FORCE & TORQUE

MEASUREMENTS
Link type load cell
A simple uniaxial link-type load cell with strain
gages as the sensor is a very common load cell
configuration. The load P can be either a tensile
load or a compressive load.

The four strain gages are bonded to the link such
that two are in the axial direction and two are in
the transverse direction. The four gages are
wired into a Wheat stone bridge with the axial
gages in arms 1 and 3 and the transverse gages
in arms 2 and 4.
Link type load cell
Link type load cell
When the load P is applied to the link, axial and transverse
strains and develop in the link and are related to the load by
the expressions



Where,A is the cross-sectional area of the link.
E is the modulus of elasticity of the link material.
is Poissons ratio of the link material.
AE
vP
AE
P
t a
= = c c
Link type load cell
The output voltage Eo from the Wheatstone bridge
can be expressed in terms of the load P. If it is
assumed that the four strain gages on the link are
identical, then R1 = R2. Therefore,


Or
o o
i
CE E
E v K
AE
P =
+
=
) 1 (
2
AE
E v KP
E
i
o
2
) 1 ( +
=
Beam type load cell
Beam-type load cells are commonly
employed for measuring low-level loads
where the link-type load cell is not
effective.
A simple cantilever beam with two strain
gages on the top surface and two strain
gages on the bottom surface (all oriented
along the axis of the beam) serves as the
elastic member and sensor for this type of
load cell.
Beam type load cell
Beam type load cell
The load P produces a moment M = Px at the
gage location x that results in the following
strains:



Where b is the width of the cross section of the
beam
h is the height of the cross section of the beam
2 2
4 3 2 1
6 6
Ebh
Px
Ebh
M
= = = = = c c c c
Beam type load cell
The output voltage Eo from the Wheatstone
bridge, resulting from application of the load P, is
obtained by assuming the four strain gages on
the beam to be identical


or
2
6
Ebh
E KP
E
i x
o
=
o o
i
CE E
KxE
Ebh
P = =
6
2
Ring type load cell
Ring-type load cells incorporate a proving ring as
the elastic element. The ring element can be
designed to cover a very wide range of loads by
varying the diameter D (or radius R), the
thickness r, or the depth w of the ring.

Either strain gages or a linear variable-
differential transformer (LVDT) can be used as
the sensor.
Ring type load cell
Ring type load cell
If an LVDT is used to measure the diametric
compression or extension o of the ring, the
relationship between displacement o and load P is
given by the following approximate expression:


Equation (6.14) is approximate since the
reinforced areas at the top and bottom of the
ring that accommodate the loading attachments
have not been considered in its development.
3
3
79 . 1
Ewt
PR
= o
Torque Cell
Torque cells are transducers that convert
torque to an electrical signal.
The two types of torque cells in common usage
include those installed on fixed shafts and
those installed on rotating shafts. The latter
type is more difficult to utilize, since the
electrical signal must be transmitted from the
rotating shaft to a stationary assembly of
recording instruments.
The problem of signal transmission will be
considered after design concepts associated
with torque cells are discussed.
Torque Cell
Torque Cell
A circular shaft with four strain gages mounted
on two perpendicular 45-degree helixes is shown
in figure.

Gages 1 and 3, mounted on the right-had helix,
sense a positive strain, while gages 2 and 4,
mounted on the left-hand helix, sense a negative
strain. The two 45-degree helixes define the
principal stress and strain directions for a circular
shaft subjected to pure torsion.
Torque Cell
The shearing stress t in the circular shaft is
related to the applied torque T by the equation


Where D is the diameter of the shaft and J is the
polar moment of inertia of the circular cross
section
Since the normal stresses o
x
= o
y
=o
z
= 0 for a
circular shaft subjected to pure torsion
3
16
2
D
T
J
TD
xz
t
t = =
3
2 1
16
D
T
xz
t
t o o = = =
Torque Cell
Principal strain are obtained by using equations
and Hookes law for the plane state of stress.
Thus,
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =
E
v
D
T
v
E
E
v
D
T
v
E
1 16
) (
1
1 16
) (
1
3
1 2 2
3
2 1 1
t
o o c
t
o o c
Torque Cell
The response of the strain gages is obtained from
the equations above as


If the gages are connected into a Wheatstone
bridge, as illustrated, the relationship between
output voltage E
o
and torque T is obtained as
K
E
v
D
T
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
A
=
A
=
A
=
A 1 16
3
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
t
i o
KE
E
v
D
T
E
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
1 16
3
t
Torque Cell
Or



Equation indicates that the torque T is linearly
proportional to the output voltage E
o
and that the
constant of proportionality or calibration constant
C is given by
o o
i
CE E
KE v
E D
T =
+
=
) 1 ( 16
3
t
i
KE v
E D
C
) 1 ( 16
3
+
=
t

Torque Cells-Data Transmission

Frequently, torque must be measured on a
rotating shaft, which necessitates signal
transmission between a Wheatstone bridge on
the rotating shaft and a stationary
instrumentation centre.

Signal transmission under these circumstances is
usually accomplished with either slip rings or
telemetry.
Slip Rings
The slip-ring assembly contains a series of
insulated rings mounted on a shaft and a
companion series of insulated brushes mounted
in a case.
High-speed bearings between the shaft and the
case permit the case to remain stationary while
the shaft rotates with the torque cell.
A commercial slip-ring assembly is shown in the
figure
Slip Rings
The major problem associated with slip-ring usage is
noise (generated by contact resistance variations
between the rings and brushes).
The contact resistance variations can be kept within
acceptable limits if the rings are fabricated from
monel metal (a copper-nickel alloy), if the brushes are
fabricated from a silver-graphite mixture, and if the
ring-brush contact pressure is maintained between 50
and 100 psi.
Rotational speed limits of slip-ring assemblies are
determined by the concentricity that can be
maintained between the shaft and the case and by the
quality of the bearings. Slip-ring units with speed
ratings of 6000 rpm are available.
Slip Rings






Signal Transmission with Telemetry

In many applications, the end of the shaft is not
accessible for mounting of the slip-ring unit and
telemetry must be used to transmit the signal from
the rotating shaft to the recording instrument.
The output from the Wheatstone bridge is used to
modulate a radio signal. The strain gages, bridge,
power supply, and radio transmitter are mounted
on the rotating shaft, while the receiver and
recorder are located at a stationary instrumentation
centre.

In most applications, the distance over which the
signal must be transmitted is only a few feet;
therefore, low-power transmitters, which do not
need to be licensed, can be used.
Telemetry system