Some Malfunctions of

Communications

1
Objective of the Chapter

Focusing on some malfunctions

that stem from:
1. Language imperfections and
2. Incorrect thinking patterns

2
Organization of the
Chapter
 Two valued Thinking
 Fact-inference Confusion
 The Blocked Mind
 The Static Viewpoint
 Failure to Discriminate
 Miscommunication Summarized

3
General semanticists
believe that Aristotelian
logic is the cause of the
five malfunctions that are
discussed here
4
Two-valued Thinking
Two valued thinking exists when we
consider only two possibilities in a
situation.
The True Dichotomy
Some situations may properly be
“either/ or’s”
(“You will pass this course or fail”)
Many business examples illustrate
two-valued logic(buy or not buy;
invest or not invest)
5
 Two-valued Thinking
(contd.)
Multivalued Situations
◗ Some situations are multi valued,
with values between extreme
positions ( not all people are fat or
skinny, intelligent or stupid).
◗ In English, we have many either/or
words and few in-between words. Our
language forces much two-valued
thinking.
6
Two-valued Thinking
(contd.)
The Danger Involved
Use two-valued words when appropriate,
but remember that they may not always
fit readily.
 Are workers lazy or industrious?
 Are political leaders good or bad?
Liberal or conservative?
Any subject involving viewpoints is a
topic for two-valued thinking. 7
Two-valued Thinking
(contd.)
Value of Specific Reference
Overcoming two-valued thinking is
possible by:
1. Being aware of the problem
2. Using words precisely
In using words precisely, consider
quantitative measures ( She has a
4.0 GPA) 8
Two-valued Thinking
(contd.)

❇ Also, use more middle-gerund

words (exceptionally good,
moderately good, as well as
candied, sugary, etc. ).
❇ Avoid know-it all statements by
using less definite and more
qualifying words.
9
Two-valued Thinking
(contd.)
Applications in Business
Communication

Two-valued thinking applies to

reports, letters and speaking.

10
Fact-inference confusion
✦ Communication about our
experiences is true communication
as it fits reality.
✦ Factual communication is not
always possible as we must often
infer (communicate about the
unknown).Confusing inferences
with facts creates
miscommunication. 11
Fact-inference confusion
(contd.)
Need for Inferences
 Inferences are necessary for all
types of communication. We must
evaluate, interpret and predict.
These are inferences.
 Inferences involve risks. To live, we
must calculate risks and make
inferences.
12
Fact-inference confusion
(contd.)
Effect on communication

★ We must make both inferences

and factual statements. But we
must not confuse the two.
★ Because inferences are not facts,
communication that uses them
may not be true.
13
Fact-inference confusion
(contd.)
Calculating the Probabilities
❁ We must calculate the probability
of correctness of our inferences.
❁ With odds of a thousand to one of
an inference being incorrect, think
about the one.
❁ Be aware of reality, and check
inferences against it.
14
Fact-inference confusion
(contd.)

Importance in Business
Communication
✡ Fact-inference confusion has many
consequences for business
communication.

15
The Blocked Mind
✇ The blocked mind is closed to
reality.it considers only limited
information.
A Result of Opinions, Attitudes,
and Beliefs
Our tendency to reject ideas that
oppose our viewpoints is a cause
of the blocked mind.
16
The Blocked Mind (contd.)
A Result of Allness
Allness is the tendency to judge the
whole by a part. It contributes to
the blocked mind.
Knowing all about reality is
impossible. We select (abstract)
parts about which to communicate.

17
 The Blocked Mind (contd.)
✉ Concentrating on one characteristic in the
belief that it is the whole produces
miscommunication.
✉ We need to make specific inferences, but
they should not block our minds to other
references.
✉ Emphasizing only one characteristic leads
to stereotyping.
✉ Stereotypes do not accord with reality.
18
 The Blocked Mind (contd.)
Extreme Effects of the Blocked Mind
❋ Extreme forms of blocked minds
prevent good communication.
❋ “Know-it-allness” results from blocked
minds.
❋ Arguments generally stem from two
blocked minds. Parties in an argument
usually defend their blocked minds
rather listen.
19
The Blocked Mind (contd.)
Unblocking the Mind
● We must unblock our minds to
improve communication.
● Thinking human beings have tried to
be rational for years. Most have not
succeeded.
● We can be aware of how viewpoints
are formed and how they affect
thinking. 20
The Blocked Mind (contd.)
We can add etc. to our thoughts to
remind us that we communicate
about only a small part of reality

Effects in Business Communication

The blocked mind can be a problem in
any business communication situation
and it can involve any or all of the
people concerned.
21
 The Static Viewpoint
We often view reality as static. Because
the reality is always changing, such a
view causes miscommunication.
The Unstatic Nature of Things
➨ Communication must reflect changes in
reality.
➨ We must have up-to-date references of
people and places. The reality changes,
but the symbols remain the same.
22
The Static Viewpoint
(contd.)
The Contributing Factor of
Language
Language contributes to static
thinking.Even tenses, dates and
time references do not permit
language to account for all
changes in reality.

23
The Static Viewpoint
(contd.)
The Static Viewpoint in
Business Communication

Written and oral communication in

business must reflect time
changes. If they do not,
miscommunication will occur.
24
Failure to Discriminate
✶ When we see similarities rather
than differences in reality, we
miscommunicate.
✶ Language, built on broad
categories, forces us to view
similarities.

25
 Failure to Discriminate
(contd.)
Miscommunication from
Stereotypes
Focusing on similarities forces to form
stereotypes which are not totally true.
✪ Stereotypes emphasize one thing
common to a group (“Professors teach
in universities”), but many differences
exist.
26
Failure to Discriminate
(contd.)
✎ We hold many stereotypes, but all
distort reality.
✎ Stereotyped images in our filters
become part of the total meaning
we give to statements. (Image of
Professor X = stereotype of
Professor X + person X)

27
Failure to Discriminate
(contd.)
Judgements by Category
Making common judgements to
cover all elements in a category is
an extreme form of discrimination
failure.
Most category judgements result
from limited observation and
emotional reaction.
28
Failure to Discriminate
(contd.)
✧ A more rational approach
considers differences within a
category.
✧ Extreme judgements by category
are incorrect in reality. They
miscommunicate.

29
Failure to Discriminate
(contd.)
Developing an Awareness of
Differences
✆ One way to solve the failure-to-
discriminate problem is to be
continually aware of differences
within category.
✆ Another way is to index references.

30
Failure to Discriminate
(contd.)
Discrimination Failure and
Business Communication

We need precision in selecting

words for our letter writing, report
writing, and business speaking
tasks.
31
Miscommunication
Summarized

The five malfunctions cause

major problem in business
communication.
To correct for each
malfunction, keep in touch
with reality.
32