1 Title: Menorahs and the Ark of the Covenant Culture: Jewish Argument: This wall painting, found in a Jewish

catacomb in Rome, dating to c.a. 3rd century C.E. shows the important symbols of the Jewish faith. Symbolism has been very important to each of the cultures that we have studied, and understanding the symbolism gives greater insight into the culture. The painting has to very prominent symbols. The first is the menorah. The menorah is a 7 pronged candelabra. It is thought to have been derived from the Mesopotamian culture, who have a similar symbol in shape of the tree of life. This would make sense, as the Jews were a displaced people who spent many years in the lands of Mesopotamia. In this painting the menorah is lit, and is surround the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark of the Covenant was the sacred chest that carried the stone tablets that had been inscribed with the ten commandments. I do not think it coincidence that the Ark is central to this picture and surround on both sides by a lit menorah. Perhaps it is to symbolize the appearance of God to Moses, in the burning bush, to give him the laws by which the Jews lived and died. After all, their God was their Tree of Life. 2 Title: Old Testament Culture: Jewish Argument: I am dividing the Bible into two sections for this assignment as the two sections are vastly different in both message and style and portray to vastly different cultures. The Old Testament was the book of the Jews. It is a collection of the history and teachings of their prophets and kings. The Jews were a monotheistic people, even when the cultures and

civilizations around them were polytheistic. They called themselves Israelites, or the Children of Israel. They believed they were the chosen people of the one true God. The Old Testament is a history of not only their people, but of their relationship with God. The stories of the Old Testament can be broken down into two categories, myths or etiological stories (the causes and origins of things, like the creation of the world) and historicized fiction (in which certain true events are fictionalized to narrate a story and convey a specific message from God). Whether the stories are true or not, does not matter. The fact that the Jews regarded theses writings and teachings are truth and abided by them is what matters. To them the stories represent the covenant that God has with his people. The stories illustrate his power to help them when they are obedient, and hinder and punish them, when they are not. These are the laws and stories that defined every action and their daily way of life. 3 Title: Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus Culture: Christian Argument: This sarcophagus was constructed in ca. 359 C.E. The Christians did not like sculptures, because they felt it was too close to worshiping idols. They did, however, approve small relief sculptures in certain places, like on this sarcophagus. The reliefs that Christians created were usually scenes meant to spark a remembrance of a particular story from the teachings of the prophets. This sarcophagus has illustrations depicting the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham, St. Peter being taken prisoner, Jesus with Peter and Paul, Jesus standing trial before Pontius Pilate, the suffering of Job, Adam and Eves transgression, Jesuss triumphant entry into Jerusalem, Daniel in the lions den, and St Pauls execution. Some of these depictions are stories from the Old Testament, giving credence to the fact that most of the Christians, were from the

beginning, Jews who converted after the coming of Jesus, whom they believed to be their god come to earth. These stories show the mixture of the two religions and cultures. The fact that the final resting place of this important man (he was a prefect in Rome which would be similar to a governor in our country) was decorated, not with pictures of his life and ancestors as are many of the resting places of the civilizations we have so far covered, but was instead covered in these stories of spiritual matters, show where the importance of the Christians lay. It was not with themselves, but with their god and his teachings. 4 Title: New Testament Culture: Christian Argument: The New Testament, like the Old Testament for the Jews, was the code by which Christians lived. The New Testament is divided into four sections; the gospels, the epistles, the Acts of the Apostles, and Revelation. The gospels are four separate books, written by four of Jesuss Apostles spanning from the time just before his birth to his crucifixion and resurrection. They are the most considered the most important of the all the books of the New Testament, as they contain the stories of Jesuss miracles and his teachings. The epistles are letters written by the Apostles, most of them being ascribed to the Apostle Paul, to Early Christian communities scattered throughout the land. These letters are meant to clarify the teachings of Jesus and answer questions that had been put to the Apostle. Mostly they are in response to a letter from a particular people. The Acts of the Apostles, are just that; the attempt of Jesuss Apostles after his death to continue to do good works, and spread the message of Christian belief. This book clearly defines the way of life for these men and the attitude and mindset, required to be a true disciple of Christ. Revelations, was written by the Apostle John, and is a vision into the future of

what Christians believe will be the end of the world and the Final Judgment of God. As mentioned before, it is the Bible as a whole, the New Testament in particular, that drive the ambitions and choices of everyday life for the Christians. This book has been a guide since it was written in the 1st century C.E. even through today. 5 Title: San Vitale, Raveena Culture: Byzantine Argument: The Byzantines were originally the Eastern Roman Empire. The church of San Vitale in Raveena, built in ca 526 to 547 C.E. shows both the connection to the Romans and the start of their individualism. San Vitale is built as an octagon with a dome room. The Byzantines favored the dome and circular patterns as they were structurally sound, yet allowed for a feeling of being light and spacious. Like the Romans, the true beauty of the church lies on the interior. The walls are both painted in the fourth Roman painting style, and are done is glass mosaics. The mosaics were then covered with a gold tesserae that would glitter and shine when touched by the sun. Like the Christians, which was the religion adopted by the first Byzantine ruler, Constantinople, the mosaics are of stories from the Old and New Testaments. In addition they depict others who are of great importance to the Byzantine civilization, namely leaders of the church and the emperors. Beneath the dome, sits the alter, reminding the viewer that this buildings purpose is that as one of worship. The buildings and mosaics clearly represent the path of Byzantium, the past of Rome and the hope of a greater future. 6 Title: Justinian and his Attendants Culture: Byzantine

Argument: This mosaic is one from the San Vitale church mentioned in #5. The mosaic is typical of Byzantine art in that the faces have large dark eyes, long noses, and tiny mouths. Also present are the halos around the heads of Justinian and also who is assumed to be either the Pope or the local leader of the Christian church. Halos were painted in Byzantine art to depict personages of high standing whom were thought to be chosen by God, leaders of the Christian church, or spiritual beings, like angels. The people in this mosaic are not meant to be shown in a realism form, but rather a spiritual form. The bodies beneath their gowns are not in anatomical agreement with the parts that are visible. They are shown almost weightless. The real purpose behind the mosaic is more symbolic that practical. Justinian is shown as the center of the painting and has his shoulders ahead of everyone elses, showing that he is the most important figure. To his left is the Christian leader and other church and court attendants. To his right are soldiers from his army. This symbolizes the power of Justinian, with support from both the political and militaristic realm, as well as the secular or religious realm. Furthermore, the feet of the people depicted are shown at odd angles and overlapping one another, which gives an impression that they are not standing, but rather floating, another aspect of the spiritual vs realism perspectives that the Byzantines tended to favor. 7 Title: Song of Roland Culture: Early Middle Ages (Specifically Carolingian Era) Argument: The Song of Roland is a French poem written in 778 C.E. The poem tells the story of the battle between the Christian army of Charlemagne and the Muslin Saracens. Aside from being a great literary work in both the writing and message, it gives the reader a great historical perspective of what the people of the time valued. The story is written with elegant but simple

narrative and is full of elaborate detail that allow us a glimpse into feudal society. The heroes of the story are always loyal to their overlords, the value loyalty over treachery, courage over cowardice, and good judgment over foolishness. Roland is portrayed as a valiant knight (who would have been third on the list of feudal hierarchy) who is obedient and faithful to his king. He is also a good friend to fellow knights and is constantly governed by his own code of Christian morals. These were the values Feudal society. This is the law the people of the early middle ages lived by. 8 Title: Monastery Culture: Early Middle Ages Argument: While monasteries had been around before the middle ages, monasticism grew quickly during this time period. There were several orders of monistic rule for the many different monasteries that were created. Some were stricter than others, some were wealthier than others, and some were more religiously devoted than others in their fasting and praying. All the monasteries, whichever order they followed, were built with the idea of self-sufficiency. The monastery was typical built with the Church as the largest, most prominent building. Surrounding the church were a well for water, gardens, dormitories, baths, latrines, refectory, and workshops. They also contained an infirmary and cemetery, servants quarters, guest quarters, and several kitchens. To me, the most important part of the monastery is the school. Monks were instrumental in the revival of literacy. For many years the only people who knew how to read or write were the monks. When Charlemagne came into rule, he deemed that all people, regardless of class, should have opportunity and inclination to learn literacy. In addition to education, the monks of the monasteries also developed music, most specifically the chant, which are texts

some to a particular melody. Over the centuries those melodies slowly developed from a monophony to polyphony, and from there music that is closer to how we know it today. 9 Title: Magna Carta Culture: Romanesque Argument: The Magna Carta was written by the English barons as a list of demands on King John on June 15, 1215. This document was the first of its kind to put a limit on the authority of the monarch. King John was losing money, soldiers, and land due to his unceasing war with France, and his nobles had decided that they had had enough. According to the feudal system they lived by, the money and soldiers that King John was squandering, had come from them, and he kept demanding more of both. Arriving for the signing prepared for battle and with their armies, the nobles gave John no choice but to sign the document. The Magna Carta has stood as the defining document that paved the way for the current monarchial reign in England as well as for the American Declaration of Independence and Constitution. I think it is important to note, that the Magna Carta was the way for the barons to protect themselves, while still showing respect to their overlord. They easily could have over thrown him, as the Romans did with their king to make a Republic. Instead, they allowed him to keep his power and control, but implemented certain restrictions that would not allow him the power to lose everything that they had worked so hard to build over the years. 10 Title: Chivalric Code Culture: Romanesque

Argument: The feudal system that defined the Early Middle Ages since the time of Charlemagne, was one based on courage, valiance, and warfare. After their lands seemed secure from domineering forces, the knights and barons started fighting in crusades. They were gone from home for many years, leaving the running of estates to their women. The chivalric code was promoted to give rise the status of women and put them on a more equal ground with men. Instead of courage and warfare, chivalric code was based on gentility and refinedness. There are specific rules of the chivalric code that about the relationships allowed between members of the opposite sex. Mostly it was formulated to give rise to friendships between men and women, and allow them to be seen as something other than property or a person of lower standing to be objectified. Chivalry is still strong today, and is still a prized virtue for a man to possess, in the eyes of women. Women of the Romanesque time want to be viewed as capable minds and equals, as much as we do today. The chivalric code was one of the keys to making that happen.