ATOMIC POWER GENERATION

Atomic Power Generation in the past, present and future Landon rac!e" Lu"e #mith $anie%%e Niitsuma Lid&a Asfaw ate%&n Gre& Ph&sics '('( #a%t La"e Communit& Co%%e)e

Power Plant A nuclear power plant *a%so referred to us a )eneratin) station+ is a Therma% power station in which the heat source is a nuc%ear reactor, As is t&pica% in a%% con-entiona% therma% power stations the heat is used to )enerate steam which dri-es a steam tri.une connected to a )enerator which produces e%ectricit&, At the center of near%& a%% power stations is a )enerator, a rotatin) machine that con-erts mechanica% power into e%ectrica% power .& creatin) re%ati-e motion .etween a ma)netic fie%d and a conductor, Nuc%ear power constitutes a %ar)e chun" of power re/uired to produce e%ectricit& across the wor%d, With incidents %i"e the Cherno.&% disaster %ea-in) some important %essons for us to %earn from, a%% the necessar& precautions are ta"en to ma"e sure that the modern nuc%ear power p%ants are proper%& operated ensurin) optimum safet&, In fact as one of the safet& measures the who%e p%ant is encased within a -er& thic" dome shaped structure, These power p%ants can .e differentiated on the .asis of methods used to transfer in the reactors to the e%ectricit& )eneration unit, How do Nuclear Power Plants Work? Nuc%ear power p%ants are powered .& 0ranium, In a process "nown as nuc%ear fission, uranium atoms are sp%it to produce %ar)e amount of ener)& which is e-entua%%& con-erted to heat, The enormous amount of heat created, .oi%s the water to produce steam, which is used to rotate tur.ines, These tur.ines in1turn spin the shaft of the )enerator, As the )enerator )ets into action, the coi%s of wire within the )enerator are spun in a ma)netic fie%d to produce e%ectricit&, A nuc%ear reactor maintains and contro%s the nuc%ear reaction within the p%ant to produce ener)&, There are -arious t&pes of nuc%ear reactors, such as Pressuri!ed Water Reactor *PWR+, 2oi%in) Water Reactor *2WR+, Pressuri!ed 3ea-& Water Reactor *P3WR+, Ad-anced Gas1coo%ed Reactor *AGR+, etc,

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) In pressuri!ed water reactors, ordinar& water is used as the moderator as we%% as coo%ant, The primar&

coo%in) circuit, f%ows throu)h the core of the reactor under a hi)h pressure, whi%e the steam )enerated in the secondar& circuit dri-es the tur.ines, Water in the core of the reactor tends to reach a temperature of 456 de)ree Ce%sius7 therefore it has to .e "ept under a.out '6( times atmospheric pressure, in order to pre-ent it from .oi%in),

Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) In pressuri!ed hea-& water reactors, the moderator is %ocated in a %ar)e tan" "nown as ca%andria, This tan" is penetrated .& hori!onta% pressure tu.es which act as fue% channe%s, The ca%andria is coo%ed .& the f%ow of hi)h pressure hea-& water in primar& coo%in) circuit, The steam, which dri-es the tur.ines, is )enerated in the secondar& circuit, Owin) to its pressure tu.e desi)n, the reactor can .e refue%ed, .& iso%atin) each pressure tu.e from the coo%in) circuit, without shuttin) down the reactor, Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) In .oi%in) water reactors, the top part of the core operates with appro8imate%& '69 water as steam, This steam )oes direct%& to the tur.ines -ia drier p%ates %ocated a.o-e the core, In these reactors, the water around the core is most often contaminated, with radionuc%ides, Therefore, the tur.ines ha-e to .e shie%ded .& radio%o)ica% protection durin) maintenance of the nuc%ear fission power p%ant, The e8penditure sa-ed, owin) to the simp%e desi)n on this nuc%ear reactor is spent on this shie%din) acti-it&, thus .a%ancin) the e8penditure incurred, In the 0nited #tates, pressuri!ed water reactors and .oi%in) water reactors are used in nuc%ear power p%ants, Thou)h there e8ist a few securit& concerns a.out the operations of these p%ants, the& are necessar& as an a%ternati-e ener)& source to cope up with the e-er1increasin) ener)& re/uirements, Owin) to %ow %e-e%s of emission, this cost1effecti-e source of power is steadi%& .ecomin) a popu%ar source, It is estimated that the use of nuc%ear ener)& for the production of e%ectricit& wi%% increase .& 5(9, .& 5(4(,

Generation A.out :(9 of the e%ectricit& in the 0,#, is )enerated .& pri-ate *;in-estor1owned;+ uti%ities, The remainin) e%ectricit& is produced .& federa% a)encies such as the Tennessee <a%%e& Authorit&, the 2onne-i%%e Power Administration and the Power mar"etin) Administration of the $epartment of ener)&, municipa% uti%ities and uti%it& cooperati-es, The %ar)est pri-ate e%ectric producers in the 0nited #tates inc%ude= AE# Corporation #outhern compan&,>5GW American E%ectric Power, 4:GW $u"e Ener)&, 4?GW Luminant, ':GW Re%iant Ener)&, '>GW

Pros and cons of Power plants ', Ad-anta)es ' ") of fue% of uranium )i-es ener)& e/ui-a%ent 4,((( tons of hi)h )rade coa%, Therefore in

nuc%ear power p%ant the amount of fue% re/uired is -er& %ess compared to con-entiona% therma% power p%ant, Transportation and stora)e of the fue% is easier, @ossi% fue% reser-es dep%etin) at hi)her rate, Therefore the cost of e%ectricit& production throu)h

coa% and oi% reser-es increases per "i%owatt hour compared to nuc%ear power p%ant, i,e,, operationa% cost of nuc%ear p%ant is cheaper Nuc%ear power p%ants do not emit )reenhouse )ases in to atmosphere un%i"e therma% power

p%ants, Therefore nuc%ear power is c%ean and en-ironmenta% friend%&

Nuc%ear power p%ants re/uire %itt%e space compared to therma% power p%ant for the same MW

output, Therma% p%ants re/uire %ot of space for coa% stora)e, hand%in) and ash pond, The fue% stora)e in nuc%ear p%ant re/uires %ess space and spent fue% comin) out of the reactor is stored in sma%% water tan", Nuc%ear fue% is a-ai%a.%e in p%ent& amount a%% o-er the wor%d, Therefore fue% supp%& to p%ants

wi%% .e continuin) for hundreds of &ears, The output efficienc& of nuc%ear p%ants is hi)her compared to therma% power p%ants and cost of

e%ectricit& produced per unit is cheaper, Nuc%ear reactors such as .reeder reactors wi%% .reed the fue% in reactor7 o-er a period of time of

operation of reactor the amount of fue% pro-ided into the reactor wi%% .e e/ua% to the fue% )i-en output from the reactor, This is possi.%e .& con-ertin) ferti%e materia% to fissi%e materia% inside the reactor, Nuc%ear p%ants a%wa&s operate as .ase %oad p%ants, Therefore p%ant a-ai%a.i%it& factor and %oad

factor of the p%ant is /uite hi)h, 5, $isad-anta)e In Nuc%ear p%ants safet& is primar& concern rather producin) e%ectricit&, There is si)nificant ris"

of %ea"a)e of radiation in case of an& accident, The fission .& products re%eased is )enera%%& radioacti-e and po%%ute the %and, water, atmosphere and other natura% resources, The %and around the p%ant is considered as no man %and for %i-in) for at %east thousands of &ears $urin) shutdown of the reactor, deca& heat is sti%% produced from the reactor due to fission

dau)hter products, This deca& heat constitutes around : to '(9 of the reactor power, @or e8amp%e consider reactor ha-e a power of 6((MW, deca& heat )enerated from the reactor wi%% .e of the order of >( to 6(MW, This heat is to .e continuous%& remo-ed from the reactor e%se there is a chance of core me%t down which can cause accident and radiation re%ease, Modern p%ants are desi)ned to remo-e deca& heat throu)h passi-e coo%in) if a%% the power supp%ies to the p%ant is %ost which safe)uard the reactor core

 ri-er

It re/uires %ar)e water mass for coo%in) purpose, Therefore the p%ant shou%d .e near to sea or

Nuc%ear power p%ants a%wa&s operate as .ase %oad p%ants and cannot support )rid durin)

transient conditions, In nuc%ear p%ant Tur.ine fo%%ows Reactor, Whate-er ma& .e the demand for e%ectricit& nuc%ear p%ant does not worr&, It produces the power proportiona% to the reactor power, Therefore it does not support e%ectrica% )rid durin) transients, 2ecause -ar&in) reactor power with respect to %oad wi%% affect the safet& and %ife of the p%ant, It re/uires %ar)e area around the p%ant to .e iso%ated from %i-in) *a%most 6 "m radius+ #tate of art techno%o)& is re/uired there.& increasin) the cost and operators and other personne%

shou%d .e hi)h%& s"i%%ed to tac"%e an& situations, to!ic power generation Atomic power is a source of ener)& that has had, current%& has, and wi%% continue to ha-e a powerfu% impact on the 0nited #tates and itAs peop%e, Ener)& in the united states is primari%& produced .& fossi% fue%s In fact in 5((: our countr&As ener)& came from :69 fossi% fue%s, 3owe-er, the economics of nuc%ear power is not a .ad a%ternati-e, The primar& costs are in the construction of power p%ants .ut once the p%ant is created the runnin) costs are -er& %ow, The .i))est runnin) cost isnAt e-en the fue% source or %a.or, it is the insurance on the ris"& faci%it&, 3i)h insurance is a reminder that a human safet& factor needs to .e considered, And it is true that there ha-e .een man& deaths from nuc%ear power p%ant ma%functions, Appro8imate%& a hundred to a hundred and twent& deaths ha-e occurred in nuc%ear power p%ants wor%d wide since itAs inception, 3a%f the power p%ant deaths too" p%ace in one occurrence the Cherno.&% accident 'B:?, It is .e%ie-ed that the e-entua% tota% death to%% for peop%e around nuc%ear p%ants wi%% .e .etween 6,((( to 4(,((( peop%e, These are tra)ic deaths .ut in terms of deaths per unit of power )ained

nuc%ear )eneration is responsi.%e for fewer deaths then a%% the maCor fossi% f%ues Accordin) to 2enCamin , #o-acoo%, D5EB maCor ener)& accidents occurred from 'B(E to 5((E and the& caused ':5,'6? deathsF, Ta"in) out the out the ma8imum possi.%e deaths 4(,'5( from the tota% ':5,'6? &ou sti%% ha-e '65,(4? from other maCor ener)& pro-iders *fossi% fue%s+, If &ou compare the en-ironmenta% impact of nuc%ear )eneration to that of fossi% fue%s it is practica%%& nothin), The on%& thin) that a nuc%ear power p%ant re%eases into the en-ironment is c%ean water -apor from the condenser in the power p%ant *wi%% .e discussed %ater+, This water ne-er comes in contact with the radioacti-e materia% in the p%ant it is Cust pumped near hot areas in order to coo% down components of the p%ant, This water Cust comes out as c%ean stem, @ossi% fue%s howe-er, are notorious for %ettin) off po%%ution, Not on%& do fossi% fue%s %et of B(9 of the )reen house )asses in the 0nited #tates the& re%eases other air po%%ution such as su%fur dio8ide, nitro)en o8ides, and hea-& meta%s, Now that we ha-e introduced some of what the socia% and po%itica% aspects of atomic power we can %oo" at what atomic power actua%%& is, In order to do so we wi%% ha-e to %oo" at the -er& sma%% atomic %e-e%, If we !oom in rea%%& c%ose we can see that there are three different "inds of nuc%ear reactions happenin) There is nuc%ear fission, nuc%ear fusion and nuc%ear deca&, Nuclear "ission The process of nuc%ear fission starts .& firin) a neutron near a isotope * a mo%ecu%e that wants one more neutron to .ecome sta.%e+ %i"e uranium, The isotope a.sor.ents the e8tra neutron .ut as a resu%t the mo%ecu%e starts to sp%it, Two sometimes three sma%%er mo%ecu%es are created from the one, The two new dau)hter mo%ecu%es now ha-e e8tra e%ectrons and neutrons that the& %et )o into the en-ironment, The e%ectrons are the source of power and heat the reaction, The neutrons can then )o out to other near.& isotopes and start a chain reaction, Theses chain reactions then start new chain reactions as the come in contact with &et more isotopes, Within a few seconds there is or cou%d .e a tremendous

amount of ener)& and heat that can destro& ho%e cities, In the dia)ram .%ow the red e8positions represents the re%ease

Nuclear fusion Nuc%ear fusion is the opposite reaction from fission, @usion com.ines mo%ecu%es instead of pu%%in) them apart, If two mo%ecu%es are proCected towards each other with more force then the& are repe%%in) each other the& can co%%ide and com.ined, As a resu%t the new mo%ecu%e wi%% shed the atomic matter it does not need for its new state such as e%ectrons a)ain )eneratin) heat, 3umans ha-e not &et found a method of sustaina.%e ener)& throu)h the process of fusion, Norma%%&, fusion is not possi.%e .ecause the positi-e%& char)ed nuc%ei repe% each other and pre-ent them from )ettin) c%ose enou)h to)ether for fusion to occur, We can, howe-er see fusion e-er& da& .& simp%& %oo"in) up at the sun, The )ra-it& inside stars pu%%s mo%ecu%es towards each other with a force that is

stron) enou)h to o-ercome the repu%sion cased .& the protons, When the atoms are c%oses enou)h to)ether the nuchu%er force *there desire to Coin to)ether+ o-ercomes there repu%si-e force and the& com.ined, It is this process that supp%ies %i)ht to our entire )a%a8& and uni-erse,

Nuclear decay The %ast process of nuc%ear reaction is nuc%ear deca&, Nuc%ear deca& is a random process that occurs in unsta.%e atoms, Each unsta.%e atom has the potentia% to %et off Ioni!in) radiation which ta"es e%ectrons from atoms it comes in contact with, When the atom %et )o of this ener)&, its nuc%eus chan)es shape to .ecome a new atom, Nuc%ear deca& creates )eotherma% ener)& in the center of the earth, It is this process that "eeps our inner earth hot, This heat mo-es to the outer crust and can .e measured in certain areas on the p%anet, Nuc%ear deca& is a%so a means to power, How are t#e reactions used $y #u!ans 3umans ha-e not .een a.%e to find wa&s to use a%% three atomic reactions to there .enefit, At this point there is no wa& for us to ma"e fusion a -ia.%e source of ener)&, Atoms %i"e h&dro)en must .e heated to e8treme temperatures o-er '(( mi%%ion de)rees Ce%sius, the& must .e "ept dense enou)h, and confined for %on) enou)h, to a%%ow the atoms to fuses, We ha-e &et to "eep a%% theses conditions perfect%& a%iened with one another to create sustaina.%e fusion, If we where to )et the process )oin) %on) enou)h that it cou%d perpetuate its own temperature the on%& thin) it wou%d need is more atoms to

"eep it )oin), We are a.%e to use some forms of nuc%ear deca&, )eotherma% ener)& the earth produces and some RTGs, Radioisotope )eothermoe%ectric )enerators capture the random .usts of e%ections that nuc%ear deca& )i-es off, The& are used in sate%%ites and space pro.es .ecause the& can "eep runnin) on the ener)& from nuc%ear deca& for a seemin)%& end%ess time, 2ut .& far the process that is most common%& used .& humans is the processes of fission, "ission power plants #o how e8act%& dues fission creates ener)& that we can useG The fission chain reaction ta"es p%ace in what we ca%% a nuc%ear reactor, In order to pre-ent the chain reaction from )ettin) out of contro% an operator in the station p%aces a rod in the reactor that a.sor.s the neutrons that are %et off .& the reaction,

If &ou p%ace the rod a%% the wa& into the reactor &ou stop the reaction comp%ete%&, This rod chan)es the reaction of fission from creatin) num.er%ess dan)erous chain reactions to one sin)%e contro%%ed chain, As a resu%t of our now contro%%ed fission there is an e8cess e%ectron that creates heat, Wi%e e%ectrons

heat the reactor water is pumped in to a.sor. that heat, The water is heated to e8treme temperatures .ut dose not .oi% .ecause the reactor is "ept pressuri!ed, The hot water is then piped out of the reactor and into a non1pressuri!ed cham.er where it can then tern to steam, @rom this cham.er the steam is piped past a tur.ine which )enerates the desired e%ectricit&, The steam is then coo%ed .& a condenser and sent .ac" to the steam cham.er where it a.sor.s ener)& and .ecomes steam or is sent .ac" to the reactor to .e reheated,

The s&stem is comp%ete%& contained so that no to8ic waterH materia% wi%% escape, The main thin) that enters and %ea-es the s&stem is the uranium rods that power the fission process, And e-en these %ast a %on) time, Each uranium rod wi%% %ast for a.out ? &ears and at that point on%& 49 of it has .een fission1 ed out, %isposal of uraniu! rods Ta"in) care of uranium when it is spent is the maCor draw .ac" to usin) nuc%ear power, The rods

)i-e off dead%& radiation, The& re/uire )reat care so the& wi%% not come in contact with the en-ironment of an& .io%o)ica% materia%, 2efore we ta%" a.out itAs disposa%, it is important to understand where it comes from in the first p%ace, The uranium is mined out of the earth and con-erted into a sta.%e form ca%%ed &e%%owca"e, In its &e%%owca"e state it is transferred to a processin) p%ant where it is con-erted to enriched uranium which is more unsta.%e then the uranium natura%%& found in the earth, In this processin) faci%it& the uranium is shaped into the rods and read& for use in the reactors, In the reactors the foi% rods wi%% spend a.out 4 operationa% c&c%es *Each operationa% c&c%e %asts a.out 5 &ears +, After pu%%in) the spent rods from the reactor the rods are p%aced in a spent fu%% poo% where it ta"es 6 &ears for the isotopes created .& fission to deca& awa&, Once the& ha-e %ost some of there more potent radiation in this -at the& are pac"ed up and sent to a more permanent %ocation, The rods are often sent deep into mountains where the& are %i"e%& to spend the ne8t ten thousand to a mi%%ions &ears, It ma& .e possi.%e to shorten this massi-e time period .ut as of &et it remains the .i))est concern with nuc%ear power, In order to understand the past, preset, and future of nuc%ear )eneration we need to remem.er of what it is, There are three different "inds of nuc%ear reactions fission, fusion and nuc%ear deca&, The nuc%ear reaction the is most common%& used .& humans is fission, We use fission in nuc%ear power p%ant to produce e%ectricit&, A .&product of these nuc%ear power p%ants is radioacti-e materia%, The topic of atomic power is a )%o.a% contro-ers&, there isnIt a first wor%d countr& that hasnIt da..%ed in or .e)an harnessin) atomic power in hopes of uti%i!in) such an incredi.%& efficient ener)& source, 2ut %i"e man& of our ad-ancements toda&, atomic power hasnIt a%wa&s had such a hopefu% out%oo", 2e)innin) its mainstream roots as a weapon of tota% annihi%ation, atomic ener)& was once a force to .e feared rather than re-ered, 2efore it was a .om., atomic ener)& was a m&sterious un"nown, $atin) as far .ac" as the ':th centur&, atomic ener)& set a course to .ecome histor& in the ma"in), The use of uraniumIs natura% o8ide is .e%ie-ed to date .ac" as far as around :( C,E,, Je%%ow

)%ass with trace amounts of uranium o8ide ha-e .een found in Roman -i%%as near the 2a& of Nap%es, Ita%&7 Pre1historica%%&, uranium was once used as a co%orin) a)ent for )%ass and ceramics, At its -er& .asic, the concept of atomic power wou%d ha-e ne-er e8isted without the disco-er& of one of its most important pieces, uranium, 0ranium is credited as .ein) disco-ered in 'E:B .& a German chemist .& the name of Martin 3einrich %aproth, %aproth was a.%e to precipitate a &e%%ow compound, which is most %i"e%& .e%ie-ed to .e sodium diuranate, .& disso%-in) pitch.%ende in nitric acid and neutra%i!in) the so%ution with sodium h&dro8ide, It was assumed that the &e%%ow su.stance was an o8idi!ed un"nown meta%, which went on to .e named uranium, after the p%anet 0ranus,

After its disco-er&, uranium wasnIt -iewed as .ein) particu%ar%& dan)erous, this %ead to the de-e%opment of numerous uses for the e%ement, One of the main uses for uranium o8ide was, once a secret, the &e%%ow co%orin) in potter& and )%ass, In ':B?, 3enri 2ec/uere% disco-ered what is now "nown to .e radioacti-it&, 0sin) the pitch.%ende compound, which contains .oth uranium and radium, 2ec/uere% noted that a photo)raphic p%ate .ecame fo))ed when in contact with the su.stance, 2ec/uere% %ater demonstrated that this was due to a%pha partic%es and .eta radiation .ein) emitted, E-entua%%&, a third t&pe of radiation, )amma ra&s, was disco-ered to .e associated with uranium as we%%, The term Kradioacti-it&I was coined .& Pierre and Marie Curie, In 'B4>, Enrico @ermi formu%ated the idea to use neutrons, which ha-e no char)e, as proCecti%es to shoot into an atomIs nuc%eus, This %ead to the creation of isotopes for e-er& e%ement, as the nuc%ei a.sor.ed the e8tra neutron durin) this process, @ermi a%most disco-ered that s%owin) down the neutron had a %ar)er impact on the nuc%eus, 0sin) said e8periment, @ermi un"nowin)%& sp%it a nuc%eus7 howe-er credit wou%d %ater .e )i-en to 3ahn and #trassman for the disco-er& of the phenomenon in 'B4:, That .ein) said, @ermi is credited with usin) atomic fission to cause a nuc%ear chain reaction, This re%ease of ener)& wou%d set the pace for atomic power, E8perimentation and idea%ism usin) uranium continued on unti% the ad-ancement of nuc%ear

fission in the 'B4(Is, In 'B45, Lames Chadwic" disco-ered the neutron7 this %ead to an e8ponentia% )rowth in the use of atomic power, In 'B4:, @rit! #trassman and Otto 3ahn .om.arded uranium with neutrons on%& to find that the uranium into two appro8imate%& e/ua% parts, The process was ca%%ed KfissionI, Atomic fission was disco-ered to ha-e the a.i%it& to un%eash copious amounts of ener)&, @urther e8perimentation found that a specific uranium isotope cou%d .e transmuted into p%utonium, These disco-eries %ed do!ens of countries to .e)in de-e%opment on nuc%ear power and nuc%ear weaponr&, On $ecem.er 5, 'B>5 the team for the Manhattan ProCect initiated the first artificia% se%f1 sustained nuc%ear chain reaction, This set the pace for the infamous atomic .om. to come to fruition, The .om.s were two different maCor t&pes, a uranium1.ased .om. and a p%utonium1.ased de-ice, On Lu%& '?th, 'B>6 in New Me8ico, the resu%ts of the Manhattan ProCect were successfu%%& tested, Three wee"s after the test, the Eno%a Ga& too" off for 3iroshima, nown as one of the .%ac"est da&s in human histor&, atomic power wou%d )o on to stri"e fear into humanit&, The initia% KsuccessI of the atomic .om. %ed the #o-iets to de-e%op their own means of nuc%ear weaponr&, As histor& now "nows, this %ead to an arms race and at one point, threatened to destro& the %i-es of mi%%ions, With such a hea-& fear han)in) o-er the heads of the wor%dIs super powers, atomic ener)& was shunned and frowned upon, Man& of toda&Is fear stem from the misconceptions and dan)ers from the era of the Co%d War, 2ut the war .rou)ht humanit& more than Cust turmoi% and %oss7 new disco-eries .e)an to arise inc%udin) the )eneration of e%ectricit& and steam usin) the heat )enerated .& the reaction, Throu)hout the 'B6(Is wor" on peacefu% uses for atomic power proceeded, The 0nited #tates funded %ar)e amounts of research in nuc%ear marine propu%sion7 the first nuc%ear powered su.marine wou%d %aunch in 'B66 and e-entua%%& %ead to where our Na-& stands toda&, The 'B6> Amendments to the Atomic Ener)& Acts dec%assified the in-o%-ement of )o-ernment reactor techno%o)& and )reat%&

encoura)ed de-e%opment .& the pri-ate sector, On Lune 5E, 'B6> the #o-ietIs O.nins" Nuc%ear Power P%ant .ecame the wor%dIs first source of atomic power to )enerate e%ectricit& for a power )rid, This opened a p%ethora of hopes and ad-ancements for the future use of atomic power, The rapid production and re%ease of atomica%%& powered techno%o)ica% ad-ancements from .oth the 0nited #tates and the 0##R %ed to the increase in commercia% uses for atomic power, The first fu%%& commercia% reactor in the 0nited #tates started up in 'B?( and was operated unti% 'BB5, As this was happenin), the .oi%in) water reactor was de-e%oped .& Ar)onne Nationa% La.orator& and the first .oi%in) water reactor, $resden1' of 56( MWe, desi)ned .& the Genera% E%ectric compan&, .e)an operation in the ear%& 'B?(Is, 2& the end of the ?(Is, orders were .ein) p%aced for PWR and 2WR reactor units of more than '((( MWe, The first '((( MW1 hi)h1power channe% reactor started up near Lenin)rad in 'BE4, this desi)n was superseded .& a '((( MWe -ersion which .ecame the standard desi)n for nuc%ear reactors, The use of atomic ener)& dropped drastica%%& .etween the 'BE(Is and 5((5, This nuc%ear sta)nation caused the retirement of man& reactors and the cance%%ation of reactor orders, The price of uranium dropped dramatica%%& after oi% companies .ai%ed out on the uranium fie%d, $isasters, a%thou)h none near%& as se-ere as the we%%1"nown catastrophic nuc%ear accident, such as the infamous Cherno.&% disaster mere%& increased the dec%ine in interest in atomic power, 3owe-er, in the 'BB(Is, Lapan commissioned for the first of the third1)eneration reactors, ashiwa!a"i1 ariwa ? settin) in motion the reco-er& of the use of atomic ener)&, As of toda&, we are current%& in the era of a Nuc%ear Renaissance, What .e)an as &e%%ow co%orin) for pots has now turned into a source of ener)& that is .ein) further de-e%oped and is hoped to rep%ace much of the wor%dIs fossi% fue% use, As of toda& there are >4> opera.%e reactors and ?? current%& under construction in the wor%d, Atomic power meets near%& '41'>9 of the wor%dIs e%ectricit& demand and if humanit& does we%% to harness such an incredi.%e source of ener)&, those num.ers wi%% simp%& .ecome Cust another part of histor& in the )rand scheme of atomic power,

The wor%d chan)ed when the first atomic .om. was dropped on 3iroshima in 'B>6, E-er since, the nations of the wor%d ha-e fou)ht to esta.%ish dominance and preeminence .& .ui%din) arsena%s of nuc%ear weapons, The amount of nuc%ear weapons a countr& has p%a&s a %ar)e ro%e in where the& are ran"ed in the wor%d compared to other countries, This was one of the )reatest causes of the co%d war .etween the 0nited #tates and the #o-iet 0nion a%on) with its a%%ies, which %asted from the end of WWII unti% -er& recent &ears, A countr&Is mi)ht is often measured .& its firepower, and few thin)s sa& fire power %i"e an atomic .om., #ince its .irth in 'EE? the 0nited #tates has made itse%f into a wor%d super power and maintained that position .& .ui%din) its econom&, and a.o-e a%% .& maintainin) a dominant mi%itar&, %ar)e%& due to de-e%opments in nuc%ear techno%o)&, Man& nations in the wor%d sti%% ho%d to the ancient phi%osoph& that Dmi)ht is ri)ht,F meanin) that if &ou are capa.%e of con/uerin) or .u%%&in) someone e%se, and &ou succeed at doin) so, then itIs o", Then there are those nations, %i"e our own and man& of the countries .e%on)in) to the 0N who .e%ie-e that those countries who are una.%e to defend themse%-es a)ainst %ar)er or more powerfu% )o-ernments shou%d .e protected, and that, the simp%e a.i%it& to con/uer or dominate does not ma"e it mora%%& ri)ht, The de-e%opment of nuc%ear arms has much to do with differin) opinions of )o-ernment in re)ards to the wa& the wor%d ou)ht to .e, As pre-ious%& mentioned, the 0nited #tates was the first countr& to successfu%%& .ui%d a nuc%ear .om. .& creatin) a chain reaction of sp%it uranium atoms, #ince that epocha% da& in 'B>5 our mi%itar& and mi%itaries across the )%o.e ha-e put nuc%ear power to a num.er of uses, The nuc%ear .om. is perhaps the most hea-i%& researched and de-e%oped use of nuc%ear ener)& that the mi%itar& emp%o&s, #ince the first atomic .om.s were dropped on Lapan to end WWII the 0nited #tates has continued to .ui%d and impro-e nuc%ear weapons, Toda& the 0nited #tates is estimated to ha-e o-er E,((( nuc%ear warheads accordin) to the Center for Arms Contro% and Non1Pro%iferation, The 0# is one of on%& three countries to possess intercontinenta% .a%%istic missi%es which are se%f1)uided arms that tra-e% throu)h the air or e-en space to a specified tar)et that can .e hundreds or e-en thousands of mi%es awa&, These missi%es are e/uipped with nuc%ear warheads that are capa.%e of unspea"a.%e destruction, A nuc%ear

weaponIs initia% .%ast a%one is capa.%e of %e-e%in) entire cities and endin) the %i-es of hundreds of thousands, In addition to our intercontinenta% .a%%istic missi%es *IC2M+, we a%so possess a num.er of su.marine %aunched .a%%istic missi%es which are essentia%%& the same thin) e8cept the& are %aunched from an underwater -esse%, Russia a%so possesses a simi%ar amount of the two t&pes of weapons, .oth dep%o&ed and non1dep%o&ed, 2ut the 0# and Russia are not the on%& ones who ha-e .ui%t nuc%ear weapons, Of course each nation made e-er& effort to )uard their techno%o)ica% ad-ances as c%ose%& as possi.%e, .ut nonethe%ess information %ea"ed and other nations )ot a ho%d of it and made their own disco-eries which a%%owed them to de-e%op their own nuc%ear arsena%s, This has most%& ta"en p%ace in re%ati-e%& recent &ears, @rance, China, India, the 0nited in)dom, and Israe% are some of the nations that are considered a%%ies of the 0# that ha-e nuc%ear weapons, whi%e hosti%e or unfriend%& nations that possess or are current%& wor"in) to .ui%d nuc%ear weapons inc%ude North orea, Iran, and #&ria, It seems the who%e wor%d is in competition to see who is the tou)hest on the .%oc", .ut the future is %oo"in) somewhat promisin), The )ears ha-e shifted somewhat in recent &ears, In particu%ar after the end of the Co%d War efforts ha-e .een made to reduce the num.er of nuc%ear war heads in the wor%d, In Apri% 5('( the New #TART treat& was si)ned .& the two nations that ha-e the )reatest num.er of nuc%ear weapons, which are The 0nited #tates of America and Russia, Accordin) to President 2ara" O.ama the treat& Dreduces the num.er of nuc%ear weapons and %aunchers that the 0nited #tates and Russia dep%o&, whi%e fu%%& maintainin) AmericaIs nuc%ear deterrentF, The treat& puts re)u%ation on the amount of intercontinenta% .a%%istic missi%es, and su.marine %aunched .a%%istic missi%es that ha-e to .e met no %ater than @e.ruar& 5(':, This is an effort to ma"e the wor%d a safer p%ace .& reducin) the destructi-e power that these two )reat nations possess, At the moment it is thou)ht that the )reatest nuc%ear threat is comin) from North orea, and )reat efforts are .ein) made to ne)otiate with their %eader in order to cur. their production of nuc%ear arms, North orea successfu%%& detonated test nuc%ear weapons in 5((?, 5((B, and ear%& this

&ear, which had prompted further ne)otiations and ener)ies to curtai% their nuc%ear pro)rams, A%thou)h the current North orean dictator has threatened to commence a nuc%ear war, and the possi.i%it& remains, the immediate threat seems to ha-e a.ated for the time .ein),

The de-e%opment of nuc%ear techno%o)& has .een %ar)e%& focused on weaponr&, and when we thin" of nuc%ear power, the first thin) that comes to mind is often ima)es of the )iant mushroom c%oud of smo"e risin) a.o-e what was once 3iroshima or Na)asa"i, 3owe-er nuc%ear pro)rams encompass far more than warheads a%one, Wor" and research on nuc%ear powered ships and su.marines .e)an as ear%& as the 'B>(Is, and the first nuc%ear powered su.marine ca%%ed the 0## Nauti%is was %aunched in 'B66, and in 'B?( the first nuc%ear powered aircraft1carrier was %aunched, Ice .rea"ers are a%so made with nuc%ear power for an ener)& source, 0sin) this as a source of power as opposed to fossi% fue% a%%ows ships to sta& at sea for %on)er periods of time, and )enerate e8ceedin)%& more power than con-entiona%%& powered ships, $espite the )reat success of these -esse%s in the 0nited #tates Na-&, and other na-ies such as Russia, @rance and China, and the e8treme%& %ow num.er of accidents and radiation %ea"s, man& peop%e are s"eptica% and worr& that nuc%ear reactors in ships and su.marines are too -o%ati%e and prone to incidents, This fear has caused restrictions for these warships in man& ports across the )%o.e, .ut as fossi% fue%s .ecome %ess readi%& a-ai%a.%e and harder to find, it is %i"e%& that this a%ternate power source wi%% .ecome more wide%& used and accepted, Mi%itar& research and de-e%opment departments wi%% %i"e%& .e some of the %eadin) contri.utors to the furtherin) of nuc%ear techno%o)&, As with count%ess other in-entions and inno-ations %i"e the internet, and airp%anes, the 0nited #tates mi%itar& wi%% .e responsi.%e for introducin) the nuc%ear chain reaction into the wor%d, and the )reater part of ad-ances in the nuc%ear fie%d, @or )ood or i%% the 0nited #tates wi%% a%wa&s carr& that mant%e and share at %east some if not a%% the char)e of whate-er conse/uences that ma& come from nuc%ear power,

The future of nuc%ear power %oo"s %ess .ri)ht as more techno%o)ica% ad-ances are introduced and the num.ers of accidents increase, It a%so ta"e a %ot of time, mone& and it ma& affect the hea%th of the emp%o&ees and citi!ens of the countr& .& the radiation that is dea%t with in the nuc%ear power p%ants, There ha-e .een more than one hundred accidents since the 'B6(As, some resu%tin) in e8p%osions and death of man& emp%o&ees, A%most 5(,6 .i%%ion do%%ars were put towards propert& dama)e and has caused e-acuations of residents from %oca% cities, An accident that happened at the @u"ushima ' Nuc%ear power p%ant in @u"ushima in Lapan was recorded as the second worst disaster to happen in histor&, This comes after the >,5(( mi%%ion do%%ar dama)e steam e8p%osion and me%tdown in 0"raine *'B:?+ that "i%%ed 6( direct%& and as man& as >,((( %ater on due to the radiation that was re%eased into the countr&, The e8p%osion in Lapan was caused .& an earth/ua"e and tsunami, There were man& reports %ater on that resu%ted in man& of the residents that contracted cancer .& the radiation, Nuc%ear power p%ants are )oin) to .e dan)erous no matter what .ecause the disasters of the earth that happen cannot .e contro%%ed *such as earth/ua"es, tsunamis, maCor storms, etc,+ and cause a hu)e impact on the peop%e of the countr& and the econom& of the countr& as we%%, Ana%&sts sa&, in order for it to sta& profita.%e, a nuc%ear p%ant costs )enera%%& a.out '5 cents per "i%owatt an hour where )as1fired p%ants on%& cost a.out 61B cents per "i%owatt an hour, That is a .i) difference considerin) how %on) the p%ant is runnin) a da& as we%% as how %on) o-er time it is acti-e for, Techno%o)ica% ad-ances are %eadin) towards more efficient, %ess e8pensi-e, en-ironmenta%%& friend%& wa&s to pro-ide a source of ener)&, Nuc%ear power p%ants ma& ha-e a chance for the future if the process of how the& ma"e ener)& is impro-ed and safer, Nuc%ear power p%ants are powered .& 0ranium and use a )enerator that con-erts mechanica% power into e%ectrica% power, The atoms of uranium are sp%it that produce ener)& which is then con-erted into -er& hi)h temperatures of heat, This is used to power the tur.ines that )i-e ener)& to the

)enerator, The hea%th ris"s of power p%ants are practica%%& nothin), that is, if it does not e8p%ode or an& pro.%ems occur with the radioacti-e materia%, This is .ecause it Cust re%eases c%ean water -apor and does not come in contact with radiation whatsoe-er, 2ut as it turns out, nuc%ear power p%ants are a%wa&s )oin) to .e ris"& .ecause of the en-ironmenta% factors of the earth that cannot .e chan)ed and cost%& if somethin) were to )o wron), It wi%% affect the hea%th of the citi!ens of the countr& and affect the econom&, As fossi% fue%s )et harder to find and the 0# uses a%most :69 of it as the primar& source of ener)&, an a%ternati-e is in hi)h demand, If nuc%ear power p%ants were .ui%t in a re)ion that does not e8perience those factors %i"e earth/ua"es and other disasters that wi%% .e a step c%oser to more percautions that are needed to pre-ent horri.%e disasters, That is more important than sa-in) time, Powerin) su.marines and ships that are used in the armed forms ha-e used nuc%ear power to run them, That a%%ows them to .e out for %on)er periods of time at sea and )enerate more power, 2ut &et a)ain, the concern of the radiation and the disasters that cou%d happen a%wa&s %oo" down on the future of nuc%ear power, It wi%% a%wa&s .e a de.ata.%e source of ener)& to use .ut it is .ein) impro-ed more and more o-er time, It has impro-ed )reat%& in the %ast decades and wi%% continue to impro-e,

References The Manhattan ProCect, Retrie-ed Octo.er 5', 5('4, from the Wor%d Wide We.= http=HHwww,ushistor&,or)HusH6'f,asp imp.a%%, $, *5('4+, Nuc%ear Weapons= Who 3as What, Retrie-ed Octo.er 55, 5('4, from the Wor%d Wide We.= http=HHwww,armscontro%,or)HfactsheetsHNuc%earweaponswhohaswhat Nuc%ear Pro%iferation Case #tudies, Retrie-ed Octo.er 55, 5('4, from the Wor%d Wide We.= http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Safety-and-Security/NonProliferation/Appendices/Nuclear-