to reduce the pumping power, it is proposed to install vanes into the miter elbows or to replace the sharp turns in 90 miter elbows by smooth curved bends. Which approach will result in a greater reduction in pumping power requirements? 861 Water is to be withdrawn from a 5-m-high water reservoir by drilling a 1.5-cm-diameter hole at the bottom surface. Disregarding the effect of the kinetic energy correction factor, determine the flow rate of water through the hole if (a) the entrance of the hole is well-rounded and (b) the entrance is sharp-edged. 862 A horizontal pipe has an abrupt expansion from D1 8 cm to D2 16 cm. The water velocity in the smaller section is 10 m/s and the flow is turbulent. The pressure in the smaller section is P1 410 kPa. Taking the kinetic energy correction factor to be 1.06 at both the inlet and the outlet, determine the downstream pressure P2, and estimate the error that would have occurred if Bernoullis equation had been used. Answers: 432 kPa, 25.0 kPa
D1 = 8 cm Water 10 m/s 410 kPa D2 = 16 cm

850E Air at 1 atm and 60F is flowing through a 1 ft 1 ft square duct made of commercial steel at a rate of 1600 cfm. Determine the pressure drop and head loss per ft of the duct.

1 ft Air 1 ft 1600 ft3/min

FIGURE P850E
851 Liquid ammonia at 20C is flowing through a 30-m-long section of a 5-mm-diameter copper tube at a rate of 0.15 kg/s. Determine the pressure drop, the head loss, and the pumping power required to overcome the frictional losses in the tube. Answers: 4792 kPa, 734 m, 1.08 kW 852 Water (r 998.2 kg/m3 and m 1.003 3 10 kg/m s) flows through a 0.01-m-diameter pipe. The flow is steady, laminar, and fully developed. In this exercise, you will use CFD to calculate the Darcy friction factor f for fully developed laminar pipe flow, and compare to the analytical value obtained with the exact equation f = 64/Re. Run FlowLab with template Pipe_1D_Reynolds. Vary the Reynolds number from 100 to 2000, and record average velocity V and pressure gradient dP/dx for each case. From these data, calculate f and compare with the analytical value. Is there good agreement? Discuss. 853 In this exercise, we examine fully developed turbulent flow through a rough pipe. Run FlowLab with template Pipe_turbulent_rough. Run several cases, each with a diffferent value of normalized pipe roughness, e/D, but at the same Reynolds number. Calculate and tabulate Darcy friction factor f as a function of normalized toughness parameter e/D. Compare f with that predicted by the Colebrook equation for fully developed turbulent pipe flow in rough pipes. Discuss.

FIGURE P862
863 Consider flow from a water reservoir through a circular hole of diameter D at the side wall at a vertical distance H from the free surface. The flow rate through an actual hole with a sharp-edged entrance (KL 0.5) is considerably less than the flow rate calculated assuming frictionless flow and thus zero loss for the hole. Disregarding the effect of the kinetic energy correction factor, obtain a relation for the equivalent diameter of the sharp-edged hole for use in frictionless flow relations.

Minor Losses
854C What is minor loss in pipe flow? How is the minor loss coefficient KL defined?

406 INTERNAL FLOW

Dequiv D

Frictionless flow

Actual flow

FIGURE P863
864 Repeat Prob. 863 for a slightly rounded entrance (KL 0.12). 865 Water (r 998.2 kg/m3 and m 1.003 103 kg/m s) flows into a 0.10-m-long (L), 0.01-mdiameter (D) pipe. We are interested in the minor loss coefficient due to entrance effects, and we model the entrance region using CFD. At the inlet, the velocity is uniform, which leads to a very high wall shear stress near the entrance. The pipe is long enough that the flow becomes fully developed before the pipe outlet. The flow is steady and laminar. Run FlowLab with template Pipe_2D_developing at a Reynolds number of 150 and record the pressure change P/L. Use the following steps to calculate the minor loss coefficient: (i) Calculate (analytically) the pressure drop that would occur for this same pipe if it were fully developed over the entire length. (ii) Subtract this from the actual pressure drop calculated from the CFD output; the difference represents the extra pressure drop due to entrance effects. (iii) Convert the extra pressure drop to a minor loss coefficient and compare with the minor loss coefficients for different types of pipe inlets given in the text. Discuss your results. 866 Water (r 998.2 kg/m3 and m 1.003 3 10 kg/m s) flows through a 0.01-m-diameter, 0.10-m-long pipe. The flow is steady and laminar. In this exercise, you will use CFD to predict the minor loss coefficient due to the entrance region in the pipe. Specifically, run FlowLab with template Pipe_3d_Reynolds at Re = 100; this template simulates fully developed flow in the pipe. Record dP/dx and calculate the total pressure drop P in the pipe. Repeat at the same Reynolds number with template Pipe_3d_developing, which solves for flow in the same pipe but with an entrance region uniform flow at the inlet. In this case, the output is P per meter. Calculate P for this case and subtract P of the fully developed case. The difference is the pressure drop due solely to entrance-length effects. Calculate the minor loss coefficient KL and discuss your results. 867 Water (r 998.2 kg/m3 and m 1.003 3 10 kg/m s) flows through a 0.01-m-diameter, 0.10-m-long pipe. The flow is steady and laminar. In this exercise, you will use CFD to predict the minor loss coefficient due to a bump in the pipe (simulating debris build-up or a deposit of solid material on the inner pipe wall). Specifically, run FlowLab with template Pipe_3d_developing at Re = 100; this template simu-

lates laminar flow in a pipe with a uniform velocity at the inlet. Record the pressure drop provided in the output as P per meter. Calculate P for this case. Repeat with template Pipe_3d_bump, which simulates the same flow in the same pipe but with a three-dimensional bump along the inner pipe wall. Calculate the pressure drop by plotting the pressure along the axis and subtracting the outlet pressure from the inlet pressure. Subtract P for the case without the bump from P for the case with the bump. The difference is the pressure drop due solely to the effect of the bump. Calculate the minor loss coefficient KL and discuss your results. 868 Water (r 998.2 kg/m3 and m 1.003 103 kg/m s) flows through a 0.01-m-diameter, 0.10-mlong pipe. The flow is steady and laminar. In this exercise, you will use CFD to compare the length of the entrance region at two different Reynolds numbers. The flow at the pipe inlet is uniform, and the pipe is sufficiently long for the flow to become fully developed by the outlet. Run FlowLab with template Pipe_3d_developing at Re 20. Plot velocity profiles (XY Plots, select the appropriate plot, and Plot). Create a hardcopy (file) and attach to your homework. Approximately how many pipe diameters does it take for the flow to become fully developed? Repeat for Re = 100 and discuss your results. 869 Water (r 998.2 kg/m3 and m 1.003 103 kg/m s) flows through a 0.01-m-diameter, 0.10-mlong pipe. The flow is steady and laminar. In this exercise, you will use CFD to compare the pressure drop down the pipe for two casesa clean pipe and a pipe with a bump (simulating debris build-up or a deposit of solid material on the inner pipe wall). The flow at the pipe inlet is uniform, and the pipe is sufficiently long for the flow to become fully developed by the outlet. Run FlowLab with template Pipe_3d_developing at Re 100. Plot Pgage versus x (XY Plots, select the appropriate plot, and Plot). Write the data to a file. Repeat for the case with the bump using template Pipe_3d_bump, again running at Re = 100. Plot Pgage versus x for the two cases on the same plot for direct comparison. Discuss and explain the results. 870 Water (r 998.2 kg/m3 and m 1.003 3 10 kg/m s) flows through a 0.01-m-diameter, 0.10-mlong pipe. The flow is steady and laminar. In this exercise, you will use CFD to compare velocity profiles down the pipe for two casesa clean pipe and a pipe with a bump (simulating debris buildup or a deposit of solid material on the inner pipe wall). The flow at the pipe inlet is uniform, and the pipe is sufficiently long for the flow to become fully developed by the outlet. Run FlowLab with template Pipe_3d_developing at Re 50. Plot velocity profiles at various axial locations down the pipe (XY Plots, select the appropriate plot, and Plot). Repeat for the case with the bump using the template Pipe_ 3d_bump, again running at Re = 50. Compare the two plots and discuss your results. 871 Air (r 1.225 kg/m3 and m 1.7894 105 kg/m s) flows through a 1.00-m-diameter, 45.0-m-long pipe. The flow is turbulent, but steady in the mean. In this

407 CHAPTER 8

exercise, you will use CFD to predict the minor loss coefficient due to the entrance region in the pipe. Specifically, run FlowLab with template Pipe_turbulent_developed at Re 10,000; this template simulates fully developed flow in the pipe. Plot the axial pressure distribution (XY Plots, select the appropriate plot, and Plot). Write the data to a file and record the inlet and outlet pressures; using these data, calculate the total pressure drop P in the pipe. Repeat at the same Reynolds number with template Pipe_turbulent_developing, which solves for flow in the same pipe but with an entrance regionuniform flow at the inlet. Calculate P for this case and subtract P of the fully developed case. The difference is the pressure drop due solely to entrance length effects. Calculate minor loss coefficient KL and discuss your results.

Piping Systems and Pump Selection

872C A person filling a bucket with water using a garden hose suddenly remembers that attaching a nozzle to the hose increases the discharge velocity of water and wonders if this increased velocity would decrease the filling time of the bucket. What do you think would be the effect of attaching a nozzle to the hose on the filling time: increase it, decrease it, or have no effect? Why? 873C Consider two identical 2-m-high open tanks filled with water on top of a 1-m-high table. The discharge valve of one of the tanks is connected to a hose whose other end is left open on the ground while the other tank does not have a hose connected to its discharge valve. Now the discharge valves of both tanks are opened. Disregarding any frictional loses in the hose, which tank do you think empties completely first? Why? 874C A piping system involves two pipes of different diameters (but of identical length, material, and roughness) connected in series. How would you compare the (a) flow rates and (b) pressure drops in these two pipes? 875C A piping system involves two pipes of different diameters (but of identical length, material, and roughness) connected in parallel. How would you compare the (a) flow rates and (b) pressure drops in these two pipes? 876C A piping system involves two pipes of identical diameters but of different lengths connected in parallel. How would you compare the pressure drops in these two pipes? 877C Water is pumped from a large lower reservoir to a higher reservoir. Someone claims that if the head loss is negligible, the required pump head is equal to the elevation difference between the free surfaces of the two reservoirs. Do you agree? 878C A piping system equipped with a pump is operating steadily. Explain how the operating point (the flow rate and the head loss) is established. 879C For a piping system, define the system curve, the characteristic curve, and the operating point on a head versus flow rate chart.

880 The water needs of a small farm are to be met by pumping water from a well that can supply water continuously at a rate of 4 L/s. The water level in the well is 20 m below the ground level, and water is to be pumped to a large tank on a hill, which is 58 m above the ground level of the well, using 5-cm internal diameter plastic pipes. The required length of piping is measured to be 420 m, and the total minor loss coefficient due to the use of elbows, vanes, etc. is estimated to be 12. Taking the efficiency of the pump to be 75 percent, determine the rated power of the pump that needs to be purchased, in kW. The density and viscosity of water at anticipated operation conditions are taken to be 1000 kg/m3 and 0.00131 kg/m s, respectively. Is it wise to purchase a suitable pump that meets the total power requirements, or is it necessary to also pay particular attention to the large elevation head in this case? Explain. Answer: 6 kW 881E Water at 70F flows by gravity from a large reservoir at a high elevation to a smaller one through a 90-ft-long, 2-in-diameter cast iron piping system that includes four standard flanged elbows, a well-rounded entrance, a sharp-edged exit, and a fully open gate valve. Taking the free surface of the lower reservoir as the reference level, determine the elevation z1 of the higher reservoir for a flow rate of 10 ft3/min.
Answer: 17.9 ft

882 A 2.4-m-diameter tank is initially filled with water 4 m above the center of a sharp-edged 10-cm-diameter orifice. The tank water surface is open to the atmosphere, and the orifice drains to the atmosphere. Neglecting the effect of the kinetic energy correction factor, calculate (a) the initial velocity from the tank and (b) the time required to empty the tank. Does the loss coefficient of the orifice cause a significant increase in the draining time of the tank?

Water tank 2.4 m

4m

Sharp-edged orifice

FIGURE P882
883 A 3-m-diameter tank is initially filled with water 2 m above the center of a sharp-edged 10-cm-diameter orifice. The tank water surface is open to the atmosphere, and the orifice drains to the atmosphere through a 100-m-long pipe. The friction coefficient of the pipe is taken to be 0.015 and the effect of the kinetic energy correction factor can be neglected. Determine (a) the initial velocity from the tank and (b) the time required to empty the tank.

410 INTERNAL FLOW

899 Repeat Prob. 898 for cast iron pipes of the same diameter. 8100E A clothes dryer discharges air at 1 atm and 120F at a rate of 1.2 ft3/s when its 5-in-diameter, well-rounded vent with negligible loss is not connected to any duct. Determine the flow rate when the vent is connected to a 15-ft-long, 5-indiameter duct made of galvanized iron, with three 90 flanged smooth bends. Take the friction factor of the duct to be 0.019, and assume the fan power input to remain constant.

3 cm and 5 cm. Water is to be pumped by a 68 percent efficient motorpump unit that draws 7 kW of electric power during operation. The minor losses and the head loss in the pipes that connect the parallel pipes to the two reservoirs are considered to be negligible. Determine the total flow rate between the reservoirs and the flow rates through each of the parallel pipes.
Reservoir B zB = 9 m 25 m 3 cm Reservoir A zA = 2 m

Hot air

5 cm

Clothes drier

15 ft

Pump

FIGURE P8105
5 in

Flow Rate and Velocity Measurements

8106C What are the primary considerations when selecting a flowmeter to measure the flow rate of a fluid? 8107C Explain how flow rate is measured with a Pitot-static tube, and discuss its advantages and disadvantages with respect to cost, pressure drop, reliability, and accuracy. 8108C Explain how flow rate is measured with obstruction-type flowmeters. Compare orifice meters, flow nozzles, and Venturi meters with respect to cost, size, head loss, and accuracy. 8109C How do positive displacement flowmeters operate? Why are they commonly used to meter gasoline, water, and natural gas? 8110C Explain how flow rate is measured with a turbine flowmeter, and discuss how they compare to other types of flowmeters with respect to cost, head loss, and accuracy. 8111C What is the operating principle of variable-area flowmeters (rotameters)? How do they compare to other types of flowmeters with respect to cost, head loss, and reliability? 8112C What is the difference between the operating principles of thermal and laser Doppler anemometers? 8113C What is the difference between laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV) and particle image velocimetry (PIV)? 8114 Air (r 1.225 kg/m3 and m 1.789 105 kg/m s) flows over a d 5-mm-diameter Pitotstatic probe that is aligned directly into the flow. Your job is to determine how far (L) downstream from the nose to place the static pressure holes around the circumference of the

FIGURE P8100E
8101 Gasoline (r 680 kg/m3 and n 4.29 107 m2/s) is transported at a rate of 400 L/s for a distance of 2 km. The surface roughness of the piping is 0.03 mm. If the head loss due to pipe friction is not to exceed 8 m, determine the minimum diameter of the pipe. 8102 In large buildings, hot water in a water tank is circulated through a loop so that the user doesnt have to wait for all the water in long piping to drain before hot water starts coming out. A certain recirculating loop involves 40-m-long, 1.2-cm-diameter cast iron pipes with six 90 threaded smooth bends and two fully open gate valves. If the average flow velocity through the loop is 2 m/s, determine the required power input for the recirculating pump. Take the average water temperature to be 60C and the efficiency of the pump to be 70 percent. Answer: 0.111 kW 8103 Reconsider Prob. 8102. Using EES (or other) software, investigate the effect of the average flow velocity on the power input to the recirculating pump. Let the velocity vary from 0 to 3 m/s in increments of 0.3 m/s. Tabulate and plot the results. Repeat Prob. 8102 for plastic (smooth) pipes.

8104 8105

Water at 20C is to be pumped from a reservoir (zA 2 m) to another reservoir at a higher elevation (zB 9 m) through two 25-m-long plastic pipes connected in parallel. The diameters of the two pipes are

411 CHAPTER 8

probe. Run FlowLab with template Pitot_static_position. This template calculates flow at 30 m/s over a Pitot-static probe and includes viscous losses. Vary the static pressure tap location from L/d = 0.5 to 20, and record the stagnation and static pressures as calculated on the surface of the Pitot-static probe for each case. Using the Bernoulli approximation, calculate the free-stream velocity based on these pressures, and compare with the known inlet velocity. At approximately what L/d is the error less than 1.5 percent? Discuss your results. 8115 Air (r 1.225 kg/m3 and m 1.789 105 kg/m s) flows in a wind tunnel, and the wind tunnel speed is measured with a Pitot-static probe. For a certain run, the stagnation pressure is measured to be 625.3 Pa gage and the static pressure is 15.43 Pa gage. Calculate the wind-tunnel speed. 8116 A Pitot-static probe is mounted in a 2.5-cm inner diameter pipe at a location where the local velocity is approximately equal to the average velocity. The oil in the pipe has density r 860 kg/m3 and viscosity m 0.0103 kg/m s. The pressure difference is measured to be 95.8 Pa. Calculate the volume ow rate through the pipe in cubic meters per second. 8117 Calculate the Reynolds number of the ow of Prob. 8116. Is it laminar or turbulent? 8118 The flow rate of ammonia at 10C (r 624.6 kg/m3 and m 1.697 104 kg/m s) through a 3-cm-diameter pipe is to be measured with a 1.5-cm-diameter flow nozzle equipped with a differential pressure gage. If the gage reads a pressure differential of 6 kPa, determine the flow rate of ammonia through the pipe, and the average flow velocity. 8119 The flow rate of water through a 10-cm-diameter pipe is to be determined by measuring the water velocity at several locations along a cross section. For the set of measurements given in the table, determine the flow rate.
r, cm 0 1 2 3 4 5 V, m/s 6.4 6.1 5.2 4.4 2.0 0.0

4 in

1.8 in

7 in

FIGURE P8120E
8121E 10 in. Repeat Prob. 8120E for a differential height of

8122 The flow rate of water at 20C (r 998 kg/m3 and m 1.002 103 kg/m s) through a 50-cm-diameter pipe is measured with an orifice meter with a 30-cm-diameter opening to be 250 L/s. Determine the pressure difference indicated by the orifice meter and the head loss. 8123 A Venturi meter equipped with a differential pressure gage is used to measure the flow rate of water at 15C (r 999.1 kg/m3) through a 5-cm-diameter horizontal pipe. The diameter of the Venturi neck is 3 cm, and the measured pressure drop is 5 kPa. Taking the discharge coefficient to be 0.98, determine the volume flow rate of water and the average velocity through the pipe. Answers: 2.35 L/s and 1.20 m/s

5 cm

3 cm

Differential pressure gage

8120E An orifice with a 1.8-in-diameter opening is used to measure the mass flow rate of water at 60F (r 62.36 lbm/ft3 and m 7.536 104 lbm/ft s) through a horizontal 4-in-diameter pipe. A mercury manometer is used to measure the pressure difference across the orifice. If the differential height of the manometer is 7 in, determine the volume flow rate of water through the pipe, the average velocity, and the head loss caused by the orifice meter.

FIGURE P8123
8124 Reconsider Prob. 8103. Letting the pressure drop vary from 1 kPa to 10 kPa, evaluate the flow rate at intervals of 1 kPa, and plot it against the pressure drop.

8125 The mass flow rate of air at 20C (r 1.204 kg/m3) through a 18-cm-diameter duct is measured with a Venturi