<Internals\\CM\\1975 1 Chase Tucker power analystic examination of contemporary communication research> - 1 reference coded [0.17% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.

.17% Coverage 18 John E. Overall, "Classical Statistical Hy- pothesis Testing Within the Context of Bayes- ian Theory," Psychological Bulletin, 71 (1969), 285-92. 32 SPEECH MONOGRAPHS to decrease the amount of data

<Internals\\CM\\1975 1 Delia et al dependency of interpersonal evaluations on context relevant beliefs about the other> - 9 references coded [1.64% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.19% Coverage model 1 See, for example, Norman H. Anderson, "A Simple Model for Information Integration," in Theories of Cognitive Consistency: A Source- book, ed. Robert P. Abelson, et al. (Chicago: Rand-McNally

Reference 2 - 0.21% Coverage 42-55; and Percy H. Tannenbaum, "The Congruity Principle: Retrospective Reflections and Recent Research," in Theories of Cognitive Consistency, pp. 52-72. 3While other than the evaluative dimension have been used

Reference 3 - 0.17% Coverage study. 4 Martin Fishbein, "Attitude and the Pre- diction of Behavior," in Readings in Attitude Theory and Measurement, ed. Martin Fishbein (New York: Wiley, 1967), p. 480. DEPENDENCY OF INTERPERSONAL EVALUATIONS

Reference 4 - 0.16% Coverage Object," Human Re- lations, 16 (1963), 233-40; and in Martin Fish- bein, "A Behavior Theory Approach to the Re- lations between Beliefs about an Object and the Attitude toward the

Reference 5 - 0.16% Coverage between Beliefs about an Object and the Attitude toward the Object," in Readings in Attitude Theory and Measurement, pp. 389-400. See Martin Fishbein and B. H. Raven, "The AB Scales

Reference 6 - 0.18% Coverage tive information about the work behav- ior of another person and negative inS. Crutchfield, Theory and Problems of Social Psychology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1948). 8 See, for example, David

Reference 7 - 0.18% Coverage

it functions in social interaction can be gleaned from Albert Mehrabian, An Analysis of Personality Theories (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1968). pp. 121-64. DEPENDENCY OF INTERPERSONAL EVALUATIONS METHODS Subjects were

Reference 8 - 0.22% Coverage Psychology, 9 (1968), 283-94- Seymour Rosenberg and Andrea Sedlack, "Structural Representations of Implicit Personality Theory," in. Advances in ExPeri- mental Social Psychology, VI, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (New York: Academic

Reference 9 - 0.18% Coverage pp. .19-32. 26 Vernon E. Cronen and Richard L. Con- vine, "Belief Salience, Summation Theory, and the Attitude Construct," SM, 40 (1973), 17-26. DEPENDENCY OF INTERPERSONAL EVALUATIONS researchers claim

<Internals\\CM\\1975 1 Hazen Kiesler communication strategies affected by audience opposition feedback personality> - 3 references coded [0.46% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.16% Coverage AND PERSUASIBILITY MICHAEL D. HAZEN and SARA B. KIESLER T is generally accepted in rhetorical theory that speakers systematically alter their message presentations to suit differing audiences. Aristotle argues that the

Reference 2 - 0.16% Coverage of audience char- acteristics on communication strategies. A review of previous empirical re- search and theory sugests that a com- municator, aware that his audience can ignore the message, reject its

Reference 3 - 0.14% Coverage appearing too discrepant from them, or too much in violation of their norms.4 Byrne's theory of similar- ity and interpersonal attraction, sup- ported by many empirical demonstra- tions of a

<Internals\\CM\\1975 1 McLaughlin Jordan impression formation in triads> - 1 reference coded [0.23% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.23% Coverage and Evaluative Aspect of Beliefs about the Attitude Object: A Comparison of Summation and Congruity Theories," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2 (1965), 437-443. On this point see Kaplan

<Internals\\CM\\1975 1 Nofsinger demand ticket conversational device for getting the floor> - 2 references coded [0.45% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.21% Coverage 59 (1973), 1-10. a Donald Cushman and Gordon C. Whiting, "An Approach to Communication Theory: To- ward Consensus on Rules," Journal o f Com- munication, 22 (1972), 220-221. 3

Reference 2 - 0.24% Coverage and L. W. Rosenfield, "A Game Model of Human Communication," in What Rhetoric (Communi- cation Theory) is Appropriate for Contemporary Speech Communication? Proceedings of the Uni- versity of Minnesota Spring Symposium

<Internals\\CM\\1975 2 Cronen Conville concept of belief strength critique of model> - 23 references coded [7.78% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.52% Coverage THEORETICAL, METHODOLOGICAL, AND EXPERIMENTAL CRITIQUE VERNON E. CRONEN and RICHARD L. CONVILLE ARTIN FISHBEIN's summation theory of attitude has been quite influential in the field of speech communication. The essential elements of the theory have formed the base for the expanded communication oriented models proposed by Cronkhite,1 Infante

Reference 2 - 0.41% Coverage appeal of Fishbein's model is generated by its empirical success. Several studies have compared summation theory pre- dictions with congruity or balance theory predictions. In most instances summation predictions were more accurate pre- dictions of attitude than

Reference 3 - 0.48% Coverage predictions were more accurate pre- dictions of attitude than were predic- tions derived from congruity theory.4 It is difficult to explain specifically the apparent superiority of summation the- ory over congruity theory for they differ M Mr. ,Cronen and Mr. Conville are Assistant Pro- fessors of Communication

Reference 4 - 0.27% Coverage Dominic A. Infante, "The Perceived Im- portance of Cognitive Structure Components: An Adaptation of Fishbein's Theory," SM, 40 (1973), 8-16. 4 For examples see: Lynn R. Anderson and Martin Fishbein

Reference 5 - 0.28% Coverage Evaluative Aspects of Belief About the Attitude Object: A Com- parison of Summation and Congruity Theories," Journal of Personality and Socsal. Psychology, 2 (1965), 487-43; Lynn R. Anderson and J

Reference 6 - 0.30% Coverage 487-43; Lynn R. Anderson and J. Richard Hackman, "Further Comparison of Summation and Congruity Theories in The Prediction of Attitude Organization and Change," Journal of Abnormal- and Social Psychology, 69

Reference 7 - 0.66% Coverage 1964), 505-10. 3 Vernon E. Cronen and Richard L. Con- yule, "Belief Salience, Summation Theory and the Attitude Construct," SM, 40 (1973), 17-26. in at least three essential ways: (1) the Fishbein theory uses the summation principle rather than the averaging principle; (2) congruity theory incor- porates a step-wise feature whereby the convergence of beliefs is assumed to take

Reference 8 - 0.32% Coverage of operations rather than in a single operation,8 an assump- tion absent from summation theory; and (3) summation theory requires the weighting of each evaluative belief by the "strength" of that belief or the

Reference 9 - 0.27% Coverage an attitude object,8 a procedure absent from congruity the- ory. Thus, because the two theories differ in several important respects one cannot infer that the superiority of one model over

Reference 10 - 0.41% Coverage three studies that cast doubt on the role of the belief- strength concept in summation theory. THEORETICAL DIFFICULTIES In the language of summation theory, belief strength is a subject's judgment Attitude Structure," Journal of Psychological Studies, 15 (1967), 49

Reference 11 - 0.27% Coverage RUSSIANS." These beliefs may include the cognitions that they are "deceitful" and "strong." Sum- mation theory holds that attitude to- ward the concept "Russians" is not simply a function of the

Reference 12 - 0.31% Coverage object. This is of particular significance in light of the fact that Fishbein presents his theory as "a behavior theory approach"8 based on Hullian principles.9 According to Fishbein the attitude object may be

Reference 13 - 0.25% Coverage be viewed as a stimulus and the beliefs 7 Ibid.

8 Martin Fishbein, "A Behavior Theory. Ap- proach to the Relations Between Beliefs About an Object and the Attitude Toward the

Reference 14 - 0.27% Coverage an Object and the Attitude Toward the Object," in Martin Fishbein ed., Readings in Attitude Theory and Measurement, (New York: Wiley, 1967), pp. 389-90. Ibid., P. 390. about it may

Reference 15 - 0.25% Coverage viewed as forming a habit-family hierarchy of responses to that stimulus.1 In Hullian theory "the higher the response in the hierarchy,-the greater is the probability that the re

Reference 16 - 0.31% Coverage that Fishbein's measure of association strength predicts the order of belief elicitations. Because in Hullian theory hierarchical position is a function of associational strength, and because belief strength is conceived of

Reference 17 - 0.26% Coverage is conceived of by Fishbein as the measure of associ- ation strength in the behavior theory paradigm there seems to be sufficient reason to question Fishbein's theoretical position. CRITIQUE OF EXPERIMENTAL

Reference 18 - 0.52% Coverage Anderson, "The Strength, Relevance, and Source of Beliefs About an Object in Fishbein's Attitude Theory," Journal of Social Psychology, 76 (1968), 55-67. 17 Vernon E. Cronen, "Belief Salience, Media Exposure, and Summation Theory," The Journal of Communication, 23 (1973), 86-94. le KapIan and Fishbein. In light of

Reference 19 - 0.26% Coverage shift attitudes in a posi10 Vernon E. Cronen and Richard L. Con- vile, "Summation Theory and the Predictive Power of Sub'ects' Own Salient Beliefs," Journal of Social Psychology, (in press

Reference 20 - 0.25% Coverage to a negative concept. Therefore, in that classic test of the predictive power of summation theory, the function of the B1 component was ambiguous. Given the experimental con- ditions, it is

Reference 21 - 0.23% Coverage interpretation of these data would seem to be that they suggest 25 Fishbein, "A Behavior Theory Approach," p. 392. tude by this method was only .51 as N 150 SPEECH MONOGRAPHS

Reference 22 - 0.29% Coverage 51 as N 150 SPEECH MONOGRAPHS the following orientation for future re- search: 1. Summation theory should not be accepted uncritically. 2. The role of belief strength in the persuasion process

Reference 23 - 0.40% Coverage persuasion process requires clarification. 3. There is reason to question the adequacy of Hullian behavior theory for persuasion research and in particular to question Fishbein's adaptation of Hul lian theory. Copyright 0 2003 EBSCO Publishing

<Internals\\CM\\1975 2 Infante desirable undesirable consequences atttitude prediction attitude change> 26 references coded [2.73% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.10% Coverage Phaedrus. This insight, along with Aris totle's in the Rhetoric, represents the genesis of contemporary theories of per- suasion which are receiver oriented. The present study investigates two receiver oriented conceptualizations

Reference 2 - 0.11% Coverage receiver oriented. The present study investigates two receiver oriented conceptualizations of persuasion, the personality theory approach and the cognitive structure for an ob- ject of persuasion approach, to deter- mine

Reference 3 - 0.12% Coverage the possibility of discovering unique per- suasion principles which derive from the approaches. The personality theory approach seeks the relationships between relatively sta- ble personality traits and reactions to communication variables

Reference 4 - 0.10% Coverage and to gain insight into the means which can be employed to stimulate persuasion. The theory of cognitive structures util- ized in this paper was influenced by sev- eral theorists: Aristotle

Reference 5 - 0.18% Coverage

Dominic A. Infante, "The Perceived Im- portance of Cognitive Structure Components: An Adaptation of Fishbein's Theory," SM, 40 For a discussion of the relevancy of Aris- totle's theory of rhetoric to the theory utilized in this paper see Dominic A. Infante, "The Function of Eide Topoi in Rhetorical

Reference 6 - 0.11% Coverage of Belief," pp. 90-112. 11 Charles Woolbert, "Conviction and Persua- sion: Some Considerations of Theory," QJS, 3 (1917), 249-264; "Persuasion: Principles and Method, Part I: Underlying Principles" QJS, 5

Reference 7 - 0.10% Coverage Setting of Public Opinions: A Study of Atti- tudes toward Russia," in Readings in Attitude Theory and Measurement, ed. Martin Fishbein (New York: John Wiley, 1967), pp. 58-67. 13 Milton

Reference 8 - 0.10% Coverage and Attitudinal Affect," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 53 (1956), 367-372; "A Structural Theory of Attitude Dynamics," Public Opinion Quarterly, 24 (1960), 319-340; Robert P. Abelson and Milton

Reference 9 - 0.09% Coverage Analysis of Cognitive Balancthesis," QJS, 5 (1919), 212-238. 12 and Cronkhite.ls The theory maintains that a receiver's cognitive structure for an object of persuasion, such as as a

Reference 10 - 0.10% Coverage Change (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969), pp. 74-91. 15 le Infante, "The Perceived Importance." havior Theory Approach to the Relations be- tween Beliefs about an Object and the Atti- tude toward

Reference 11 - 0.11% Coverage tween Beliefs about an Object and the Atti- tude toward the Object," Readings in Attitude Theory and Measurement, pp. 3 Kalman DIFFERENTIAL FUNCTIONS principle in explaining attitude toward proposals. Summation is

Reference 12 - 0.12% Coverage of 118 SPEECH MONOGRAPHS

tected by previous conceptualizations. The studies explore three dimensions of the theory discussed above. First, cognitive structures were probed to determine whether perceptions of de- sirable and

Reference 13 - 0.10% Coverage that when the attitude object was a person, the Bi and al dimensions of Fishbein's theory were related in varying degrees to authoritarianism, dogmatism, category- width, and intelligence." Method Subjects. Subjects

Reference 14 - 0.10% Coverage Per- sonality of the Strength of Belief and Strength of Affect Dimensions of the Summation Theory of Attitude," Journal of Social Psychology, 74 (1968), 25-38. jects were utilized to determine

Reference 15 - 0.11% Coverage symptoms The results of Studies I and II allude to an important question for persuasion theory. Since perceptions of desirable and undesirable consequences function differently in predicting attitude toward proposals, do

Reference 16 - 0.10% Coverage of consequences in inducing negative attitudes toward a proposal is of potential significance for persuasion theory, no research appears to bear di- rectly on the matter.85 The following Stimulus-response

Reference 17 - 0.09% Coverage satisfying rationale for a prediction. For a summary of stimulus-response research in atti- tude theory see Charles A. Kiesler, Barry E. Collins, and Norman Miller, Attitude Change: 1115 A-P

Reference 18 - 0.09% Coverage proposal, are argued as not likely to happen if the proposal is followed. Previ- ous theory and research does not appear to provide a satisfying rationale for pre- dicting which strategy

Reference 19 - 0.11% Coverage 69 123 most cognitive inconsistency when one has a favorable attitude, then affective- cognitive consistency theory could be employed for a prediction. However, such confidence does not seem war- ranted. Probably

Reference 20 - 0.10% Coverage extremely impor- tant and desirable and are closely related to the proposal. According to the theory of, cognitive structure utilized in this paper, the hypothetical message would not be as persuasive

Reference 21 - 0.10% Coverage regarding the individual's attitude should function as a relatively strong pre- dictor of attitude. Argumentation theory has assumed that disfavor with the status quo is one factor which motivates an individual

Reference 22 - 0.09% Coverage would be explained by attitude toward the status quo. A related supposition from argumen- tation theory is that for an individual to perceive a necessity of changing the status quo is

Reference 23 - 0.10% Coverage negative attitude to- ward proposals. Understanding negative attitudes is an important matter for persuasion theory. Determining the predic- tors of attitude is one approach to dis- covering the available means

Reference 24 - 0.10% Coverage likeli81 For an explanation of how subjective prob- ability has been utilized in five theories of decision-making see N.T. Feather, "Subjective Probability and Decision Under Uncertainty," Psychological Review

Reference 25 - 0.10% Coverage in at- titudes, it should be valuable for future research. Several questions for persua- sion theory derive from the model. Since attitude toward the status quo and the perceived necessity of

Reference 26 - 0.10% Coverage should also profit from an inten- sive examination of this dimension of cognitive structure. The theory of cog- nitive structure utilized in this paper ap- pears functional in examining a variety

<Internals\\CM\\1975 2 Knutson Holdridge orientation behavior leadership consensus functional relationship> - 7 references coded [1.64% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.22% Coverage during the initial phases of investigation. These methods, however, have not re- sulted in a theory of small group com- munication, nor is it likely that a con- tinuation of this

Reference 2 - 0.19% Coverage in any future theoretical payoffs. Perhaps the major reason for a lack of small group theory is the failure of small group re- searchers to link systematically estab- lished antecedent isolates

Reference 3 - 0.24% Coverage 89; B. Aubrey Fisher and Leonard C. Hawes, "An Interact System Model: Generating a Grounded Theory of Small Groups," Quarterly Journal of Speech, 57 (1971), 444-53. 3 Mortensen. 108 SPEECH

Reference 4 - 0.24% Coverage facilitate achievement of a group's goal, make helpful suggestions, or lessen ten- sion.4 In theory, states Gouran, "groups whose members make statements which are designed to reduce conflict and pro

Reference 5 - 0.24% Coverage orientation literature in order to provide a single antecedent useful in the development of a theory of small group consensus. Specifically, since the message variable of orientation appears to be a

Reference 6 - 0.28% Coverage 12 John A. Lott, "Group Composition, Com- munication, and Consensus: an Investigation according to Newcomb's Theory of Communi- cation," Diss. Colorado 1959. alysis of Conflict in Decision-Making Groups," Human Relations

Reference 7 - 0.23% Coverage Consensus." is an identifying functional character- istic. The present study facilitated the quest for a theory of small group con- sensus by demonstrating that two estab- lished antecedent isolates, orientation and

<Internals\\CM\\1975 3 Bock Saine source credibility aittitude valence task sensitization impact on trait errors in speech evaluation> - 6 references coded [1.40% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.27% Coverage the least understood fac- tors affecting evaluation behavior is rating error. At present no systematic theory of rating error exists to assist in generating hypotheses capable of clarify- ing the role

Reference 2 - 0.23% Coverage will be offered here along with a specific test of hypotheses growing out of that theory. The constructs that now appear to have some explanatory power in terms of rating error

Reference 3 - 0.25% Coverage studies have been done in the area of attitude change and have contributed to several theories of attitude change. In the Yale Research Program attitude valence has been stud- ied as

Reference 4 - 0.24% Coverage trait, and not "organiza- tion" and "language." Also the second and third constructs of the theory have been solidified by these results. Indeed, it seems that the major contribution of rating

Reference 5 - 0.23% Coverage errors. Further research should now be di- rected to more specific refinements of rating error theory in the areas of other trait errors. The "organization" trait, the "delivery" trait, and the

Reference 6 - 0.18% Coverage errors on these traits would add substantially to the data base for a rating error theory. Copyright 0 2003 EBSCO Publishing

<Internals\\CM\\1975 3 King analysis of attitudinal and normative variables predictors of intentions behaviors> - 7 references coded [1.87% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.28% Coverage Progress of Methodology in Sociological Research," Atnercian Sociologist, 4 (1969), 35-41. Chester A. Insko, Theories of Attitude Change (New York: Appleton, 1967). 2 SPEECH MONOGRAPHS, Vol. 42, Aug., 1975 Philip

Reference 2 - 0.27% Coverage reports an investigation of some of these ideas and discusses briefly their implications for persuasion theory. The major concern of Fishbein's approach is the prediction and understanding of specific behaviors.4

Reference 3 - 0.25% Coverage 544. 4 martin Fishbein, "Attitude and the Pre- diction of Behavior," in Readings in Attitude Theory and Measurement, ed. Martin Fishbein (New York: Wiley, 1967), pp. 477-92; Martin Fishbein, "The

Reference 4 - 0.35% Coverage 87; Donald E. Dulaney, "Awareness, Rules and Propositional Control: A Confrontation with S-R Behavior Theory," in Verbal Behavior and General Be- havior Theory, ed. Theodore R. Dixon and David L. Horton (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren- tice-Hall

Reference 5 - 0.20% Coverage of those beliefs. That is, (2) n Ao = 1=1 7 Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure, rev. and enl. ed. (New York: Free Press, 1957); Ragnar Rommetveit, Social

Reference 6 - 0.26% Coverage so does a shift in the focus of beliefs occur. In summary, according to the theory there are two major factors influencing behavioral intentions and hence behav- ior. First, there is

Reference 7 - 0.26% Coverage be extended to survey type conditions deal- ing with social behaviors. In terms of persuasion theory, the model of BI investigated has numerous implications. If a person's overt behav- ior is

<Internals\\CM\\1975 3 McLaughlin recovering structure of credibility judgments alternative to factor analysis> - 3 references coded [0.82% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.29% Coverage 1964), 1-27; Roger N. Shepard, A. Kimball Romney, and Sara Nerlove, eds., Multidimensional Scaling: Theory and AppliRaymond K. Tucker, "Reliability of Se- mantic Differential Scales: The Role of Factor

Reference 2 - 0.24% Coverage larity ratings was estimated, using KR20, to be equal to .887. See David Magnusson, Test Theory (Reading: Adison-Wesley, 1966), pp. 115-17. ysis," Behavioral Science, 12 (1967), 498. Al- ternative

Reference 3 - 0.29% Coverage Gary A. Manger, "A Structural Approach to PredictingPatterns of Electoral Substitu- tion," in Multidimensional Scaling: Theory and Applications in the Behavioral Sciences, Vol. II ed. A. Kimball Romney, Roger N. Shepard

<Internals\\CM\\1975 3 Mulac evaluation of the speech dialect attitudinal scale> - 1 reference coded [0.34% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.34% Coverage 472-88. Syntax (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1965), pp. 15- 18. Noam Chomsky, Aspects of the Theory of fects of dialectal variations in speech requires a valid measurement instru- ment which reflects

<Internals\\CM\\1975 3 Okeefe logical empiricism study of human communication> - 47 references coded [7.64% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.15% Coverage DANIEL J. O'KEEFE HE logical empiricist conception of the scientific' enterprise has long dominated communication theory and research. But in recent years the criticism of this conception has been so incisive

Reference 2 - 0.13% Coverage most philosophers of sci- ence" and can speak of its "general re- jection."' If communication theory and research are to be grounded in defensi- ble philosophical underpinnings, an examination of those

Reference 3 - 0.19% Coverage communication studies (section III). T Frederick Suppe, "The Search for Philo- sophic Understanding of Scientific Theories," in The Structure of Scientific Theories, ed. Frederick Suppe (Urbana: Univ. of Ilinois Press, 1974), pp. 119, 62. Mr. O'Keefe is

Reference 4 - 0.13% Coverage 3 "Logical empiricism" (also sometimes called "logical positivism" or the "re- ceived view" of scientific theory) is thusly named because it stands at the confluence of two streams of philosophi- cal

Reference 5 - 0.13% Coverage recent developments in the area and with indicating the import of that work for communication theory. As a result, the philosophical positions and issues discussed in this essay are treated rather

Reference 6 - 0.16% Coverage that not all the "alternatives" reject the positivistic view.18 Marx, "The General Nature of Theory Con- struction," in Psychological Theory, ed. Melvin H. Marx (New York: Macmillan, 1951), pp. 4- 19. An interesting sidelight on

Reference 7 - 0.16% Coverage Miller, An Introduction to Speech Communication, 2nd ed. (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1972); Ronald L. Smith, "Theories and Models of Communi- cation Processes," in Speech Communication Behavior: Perspectives and Principles, ed. Larry

Reference 8 - 0.16% Coverage 43.

16 See Lawrence Grossberg and Daniel J. O'Keefe, "Presuppositions, Conceptual Foundations, and Communication Theory," QJS, 61 (1975), 195-208. The logical empiricist conception of the scientific enterprise has been

Reference 9 - 0.13% Coverage was held by Bridgman edge," in Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Vol. IV: Theories and Methods of Physics and Psychology, ed. Michael Radner and Stephen Winokur (Minneapolis: Univ. of

Reference 10 - 0.16% Coverage of Discovery (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1958); Paul Feyerabend, "Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of KnowlLOGICAL EMPIRICISM (who coined the phrase "operational definition"): "the concept of length is

Reference 11 - 0.13% Coverage the scientific process. Put in its crudest form, the logical empiricist view is that a theory allows the derivation of a (large) number of observational statements, and to the extent the

Reference 12 - 0.13% Coverage observational statements, and to the extent the observation statements are found to be true, the theory is cor- respondingly verified. But it has been persuasively argued that no conclusive verification is

Reference 13 - 0.39% Coverage not verification, lies at the heart of the scientific enterprise: "only the falsity of the theory can be inferred from empirical evidence, and this inference is a purely deductive one."27 Since theories can "dash with observations," it is "possible to infer from observations that a theory is false."28 The primary difficulty with Popper's suggestion is that theories do not directly lead to observational conse- quences.29 As Hempel makes clear, 55. See

Reference 14 - 0.12% Coverage Conjectures and Refutations, p. Waismann. See also Pierre Duhem, The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory, trans. Philip P. Weiner (New York: Athenum, 1962), esp. pp. 162, 187-90. 27 Karl

Reference 15 - 0.16% Coverage means that a falsification of the observational consequence will imply not the falsity of the theory, but rather the falsity of the theory-plus-auxiliary-hypotheses mani- foldand one can never be certain which part of the

Reference 16 - 0.12% Coverage part of the manifold is the cul- prit.3 Conclusive falsification of a sci- entific theory is thus not possible.81 A third topic of criticism in the logical empiricist program

Reference 17 - 0.27% Coverage empiricist program is the theoretical- observational distinction. The argument here is that observations are inherently "theory-laden," that "facts" are not facts independent of a conceptual (the- oretical) framework, and thus that there is no theory-independent observation language.32 As Hanson puts it, "seeing is a 'theory-laden' undertaking" and

Reference 18 - 0.33% Coverage is phrased, as is Duhem's, in terms of "crucial experiments" (tests that distinguish two competing theories such that one is con- clusively refuted and the other confirmed); Popper's argument is that the two theories are compared together with some "background knowledge," which knowledge the two theories have totally in common. It is thus Popper's view that the crucial test now decides

Reference 19 - 0.20% Coverage that the crucial test now decides between "two systems which differ only over the two theories which are at stake" (p. 112). But it seems improbable that two theories would in a given experimental situation employ exactly the same auxiliary hypotheses, let alone have

Reference 20 - 0.12% Coverage same auxiliary hypotheses, let alone have in common the entire background knowledge against which the theories are formulated (cf., SSR, pp. 77-81, 99403, and 146-50 on falsification and incommensurabil

Reference 21 - 0.21% Coverage assumption that there is a special observational vocabu- lary which is suitable for all scientific theories, which is neutral with respect to the claims of competing theories, and which forms the rock-bottom certain foundations upon which scientific knowl- edge can be

Reference 22 - 0.31% Coverage 7. 175 is questioned. And the occurrence of Nagelian intertheoretic reduction is min- imized: later theories cannot always de- ductively absorb their predecessors, for later theories are often incompatible with earlier ones;81 and even where the same terms are used by the two theories, there is no guarantee that the meaning of the terms will remain invariant. A fourth

Reference 23 - 0.13% Coverage Vol. II, ed. Bernard Baumrin (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1963), p. 13. Charles

and Einstein's Theory of Relatively, trans. Wil- liam C. Swabey and Marie C. Swabey (Chicago: Open Court, 1923

Reference 24 - 0.12% Coverage 41 Charles Taylor, "Mind-Body Identity, A Side Issue?" in The Mind/Brain Identity 100. Theory, ed. C. V. Borst (New York: Macmillan, 1970), P. 240. 42 Taylor, The Explanation of

Reference 25 - 0.15% Coverage difficulties with the logical em- piricist philosophy of science reflect on the conduct of communication theory and research. The recommendations, ob- servations, and comments that follow are not all directly tied

Reference 26 - 0.13% Coverage 1963), pp. 108-10; Louis O. Mink, "The Autonomy of Historical Understanding," Hit- tory and Theory, 5 (1965), 24-47; and Thomas P. Wilson, "Normative and Interpretive Para- in Sociology," in

Reference 27 - 0.12% Coverage a theo- retical framework. As long as one holds the positivistic view that observations are theory-free, one can afford to go about randomly doing whatever experi- mental study comes to

Reference 28 - 0.12% Coverage of con- temporary communication research..49 But when it is recognized that there is no theory-free observation language and that research findings have signifi- cance only within a larger theoretical

Reference 29 - 0.23% Coverage grist for the mill of some future theorist who will "put it all together." Rather theory and research must be seen as much more closely tied. Now it has of course always been acknowledged that "theory and research go hand in hand" but research is usually conceived to lead the way

Reference 30 - 0.26% Coverage terms, my argument could be put this way: research is typically Pursued as though communication theory were in a period of normal science, when in fact communication theory is faced with multiple Paradigms. 177 that theories have, implicitly or explicit- ly, always led the way. Communication researchers are guided by theoretical

Reference 31 - 0.10% Coverage logical stance, and so on; "no experi- ment can be conceived without some sort of theory. "60 If one of the prime virtues of the sci- entific enterprise is its publicness

Reference 32 - 0.12% Coverage give direction and sig- nificance to research must be made ex- plicit. If it is theories that will ultimate- ly provide a comprehensive understand- ing of communication, then research should be

Reference 33 - 0.21% Coverage ex- tends the framework to new areas, or how it elaborates and fills out the theory, or how it tests the strength of the theory's claims. If, in sum, a satis- factory theory of communication is what is wanted, then the researcher should embrace that theoretical view he

Reference 34 - 0.13% Coverage a somewhat different formula don of this point. on Paradigms," in The Structure of Scientific Theories, ed. Frederick Suppe (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1974), pp. 400-81, n. 4 Kuhn

Reference 35 - 0.13% Coverage like "spatial po- sition," "mass," and "time" occur in both Newtonian and Einsteinian physi- cal theory, but "the physical referents of these Einsteinian concepts are by no means identical with those

Reference 36 - 0.13% Coverage to have fallen prey to the positivistic philosophy of sci- ence implicit throughout communica- tion theory. He failed to realize that a key element in Kuhn's attack on the pos- itivistic

Reference 37 - 0.11% Coverage key element in Kuhn's attack on the pos- itivistic view is the denial of a theory- free observation language. If Sanders is to be true to his seemingly Kuhnian col- ors

Reference 38 - 0.14% Coverage Psychological Bulletin, 56 (1959), 101. 58 Ibid., p. 104. reflective conceptual analysis that com munication theory typically lacks. One wishes, for example, that a crib cal eye had early been turned

Reference 39 - 0.14% Coverage the above ele- ments.60 Those familiar with the current status of social judgment-involvement theory will doubtless concur that the concept of ego-involvement is amorphous and vague. To correct

Reference 40 - 0.13% Coverage

confusion Wilmot identifies and research time might have been spent more productively. Research methods, being theory-laden, must not be exempted from this critical analysis. As an example of the signifi

Reference 41 - 0.14% Coverage of attitude as a function of beliefs and their evaluative aspects.63 In Fish- bein's theory, predicted overall attitude is obtained by multiplying the evalua- tion of a given belief by

Reference 42 - 0.13% Coverage 3. In most cases the choice of scoring method makes no difference. But in Fishbein's theory the two methods provide different re- sults (because of the possibility of mul- tiplying by

Reference 43 - 0.13% Coverage the nature and operation of evaluatively neutral beSee, e.g., Martin Fishbein, "A Behavior Theory Approach to the Relations between Beliefs about an Object and the Attitude To- ward the

Reference 44 - 0.13% Coverage Beliefs about an Object and the Attitude To- ward the Object," in Readings in Attitude Theory and Measurement, ed. Martin Fishbein (New York: Wiley, 1967), PP. 389-400 63 p. 435

Reference 45 - 0.13% Coverage reflective analysis can bring conceptual difficulties to light, can in- duce the clarification of a theory's claims, concepts, and methods, and can lead to maximally productive research efforts. But it can

Reference 46 - 0.27% Coverage outside both paradigms") is inadequate. What one can do is carefully inquire in- to each theory's concepts and claims. To the extent that unclarities, confusions, and contradictions are uncovered in a theory, one should be wary; an incoher- ent theory will surely not provide a clear understanding of human communication.66 And this critical

Reference 47 - 0.12% Coverage theoretical perspectives. No one approach has won wide-spread allegiance. But the present plurality of theories might be replaced by a more-or- less unitary viewpoint; that is, one par- ticular

<Internals\\CM\\1975 3 Rosenfield Plax personality determinants autocratic democratic leadership> - 5 references coded [1.70% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.34% Coverage

Elliot Aronson, 2nd. ed. (Reading, Mass.: Addison- Wesley, 1969), IV, 205-82. K. Gershenfeld, Groups: Theory and Experi- ence (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1973), pp. 158- 164; and Lawrence B. Rosenfeld, Human

Reference 2 - 0.40% Coverage in this investigation: (1) California Psy- chological Inventory (CPI):9 based on an interpersonal behavior theory, mea- sures eighteen variables representing four differentiated classes; (2) RadicalConservatism:7 measures radical-conser

Reference 3 - 0.35% Coverage or closed; (4) Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS):9 based up- on a need structure theory, measures fifteen normal personality variables, plus a measure of consistency; (5) Machiavellianism:19 measures an

Reference 4 - 0.30% Coverage Vernon, and Lind- zey Study of Values (VALUES):11 based upon an interest or motive theory, as- sesses the relative importance of six basic interests or personality motives; and (7) the

Reference 5 - 0.30% Coverage the Tennessee Self Concept Scale (TSCS):12 based upon a multi-dimen- sional self-concept theory, measures a large number of distinct concepts about self, a total measure of self-concept

<Internals\\CM\\1975 4 Cronen Conville belief salience interpersonal evaluation reply to delia> - 7 references coded [3.22% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.41% Coverage to reply to their criticisms of a previous article of ours ("Belief Salience, Sum- mation Theory, and the Attitude Con- struct," SM, March, 1973), and to the theoretical rationale they espouse

Reference 2 - 0.82% Coverage Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachu- setts. 1 Vernon E. Cronen and Richard L. Con- "Belief Salience, Summation Theory and the Attitude Construct," SM, 40 (1973), 17-26; Cronen, "Belief, Salience, Media Exposure, and Summation Theory," The Journal of Com- munication, 23 (1973), 86-94; "Task Require- ments, Belief Salience, and

Reference 3 - 0.47% Coverage Attitude: Beyond the Hullian Model," Today's Speech, 22 (1974), 11-17; Cronen and Conville, "Summation Theory and the Predictive Power of Subject's Own Salient Beliefs," Journal of Social Psychology, (in press

Reference 4 - 0.39% Coverage the legitimate criticism which Delia et al. make of our earlier reliance on behavioristic learning theory. The S-R model is not reflective of our current thinking. We must note, however

Reference 5 - 0.36% Coverage displacement concept which we utilized is derived, of course, from psychody- namic not S-R theory. Our own appeal to lower level as well as higher level processes is consistent with

Reference 6 - 0.35% Coverage a social nature as context relevant. The result is that to move toward a viable theory we must do more than move "beliefs" into a cen- tral role. The nature of

Reference 7 - 0.42% Coverage attention from Delia et al. Unless such implicit rele- vance criteria can be measured the theory loses all predictive power, for be- liefs do not influence behavior unless they are salient

<Internals\\CM\\1975 4 Mabry instrument for assessing content themes in group interaction> - 3 references coded [0.86% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.34% Coverage found in small groups using a symbolic interactionist conceptual framework developed in Par- sons' systems theory of social action.2 Parsons differentiates symbolic action R Mr. Mabry is Assistant Professor of

Reference 2 - 0.26% Coverage sons and Edward A. Shils, "Values, Motives and Systems of Action," in Toward a General Theory of Action, ed. Talcott Parsons and Ed- ward A. Shils (Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1951

Reference 3 - 0.26% Coverage 146-59; Talcott Parsons, Robert F. Bales and Edward A. Shils, Working PaPers in the Theory of Action (New York: The Free Press, 1953). 294 Training of Group Observers Two independent

<Internals\\CM\\1975 4 Mulac Sherman relationships among four parameters of speech evaluation> - 2 references coded [0.48% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.23% Coverage the fac- ulty instructor presented a sequence of six live and videotaped lectures pro- viding theory and examples to aid stu- dents in their assignments. In general, the course may be

Reference 2 - 0.25% Coverage partici- pated as judges, most serving on two panels, were enrolled in an upper- division theory of persuasion course. Each panel received brief instruction in the use of the Berlo-Lemert

<Internals\\CM\\1975 4 Newman communication pathologies of intelligence systems> - 4 references coded [0.39% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.09% Coverage interest was to show that very few northern troops were getting through its barrage. In theory DIA was set up to choose among such conflicting claims; in practice it generally refuses

Reference 2 - 0.09% Coverage mation and lied about much that it has provided. Providing its own intelligence is in theory a reasonable option for any organization which is cut off from for- merly-available sources

Reference 3 - 0.10% Coverage an overloaded system. Overload is now a familiar concept even outside the realm of communication theory. The sociologist Harold L. Wilen- sky, who has published the only full- scale study of

Reference 4 - 0.11% Coverage distorted perceptions of China's opera- tional code, by inappropriate analogies with Munich, by untenable domino theories, we might have saved ourselves the debauchery of Vietnam, and some of the breakdowns of

<Internals\\CM\\1976 1 Clement Frandsen conceptual and empirical treatments of feedback> - 14 references coded [1.85% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.12% Coverage mea- surable dimensions of feedback are pre- sented? (6) How is feedback related to a theory of communication? A summary Mr. Clement is Assistant Professor of English, Speech Division, University of

Reference 2 - 0.13% Coverage In- tentional Communicative Systems," Philosophy and Rhetoric, 5 (1972), 231-47; and Peter R. Monge, "Theory Construction in the Study of Communication: The System Paradigm," Journal of Communication, 23 (1973), 5

Reference 3 - 0.12% Coverage

New York: John Wiley, 1956); David K. Berlo, The Process of Communication: An Introduction to Theory and Practice (New York: Holt, Rine- hart and Winston, 1960); D. M. MacKay, "Operational Aspects

Reference 4 - 0.11% Coverage 381-87; W. T. Powers, R. K. Clark, and R. L. McFarland, "A General Feedback Theory of Human Behavior: Part I" and "Part II," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 11 (1960

Reference 5 - 0.13% Coverage Systemic Concepts of Feedback," Today's Speech, 21 (1973), 23-28; Raymond G. Smith, .SpeechCommunication: Theory and Models (New York: Harper and Row, 1970); Daniel Solomon and Larry Rosen- berg, "Teacher

Reference 6 - 0.16% Coverage source information and receiver information Anticipatory Informative Successfailure Policy learning Oscillation Relatedness to Communication Theory Feedback serves to in- form rather than to control. Society can be under- stood through

Reference 7 - 0.14% Coverage fifth order of the six orders of hu- man feedback control systems. Relatedness to Communication Theory Source and receiver are interdependent; feed- back is a necessary condition of commun- ication. TABLE

Reference 8 - 0.15% Coverage between parties to a communication event Role relationships between source and receiver Relatedness to Communication Theory X Feedback relates to mul- tiple role relationships between source and re- ceiver. ON CONCEPTUAL

Reference 9 - 0.11% Coverage the subject, Powers, Clark and McFarland offer a model of human behavior and present a theory of feedback that at- tempts to account for the various orders of behavior and for

Reference 10 - 0.12% Coverage interaction among those orders. In his later work, Powers modifies the model and amplifies the theory. 7 Solomon and Rosenberg. Johnson and Klare, p. 152. Wiener, Human Use, p. 61. 10

Reference 11 - 0.13% Coverage B. Chat- terjee, "Changing Teacher Behavior Through Feedback from Pupils: An Application of Equilibrium Theory," in Readings in the Social Psychology of Education, ed. W. W. Charters, Jr. and N

Reference 12 - 0.13% Coverage Miller, et al., pp. 26-30. are adapted have not been clarified through the analogy. Theory Testing and Building Too often researchers have dealt in truisms which belie the diverse and

Reference 13 - 0.12% Coverage a response. The survey presented in the initial section of this report considered avail- able theories, concepts and models of feedback in order to note the implica- tions of such resources

Reference 14 - 0.18% Coverage nervous system, ON CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS research might serve to verify or modify existing theories and thereby unite the efforts of theory-building and empirical verification. In the following section we develop a series of propositions relevant

<Internals\\CM\\1976 1 Cline Johnson verbal stare focus on attention in conversation> - 1 reference coded [0.22% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.22% Coverage to each treatment. Confed- erates had no previous knowledge of "I- message'' and "you-message" theory, nor of the predicted results concerning de- fensiveness. Confederates were trained to speak using either

<Internals\\CM\\1976 1 Cronen Price affect relationship listener speaker> - 3 references coded [0.66% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.21% Coverage discontinuity between the assumptions about the na- ture of affect contained in social con- flict theory and those contained in cred- ibility research. In contrast to the bipolar, approach- avoidance model

Reference 2 - 0.23% Coverage Press, I958), pp. 33-38. 8 Herbert W. Simons, "Requirements, Prob- lems, ans Strategies: X Theory of Persuasion hedonic tone, and competence ( see Figure 1)." The dimension that is of particu

Reference 3 - 0.23% Coverage Kelly, The Psychology of Per- sonal Constructs, Vol, I (New York: Norton, ence and Cognitive Theory (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1960). 9 Theosore R. Sarbin, et al, Clinical Infer- 57

<Internals\\CM\\1976 1 Norton Ambiguity tolerance through verbal behavior small groups> - 2 references coded [0.45% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.22% Coverage A Method for the Study of Small Groups laid a comprehensive groundwork for his group theory in 1951. In the past two decades, through extensive and sustained empir- ical and factor

Reference 2 - 0.23% Coverage use Pearson r or ANOVA techniques. However, the author agrees with lum C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory (New York: McGraw-Hill 1967), pp. 113-14 that it soes not make a great

<Internals\\CM\\1976 1 Orr sponsorship self presentation legitimacy> - 3 references coded [0.53% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.18% Coverage study, the above ques- tion was investigated by testing hypotheses derived from social exchange theory.8 On the basis of previous search,9 the investigator reasoned that the legitimacy of

Reference 2 - 0.15% Coverage of Behavior Exchange (Reading. Mass.: Adsison ., e.g W S For a siscussion of exchange theory, see See e.g., Nehemia Frieslans, John Thi- baut, ans Laurens Walker, "Some Determin- ants

Reference 3 - 0.21% Coverage 171 .79 .94 SPONSORSHIP, SELF PRESENTATION AND LEGITIMACY in the past, the present investigation tested theory based hypotheses. There- fore, results consistent with these ex- pectations may be explained by the

<Internals\\CM\\1976 2 Cronkhite Liska critique of factor analytic approaches credibility> - 3 references coded [0.34% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.12% Coverage N. Berkowitz, and R. John Moyer, "Similarity, Credibility, and Attitude Change: A Review and a Theory," 11 Gary Cronkhite, "Identification and Per- suasion," Central States Speech Journal, 15 (1964), 57-59

Reference 2 - 0.11% Coverage of Social Attitudes," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68 (1964), 420-30. 16 17 Theory and Measurement (New York: Wiley, 1967). McCroskey, Scott, and Young; McCroskey, Jensen, and Todd; McCroskey

Reference 3 - 0.11% Coverage Chicago Press, 1947), p. vii. The point is also discussed by Harman; by R. Cattell, "Theory of Fluid and Crystallized In- telligence: A Critical Experiment," Journal of Educational Psychology, 54 (1963

<Internals\\CM\\1976 2 Delia change of meaning processes in impression formation> - 5 references coded [0.59% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.12% Coverage Formation in Informal Social Interaction," SM, 41 (1974)' See, for example, Norman H. Anderson "Integration Theory and Attitude Changes Psychological Review, 78 (1971), 171-206; and Samuel Himmelfarb, "General Test of

Reference 2 - 0.11% Coverage Whither Pool- Models? Some Additional Variables," in ng or evaluation does not occur (or 5 theories of Cognitive Consistency: A Source- book, ed. Robert P. Abelson, et al. (Chicago: Rand-McNally

Reference 3 - 0.12% Coverage intelligence domains." A survey was made of the 55 "Structural Representation of Implicit Person-ality Theory," in Advances in Experimental '1 30(.4 Psychology, VI ed. Leonard Berkowitz (New York: Academic

Reference 4 - 0.13% Coverage pervades the impres- sion formation research. For example, Chalmers explicitly relies solely upon Osgood's mediational theory of conno- tative (evaluative) meaning in his de- velopment of a "directedmeaning" ap- proach

Reference 5 - 0.11% Coverage of such analyses should facilitate the integration of work in stimulus information pooling, attribu- tion theory, and the like, as such pro- cesses operate in attitude and impression formation. 26 See

<Internals\\CM\\1976 2 Giles Bourhis voice racial categorization britain> - 4 references coded [1.10% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.30% Coverage from a social psychological model of in- terpersonal accommodation through speech proposed by Giles." This theory suggests that accommodation through speech by one person in interaction with another will lead to

Reference 2 - 0.29% Coverage 15 (1973), 87-105; Howard Giles, Donald M. Taylor and Richard Y. Bourhis, "Towards a Theory of Interpersonal Accommodation through Language: Some Canadian Data," Language in Society, 2 (1973), 177-192

Reference 3 - 0.27% Coverage interviewees. To take this notion theoretically further, one would predict on the basis of accommodation theory that West Indians who had considerable pride in their Black identity would di- verge linguistically

Reference 4 - 0.24% Coverage Whites the more they reflect a White speech style as would be predicted by accommodation theory? As a Black's speech patterns move from West Indian to the local White regional variety

<Internals\\CM\\1976 2 Gundersen Hopper speech delivery speech effectiveness> - 1 reference coded [0.28% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.28% Coverage Bert Bradley, Speech Performance (Dubuque, Ia.: William C. Brown, Kenneth E. Andersen, Introduction to Communication Theory and Practice (Menlo Park, Calif.: Cummings, 1972); A. Criag Baird, Franklin H. Knower, and Samuel

<Internals\\CM\\1976 3 Hale Delia cognitive complexity social perspective taking> - 20 references coded [4.31% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.22% Coverage Delia of Communications Research, University of Illiis Speech-Communications tio n of linguistically based theories which stand in marked contrast to the historically dominant conceptualization of communication processes within one

Reference 2 - 0.21% Coverage another of the learning or attitude change formulations. The overriding em- phasis in such linguistic theories until recently has been upon the communica- tor's acquisition of the grammar or finite system

Reference 3 - 0.20% Coverage See Eugene A. Weinstein, "The Develop- ment of Interpersonal Competence," in Hand- book of Socialization Theory and Research, ed. David A. Goslin (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1969), pp. 753-75. 4 Brown

Reference 4 - 0.22% Coverage mental progression from egocentric to listener-adapted speech. sym lic interactionist,10 ," and personal construct theories. (New York: Wiley, 1968); and, Kerby T . Alvy, "The Development of Listener Adapted Communications in

Reference 5 - 0.37% Coverage World Publishing, 1955). Cogent summaries of the cognitive-developmental position are presented by Jonas Langer, Theories of De- velopment (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969); and Albert Mehrabian, Analysis of Personality Theories (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968). The most, direct treatments of the cognitive-development

Reference 6 - 0.21% Coverage 1951), 180.87, and is systematized by Robert H. Lauer and Linda Boardman, "Role-Taking: Theory, Typology and Propositions," Sociology and Social Research, 55 (1971), 137-48. 11 Ethnomethodology, which is

Reference 7 - 0.20% Coverage cogent statement in the work of Paul Filmer, et al., New Direc- tions in Sociological Theory (Cambridge: MIT havior," Psychological Review, 77 (1970), 1970' 214; and Flavell, et. al. Be COGNITIVE

Reference 8 - 0.17% Coverage discussion, is perhaps most cogently ar- ticulated in the sociality corollary of Kelly's personal construct theory which holds that a person may play a role in a social process with another

Reference 9 - 0.17% Coverage who are associated with him in his task think."14 The important questions for a theory of social communication, of course, con- cern the nature and functioning of the perspective-taking

Reference 10 - 0.21% Coverage perspective-taking process. This process has typically been approached within symbolic interactionist and ethnometh- odological theories as based on the taken-for-granted knowledge of how so- cial processes work that

Reference 11 - 0.23% Coverage to provide an integration of cognitive-developmental Press, 1973). The ethnomethodological approach 12 Personal construct theory receives its most complete statement in George A. Kelly, The Psychology of Personal Constructs, 2

Reference 12 - 0.19% Coverage Psychology of Personal Constructs, 2 vols. (New York: Norton, 1955). A brief introduction to construct theory is presented by D. Bannister and Fay Fransella, Inquiring Man (Baltimore: Penguin, 1971). Theoretical issues

Reference 13 - 0.19% Coverage Aaron V. Cicourel, Cognitive Sociology (New York: The Free Press, 1974). 197 and personal construct theories as the basis for an interpretive or attributional analysis of the perspectivetaking ca- pacity

Reference 14 - 0.27% Coverage New York: Academic Press, 1968). See Kelly, I, 95-103. Ibid, pp. 97-98. construct theory are discussed in D. Bannister, ed., Perspectives in Personal Construct Theory (New York: Academic Press, 1970), and meth13 14 tion of various "institutionalized" (role-gov

Reference 15 - 0.22% Coverage acquisition of complete in ti ve-taking as an individual interpretive process. foundation for a theory of perspecWithin the cognitive-developmental framework, perspective-taking has been conceived as involving a

Reference 16 - 0.23% Coverage dis18 The functional egocentrism of the person 198 COMMUNICATION MONOGRAPHS perception process in construct theory terms. Crockett'19 and Delia20 have both described the constructivist view of so- cial perception as

Reference 17 - 0.18% Coverage the Causes of Behavior (Trenton: General Learning Press, 1971). The bulk of work in attribution theory is tied, of course to the original formulation of Fritz Heider The Psychology of Interpersonal

Reference 18 - 0.19% Coverage specific to the inter- personal domain. Little's work in partic- ular suggests that a general theory of individual differences can be constructed on the premise that one "specializes" in different aspects

Reference 19 - 0.22% Coverage present research demonstrates the viability of studying social perspective-taking within a gen- eral constructivist theory of interper- sonal perception. By explicating the tie between perspective-taking and shifts in the

Reference 20 - 0.22% Coverage a frame- work for integrating research on inter- personal perception, impression forma- tion, and attribution theory with that concerning social communication. It should also be possible to extend the present framework

<Internals\\CM\\1976 3 Hill experimental study of opinionated leadership small group consensus> - 2 references coded [0.33% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.16% Coverage Borgatta, Arthur S. Couch, and Robert F. Bales, "Some Findings Relevant to the Great Man Theory of Leadership," Ameri- can Sociological Review, 19 (1954), 755; and Henry Lee Ewbank and J

Reference 2 - 0.17% Coverage Lead- er Behavior and Member Reaction in Three 'Social Climates,' in Group Dynamics: Research and Theory, ed. Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander, 3rd ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1968), pp

<Internals\\CM\\1976 4 Heath value system priorities decision making adaptation situational difference> 5 references coded [1.14% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.22% Coverage Social Values, the Enthymeme, and Speech Criticism," Western Speech, 26 (1962), 70-75. ance," in Theories of Cognitive Consistency: A Source Book, ed., Robert P. Abelson et al. (Chicago: Rand McNally

Reference 2 - 0.23% Coverage view is appropriate. if individuals simply re- sponded to the situational stimuli Also, since Rokcach's theory reflects a homeostatic orientation, Inner Harmony should be a goal of the complete system rather

Reference 3 - 0.23% Coverage with situational dif- ferences.12 DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The results of this study complicate the theory of value change. Change per se, argues Rokeach, is constituted by in- dividuals erecting different

Reference 4 - 0.23% Coverage explanations."15 communication The decision-making model of values has several implications for research and theory. situational (1) Contrary to McGuckin's notion that even the most thinly veiled appeals to identification

Reference 5 - 0.24% Coverage of the ideal in terms of the exigencies of the situa- tion. expectations . In Persuasion theory must consider the decision-making application of values. Persuasion is an attempt to apply and

<Internals\\CM\\1976 4 McMahan nonverbal communication impression formation> - 1 reference coded [0.25% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.25% Coverage in her statement in the inconsistent conditions (see Table 1). This lends support to the theory that perceivers discriminate between state- ment and intention, and they attribute intentions to the person

<Internals\\CM\\1976 4 Mulac obscene language listener attitude> - 1 reference coded [0.21% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.21% Coverage 75. For a discussion of these linguistic ele- ments, see Noam Chomsky, Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1965), pp. 15-18. 9 The importance of employing a

<Internals\\CM\\1976 4 Rosenfield Fowler personality sex leadership style> - 2 references coded [0.92% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.46% Coverage open or closed;9 (4) Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS): based upon a need structure theory:10 (5) which measures an individual's general strategy for dealing with (6) Allport, Vernon, and

Reference 2 - 0.46% Coverage and (7) the Tennessee Self Concept Scale (TSCS), based upon a multi-dimensional self- concept theory." The Sargent and Miller Leadership Questionnaire, a paired comparison in- strument in which one phrase

<Internals\\CM\\1977 1 dialect ethnicity social class written quality effect on teacher evaluations> - 7 references coded [1.25% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.20% Coverage possible effects of such linguistic stereotypes on teachers' perceptions of children .3 Most recently, a theory of linguistic stereotypes has been linked to a theory of self-fulfilling prophecy or Pygmalion effects.4 The re- sult has been to conclude

Reference 2 - 0.15% Coverage of Social Power, (New York: Harper and Row, 1965). Much of the controversy surrounding the theory and research developed in conjunction with such effects is summarized in Janet D. Elashoff and

Reference 3 - 0.13% Coverage effect on lower class children's school achievement.5 More or less direct tests of that theory come from two lines of research. In the first, selected aspects of speech style were

Reference 4 - 0.24% Coverage attempting to describe the Process of listener evaluation in terms of a deliberate social psychological theory are Howard Giles, Donald M. Taylor and Richard Bourhis, "Toward a Theory of In- terpersonal Accommodation Through Lanpage: Some Canadian Data," Language to Society, 2 (1973), 177

Reference 5 - 0.22% Coverage of such dependencies may lead to their consideration in the light of some more general theories of social perception at In summary, the results of the present s1 Causal attribution theory has been employ- ed as a basis for assessing the relative effect of factors of

Reference 6 - 0.16% Coverage teach- ers' and other adults' estimates of children's academic performances, studies motivated by causal attribution theory have revealed a com- plex pattern in which lower ability students may be more positively

Reference 7 - 0.15% Coverage 339-44. Although the present study was not undertaken in the context of causal attribution theory, certain compensatory effects reported here are consistent with such findings. study provide considerable evidence that

<Internals\\CM\\1977 1 Miller et al compliance gaining message strategies> - 2 references coded [0.28% Coverage]

Reference 1 - 0.15% Coverage 1973; Velma J. Lashbrook, "Leadership Emer- gence and Source Valence: Concepts in Support of Interaction Theory and Measurement," Human Communication Research, 1 (1975), 308-15. many issues associated with the role

Reference 2 - 0.14% Coverage considered in light of possible sub- ject perceptions of the stimulus materials. For example, attribution theory research TS See for example, Roger G. Barker, Eco- logical Psychology: Concepts and Methods for

<Internals\\CM\\1977 1 Rubin context in information seeking impression formation> - 2 references coded [0.43% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.21% Coverage 9 (1973), 379- 90; and Norman H. Anderson, "A Simple Model for Information Integration," in Theories of Cognitive Consistency: A Sourcebook, ed. Robert P. Abelson et al. (Chicago: Rand Mc- Nally

Reference 2 - 0.22% Coverage Berger and Richard j. Calabrese. "Some Explorations in Initial Interaction and Beyond: Toward a Developmental Theory of Interpersonal Communication," Human Research. I (1975). 99-112. 10 unication Comm ROLE OF CONTENT

<Internals\\CM\\1977 1 Sorensen McCroskey prediction interaction behavior in groups zero history intact> - 1 reference coded [0.26% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.26% Coverage of interaction behavior, then that knowledge can be used directly in the building of a theory of small group com- munication. Second, should consistent prediction be found possible, later re- search

<Internals\\CM\\1977 1 Tompkins management qua communication> - 12 references coded [0.91% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.07% Coverage organized further into project offices oriented to the various stages of the Saturn V. The theory of "project management" was that personnel could shift from office to office as projects and

Reference 2 - 0.07% Coverage could exploit the technical resources of RDO as well as contractors. Certain problems with the theory did present themselves in actual practice. This then, in brief, is the organization I entered

Reference 3 - 0.06% Coverage some time doing organizational re- search at Kent State University. 19 17 Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation, trans. and ed. A. M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons (Glencoe

Reference 4 - 0.13% Coverage encouraged to aggressively seek responsibility. "Automatic Respon- sibility" seems to be consistent with Douglas McGregor's Theory Y. In an obvious oversimplification, McGregor bi- furcated management styles into Theory X and Theory Y. The former, said Mc- Gregor, was derived from the actual practices of most managers

Reference 5 - 0.06% Coverage security above all."30 so Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of 29 Ibid., p. 2. Theory Y, by contrast, was derived by McGregor from what he thought social science has taught

Reference 6 - 0.08% Coverage learns. under proper conditions, nut only to accept but to seek responsibility.'" These assumptions of Theory X and Theory 1' arc clearly relevant to the concept IA "Automatic Responsibility The point is not to

Reference 7 - 0.07% Coverage automatic re- sponsibility and other practices, some observers have asserted that on Braun personifsed the Theory manager. That would be accurate in regard to his per- sonal style, but personal style

Reference 8 - 0.08% Coverage McGregor's book, The Human Side of Enterprise, seems to be internally inconsistent in (l) espousing Theory Y over Theory X, and (2) espousing heter- ogeneity as the criterion in organization- al recruitment because this

Reference 9 - 0.06% Coverage between 450 and 500. And so on. The issue is a crucial one to the theory of organizational communication because (l) the concept of span of control itself is based upon

Reference 10 - 0.06% Coverage do more than refute Urwick. They seem to offer par- tial support for a competing theory of the span of control. In the model of organization employed in conducting MANAGEMENT QUA

Reference 11 - 0.08% Coverage In my lecture to the Conference on Organi- zational Communication I concluded with a general theory of communication which posited "credibility chains" with external as well as in- ternal links. These

Reference 12 - 0.09% Coverage some sort of tradeoff between and among these criteria of reliability, cost and time. Enthymeme theory, the concept of ethos, and rhetorical theory in general, help to explain the behavior of the engineers in the discussions leading to

<Internals\\CM\\1977 1 Weissberg Lamb comparison cognitive modification systematic desensitization speech prepartion speecha anxiety> - 1 reference coded [0.18% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.18% Coverage 64. 14 Charles Spielberger, "Anxiety as an Emo- tional State," in Anxiety: Current Trends in Theory and Research, ed. C. D. Spielberger REDUCTION OF SPEECH AND GENERAL ANXIETY between speech anxiety

<Internals\\CM\\1977 2 Delia Okeefe explanations of belief salience> - 8 references coded [3.30% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.32% Coverage THE RELATION OF THEORY AND ANALYSIS IN EXPLANATIONS OF BELIEF SALIENCE: CONDITIONING, DISPLACEMENT, AND CONSTRUCTIVIST ACCOUNTS JESSE G. DELIA

Reference 2 - 0.42% Coverage University of Michi- gan. 1 Vernon E. Cronen and Richard L. Conville, "Belief Salience, Summation Theory. and the Attitude Construct," SM, 40 (1973), 17-26: Jesse G. Delia, Walter H. Crockett

Reference 3 - 0.44% Coverage 4 Cronen and Conville, "Belief Salience. Sum- COMMUNICATION MONOGRAPHS, Volume 44, June 1977 RELATION OF THEORY AND ANALYSIS The basis for this hypothesis was an operant conditioning account of belief salience

Reference 4 - 0.48% Coverage as we earlier reported, non-significantindicating the inadequacy of the conditioning explana- tion? mation Theory, and the Attitude Construct," P. 20. 5 The conditioning rationale can be discerned in the

Reference 5 - 0.40% Coverage work of Skinner, Green- spoon, and Taffel dted in Cronen and Conville's "Belief Salience, Summation Theory, and the Attitude Construct," pp. 24-25, n. 28, 31, and 32. Ibid., p. 20

Reference 6 - 0.40% Coverage systematic conscious reason- ing and weighing of alternatives and "higher order" processes. Our aim in theory develop- ment should be to find a single conceptual posi- tion that is comprehensive enough

Reference 7 - 0.43% Coverage and Conville indict us. it will be recalled, for concentrating upon -'higher" cogRELATION OF THEORY AND ANALYSIS able.12 The advantage of the construc- tivist view, hence, is that it

Reference 8 - 0.41% Coverage sets, situational stress, and autonomic arousal on cognition is given special emphasis within Wet- nerian theory; the effects of some of these fac- tors upon interpersonal cognition have been examined within

<Internals\\CM\\1977 2 Gourd cognitive complexity and theatrical information processing> - 4 references coded [0.77% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.25% Coverage number of person- ality psychologists have fastened on "in- formation processing" as an admixture of theories facilitating the explanation of phenomena in human development and behavior. Information processing theory, defined most simply, analyzes "the char- acteristic ways in which an individual organizes, stores

Reference 2 - 0.26% Coverage to various aspects of his world. ."1 Included under the rubric of in- formation-processing theory is the concept of cognitive complexity-simplicity, deriving principally from George Kelly's Personal Construct Theory of Person ality,2 and developed specifically by such researchers as Bieri, Berkowitz, Bieri and

Reference 3 - 0.13% Coverage researchers as Bieri, Berkowitz, Bieri and Blacker, and Nidorf and Argabrite.3 Cogeds., Personality Theory and Information Pro- cessing (New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1971), p. James Bieri, "Cognitive

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Skills, 31 (1970), 478. - Harold M. Schroder and Peter Suedfeld, 2 George A. Kelly, A Theory of Personality: The Psychology of Personal Constructs (New York: W. W. Norton, 1955). 137 nitive

<Internals\\CM\\1977 2 Lumsden source message interaction personality impression task> - 14 references coded [4.78% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.40% Coverage the values of the source and the message.4 Anderson has focused upon a general theory of information integration. A wide range of the theory's application has been tested Speech-Theatre-Media Mr. Lumsden is Associate Professor of Jersey. This

Reference 2 - 0.32% Coverage and Mi- chael M. Osborn, "A tittudinal Effects of Selected 3 Norman H. Anderson, "Integration Theory and Attitude Change," Psychological Review, 78 (1971), 171206. in such diverse tasks as personality

Reference 3 - 0.32% Coverage pression formation, decision making and psychophysical judgments.5 Recently, Anderson proposed that in- formation integration theory be applied to attitude change. He writes: In even the simplest investigations of attitudes and

Reference 4 - 0.31% Coverage Weight Illusion:* Perception and Psycho. physics, 8 (1970), 1-4. tion in sinsenAnderson, "Integration Theory and Atti- tude Change," p. 171. COMMUNICATION MONOGRAPHS, Volume 44, June 1977 For examples see

Reference 5 - 0.32% Coverage 1 w) is the normalized weight associated with the initial impression. In relating the integration theory model to attitude change research. An- derson suggests that the concepts of weight (w) and

Reference 6 - 0.35% Coverage by the value of the source component.

In her doctoral dissertation, Lindner tested Anderson's Averaging Theory of Information Integration and compared it to Osgood and Tannenbaum's Con- gruity Model to determine

Reference 7 - 0.34% Coverage ratings of the target, and while the data were consistent in other ways with congruity theory, integration theory pro- vided a more parsimonious explanation of the results. Sawyers and Anderson tested a more

Reference 8 - 0.29% Coverage Trait Words," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9 (1968), 27279. application of integration theory to, attitude change.9 They used a paradigm which only the scale value for the

Reference 9 - 0.29% Coverage and did show a consistent pattern. In a study to extend the application of integration theory to attitudes and to test the averaging assumption specifical- ly, Anderson again had subjects rate

Reference 10 - 0.33% Coverage received different sequences of in- formation about a given President. The data confirmed the integration theory predictions. As the above studies indicate, research testing the assumptions of the averaging model of

Reference 11 - 0.30% Coverage the assumptions of the averaging model of information integration is gen- erally supportive of the theory. The two studies specifically applying the model to attitude change provide support for its use

Reference 12 - 0.57% Coverage strength of the source. Barbara K. Sawyers and Norman H. An- derson. "Test of Integration Theory Attitude Change," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18 (1971), 230-33. 9 10 Norman H. Anderson, "Integration Theory Applied to Attitudes About U. S. Presidents," Journal of Educational Psychology, 64 (1973). 1-8

Reference 13 - 0.34% Coverage was apparent in the non-predicted significant interaction functions, it was hypothesized that the multiplying theory does explain the re- sults and that the observed discrepancies resulted from random fluctuations. The

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to this specific problem. A goal of attitude change research is to develop strong predictive theories for testing in actual persuasive situations. Any theoretical model must include a number of important

<Internals\\CM\\1977 2 Montgomery Burgoon interactive effects of sex adrogyny attitude change> - 2 references coded [0.71% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.32% Coverage overwhelming and contradictory that the derivation of law covering statements and the construction of sound theory is difficult if not impos- sible. This is especially true in the sex and persuasibility

Reference 2 - 0.39% Coverage the sex difference research. When research presents conflicting and contradictory findings, those inter- ested in theory construction must seek to uncover elusive mediating variables that are affecting results. There seems to

<Internals\\CM\\1977 2 Wood leading in purposive discussions adaptive behavior> - 8 references coded [1.20% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.14% Coverage Although each of these views has been buttressed by research, none pro- vides a comprehensive theory of leader- ship which can explain effectiveness across diverse group circumstances.' Despite these numerous approaches

Reference 2 - 0.11% Coverage a particular situation. If this is the case, thencontrary to the "one best way" theories of leadership we should not expect a leader to act the same way in every

Reference 3 - 0.13% Coverage occur Once this variable and dynamic nature of discus3 See Fred E. Fiedler, A Theory of Leader- ship Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967). B For a critical review of

Reference 4 - 0.20% Coverage STUDY OF ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR sional situations is fully acknowledged, it becomes clear that a useful theory of leadership must be similarly variable and dynamic. Such a theory would em- phasize a leader's capacity for adapting himself and others' perceptions of a shared

Reference 5 - 0.14% Coverage contingent situations.?

Despite the promise of an adaptive conception of leadership, existing re- search and theory have not concentrated on leaders' adjustments to differing en- virons and, thus, we have few

Reference 6 - 0.14% Coverage apparent goals and their situations and memberships, this conclu- sion is consequential for both the theory and practice of leadership. A primary implication of this finding is that it might be

Reference 7 - 0.19% Coverage implication of this finding is that it might be highly constructive to apply traditional rhetorical theory to the study of small group leadership. Previous theory in the area of small group dis- cussion and leadership has not reflected a rhetorical

Reference 8 - 0.15% Coverage leading acts or "styles" will be most appropriate in particu- lar, defined discussional situations. Most theories of leadership and most methods of training leaders have produced general rules, prescrip- tions for

<Internals\\CM\\1977 3 Bantz Smith critique test of Weicks model of organizing> - 8 references coded [1.25% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.14% Coverage to social processes. Much of the appeal of Karl Weick's at- tempt to build a theory of organizational functioning derives from the presence of all four of these ideas.1 Weick

Reference 2 - 0.16% Coverage He translates his emphasis on behavior into a model based on socio-cultural evolu- tionary theory.3 This organizing model expresses Weick's belief that the activity of organizing is "directed toward

Reference 3 - 0.17% Coverage in Socio-Cultural Evolution," in Social Change in Developing Areas: A Reinter- pretation of Evolutionary Theory, ed. Herbert R. Barringer, George I. Blanksten, and Raymond W. Mack (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1965

Reference 4 - 0.18% Coverage unconscious equating of or- ganizing and communicating an appeal173 ing starting point for organizational theory. When Weick argues that organiz- ing is essentially information processing, one need only add that

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double interacts, does not fit well with his argument that enactcation; An Introduction to Theory and Practice (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960), PP. 23-28; and David H

Reference 6 - 0.15% Coverage intended. Weick's brief discussion of retention depends primarily upon the analogue to retention in evolutionary theory. AlIbid., p. 70. 2 Ibid., p. 91. 10 Ibid., pp. 63-71. Ibid., p

Reference 7 - 0.14% Coverage considered the possibility that the failure is rooted in the funda- mental arguments in the theory itself rather than in design errors or in details of the model. Throughout the present

Reference 8 - 0.15% Coverage distinction between metaphor and model is developed in Leonard C. Hawes, Prag- matics of Analoguing: Theory and Model Con183 operationalization of his ideas: by pre- senting an approach that is

<Internals\\CM\\1977 3 Downs Pickett effects of leadership group compatibility on porductivity and member satisfaction> - 5 references coded [1.02% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.22% Coverage was funded in part by University grant 3339-5083 from the University of Kansas. Leadership Theory," Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, (Aug- ust 1975). p. 5

Reference 2 - 0.18% Coverage vestigating the success of leadership styles john J. Morse, and Jay W. Lorsch. "Be- yond Theory Y," Harvard Business Review, 48 2 (May ;June 1970), p. 61. 3 Robert R. Blake

Reference 3 - 0.22% Coverage leader's style but also with the factors in the situations In support of the contingency theory, Morse and Lorsch studied different types of organizations and discovered that dif- ferent leadership styles

Reference 4 - 0.18% Coverage must be designed to fit its task and its people, not to satisfy some universal theory."6 So far the contingency approach has been useful in iden- tifying those task

Reference 5 - 0.22% Coverage and Lomb. p. 61. William C. Schutz. The Interpersonal Un5 Fred E. Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill. 1967). derworld (Palo Alto: Science and Behavior Books

<Internals\\CM\\1977 3 Fisher et al nature of complex communication systems> - 10 references coded [2.28% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.21% Coverage Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969). Albert E. Scheflen, "Behavioral Programs in Human Communication," in General Systems Theory and Psychiatry, ed. William Gray, Frederick J. Duhl, and Nicholas D. Rizzo (Bos- ton: Little

Reference 2 - 0.20% Coverage 1973), 11-21; and B. Aubrey Fisher, "Communication Study in System Perspective," in General Systems Theory and Human Communication, ed. Brent D. Ruben and John Y. Kim (Rochelle Park, N. J

Reference 3 - 0.21% Coverage rules of empirical redundancy. The increasing quantity and quality of empirical research5 in the systems- theory perspective hal clearly demon- strated the feasibility and popularity of this theoretical perspective in human

Reference 4 - 0.20% Coverage quences of acts. As Pringle observes: Anatol Rapoport and W. J. Horvath. "Thoughts on Organization Theory." in Mod- ern Systems Research for the Behavioral Sci- entist, ed. Walter Buckley (Chicago: Aldine

Reference 5 - 0.18% Coverage example, Weick states emphatically, "Given that interdepen- dence is the crucial element from which a theory of organizations is built, inter- acts [contiguous pairs of acts] rather than acts are the

Reference 6 - 0.35% Coverage ture is observable and thus measurable through multivariate information analy- sis emanating directly from information theory. Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jack- son," and Raush,17 advocate the use of such information-theory measures. These techniques have also been used in empiri- cal research in human communication" and

Reference 7 - 0.20% Coverage description of these sta- tistics is necessary.20 H-Function (Measure of uncertainty). Since information theory measures the quantity of information as uncertainty, 13 Weick, p. 33. 14 Fisher and Hawes

Reference 8 - 0.36% Coverage Communication," Journal of Theoretical Biol- ogy, 8 (1965), 490-522 and Henry Quastler, ed., Information Theory in Psychology (Glencoe, Illi- nois: Free Press, 1955), pp. 143-386. 20 See Floyd Attneave, Medications of Infor- mation Theory to Psychology (New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston, 1959): For the most concise description of

Reference 9 - 0.17% Coverage of the observational system rath- er than a statistical artifact of the use of information-theory statistics. In other words, the discovery of structure is de- pendent upon some meaningful corre

Reference 10 - 0.20% Coverage inal Robert Rosen, "Some Systems Theoretical Problems in Biology," in Relevance of General Systems Theory, ed. Ervin Laszlo (New York: Braziller, 1972), p. 54. 240 COMMUNICATION MONOGRAPHS vestigation was a

<Internals\\CM\\1977 3 Mulac Rudd effects of regional dialects on regiional audience> - 8 references coded [1.27% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.18% Coverage 2 R. E. Callary, "Status Perception through ," Language and Speech, 17 (1974), 187Several conflicting theories have been proposed to explain differences in dia- lect-induced judgments, including the following: (1

Reference 2 - 0.16% Coverage N. Berkowitz, and R. John Moyer, "Similarity, Credibility and Attitude Change: A Review and a Theory," Psychological Bulletin, 73 (1970), 1-16; Dale T. Miller and Ronald A. Hoppe, "The Effect

Reference 3 - 0.16% Coverage be no comprehensive re- search program testing the relative effi- cacy of the four major theories in the same country. The investigation reported herein was intended as the first stage of

Reference 4 - 0.16% Coverage in the United States. The first step in assessing the relative applicability of the competing theories is to determine the predominant dialects of the area in which they are being test

Reference 5 - 0.15% Coverage any attempt to determine the applicability of the im posed norm hypothesis, or any other theory, to American auditors would be premature. The purpose of the present study was to investigate

Reference 6 - 0.18% Coverage though listeners from the other two placed Appalachian speakers low- est on this dimension. The theory that linguistic character- istic differences in the three dialects brought about the observed audience re

Reference 7 - 0.14% Coverage which must be examined before a case can be made for the linguistic character- istic theory. Rate of speech was measured in terms of mean syllable length (phonation time divided by

Reference 8 - 0.15% Coverage is now possible to design empirical studies to test directly some or all of the theories of dialectal effect within this cultural set- ting. It should be evident that any re

<Internals\\CM\\1977 3 Smith threat effects to attitudinal freedom message quality receiver attitude> - 6 references coded [0.99% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.20% Coverage AS A FUNCTION OF MESSAGE QUALITY AND INITIAL RECEIVER ATTITUDE MARY JOHN SMITH YCHOLOGICAL reactance theory posits that exposure to a persuasive communication which exerts pressure on the receiver to adopt

Reference 2 - 0.15% Coverage Thomas M. Ostrom (New York: Academic Press, 1968), PP. 277-78. 2Jack W. Brehm, A Theory of Psychological 4 Robert A. Wicklund and Jack W. Brehm, "Attitude Change as a Function

Reference 3 - 0.17% Coverage of Freedom, p. 10.

I Jack W. Brehm, Responses to Loss of Free- dom: A Theory of Psychological Reactance (Mor- ristown, New Jersey: General Learning Press, 1972), p. 10: Jack W

Reference 4 - 0.17% Coverage can hold an Brehm, "Attitude Change from Threat," p. 285. 6 Ibid. I Brehm, A Theory of Psychological Reactance, P. 94. COMMUNICATION MONOGRAPHS, Volume 44, August 1977 THREATS TO ATTITUDINAL

Reference 5 - 0.17% Coverage ance, p. 94. 22 Snyder and Wicklund PP. 120-29. 15 Smith. 11 Brehm, A Theory of Psychological React198 COMMUNICATION MONOGRAPHS that the arousal of reactance can lead to aggression

Reference 6 - 0.14% Coverage of a threatening message as outlined in his theo- retical work, e.g. Brehm, A Theory of Psycho- logical Reactance, p. 94, 104-5: and Brehm, to Loss of Freedom, p

<Internals\\CM\\1977 4 Adams Beatty dogmatism need for social approval resistance to persuasion> - 3 references coded [1.41% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.51% Coverage W. CLIFTON ADAMS and MICHAEL J. BEATTY TN reviewing the research stemming from McGuire's inoculation theory,' Burgoon and Chases contrasted sup- portive and refutational strategies for preventing attitude change. Based on

Reference 2 - 0.46% Coverage Theodore Clevenger, Jr., "The Interaction of Descriptive and Experimental Research in the Development of Rhetorical Theory," Central States Speech Journal, 16 (1965), 7-12, discusses the advantages of using complementary ap

Reference 3 - 0.44% Coverage regard for Sena- tor Eagleton, it was logical, reasoning NEED FOR SOCIAL APPROVAL from balance theory, that when he was associated with the opposite viewpoint, the "his own man" view, that

<Internals\\CM\\1977 4 Delia Clark cognitive complexity social perception listner adapted communication preteen boys> - 7 references coded [0.66% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.09% Coverage

Wiley, 1968); and Eugene A. Weinstein, "The Develop- ment of In book of Soda nation Theory and Research, ed. David A. Goslin (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1969), pp. 75375. 8 See

Reference 2 - 0.10% Coverage children become able to identify The constructivist approach to communi- cation builds upon the psychological theories of George A. Kelly, The Psychology of Personal Constructs, 2 vole. (New York: Norton, 1955

Reference 3 - 0.11% Coverage as their con- struct systems become more differentiat- ed? Within constructivism and related cognitivedevelopmental theories, all these changes are seen to represent changes along interrelated developmental axesegocentrism-perspectivism

Reference 4 - 0.12% Coverage the Wernerian perspective, drawing the similarity of Werner's views to those of Piaget's more familiar theory, are presented by Jonas Langer, Theories of Development (New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston, 1969),pp. 87-158, and Albert u

Reference 5 - 0.09% Coverage Journal of Per- sonality and Social Psychology, 32 (1975), 865-72. . An Analysis of Personality Theories Englewod Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall. 1968), pp. 121-64. DEVELOPMENT OF LISTENER-ADAPTED COMMUNICATION

Reference 6 - 0.07% Coverage Wernerian Developmental Analysis." The mea- sure is tied to the notion in Wernerian develop- mental theory that the complexity of a system is in part a function of the number of

Reference 7 - 0.09% Coverage year-olds and cognitively complex ten-year-olds. Viewed within the frame- work of Wernerian theory and its characterization of development as a transition from globality and lack of differentiation to

<Internals\\CM\\1978 1 Bradac et al reciprocal disclosures language intensity_0002> - 2 references coded [0.25% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.13% Coverage Berger and Richard J. Calabrese, 'Some Explorations in Initial Interaction and Beyond: Toward a Developmental Theory of Interpersonal Communication," Human Com1 75-220. C ably to disclosures has been supported

Reference 2 - 0.13% Coverage 454-460. 23 Michael Burgoon, Stephen B. Jones, and Diane Stewart. "Toward a Message-Centered Theory of Persuasion: Three Empirical In- vestigations of language Intensity," Human Communication Research, I (1975), 240

<Internals\\CM\\1978 1 Bradley power status upward communication small groups_0002> - 11 references coded [2.28% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.20% Coverage or "open" lines for communicating subordinate complaints to corporate tives. execu Although a number of theories have been advanced to explain upward com- munication in hierarchical settings,' one receiving a great

Reference 2 - 0.19% Coverage hierarchical settings,' one receiving a great deal of empirical sup- port is the ego-defensive theory of communication.5 Investigators supporting Ms. Bradley is assistant professor of speech communication, Indiana

Reference 3 - 0.23% Coverage relations with highs in hopes of gaining some control over satisfying their own needs. This theory is, in effect, an instrumental theory of upward com- munication in that communication di- rected toward highs is considered instru- mental

Reference 4 - 0.20% Coverage highs is considered instru- mental in attaining functional independ- ence. Studies generating support for this theory have investigated such variables as number and length of messages, criti- cal other-directed comments

Reference 5 - 0.19% Coverage 1952), 37-64. Harold H. Kelley, "Communication in Created Hierarchies," Human ReThe ego-defensive theory of upward communication has clearly received a good deal of empirical support, but much of

Reference 6 - 0.31% Coverage yalence, power, and prestige." It should be noted that Kelley's conclusions sup- port Leon Festinger's theory of substitute loco- motion or the "status-approximation" theory. According to this theory, lows communicate fre- quently with highs as a substitute for actual Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin

Reference 7 - 0.18% Coverage AND UPWARD COMMUNICATION The purpose of this investigation was to provide additional insight into a theory of upward communication in small group settings by focusing on the communication process occurring in

Reference 8 - 0.18% Coverage low power figure. Specifically, if the concept of instru- mentality, essential to the ego-defensive theory, is valid, then the content char- acteristics of the verbal behavior of in- dividuals communicating

Reference 9 - 0.20% Coverage dif- ferent. Moreover, considerable evidence is herein generated for support of an ego- defensive, instrumental theory of upward communication. Subjects in this study communicated with those who had the power to

Reference 10 - 0.20% Coverage that high power figures received signifi- cantly longer comments was not surprising.4 Ego-defensive theory predicts that in- dividuals attempting to satisfy their needs demonstrate involvement in their effortsverbal

Reference 11 - 0.20% Coverage groups, this investigation generated supPOWER, STATUS. AND UPWARD COMMUNICATION port for an ego-defensive theory of up- ward communication. Low ranking sub- jects actively communicated with high power confederates in

<Internals\\CM\\1978 1 Gouran et al behavioral correlates of perceptions of quality decision making discussions_0002> - 4 references coded [0.86% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.30% Coverage vari- ables to perceptions of quality, the re- sults may assist in the development of theories concerning communication in decision-making groups. Assume, for ex- ample, that one were interested in constructing a theory that accounts for varia- tions in the quality of decision-making discussions. Further assume that

Reference 2 - 0.17% Coverage Relevance of Issues" and "Evenness of Participation" to incorporate in the initial stages of the theory's development. Because of the demonstrated relationship of these vari- ables to perceptions of quality, two

Reference 3 - 0.24% Coverage than would be possible under the assumption of equal importance. The predictive validity of the theory could be more easily determined. Before significant strides in theory de- velopment can occur, a number of issues need to be addressed. All of these

Reference 4 - 0.16% Coverage analysis. Stepwise regres- sion analysis is useful as an exploratory tool at preliminary stages of theory de- velopment. It can suggest a possible hierarchical structure but is generally insufficient to be

<Internals\\CM\\1978 1 Hewes Evans theories of egocentric speech_0002> - 45 references coded [6.99% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.28% Coverage T THREE THEORIES OF EGOCENTRIC SPEECH: A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS DEAN E. HEWES AND DORCAS EVANS Three theories of egocentric speech are contrasted. Alternative predictions of the same phenomenon by the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky and a prototheoretical position associated with Mead, Flavell and Wilder are subjected

Reference 2 - 0.15% Coverage equally divergent edu- cational strategies for the primary school classroom. r Strategies flowing from Piagetian theory focus on mechanisms for extinguishing egocentric speech through so- cialization. Piaget and Inhelder have

Reference 3 - 0.14% Coverage Basic Books, 1969), pp. 114-122. 1 Prentice-Hall Herbert Ginsburg and Sylvia Opper, Piaget's Theory of Intellectual Development (Englewood , 1969), p. 228. Vygotsky, pp. 14-20. "The Relevance of Oral

Reference 4 - 0.17% Coverage It should be clear that the pheno- menon of egocentric speech serves as a THREE THEORIES OF EGOCENTRIC SPEECH unifying thread for the theories of Piaget anti Vygotsky and, consequently, for a number of educational strategies. In order to

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begin assessing the validity of these various strategies, we must examine the validity of the theories that spawned them. To do so we must undertake the contrastive testing of multiple theories of a single phenomenon." This study presents a set of experi- speech.11 ments for

Reference 6 - 0.13% Coverage study presents a set of experi- speech.11 ments for contrasting Piaget's and Vygot- sky's theories as they relate to egocentric It serves two purposes: (1) eximplications plicitly formalizing existing

Reference 7 - 0.24% Coverage eximplications plicitly formalizing existing verbal theo- ries of egocentric speeds; (2) testing two major theories of child communication patterns, which have important for educational strategies. A more extensive look at the theories and rele- vant research must be undertaken so that their opposing predictions can be for

Reference 8 - 0.13% Coverage opposing predictions can be for- mulated. This task is undertaken in the following sections. THE THEORIES In Language 1926 Piaget's first major work, The and Thought of the Child, initiated the

Reference 9 - 0.18% Coverage to a listener. The sender's speech is not adapted to either 10 Stephen W. King, "Theory Testing: An AnBoth Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories have tar broader implications than the identification of antecedents and functions of egocentric speech. Thus

Reference 10 - 0.12% Coverage contrastive an- alysis presented here should not be taken as supporting or refuting the larger theories of either man. 12 Piaget, p. 55. alysis and Extension," Western Speech, 37 (1973). 13

Reference 11 - 0.13% Coverage that it must occur in a social situation. Given this brief description of Vygot- sky's theory, certain conclusions need to be drawn for comparison with Piaget's formulations: (1) Vygotsky agreed with

Reference 12 - 0.13% Coverage Lawrence Kohlberg, Judy Yaeger and Else Hjerthom, "Private Speech: Four Studies and a Review of Theories," Child Development, 39 (1968), 695-696. 19 Vygotsky. 20 Vygotsky, p. 138. speech not adapted

Reference 13 - 0.13% Coverage from social speech. With these four conclusions and the five which were drawn from Piaget's theory, certain contrasts can now be drawn between Vygotsky's and Piaget's explanation of egocentric speech. Social

Reference 14 - 0.26% Coverage will be added after the discussion of a third theoretical description of egocentric speech. THREE THEORIES OF EGOCENTRIC SPEECH that some egocentric speech served as externalized thought.22 This suggests am- biguity for Piaget's theory in predicting the effects of task difficulty on the level of egocentric speech. Perhaps a

Reference 15 - 0.12% Coverage task difficulty on the level of egocentric speech. Perhaps a reason- able interpretation of Piaget's theory would be that it would predict, at maxi- mum, a lesser effect of task difficulty

Reference 16 - 0.33% Coverage a social situation. 23 These differing predictions represent points of clash between Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories as they relate to ego- centric speech, but they do not represent an exhaustive set of possible theories which might explain this phenomenon. A likely alternative is that both theories are correct in predicting variations in the dependent variable as a function of the independent

Reference 17 - 0.13% Coverage increased levels of ego- centric speech. This result would be difficult to interpret since neither theory would unambiguously predict such re- sults. Piaget allowed for the possibility that task difficulty would

Reference 18 - 0.22% Coverage others appear to guide thought processes. Both Piaget and Vy- gotsky are correct, but each theory is also incomplete."27 Such a prototheoretical position cannot be ignored in a contras- tive analysis of theories related to ego- centric speech, for to do so is to exclude unjustifiably a viable

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to de- rive. For instance, if the social function of egocentric speech is supported Piaget's theory and the Mead-Flavell-Wilder pro- totheory are both supported. If egocen- tric speech increases

Reference 20 - 0.12% Coverage be- cause he is ambiguous on that point, and Mead et al. are supported. Piaget's theory and the MeadFlavell-Wilder prototheory disagree only over the task function of egocentric speech

Reference 21 - 0.12% Coverage Children (New York: Wiley, 1968). 27 Wilder, p. 20. 22 COMMUNICATION MONOGRAPHS tangle the two theories requires infor- mation on that function.28 One way to draw a distinction between Piaget

Reference 22 - 0.12% Coverage indicate that task oriented speech should covary with task difficulty. The predic- tion of Piaget's theory can be at least tentatively separated from those of Mead et al. by examining the

Reference 23 - 0.13% Coverage ment appears in Dean E. Hewes, "Egocentric Speech in Children: A Contrastive Analysis of Three Theories," Diss. Florida State Uniyersity 25 1974, pp. 17-18. 29 Ginsburg and Opper, pp. 94

Reference 24 - 0.11% Coverage of Educational 33 Psychology, 20 (1929), 1-18. 34 Allen. 35 Rubin et al. THREE THEORIES OF EGOCENTRIC SPEECH of both types of remarks changed in op- posite directions. Clearly, there

Reference 25 - 0.12% Coverage earlier. For instance, a child alone was predicted to produce ego- centric speech by Piaget's theory, not produce it by Vygotsky's and behave either way by the Mead-Flavell-Wilder prototheory

Reference 26 - 0.12% Coverage The conclusion to be drawn is that an adequate contrastive analysis of Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories has yet to be provided with respect to the effects of social situation. A similar

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that the level of egocentric speech would increase, as did the Mead-Flavell-Wilder proto- theory. Research by Klein suggested that egocentric speech may function as an aid in difficult cognitive

Reference 28 - 0.12% Coverage research resolved the contrastive analysis in favor of Piaget and the Mead-Flavell-Wilder proto- theory. The remainder of the contrastive hypotheses were explored in a design which systematically varied opportunity

Reference 29 - 0.16% Coverage seven. Piaget's interpretation, but an increase in task- releyant egocentric speech with increasing opTHREE THEORIES OF EGOCENTRIC SPEECH Independent variables. Opportunity to interact was operationalized by two treat- ments; the

Reference 30 - 0.14% Coverage speech and in Table 2 for the coefficient of task-relevant egocentric speech. In THREE THEORIES OF EGOCENTRIC SPEECH both cases, the group membership vari- able had significant effects (p <.05

Reference 31 - 0.13% Coverage for behavior under increasing task difficulty do not allow for a clear con- trast of theories since Piaget's prediction was ambiguous. For greater clarity, Pia- get's prediction was modified to suggest

Reference 32 - 0.15% Coverage future research designs should contain more treatment levels, thereby increasing the degrees of freedom. THREE THEORIES OF EGOCENTRIC SPEECH increased task-relevant egocentric speech in this condition. The results provided in

Reference 33 - 0.13% Coverage examined separately. Figure 1 represents a somewhat over- simplified summary of the status of the theories subsequent to this study. The prototheoretical position of Mead, Fla- veil and Wilder attained the

Reference 34 - 0.17% Coverage is prototheoretical and would need further elaboration before achieving the explanatory status of a theory. TOWARD A SYNTHESIS OF THEORIES The results Of this experiment were most nearly consistent with the predic- tions of the

Reference 35 - 0.25% Coverage were most nearly consistent with the predic- tions of the Mead-Flavell-Wilder proto29 theory. In order to advance theorizing beyond this prototheoretic stage, the missing explanation for such results must be sought. The theories and the data from this study suggested three alterna- tive explanations. A Nonfunctional Approach Piaget

Reference 36 - 0.15% Coverage to this particular mediating yariable. FIGURE 1 SUMMARY OF EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE RELATED TO THREE ALTERNATIVE THEORIES OF EGOCENTRIC SPEECHa, b, c Experimental Conditions Theorist Piaget Vygotsky Mead-Flavell- Wilder Child Alone

Reference 37 - 0.14% Coverage speech in terms of a single underlying function, this approach is parsimonious. For instance, Vygotsky's theory could ex- plain the effects of opportunity to inter- act and task difficulty if membership

Reference 38 - 0.13% Coverage and call for more self- direction. Such an explanation is su- perior to existing nonfunctional theories, since the reasons for change in the level of egocentric speech are specified. How- ever

Reference 39 - 0.14% Coverage ex- planation Of the group membership ef- fect. TO test the validity of the functional theory, three issues must be addressed. First, demOnstration of task facilitation by egocentric speech is crucial

Reference 40 - 0.14% Coverage would have to be con- sistent with a functional interpretation of egocentric speech, or Vygotsky's theory would have to be modified. An Alternative Approach Both the nonfunctional anti functional 54 Note

Reference 41 - 0.11% Coverage task difficulty. If it is not, then there would hc no reason to modify a theory of general egocen- tric speech so that it could encompass the causal influences of opportunity

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that it could encompass the causal influences of opportunity to interact and task difficulty. THREE THEORIES OF EGOCENTRIC SPEECH interpretations attempt to explain the results of this study in some unified

Reference 43 - 0.14% Coverage the latter. All in all, it seems plausible that dif- ferences between Vygotsky's and Piaget's theories represent a misunderstanding of what egocentric speech is. Piaget may have focused on the more

Reference 44 - 0.12% Coverage more causal variables. CONCLUSION The purpose of this study was to con- trast the three theories of egocentric Kohlberg. Yaeger and Hjertholm, pp. 707- 708, have devised a method for subcategorizing

Reference 45 - 0.19% Coverage Wilder more accurate- ly anticipated the results of this study than did Piaget's or Vygotsky's theories; despite better predictive power, the Mead-Flavell-Wilder pro to theory was found wanting in explanatory power; at- tempts to provide a unified explanation of the

<Internals\\CM\\1978 1 Liska situation topical variations in credibility criteria_0002> - 1 reference coded [0.23% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.23% Coverage Factor Analysis, 2nd ed. (Chi- cago: University of Chicago Press, 1967): Jum C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory (New York: Mc(,raw-Hill, 1967); T. E. Dielman, R. B. Cattell, and Arka Wagner

<Internals\\CM\\1978 2 Borman et al power authority sex male response to female leadership> - 9 references coded [0.58% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.05% Coverage the or- ganization in terms of how they reflected or failed to reflect Bormann's emergent theory of small group communication.2 We examined the impact of the imposed organizational structure on

Reference 2 - 0.05% Coverage studies. Much of what happened in the organi- zation was accounted for by the emergent theory of group evolution. The leader- ship emergence within the groups pro- ceeded through the two

Reference 3 - 0.11% Coverage pro- ceeded through the two-phase develop- ment; norms, roles, and decisions emerged as the theory anticipated they would. In this paper, we concentrate on the

2 Bormann's emergent theory of small group communication is developed in detail in Dis- cussion and Group Methods: Theory and Prac- tice, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1975), pp. 141-309. The same

Reference 4 - 0.09% Coverage through time and space. For a discussion of the role of simulations and games in theory de- velopment, see Malcolm S. MacLean, Jr. and Albert D. Talbott, "An Approach to Communi- cation Theory Through Simulation," a paper presented to the International Communication Association, New York, December 1969. For

Reference 5 - 0.05% Coverage make unpleasant decisions and to represent their group at important inter-group meetings. The emergent theory of leadership implies that decisions about leadership are not always clear-cut either for par

Reference 6 - 0.05% Coverage males, an unusual pattern in the case studies which formed the basis for our grounded theory of small group communication.12 Shared Fantasies. Although MMC's rich fantasy life and complex and

Reference 7 - 0.05% Coverage within the organiza- tion. See Donald Cushman and Gordon Whit- ing, "An Approach to Communication Theory Toward Consensus on Rules," Journal of Com- munication, 22 (1972), 217-238. POWER, AUTHORITY, AND

Reference 8 - 0.08% Coverage of Management (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961), p. 115. 28 The Harvard School Human Relations Theory of Organizations is a variation of the -Hawthorne studies" and the social relationship theories espoused by Mayo and his colleagues. Sec Farace, Monge and Russell, pp. 81-82 and

Reference 9 - 0.05% Coverage studies might have occurred in this organization. For a definition and description of double- hind theory, see Paul Watzlawick, Janet H. Beavin, and Don D. Jackson. Pragmatics of Hu- man Communication

<Internals\\CM\\1978 2 Browning grounded organizational communication theory qualitative data> - 17 references coded [2.74% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.12% Coverage A GROUNDED ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION THEORY DERIVED FROM QUALITATIVE DATA LARRY D. BROWNING Communicative "incidents" in a research and development organization

Reference 2 - 0.16% Coverage to produce predictive generalizations about organizaresearch was designed to de- velop a descriptive communication theory from qualitative diagnostic data gathered in a natural organizational setting. Rather than reviewing and inter

Reference 3 - 0.13% Coverage 2) what variables influence the ways individuals communicate. This research is based on the grounded theory assumptions of Glaser and Strauss:I (I) Qualitative data are more useful than quantitative data

Reference 4 - 0.14% Coverage Health, Education and Wel- fare grant #OEG-0-72-4520. 1 The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research (Chicago: Aldine. 1967). Barney CO Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss, 2

Reference 5 - 0.21% Coverage June 1978 tional communication. tative research is best used in further ex- ploration and testing theory. (2) The comparative analysis of qualitative data assists in generating theory by creating conceptual categories from evidence; then the evidence from which each cate- gory emerged

Reference 6 - 0.20% Coverage is used to illustrate the concept. (3) A focus on the verification and testing of theory can easily block the generation of a more rounded and dense theory, i.e., a theory that accounts for a larger array of variables.= METHOD The Field Research Setting The organization

Reference 7 - 0.17% Coverage of Qualitative Field Data," in Human Organization Research: Field Relations and Techniques. GROUNDED ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION THEORY each dimension. These notes were ana- lyzed until a decision was reached on inventing a

Reference 8 - 0.16% Coverage networks) individuals form coalitions to develop power. This category includes sub-grouping GROUNDED ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION THEORY behavior such as small-talk fragmenta- tion that occurs when a meeting is bor- ing

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values included are expressions of not wanting help or assistance, preferring to GROUNDED ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION THEORY work alone, enjoying handling things in one's own way, and preferring not to work with

Reference 10 - 0.17% Coverage focus on individuals' attempts to advance themselves in the organization. The inGROUNDED ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION THEORY cidents have a persuasive, aggressive tenor and often involve manipulation. In many cases actions related

Reference 11 - 0.14% Coverage job and by a person, who upon be- coming a supervisor, begins to exhibit nervousness. THEORY DEVELOPMENT 6 Creating relationships among these Glaser and Strauss, pp. 105-113. 7 Glaser and

Reference 12 - 0.16% Coverage categories is in Glaser and Strauss' se- quence the steps of delimiting and writ- ing theory. For Glaser and Strauss, theory de- velopment is analogous to data (cate- gory) reduction which is defined as "dis- covering

Reference 13 - 0.12% Coverage the underlying uniformities in the original set of categories or their properties and formulating a theory with a smaller set of high level concepts. This step reduces both the terminology and

Reference 14 - 0.19% Coverage force is directly related to the occurrence of Personal Advancement Strategies. The GROUNDED ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION THEORY Personal Advancement Strategy 103 Coalition Formation Expression of Distrust Communication Inhibiting Climate for Growth and

Reference 15 - 0.19% Coverage correct avenues of achieving a particular end. (2) The Expression of Expectations GROUNDED ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION THEORY Power 105 Externalizing Expression of Expectations Expression of Independence + Pressure Adaptation Adjustment Requests for Information

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selected for attention are assigned greater relative importance. Since the in1 GROUNDED ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION THEORY Stabilizing Forces 107 Direct and Brief Communication Orientation Pressure Central Figure in Communication Requests for

Reference 17 - 0.15% Coverage Pressure increasingly is felt, the number of Requests for Information in- creases. GROUNDED ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION THEORY 7. As the Requests for Information become more numerous, the Central Figure in Communication becomes

<Internals\\CM\\1978 2 Tompkins organizational metamorphosis in space research development> - 1 reference coded [0.21% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.21% Coverage one con- centrating on the whole, others on in- dividual stages and even engines. The theory of "project management" was that personnel could shift from office to office as projects came

<Internals\\CM\\1978 3 Beatty et al situational determinants of communication apprehension> - 2 references coded [0.99% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.48% Coverage a trait measure is affected by situa- tional variables. Rank order instability Charles D. Spielberger, "Theory and Re- search on Anxiety," in Anxiety and Behavior, ed. Charles D. Spielberger (New York

Reference 2 - 0.51% Coverage Communication- 11 Bound Anxiety." 10 McCroskey, "Measures of Communication- Bound Anxiety." jum C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967). pp. 133-136. 190 COMMUNICATION MONOGRAPHS (n = 30

<Internals\\CM\\1978 3 Courtright laboratory investigation of group think> - 23 references coded [2.78% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.12% Coverage A LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF GROUPTHINK JOHN A. COURTRIGHT 4 recent addition to the collection of theory on group communication is the concept of "groupthink," formulated by Irving Janis. The purpose of

Reference 2 - 0.12% Coverage studies of foreign-policy decisions, a laboratory analogue which recreated the important elements of the theory was constructed. The results of this study indicated that (1) the groupthink phenomenon is amenable

Reference 3 - 0.10% Coverage that (1) the groupthink phenomenon is amenable to study in the laboratory, and (2) the theory as postulated by Janis is essentially correct. It was also suggested that even though Janis

Reference 4 - 0.13% Coverage of Groupthink: A Study of Foreign-Policy Decisions 1972). CO Fiascoes (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., THEORY of a relatively new group effect has been advanced. This moral implications of the problem

Reference 5 - 0.12% Coverage still be created. Second, cohesiveness as interpersonal attraction can be operationalized by em- ploying the theory and experimental methodology of Byrne.7 Through a series of studies, Byrne and his col

Reference 6 - 0.12% Coverage conditions to which the other cells can be compared. Dependent Variables If groupthink as a theory is valid, the combinations of the independent vari- ables should produce some form of the

Reference 7 - 0.11% Coverage of disagreement) produced by each mem- ber of the group. In its simplest form, the theory pre- dicts that groups operating under the groupthink syndrome will produce few solutions, will tend

Reference 8 - 0.13% Coverage disagreement. Not only do these proposed content categories possess construct validity in terms of Janis's theory, but they also allow for the straightforward calculation of interrater reliability after the content analysis

Reference 9 - 0.12% Coverage interrater reliability after the content analysis has been completed.

A second facet of the groupthink theory suggests that inferior group de- cision-making processes will increase the probability of a faulty

Reference 10 - 0.11% Coverage cohesive groups was confirmed. This line of research makes sense in the light of Janis's theory. Highly co- hesive policy-making groups should be more susceptible to unconscious and unintentional work

Reference 11 - 0.13% Coverage the induction of parameters is one such administrative change. In fact, the 236 COMMUNICATION MONOGRAPHS theory about groupthink and its effect on group decision-making processes. The interactions are hypothesized for

Reference 12 - 0.12% Coverage with Janis's predictions, and if obtained, should be easily interpreted in the light of his theory. METHOD Subjects From freshman speech and composi- tion classes at the University of Iowa, 96

Reference 13 - 0.11% Coverage no significant difference between LoCo Freed and LoCo Limited groups would seem incompatible with the theory of groupthink as formulated by Janis. 18 Donn Byrne, The Attraction Paradigm (New York: Academic

Reference 14 - 0.13% Coverage when considered in combination with the earlier univariate findings, it becomes extremely relevant. The groupthink theory main- tains that highly cohesive groups are more likely to produce a faulty decision because

Reference 15 - 0.12% Coverage of disagreement is indicative of less conflict and more harmony, one aspect of the groupthink theory has received con- firmation. Quality of Solution The final analysis of this study was conducted

Reference 16 - 0.10% Coverage duce an inferior or faulty solution to the problem. To test this aspect of the theory, a MANOVA was performed on the five categories of the PRI. Cohesiveness, the induction of

Reference 17 - 0.13% Coverage course, was raised by the naturalistic framework (i.e., historical case study) in which the theory of groupthink was initially postulated. questions This study has provided tentative, yet affirmative answers to

Reference 18 - 0.12% Coverage is that the findings of this study do not disconfirm this aspect of the groupthink theory. They do not provide positive, supporting evidence, but neither can they be considered negative

Reference 19 - 0.14% Coverage groups in this study. As subsequent investigations are Completed, consistent patterns may oc- cur, and theory concerning this facet of groupthink may be confirmed, disconfirmed , or appropriately modified. For the present

Reference 20 - 0.11% Coverage primary contributor to this significant difference. These findings are highly suggestive in terms of the theory of groupthink. It may well be that the absence of disagree- ment is the most

Reference 21 - 0.13% Coverage disagreement indicates the desire to maintain an amicable, cordial group atmosphere, this aspect of the theory has received empirical support. This study, however, should also be seen in another perspectivethat

Reference 22 - 0.11% Coverage g., HiCo versus LoCo). Investigations such as these will shed light on not only specific theories such as groupthink, but they should also provide needed insight into the dynamic and often

Reference 23 - 0.13% Coverage and their surrounding situational and environment constraints. Hawes, "An Interact System Model: Generating a Grounded Theory of Small Groups," Quarter- ly Journal of Speech, 57 (1971), 444-453. ao B. Aubrey

<Internals\\CM\\1978 3 Daly social communicative anxiety via self report measure comparison> - 6 references coded [0.89% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.12% Coverage

chological Bulletin, 81 (1974), 358-361. 20 Frederic M. Lord and Melvin R. Novick, Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores (Boston: Addison Wesley, 1968). 21 Quinn McNemar, Psychological Statistics (New York

Reference 2 - 0.22% Coverage addition, future research may apply anxiety. 1. J. Cronbach, C;. Gleser, H. Nanda an 197 theory to the measurement of the h d N Rajaratnam, The Dependability of Be- avioral Measurements: Theory of Generalizability; ) for Scores and Profiles (New York: Wiley, ability generaliz 217 It does not

Reference 3 - 0.15% Coverage specific in assessing people's ten- dencies to intentionally approach or avoid social encounters. Implications for Theory and Research Aside from differing psychometric properties, many of the instruments noticeably vary in their

Reference 4 - 0.14% Coverage teristics. These include specificity, audi- ence type, self-orientation, motivation, and effects versus selfattributions. Theory and research on social-communi- cative anxiety will advance more quickly if scholars become more

Reference 5 - 0.12% Coverage measures rather than theoretic presuppositions is likely to sentence any construct to an ignoble demise. Theory needs to suggest parameters for both the construct and its measurement. The lack of equivalence

Reference 6 - 0.14% Coverage years there has been a proliferation of self-report questionnaires of social-communicative anxiety. Regrettably, theory has not pro- gressed at the same pace. We probably have enough measures for most

<Internals\\CM\\1978 3 Donohue empirical framework for examining negotiation processes outcomes> - 1 reference coded [0.17% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.17% Coverage although three models purport to ac- count for the behaviors of each negotia- tion, most theories of bargaining do not give direct and explicit attention to the process in interaction between

<Internals\\CM\\1978 3 Hample predicting immediate belief change adhrence to argument claims> - 5 references coded [1.03% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.22% Coverage and suggest some modification in the Wyer model.

VIDENCE is a fundamental idea in rhetorical theory. Between Aris- totle's observation that "A statement is persuasive and credible either because it is

Reference 2 - 0.20% Coverage claims of the argu- ments which use the evidence. As will shortly be apparent, the theory and or erationalizations which yield the evi- dence predictions are related to those which predict

Reference 3 - 0.19% Coverage to those which predict adherence. These results, too, will be compared to the earlier ones. THEORY Assume that an argument consists of three parts: a claim (C), data (D) and a

Reference 4 - 0.20% Coverage the students. A total of 54 students was involved. 12 This is similar to congruity theory's correc- tion for incredulity. See Charles E. Osgood and Percy H. Tannenbaum, "The Principle of

Reference 5 - 0.21% Coverage the fact that the theoretical founda- tion of both types of prediction is con- sistency theory, and further, that the Socratic effect suggests that consistency (hence predictability) increases over time. Since

<Internals\\CM\\1978 3 McCroskey validity on the prca as index of oral comm apprehension> - 7 references coded [1.17% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.16% Coverage 4 (1977), 78-96. 3 James C. McCroskey, "Oral Communication Apprehension: A Summary of Recent Theory and Research," Human Communication Re2 For a summary of this research, see Mc- Croskey

Reference 2 - 0.16% Coverage a summary of this research, see Mc- Croskey, "Oral Communication Apprehension: A Summary of Recent Theory and Research." I James C. McCroskey, "Measures of Com- munication-Bound Anxiety," Speech Mono- graphs

Reference 3 - 0.24% Coverage degree to which it can produce empirical results that are consistent with predictions based upon theory relating to the construct Which the measure purports to tap. Theory related to oral communication apprehension is not yet fully developed; however, five major theoretical proposi

Reference 4 - 0.14% Coverage seek to avoid oral communication. This is prob- ably the most central proposition in the theory relating to oral communication apprehension. It has long been known that people seek to avoid

Reference 5 - 0.19% Coverage Oregon, 1976. 15 James C. McCroskey and Rod W. McVetta. "Classroom Seating Arrangements: Instructional Communication Theory Versus Student Prefer- ences," Communication Education, 27 (1978). 99-lll. 16 James C. McCroskey and

Reference 6 - 0.15% Coverage to predict com- munication avoidance behaviors that would be expected on the basis of the theory underlying the construct of com- munication apprehension. This provides a strong indication of predictive validity

Reference 7 - 0.14% Coverage where oral communication is expected, even though they may prefer otherwise. Under such circumstances the theory un- derlying the construct of oral communi17 James C. McCroskey and Monika M. Kretz

<Internals\\CM\\1978 4 Arnston Smith news distortion function of organizational communication> - 8 references coded [1.57% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.22% Coverage of the operation of CBS News' political coverage from the perspec- tive of organizational communication theory explains much of the distortion of network television news. Aspects of the control system responsible

Reference 2 - 0.20% Coverage that organizational rules and premises for de- cision making were prominent. At that juncture, the theory provided by scholars of organizational communication was brought to bear on the Birmingham. 1 Our

Reference 3 - 0.17% Coverage 1 Our analysis is organized into two sec- tions. The first is a summary of theory relevant to cybernetic control in com- plex organizations. The second aims to discover how CBS

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system of checks to see if it was effective in preventing dis- tortion. RELEVANT COMMUNICATION THEORY Any complex organization can be studied as an interdependent system of formalized communication rules that

Reference 5 - 0.18% Coverage by "programming with sanctions." Hage, pp. 28-33. 14 Jagjit Singh, Great Ideas in Information Theory, Language and Cybernetics (New York: Dover Press, 1966), pp. 220-21. See also, Perrow, 10

Reference 6 - 0.20% Coverage stitutes and regulates their communication. See, Donald Cushman and Gordon Whiting, "An Approach to Communication Theory: Toward Consensus on Rules," Journal of Communica- tion, 22 (1972), 222, 23233. p. 52

Reference 7 - 0.21% Coverage flexibility of this coding process. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION AT CBS NEWS With this organizational communica- tion theory relevant to cybernetic con- trol as a guide, we examined CBS News information flow to

Reference 8 - 0.19% Coverage main cause of breakdowns and thereby distortion. Hence, the ap- plication of organizational communication theory to a complex organization such as CBS News not only produces in- formation useful to

<Internals\\CM\\1978 4 Tiemens televions portrayal of 1976 presidential debate analysis of visual content> - 1 reference coded [0.23% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.23% Coverage debate, 5 in the third). Ford was never shown seated. right when both were shown. Theories of screen asymmetry and some limited research on the subject suggest that this arrangement was

<Internals\\CM\\1979 1 Bantz critic and the computer multiple technique analysis> - 1 reference coded [0.16% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.16% Coverage dorff, "Models of Messages: Three Prototypes," in The Analysis of Communication Content: Developments in Scientific Theories and Com- puter Techniques, ed. George Gerbner et al. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1969

<Internals\\CM\\1979 1 Norton Pettigrew attentiveness as style of communication structural analysis> - 4 references coded [0.60% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.16% Coverage of the attentiveness construct is of- fered. A mapping sentence performs two vital functions in theory building. First, it enables the researcher to visually articKeith Allen, Brent Hart, James Buell

Reference 2 - 0.14% Coverage the com- ponents of which can be expanded or modified to extend and enrich the theory and improve the measuring instrument.17 MAPPING SENTENCE FOR THE ATTENTIVENESS CONSTRUCT his/her

Reference 3 - 0.16% Coverage where the design can be made increasingly more sophisticated in order to generate a richer theory about attentiveness. For example, facet b could be expanded to include (b2 other perception: experts

Reference 4 - 0.14% Coverage attributes for each behavior. In part three, five context-bound ques21 Jum Nunnally, Psychometric Theory (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), Ch. 1 and 2. 19 tions were asked about listening

<Internals\\CM\\1979 1 Rosenfield self disclosure avoidance> - 5 references coded [0.81% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.16% Coverage York: Wiley, 1971); Orval Hobart Mowrer, "Loss and Recovery of Community: A Guide to the Theory and Practice of Integrity Therapy," in Innovations to Group Psychotherapy, ed. George M. Gazda (Springfield

Reference 2 - 0.17% Coverage 18 Though little empirical research has been done on self-disclosure avoidance, many middle-range theories, "good ex- planations," have been posited. Focusing on interaction in the or- ganizational setting, Fritz

Reference 3 - 0.15% Coverage the projec- tion of a negative image; and, lastly, what Steele calls the Great Lie Theory: the presumed greater benefit a lie would have as opposed to a truthful disclosure. Egan

Reference 4 - 0.18% Coverage with self-disclosure, sex differences asso- ciated with this type of communication, and middle-range theories attempting to explain why individuals avoid revealing things about themselves, two broad research questions

Reference 5 - 0.15% Coverage 3744 with this factor. The item was omitted from further analyses. Based on reviews of theories related to self-disclosure by Egan, Johnson, and Steele, an instrument was developed to measure

<Internals\\CM\\1979 1 Spillman et al development of a instrument for dynamic consenus measurement> - 5 references coded [1.05% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.20% Coverage small decision making groups is developed. The instrument is based on mathematical procedures from the theory of fuzzy sets. A pilot study is reported in which the instrument was ap- plied

Reference 2 - 0.28% Coverage based on the notion of fuzzy pre- ference orderings for individuals and groups using the theory of fuzzy rela- tions developed by Zadeh.9 In classical set theory given a set A and element a1, is either a member of the set A

Reference 3 - 0.20% Coverage sentation of real processes. Blin first suggested applying the fuzzy mathematical structure to group decision theory.10 In our model (different from that of Blin), a small decision making group considers

Reference 4 - 0.20% Coverage of course, always be chosen. Using 10 Jean A. Blin, "Fuzzy Relations in Group Decision Theory," Journal of Cybernetics, 3:2 (1974), 17-22. 4 COMMUNICATION MONOGRAPHS zero instead of one

Reference 5 - 0.18% Coverage which exhibits this type of consensus by a column of zeroes, the for Group Decision Theory," unpublished manu- script. .5 .5 .5 .5 1 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 Column 5

<Internals\\CM\\1979 2 Baird Bradley styles of management and communication men vs women> - 1 reference coded [0.22% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.22% Coverage the prescriptions for effective supervision offered by prominent management theorists. McGregor, in advocating his "Theory Y" approach to management, argues that managers should integrate elements of the organization by provid

<Internals\\CM\\1979 2 Hample predicting belief and belief change cogntive theory argument evidence> 5 references coded [1.83% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.37% Coverage PREDICTING BELIEF AND BELIEF CHANGE USING A COGNITIVE THEORY OF ARGUMENT AND EVIDENCE DALE HAMPLE This paper settles on a coherent mathematical description of

Reference 2 - 0.40% Coverage belief change. HIS report offers additional em- pirical evidence for the adequacy of a cognitive theory of argument.1 Argu- ments are modeled after the hypothetical syllogism, "data; if data, then

Reference 3 - 0.34% Coverage Journal of the American Forensic Association, 14 (1977), 1-9. I Earlier evidence on the theoryas well as greater elaboration of itis in Dale Hample, "Testing a Model of

Reference 4 - 0.39% Coverage to ex- plain belief change. Results as a whole offer strong support for the cognitive theory of argument. Equation 3 typically explains between a quarter and half the variation in belief

Reference 5 - 0.32% Coverage to offer profit from further work which explores new directions for the development of the theory. Copyright 0 2003 EBSCO Publishing

<Internals\\CM\\1979 2 Infante Berg impact of music modality on communication situations in video sequences> - 1 reference coded [0.31% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.31% Coverage consistency and inconsistency in com- munication situations where behaviors and music modality are, according to theory, in varying degrees of consistency and inconsistency with respect to one another? We investigated these

<Internals\\CM\\1979 2 Leathers impact of multichannel message inconsistency verbal nonverbal decoding> - 2 references coded [0.46% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.15% Coverage that individuals re- sponding to such messages behave in ways predicted by the double-bind theory of communication. Decoding behaviors appear to pass through a three-step sequence which moves from

Reference 2 - 0.32% Coverage NV /V+ mes- sages to NV+ /V messages. Fifth, these results support the double- bind theory of communication in that subjects responding to inconsistent mes- sages behaved in ways predicted by that theory. Thus, the double-bind theory predicts that individuals will respond to inconsistent messages in one of the fol- lowing ways

<Internals\\CM\\1979 2 Pearce Conklin hierarchical meaning in coherent conversation indirect responses> - 11 references coded [2.21% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.19% Coverage 1975), 65-82; W. Barnett Pearce, "The Co- ordinated Management of Meanings: A Rules Based Theory of Interpersonal Communication," in Gerald Miller, ed., Explorations in Inter- personal Communication (Beverly Hills, Cali

Reference 2 - 0.17% Coverage pp. 17-36. Donald P. Cushman and Gordon C. Whit- ing, "An Approach to Communication Theory: 2 Sanders and Martin. apart from the consensual definitions of a community.3 Joan S

Reference 3 - 0.16% Coverage about the criteria for evaluating rules research or the formal requirements of a rules-based theory has emerged from these treatises. It has become apparent that the term "rule" means different

Reference 4 - 0.17% Coverage term "rule" means different things to various proponents of its utility for a communi- cation theory. Perhaps the single shared assumption among all rules theorists is that the laws, if any

Reference 5 - 0.33% Coverage know" rules, at what levels of abstraction do the rules function? A number of substantive theories have been developed within the parameters determined by the answers to these ques- tions. W. Barnett Pearce's theory of the "coordinated management of meaning" describes social action as an attempt to act consistently

Reference 6 - 0.17% Coverage well. HIERARCHICAL MEANINGS IN COHERENT CONVERSATIONS The concept of hierarchical meanings is integral to the theory of the coordi- nated management of meaning, but has not been well articulated. The under

Reference 7 - 0.15% Coverage Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1967). 77 times even with wit and charm. A viable theory of communication must account for such an ability. 4. The smallest interpersonal unit of analysis

Reference 8 - 0.21% Coverage New York: Norton, 1967). petence (Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl- vania Press, 1972). 8 The Mathematical Theory of Communica- Dell Hymes, Toward Communication Com78 COMMUNICATION MONOGRAPHS to a reanalysis of the

Reference 9 - 0.22% Coverage Our interpretation as to how these rules operate reflects a merging of Kelly's personal construct theory with a rules theory.17 Information processing rules, we believe, indicate that individuals are bonded to each other only

Reference 10 - 0.18% Coverage 16 Illinois Press, 1954), pp. 3-10. 19 Dell Hymes, "Competence and Performance in Linguistic Theory," in Renira Huxley and Elisabeth Ingram, eds., Language Acquisition: Models and Methods (New York: Academic

Reference 11 - 0.26% Coverage produces intolerable conceptual fuzziness. It re- mains to be seen whether the structure of the theory presented here will prove the most useful, but the results of this 22 Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Cam- bridge: MIT Press, 1965). 23 Mark L. Knapp, Roderick P. Hart, Gustav

<Internals\\CM\\1979 2 Smith extreme disagreement and expression of attitudinal freedom> - 12 references coded [3.30% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.30% Coverage EXTREME DISAGREEMENT AND THE EXPRESSION OF ATTITUDINAL FREEDOM

MARY JOHN SMITH Psychological reactance theory suggests that a persuasive message which is per- ceived as a threat to a receiver's

Reference 2 - 0.30% Coverage freedom prior to exposure to a threatening message. T HE central assumption underlying psychological reactance theory is that people possess an intrinsic motiva- tion to be free to believe or behave

Reference 3 - 0.23% Coverage intrinsic motiva- tion to be free to believe or behave as they wish.1 The theory suggests that a persuasive message will be perceived as a threat to a receiver's freedom

Reference 4 - 0.29% Coverage assistant professor of speech comactance; Jack W. Brehm, Responses to Loss of Freedom: A Theory of Psychological Reactance (Morristown, New Jersey: General Learning Jack W. Brehm, "Attitude Change from Threat

Reference 5 - 0.30% Coverage Brock, and Thomas M. Press, 1972). 3 (Potomac, Maryland: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1974). 2 Brehm, A Theory of Psychological ReReactance (New York: Academic Press, 1966); Robert A. Wicklund, Freedom and Reactance

Reference 6 - 0.29% Coverage Robert A. Wicklund, Freedom and Reactance munication, University of Virginia. 1 Jack W. Brehm, A Theory of Psychological more important opinion freedom is to an individual, the greater the magnitude of

Reference 7 - 0.25% Coverage focused on the reactance Ostrom (New York: Academic Press, 1968), p. 285. 4 Brehm, A Theory of Psychological ReFor example, see Robert A. Wicklund and Jack W. Brehm, "Attitude Change

Reference 8 - 0.28% Coverage position on an issue .8 For example, Smith investigated the For example, see Brehm, A Theory of Psychological Reactance, pp. 106-108; Stephen Worchel and Jack W. Brehm, "Effects of Threats

Reference 9 - 0.29% Coverage 8 (1968), 325-331; and Snyder and Wicklund, "Prior Exercise of Free- dom." 8 A Theory of Psychological Reactance, p. 92. Considerable research has established that an inverse relationship exists between

Reference 10 - 0.26% Coverage presence of another 10 Smith, "Discrepancy and the Importance of Attitudinal Freedom." 11 Brehm, A Theory of Psychological Reactance, pp. 106-108. 12 Jack W. Brehm, "Attitude Change from Threat

Reference 11 - 0.26% Coverage poses. Subjects in this condition were instructed to write two arguments favor- ing the genetic theory of racial ine- quality. While counterarguing is not a clear exercise of the to-be

Reference 12 - 0.26% Coverage p <.005), its impact was limited to those conditions where receivers were 2o Brehm, A Theory of Psychological Re- actance, p. 94, pp. 104-105; Brehm, Responses to Loss of Freedom

<Internals\\CM\\1979 3 Courtright et al domineeringness and dominance replication and expansion> - 3 references coded [0.44% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.15% Coverage why" events happen but to usefully describe how they occur so that behavioral- ly grounded theory can be developed and suggestions for behavioral change can be offered. In working toward this

Reference 2 - 0.15% Coverage some general trends in communication behaviors which should aid the development of such dynamic, descriptive theories. A few of these general trends or replicated cor- relations will be highlighted and briefly

Reference 3 - 0.15% Coverage however, they should note that this least satisfying result is usually explained by role incapacity theory which maintains that the wife asserts power because of an incompetent husband and not because

<Internals\\CM\\1979 3 Fitzpatrick Best dyadic adjustment in relational types> - 4 references coded [0.68% Coverage]

Reference 1 - 0.17% Coverage Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1976), pp. 9-16, 87-104; Malcolm R. Parks, "Relational Communication: Theory and Prac- tice," Human Communication Research, 4 Teru L. Morton, James F. Alexander, and Irwin

Reference 2 - 0.16% Coverage American Museum of Natural History, 85 (1945), 1-98. Paul D. Reynolds, A Primer in Theory Construction (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1971). Carl G. Hempel, Aspects of Scientific Exproposed by observers

Reference 3 - 0.18% Coverage Judd Marmor (New York: Basic Books, 1968); David Reiss, "Varieties of Consensual Experience I: A Theory for Relating Family Interaction to Individual Thinking," Family Process, 10 (1971), 1-27; and Robert

Reference 4 - 0.17% Coverage Family, 37 (1975), 263-275; and Spanier. See Hempel; and Arthur L. Stinchcombe, Constructing Social Theories (New York: Har- court, Brace and World, Inc., 1968). 31 173 osition were verified, we

<Internals\\CM\\1979 3 Kimsey Atwood path model of political cognitions and attitudes congressional election> - 2 references coded [0.40% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.23% Coverage not made a decision, the selective processes are much less likely to occur. Cognitive dissonance theory argues that supportive information is sought and information not supportive of a decision is avoided

Reference 2 - 0.17% Coverage information not supportive of a decision is avoided. The evidence tends to sup- port the theory for persons who have made a decision, but for those who have not made a

<Internals\\CM\\1979 3 Putnam preference for procedural order in task oriented small groups> - 6 references coded [0.43% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.07% Coverage 1968, p. 132. 8 Stech, "An Analysis of Interaction," p. 256. Discussion and Group Methods: Theory and Practice, (New York: Harper and Row, 1975), p. 161. PROCEDURAL ORDER tive analysis of

Reference 2 - 0.08% Coverage Anatol, The Process of Group Communication (Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1974), p. 108. 12 "A Theory of Group Development," Human Relations, 9 (1956), 415-437. Warren G. Bennis and Herbert A

Reference 3 - 0.07% Coverage York: Harper and Row, 1971), p. 123, and Victor Harnack and Thorrel Fest, Group Discussion: Theory and Techniques (New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, 1964), p. 82. 18 See Penland and Fine

Reference 4 - 0.08% Coverage on the scree test for an orthogonal varimax rotation, 29 Jura C. Nunnally, Jr., Psychometric Theory (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), p. 120. High Procedural Order Use of Planned, Sequential Patterns

Reference 5 - 0.07% Coverage Measured," American Journal of Sociology, 33 (1928), 529- 554. 32 See Clyde H. Coombs, A Theory of Data 201 202 COMMUNICATION MONOGRAPHS average factor loading of .45. In effect, items on

Reference 6 - 0.07% Coverage standard devia- tions of frequency data are appropriate meas- ures. See Jum C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), pp. 113-114. Moreover, the ten categories are not fully

<Internals\\CM\\1979 3 relational control in two group systems> - 5 references coded [0.68% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.14% Coverage 4 B. Aubrey Fisher and Leonard C. Hawes, "An Interact System Model: Generating a Grounded Theory of Small Groups," Quarterly See, for example, Leonard C. Hawes and Joseph M. Foley, "A

Reference 2 - 0.13% Coverage Approach to Interpersonal Communica- tion," in Miller, pp. 87-104. 1967). 8 David Watson, "Reinforcement Theory of Personality and Social System: Dominance and Position in a Group Power Structure," Journal of

Reference 3 - 0.15% Coverage Phases in Group Problem-Solving"; and Tuck- man,"Developmental." 18 Fred Attneave, Applications of Information Theory to Psychology: A Summary of Basic Concepts, Methods, and Results (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston

Reference 4 - 0.13% Coverage question. Fisher, "Phases"; Tuckman, "De- velopmental Sequence"; Warren G. Bennis and Herbert A. Shepard, "A Theory of Group De- velopment," Human Relations, 9 (1956), 415- 437; Herbert Thelen and Watson Dickerman

Reference 5 - 0.13% Coverage ness-raising is a relatively new group Lewis, "The Assumption of Stationary Para- meters in Theories of Group Discussion," Be- havioral Science, 15 (1970), 269-273; "Bales' Monte Carlo Model of

<Internals\\CM\\1979 4 Clark impact of self interest and esire for liking on communication strategy selection> - 1 reference coded [0.14% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.14% Coverage variables based on their relevance to communicative ob- jectives would provide order to research and theory. STUDY I This study investigates two variables thought to be central to communicative objectives, with

<Internals\\CM\\1979 4 Delia et al content of informal conversations as a function of interactants interpersonal cogntive complexity> - 4 references coded [1.10% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.28% Coverage and factors influencing the interpreta- tion of events. In the fundamental postulate of personal construct theory, Kelly suggests that: "A person's processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he

Reference 2 - 0.27% Coverage in- fluence the content of verbal communi- cation obviously is an important goal for communication theory. Indeed, much past research has focused upon this question, though the focus has typically been

Reference 3 - 0.31% Coverage and Richard J. Calabrese, "Some Explorations in Initial Interaction and Beyond: Toward a Developmental Theory of Interpersonal Communi- cation," Human Communication Research, 1 276 COMMUNICATION MONOGRAPHS The present study, by

Reference 4 - 0.25% Coverage organization of the communicative episode. Leonard C. Hawes, "An Interact System Model: Generating a Grounded Theory of Small Groups," Quarterly Journal of Speech, 57 (1971), 444-453. Copyright 0 2003 EBSCO

<Internals\\CM\\1979 4 Delia et al development of persuasive communication strategies in k thru 12> - 7 references coded [0.95% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.15% Coverage schemes within which others' behaviors are interpreted, evaluated, and antici- pated. Constructivism follows Wernerian developmental theory in positing that an individual's system of constructs changes and develops with age and attendant

Reference 2 - 0.14% Coverage the Study of Human Com- munication," Quarterly Journal of Speech, 63 Werner's approach to developmental theory is summarized cogently in Heinz Werner, "The Concept of Development From a Comparative and Organismic

Reference 3 - 0.15% Coverage to general psycho- logical and dispositional characteristics of others. This idea in Wernerian developmental theory formed the basis for the operationalization of construct system abstractness. Each construct used in a

Reference 4 - 0.15% Coverage groupings correspond roughly to the pre- operational, concrete-operational, and formal-operational periods in Piagetian theory, though of course no definitive classification into stages of development should be inferred from age

Reference 5 - 0.14% Coverage most likely reflects the shift from pre-operational to concrete-operational thought charted in Piagetian theory.31 It is significant, however, that even among kindergarteners considered alone cognitive complexity was significantly

Reference 6 - 0.12% Coverage than is typical of more general cognitive developments (the so- called horizontal decalage in Piagetian theory),34 or to reflect the acquisition of 32 Ellen M. Ritter, "Social Perspective-Taking Ability

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CM, 46 (1979), 40-51. 33 4ee Piaget and Inhelder. 34 This aspect of Piaget's theory is examined by Elizabeth Bates, Language and Context: The of Pragmatics (New York: Academic Acquistion

<Internals\\CM\\1979 4 Jurma leader structuring style and task orientation characteristics of group members> - 2 references coded [0.29% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.14% Coverage Leonard Berkowitz, (New York: Academic Press, 1965), I pp. 149-190; Fred E. Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967); Fred E. Fiedler, "Validation and Exten

Reference 2 - 0.15% Coverage Guetzkow, and Zander and Newcomb.5 Juana has re4 See, for example, Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness; Robert F. Bales, Per- sonality and Interpersonal Behavior (New York: Holt, Rinehart

<Internals\\CM\\1979 4 Okeefe Delia construct comprehensiveness and cognitive complexity predict strategic adaptation of argument and appeals> - 3 references coded [0.57% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.18% Coverage egies. Our conception of the development of control over strategic communication is based on Kelly's theory of personal con- structs.2 Kelly argues that perceivers rely on sets of personal judgmental

Reference 2 - 0.18% Coverage The construct validity of this measure of cognitive complexity lies in its tie to Wernerian theory as described by Crockett; predictive validity has been demonstrated in a wide range of studies

Reference 3 - 0.21% Coverage Jesse G. Delia, Daniel J. O'Keefe and Barbara J. O'Keefe, A Perspective on Communi- cation Theory (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, forthcoming). Summaries of constructivist re- search on communicative development include James

<Internals\\CM\\1980 1 Montgomery Burgoon adrogyny message expectations effect on resistance to persuasion> - 3 references coded [0.57% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.20% Coverage merits of differing theo- retical perspectives within the resistance to persuasion paradigm, e.g., inoculation theory. Given this concentration, most researchers concerned with resistance to persuasion have treated the receivers of

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the study of resistance to persuasion. One major factor that has limited generalization and inhibited theory building is the great discrepancy among the samples that resistance researchers arguing Behavior," in New

Reference 3 - 0.19% Coverage attitudes of people. 16 Michael Burgoon, Stephen Jones and Diane Stewart, "Toward a Message Centered Theory of Persuasion: Three Empirical Investigations," Human Communication Research, 1 (1974), 240248. 17 Bem, "Sex

<Internals\\CM\\1980 1 Pryor et al affective cognitive complexity explation for comprehension of standard jury instructions> - 7 references coded [1.52% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.23% Coverage examine beliefs about the law from a cognitive consistency framework. The underlying assumption of consistency theory is that people seek to maintain internal harmony among beliefs, atti- tudes and values. Theoretically

Reference 2 - 0.22% Coverage jurors. The re- sults of the first experiment demon- strated that affective-cognitive consis- tency theory is applicable to attitudes and beliefs about laws. Accordingly, a change in a belief about

Reference 3 - 0.22% Coverage literature pro- vides ample evidence that both processes occur. For example, congruity12 and dissonance13 theories, as well as McGuire's rationalization postulate,14 all show that affect changes follow the reception

Reference 4 - 0.21% Coverage research indicate that cognitive changes follow attitude modification. A pragmatic implication of the con- sistency theories is that appeals to affect should not be overlooked when the pur- pose of a

Reference 5 - 0.20% Coverage dition of Attitude Change," Psychological Review, 62 (1955), 42-55. 13 Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dis- sonance (Evanston; Illinois: Row, Peterson, 1957). 14 McGuire, "A Syllogistic Analysis." 15

Reference 6 - 0.23% Coverage pp. 201-227. 18

Another promising message strategy is available in McGuire's research on inoculation theory.19 McGuire obtained support for his hypothesis that attitudes could be "immunized" against verbal attacks

Reference 7 - 0.20% Coverage clusters of predis- positions and related biased interpreta- tions of the law. Given the consistency theory literature, it seems likely that in- dividuals who place high value on law and order

<Internals\\CM\\1980 2 Bradlley sex competence and opinion deviation expecation states approach> - 10 references coded [1.94% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.30% Coverage influencing dr elationship with them. This goal, how- ever, is not readily accomplished. The theory most cogently explicating the underlying reasons for this difficulty is expectation states theory.2 Although it has never been used to alter patterns of influence in small groups

Reference 2 - 0.16% Coverage used to alter patterns of influence in small groups, social scientists w orking with the theory have often im- plied that it is relevant to the problem co anagerial Woman (Garden

Reference 3 - 0.22% Coverage 37 (1972), 241.255; Joseph Berger, Thomas L. Joseph Berger, Bernard P. Cohen and States Theory: A Theoretical Research Program (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Winthrop Publishers, Inc.. 1974); and Joseph Berger, M. Hamit

Reference 4 - 0.18% Coverage is frequently determined by the external status characteristics of individ- ual group members. Thus, the theory argues that work groups will often focus on the value of a group member's status

Reference 5 - 0.17% Coverage acteristics. The group is also likely to reinforce more strongly contributions from valued members. The theory 3 B. F. Meeker and P. A. Weitzel-O'Neill, "Sex Roles and Interpersonal Behavior in

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disvalued characteristic to show that his or her contributions are worthwhile.4 If expectation states theory is to be relevant to a study of sex differences, then sex must be assumed

Reference 7 - 0.16% Coverage Both men and women resisted influence from female partners.11 On the basis of this theory and re- search, it would appear that a woman's chances of exerting influence in an

Reference 8 - 0.20% Coverage the person's demon- strated competence in the immediate setting (internal status). E. P. Hol- lander's theory of "idiosyncrasy credit" is useful in explicating these variables." Whenever an individual demonstrates that he

Reference 9 - 0.18% Coverage demonstrated task relevant competence. In so doing, it provides a direct test of expectation states theory while employing one strategy for neutralizing the sex-bound status differential. If this method of

Reference 10 - 0.20% Coverage low-competence females. DISCUSSION The results substantiate my hypoth- eses, provide support for expectation states theory,29 and suggest a strategy of demonstrating task-related competence as an effective means of

<Internals\\CM\\1980 2 COdy McLaughlin perceptions of compliance gaining situations dimensional analysis> - 4 references coded [0.45% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.10% Coverage Situational Differences," CM, 44 (1977), 37-51; Paula John- son, "Women and Power: Toward a Theory of Effectiveness," Journal of Social Issues, 32 (1975), 99-106; Toni Falho, "A Multidimensional Scaling

Reference 2 - 0.11% Coverage facing interpersonal communication research.' A usable set of situational factors could lead to a strong theory of situational in' Roloff and Edwin F. Barnicott, "The Situational Use of Pro- and Anti

Reference 3 - 0.12% Coverage Com- mentary," in Communication Yearbook II. pp. 29-47. 4 Dean Hewes, "Interpersonal Communica- tion Theory and Research: A Meta-Methodology Review," in Communication Yearbook II, pp 155-169; Arthur Bochner

Reference 4 - 0.12% Coverage 3), Formality (items 4, 5 and 6), Friendly vs. Unfriendly (items Communication Research, in press. Theory-An 9. 10, 11 and 12), Personal Benefits (items 18 'id 19). Intense Feelings (item

<Internals\\CM\\1980 2 Harper Askling group communication quality of task solution in media production organization> - 12 references coded [1.16% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.09% Coverage measured by audience evaluation. The study supports findings of previous research on group communication and theories of effective organizational communication. HIS study was designed to identify differences in the communication within

Reference 2 - 0.08% Coverage approach may there- fore be characterized as phenomenologi- cal, or as based on the grounded theory assumptions articulated by Glaser and Strauss,' and recently applied to the study of organizations by

Reference 3 - 0.19% Coverage journalism and socia l Barney G. Glaser and Anseim L. Strauss, The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies 1 of joy Qualitative Research (Chicago: Aldine, 1967). Larry D. Browning, "A Grounded Theory 2 ri rived from Qualitative Data," CM, 45 (1978), 93' CO Organizational Communication Theory De- THE RESEARCH SETTING The groups studied were composed of junior and senior students majoring

Reference 4 - 0.08% Coverage large mid- western university. All were enrolled in a multimedia laboratory course designed to bring theory and practice together in project-centered activity. Most students enroll in the class for two

Reference 5 - 0.09% Coverage persons) composed of graduate and undergraduate students and faculty in journalism, mass communication , and communication theory and research, a number of students and faculty from various other departments In the university

Reference 6 - 0.08% Coverage North- western University Press, 1963). David W. Johnson and Frank P. Johnson, Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1975). GROUP COMMUNICATION AND TASK SOLUTION

Reference 7 - 0.07% Coverage of class rank, experience in the Lab, and experience in media production and/or communication theory courses. Most of the members of two of the successful groups and one of the

Reference 8 - 0.07% Coverage inexperienced in the Lab and had had less than three other media production or communication theory courses. Two of the unsuccessful groups and one of the successful groups had a number

Reference 9 - 0.09% Coverage had a number of Lab veterans and members with many advanced media production and communication theory courses. Thus, no clear pattern emerges on these GROUP COMMUNICATION AND TASK SOLUTION dimensions. All

Reference 10 - 0.14% Coverage No Additives exhibited a reverse pattern. This finding is no great surprise. Traditionally, in organizational theory, the "executive function" has been viewed as central to task ac- complishment.12 In small group theory the leadership function has also been seen as crucial. As Bormann puts it, until the

Reference 11 - 0.07% Coverage New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1978). 13 Ernest G. Bormann. Discussion and Group Methods: Theory and Practice, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1975), p. 249. 12 See Chester

Reference 12 - 0.09% Coverage 14 Fred Fiedler, "Personality and Situational Determinants of Leadership Effectiveness," in Group Dynamics: Research and Theory, ed. Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander, 3rd ed. the "feeling" needs rather than to the

<Internals\\CM\\1980 2 Hocking Leather nonverbal indicators of deception> - 5 references coded [0.76% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.17% Coverage A NEW THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE JOHN E. HOCKING AND DALE G. LEATHERS This study tested a theory, of nonverbal behavior during deception. The theory is based on ability to monitor and ability to control nonverbal behaviors. The nonverbal behaviors

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criminal justice students were coded during lying and truthing. Results lend limited support to the theory: (I) Contrary to earlier theories, this theory predicted that easily monitored and controlled gestures would be less frequent among liars than among

Reference 3 - 0.16% Coverage did truthers. (3) The pattern of differences, even where differences were nonsignificant, generally supports the theory. NTIL recently, the demonstrable need to develop methods of de- tecting deception had been addressed

Reference 4 - 0.12% Coverage under interrogation. One of these officials went so far as to enunciate his "Adam's apple theory." He believes that the Adam's apples of male deceivers will exhibit more movele Ibid

Reference 5 - 0.12% Coverage Mark L. Knapp and Mark E. omadena, "Telling It Like it Isn't: A Review of Theory and Research on Deceptive ComCm study examines ten related but definitionally distinct kinds