Technology

Reactive Power Compensation

High Voltage

High Voltage Technology Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd

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Physical Address 5 Ellman Street Sunderland Ridge Centurion, 0157 South Africa Postal Address P.O. Box 8179 Centurion 0046 South Africa

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GUIDE TO HARMONICS AND HARMONIC RESONANCE WITH CAPACITORS

This guide is intended to inform customers about harmonics, the harmful effects of harmonics, harmonic resonance and the application of power factor correction to avoid unacceptable harmonics.

The information is extracted from the reference Guide to the Generation, Evaluation and Control of Harmonics in Industrial and Mining Power Systems by R.E. Pretorius, Pr. Eng.

Directors G. Naidoo (CEO); D. Pudney (COO); C. Crane; S. Naidoo; S. Pillay; D. Tromans

1. INTRODUCTION
The levels of harmonic voltages and currents in electrical power systems are increasing. The principal cause is the proliferation of devices which produce harmonics, while a major aggravating factor is the application of power capacitors and harmonic filters which introduce system resonances at critical harmonic frequencies. In South Africa the single largest cause of severe harmonic distortion is resonance caused by capacitors. A normal harmonic can be amplified by about 10 to 25 times if resonance occurs at or close to critical frequencies. In most cases this results from the indiscriminate application of power factor correction (PFC) capacitors, or from incorrect application, tuning or control of harmonic filter circuits. The effects of harmonics on electrical equipment is widespread, including the catastrophic failure of capacitors (with consequential losses in respect of increased maximum demand charges), failures of power cables, interference with electronic circuits and controls, etc. Many of the deleterious effects of harmonic are not obvious, and it may take years before such problems are identified.

2. NATURE OF HARMONICS
The term harmonic originates from acoustics, where it signifies the vibration of a string or column of air at a frequency which are integer multiples of that frequency. A distorted AC supply signal can be seen as a pure sinusoidal waveform (supply frequency component) with noise or pollution signals (harmonics) imposed. The degree of distortion is given by the magnitudes of the individual harmonics present and/or by the total harmonic distortion (THD).

a. Mechanisms of Harmonic Current and Voltage Production

The Electricity Supply Authority generates sinusoidal voltages and currents at nominal frequency (50 Hz). Although some distortion is produced by transmission equipment (e.g. transformers) the majority is produced by end users (consumers). Non-linear loads (i.e. converters, arc furnaces etc.) require non-sinusoidal currents to flow at their terminals. These loads absorb fundamental frequency current and generate harmonic currents, and as such are seen as harmonic current sources. In the case of a harmonic current source, the corresponding harmonic voltage is equal to the current multiplied by the network impedance at each harmonic frequency. The impedance seen by the source (non-linear load) includes the supply circuit in parallel with all other loads and capacitors connected to the same supply. In the case where a given consumer does not generate harmonic currents he is effectively a sink rather than a source of harmonics. In this case the harmonic current flowing into the consumer network is given by the supply harmonic voltage divided by the consumer impedance (as seen from the supply) at each harmonic frequency.
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An important principle is thus established: i. In the case of consumer generated harmonics, the harmonic currents are predominant and the corresponding harmonic voltages are determined by the supply/load impedance at each frequency. In the case of harmonics introduced via the supply network, the harmonic source is effectively a voltage, and the corresponding harmonic current is determined by the consumer impedance at each frequency. It is therefore clear that consumers with harmonic sources have to limit their harmonic current injection into the supply, in order to prevent excessive harmonic voltages which may affect other consumers.

ii.

iii.

b. Harmonic Impedances
The electrical supply network will generally not have a linear impedance/frequency relationship but will have parallel and series resonances associated with it. Generally this does not present a problem unless the resonance falls near one of the significant harmonics. In this case, harmonic amplification could take place causing dangerously high harmonic levels. Thus, a relatively harmless harmonic current injected into the supply by a consumer may be converted into an excessive harmonic voltage if the supply network resonates at the corresponding frequency. Supply transformers with relatively high short circuit reactances will effectively dominate the source impedance, as seen from the consumer side, such that the impedance is approximately linear and increases proportionally with frequency. The supply reactance can then be effectively calculated from the fault level by L = V2 /MVA/2f1 where L is the equivalent supply inductance in Henries. V is the phase to phase voltage in kV. MVA is the three phase short circuit capacity at the consumer busbar. f1 is the fundamental supply frequency in Hz (50 Hz in the RSA).

c. Harmonic Filters
Harmonic filters are installed so as to absorb harmonic currents by choosing the inductive and capacitive components to resonate at the required frequency. The impedance at fundamental frequency will still be predominantly capacitive. At the resonant frequency, the harmonic currents are presented with a virtual short circuit. Thus the voltage, at that frequency, across the terminals of the filter will be close to zero. Often however, filters are used to provide tuning for power factor correction capacitors for the sole purpose of avoiding harmful resonance with internal or external harmonic sources. With the exclusion of very large harmonic generators (e.g. open arc furnaces), most harmonic sources do not require harmonic filtering. However, if
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resonance occurs due to the presence of plain capacitors (including extensive cable networks), normal harmonics can be amplified typically 10 to 25 times. The most common applications of harmonic filters can therefore be summarized as follows: i. ii. iii. To reduce equivalent harmonic generation levels in the case of very large nonlinear loads (arc furnaces and very large rectifier/converter installations). To tune a PF correction capacitor bank so to avoid resonance. To counteract resonance caused by uncontrolled capacitances in extensive cable networks (i.e. broadband damping filters).

3. HARMONIC EFFECTS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

Most electrical systems have (or in future will have) power capacitors connected at some points, and these capacitors form resonant circuits with the inductive supply (and with loads, but to a much lesser extent). Severe harmonics are in most cases a result of resonance involving capacitors, and it would be very costly (and practically difficult) to design electrical plant to survive in an abnormally hostile harmonic environment. Some of the problems or effects associated with harmonic are of a spectacular nature, such as the failure and/or rupturing of power capacitors. However, harmonics also cause equipment failures, and/or reduction in plant efficiency, and/or insulation ageing (shortening of useful life), and/or plant mal-operation. The latter problems often remain unidentified until the failures reach crisis proportions, and it usually requires a special study before such failures are positively linked to harmonics. It is often only after remedial measures have been employed that engineers realise how much better their plant is performing.

a. Impact of Harmonics on Electrical Equipment

The following is a summary of the harmful effects of unacceptably high harmonics on electrical equipment: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. Failure, tripping or overheating of capacitors, filters and related equipment. Abnormally high noise levels in capacitors, cables, transformers and lightning equipment. Overheating of transformers, cables, switchgear, conductors, etc. An abnormally high rate of failures of thyristors and converter equipment. Frequent failures of capacitors in lighting equipment or tripping of associated low voltage circuit breakers. Nuisance failures of fuses. Nuisance tripping of protection relays, in particular sensitive earth fault relays or earth leakage relays. Apparent errors in electronic power transducers. Apparent inconsistencies in metering equipment. Interference with computer equipment. An abnormally high cable failure rate, or an increase in cable failures.
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xii. xiii. xiv.

Failures or overheating of surge suppressors or wavesloping capacitors. Failures of surge arresters. Interference with the arc interruption process during tripping of medium voltage circuit breakers, resulting in prolonged arcing and eventual failure.

b. Impact of harmonics on capacitors

Capacitors are generally the first to be affected by harmonics, and a detailed summary of related effects and considerations are therefore included in this Guide. High voltage capacitors are normally affected by harmonic overvoltages (dielectric stressing) rather than harmonic overcurrents (thermal stressing). i. Effect of Harmonic Frequency The impedance of a capacitor decreases with increasing frequency, and a 10% 3rd harmonic voltage (corresponding to a 30% 3rd harmonic current) therefore has a different effect than a 10% 49th harmonic voltage, (corresponding to a 490% 49th harmonic current). ii. Voltage Overstressing versus Current Overstressing

Harmonic voltage is normally added directly to the fundamental voltage (i.e. 100 + 10 = 110% voltage in the above example), while the harmonic current is added on a R.S.S. (root-of-sum-of-squares) basis. The 30% 3rd harmonic current in the above example causes an increase in total rms current of only 4,5% compared to a voltage increase of 10%, while the 490% 49th harmonic current causes an increase in total capacitor rms current of 400% compared to a voltage increase of only 10%. iii. Current Tolerance Limits

Capacitors are generally rated for continuous operation at 130% of rated current. For periods shorter than 5 minutes, where the overcurrent is higher, various other aspects have to be considered (e.g. voltage stresses, peak switching inrush currents, fuse co-ordination, etc.). The 130% continuous overcurrent is intended to take care of the combined effects due to harmonics and fundamental frequency overvoltages up to 110%. iv. Quality of Design and Manufacture

Although two makes of capacitors may appear to be identical in all respects, certain high quality capacitors have a significantly higher tolerance to adverse electrical conditions than others. For this reason capacitor specifications should always include specific requirements concerning endurance testing, operating margins, etc., and it is therefore required that the responsible engineer has an in-depth understanding of capacitor design and tolerance aspects, particularly in those cases where relatively high harmonics could occur and in all cases involving tuned capacitors and harmonic filters.
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v.

Reignitions in Switchgear Special attention must be given to the selection of switchgear for power factor correction applications. In the presence of high harmonics the instantaneous capacitor voltage could be significantly higher than the prevailing supply voltage, as the series reactor impedance causes a voltage of opposite polarity to that of the capacitor. Major voltage excursions could therefore occur on the load side of the switchgear immediately after current interruption, and this could result in reignitions across the opening switchgear contacts. This problem is frequently encountered in practice, and various techniques could be applied to prevent catastrophic failures or system interference (e.g. switchgear selection, special surge arrester/suppressors, optimised protection settings, etc.). The most common effects of this problem are failure of capacitors, reactors and switchgear (with substantial losses in respect of electrical demand charges), and general system overvoltages causing failures of cables, motors, VTs, arresters, transformers and electronic equipment.

4. HARMONIC RESONANCE
The majority of serious harmonic problems are caused by resonance between the predominantly inductive supply circuit and system capacitances (PF correction capacitors, harmonic filters, undamped surge capacitors and cable capacitances).The most common harmonic resonance circuits are the following: i. Parallel resonance within a given consumer system, involving internally generated harmonics and resonance between local capacitances and the supply. Series resonance between external harmonics (in the supply system) and capacitors within the consumers system. Interactive resonance between different harmonic filters within a given consumer network.

ii.

iii.

a. Parallel Resonance
i. Parallel Resonance with Plain (Unfiltered) Capacitors As illustrated in Figure 1 the system capacitance is effectively in parallel with the supply when seen from the harmonic current source. The impedance into which the harmonic current is forced, varies with frequency, and reaches a peak at f0 = 1/(2 (L.S.C))

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Figure 1: Impedance vs frequency as seen from the harmonic current source In the absence of damping, the impedance is infinity at f0 in which case an infinite voltage occurs on the system, caused by an infinite current being exchanged in the resonant circuit comprising the supply inductance and the system capacitance. The amplification factor is therefore infinity in the absence of damping. In practice, damping occurs within the supply (depending on its X/R ratio), while parallel loads also provide a significant degree of damping, depending on the type of load and its power factor. This yields practical amplification factors of around 10 to 25 in the case of plain (unfiltered) capacitors. The following related implications should be noted: a) Although maximum amplification occurs at the actual resonance frequency, the bandwidth of the resonance could be fairly broad, and significant amplification therefore occurs at other frequencies around the resonance frequency. b) For a given system capacitance, the resonance frequency depends on the total supply reactive impedance, and the latter may change significantly with different alternative supply configurations, or if the primary supply impedance changes. c) Loads affect both the resonance frequency and the peak amplification factor, and should be correctly modelled using special non-linear models applicable to harmonic frequencies. This involves complicated analyses and no generalised guidelines can be given in this respect. d) Multistep capacitor banks result in a multitude of resonance patterns, taking into account all different capacitor combinations together with the different possible supply arrangements and different load conditions.

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It is therefore clear that simple rules cannot be defined for avoiding harmful resonance in the presence of significant internal harmonics. However, the basic set of rules given in Section 11.2 of this Guide could serve to assist engineers in deciding when a detailed harmonic study is required. ii. Parallel Resonance involving Harmonic Filters or Tuned Capacitors

Harmonic filters are used to reduce harmonics, apart from also providing PF correction. Tuned capacitor banks, on the other hand, are PF correction capacitors which are tuned with series reactors to avoid harmful resonance, without necessarily being intended to reduce internal harmonics. In both cases (which are essential identical and which are treated as such in this Guide), parallel resonance takes a somewhat different form to that associated with plain capacitors, in that each filter creates two resonance frequencies. With reference to Figure 2 the following two frequencies can be identified: i) The filter itself forms a series resonance circuit at its tuning frequency given by fS = 1/(2 (LfCf)) Most of the harmonic current at this frequency is absorbed into the filter, and a small residue flows into the supply. ii) The filter forms a parallel resonance circuit with the supply at a lower frequency than the tuning frequency, the former given by fp = 1/[2 ([Lf+LS]Cf)] Accordingly, full absorption occurs at the filters tuning frequency, fS, while peak amplification occurs at the combined parallel frequency, fp (Figure 2). As such, any tuned filter causes amplification at some point below its inherent tuning frequency.

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Figure 2: Parallel resonance and harmonic current amplification involving harmonic filters With reference to Figure 2, the difference between fS and fp depends largely on the ratio between the filter inductance and the supply inductance. If fS and fp are very close, the possibility exists that changes in filter capacitance or inductance may shift fS higher and that fp may then fall on or close to a critical harmonic frequency. On the other hand, if fS and fp are further apart, harmful amplification may occur at lower harmonic frequencies (e.g. a 5th harmonic filter causing amplification at 4th or even 3rd harmonics). The control of resonance in systems which incorporate tuned capacitors or harmonic filters is closely linked to a general optimisation of filter performance vs. total filter cost. It remains an essential requirement that the design and optimisation of such equipment should involve specialist advice.

b. Series Resonance
Series resonance generally refers to resonance between external harmonic sources (at or beyond the P.C.C.) and capacitors or filters within a given consumer system. This implies that the external source is represented as a harmonic voltage and that the resonance circuit involves a portion of the supply circuit plus the consumers supply transformer(s), in series with his capacitors. The consumers capacitors form a series resonance circuit at 5th harmonic and his systems admittance seen from the P.C.C. therefore has a maximum value at this frequency (i.e. minimum impedance).
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The following specific implifications should be noted: a) Individual external (supply) harmonics having amplitudes of 1% (or less) of fundamental are seldom a problem. Series resonance at 5th harmonic (all loads connected), causes, say, 10% 5th harmonic voltage, which is not particularly severe and could possibly be tolerated. However, the harmonic voltage limits have been increased from 1% to 2% (up to 132 kV), and will increase the 5th harmonic to 20% in this case, which is unacceptable. Accordingly, good engineering practice would require that series resonance at any critical harmonic frequency be avoided, in particular with the new, higher limits. b) Capacitors require a highly optimised controller to avoid enhanced resonance (from external sources) during light load conditions. c) Interactive effects between consumers on the same P.C.C. may affect the magnitude of external harmonics. This implies that conditions may change with time, and allowance must be made for this at the design stage.

5. APPLICATION OF CAPACITORS AND FILTERS IN A HARMONIC ENVIRONMENT a. Introductory comments

Capacitors and non-optimised filters are the most common cause of severe harmonic distortion, and this is largely a result of ignorance in respect of harmonic resonance phenomena and associated pitfalls. This section is therefore aimed at providing guidelines for the application of capacitors and various types of filters, and a principal objective is to define minimum harmonic study requirements. Studies should always be referred to specialists. It is important in all cases that at least the following information be obtained: i. Details and characteristics of harmonic sources within the consumers system. ii. Worst case background harmonic levels on the supply at all individual harmonic frequencies up to at least the 25th. iii. The approximate resonance frequency between the supply and the total of new capacitors, as given by f0 (pu) = (MVA s.c./MVArC)

where MVA s.c.= three phase fault level at consumer busbar in MVA MVArC = total capacitor output in MVAr

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b. Application of tuned capacitors and/or harmonic filters

i. Tuning versus filtering Where harmonic resonance problems are anticipated, reactors can be used to tune capacitors at optimised frequencies with the specific objective of avoiding harmful resonance, without necessarily absorbing internal harmonics to a significant extent. Alternatively, the capacitor may be tuned to avoid harmful resonance and to partly or fully absorb certain internally generated harmonics, in which case it also serves as a harmonic filter. A tuned capacitor may have a tuning frequency of (say) 4,2 pu and will not significantly reduce higher harmonics. A harmonic filter, on the other hand, will typically be tuned at or just below critical harmonic frequencies, for example at 4,8 to 5,0 pu in the case of a 5th harmonic filter. Therefore, harmonic filters are more often than not introduced to avoid harmonic resonance, rather than to reduce high harmonics. ii. Filter performance and design criteria

The design of optimised harmonic filters is a complex subject, and no general literature is therefore available for obvious reasons. It requires extensive practical experience relating to performance, reliability, costs, etc, bearing in mind that replacement of a faulty filter may involve a delivery time of 6 months or longer. The following related aspects should be noted: a) A filter design study essentially involves optimisation of the following for all operating conditions: i) Extensive analysis of harmonic generation plus external harmonics. ii) Evaluation of PFC requirements versus harmonic filtration requirements. iii) Number of steps (typically 1 to 3 per supply point), taking into account all related cost implications. iv) Step sizes, based on PFC and harmonic requirements. v) Tuning frequency for each step, based on overall performance and cost. vi) Damping resistors in one or more filters. vii) Permissible sequence of switching, taking into account minimum harmonic filtration requirements. viii) Total cost. b) A considerable number of other aspects need to be investigated and optimised, e.g. harmonic absorption vs. amplification, interactive effects between adjacent filters or with other consumers, contingency conditions, tolerances, related cost implications, etc.

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c) The cost of the filter installation can vary considerably depending on the degree of optimisation, as illustrated by the following examples: i) The capacitor cost increases with the square of the voltage rating. A 10% increase in voltage therefore increases the capacitor cost by about 21%. ii) The reactor kVAr rating is inversely proportional to the square of the tuning frequency. A filter tuned at 2,5 pu frequency therefore requires a reactor with a rating four times higher than that of a filter tuned at 5 pu frequency. iii) A safe approach involving a tuning reactor with taps at (say) -10, -5, +5% costs significantly more than a reactor without taps. iv) In cases where tenders are invited for both the design and supply of filters, the offer with the lowest total price is very often the one which is not optimised in terms of filter performance and component ratings. At the same time, the offer with the highest total price is often the one which involves a safe overdesign. The difference in respective levels of filter design optimisation is usually reflected by a wide variation in prices; the lowest offer sometimes being up to 40% lower than the highest offer. A design and supply approach is therefore only feasible if the tenderer guarantees the minimum required performance requirements, provided that the end-users requirements are well defined.

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