Everglades

PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information. PDF generated at: Wed, 14 Dec 2011 04:46:33 UTC

Contents
Articles
Overview
The Everglades 1 1 27 27 41 57 71 72 86 86 94 102 104 110 119 119 138 152

Ecology
Geography and ecology of the Everglades Draining and development of the Everglades Restoration of the Everglades Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan List of invasive species in the Everglades

Indigenous peoples
Indigenous people of the Everglades region Calusa Miccosukee Tequesta Seminole

National Park
Everglades National Park Marjory Stoneman Douglas The Everglades: River of Grass

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 154 156

Article Licenses
License 159

Overview
The Everglades
This article is about the Florida wetlands. For other uses, see Everglades (disambiguation). The Everglades are subtropical wetlands in the southern portion of the U.S. state of Florida, comprising the southern half of a large watershed. The system begins near Orlando with the Kissimmee River, which discharges into the vast but shallow Lake Okeechobee. Water leaving the lake in the wet season forms a slow-moving river 60 miles (97km) wide and over 100 miles (160km) long, flowing southward across a limestone shelf to Florida Bay at the southern end of the state. The Everglades are shaped by water and fire, experiencing frequent flooding in the wet season and drought in the dry season. Writer Marjory Stoneman Douglas popularized the term "River of Grass" to describe the sawgrass marshes, part of a complex system of interdependent ecosystems that include cypress swamps, the estuarine mangrove forests of the Ten Thousand Islands, tropical hardwood hammocks, pine rockland, and the marine environment of Florida Bay. Human habitation in the southern portion of the Florida peninsula dates to 15,000years ago. Two Southern third of the Florida Peninsula, showing the area managed by major tribes eventually formed in and around the South Florida Water Management District, Lake Okeechobee, the Everglades ecosystems: the Calusa and the Tequesta. Everglades, Big Cypress National Preserve, the South Florida After coming into contact with the Spanish in the late Metropolitan Area, the Ten Thousand Islands, and Florida Bay. 16th century, both tribes declined gradually during the following two centuries. The Seminoles, a tribe of Creeks who assimilated other peoples into their own, made their living in the Everglades region after being forced there by the U.S. military in the Seminole Wars of the 19th century.

The Everglades

Draining the Everglades was first suggested in 1848, but was not attempted until 1882. Canals were constructed throughout the first half of the 20th century, and spurred the South Florida economy, prompting land development. However, problems with canals and floods caused by hurricanes forced engineers to rethink their drainage plans. In 1947, Congress formed the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project, which built 1400 miles (2300km) of canals, levees, and water control devices. The South Florida metropolitan area grew substantially at this time and Everglades water was The primary feature of the Everglades is the sawgrass prairie. diverted to cities. Portions of the Everglades were transformed into farmland, where the primary crop was sugarcane. Approximately 50percent of the original Everglades has been turned into agricultural or urban areas.[1] When the construction of a large airport was proposed 6 miles (9.7km) north of Everglades National Park, an environmental study predicted it would destroy the South Florida ecosystem. Restoring the Everglades then became a priority. National and international attention turned to the environment in the 1970s, and UNESCO and the Ramsar Convention designated the Everglades as one of only three wetland areas of global importance. Restoration began in the 1980s with the removal of a canal that straightened the Kissimmee River. The water quality of Lake Okeechobee, a water source for South Florida, became a significant concern. The deterioration of the environment was also linked to the diminishing quality of life in South Florida's urban areas. In 2000, a plan to restore the Everglades was approved by Congress; to date, it is the most expensive and comprehensive environmental repair attempt in history. The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan was signed into law, but the same divisive politics that had affected the region for the previous 50years have compromised the plan.

Origin of the word

The first written record of the Everglades was on Spanish maps made by cartographers who had not seen the land. They named the unknown area between the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of Florida Laguna del Espritu Santo ("Lake of the Holy Spirit").[2] The area appeared on maps for decades without being explored. Writer John Grant Forbes stated in 1811, "The Indians represent [the Southern points] as impenetrable; and the [British] surveyors, wreckers, and coasters, had not the means of exploring beyond the borders of the sea coast, and the mouths of rivers".[3]
This map made by the U.S. military shows the

British surveyor John Gerard de Brahm, who mapped the coast of term "Everglades" was in use by 1857. Florida in 1773, called the area "River Glades". Both Marjory Stoneman Douglas and linguist Wallace McMullen suggest that cartographers substituted "Ever" for "River".[3] [4] The name "Everglades" first appeared on a map in 1823, although it was also spelled as "Ever Glades" as late as 1851.[5] The Seminoles call it Pa-hay-okee, meaning "Grassy Water",[4] and the region was labeled "Pa-hai-okee" on an American military map in 1839, although it appeared as "Ever Glades" throughout the Second Seminole War.[3]

The Everglades

Geology
The geology of South Florida, together with a warm, wet, subtropical climate, provides conditions well-suited for a large marshland ecosystem. Layers of porous and permeable limestone create water-bearing rock and soil that affect the climate, weather, and hydrology of South Florida.[6] The properties of the rock underneath the Everglades can be explained by the geologic history of the state. The crust underneath Florida was at one point part of the African region of the supercontinent Gondwana. About 300 millionyears ago, North America merged with Africa, connecting Florida with North America. Volcanic activity centered around the eastern side of Florida covered the prevalent sedimentary rock with igneous rock. Continental rifting began to separate North America from Gondwana about 180 millionyears ago.[7] When Florida was part of Africa, it was initially above water, but during the cooler Jurassic Period, the Florida Platform became a shallow marine environment in which sedimentary rocks were deposited. Through the Cretaceous Period, most of Florida remained a tropical sea floor of varying depths.[8] The peninsula has been covered by seawater at least seven times since the bedrock formed.[9]

Limestone and aquifers

Fluctuating sea levels compressed numerous layers of calcium carbonate, sand, and shells. The resulting permeable limestone formations that developed between 25million and 70million years ago created the Floridan Aquifer, which serves as the main source of fresh water for the northern portion of Florida. However, this aquifer lies beneath thousands of feet of impermeable sedimentary rock from Lake Okeechobee to the southern tip of the peninsula.[10] There are five geologic formations that make up the southern portion of Florida: the Tamiami Formation, Caloosahatchee Formation, Anastasia Formation, Miami Limestone (or Miami Oolite), and the Fort Thompson Formation. The Tamiami Formation is a compression of highly permeable light colored fossiliferous sands and pockets of quartz, 150 feet (46m) thick. It is named for the Tamiami Trail that follows the upper bedrock of the Big Cypress Swamp, and underlies the southern portion of the Everglades. Between the Tamiami Formation and Lake Okeechobee is the Caloosahatchee Formation, named for the river over it. Much less permeable, this formation is highly calcitic and is composed of sandy shell marl, clay, and sand. Water underneath the Caloosahatchee Formation is typically very mineralized. Both the Tamiami and Caloosahatchee Formations developed during the Pliocene Epoch.[11] [12] Surrounding the southern part of Lake Okeechobee is the Fort Thompson Formation, made of dense, hard limestone, shells, and sand. Limestone formations in South Florida. Source: Rain water is less likely to erode the limestone to form solution U.S. Geological Survey holessmaller versions of sinkholes that do not intersect with the [13] water table. In this formation the beds are generally impermeable. Underneath the metropolitan areas of Palm Beach County is the Anastasia Formation, composed of shelly limestone, coquina, and sand representing a former mangrove or salt marsh. The Anastasia Formation is much more permeable and filled with pocks and solution holes.[13] The Fort Thompson and Anastasia Formations, and Miami Limestone and were formed during the Sangamon interglacial period.[14] The geologic formations that have the most influence on the Everglades are the Miami Limestone and the Fort Thompson Formation. The Miami Limestone forms the floor of the lower Everglades. Close examination of surface rock of the Miami Limestone reveals that it is made up of ooids: tiny formations of egg-shaped concentric shells and calcium carbonate, formed around a single grain of sand. The Miami Limestone was formerly named the Miami

The Everglades Oolite, which comprises facies of ooids and fossilized bryozoan organisms.[15] The unique structure was some of the first material used in housing in early 20th-century South Florida. The composition of this sedimentary formation affects the hydrology, plant life, and wildlife above it: the rock is especially porous and stores water during the dry season in the Everglades, and its chemical composition determines the vegetation prevalent in the region. The Miami Limestone also acts as a dam between Fort Lauderdale and Coot Bay.[16] The metropolitan areas of Miami, Fort Lauderdale, and West Palm Beach are located on a rise in elevation along the eastern coast of Florida, called the Eastern Coastal Ridge, that was formed as waves compressed ooids into a single formation. Along the western border of the Big Cypress Swamp is the Immokolee Ridge (or Immokolee Rise), a slight rise of compressed sand that divides the runoff between the Caloosahatchee River and The Big Cypress.[17] This slight rise in elevation on both sides of the Everglades creates a basin, and forces water that overflows Lake Okeechobee to creep towards the southwest.[18] Under both the Miami Limestone formation and the Fort Thompson limestone is a surface aquifer that serves as the South Florida metropolitan area's fresh water source, called the Biscayne Aquifer. Rainfall and stored water in the Everglades replenish the Biscayne Aquifer directly.[14] With the rise of sea levels that occurred during the Pleistocene approximately 17,000years ago, the runoff of water from Lake Okeechobee slowed and created the vast marshland that is now known as the Everglades. Slower runoff also created an accumulation of almost 18 feet (5.5 m) of peat in the area. The presence of such peat deposits, dated to about 5,000years ago, is evidence that widespread flooding had occurred by then.[19]

Hydrology
The consistent Everglades flooding is fed by the extensive Kissimmee, Caloosahatchee, Myakka, and Peace Rivers in central Florida. The Kissimmee River is a broad floodplain that empties directly into Lake Okeechobee, which at 730 square miles (1900km2) with an average depth of 9 feet (2.7m), is a vast but shallow lake.[20] Soil deposits in the Everglades basin indicate that peat is deposited where the land is flooded consistently throughout the year. Calcium deposits are left behind when flooding is shorter. The deposits occur in areas where water rises and falls depending on rainfall, as opposed to water being stored in the rock from one year to the next. Calcium deposits are present where more limestone is exposed.[21] The area from Orlando to the tip of the Florida peninsula was at one point a single drainage unit. When rainfall exceeded the capacity of Lake Okeechobee and the Kissimmee River floodplain, it spilled over and flowed in a southwestern direction to empty into Florida Bay. Prior to urban and agricultural development in Florida, the Everglades began Predevelopment flow direction of water from at the southern edge of Lake Okeechobee and flowed for Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay Source: U.S. approximately 100 miles (160km), emptying into the Gulf of Mexico. Geological Survey The limestone shelf is wide and slightly angled instead of having a narrow, deep channel characteristic of most rivers. The vertical gradient from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay is about 2 inches (5.1cm) per mile, creating an almost 60-mile (97km) wide expanse of river that travels about half a mile (0.8km) a day.[22] This slow movement of a broad, shallow river is known as sheetflow, and gives the Everglades its nickname, River of Grass. Water leaving Lake Okeechobee may require months or years to reach its final destination, Florida Bay. The sheetflow travels so slowly that water is typically stored from one wet season to the next in the porous limestone substrate. The ebb and flow of

The Everglades water has shaped the land and every ecosystem in South Florida throughout the Everglades' estimated 5,000years of existence. The motion of water defines plant communities and how animals adapt to their habitats and food sources.[23]

Climate
The climate of South Florida is noted for its variability, as average annual temperatures range from 60 F (16C) to 80 F (27C). Temperatures in summer months typically exceed 90 F (32C), although coastal locations are cooled by winds from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. Freezing in winter months occurs with varying severity and frequency. The most severe episode of freezing in the region's recorded history occurred in two weeks of January 2010, resulting in effects similar to the destruction of a hurricane or substantial wildfire.[24] The region's subtropical to tropical climate features a 7-month wet season from April through October, when 75percent of precipitation is related to tropical cyclones and thunderstorms.[25] Only 25percent of the annual precipitation falls during the dry season from November to March, usually sparked by cold fronts tracking southward.[26] Annual rainfall averages approximately 62 inches (160cm), with the Eastern Coastal Ridge receiving the majority of precipitation and the area surrounding Lake Okeechobee receiving about 48 inches (120cm).[27]

Hurricane Charley in 2004 moving ashore on South Florida's Gulf of Mexico coast

Unlike any other wetland system on earth, the Everglades are sustained primarily by the atmosphere.[28] Evapotranspirationa term used to describe the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth's land surface to atmosphereassociated with thunderstorms, is the key mechanism by which water leaves the region. During a year unaffected by drought, the rate may reach 40 inches (100cm) a year. When droughts take place, the rate may peak at over 50 inches (130cm), and exceed the amount of rainfall.[29] As water leaves an area through evaporation from groundwater or from plant matter, activated primarily by solar energy, it is then moved by wind patterns to other areas that border or flow into the Everglades watershed system. Evapotranspiration is responsible for approximately 7090percent of water entering undeveloped wetland regions in the Everglades.[25] Precipitation during the wet season is primarily caused by thunderstorms formed from Bermuda High pressure systems, blown ashore with the anti-clockwise flow. However, precipitation levels are often twice as high from August to October due to tropical depressions, storms, and hurricanes. Storm systems are significantly affected by El Nio and other global climate factors: between 1951 and 1980, precipitation in South Florida varied between 34 inches (86cm) and 88 inches (220cm).[25] Tropical storms average one a year, and major hurricanes about once every ten years. Between 1871 and 1981, 138tropical cyclones struck directly over or close to the Everglades.[27] Strong winds from these storms disperse plant seeds and replenish mangrove forests, coral reefs, and other ecosystems. Dramatic fluctuations in precipitation are characteristic of the South Florida climate. Droughts, floods, freezing, and tropical cyclones are part of the natural water system in the Everglades.[25]

The Everglades

Average, maximum, and minimum levels of rainfall for the lower east coast of Florida, from 1918 to 1985[27]
Period Annual Wet season Dry season Mean Maximum Minimum

51.9 inches (132cm) 77.5 inches (197cm) 36.7 inches (93cm) 34.5 inches (88cm) 17.4 inches (44cm) 53.5 inches (136cm) 23.4 inches (59cm) 30.9 inches (78cm) 7.3 inches (19cm)

Formative and sustaining processes

The Everglades are a complex system of interdependent ecosystems. Marjory Stoneman Douglas described the area as a "River of Grass" in 1947, though that metaphor represents only a portion of the system. The area recognized as the Everglades, prior to drainage, was a web of marshes and prairies 4000 square miles (10000km2) in size.[30] Borders between ecosystems are subtle or imperceptible. These systems shift, grow and shrink, die, or reappear within years or decades. Geologic factors, climate, and the frequency of fire help to create, maintain, or replace the ecosystems in the Everglades.

Water
Water is the most dominant force and substance in the Everglades, and it shapes the land, vegetation, and animal life in South Florida. Starting at the last glacial maximum, 21,000 years ago, continental ice sheets retreated and sea levels rose. This submerged portions of the Florida peninsula and caused the water table to rise. Fresh water saturated the limestone that underlies the Everglades, eroding some of it away, and created springs and sinkholes. The abundance of fresh water allowed new vegetation to take root, and formed convective thunderstorms over the land through evaporation.[31] [32] As rain continued to fall, the slightly acidic rainwater dissolved the limestone. As limestone wore away, the groundwater came into contact with the land surface and created a massive wetland ecosystem.[31] Although the region appears flat, weathering of the limestone created slight valleys and plateaus in some areas. These plateaus rise and fall only a few inches, but on the subtle South Florida topography these small variations affect both the flow of water and the types of vegetation that can take hold.[33]
A storm over the Shark River in the Everglades, 1966 Photo:Charles Barron / State Library and Archives of Florida

The Everglades

Rock
The underlying bedrock or limestone of the Everglades basin affects the hydroperiod, or how long an area within the region stays flooded throughout the year.[31] Longer hydroperiods are possible in areas that were submerged beneath seawater for longer periods of time, while the geology of Florida was forming. More water is held within the porous ooids and limestone than older types of rock that spent more time above sea level.[34] A hydroperiod of ten months or more fosters growth of sawgrass, whereas a shorter hydroperiod of six months or less promotes beds of periphyton, a growth of algae and other microscopic organisms. There are only two types of soil in the Everglades, peat and marl. Where there are longer hydroperiods, peat builds up over hundreds or thousands of years due to many generations of decaying plant matter.[35] Where periphyton grows, the soil develops into marl, which is more calcitic in composition.

Initial attempts at developing agriculture near Lake Okeechobee were successful, but the nutrients in the peat were rapidly removed. In a process called soil subsidence, oxidation of peat causes loss of volume.[36] Bacteria decompose dead sawgrass slowly underwater without oxygen. When the water was drained in the 1920s and bacteria interacted with oxygen, an aerobic reaction occurred. Microorganisms degraded the peat into carbon dioxide and water. Some of the peat was burned by settlers to clear the land. Some homes built in the areas of early farms had to have their foundations moved to stilts as the peat deteriorated; other areas lost approximately 8 feet (2.4m) of soil depth.[37]

Uneven limestone formations in an Everglades sawgrass prairie

Fire
Fire is an important element in the maintenance of the Everglades. The majority of fires are caused by lightning strikes from thunderstorms during the wet season. Their effects are largely superficial, and serve to foster specific plant growth: sawgrass will burn above water, but the roots are preserved underneath. Fire in the sawgrass marshes serves to keep out larger bushes and trees, and releases nutrients from decaying plant matter more efficiently than decomposition.[38] Whereas in the wet season, dead plant matter and the tips of grasses and trees are burned, in the dry season the fire may be fed by organic peat and burn deeply, destroying root systems.[38] Fires are confined by existing water and rainfall. It takes approximately 225years for one foot (.30 m) of peat to develop, but in some locations the peat is less dense than it should be for the 5,000years of the Everglades' existence.[39] Scientists indicate fire as the cause; it is also cited as the reason for the black color of Everglades muck. Layers of charcoal have been detected in the peat in portions of the Everglades that indicate the region endured severe fires for years at a time, although this trend seems to have abated since the last occurrence in 940 BCE.[39]

The Everglades

Ecosystems
Sawgrass marshes and sloughs
Several ecosystems are present in the Everglades, and boundaries between them are subtle or do not exist. The primary feature of the Everglades is the sawgrass marsh. The iconic water and sawgrass combination in the shallow river 100 miles (160km) long and 60 miles (97km) wide that spans from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay is often referred to as the "true Everglades" or just "the Glades".[40] [41] Prior to the first drainage attempts in 1905, the sheetflow occupied nearly a third of the lower Florida peninsula.[31] Sawgrass thrives in the slowly moving water, but may die in unusually deep floods if oxygen is unable to reach its roots, and it is particularly vulnerable immediately after a fire.[42] The hydroperiod for the marsh is at least nine months, and can last longer.[43] Where sawgrass grows densely, few animals or other plants live, although alligators choose these locations for nesting. Where there is more room, periphyton grows.[44] Periphyton supports larval insects and amphibians, which in turn are used as food by birds, fish, and reptiles. It also absorbs calcium from water, which adds to the calcitic composition of the marl.[45] Sloughs, or free-flowing channels of water, develop in between Major landscape types in the Everglades before sawgrass prairies. Sloughs are about 3 feet (0.91m) deeper than human action. Source: U.S. Geological Survey sawgrass marshes, and may stay flooded for at least 11months out of the year and sometimes multiple years in a row.[46] Aquatic animals such as turtles, alligators, snakes, and fish thrive in sloughs; they usually feed on aquatic invertebrates.[47] Submerged and floating plants grow here, such as bladderwort (Utricularia), waterlily (Nymphaeaceae), and spatterdock (Nuphar lutea). Major sloughs in the Everglades system include the Shark River Slough flowing out to Florida Bay, Lostmans River Slough bordering The Big Cypress, and Taylor Slough in the eastern Everglades. Wet prairies are slightly elevated like sawgrass marshes, but with greater plant diversity. The surface is covered in water only three to seven months of the year, and the water is, on average, shallow at only 4 inches (10cm) deep.[48] When flooded, the marl can support a variety of water plants.[49] Solution holes, or deep pits where the limestone has worn away, may remain flooded even when the prairies are dry, and they support aquatic invertebrates such as crayfish and snails, and larval amphibians which feed young wading birds.[50] These regions tend to border between sloughs and sawgrass marshes. Alligators have created a niche in wet prairies. With their claws and snouts they dig at low spots and create ponds free of vegetation that remain submerged throughout the dry season. Alligator holes are integral to the survival of aquatic invertebrates, turtles, fish, small mammals, and birds during extended drought periods. The alligators then feed upon some of the animals that come to the hole.[51] [52]

The Everglades

Tropical hardwood hammock

Small islands of trees growing on land raised between 1 foot (0.30m) and 3 feet (0.91m) above sloughs and prairies are called tropical hardwood hammocks.[53] They may range from one (4,000m) to ten acres (40,000m) in area, and appear in freshwater sloughs, sawgrass prairies, or pineland. Hammocks are slightly elevated on limestone plateaus risen several inches above the surrounding peat, or they may grow on land that has been unharmed by deep peat fires. Hardwood hammocks exhibit a mixture of subtropical and hardwood trees, such as Southern live oak (Quercus virginiana), gumbo limbo (Bursera In a tropical hardwood hammock, trees are very simaruba), royal palm (Roystonea), and bustic (Dipholis salicifolia) dense and diverse. that grow in very dense clumps.[54] Near the base, sharp saw palmettos (Serenoa repens) flourish, making the hammocks very difficult for people to penetrate, though small mammals, reptiles and amphibians find these islands an ideal habitat. Water in sloughs flows around the islands, creating moats. Though some ecosystems are maintained and promoted by fire, hammocks may take decades or centuries to recover. The moats around the hammocks protect the trees.[55] The trees are limited in height by weather factors such as frost, lightning, and wind; the majority of trees in hammocks grow no higher than 55 feet (17m).

Pineland
Some of the dryest land in the Everglades is pineland (also called pine rockland) ecosystem, located in the highest part of the Everglades with little to no hydroperiod. Some floors, however, may have flooded solution holes or puddles for a few months at a time. The most significant feature of the pineland is the single species of South Florida slash pine (Pinus elliotti). Pineland communities require fire to maintain them, and the trees have several adaptations that simultaneously promote and resist fire.[56] The sandy floor of the pine forest is covered with dry pine needles that are highly flammable. South Florida slash pines are insulated by their bark to protect them from heat. Fire eliminates competing vegetation on the forest floor, and opens pine cones to germinate seeds.[57] A period without significant fire can turn pineland into a hardwood hammock as larger trees overtake the slash pines.[58] The understory shrubs in pine rocklands are the fire-resistant saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto), and West Indian lilac (Tetrazygia bicolor). The most diverse group of plants in the pine community are the herbs, of which there are two dozen species. These plants contain tubers and other mechanisms that allow them to sprout quickly after being charred.[59] Prior to urban development of the South Florida region, pine rocklands covered approximately 161660 acres (654.2km2) in Miami-Dade County. Within Everglades National Park, 19840 acres (80.3km2) of pine forests are protected, but outside the park, 1780 acres (7.2km2) of pine communities remained as of 1990, averaging 12.1 acres (49000 m2) in area.[56] The misunderstanding of the role of fire also played a part in the disappearance of pine forests in the area, as natural fires were put out and pine rocklands transitioned into hardwood hammocks. Prescribed fires occur in Everglades National Park in pine rocklands every three to seven years.[60]

The Everglades

10

A cross section of fresh water ecosystems in the Everglades, with relative average water depths

Cypress
Cypress swamps can be found throughout the Everglades, but the largest covers most of Collier County. The Big Cypress Swamp is located to the west of the sawgrass prairies and sloughs, and it is commonly called "The Big Cypress."[61] The name refers to its area rather than the height or diameter of the trees; at its most conservative estimate, the swamp measures 1200 square miles (3100km2), but the hydrologic boundary of The Big Cypress can be calculated at over 2400 square miles (6200km2).[62] Most of The Big Cypress sits atop a A pond in The Big Cypress bedrock covered by a thinner layer of limestone. The limestone underneath the Big Cypress contains quartz, which creates sandy soil that hosts a variety of vegetation different from what is found in other areas of the Everglades.[61] The basin for The Big Cypress receives on average 55 inches (140cm) of water in the wet season.[63] Though The Big Cypress is the largest growth of cypress swamps in South Florida, cypress swamps can be found near the Atlantic Coastal Ridge and between Lake Okeechobee and the Eastern flatwoods, as well as in sawgrass marshes. Cypresses are conifers that are uniquely adapted to thrive in flooded conditions, with buttressed trunks and root projections that protrude out of the water, called "knees".[64] Cypress trees grow in formations with the tallest and thickest trunks in the center, rooted in the deepest peat. As the peat thins out, cypresses grow smaller and thinner, giving the small forest the appearance of a dome from the outside.[65] They also grow in strands, slightly elevated on a ridge of limestone bordered on either side by sloughs.[66] Other hardwood trees can be found in cypress domes, such as red maple, swamp bay, and pop ash. If cypresses are removed, the hardwoods take over, and the ecosystem is recategorized as a mixed swamp forest.

The Everglades

11

Mangrove and Coastal prairie

Eventually the water from Lake Okeechobee and The Big Cypress makes its way to the ocean. Mangrove trees are well adapted to the transitional zone of brackish water where fresh and salt water meet. The Everglades have the most extensive continuous system of mangroves in the world.[67] The estuarine ecosystem of the Ten Thousand Islands, which is comprised almost completely of mangrove forests, covers almost 200000 acres (810km2).[68] In the wet season fresh water pours out into Florida Bay, and sawgrass begins to grow closer to the coastline. In the dry season, and particularly in extended periods of drought, the salt water creeps inland into the coastal prairie, an ecosystem that buffers the freshwater marshes by absorbing sea water. Mangrove trees begin to grow in fresh water ecosystems when

Red mangrove trees bordering a tidal estuary in the Everglades

the salt water goes far enough inland.[69] There are three species of trees that are considered mangroves: red (Rhizophora mangle), black (Avicennia germinans), and white (Laguncularia racemosa), although all are from different families.[70] All grow in oxygen-poor soil, can survive drastic water level changes, and are tolerant of salt, brackish, and fresh water.[71] All three mangrove species are integral to coastline protection during severe storms. Red mangroves have the farthest-reaching roots, trapping sediments that help build coastlines after and between storms. All three types of trees absorb the energy of waves and storm surges. Everglades mangroves also serve as nurseries for crustaceans and fish, and rookeries for birds. The region supports Tortugas pink shrimp (Farfantepenaeus duorarum) and stone crab (Menippe mercenaria) industries;[72] between 80 to 90 percent of commercially harvested crustacean species in Florida's salt waters are born or spend time near the Everglades.[68] [73]

Florida Bay
Much of the coast and the inner estuaries are built by mangroves; there is no border between the coastal marshes and the bay. Thus the marine ecosystems in Florida Bay are considered to be a part of the Everglades watershed and one of the ecosystems connected to and affected by the Everglades as a whole. More than 800 square miles (2100km2) of Florida Bay is protected by Everglades National Park, representing the largest body of water in the park boundaries.[74] There are approximately a hundred keys in Florida Bay, many of which are mangrove forests.[75] The fresh water coming into Florida Bay from A clump of mangroves in the distance, Florida the Everglades creates perfect conditions for vast beds of turtle grass Bay at Flamingo and algae formations that are the foundation for animal life in the bay. Sea turtles and manatees eat the grass, while invertebrate animals, such as worms, clams and other mollusks eat the algae formations and microscopic plankton.[76] Female sea turtles return annually to nest on the shore, and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay. Sea grasses also serve to stabilize the sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves.

The Everglades

12

History
Native Americans
People arrived in the Florida peninsula approximately 15,000years ago. Paleo-Indians came to Florida probably following large game that included giant sloths, saber-toothed cats, and spectacled bears. They found an arid landscape that supported plants and animals adapted for desert conditions.[77] However, 6,500years ago, climate changes brought a wetter landscape; large animals became extinct in Florida, and the Paleo-Indians slowly adapted and became the Archaic peoples. They conformed to the environmental changes, and created many tools with the various resources available to them.[78] During the Late Archaic period, the climate became wetter again, and approximately 3000 BCE the rise of water tables allowed an increase in population and cultural activity. Florida Indians developed into three distinct but similar cultures that were named for the bodies of water near where they were located: Okeechobee, Caloosahatchee, and Glades.[79] Calusa and Tequesta From the Glades peoples, two major tribes emerged in the area: the Calusa and the Tequesta. The Calusa was the largest and most powerful tribe in South Florida. They controlled fifty villages located on Florida's west coast, around Lake Okeechobee, and on the Florida Keys. Most Calusa villages were located at the mouths of rivers or on key islands. The Calusa were hunter-gatherers who existed on small game, fish, turtles, alligators, shellfish, and various plants.[80] Most of their tools were made of bone or teeth, although sharpened reeds were also effective for hunting or weapons. Calusa weapons consisted of bows and arrows, atlatls, and spears. Canoes were used for transportation, and South Florida tribes often canoed through the Everglades, but rarely lived in them.[81] Canoe trips to Cuba were also common.[82] Estimated numbers of Calusa at the beginning of the Spanish occupation ranged from 4,000 to 7,000.[83] The society declined in power and population; by 1697 their number was estimated to be about 1,000.[82] In the early 18th century, the Calusa came under attack from the Yamasee to the north, and asked the Spanish to be removed to Cuba where almost 200 died of illness. Soon they were relocated again to the Florida Keys.[84] Second in power and number to the Calusa in South Florida were the Tequesta. They occupied the southeastern portion of the lower peninsula in modern-day Dade and Broward counties. Like the Calusa, the Tequesta societies centered around the mouths of rivers. Their main village was probably on the Miami River or Little River. Spanish depictions of the Tequesta state that they were greatly feared by sailors who suspected them of torturing and killing survivors of shipwrecks.[85] Spanish priests attempted to set up missions in 1743, but noted that the Tequesta were under assault from a neighboring tribe. When only 30members were left, they were removed to Havana. A British surveyor in 1770 described multiple deserted villages in the region where the Tequesta lived.[86] Common description of Native Americans in Florida by 1820 used only the term "Seminoles".[87]

The Everglades Seminole Following the demise of the Calusa and Tequesta, Native Americans in southern Florida were referred to as "Spanish Indians" in the 1740s, probably due to their friendlier relations with Spain. Creeks invaded the Florida peninsula and conquered and assimilated what was left of pre-Columbian societies into the Creek Confederacy. Seminoles originally settled in the northern portion of the territory, but were forced to live on a reservation north of Lake Okeechobee. They soon ranged farther south where they numbered approximately 300in the Everglades region.[88] They made a living by hunting and trading with white settlers, and raised domesticated animals.[89] Seminoles made their villages in hardwood hammocks or pinelands, had diets of hominy and coontie roots, fish, turtles, venison, and small game.[90] Their villages were not large, due to the limited size of the hammocks.

13

In 1817, Andrew Jackson invaded Florida to hasten its annexation to the United States, in what became known as the First Seminole War. After Florida became a U.S. territory in 1821, conflicts between settlers and Seminoles increased, causing the Second Seminole War from 1835 to 1842 and the Third Seminole War from 1855 to 1859. Between the two latter conflicts, almost 4,500Seminoles were killed or relocated to Indian territory.[91] The Seminole Wars pushed the Indians farther south and directly into the Everglades. By 1913, Seminoles in the Everglades numbered no more than 325.[90] Between the end of the last Seminole War and 1930, the tribe lived in relative isolation. The construction of the Tamiami Trail, beginning in 1928 and spanning from Tampa to Miami, altered their ways of life. They began to work in local farms, ranches, and souvenir stands.[92] As metropolitan areas in South Florida began to grow, the Seminoles became closely associated with the Everglades, simultaneously seeking privacy and serving as a tourist attraction, wrestling alligators and selling craftworks.[93] As of 2008, there were six Seminole reservations throughout Florida featuring casino gaming that support the tribe.[94]

Seminoles made their home in the Everglades

Exploration
The military penetration of southern Florida offered the opportunity to map a poorly understood and largely unknown part of the country. An 1840 expedition into the Everglades offered the first printed account for the general public to read about the Everglades. The anonymous writer described the terrain the party was crossing: "No country that I have ever heard of bears any resemblance to it; it seems like a vast sea filled with grass and green trees, and expressly intended as a retreat for the rascally Indian, from which the white man would never seek to drive them".[95] The land seemed to inspire extreme reactions of both wonder or hatred. During the Second Seminole War an army surgeon wrote, "It is in fact a most hideous region to live in, a perfect paradise for Indians, alligators, serpents, frogs, and Map of the Everglades in 1856: every other kind of loathsome reptile."[96] In 1897, explorer Hugh Willoughby Military action during the Seminole spent eight days canoeing with a party from the mouth of the Harney River to the Wars improved understanding of the features of the Everglades Miami River. He sent his observations to the New Orleans Times-Democrat. Willoughby described the water as healthy and wholesome, with numerous springs, and 10,000alligators "more or less" in Lake Okeechobee. The party encountered thousands of birds near the Shark River, "killing hundreds, but they continued to return".[97] Willoughby pointed out that much of the rest of the country had been explored and mapped except for this part of Florida, writing, "(w)e have a tract of land one

The Everglades hundred and thirty miles long and seventy miles wide that is as much unknown to the white man as the heart of Africa."[98]

14

Drainage
A national push for expansion and progress in the United States occurred in the later part of the 19th century, which stimulated interest in draining the Everglades for agricultural use. According to historians, "From the middle of the nineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century, the United States went through a period in which wetland removal was not questioned. Indeed, it was considered the proper thing to do."[99] Draining the Everglades was suggested as early as 1837,[5] and a resolution in Congress was passed in 1842 that prompted Secretary of Treasury Robert J. Walker to request those with experience in the Everglades to give their opinion on the possibility of drainage. Many officers who had served in the Seminole Wars favored the idea.[5] In 1850 Congress passed a law that gave several states wetlands within their state boundaries. The Swamp and Overflowed Lands Act ensured that the state would be responsible for funding the attempts at developing wetlands into farmlands.[100] Florida quickly formed a committee to consolidate grants to pay for any attempts, though the The Civil War and Reconstruction halted progress until after 1877. After the Civil War Florida formed an agency called the Internal Improvement Fund (IIF) whose purpose was to improve the state's roads, canals, and rail lines. The IIF found a Pennsylvania real estate developer named Hamilton Disston interested in implementing plans to drain the land for agriculture. Disston purchased 4000000 acres (16000km2) of land for $1 million in 1881,[101] and he began constructing canals near St. Cloud. The canals seemed to work in lowering the water levels in the wetlands surrounding the rivers at first.[102] They were effective in lowering the groundwater, but it became apparent that their capacity was insufficient for the wet season.[103] Though Disston's canals did not drain well, his purchase primed the economy of Florida. It made news and attracted tourists and land buyers. Within four years property values doubled, and the population increased significantly.[101] The IIF was able to invest in development projects due to Disston's purchase, and an opportunity to improve transportation presented itself when oil tycoon Henry Hamilton Disston's land sale notice Flagler began purchasing land and building rail lines along the east coast of Florida, as far south as Palm Beach in 1893.[104] Along the way he built resort hotels, transforming territorial outposts into tourist destinations, and the land bordering the rail lines into citrus farms.[105] By 1896 the rail line had been extended to Biscayne Bay.[106] Three months after the first train had arrived, the residents of Miami voted to incorporate the town. Miami became a prime destination for extremely wealthy people after the Royal Palm Hotel was opened.[107] During the 1904 gubernatorial race, the strongest candidate, Napoleon Bonaparte Broward, based a significant portion of his campaign on draining the Everglades. He called the future of South Florida the "Empire of the Everglades". Soon after his successful election, he fulfilled his promise to "drain that abominable pestilence-ridden swamp",[108] and pushed the Florida legislature to form a group of commissioners to oversee reclamation of flooded lands. In 1907 they established the Everglades Drainage District and began to study how to build the most effective canals, and how to fund them.[5] Governor Broward ran for the U.S. Senate in 1908 but lost. Broward was paid by land developer Richard J. Bolles to tour the state to promote drainage. He was elected to the Senate in 1910, but died before he could take office. Land in the Everglades was being sold for $15 an acre a month after Broward died.[109] Meanwhile, Henry Flagler continued to build railway stations at towns as soon as the populations warranted them.[106]

The Everglades

15

Growth of urban areas

With the construction of canals, newly reclaimed Everglades land was promoted throughout the United States. Land developers sold 20,000lots in a few months in 1912. Advertisements promised within eight weeks of arrival, a farmer could be making a living, although for many it took at least two months to clear the land. Some burned off the sawgrass or other vegetation to find the peat a source of fuel that continued to burn. Animals and tractors used for plowing got mired in the muck and were useless. When the muck dried, it turned to a fine black powder and created dust storms.[110] Though initially crops sprouted quickly and lushly, they just as quickly wilted and died seemingly without reason.[111]

A canal lock in the Everglades Drainage District around 1915

The increasing population in towns near the Everglades provided hunting opportunities. Raccoons and otters were the most widely hunted for their skins. Hunting often went unchecked; in one trip, a Lake Okeechobee hunter killed 250alligators and 172otters.[112] Wading birds were a particular target. Their feathers were used in women's hats in the late 19th century up to the 1920s. In 1886, 5million birds were estimated to be killed for their feathers.[113] They were shot usually in the spring, when their feathers were colored for mating and nesting. The plumes, or aigrettes, as they were called in the millinery business, sold for $32 an ounce in 1915also the price of gold.[112] Millinery was a $17million a year industry[114] that motivated plume harvesters to lay in watch of nests of egrets and many colored birds during the nesting season, shoot the parents with small-bore rifles, and leave the chicks to starve.[112] Plumes from Everglades wading birds could be found in Havana, New York City, London, and Paris. Hunters could collect plumes from a hundred birds on a good day.[115] Rum-runners used the Everglades as a hiding spot during Prohibition; it was so vast there were never enough law enforcement officers to patrol it.[116] The arrival of the railroad, and the discovery that adding trace elements like copper was the remedy for crops sprouting and dying quickly, soon created a population boom and new towns like Moore Haven, Clewiston, and Belle Glade.[5] Sugarcane became the primary crop grown in South Florida. Miami experienced a second real estate boom that earned a developer in Coral Gables $150million, and saw undeveloped land north of Miami sell for $30,600 an acre.[117] In 1925, Miami newspapers published editions weighing over 7 pounds (3.2kg), most of it in real estate advertising.[118] Waterfront property was the most highly valued. Mangrove trees were cut down and replaced with palm trees to improve the view. Acres of South Florida slash pine were cleared. Some of the pine was for lumber, but most of the pine forests in Dade County were cleared for development.[56]

Flood control
Two catastrophic hurricanes in 1926 and 1928 caused Lake Okeechobee to breach its levees, killing thousands of people. The government began to focus on the control of floods rather than drainage. The Okeechobee Flood Control District was created in 1929, financed by both state and federal funds. President Herbert Hoover toured the towns affected by the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane and ordered the Army Corps of Engineers to assist the communities surrounding the lake.[119] Between 1930 and 1937 a dike 66 miles (106km) long was built around the southern edge of the lake. Control

A sign advertising the completion of the Herbert Hoover Dike

The Everglades of the Hoover Dike and the waters of Lake Okeechobee were delegated to federal powers: the United States declared legal limits of the lake to between 14 and 17 feet (4.3 and 5.2 m).[98] A massive canal was also constructed 80 feet (24m) wide and 6 feet (1.8m) deep through the Caloosahatchee River; whenever the lake rose too high, the excess water left through the canal.[98] More than $20million was spent on the entire project. Sugarcane production soared after the dike and canal were built. The populations of the small towns surrounding the lake jumped from 3,000 to 9,000 after World War II.[120] Immediately the effects of the Hoover Dike were seen. An extended drought occurred in the 1930s; with the wall preventing water from leaving Lake Okeechobee and canals and ditches removing other water, the Everglades became parched. Peat turned to dust. Salt ocean water intruded into Miami's wells; when the city brought in an expert to explain why, he discovered that the water in the Everglades was the area's groundwaterhere, it appeared on the surface.[121] In 1939, a million acres (4,000km) of Everglades burned, and the black clouds of peat and sawgrass fires hung over Miami.[122] Scientists who took soil samples before draining did not take into account that the organic composition of peat and muck in the Everglades make it prone to soil subsidence when it becomes dry. Naturally occurring bacteria in Everglades peat and muck assist with the process of decomposition under water, which is generally very slow, partially due to the low levels of dissolved oxygen. When water levels became so low that peat and muck were at the surface, the bacteria interacted with much higher levels of oxygen in the air, rapidly breaking down the soil. In some places, homes had to be moved to stilts and 8 feet (2.4m) of soil was lost.[37] Everglades National Park The idea of a national park for the Everglades was pitched in 1928 when a Miami land developer named Ernest F. Coe established the Everglades Tropical National Park Association. It had enough support to be declared a national park by Congress in 1934. It took another 13years to be dedicated on December 6, 1947.[123] One month before the dedication of the park, a former editor from The Miami Herald and freelance writer named Marjory Stoneman Douglas released her first book titled The Everglades: River of Grass. After researching the region for five years, she described the history and ecology of the South Florida in great detail. She characterized the Everglades as a river instead of a stagnant swamp.[101] The last chapter was titled, "The Eleventh Hour" and warned that the Everglades were dying, although it could be reversed.[124] Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project The same year the park was dedicated, two hurricanes and the wet season caused 100 inches (250cm) to fall on South Florida. Though there were no human casualties, agricultural interests lost approximately $59million.[125] In 1948 Congress approved the Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes (C&SF), who divided the Everglades into basins. In the northern Everglades were Water Conservation Areas (WCAs), and the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA) bordering to the south of Lake Okeechobee. In the southern Everglades was Everglades National Park. Levees and pumping stations bordered each WCA, and released water in dryer times or removed it and pumped it to the ocean in times of flood. The WCAs took up approximately 37percent of the original Everglades.[126] The C&SF constructed over 1000 miles (1600km) of canals, and hundreds of pumping stations and levees within three decades. During the 1950s and 1960s the South Florida metropolitan area grew four times as fast as the rest of the nation. Between 1940 and 1965, 6million people moved to South Florida: 1,000people moved to Miami every week.[127] Developed areas between the mid 1950s and the late 1960s quadrupled. Much of the water reclaimed from the Everglades was sent to newly developed areas.[128]

16

President Harry Truman dedicating Everglades National Park on December 6, 1947.

The Everglades Everglades Agricultural Area The C&SF established 470000 acres (1900km2) for the Everglades Agricultural Area27percent of the Everglades prior to development.[129] In the late 1920s, agricultural experiments indicated that adding large amounts of manganese sulfate to Everglades muck produced a profitable harvest for vegetables.[130] The primary cash crop in the EAA is sugarcane, though sod, beans, lettuce, celery, and rice are also grown. Fields in the EAA are typically 40 acres ( m2), bordered by canals on two sides, that are connected to larger canals A 2003 U.S. Geological Survey photo showing where water is pumped in or out depending on the needs of the the border between Water Conservation Area 3 crops.[131] The fertilizers used on vegetables, along with high (bottom) with water, and Everglades National Park, dry (top) concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus that are the byproduct of decayed soil necessary for sugarcane production, were pumped into WCAs south of the EAA. The introduction of large amounts of these chemicals provided opportunities for exotic plants to take hold in the Everglades.[132] One of the defining characteristics of natural Everglades ecology is its ability to support itself in a nutrient-poor environment, and the introduction of fertilizers began to alter the plant life in the region.[133] Jetport proposition A turning point came for development in the Everglades at the proposition of an expanded airport after Miami International Airport outgrew its capacities. The new jetport was planned to be larger than O'Hare, Dulles, JFK, and LAX airports combined, and the chosen location was 6 miles (9.7km) north of Everglades National Park. The first sentence of the U.S. Department of Interior study of the environmental impact of the jetport read, "Development of the proposed jetport and its attendant facilities... will inexorably destroy the south Florida ecosystem and thus the Everglades National Park".[134] When studies indicated the proposed jetport would create 4000000 US gallons ( L) of raw sewage a day and 10000 short tons (9100t) of jet engine pollutants a year, the project met staunch opposition. The New York Times called it a "blueprint for disaster",[135] and Wisconsin senator Gaylord Nelson wrote to President Richard Nixon voicing his opposition: "It is a test of whether or not we are really committed in this country to protecting our environment."[136] Governor Claude Kirk withdrew his support for the project, and Marjory Stoneman Douglas was persuaded at 79years old to go on tour to give hundreds of speeches against it. Nixon instead established Big Cypress National Preserve, announcing it in the Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program .[137]

17

Restoration
Kissimmee River
The Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project's final construction project was straightening the Kissimmee River, a meandering 90-mile (140km)-long river that was drained to make way for grazing land and agriculture. The C&SF started building the C-38 canal in 1962 and the effects were seen almost immediately. Waterfowl, wading birds, and fish disappeared, prompting conservationists and sport fishers to demand the region be restored before the canal was finished in 1971.[138] In general, C&SF projects had been criticized for being temporary fixes that ignored future consequences, costing billions of dollars with no end in sight.[139] After Governor Bob Graham initiated the Save Our Everglades campaign in 1983, the first section of the canal was backfilled in 1986. Graham announced that by 2000 the Everglades would be restored as closely as possible to its pre-drainage state.[140] The Kissimmee River Restoration project was approved by Congress in 1992. It is estimated that it will cost $578million to convert only 22 miles (35km) of the canal. The entire project will be complete by 2011.[141]

The Everglades

18

Water quality
Further problems with the environment arose when a vast algal bloom appeared in one-fifth of Lake Okeechobee in 1986. The same year cattails were discovered overtaking sawgrass marshes in Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge. Scientists discovered that phosphorus, used as a fertilizer in the EAA, was flushed into canals and pumped back into the lake.[142] When the lake drained, the phosphorus entered the water in the marshes, changing the nutrient levels. It kept periphyton from forming marl, one of two soils in the Everglades. The arrival of phosphorus allowed cattails to spread quickly. The cattails grew in dense matstoo thick for birds or alligators to nest in. It also dissolved oxygen in the peat, promoted algae, and prohibited growth of native invertebrates on the bottom of the food chain.[143] At the same time mercury was found in local fish at such high levels that consumption warnings were posted for fishermen. A Florida panther was found dead with levels of mercury high enough to kill a human.[144] Scientists found that power plants and incinerators using fossil fuels were expelling mercury into the atmosphere, and it fell as rain or dust during droughts. The naturally occurring bacteria that reduce sulfur in the Everglades ecosystem were transforming the mercury into methylmercury, and it was bioaccumulating through the food chain.[144] Stricter emissions standards helped lower mercury coming from power plants and incinerators, which in turn lowered mercury levels found in animals, though they continue to be a concern.[144] The Everglades Forever Act, introduced by Governor Lawton Chiles in 1994, was an attempt to legislate the lowering of phosphorus in Everglades waterways. The act put the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) in charge of testing and enforcing low phosphorus levels: 10parts per billion (ppb) (down from 500ppb in the 1980s).[145] The SFWMD built Stormwater Treatment Areas (STAs) near sugarcane fields where water leaving the EAA flows into ponds lined with lime rock and layers of peat and calcareous periphyton. Testing has shown this method to be more effective than previously anticipated, bringing levels from 80ppb to 10ppb.[146]
Warnings are placed in Everglades National Park to dissuade people from eating fish due to high mercury content.

The Everglades

19

Invasive species
The Everglades also face an ongoing threat from the melaleuca tree (Melaleuca quinquenervia), because they take water in greater amounts than other trees. Melaleucas grow taller and more densely in the Everglades than in their native Australia, making them unsuitable as nesting areas for birds with wide wingspans.[147] They also choke out native vegetation. More than $2million has been spent on keeping them out of Everglades National Park.[148] Brazilian pepper, or Florida holly (Schinus terebinthifolius), has also wreaked havoc on the Everglades, exhibiting a tendency to spread rapidly and to crowd out native species of plants as well as to create inhospitable environments for native animals. It is especially difficult to eradicate and is readily propagated by birds, which eat its small red berries.[149] The Brazilian Pepper problem is not exclusive to the Everglades; neither is the water hyacinth, which is a widespread problem in Florida's waterways, a major threat to endemic species, and is difficult and costly to eradicate. The Old World climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum) may be causing the most harm to restoration as it blankets areas thickly, making it impossible for animals to pass through. It also climbs up trees and creates "fire ladders", allowing parts of the trees to burn that would otherwise remain unharmed.[150]

Climbing ferns overtake cypress trees in the Everglades. The ferns act as "fire ladders" that can destroy trees that would otherwise survive fires.

Many pets have escaped or been released into the Everglades from the surrounding urban areas. Some find the conditions quite favorable and have established self-sustaining populations, competing for food and space with native animals. Many tropical fish have been released, but blue tilapias (Oreochromis aureus) cause damage to shallow waterways by creating large nests and consuming aquatic plants that protect native young fish.[151] Native to southern Asia, the Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus) is a relatively new invasive species in the Everglades. The species can grow up to 20 feet (6.1m) long and they compete with alligators for the top of the food chain. Florida wildlife officials speculate that escaped pythons have begun reproducing in an environment for which they are well-suited.[152] [153] In Everglades National Park alone, agents removed more than 1,200 Burmese python from the park as of 2009.[154] The invasive species that causes the most damage is the cat, both domestic and feral. Cats that are let outside live close to suburban populations and have been estimated to number 640per square mile. In such close numbers in historic migratory areas, they have devastating effects on migratory bird populations.[155]

Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan

Though scientists made headway in decreasing mercury and phosphorus levels in water, the natural environment of South Florida continued to decline in the 1990s, and life in nearby cities reflected this downturn. To address the deterioration of the South Florida metropolitan area, Governor Lawton Chiles commissioned a report on the sustainability of the area. In 1995, Chiles published the commission's findings in a report that related the degradation of the Everglades ecosystems to the lower quality of life in urban areas. The report noted past environmental abuses that brought the state to a position to make a decision. Not acting to improve the South Florida ecosystem, the report predicted, would inevitably cause further and intolerable deterioration that would harm local tourism by 12,000jobs and $200million annually, and commercial fishing by 3,300jobs and $52million annually.[156] Urban areas had grown beyond their capacities to sustain themselves. Crowded cities were facing problems such as high crime rates, traffic jams, severely overcrowded schools, and overtaxed public services; the report noted that water shortages were ironic, given the 53 inches (130cm) of rain the region received annually.[156]

The Everglades In 1999, an evaluation of the C&SF was submitted to Congress as part of the Water Development Act of 1992. The seven-year report, called the "Restudy", cited indicators of harm to the ecosystem: a 50percent reduction in the original Everglades, diminished water storage, harmful timing of water releases from canals and pumping stations, an 85 to 90percent decrease in wading bird populations over the past 50years, and the decline of output from commercial fisheries. Bodies of water including Lake Okeechobee, the Caloosahatchee River, St. Lucie estuary, Lake Worth Lagoon, Biscayne Bay, Florida Bay and the Everglades reflected drastic water level changes, hypersalinity, and dramatic changes in marine and freshwater ecosystems. The Restudy noted the overall decline in water quality over the past 50years was due to loss of wetlands that act as filters for polluted water.[157] It predicted that without intervention the entire South Florida ecosystem would deteriorate. Water shortages would become common and some cities would have annual water restrictions.[158] The Restudy came with a plan to stop the declining environmental quality, and this proposal was to be the most expensive and comprehensive ecological repair project in history.[159] The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) proposed more than 60construction projects over 30years to store water that was being flushed into the ocean, in reservoirs, underground aquifers, and abandoned quarries; add more Stormwater Treatment Areas to filter water that flowed into the lower Everglades; regulate water released from pumping stations into local waterways and improve water released to Everglades National Park Planned water recovery and storage implementation using CERP strategies and Water Conservation Areas; remove barriers to sheetflow by raising the Tamiami Trail and destroying the Miami Canal, and reuse wastewater for urban areas.[160] The cost estimate for the entire plan was $7.8billion, and in a bipartisan show of cooperation, CERP was voted through Congress with an overwhelming margin. It was signed by President Bill Clinton on December 11, 2000.[161] Since its signing, the State of Florida reports that it has spent more than $2billion on the various projects. More than 36000 acres (150km2) of Stormwater Treatment Areas have been constructed to filter 2500 short tons (2300t) of phosphorus from Everglades waters. An STA spanning 17000 acres (69km2) was constructed in 2004, making it the largest manmade wetland in the world. Fifty-five percent of the land necessary to acquire for restoration has been purchased by the State of Florida, totaling 210167 acres (850.52km2). A plan to hasten the construction and funding of projects was put into place, named "Acceler8", spurring the start of six of eight large construction projects, including that of three large reservoirs.[162] However, federal funds have not been forthcoming; CERP was signed when the U.S. government had a budget surplus, but since then the War in Iraq began, and two of CERP's major supporters in Congress retired. According to a story in The New York Times, state officials say the restoration is lost in a maze of "federal bureaucracy, a victim of 'analysis paralysis'".[163] CERP still remains controversial as the projects slated for Acceler8, environmental activists note, are those that benefit urban areas, and regions in the Everglades in desperate need of water are still being neglected, suggesting that water is being diverted to make room for more people in an already overtaxed environment.[164]

20

The Everglades

21

Future of the Everglades

In 2008, the State of Florida agreed to buy U.S. Sugar and all of its manufacturing and production facilities for an estimated $1.7billion.[165] Florida officials indicated they intended to allow U.S. Sugar to process for six more years before dismissing its employees and dismantling the plant. The area, which includes 187000 acres (760km2) of land, would then be rehabilitated and water flow from Lake Okeechobee would be restored.[165] In November 2008, the agreement was revised to offer $1.34billion, allowing sugar mills in Clewiston to remain in production.[166] Critics of the revised plan say that it ensures sugarcane will be grown in the Everglades for at least another decade.[167] Further research is being done to address the continuing production of sugarcane in the Everglades to minimize phosphorus runoff.[168] Everglades restoration received $96 million of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.[169] As a result of the stimulus package, a mile-long (1.6km) bridge to replace the Tamiami Trail, a road that borders Everglades National Park to the north and has blocked water from reaching the southern Everglades, was begun by the Army Corps of Engineers in December 2009. The next month work began to reconstruct the C-111 canal, east of the park that historically diverted water into Florida Bay.[170] [171] Governor Charlie Crist announced the same month that $50 million of state funds would be earmarked for Everglades restoration.[172] In May 2010, 5.5 miles (8.9km) of bridges were proposed to be added to the Tamiami Trail.[173]

Notes and references

[1] U.S. Geological Survey (1999). "Florida Everglades" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1182/ ). Circular 1182. U.S. Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-03-14. [2] "Old Florida Maps" (http:/ / scholar. library. miami. edu/ floridamaps/ view_image. php?image_name=dlp00020000580001001& group=english). scholar.library.miami.edu. . Retrieved 2008-08-22. [3] McMullen, Wallace (February 1953). "The Origin of the Term Everglades", American Speech, 28 (1), pp.2634. [4] Douglas, pp.78. [5] Dovell, J.E. (July 1947). "The Everglades Before Reclamation", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 26 (1), pp.144. [6] South Florida Water Management District (2002). "Everglades Information: Geology" (http:/ / glades. sfwmd. gov/ empact/ home/ 02_everglades/ 03_geology. shtml). "The Living Everglades". South Florida Water Management District. . Retrieved 2008-03-15. [7] Lodge. p.3. [8] Lodge, p.4 [9] Gleason, Patrick, Peter Stone, "Age, Origins, and Landscape Evolution of the Everglades Peatland" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8 [10] Lodge, pp.67. [11] "Florida Geological Survey: Tamiami Formation" (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ geology/ geologictopics/ rocks/ tamiami_fm. htm). Florida Department of Environmental Protection. January 24, 2006. . Retrieved 2008-04-29. [12] UF & USDA (1948), p. 2630. [13] UF & USDA (1948), p. 3033. [14] Lodge, p.10 [15] Florida Geological Survey (2006). "Miami Limestone" (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ geology/ geologictopics/ rocks/ miami_limestone. htm). Florida Department of Environmental Protection. . Retrieved 2008-03-15. [16] Ginsburg, Robert (March 1953). "Surface Rock in the Lower Everglades" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050503130449/ http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/ fiu/ enhj/ enh1105. html). Everglades Natural History (Everglades Natural History Association) 1 (1): 2124. Archived from the original (http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/ fiu/ enhj/ enh1105. html) on 2005-05-03. . Retrieved 2008-03-17. [17] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Watersheds and Coastal Waters (Big Cypress Watershed)" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esns/ bcw. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-03-17. [18] Duke University Wetland Center. "Historic Everglades Basin Topography" (http:/ / www. env. duke. edu/ wetland/ geology. htm). Everglades Field Trip. Duke University. . Retrieved 2008-03-15. [19] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Geology" (http:/ / sflwww. er. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esns/ geo. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-03-15. [20] South Florida Water Management District (2008). [South Florida Water Management District "Lake Okeechobee & Region"]. U.S. Department of the Interior. South Florida Water Management District. Retrieved 2008-07-21.

The Everglades
[21] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Hydrology" (http:/ / sflwww. er. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esns/ hydro. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-03-15. [22] Fling, H.; N. Aumen, T. Armentano, F. Mazzotti (December 2004). "The Role of Flow in the Everglades Landscape" (http:/ / edis. ifas. ufl. edu/ UW199). Circular 1452. University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS). . Retrieved 2008-03-15. [23] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Watersheds and Coastal Waters" (http:/ / sflwww. er. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esns/ koew. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-03-15. [24] Morgan, Curtis (February 6, 2010). "Cold took heavy toll on Florida wildlife", The Miami Herald, South Florida News. [25] Obeysekera, Jayantha; Browder, J., Hornrung, L., Harwell, M. (October 1999). "The natural South Florida system I: Climate, geology, and hydrology". Urban Ecosystems (Kluwer Academic Publishers) 3 (3/4): 223244. doi:10.1023/A:1009552500448. [26] Lodge, p.17. [27] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Climate" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esns/ clim. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-03-17. [28] Lodge,p.14. [29] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Regional Evaluation of Evapotranspiration in the Everglades" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ fs/ 168-96/ ). FS-168-96. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-03-17. [30] Lodge, p.14. [31] McCally, pp.910. [32] UF & USDA (1948), p. 35. [33] Lodge, p. 3839. [34] McCally, pp.1214. [35] McCally, pp.1517 [36] UF & USDA (1948), p. 79. [37] Lodge, p.38. [38] Lodge, pp.3941. [39] McCally, pp.1821. [40] George, p.13. [41] Douglas, p.11. [42] Whitney, p.168. [43] Jewell, p.46. [44] Whitney,p.168. [45] George, p.42. [46] Lodge, p.31. [47] George, p.14. [48] Lodge, p.29. [49] Whitney, p.164. [50] Whitney, p.163. [51] George, pp.4546. [52] Lodge, p.35. [53] George, p.30. [54] Douglas, pp.4849. [55] George, p.31. [56] U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. " South Florida Multi-Species Recovery Plan: Pine rockland (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ southeast/ vbpdfs/ commun/ pr. pdf)", Retrieved May 3, 2008. [57] George, pp.78. [58] "Land and Resource Management Projects" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ reports/ doi-science-plan/ managefire. html). DOI science plan in support of ecosystem restoration, preservation, and protection in South Florida. U.S. Geological Survey. April 26, 2007. . Retrieved 2008-05-02. [59] Lodge, p.66. [60] Lodge, p.63. [61] George, p.26. [62] Lodge, p.67. [63] Ripple, p.16. [64] Jewell, p.43. [65] Ripple, p.26. [66] Ripple, pp.3132.

22

The Everglades
[67] Katherisen, K. (2001). "Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems", Advances in Marine Biology, Alan J. Southward (ed.) 40, pp.18251. ISBN 978-0-12-026140-6. [68] Ripple, p.80. [69] George, p.19. [70] Jewell, p.41. [71] Whitney, p.286. [72] "About Florida Bay" (http:/ / www. floridabay. org/ intro. shtml). Sea Grant Florida. July 16, 2001. . Retrieved 2008-06-08. [73] Humphreys, Jay; Franz, Shelley, and Seaman, Bill (March 1993). "Florida's Estuaries: A Citizen's Guide to Coastal Living and Conservation" (http:/ / nsgl. gso. uri. edu/ flsgp/ flsgph93001. pdf) (PDF). National Atmosphere and Oceanic Administration and the Florida Department of Community Affairs. . Retrieved 2008-06-08. [74] "Ecosystems: Marine & Estuarine" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ marineestuarine. htm). National Park Service. July 30, 2007. . Retrieved 2008-05-04. [75] George, p.21. [76] Whitney, pp.313316. [77] McCally, p.34. [78] McCally, p.35. [79] McCally, pp.3739. [80] Tebeau (1968), pp.3841. [81] McCally, p.39. [82] Griffin, p.171. [83] Griffin, p.170. [84] Griffin, p.173. [85] Goggin, John (April 1940). "The Tekesta Indians of Southern Florida", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 18 (4), pp.274285. [86] Tebeau, p.43. [87] Tebeau, p.45. [88] Tebeau, p.50. [89] Tebeau, pp.5051 [90] Skinner, Alanson (JanuaryMarch 1913). "Notes on the Florida Seminole", American Anthropologist, 15 (1), pp.6377. [91] Griffin, p.180. [92] Tebeau, pp.5556. [93] "Images of Florida Seminoles in the Sunshine State" (http:/ / www. floridamemory. com/ PhotographicCollection/ photo_exhibits/ seminoles/ seminoles4. cfm). Florida Memory Project: Tourism. 1880s1981. . Retrieved 2008-06-20. [94] "Tourism/Enterprises" (http:/ / www. seminoletribe. com/ enterprises/ casinos. shtml). Seminole Tribe of Florida. 2007. . Retrieved 2008-04-30. [95] Tebeau, pp.6667. [96] Grunwald, p.42. [97] McCally, pp.6569. [98] Stephan, L. Lamar (December, 1942). "Geographic Role of the Everglades in the Early History of Florida", The Scientific Monthly, 55, (6) pp.515526. [99] Meindl, Christopher, et al. (December, 2002). "On the Importance of Claims-Making: The Role of James O. Wright in Promoting the Drainage of Florida's Everglades in the Early Twentieth Century", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 92 (4), pp.682701. [100] Dovell, Junius (July 1948). "The Everglades: A Florida Frontier", Agricultural History, 22 (3), pp.187197. [101] Davis, T. Frederick (January, 1939). "The Disston Land Purchase ", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 17 (3), pp.201211. [102] Grunwald, pp.9293. [103] Douglas p.286. [104] "Henry Flagler." Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement, Vol. 21. Gale Group, 2001. [105] "Henry Morrison Flagler." Dictionary of American Biography Base Set. American Council of Learned Societies, 1928-1936. [106] Bramson, Seth (1998). "A Tale of Three Henrys", The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, 23, Florida Theme Issue, pp.113143. [107] Bush, Gregory (May, 1999). "Playground of the USA", The Pacific Historical Review, 62 (2), pp.153172. [108] Carter, p.78. [109] Grunwald, pp.148149. [110] McCally, pp.124126. [111] Douglas, p.318. [112] McCally, p.117. [113] Grunwald, p.120. [114] Douglas, p.310. [115] McCally, pp. 117118. [116] Douglas, p.330. [117] Douglas, p.334.

23

The Everglades
[118] Grunwald, p.179. [119] Grunwald, pp.198199. [120] Grunwald, pp.199200. [121] McCally, p.9. [122] McCally, p.142. [123] "Conservation efforts" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ historyculture/ consefforts. htm). Everglades National Park. National Park Service. September 17, 2007. . Retrieved 2008-05-10. [124] Douglas, p.349. [125] Grunwald, p.219. [126] Lodge, p.224. [127] Grunwald, p.229. [128] Caulfield, p.55. [129] Lodge, p.223. [130] McCally, pp.159160. [131] Lodge, pp.225226. [132] McCally, pp.172173. [133] Grunwald, pp.283284. [134] Grunwald,p. 257. [135] Brooks, Paul (July 12, 1969). "Topics: Everglades Jetport A Blueprint for Disaster". The New York Times. p.26. [136] "Jets v. Everglades" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,898538-2,00. html). Time Magazine. August 22, 1969. . Retrieved 2008-05-10. [137] Nixon, Richard (February 8, 1972). "51 - Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program" (http:/ / www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=3731). The American Presidency Project. . Retrieved 2008-05-10. [138] "Environmental Setting: The Altered System" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esas/ index. html). Circular 1134. U.S. Geological Survey. November 2, 2004. . Retrieved 2008-05-19. [139] Davis, Jack (January 2003). "'Conservation is now a dead word': Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the transformation of American environmentalism." Environmental History, 8 (1) pp.5376. [140] Angier, Natalie (August 6, 1984). "Now You See It, Now You Don't" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,921744,00. html). Time. . Retrieved 2008-05-20. [141] "Kissimee River History" (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ evergladesforever/ about/ history. htm). Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2006. . Retrieved 2008-05-19. [142] Lodge, p.230. [143] Davis, Steven. "Phosphorus Inputs and Vegetation Sensitivity in the Everglades" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8 [144] Lodge, pp.231233. [145] "Florida Statutes (Supplement 1994) [Everglades Forever Act (http:/ / exchange. law. miami. edu/ everglades/ statutes/ state/ florida/ E_forever. htm)"]. Chapter 373: Water Resources, Part IV. Management and Storage of Surface Waters, 373.4592 Everglades improvement and management. University of Miami School of Law. 1997. . Retrieved 2008-05-21. [146] "Periphyton-based Stormwater Treatment Area (PSTA) Technology" (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ docs/ fs_psta_hires. pdf) (PDF). The Journey to Restore America's Everglades. December 2003. . Retrieved 2008-05-22. [147] Lodge, pp.237240. [148] Tasker, Georgia (August 22, 1998). "Federal Experts Warn of Alien Plant Invasion", The Miami Herald. [149] Lodge, p.241. [150] Lodge, p.242. [151] Lodge, pp.243244. [152] Lodge, p.244. [153] "Snake bursts after gobbling gator" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ 4313978. stm). BBC News. October 5, 2005. . Retrieved 2008-03-14. [154] Everglades National Park Burmese Python: Species Profile (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ burmesepython. htm) Everglades National Park website. Retrieved on November 5, 2009. [155] Lodge, pp. 244245. [156] "Chapter 1: Background and understanding" (http:/ / dlis. dos. state. fl. us/ fgils/ agencies/ sust/ tocs. html). The Governor's Commission for a Sustainable South Florida. State of Florida. October 1, 1995. . Retrieved 2008-05-23. [157] US Army COE and SFWMD, p.iii. [158] US Army COE and SFWMD, pp.ivv. [159] Schmitt, Eric (October 20, 2000). "Everglades Restoration Plan Passes House, With Final Approval Seen", The New York Times, p. 1. [160] US Army COE and SFWMD, pp.viiix. [161] "Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 2000" (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ wrda2000/ wrda. aspx). The Journey to Restore America's Everglades. November 4, 2002. . Retrieved 2008-05-23.

24

The Everglades
[162] "Restoring the River of Grass" (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ evergladesforever/ ). Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2006. . Retrieved 2008-05-24. [163] Goodnough, Abby (November 2, 2007). "Vast Effort to Save Everglades Falters as U.S. Funds Dwindle", The New York Times, Section A, p.1. [164] Grunwald, Michael (October 14, 2004). "Fla. Steps In to Speed Up State-Federal Everglades Cleanup", The Washington Post, p.A03. [165] Damien Cave; John Holusha (2008-06-24). "Florida to Buy Sugar Maker in Bid to Restore Everglades" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 06/ 25/ us/ 24cnd-sugar. html?hp). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-06-24. [166] Cave, Damien (November 12, 2008). "Everglades Deal Shrinks to Sale of Land, Not Assets", The New York Times, p. 16. [167] Bussey, Jane, Morgan, Curtis (November 16, 2008). "Land deal could lift U.S. Sugar's sagging fortunes: Is it a buyout or a bailout? Either way, a pending deal to sell land to the state for Everglades restoration could reverse Big Sugar's flagging finances", The Miami Herald (Florida). [168] Yao, Stephanie (March 24, 2010). Sugarcane Okay in Standing Water, Helps Protect Everglades (http:/ / www. ars. usda. gov/ is/ pr/ 2010/ 100324. htm), Agricultural Research Service U.S. Department of Agriculture. Retrieved on August 9, 2010. [169] Morgan, Curtis, Clark, Lesley (April 29, 2009). "River of Cash: Stimulus Aid for Glades", The Miami Herald, p1A. [170] Morgan, Curtis (January 27, 2010). "Canal work begins in Everglades project", The Miami Herald, South Florida news. [171] Jackson, Susan (December 2009). Everglades supporters celebrate Tamiami Trail groundbreaking (http:/ / www. saj. usace. army. mil/ Divisions/ Executive/ Branches/ CCO/ DOCS/ JaxStrong/ v1-4_JaxStrong_Dec2009. pdf), Army Corps of Engineers Bulletin Jaxstrong, 1 (4), p. 3. Retrieved on February 11, 2010. [172] Skoloff, Brian (January 22, 2010). "Gov. Crist proposes $2.1 billion for environment", The Miami Herald, Florida news. [173] Gibson, William (May 19, 2010). Federal officials plan to add more bridges to let Everglades water flow under U.S. 41 (http:/ / articles. sun-sentinel. com/ 2010-05-19/ business/ fl-everglades-washington-forum-20100519_1_everglades-projects-everglades-water-flow-everglades-foundation), Florida Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved on August 9, 2010.

25

Bibliography
Barnett, Cynthia (2007). Mirage: Florida and the Vanishing Water of the Eastern U.S., University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11563-4 Carter, W. Hodding (2004). Stolen Water: Saving the Everglades from its Friends, Foes, and Florida, Atria Books. ISBN 0-7434-7407-4 Caulfield, Patricia (1970) Everglades, Sierra Club / Ballantine Books. ISBN 345023536395 Douglas, Marjory S. (1947). The Everglades: River of Grass. R. Bemis Publishing. ISBN 0-912451-44-0 Douglas, Marjory; Rothchild, John (1987). Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River. Pineapple Press. ISBN 0910923941 George, Jean (1972). Everglades Wildguide. National Park Service. Gov. doc #I 29.62:Ev2 Griffin, John (2002). Archeology of the Everglades. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2558-3 Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5107-5 Hann, John (ed.) (1991). Missions to the Calusa. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1966-4 Jewell, Susan (1993). Exploring Wild South Florida: A Guide to Finding the Natural Areas and Wildlife of the Everglades and Florida Keys, Pineapple Press, Inc. ISBN 1-56164-023-9 Lodge, Thomas E. (2005). The Everglades Handbook. Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN 1-884015-06-9 McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2302-5 Ripple, Jeff (1992). Big Cypress Swamp and the Ten Thousand Islands: Eastern America's Last Great Wilderness, University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 0-87249-842-5 Tebeau, Charlton (1968). Man in the Everglades: 2000 Years of Human History in the Everglades National Park. University of Miami Press. Toops, Connie (1998). The Florida Everglades. Voyageur Press. ISBN 0-89658-372-4 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and South Florida Water Management District (April 1999). "Summary", Central and Southern Florida Project Comprehensive Review Study (http://www.evergladesplan.org/docs/

The Everglades comp_plan_apr99/summary.pdf). University of Florida Agricultural Experiment Station and United States Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service (March 1948). Bulletin 442: Soils, Geology, and Water Control in the Everglades Region. Whitney, Ellie et al., eds. (2004) Priceless Florida: Natural Ecosystems and Native Species. Pineapple Press, Inc. ISBN 978-1-56164-309-7

26

External links
Geography and ecology Everglades National Park (http://www.nps.gov/ever/index.htm) and Big Cypress National Preserve (http:// www.nps.gov/bicy/index.htm) Arthur R. Marshall National Wildlife Refuge (US Fish & Wildlife Service) (http://loxahatchee.fws.gov/) Everglades Cooperative Invasive Species Management Area (http://www.evergladescisma.org/) History A History of the Everglades (http://sofia.usgs.gov/memorials/dovell/#thesis) World Wide Fund for Nature A Recent History of Everglades Regulation and Litigation (http://www. worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0904_full.html) Restoration The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) (http://www.evergladesplan.org/) The Everglades Foundation (http://www.evergladesfoundation.org/) The Everglades Coalition (http://www.evergladescoalition.org/) South Florida Information Access (U.S. Geological Survey) (http://sofia.usgs.gov) Environment Florida Founders of The "Save The Everglades" campaign (http://www.environmentflorida.org) ACCELER8 (Everglades Restoration) (http://evergladesnow.org/) Friends of the Everglades (http://www.everglades.org/) South Florida Environmental Report (South Florida Water Management District and Florida DEP) (http://www. sfwmd.gov/sfer/)

Media Everglades Digital Library (http://everglades.fiu.edu/) Water's Journey: Everglades Comprehensive film and web documentary about the Everglades (http://www. TheEvergladesStory.org/) The Everglades in the Time of Marjorie Stoneman Douglas (http://www.floridamemory.com/ PhotographicCollection/photo_exhibits/everglades.cfm) (Photo exhibit) Everglades images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu (http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/ecoregions/ 60904frame.htm) ( Slow modem version (http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/ecoregions/60904.htm)) The Everglades in Peril (http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2010/10/08/opinion/20101008_LR_Florida. html) - slideshow by The New York Times

27

Ecology
Geography and ecology of the Everglades
The geography and ecology of the Everglades involve the complex elements affecting the natural environment throughout the southern region of the U.S. state of Florida. Before drainage, the Everglades were an interwoven mesh of marshes and prairies covering 4000 square miles (10000km2). The Everglades is simultaneously a vast watershed that has historically extended from Lake Okeechobee 100 miles (160km) south to Florida Bay (around one-third of the southern Florida peninsula), and many interconnected ecosystems within a geographic boundary. It is such a unique meeting of water, land, and climate that the use of either singular or plural to refer to the Everglades is appropriate.[1] When Marjory Stoneman Douglas wrote her definitive description of the region in 1947, she used the metaphor "River of Grass" to explain the blending of water and plant life. Although sawgrass and sloughs are the enduring geographical icons of the Everglades, other ecosystems are just as vital, and the borders marking them are subtle or nonexistent. Pinelands and tropical hardwood hammocks are located throughout the sloughs; the trees, rooted in soil inches above the peat, marl, or water, support a variety of wildlife. The oldest and tallest trees are cypresses, whose roots are specially adapted to grow underwater for months at a time. The Big Cypress Swamp is well-known for its 500-year-old cypresses, though cypress domes can appear throughout the Everglades.

A satellite image of the lower Florida peninsula showing darkened portions south of Lake Okeechobee as the Everglades and Big Cypress Swamp. The reddish area bordering the large inland lake is the Everglades Agricultural Area.

As

the

fresh

Geography and ecology of the Everglades

28

water from Lake Okeechobee makes its way to Florida Bay, it meets salt water from the Gulf of Mexico; mangrove forests grow in this transitional zone, providing nursery and nesting conditions for many species of birds, fish, and invertebrates. The marine environment of Florida Bay is also considered part of the Everglades because its sea grasses and aquatic life are attracted to the constant discharge of fresh water. These ecological systems are always changing due to environmental factors. Geographic features such as the Western Flatwoods, Eastern Flatwoods, and the A sawgrass prairie with a tree island in the distance in the Everglades Atlantic Coastal Ridge affect drainage patterns. Geologic elements, climate, and the frequency of storms and fire are formative processes for the Everglades. They help to sustain and transform the ecosystems in the Shark River Valley, Big Cypress Swamp, coastal areas and mangrove forests. Ecosystems have been described as both fragile and resilient. Minor fluctuations in water levels have far-reaching consequences for many plant and animal species, and the system cycles and pulses with each change.

Shaping processes of ecosystems

Water
At only 5,000years of age, the Everglades is a young region in geological terms. Its ecosystems are in constant flux due to three factors: the type and amount of water present, the geology of the region, and the frequency and severity of fires.[2] [3] Water is the dominant element in the Everglades, and it shapes the land, vegetation, and animal life of South Florida. The South Florida climate was once arid and semi-arid, interspersed with wet periods. Between 10,000 and 20,000years ago, sea levels rose, submerging portions of the Florida peninsula and causing the water table to rise. A storm over the Shark River in the Everglades, Fresh water saturated the limestone, eroding some of it and creating 1966 springs and sinkholes. The abundance of fresh water allowed new Photo:Charles Barron / State Library and Archives of Florida vegetation to take root, and through evaporation formed thunderstorms. Limestone was dissolved by the slightly acidic rainwater. The limestone wore away, and groundwater came into contact with the surface, creating a massive wetland ecosystem.[4] Although the region appears flat, the wearing away of the limestone in some areas created slight valleys and plateausa difference of inches in elevationthat affected not only the flow of water, but also types of vegetation present. The Everglades are unique; no other wetland system in the world is nourished primarily from the atmosphere.[5] Before the first attempt at draining the Everglades in 1882, the entire watershed extended from Orlando to Florida Bay comprising the KissimmeeLake OkeechobeeEverglades (KLOE) watershed. Kissimmee River outlets flow into Lake Okeechobee, which sits 18 feet (5.5m) above sea level.[6] Only two seasons exist in the Everglades: wet

Geography and ecology of the Everglades (May to November) and dry (December to April). Average annual rainfall in the Everglades is approximately 62 inches (160cm), though fluctuations of precipitation are normal.[7] Droughts, floods, and tropical storms are normal occurrences in the area.[8] When Lake Okeechobee exceeds its water storage capacity during the wet season, it pours slowly over the southern rim and flows for 100 miles (160km) to Florida Bay. The gradient change is so slight that the river moves only 2 feet (0.61m) a minute.[9] Sawgrass thrives in this river, dominates freshwater marshes and sloughs, and is the main characteristic of the region. Severe weather, in the form of tropical storms and hurricanes, also affects the structure of the Everglades. Between 1871 and 2003, 40tropical cyclones struck the Everglades, usually every one to three years.[10] [11] These storms alter the coastline, flush decaying vegetation from estuaries, strip weakened branches from trees, and disperse seeds, pollen, and plant material.[12] Hurricane Donna in 1960 affected 120 square miles (310km2) of mangrove forests by depositing marl over the roots and depriving the trees of oxygen. It also eradicated orchids, bromeliads, and other epiphytes that once flourished in the mangroves; their reappearance may take a century or more. Donna also significantly spread buttonwood, saltwort, and glasswort, and epiphytes began to grow in new areas.[13] Although the lasting effects remain to be seen, Hurricane Andrew in 1992 also destroyed mangrove forests and snapped slash pines in half. However, regrowth occurred quickly, and sand deposited by the storm surge improved nesting conditions for crocodiles and sea turtles.[14]

29

Geology
Further information: Everglades#Geology A vast marshland could only have been formed due to the underlying rock formations in southern Florida.[15] The floor of the Everglades formed between 25million and 2million years ago when the Florida peninsula was a shallow sea floor. The peninsula has been covered by sea water at least seven times since the earliest bedrock formation.[15] The rock that makes up the Everglades floor was created as layers of calcium carbonate were compressed by ocean water, making limestone. Fossilized bryozoans and tiny shells, or ooids, make the limestone porous. Water is stored in the rock, sometimes from one year to the next.[16] The length of time that a region in the Everglades remains flooded, called a hydroperiod,[4] determines what particular soils and vegetation are present. Shorter hydroperiods of three or four months promote the growth of periphyton: algae and other microscopic organisms covered with calcium carbonate crystals.[15] Periphyton is the basic building block of marl, a calcitic mud. In areas with hydroperiods of longer than nine months, peat builds up over hundreds or thousands of years due to many generations of decaying plant matter. Peat and marl are considered nutrient-poor soils that foster the growth of specialized vegetation depending on the length of the regional hydroperiod. Five types of peat appear in the Everglades system; each type supports a specific type of vegetation, such as sawgrass, tree islands, or custard apple trees.[17] Peat buildup is possible because water prevents oxygen from quickly decomposing plant matter. Once peat buildup reaches the surface, oxygen reacts with the microorganisms to decay the peat rapidly in a process called subsidence. Initial attempts at developing agriculture near Lake Okeechobee were successful, but the nutrients in the peat quickly deteriorated by drying, and were broken down by bacteria in the soil. The dried peat burned or was degraded into carbon dioxide and water by microorganisms. Some homes built near early farms had to restructure their foundations on stilts as the peat deteriorated; other areas lost approximately 8 feet (2.4m) of soil depth.[18] Between the 1880s and 2005, an estimated 3.4 billion metric tons of soil has been lost in the Everglades due to oxidation. Most of that loss occurs in the Everglades Agricultural Area; the least amount of loss is found in Everglades National Park.[19]

Geography and ecology of the Everglades

30

Fire
Fire is another important element in the maintenance of the Everglades. The majority are caused by lightning strikes from thunderstorms during the wet season. Their effects are largely superficial, and serve to foster further plant growth: sawgrass will burn above water, but the roots are preserved. Fire in the sawgrass marshes serves to keep out larger bushes and trees, and releases nutrients from decaying plant matter more efficiently than decomposition.[20] Large burned areas also affect waterflow, since wind and water are undeterred by the eradicated sawgrass; water may flow two to three times faster in recently burned areas.[21] During the wet season only dead plant matter and the tips of Fire near a cypress dome in the Turner River area plants are burned; however, the effects of fire are much more in the early 1920s significant in the dry season, as fire may be fed by organic peat and burn deeply, destroying root systems. The only impediment to the spread of fire in the Everglades is the presence of water. It takes around 225years for one foot (0.3m) of peat to develop, but the peat is not as dense as it should be for the 5,000years of the Everglades' existence. Scientists point to fire as the reason.[3] Researchers have noted that fires appear in cycles associated with those of the hydroperiods.[3] The first cycle is the annual wet-season fires that occur with rapid frequency during the summer, but are quickly extinguished. Dry-season fires are rarer due to the lack of lightning, but their damage may be more pervasive.[20] A longer fire cycle spanning ten to fourteen years coincides with similar water cycles affected by global climate conditions. Fires in this cycle may be numerous and have little effect, or rare and have catastrophic consequences. The third cycle appears in a 550-year frequency associated with severe drought. Layers of charcoal have been detected inside peat in parts of the Everglades, indicating the region endured severe fires for years at a time, although this trend seems to have abated since the last occurrence around 940 BCE.[3]

Geography and ecology of the Everglades

31

Ecosystem characteristics
The Everglades are dominated by sawgrass in water; this is the titular "River of Grass" popularized by Marjory Stoneman Douglas in 1947. This river contains a wide variety of plant and animal life. An early American environmentalist named Gifford Pinchot said of the Everglades, "It is a region so different that it hardly seems to belong to the United States. It is full of the most vivid and most interesting life on land, in the air, and in the water. It is a land of strangeness, separate and apart from the common things we all know so well."[22] The sawgrass grows in prairies or strands, in between channels of water in a shallow river 100 miles (160km) long and 60 miles (97km) wide flowing from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay. Some authors refer to the sawgrass and water combination as the "true Everglades" or just "the Glades".[23] [24] Prior to the first drainage attempts in 1905, the sheetflow, or the wide shallow river starting in Lake Okeechobee, occupied nearly a third of the lower Florida peninsula.[4] Though sawgrass remains the main feature of the Everglades, other ecosystems are scattered among the marshes and prairies, and their borders are sometimes imperceptible.

Sawgrass marsh

Most marshes in the Everglades are dominated by the sedge known as Cladium, or sawgrass in common terminology. The sedge is a three-dimensional v-shaped stalk with upward-pointing teeth. Sawgrass thrives in the slowly moving water, but may die if oxygen is unable to reach its roots and is particularly vulnerable to floods immediately after a fire.[25] Some of the sawgrass can grow up to 6 feet (1.8m) tall, and directly south of Lake Okeechobee it has grown to 10 feet (3.0m). Farther south, where the peat is not as rich, it typically grows 4 feet (1.2m) tall in patches, as opposed to the prairies of the upper glades.[26] The hydroperiod for the marsh is usually nine months but can last longer. In shorter hydroperiods, marl may form instead of peat.[27] Where sawgrass grows densely, few animals or other plants thrive, although alligators often choose these locations for nesting. Where there is more room, periphyton grows, appearing as mats or brown sausage-shaped chunks. Periphyton is predominantly algae, although over 100different microorganisms help create it.[28] Larval insects and amphibians are supported by periphyton; these in turn provide food for birds, fish, and reptiles. Periphyton also absorbs calcium from the water, which creates marl where sawgrass takes root.[29]

Major landscape types in the Everglades before human action. Source: U.S. Geological Survey

Freshwater sloughs
Sloughs are channels of free-flowing water in between the sawgrass marshes. Sloughs are deeper than sawgrass marshes, about 3 feet (0.91m), and may stay flooded for at least 11months out of the year if not multiple years in a row.[30] The peat beds that support sawgrass are slightly elevated and may begin abruptly creating ridges of grass. The borders between these systems are called "ridge-and-slough" landscapes. Aquatic animals such as turtles, young alligators, snakes, and fish live in sloughs and they usually feed on aquatic invertebrates, such as the Florida apple snail.[31] Plants grow here, usually submerged or floating like bladderwort (Utricularia), waterlily (Nymphaeaceae), or spatterdock (Nuphar lutea). Major sloughs in the Everglades system include the Shark River Slough draining to Florida Bay, Lostmans Slough bordering The Big Cypress, and Taylor Slough in the eastern Everglades.

Geography and ecology of the Everglades

32

A cross section of fresh water ecosystems in the Everglades, with relative average water depths

Wet prairie
Two kinds of wet prairies thrive in the Everglades: marl and water-marsh community. Wet prairies are slightly elevated like sawgrass marshes, but contain abundant plant diversity. Marl prairies are located where marl covers limestone that may protrude as pinnacles or erode into solution holes: depressions formed by the same processes that create sinkholes. Solution holes, however, do not meet the water table; they are filled with rain water.[32] The surface is covered only three to seven months of the year, but the water is usually just 4 inches (10cm) deep.[33] Marl is created by layers of periphyton loosely attached to the limestone, and forms a grey or white crumbly mud when it dries. When flooded, the marl can support a variety of water plants, and dwarf cypresses may grow for hundreds of years though not exceed 10 feet (3.0m) in height.[34] Solution holes may remain flooded even when the prairies are dry, and they support aquatic An alligator amid strands of invertebrates such as crayfish and snails, as well as larval amphibians which feed periphyton in the Everglades young wading birds.[35] Where the predominant soil is peat, a water-marsh community exists. Its hydroperiod is longer than the marl prairie, although its plants are less diverse. These regions tend to be on the border between sloughs and sawgrass marshes. Alligators have created an ecological niche in wet prairies; they dig at low spots with their claws and snouts and create ponds free of vegetation that remain submerged throughout the dry season. Alligator holes are integral to the survival of aquatic invertebrates, turtles, fish, small mammals, and birds during extended drought periods. Alligators feed upon animals that visit the hole.[36] [37]

Geography and ecology of the Everglades

33

Tropical hardwood hammock

Islands of trees featuring dense temperate or tropical trees are called tropical hardwood hammocks.[38] They may rise between 1 and 3 feet (0.30 and 0.91 m) above water level in freshwater sloughs, sawgrass prairies, or pineland. These islands illustrate the difficulty of characterizing the climate of the Everglades as tropical or subtropical. Hammocks in the northern portion of the Everglades consist of more temperate plant species, but closer to Florida Bay the trees are tropical and smaller shrubs are more prevalent. Tropical trees like the West Indian mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni) were probably spread by birds carrying seeds from the West Indies.[39] These hammocks form on slightly elevated areas unharmed by deep peat fires or limestone plateaus rising several inches above the surrounding peat. Hardwood In a tropical hardwood hammock, hammocks exhibit a mixture of subtropical and hardwood trees that grow in very plants are very dense and diverse. dense clumps, such as Southern live oak (Quercus virginiana), gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba), royal palm (Roystonea), and willow bustic (Dipholis salicifolia).[40] Near the bases of hammocks sharp saw palmettos (Serenoa repens) flourish, making the hammocks very difficult to penetrate. Water in sloughs flow around the islands creating moats. Though some ecosystems are maintained and promoted by fire, hammocks may take decades or centuries to recover; the moats are therefore essential for protection.[41] Islands vary in size, but most range between 1 and 10 acres (0.40 and 4.0 ha); the water slowly flowing around them limits their size and gives them a teardrop appearance from above.[42] The height of the trees is limited by factors such as frost, lightning, and wind: the majority of trees in hammocks grow no higher than 55 feet (17m). Florida strangler figs (Ficus aurea) are common in hammocks, and find particular ease in rooting at the heads of cabbage palms (Sabal palmetto). After taking root into the ground, they build complex frameworks around the host tree, eventually squeezing out light and nutrients, and essentially taking its place.[43] A variety of invertebrates including beetles, ants, spiders, and tree snails support a food chain that includes frogs, owls and other birds of prey, snakes, rodents, bobcats, and raccoons. There are more than 50varieties of tree snails in the Everglades; the color patterns and designs unique to single islands may be a result of the isolation of certain hammocks.[44] Tropical hardwood hammocks in the Everglades have been harvested for lumber, particularly by shipbuilders seeking West Indian mahogany and black ironwood (Krugiodendron ferreum). The largest and most mature of these trees had been removed by the late 18th century.[39] Seminoles made their villages in hammocks in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; they lived in groups of chickees numbering half a dozen, with one central chickee for cooking and another for eating. Dugout canoes, cookware, stills, and sewing machines may still be found in remote locations.[45] Bayheads and willowheads Some hammocks are dominated by types of vegetation that grow in relation to the amount of water or type of soil present. The majority of hardwood hammocks create a thin poor soil covering the limestone called humus, made of decaying plant matter and moisture trapped by the structure of the trees. When peat forms the layer atop the limestone of a tree island, bayheads develop, dominated by bay trees such as sweetbay magnolia (Magnolia virginiana) and others like swamp holly (Ilex decidua), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), and cocoplum (Chrysobalanus icaco).[46] Willowheads, dominated by willow trees (Salix caroliniana), take hold where the hydroperiod is long, usually around solution or alligator holes, and may surround the holes, giving them a donut appearance from above.[47]

Geography and ecology of the Everglades

34

Flatwoods and the Atlantic Coastal Ridge

The prairies and sloughs of the Everglades system are bordered by two areas of poorly drained sandy soil on both sides of Lake Okeechobee: the Eastern Flatwoods and the Western Flatwoods just north of Big Cypress Swamp. The predominant ecosystem in the Flatwoods is pine forest, but there are also cypress swamps and sloughs in the Eastern Flatwoods.[48] Along the eastern border of the Everglades is the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, rising 20 feet (6.1m) in elevation, and curving to the southwest, gradually decreasing in elevation until it meets Taylor Slough. The Coastal Ridge prevents Everglades water from flowing into the Atlantic Ocean to the east, directing it southwesterly into Florida Bay. The South Florida metropolitan area is located on a portion of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, and much of the landscape has changed drastically within the past 100years as a result of urban growth.

Pine rockland

The Pine rockland ecosystem is dominated by South Florida slash pines and shrubs like saw palmettos.

Pine rocklands (also called pinelands) are found on uneven limestone substrates that contain pinnacles and solution holes. There are three primary locations of pine rocklands: the Miami Ridge, which runs from Miami into Long Pine Key near the main entrance of Everglades National Park; the lower Florida Keys; and the Big Cypress Swamp.[49] The most significant feature of the pine rockland ecosystem is the South Florida slash pine (Pinus elliotti var densa; also called Dade County pine) that reaches a height of 22 feet (6.7m). Pine rockland communities require fire for maintenance; they have adapted to promote and resist fire at the same time.[50] These communities are located in the highest part of the Everglades with little to no hydroperiod, although some floors may have flooded solution holes or puddles for a few months at a time. The sandy floor of the pine rocklands is covered with dry pine needles that are highly flammable. South Florida slash pines are insulated by their bark to protect them from heat. Fire eliminates competing vegetation on the forest floor, and opens pine cones to germinate seeds.[51] A period without significant fire can turn pineland into hardwood hammock as larger trees overtake the slash pines.[52] The understory shrubs in pine rocklands include fire-resistant species like saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto), and West Indian lilac (Tetrazygia bicolor). The most diverse group of plants in the pine community are herbs, of which two dozen species exist. These plants contain tubers and other mechanisms allowing for quick sprouts after charring.[53] Wildlife in pine rockland communities is diverse. In some forests, 15species of birds can be found. Common among them are the pine warbler (Dendroica pinus), the red-bellied woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus), and the eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna). More than 20species of reptiles and amphibians have been noted, such as the green anole (Anolis carolinensis), southern leopard frog (Rana sphenocephala), and southern black racer (Coluber constrictor priapus). Mammals such as the critically endangered Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi), Florida black bear (Ursus americanus floridanus), and several types of bats also live in the pine rocklands.[50] Before urban development of the South Florida region, pine rocklands covered around 161660 acres (654.2km2) in Miami-Dade County. Pine forests were extensively cleared by urban developers and the lumber industry in the 1930s and 1940s.[50] Within Everglades National Park, 19840 acres (80.3km2) of pine rockland communities are protected, but outside the park, 1780 acres (7.2km2) of pine forests remain as of 1990, averaging 12.1 acres (0.049km2) in size.[50] Dade County pine has a remarkable longevity and has proven to be termite-resistant, though dense enough to make driving nails difficult.[54] In 1984 they were protected by a county ordinance, after many pine areas had been depleted. A misunderstanding of fire's role also played a part in the disappearance of pine forests, as natural fires were put out and pine rocklands transitioned into hardwood hammocks.[50] Today prescribed fires occur in Everglades National Park in pine rocklands every three to seven years.

Geography and ecology of the Everglades

35

The Big Cypress

West of the sawgrass prairies and sloughs lies the Big Cypress Swamp, commonly called "The Big Cypress", referring to its size rather than the height or diameter of its trees. It takes up the majority of Collier County; at its most limited measurement, the swamp measures 1200 square miles (3100km2), but its hydrological boundary is nearly twice as large.[55] [56] The Big Cypress is slightly elevated at 22 feet (6.7m) at its highest point and slopes gradually to the coastline for approximately 35 miles (56km). Because the defining feature of The Big Cypress is the abundance of trees, it is considered a swamp rather than a marsh, in which grass is the main characteristic. The basin for The Big Cypress receives on average 55 inches (140cm) of water in the rainy season.[57] Most of The Big Cypress sits atop a bedrock covered by a thin layer of limestone that contains quartz, creating a sandy soil that hosts a variety of vegetation.[56] The majority of trees are bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) and not true cypresses (Cupressaceae). Cypresses are conifers that are uniquely adapted to thrive in flooded conditions, with buttressed trunks and root projections that protrude out of the water, called "knees".[58] Cypress trees in the area can live for hundreds of years; some giants grow to 130 feet (40m) and are 500years old. Still, they may be only seventh- or eighth-generation cypresses. Few massive trees survived the logging operations that took place in the 1930s and 1940s. As a result, much of The Big Cypress is protected by various federal or state agencies that include Big Cypress National Preserve, Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary, Fakahatchee Strand State Preserve and two Indian reservations.[59]

Cypress head
Although The Big Cypress is the largest growth of cypress swamps in South Florida, such swampsas well as portions of sawgrass marshescan be found near the Atlantic Coastal Ridge and between Lake Okeechobee and the Eastern flatwoods. Hardwood hammocks and pineland are often interspersed with the cypress ecosystem. Much like tree islands that are colloquially referred to as "heads", cypress trees grow in formations that resemble domes, with the tallest and thickest trunks in the center, rooted in the deepest peat. As the peat A pond in The Big Cypress thins out, cypresses continue to grow, but are smaller and thinner, giving the small forest the appearance of a dome.[60] They also grow in strands, slightly elevated on a plateau of limestone and surrounded on two sides by sloughs.[61] Other hardwood trees can be found in cypress domes, such as red maple (Acer rubrum), swamp bay (Persea palustris), and pop ash (Fraxinus caroliniana). If cypresses are removed, hardwoods take over, and the ecosystem is recategorized as a mixed swamp forest. Because the cypress domes and strands retain moisture and block out much of the sunlight, plants such as orchids, bromeliads, and ferns thrive in cypress domes and strands. Orchids bloom throughout the year in cypress heads, and bromeliads appear in many varieties; on Fakahatchee Strand alone, thirteen species have been documented.[62] Bromeliads collect moisture from rain and humidity in the bases of their leaves, which also nurture frogs, lizards and various insects. Wood storks (Mycteria americana) nest almost exclusively in cypress forests and in the past 100years have seen a dramatic decline, probably due to lack of reproduction tied to controlled water. Wood storks' reproductive cycles coincide with the dry season, when small fish and amphibians are trapped in shallow pools and puddles. When water from canals or locks is released too soon or not at all, storks are unable to find enough food for themselves and their offspring. An estimated 20,000wood storks nested in The Big Cypress in the 1930s, but by the 1990s less than 2,000 were counted.[63]

Geography and ecology of the Everglades

36

Mangrove and Coastal prairie

Water from Lake Okeechobee and The Big Cypress eventually flows to the ocean. At a transitional zone where fresh water meets salt water, mangrove trees thrive, adapted as they are to both kinds of water. This brackish mixture of water and mangrove systems, crisscrossed by hundreds of tidal creeks, harbors a very productive ecosystem. The depth of these zones is dependent on how much water flows from the Everglades. In the wet season, fresh water pours into Florida Bay and sawgrass appears near the coastline. In dryer years, salt water creeps inland to the coastal prairie, an ecosystem that buffers the freshwater Red mangrove trees bordering a canal in the marshes by absorbing sea water. Mangrove trees grow in fresh water Everglades near Flamingo ecosystems when the salt water flows far enough inland.[64] The Everglades have the most extensive contiguous system of mangroves in the world.[65] The mangrove forests of the Ten Thousand Islands cover almost 200000 acres (810km2).[66]

Mangrove
Three species of mangrove trees exist in the region: red (Rhizophora mangle), black (Avicennia germinans), and white (Laguncularia racemosa), although all are from different families.[67] All have the same characteristics: they are tolerant of salt, brackish, and fresh water; they grow in oxygen-poor soil; and they can survive drastic water-level changes.[68] Black and white mangroves excrete salt from under their leaves, and red mangroves filter the salinity of sea water. All species are integral to coastline protection during severe storms. Red mangroves, for example, have far-reaching roots that trap sediments. The trees not only stabilize coastlines, but add land as more sand and decaying vegetation is trapped in the root systems. All three mangroves also absorb the energy of waves and storm surges. The estuaries act as fisheries for fry and nurseries for crustaceans. Shrimp, oysters, crabs, whelks, cockles, and snails thrive in these waters, as do primordial horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus). The region supports a $59million-a-year Tortugas pink shrimp (Farfantepenaeus duorarum) industry, and a $22million-a-year stone crab (Menippe mercenaria) industry.[69] Between 80 and 90percent of species that are harvested commercially in Florida are born or spend time in the shallow waters near the Everglades.[66] [70] Oysters and mangroves work in tandem to build up the coastline. The sand around the coastline has minute white particles of quartz and fine shells. When currents are right, oysters grow in colonies or beds, and deposit their shells, reinforcing the bed. Mangrove seeds, called propagules, are full embryos and float in water until they reach a favorable location and take root, often on oyster beds. They shed skin and litter, ensuring other trees will not compete for space and nutrients.[71] Mangroves also serve as excellent rookeries for birds. Wading birds, such as roseate spoonbills (Platalea ajaja), egrets, and tricolored herons (Egretta tricolor) use the mangroves as a nursery, due to the proximity of food sources and the protection offered from most prey. Thousands of birds can nest in the mangroves at once, making a noisy and messy colony, but their droppings fertilize the mangrove trees.[72] Shorebirds like rails, terns and gulls; diving birds such as pelicans and grebes; and birds of prey such as ospreys, hawks and vultures are among the more than 100 species of birds that use Everglades mangrove trees to raise their young.

Geography and ecology of the Everglades

37

Florida Bay
Because much of the coast and inner estuaries are built by mangrovesand there is no border between the coastal marshes and the baythe ecosystems in Florida Bay are considered part of the Everglades. More than 800 square miles (2100km2) of Florida Bay is protected by Everglades National Park, representing the largest body of water in the park boundaries.[73] There are approximately one hundred keys in Florida Bay, many of which are mangrove forests.[74] Larger islands may be taken over by hardwood hammocks. The outer rims of the Ten Thousand Islands and Cape Sable share characteristics of the intertwining saltwater bays and fresh water marshes.

A clump of mangroves in the distance, Florida Bay at Flamingo

The fresh water entering Florida Bay from the Everglades creates ideal conditions for vast beds of turtle grass and algae formations that foster animal life in the bay. Sea turtles and manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) eat the grass, while invertebrates such as worms, clams, and other mollusks consume algae formations and microscopic plankton.[75] Female sea turtles return annually to nest on the shore, and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay. The Calusa Indians had various uses for shells of marine invertebrates, due to the lack of dense rock with which to make tools. They used the horse conch (Pleuroploca gigantea), left-handed whelk (Busycon contrarium), and the Florida crown conch (Melongena corona) as drinking vessels, picks, hammers, knives and awls.[76] Sea grasses stabilize sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves. Shrimp, spiny lobsters, and sea urchins live in and among the grasses and feed on phytoplankton; they in turn feed larger predators such as sharks, rays, barracuda, and king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla).[77] Due to shallow water and abundant sunlight, Florida Bay hosts communities of coral reefs and sponges, although the majority of the state's reefs are closer to the Florida Keys.[78] Everglades keys that foster mangroves also support nurseries for wading birds such as the Great white heron (Ardea herodias), which was almost wiped out in the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 (only 146 were counted afterward).[79] After recovering to number more than 2,000, they were further endangered by Hurricane Donna in 1960, which decreased their numbers by 35 to 40percent.[80] Sea floor patterns of Florida Bay are formed by currents and winds. However, since 1932, sea levels have been rising at a rate of 1 foot (0.30m) per 100years.[81] Though mangroves serve to build and stabilize the coastline, seas may be rising more rapidly than the trees are able to build.[82]

Biodiversity
Ecosystems in the Everglades have been described as both fragile and resilient.[83] Author Michael Grunwald wrote about the observations of the Everglades' first American visitors: "If the Grand Canyon was a breathtaking painting, the Everglades was a complex drama, and everything in it had a role."[84] An estimated 11,000species of seed-bearing plants and 400species of land or water vertebrates live in the Everglades, but slight variations in water levels affect many organisms and reshape land formations. The health and productivity of any ecosystem relies on the number of species present: the loss of one species weakens the entire ecosystem.[85] For example, Florida apple snails (Pomacea paludosa) are an amphibious fresh water mollusk.[86] They have a single gill and lung, and live on stalks of sawgrass in water depths no more than 20 inches (51cm). They are the primary food of the endangered Everglades snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis) and limpkin (Aramus guarauna) as well as the raccoon, otter, and young alligator. Apple snails lay their eggs on sawgrass stalks about 6 inches (15cm) above the water line, and they are intolerant of being submerged for long periods of time. When the eggs hatch, young snails must enter the water quickly or face death. When water levels are too low or rise too quickly while snail eggs are developing, apple snails do not flourish, affecting the many reptiles, mammals, and birds that feed on

Geography and ecology of the Everglades them.[87] With regard to the ecology of trophic dynamics, or food chains, the 174species of invertebrates play a vital role in the Everglades.[88] Crayfish, insects, scorpions, and other invertebrates also support a web of animals. The group of animals most integral to the overall success of Everglades wildlife is freshwater fish. Few places in the Everglades stay submerged from one year to the next, so alligator holes and deep clefts in the limestone are vital to the survival of fish, and the animal community as a whole. Freshwater fish are the main diet of most wading birds, alligators, and otters, and require large areas of open water in order to repopulate. Young amphibians also play an important role in the food chain. Tadpoles spread quickly in isolated areas where fish do not have the time or access to reproduce in numbers necessary to support larger animals. Hundreds of species of amphibians are found in the Everglades, and their availability helps support wildlife during short hydroperiods or in remote locations.[89] These smaller animals support communities of larger animals, including 70species of land birds that breed within the Everglades, and 120water birds, of which 43 breed in the area. Many of these birds go on to migrate through the West Indies and North America.[90] Several dozen species of mammals also thrive in the region, from tiny bats and shrews to midsize raccoons (Procyon lotor), otters (Lontra canadensis), opossums (Didelphis virginiana), and foxes. The largest include white tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), the Florida black bear, and the Florida panther.[91] Although slight changes in water level affect many species, the system as a whole also cycles and pulses with each change. Some transformations to the diversity of plant and animal life are natural, caused by fire or storms, and some are induced by humans, such as urban encroachment, the introduction of exotic species, and rapid global warming. Environmental conditions in the Everglades favor no particular species. Some species, such as snail kites and apple snails, do well in wet conditions, but wood storks and Cape Sable seaside sparrows (Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis) do well in dryer circumstances.[83]

38

Human impact
People have lived in the Everglades region for thousands of years. Within the past 100years however, they have changed the natural landscape dramatically. Settlement of urban areas in South Florida was facilitated by large drainage projects intended to create more land. The drainage was often implemented without a full understanding of the intricacies of ecosystems and shaping processes of the Everglades.[92] Though the South Florida metropolitan area grew exponentially, the result caused chaos in ecosystems throughout the Everglades. By the 1990s, the diminishing quality of life in many of these urban areas was linked to the degraded local environment.[93] The State of Florida and the U.S. government devised and passed a plan in 2000 to restore as much of the Everglades to pre-drainage conditions as possible. It is the costliest and most comprehensive environmental restoration project in history.[94]

Notes and references

[1] Lodge, p.13. [2] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Watersheds and Coastal Waters (Big Cypress Watershed)" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esns/ bcw. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-03-17. [3] McCally, p.1821. [4] McCally, pp.910. [5] Lodge,p.14. [6] Lodge, pp.1819. [7] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Climate" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esns/ clim. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-03-17. [8] Obeysekera, Jayantha; Browder, J., Hornrung, L., Harwell, M. (October 1999). "The natural South Florida system I: Climate, geology, and hydrology". Urban Ecosystems (Kluwer Academic Publishers) 3 (3/4): 223244. doi:10.1023/A:1009552500448. [9] Lodge, p. 21. [10] Hurricane Research Division (2008). "Atlantic hurricane best track" (http:/ / www. aoml. noaa. gov/ hrd/ hurdat/ tracks1851to2007-apr08. txt). NOAA. . Retrieved 2008-05-03.

Geography and ecology of the Everglades

[11] Lodge, p.89. [12] Jewell, p.35. [13] Lodge, pp.8993. [14] Toops, p.95. [15] Gleason, Patrick, Peter Stone, "Age, Origins, and Landscape Evolution of the Everglades Peatland" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8 [16] McCally, pp.1214. [17] McCally, pp.1517 [18] Lodge, p.38. [19] SFWMD (2010), p. 6-3. [20] Lodge, pp.3941. [21] Schaffraneck, Raymond; Ami L. Riscassi, Nancy B. Rybicki, Alfonso V. Lombana (September 3, 2003). "Fire Effects on Flow in Vegetated Wetlands of the Everglades" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ projects/ dynamics/ fireeffects_03geerab. html). U.S. Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-05-02. [22] Grunwald, p.12. [23] George, p.13. [24] Douglas, p.11. [25] Whitney, p.168. [26] Lodge, pp.2527. [27] Jewell, p.46. [28] Whitney,p.168. [29] George, p.42. [30] Lodge, p.31. [31] George, p.14. [32] Whitney, p. 114115. [33] Lodge, p.29. [34] Whitney, p.164. [35] Whitney, p.163. [36] George, pp.4546. [37] Lodge, p.35. [38] George, p.30. [39] Lodge, p.55. [40] Douglas, pp.4849. [41] George, p.31. [42] Toops, p.53. [43] Lodge, p.58. [44] Toops, p.57. [45] Toops, p.61. [46] George, p.39. [47] Lodge, pp.4546. [48] McCally, p.9. [49] Jewell, p.45. [50] U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. " South Florida Multi-Species Recovery Plan: Pine rockland (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ southeast/ vbpdfs/ commun/ pr. pdf)" (PDF), Retrieved May 3, 2008. [51] George, pp.78. [52] "Land and Resource Management Projects" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ reports/ doi-science-plan/ managefire. html). DOI science plan in support of ecosystem restoration, preservation, and protection in South Florida. U.S. Geological Survey. April 26, 2007. . Retrieved 2008-05-02. [53] Lodge, p.66. [54] Lodge, p.63. [55] Lodge, p.67. [56] George, p.26. [57] Ripple, p.16. [58] Jewell, p.43. [59] Ripple, pp.1920. [60] Ripple, p.26. [61] Ripple, pp.3132. [62] Ripple, p.28. [63] Ripple, pp.3038.

39

Geography and ecology of the Everglades

[64] George, p.19. [65] Katherisen, K. (2001). "Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems", Advances in Marine Biology, Alan J. Southward (ed.) 40, pp.18251. ISBN 978-0-12-026140-6. [66] Ripple, p.80. [67] Jewell, p.41. [68] Whitney, p.286. [69] "About Florida Bay" (http:/ / www. floridabay. org/ intro. shtml). Sea Grant Florida. July 16, 2001. . Retrieved 2008-06-08. [70] Humphreys, Jay; Franz, Shelley, and Seaman, Bill (March 1993). "Florida's Estuaries: A Citizen's Guide to Coastal Living and Conservation" (http:/ / nsgl. gso. uri. edu/ flsgp/ flsgph93001. pdf) (PDF). National Atmosphere and Oceanic Administration and the Florida Department of Community Affairs. . Retrieved 2008-06-08. [71] Whitney, pp.288289. [72] Whitney, pp.295296. [73] "Ecosystems: Marine & Estuarine" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ marineestuarine. htm). National Park Service. July 30, 2007. . Retrieved 2008-05-04. [74] George, p.21. [75] Whitney, pp.313316. [76] Griffin, pp.93103. [77] Whitney, pp.328330. [78] Jewell, p.40. [79] Toops, p.88. [80] Williams, p.26. [81] Lodge, p.100. [82] Lodge, p.104. [83] Toops, p.92. [84] Grunwald, p.14. [85] Whitney, p.383. [86] Whitney, p.241. [87] Lodge, p.136. [88] Lodge, p.140. [89] Lodge, p.160. [90] Lodge, pp.183185. [91] Lodge, pp.175180. [92] Light, Stephen, Dineed, J. Walter, "Water Control in the Everglades: A Historical Perspective", in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), Delray Beach, Fla.: St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8 [93] "Chapter 1: Background and understanding" (http:/ / dlis. dos. state. fl. us/ fgils/ agencies/ sust/ tocs. html). The Governor's Commission for a Sustainable South Florida. State of Florida. October 1, 1995. . Retrieved 2008-05-23. [94] Schmitt, Eric (October 20, 2000). " Everglades Restoration Plan Passes House, With Final Approval Seen (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9D02E3DF103EF933A15753C1A9669C8B63& scp=1& st=nyt)", The New York Times, p.1.

40

Bibliography
Douglas, Marjory (1947). The Everglades: River of Grass. R. Bemis Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-912451-44-0 George, Jean (1972). Everglades Wildguide. National Park Service. Gov. doc #I 29.62:Ev2 Griffin, John (2002). Archeology of the Everglades. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2558-3 Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5107-5 Jewell, Susan (1993). Exploring Wild South Florida: A Guide to Finding the Natural Areas and Wildlife of the Everglades and Florida Keys, Pineapple Press, Inc. ISBN 1-56164-023-9 Lodge, Thomas E. (1994). The Everglades Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-614-9 McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2302-5 Ripple, Jeff (1992). Big Cypress Swamp and the Ten Thousand Islands: Eastern America's Last Great Wilderness, University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 0-87249-842-5

Geography and ecology of the Everglades South Florida Water Management District (2010). Chapter 6: Ecology of the Everglades Protection Area (https:// my.sfwmd.gov/portal/page/portal/pg_grp_sfwmd_sfer/portlet_sfer/tab2236037/2010 report/v1/chapters/ v1_ch6.pdf). 2010 South Florida Environmental Report: Volume IThe South Florida Environment. Retrieved on May 26, 2010. Toops, Connie (1998). The Florida Everglades. Voyageur Press. ISBN 0-89658-372-4 Whitney, Ellie et al., eds. (2004) Priceless Florida: Natural Ecosystems and Native Species. Pineapple Press, Inc. ISBN 978-1-56164-309-7 Williams, John (2002). Florida hurricanes and tropical storms, 1871-2001. University of Florida Press. ISBN 0-8130-2494-3

41

Draining and development of the Everglades

The history of draining and development of the Everglades dates back to the 19th century. During the Second Seminole War beginning in 1836, the United States military's mission was to seek out Seminole people in the Everglades and capture or kill them. Those missions gave the military the opportunity to map land that seemed to frustrate and confound them at every turn. A national push for expansion and progress toward the latter part of the 19th century stimulated interest in draining the Everglades for agricultural use. According to historians, "From the middle of the nineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century, the United States went through a period in which wetland removal was not questioned. Indeed, it was considered the proper thing to do."[1]

A pattern of political and financial motivation, and a lack of understanding of the geography and ecology of the Everglades have plagued the history of drainage projects. The Everglades are a part of a massive watershed that originates near Orlando and drains into Lake Okeechobee, a vast and shallow lake. As the lake exceeds its capacity in the wet season, the water forms a flat and very wide river, about 100 miles (160km) long and 60 miles (97km) wide. As the land from Lake Okeechobee slopes gradually to Florida Bay, water flows at a rate of half a mile (0.8km) a day. Before human activity in the Everglades, the system comprised the lower third of the Florida peninsula. The first attempt to drain the region was made by real estate developer Hamilton Disston in 1881. Disston's sponsored canals were unsuccessful, but the land he purchased for them stimulated economic and

Satellite image of the northern Everglades with developed areas in 2001, including the Everglades Agricultural Area (in red), Water Conservation Areas 1, 2, and 3, and the South Florida metropolitan area Source: U.S. Geological Survey

Draining and development of the Everglades

42

population growth that attracted railway developer Henry Flagler. Flagler built a railroad along the east coast of Florida and eventually to Key West; towns grew and farmland was cultivated along the rail line. During his 1904campaign to be elected governor, Napoleon Bonaparte Broward promised to drain the Everglades, and his later projects were more effective than Disston's. Broward's promises sparked a land boom facilitated by blatant errors in an engineer's report, pressure from real estate developers, and the burgeoning tourist industry throughout south Florida. The increased population brought hunters who went unchecked and had a devastating impact on the numbers of wading birds (hunted for their plumes), alligators, and other Everglades animals.

Satellite image of the southern Everglades with developed areas in 2001, including Everglades National Park, the Big Cypress Swamp, Florida Bay and the southern tip of the South Florida metropolitan area Source: U.S. Geological Survey

Severe hurricanes in 1926 and 1928 caused catastrophic damage and flooding from Lake Okeechobee that prompted the Army Corps of Engineers to build a dike around the lake. Further floods in 1947 prompted an unprecedented construction of canals throughout southern Florida. Following another population boom after World War II, and the creation of the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project, the Everglades was divided into sections separated by canals and water control devices that delivered water to agricultural and newly developed urban areas. However, in the late 1960s, following a proposal to construct a massive airport next to Everglades National Park, national attention turned from developing the land to restoring the Everglades.

Exploration
American involvement in the Everglades began during the Second Seminole War (183642), a costly and very unpopular conflict. The United States spent between $30million and $40million and lost between 1,500 and 3,000lives. The U.S. military drove the Seminoles into the Everglades and were charged with the task of finding them, defeating them, and moving them to Oklahoma Indian territory. Almost 4,000Seminoles were killed in the war or were removed.[2] [3] The U.S. military was completely unprepared for the conditions they Marines search for Seminoles among the found in the Everglades. They tore their clothes on sawgrass, ruined mangroves during the Second Seminole War their boots on the uneven limestone floor, and were plagued by mosquitoes. Soldiers' legs, feet, and arms were cut open on the sawgrass and gangrene infection set in, taking many lives and limbs. Many died of mosquito-borne illness. After slogging through mud, one private died in his tracks of exhaustion in 1842.[3] General Thomas Jesup admitted the military was overwhelmed by the terrain when he wrote to the Secretary of War in 1838, trying to dissuade him from prolonging the war.[3] Opinion about the value of Florida to the Union was mixed: some thought it a useless land of swamps and horrible animals, while others thought it a gift from God for national prosperity.[4] In 1838 comments in The Army and Navy Chronicle supported future development of southern Florida: [The] climate [is] most delightful; but, from want of actual observation, [it] could not speak so confidently of the soil, although, from the appearance of the surrounding vegetation, a portion of it, at

Draining and development of the Everglades least, must be rich. Whenever the aborigines shall be forced from their fastnesses, as eventually they must be, the enterprising spirit of our countrymen will very soon discover the sections best adapted to cultivation, and the now barren or unproductive everglades will be made to blossom like a garden. It is the general impression that these everglades are uninhabitable during the summer months, by reason of their being overflowed by the abundant rains of the season; but if it should prove that these inundations are caused or increased by obstructions to the natural courses of the rivers, as outlets to the numerous lakes, American industry will remove these obstructions.[5] The military penetration of southern Florida offered the opportunity to map a poorly understood part of the country. As late as 1823, official reports doubted the existence of a large inland lake, until the military met the Seminoles at the Battle of Lake Okeechobee in 1837.[6] To avenge repeated surprise attacks on himself and ammunition stores, Colonel William Harney led an expedition into the Everglades in 1840, to hunt for a chief named Chekika. With Harney were 90soldiers in 16canoes. One soldier's account of the trip in the St. Augustine News was the first printed description of the Everglades available to the general public. The anonymous writer described the hunt for Chekika and the terrain they were crossing: "No country that I have ever heard of bears any resemblance to it; it seems like a vast sea filled with grass and green trees, and expressly intended as a retreat for the rascally Indian, from which the white man would never seek to drive them".[7]

43

The final blame for the military stalemate was determined to lie not in military preparation, supplies, leadership, or superior tactics by the Seminoles, but in Florida's impenetrable terrain. An army surgeon wrote: "It is in fact a most hideous region to live in, a perfect paradise for Indians, alligators, serpents, frogs, and every other kind of loathsome reptile."[8] The land seemed to inspire extreme reactions of wonder or hatred. In 1870, an author described the mangrove forests as a "waste of nature's grandest exhibition to have these carnivals of splendid vegetation occurring in isolated places where it is but seldom they are seen."[9] A band of hunters, naturalists, and collectors ventured through in 1885, taking along with them the 17-year-old grandson of an early resident of Miami. The landscape unnerved the young man shortly after he entered the Shark River: "The place looked wild and lonely. About three o'clock it seemed to get on Henry's nerves and we saw him crying, he would not tell us why, he was just plain scared."[10] In 1897, an explorer named Hugh Willoughby spent eight days canoeing with a party from the mouth of the Harney River to the Miami River. He wrote about his observations and sent them back to the New Orleans Times-Democrat. Willoughby described the water as healthy and wholesome, with numerous springs, and 10,000alligators "more or less" in Lake Okeechobee. The party encountered thousands of birds near the Shark River, "killing hundreds, but they continued to return".[11] Willoughby pointed out that much of the rest of the country had been mapped and explored except for this part of Florida, writing, "(w)e have a tract of land one hundred and thirty miles long and seventy miles wide that is as much unknown to the white man as the heart of Africa."[12]

Map of the Everglades by the U.S. War Department in 1856: Military action during the Seminole Wars improved understanding of the features of the Everglades.

Draining and development of the Everglades

44

Drainage
As early as 1837, a visitor to the Everglades suggested the value of the land without the water: Could it be drained by deepening the natural outlets? Would it not open to cultivation immense tracts of rich vegetable soil? Could the waterpower, obtained by draining, be improved to any useful purpose? Would such draining render the country unhealthy?... Many queries like these passed through our minds. They can only be solved by a thorough examination of the whole country. Could the waters be lowered ten feet, it would probably drain six hundred thousand acres; should this prove to be a rich soil, as would seem probable, what a field it would open for tropical productions! What facilities for commerce![3] Territorial representative David Levy proposed a resolution that was passed in Congress in 1842: "that the Secretary of War be directed to place before this House such information as can be obtained in relation to the practicability and probable expense of draining the everglades of Florida."[3] From this directive Secretary of the Treasury Robert J. Walker requested Thomas Buckingham Smith from St. Augustine to consult those with experience in the Everglades on the feasibility of draining them, saying that he had been told two or three canals to the Gulf of Mexico would be sufficient. Smith asked officers who had served in the Seminole Wars to respond, and many favored the idea, promoting the land as a future agricultural asset to the South. A few disagreed, such as Captain John Sprague, who wrote he "never supposed the country would excite an inquiry, other than as a hiding place for Indians, and had it occurred to me that so great an undertaking, one so utterly impracticable, as draining the Ever Glades was to be discussed, I should not have destroyed the scratch of pen upon a subject so fruitful, and which cannot be understood but by those who have waded the water belly deep and examined carefully the western coast by land and by water."[3] Nevertheless, Smith returned a report to the Secretary of the Treasury asking for $500,000 to do the job.[13] The report is the first published study on the topic of the Everglades, and concluded with the statement: The Ever Glades are now suitable only for the haunt of noxious vermin or the resort of pestilent reptiles. The statesman whose exertions shall cause the millions of acres they contain, now worse than worthless, to teem with the products of agricultural industry; that man who thus adds to the resources of his country... will merit a high place in public favor, not only with his own generation, but with posterity. He will have created a State![3] Smith suggested cutting through the rim of the Everglades (known today as the Atlantic Coastal Ridge), connecting the heads of rivers to the coastline so that 4 feet (1.2m) of water would be drained from the area. The result, Smith hoped, would yield farmland suitable for corn, sugar, rice, cotton, and tobacco.[14] In 1850 Congress passed a law that gave several states wetlands within their state boundaries. The Swamp and Overflowed Lands Act ensured that the state would be responsible for funding the attempts at developing wetlands into farmlands.[14] Florida quickly formed a committee to consolidate grants to pay for such attempts, though attention and funds were diverted owing to the Civil War and Reconstruction. Not until after 1877 did attention return to the Everglades.

Draining and development of the Everglades

45

Hamilton Disston's canals

After the Civil War, a state agency named the Internal Improvement Fund (IIF) was formed in Florida to use grant money to improve Florida through canals, rail lines, and roads. Trustees in the IIF, eager to be rid of the debt incurred by the Civil War, found a Pennsylvania real estate developer named Hamilton Disston who was interested in implementing plans to drain the land for agriculture. Disston was persuaded to buy 4000000 acres (16000km2) of land for $1million in 1881.[15] The New York Times declared it the largest purchase of land ever by any individual.[16] Disston began building canals near St. Cloud to lower the basin of the Caloosahatchee and Kissimmee Rivers. His workers and engineers faced conditions similar to those of the soldiers during the Seminole Wars; it was harrowing, backbreaking labor in dangerous conditions. The canals seemed at first to work in lowering the water levels in the wetlands surrounding the rivers. Another dredged waterway between the Gulf of Mexico and Lake Okeechobee was built, opening the region to steamboat traffic.[17] Disston's engineers focused on Lake Okeechobee as well. As one colleague put it, "Okeechobee is the point to attack"; the canals were to be "equal or greater than the inflow from the Kissimmee valley, which is the source of all the evil."[18] Disston sponsored the digging of a canal 11 miles (18km) long from Lake Okeechobee towards Miami, but it was abandoned when the rock proved denser than the engineers had expected. Though the canals lowered the groundwater, their capacity was inadequate for the wet season. A report that evaluated the failure of the project concluded: "The reduction of the waters is simply a question of sufficient capacity in the canals which may be dug for their relief".[19] Though Disston's canals did not drain, his purchase primed the economy of Florida. It made news and attracted tourists and land buyers alike. Within four years property values doubled, and the population increased significantly.[15] One newcomer was the inventor Thomas Edison, who bought a home in Fort Myers.[20] Disston opened real estate offices throughout the United States and Europe, and sold tracts of land for $5 an acre, establishing towns on the west coast and in central Florida. English tourists in particular were targeted and responded in large numbers.[21] Florida passed its first water laws to "build drains, ditches, or water courses upon petition of two or more landowners" in 1893.[22]
Hamilton Disston's land sale notice

Henry Flagler's railroads

Due to Disston's purchase, the IIF was able to sponsor railroad projects, and the opportunity presented itself when oil tycoon Henry Flagler became enchanted with St. Augustine during a vacation. He built the opulent Ponce de Len Hotel in St. Augustine in 1888, and began buying land and building rail lines along the east coast of Florida, first from Jacksonville to Daytona, then as far south as Palm Beach in 1893. Flagler's establishment of "the Styx", a settlement for hotel and rail line workers across the river from the barrier island containing Palm Beach, became West Palm Beach.[23] Along the way he built resort hotels, transforming territorial outposts into tourist destinations and the land bordering the rail lines into citrus farms.[24] The winter of 18941895 produced a bitter frost that killed citrus trees as far south as Palm Beach. Miami resident Julia Tuttle sent Flagler a pristine orange blossom and an invitation to visit Miami, to persuade him to build the railroad farther south. Although he had earlier turned her down several times, Flagler finally agreed, and by 1896 the rail line had been extended to Biscayne Bay.[25] Three months after the first train arrived, the residents of Miami, 512 in all, voted to incorporate the town. Flagler publicized Miami as a "Magic City" throughout the United States and it became a prime destination for the extremely wealthy after the Royal Palm Hotel was opened.[26]

Draining and development of the Everglades

46

Broward's "Empire of the Everglades"

Further information: Geography and ecology of the Everglades Despite the sale of 4000000 acres (16000km2) to Disston and the skyrocketing price of land, by the turn of the 20th century the IIF was bankrupt due to mismanagement.[27] Legal battles ensued between the State of Florida and the railroad owners about who owned the rights to sell reclaimed land in the Everglades. In 1904 gubernatorial campaigning, the strongest candidate, Napoleon Bonaparte Broward, made draining the Everglades a major plank. He called the future of south Florida the "Empire of the Everglades" and compared its A canal lock in the Everglades Drainage District potential to that of Holland and Egypt: "It would indeed be a around 1915 commentary on the intelligence and energy of the State of Florida to confess that so simple an engineering feat as the drainage of a body of land above the sea was above their power", he wrote to voters.[28] Soon after his election, he fulfilled his promise to "drain that abominable pestilence-ridden swamp"[29] and pushed the Florida legislature to form a group of commissioners to oversee reclamation of flooded lands. They began by taxing counties that would be affected by the drainage attempts, at 5 cents an acre, and formed the Everglades Drainage District in 1907.[3] Broward asked James O. Wrightan engineer on loan to the State of Florida from the USDA's Bureau of Drainage Investigationsto draw up plans for drainage in 1906. Two dredges were built by 1908, but had cut only 6 miles (9.7km) of canals. The project quickly ran out of money, so Broward sold real estate developer Richard J. Bolles a million dollars worth of land in the Everglades, unknown operator: u',' acres (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u','km2), before the engineer's report had been submitted.[30] Abstracts from Wright's report were given to the IIF stating that eight canals would be enough to drain 1850000 acres (7500km2) at a cost of a dollar an acre.[31] The abstracts were released to real estate developers who used them in their advertisements, and Wright and the USDA were pressed by the real estate industry to publicize the report as quickly as possible.[31] Wright's supervisor noted errors in the report, as well as undue enthusiasm for draining, and delayed its release in 1910. Different unofficial versions of the report circulatedsome that had been altered by real estate interestsand a version hastily put together by Senator Duncan U. Fletcher called U.S. Senate Document 89 included early unrevised statements, causing a frenzy of speculation.[1] Wright's initial report concluded that drainage would not be difficult. Building canals would be more cost effective than constructing a dike around Lake Okeechobee. The soil would be fertile after drainage, the climate would not be adversely affected, and the enormous lake would be able to irrigate farmland in the dry season.[1] Wright based his conclusions on 15years of weather data since the recording of precipitation began in the 1890s. His calculations concentrated on the towns of Jupiter and Kissimmee. Since weather data had not been recorded for any area within the Everglades, none was included in the report. Furthermore, the heaviest year of rain on record, Wright assumed, was atypical, and he urged that canals should not be constructed to bear that amount of water due to the expense. Wright's calculations for what canals should be able to hold were off by 55percent.[32] His most fundamental mistake, however, was Blueprint for drainage canals in the designing the canals for a maximum rainfall of 4 inches (10cm) of water a day, Everglades in 1921 based on flawed data for July and August rainfall, despite available data that indicated torrential downpours of 10 inches (25cm) and 12 inches (30cm) had occurred in 24-hour periods.[1]

Draining and development of the Everglades Though a few voices expressed skepticism of the report's conclusionsnotably Frank Stoneman, the editor of the Miami News-Record (the forerunner of The Miami Herald)the report was hailed as impeccable, coming from a branch of the U.S. government.[33] In 1912 Florida appointed Wright to oversee the drainage, and the real estate industry energetically misrepresented this mid-level engineer as the world's foremost authority on wetlands drainage, in charge of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.[1] However, the U.S. House of Representatives investigated Wright since no report had officially been published despite the money paid for it. Wright eventually retired when it was discovered that his colleagues disagreed with his conclusions and refused to approve the report's publication. One testified at the hearings: "I regard Mr. Wright as absolutely and completely incompetent for any engineering work".[34] Governor Broward ran for the U.S. Senate in 1908 but lost. Broward and his predecessor, William Jennings, were paid by Richard Bolles to tour the state to promote drainage. Broward was elected to the Senate in 1910, but died before he could take office. He was eulogized across Florida for his leadership and progressive inspiration. Rapidly growing Fort Lauderdale paid him tribute by naming Broward County after him (the town's original plan had been to name it Everglades County). Land in the Everglades was being sold for $15 an acre a month after Broward died.[35] Meanwhile, Henry Flagler continued to build railway stations at towns as soon as the populations warranted them. News of the Panama Canal inspired him to connect his rail line to the closest deep water port. Biscayne Bay was too shallow, so Flagler sent railway scouts to explore the possibility of building the line through to the tip of mainland Florida. The scouts reported that not enough land was present to build through the Everglades, so Flagler instead changed the plan to build to Key West in 1912.[25]

47

Boom and plume harvesting

Further information: Florida land boom of the 1920s Real estate companies continued to advertise and sell land along newly dug canals. In April 1912the end of the dry seasonreporters from all over the U.S. were given a tour of what had recently been drained, and they returned to their papers and raved about the progress.[36] Land developers sold 20,000lots in a few months. But as news about the Wright report continued to be negative, land values plummeted, and sales decreased. Developers were sued and arrested for mail fraud when people who had spent their life savings to buy land arrived in south Florida expecting to find a dry parcel of land to build upon and instead found it completely underwater.[37] Advertisements promised A group of tour buses leads prospective buyers to newly drained lots in Hialeah in 1921 land that would yield crops in eight weeks, but for many it took at least as long just to clear. Some burned off the sawgrass or other vegetation only to discover that the underlying peat continued to burn. Animals and tractors used for plowing got mired in the muck and were useless. When the muck dried, it turned to a fine black powder and created dust storms.[38] Settlers encountered rodents, skinks, and biting insects, and faced dangers from mosquitoes, poisonous snakes and alligators. Though at first crops sprouted quickly and lushly, they just as quickly wilted and died, seemingly without reason.[39] It was discovered later that the peat and muck lacked copper and other trace elements. The USDA released a pamphlet in 1915 that declared land along the New River Canal would be too costly to keep drained and fertilized; people in Ft.Lauderdale responded by collecting all of the pamphlets and burning them.[40] With the increasing population in towns near the Everglades came hunting opportunities. Even decades earlier, Harriet Beecher Stowe had been horrified at the hunting by visitors, and she wrote the first conservation publication for Florida in 1877: "[t]he decks of boats are crowded with men, whose only feeling amid our magnificent forests, seems to be a wild desire to shoot something and who fire at every living thing on shore."[41] Otters and raccoons were the most widely hunted for their skins. Otter pelts could fetch between $8 and $15 each. Raccoons, more

Draining and development of the Everglades plentiful, only warranted 75 cents each in 1915. Hunting often went unchecked; on one trip, a Lake Okeechobee hunter killed 250alligators and 172otters.[42] Wading birds were a particular target. Their feathers were used in women's hats from the late 19th century until the 1920s. In 1886, five million birds were estimated to have been killed for their feathers.[43] They were usually shot in the spring, when their feathers were colored for mating and nesting. Aigrettes, as the plumes were called in the millinery business, sold in 1915 for $32 an ounce, also the price of gold.[42] Millinery was a $17-million-a-year industry[44] that motivated plume harvesters to lay in wait at nests of egrets and other large birds during the nesting season, shoot the parents with small-bore rifles, and leave the chicks to starve.[42] Many hunters refused to participate after watching the gruesome results of a plume hunt.[42] [45] Still, plumes from Everglades wading birds could be found in Havana, New York City, London, and Paris. A dealer in New York paid at least 60hunters to provide him with "almost anything that wore feathers, but particularly the Herons, Spoonbills, and showy birds". Hunters could collect plumes from a hundred birds on a good day.[46]

48

Plume harvesting became a dangerous business. The Audubon Society became concerned with the amount of hunting being done in rookeries in the mangrove forests. In 1902, they hired a warden, Guy Bradley, to watch the rookeries around Cuthbert Lake. Bradley had lived in Flamingo within the Everglades, and was murdered in 1905 by one of his neighbors after he tried to prevent him from hunting.[47] Protection of birds was the reason for establishing the first wildlife refuge when President Theodore Roosevelt set Pelican Island as a sanctuary in 1903. In the 1920s, after birds were protected and alligators hunted nearly to extinction, Prohibition created a living for those willing to smuggle alcohol into the U.S. from Cuba. Rum-runners used the vast Everglades as a hiding spot: there were never enough law enforcement officers to patrol it.[48] The advent of the fishing industry, the arrival of the railroad, and the discovery of the benefits of adding copper to Okeechobee muck soon created unprecedented numbers of residents in new towns like Moore Haven, Clewiston, and Belle Glade. By 1921, 2,000people lived in 16new towns around Lake Okeechobee.[3] Sugarcane became the primary crop grown in south Florida and it began to be mass-produced. Miami experienced a second real estate boom that earned a developer in Coral Gables $150million and saw undeveloped land north of Miami sell for $30,600 an acre.[49] Miami became cosmopolitan and experienced a renaissance of architecture and culture. Hollywood movie stars vacationed in the area and industrialists built lavish homes. Miami's population multiplied fivefold, and Ft.Lauderdale and Palm Beach grew many times over as well. In 1925, Miami newspapers published editions weighing over 7 pounds (3.2kg), most of it real estate advertising.[50] Waterfront property was the most highly valued. Mangrove trees were cut down and replaced with palm trees to improve the view. Acres of south Florida slash pine were taken down, some for lumber, but the wood was found to be dense and it split apart when nails were driven into it. It was also termite-resistant, but homes were needed quickly. Most of the pine forests in Dade County were cleared for development.[51]

A 1904 magazine cutout showing the plumes for women's hats that were harvested from wading birds in the Everglades

Hurricanes
The canals proposed by Wright were unsuccessful in making the lands south of Lake Okeechobee fulfill the promises made by real estate developers to local farmers. The winter of 1922 was unseasonably wet and the region was underwater. The town of Moore Haven received 46 inches (1200mm) of rain in six weeks in 1924.[52] Engineers were pressured to regulate the water flow, not only for farmers but also for commercial fishers, who often requested conflicting water levels in the lake. Fred Elliot, who was in charge of building the canals after James Wright retired, commented: "A man on one side of the canal wants it raised for his particular use and a man on the other side wants it lowered for his particular use".[53]

Draining and development of the Everglades

49

1926 Miami Hurricane

The 1920s brought several favorable conditions that helped the land and population boom, one of which was an absence of any severe storms. The last severe hurricane, in 1906, had struck the Florida Keys. Many homes were constructed hastily and poorly as a result of this lull in storms.[54] However, on September 18, 1926, a storm that became known as the 1926 Miami Hurricane struck with winds over 140 miles per hour (230km/h), and caused massive devastation. The storm surge was as high as 15 feet (4.6m) in some places. Henry Flagler's opulent Remains of a bridge damaged during the 1926 Miami Hurricane. Royal Palm Hotel was destroyed along with many other hotels and buildings. Most people who died did so when they ran out into the street in disbelief while the eye of the hurricane passed over, not knowing the wind was coming in from the other direction. "The lull lasted 35minutes, and during that time the streets of the city became crowded with people", wrote Richard Gray, the local weather chief. "As a result, many lives were lost during the second phase of the storm."[55] In Miami alone, 115 people were counted deadalthough the true figure may have been as high as 175, because death totals were racially segregated.[54] More than 25,000people were homeless in the city. The town of Moore Haven, bordering Lake Okeechobee, was hardest hit. A levee built of muck collapsed, drowning almost 400 of the town's entire 1,200 residents.[56] The tops of Lake Okeechobee levees were only 18 to 24 inches (46 to 61 cm) above the lake itself and the engineers were aware of the danger. Two days before the hurricane, an engineer predicted, "[i]f we have a blow, even a gale, Moore Haven is going under water". The engineer lost his wife and daughter in the flood.[57] The City of Miami responded to the hurricane by downplaying its effects and turning down aid. The Miami Herald declared two weeks after the storm that almost everything in the city had returned to normal. The governor supported the efforts to minimize the appearance of the destruction by refusing to call a special legislative session to appropriate emergency funds for relief. As a result, the American Red Cross was able to collect only $3million of $5million needed.[54] The 1926 hurricane effectively ended the land boom in Miami, despite the attempts at hiding the effects. It also forced drainage commissioners to re-evaluate the effectiveness of the canals. A $20million plan to build a dike around Lake Okeechobee, to be paid by property taxes, was turned down after a skeptical constituency sued to stop it;[58] more than $14million had been spent on canals and they were ineffective in taking away excess water or delivering it when needed.[59]

1928 Okeechobee Hurricane

Pictures of the destruction in the town of Okeechobee in 1928

The weather was unremarkable for two years. In 1928, construction was completed on the Tamiami Trail, named because it was the only road spanning between Tampa and Miami. The builders attempted to construct the road several times before they blasted the muck down to the limestone, filled it with rock and paved over it.[60] Hard rains in the summer caused Lake Okeechobee to rise several feet; this was noticed by a local newspaper editor who demanded it be lowered. However, on September 16, 1928 came a massive storm, now known as the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane. Thousands drowned when Lake Okeechobee breached its levees; the range of estimates of the dead spanned from 1,770 (according to the Red Cross) to 3,000 or more.[61] Many were swept away and never recovered.[54] [62] The majority of the dead were black migrant workers who had recently settled in or near Belle Glade. The catastrophe made national news, and although the governor again refused aid, after he toured the area and

Draining and development of the Everglades counted 126bodies still unburied or uncollected a week after the storm, he activated the National Guard to assist in the cleanup,[54] and declared in a telegram: "Without exaggeration, the situation in the storm area beggars description".[63]

50

Herbert Hoover Dike

The focus of government agencies quickly shifted to the control of floods rather than drainage. The Okeechobee Flood Control District, financed by both state and federal funds, was created in 1929. President Herbert Hoover toured the towns affected by the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane and, an engineer himself, ordered the Army Corps of Engineers to assist the communities surrounding the lake.[64] Between 1930 and 1937, a dike 66 miles (106km) long was built around the southern edge of the lake, and a shorter one around the A sign advertising the completion of the Herbert northern edge. It was 34 feet (10m) tall and 3.5 feet (1.1m) thick on Hoover Dike the lake side, 3 feet (0.91m) thick on the top, and 2 feet (0.61m) thick toward land. Control of the Hoover Dike and the waters of Lake Okeechobee were delegated to federal powers: the United States declared legal limits of the lake to be 14 feet (4.3m) and 17 feet (5.2m).[12] A massive canal 80 feet (24m) wide and 6 feet (1.8m) deep was also dug through the Caloosahatchee River; when the lake rose too high, the excess water left through the canal to the Gulf of Mexico. Exotic trees were planted along the north shore levee: Australian pines, Australian oaks, willows, and bamboo.[12] More than $20million was spent on the entire project. Sugarcane production soared after the dike and canal were built. The populations of the small towns surrounding the lake jumped from 3,000 to 9,000 after World War II.[65]

Drought
The effects of the Hoover Dike were seen immediately. An extended drought occurred in the 1930s, and with the wall preventing water leaving Lake Okeechobee and canals and ditches removing other water, the Everglades became parched. Peat turned to dust, and salty ocean water entered Miami's wells. When the city brought in an expert to investigate, he discovered that the water in the Everglades was the area's groundwaterhere, it appeared on the surface. Draining the Everglades removed this groundwater, which was replaced by ocean water seeping into the area's wells.[66] In 1939, 1 million acres (4000km2) of Everglades burned, and the black clouds of peat and sawgrass fires hung over Miami. Underground peat fires burned roots of trees and plants without burning the plants in some places.[67] Scientists who took soil samples before draining had not taken into account that the organic composition of peat and muck in the Everglades was mixed with bacteria that added little to the process of decomposition underwater because they were not mixed with oxygen. As soon as the water was drained and oxygen mixed with the soil, the bacteria began to break down the soil. In some places, homes had to be moved on to stilts and 8 feet (2.4m) of topsoil was lost.[68]

Draining and development of the Everglades

51

Conservation attempts
Conservationists concerned about the Everglades have been a vocal minority ever since Miami was a young city. South Florida's first and perhaps most enthusiastic naturalist was Charles Torrey Simpson, who retired from the Smithsonian Institution to Miami in 1905 when he was 53. Nicknamed "the Sage of Biscayne Bay", Simpson wrote several books about tropical plant life around Miami. His backyard contained a tropical hardwood hammock, which he estimated he showed to about 50,000people. Though he tended to avoid controversy regarding development, in Ornamental Gardening in Florida he wrote, "Mankind everywhere has an insane desire to waste and destroy the good and beautiful things this nature has lavished upon him".[69]

President Harry Truman dedicating Everglades National Park on December 6, 1947

Although the idea of protecting a portion of the Everglades arose in 1905, a crystallized effort was formed in 1928 when Miami landscape designer Ernest F. Coe established the Everglades Tropical National Park Association. It had enough support to be declared a national park by Congress in 1934, but there was not enough money during the Great Depression to buy the proposed 2000000 acres (8100km2) for the park. It took another 13years for it to be dedicated on December 6, 1947. [70] One month before the dedication of the park, the former editor of The Miami Herald and freelance writer Marjory Stoneman Douglas published her first book, The Everglades: River of Grass. After researching the region for five years, she described the history and ecology of the south of Florida in great detail, characterizing the Everglades as a river instead of a stagnant swamp.[15] Douglas later wrote, "My colleague Art Marshall said that with [the words "River of Grass"] I changed everybody's knowledge and educated the world as to what the Everglades meant".[71] The last chapter was titled "The Eleventh Hour" and warned that the Everglades were approaching death, although the course could be reversed.[72] Its first printing sold out a month after its release.[15]

Flood control
Coinciding with the dedication of Everglades National Park, 1947 in south Florida saw two hurricanes and a wet season responsible for 100 inches (250cm) of rain, ending the decade-long drought. Although there were no human casualties, cattle and deer were drowned and standing water was left in suburban areas for months. Agricultural interests lost about $59million. The embattled head of the Everglades Drainage District carried a gun for protection after being threatened.[73]

Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project

In 1948 Congress approved the Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes (C&SF) and consolidated the Everglades Drainage District and the Okeechobee Flood Control District under this.[74] The C&SF used four methods in flood management: levees, water storage areas, canal improvements, and large pumps to assist gravity. Between 1952 and 1954 it built a levee 100 miles (160km) long between the eastern Everglades and suburbs from Palm Beach to Homestead, and blocked the flow of water into populated areas. Between 1954 and 1963 it divided the Everglades into basins. In the northern Everglades were Water Conservation Areas (WCAs), and the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA) bordering to the south of Lake Okeechobee. In the southern Everglades was Everglades National Park. Levees and pumping stations bordered each WCA, which released water in drier times and removed it and pumped it to the ocean or Gulf of Mexico in times of flood. The WCAs took up about 37percent of the original Everglades.[75] During the 1950s and 1960s the South Florida metropolitan area grew four times as fast as the rest of the nation. Between 1940 and 1965, 6million people moved to south Florida: 1,000people moved to Miami every week.[76]

Draining and development of the Everglades Urban development between the mid-1950s and the late 1960s quadrupled. Much of the water reclaimed from the Everglades was sent to newly developed areas.[77] With metropolitan growth came urban problems associated with rapid expansion: traffic jams; school overcrowding; crime; overloaded sewage treatment plants; and, for the first time in south Florida's urban history, water shortages in times of drought.[78] The C&SF constructed over 1000 miles (1600km) of canals, and hundreds of pumping stations and levees within three decades. It produced a film, Waters of Destiny, characterized by author Michael Grunwald as propaganda, that likened nature to a villainous, shrieking force of rage and declared the C&SF's mission was to tame nature and make the Everglades useful.[79] Everglades National Park management and Marjory Stoneman Douglas initially supported the C&SF, as it promised to maintain the Everglades and manage the water responsibly. However, an early report by the project reflected local attitudes about the Everglades as a priority to people in nearby developed areas: "The aesthetic appeal of the Park can never be as strong as the demands of home and livelihood. The manatee and the orchid mean something to people in an abstract way, but the former cannot line their purse, nor the latter fill their empty bellies."[80] Establishment of the C&SF made Everglades National Park completely dependent upon another political entity for its survival.[81] One of the C&SF's projects was Levee 29, laid along the Tamiami Trail on the northern border of the park. Levee 29 featured four flood control gates that controlled all the water entering Everglades National Park; before construction, water flowed in through open drain pipes. The period from 1962 to 1965 was one of drought for the Everglades, and Levee 29 remained closed to allow the Biscayne Aquiferthe fresh water source for South Floridato stay filled.[82] Animals began to cross Tamiami Trail for the water held in WCA 3, and many were killed by cars. Biologists estimate the population of alligators in Everglades National Park was halved; otters nearly became extinct.[77] The populations of wading birds had been reduced by 90percent from the 1940s.[83] When park management and the U.S. Department of the Interior asked the C&SF for assistance, the C&SF offered to build a levee along the southern border of Everglades National Park to retain waters that historically flowed through the mangroves and into Florida Bay. Though the C&SF refused to send the park more water, they constructed Canal 67, bordering the east side of the park and carrying excess water from Lake Okeechobee to the Atlantic.[77]

52

Everglades Agricultural Area

The C&SF established 470000 acres (1900km2) for the Everglades Agricultural Area27percent of the Everglades before development.[84] In the late 1920s, agricultural experiments indicated that adding large amounts of manganese sulfate to Everglades muck produced profitable vegetable harvests. Adding 100 pounds (45kg) of the compound was more cost effective than adding 1 short ton (0.91t) of manure.[85] The primary cash crop in the EAA is sugarcane, though sod, beans, lettuce, celery, and rice are also grown. Sugarcane became A 2003 U.S. Geological Survey photo showing more consolidated an industry than did any other crop; in 1940 the the border between Water Conservation Area 3 coalition of farms was renamed U.S. Sugar and this produced (bottom) with water, and Everglades National Park, dry (top) 86percent of Everglades sugar.[86] During the 1930s the sugarcane farmers' coalition came under investigation for labor practices that bordered on slavery. Potential employeesprimarily young black menwere lured from all over the U.S. by the promise of jobs, but they were held financially responsible for training, transportation, room and board and other costs. Quitting while debts were owed was punishable with jail time. By 1942, U.S. Sugar was indicted for peonage in federal court, though the charges were eventually dismissed on a technicality. U.S. Sugar benefited significantly from the U.S. embargo on Cuban goods beginning in the early 1960s.[87] In 1958, before the Castro regime, 47000 acres (190km2) of sugarcane were harvested in Florida; by the 19641965 season, 228000 acres (920km2) were harvested. From 1959 to 1962 the region went from two sugar mills to six, one of which in Belle Glade set several

Draining and development of the Everglades world records for sugar production.[88] Fields in the EAA are typically 40 acres (16ha), on two sides bordered by canals that are connected to larger ones by which water is pumped in or out depending on the needs of the crops. The water level for sugarcane is ideally maintained at 20 inches (51cm) below the surface soil, and after the cane is harvested, the stalks are burned.[89] Vegetables require more fertilizer than sugarcane, though the fields may resemble the historic hydrology of the Everglades by being flooded in the wet season. Sugarcane, however, requires water in the dry season. The fertilizers used on vegetables, along with high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus that are the by-product of decayed soil necessary for sugarcane production, were pumped into WCAs south of the EAA, predominantly to Everglades National Park. The introduction of large amounts of these let exotic plants take hold in the Everglades.[90] One of the defining characteristics of natural Everglades ecology is its ability to support itself in a nutrient-poor environment, and the introduction of fertilizers began to change this ecology.[91]

53

Turning point
A turning point for development in the Everglades came in 1969 when a replacement airport was proposed as Miami International Airport outgrew its capacities. Developers began acquiring land, paying $180 an acre in 1968, and the Dade County Port Authority (DCPA) bought 39 square miles (100km2) in the Big Cypress Swamp without consulting the C&SF, management of Everglades National Park or the Department of the Interior. Park management learned of the official purchase and agreement to build the jetport from The Miami Herald the day it was announced.[81] The DCPA bulldozed the land it had bought, and laid a single runway it declared was for training pilots. The new jetport was planned to be larger than O'Hare, Dulles, JFK, and LAX airports combined; the location chosen was 6 miles (9.7km) north of the Everglades National Park, within WCA 3. The deputy director of the DCPA declared: "This is going to be one of the great population centers of America. We will do our best to meet our responsibilities and the responsibilities of all men to exercise dominion over the land, sea, and air above us as the higher order of man intends."[92] The C&SF brought the jetport proposal to national attention by mailing letters about it to 100conservation groups in the U.S.[81] Initial local press reaction condemned conservation groups who immediately opposed the project. Business Week reported real estate prices jumped from $200 to $800 an acre surrounding the planned location, and Life wrote of the expectations of the commercial interests in the area.[81] The U.S. Geological Survey's study of the environmental impact of the jetport started, "Development of the proposed jetport and its attendant facilities... will inexorably destroy the south Florida ecosystem and thus the Everglades National Park".[93] The jetport was intended to support a community of a million people and employ 60,000. The DCPA director was reported in Time saying, "I'm more interested in people than alligators. This is the ideal place as far as aviation is concerned."[94] When studies indicated the proposed jetport would create 4000000 US gallons ( L) of raw sewage a day and 10000 short tons (9100t) of jet engine pollutants a year, the national media snapped to attention. Science magazine wrote, in a series on environmental protection highlighting the jetport project, "Environmental scientists have become increasingly aware that, without careful planning, development of a region and the conservation of its natural resources do not go hand in hand".[95] The New York Times called it a "blueprint for disaster",[96] and Wisconsin senator Gaylord Nelson wrote to President Richard Nixon voicing his opposition: "It is a test of whether or not we are really committed in this country to protecting our environment."[94] Governor Claude Kirk withdrew his support for the project, and the 78-year-old Marjory Stoneman Douglas was persuaded to go on tour to give hundreds of speeches against it. She established Friends of the Everglades and encouraged more than 3,000members to join. Initially the U.S. Department of Transportation pledged funds to support the jetport, but after pressure, Nixon overruled the department. He instead established Big Cypress National Preserve, announcing it in the Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program.[97] Following the jetport proposition, restoration of the Everglades became not only a statewide priority, but an international one as well. In the 1970s the Everglades were declared an International Biosphere Reserve and a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, and a

Draining and development of the Everglades Wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar Convention,[98] earth that have appeared on all three lists.[100]
[99]

54 making it one of only three locations on

Notes and references

[1] Meindl, Christopher, et al. (December, 2002). "On the Importance of Claims-Making: The Role of James O. Wright in Promoting the Drainage of Florida's Everglades in the Early Twentieth Century", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 92 (4), p.682701. [2] Douglas, p.245. [3] Dovell, J. E. (July 1947). "The Everglades Before Reclamation", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 26 (1), p.144. [4] Grunwald, p.3132. [5] White, Frank (October, 1959). "The Journals of Lieutenant John Pickell, 18361837", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 38 (2), p.143172. [6] Lodge, p.110 [7] Tebeau, p.6667. [8] Grunwald, p.42. [9] Tebeau, p.71. [10] Tebeau, p.7576. [11] McCally, p.6569. [12] Stephan, L. Lamar (December, 1942). "Geographic Role of the Everglades in the Early History of Florida", The Scientific Monthly, 55, (6) p.515526. [13] Douglas, p.253. [14] Dovell, Junius (July 1948). "The Everglades: A Florida Frontier", Agricultural History, 22 (3), p.187197. [15] Davis, T. Frederick (January, 1939). "The Disston Land Purchase ", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 17 (3), p.201211. [16] Barnett, p.17. [17] Grunwald, p.9293. [18] Grunwald, p.90. [19] Douglas, p.286. [20] Douglas, p.284. [21] Patterson, Gordon (Summer, 1997). "Ditches and Dreams: Nelson Fell and the Rise of Fellsmere", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 76 (1), p.120. [22] Barnett, p.18. [23] "Henry Flagler." Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement, Vol. 21. Gale Group, 2001. [24] "Henry Morrison Flagler." Dictionary of American Biography Base Set. American Council of Learned Societies, 19281936. [25] Bramson, Seth (1998). "A Tale of Three Henrys", The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, 23, Florida Theme Issue, p.113143. [26] Bush, Gregory (May, 1999). "Playground of the USA", The Pacific Historical Review, 62 (2), p.153172. [27] Douglas, p.309. [28] Douglas, p.312. [29] Carter, p.78. [30] McCally, p.9394. [31] McCally, p.96. [32] McCally, p.101. [33] Grunwald, p.144. [34] McCally, p.10112. [35] Grunwald, p.148149. [36] Grunwald, p.153. [37] McCally, p.107108. [38] McCally, p.124126. [39] Douglas, p.318. [40] Douglas, p.325. [41] Grunwald, p.119120. [42] McCally, p. 117. [43] Grunwald, p.120. [44] Douglas, p.310. [45] Grunwald, p.126. [46] McCally, p.117118. [47] Douglas, p.310311. [48] Douglas, p.330. [49] Douglas, p.334. [50] Grunwald, p.179.

Draining and development of the Everglades

[51] U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. " South Florida Multi-Species Recovery Plan: Pine rockland (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ southeast/ vbpdfs/ commun/ pr. pdf)", Retrieved May 3, 2008. [52] Grunwald, p.183. [53] Grunwald, p.186. [54] Steinberg, Theodore (October, 1997). "Do-It-Yourself Deathscape: The Unnatural History of Natural Disaster in South Florida", Environmental History, 2 (4), p.414438. [55] Melzer, Martin (September 17, 2006). "On the 80th Anniversary of Disastrous 1926 Hurricane, Forecasters Sound the Alarm: It Will Happen Again", The Miami Herald. [56] Grunwald, p.188. [57] McCally, p.134. [58] McCally, p.140. [59] Douglas, p.342. [60] Douglas, p.344. [61] Brochu, Nicole Sterghos (2003). "Florida's Forgotten Storm: the Hurricane of 1928" (http:/ / www. sun-sentinel. com/ news/ weather/ hurricane/ sfl-ahurricane14sep14,0,574121. story?page=2). South Florida Sun-Sentinel. . Retrieved 2008-04-06. [62] Douglas, p.346. [63] Grunwald, p.194. [64] Grunwald, p.198199. [65] Grunwald, p.199200. [66] McCally, p.9. [67] McCally, p.142. [68] Lodge, p.38. [69] La Plante, Leah (1995), "The Sage of Biscayne Bay: Charles Torrey Simpson's Love Affair with South Florida", Tequesta, no.55, p.6182. [70] "Conservation efforts" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ historyculture/ consefforts. htm). Everglades National Park. National Park Service. September 17, 2007. . Retrieved 2008-05-10. [71] Douglas (1987), p.191. [72] Douglas, p.349. [73] Grunwald, p.219. [74] Light, Stephen, J. Walter Dineen, "Water Control in the Everglades: A Historical Perspective" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), Delray Beach, Fla.: St.Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8 [75] Lodge, p.224. [76] Grunwald, p.229. [77] Caulfield, p.55. [78] Carter, Luther (June 4, 1976). "Dade County: The Politics of Managing Urban Growth", Science, 192 (4243), p.982985. [79] Grunwald, p.220221. [80] Grunwald, p.226. [81] Gimour, Robert, et al. (Winter 19751976). "Environmental Preservation and Politics: The Significance of 'Everglades Jetport'", Political Science Quarterly, 90 (4), p.719738. [82] Caulfield, p.5354. [83] Sklar, Fred, et al. (April, 2005). "The Ecological-Societal Underpinnings of Everglades Restoration", Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3 (2), p.161169. [84] Lodge, p.223. [85] McCally, p.159160. [86] McCally, p.161. [87] Carter, p.161. [88] Snyder G.H., J. Davidson, "Everglades Agriculture: Past, Present and Future" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), Delray Beach, Fla.: St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8 [89] Lodge, p.225226. [90] McCally, p.172173. [91] Grunwald, p.283284. [92] Caulfield, p.61. [93] Grunwald,p.257. [94] "Jets v. Everglades" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,898538-2,00. html). Time. August 22, 1969. . Retrieved 2008-05-10. [95] Mueller, Marti (October 10, 1969). "Everglades Jetport: Academy Prepares a Model", Science, New Series, 166 (3902), p.202203. [96] Brooks, Paul (July 12, 1969). "Topics: Everglades Jetport A Blueprint for Disaster". The New York Times. p.26. [97] Nixon, Richard (February 8, 1972). "51 - Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program" (http:/ / www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=3731). The American Presidency Project. . Retrieved 2008-05-10.

55

Draining and development of the Everglades

[98] "Everglades National Park, Florida, United States of America" (http:/ / www. unep-wcmc. org/ sites/ wh/ pdf/ Everglades. pdf). United Nations Environment Program. March 2003. . Retrieved 2009-08-15. [99] "Park Statistics" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ parknews/ parkstatistics. htm). Everglades National Park. National Park Service. July 24, 2006. . Retrieved 2008-05-21. [100] Maltby, E., P.J. Dugan, "Wetland Ecosystem Management, and Restoration: An International Perspective" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), Delray Beach, Fla.: St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8

56

Bibliography
Barnett, Cynthia (2007). Mirage: Florida and the Vanishing Water of the Eastern U.S.. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11563-4 Carter, W. Hodding (2004). Stolen Water: Saving the Everglades from its Friends, Foes, and Florida. Atria Books. ISBN 0-7434-7407-4 Caulfield, Patricia (1970) Everglades. New York: Sierra Club / Ballantine Books. Douglas, Marjory (1947). The Everglades: River of Grass. R. Bemis Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-912451-44-0 Douglas, Marjory; Rothchild, John (1987). Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River. Pineapple Press. ISBN 0910923941 Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5107-5 Lodge, Thomas E. (1994). The Everglades Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-614-9 McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. Available as an etext (http://www.netlibrary.com/urlapi.asp?action=summary&v=1&bookid=54796); Boulder, Colo.: NetLibrary, 2001. ISBN 0-8130-2302-5 Tebeau, Charlton (1968). Man in the Everglades: 2000 Years of Human History in the Everglades National Park. Coral Gables: University of Miami Press.

External links
U.S. Geological Survey information on the Everglades Agricultural Area (http://sflwww.er.usgs.gov/ virtual_tour/controlling/index.html)

Restoration of the Everglades

57

Restoration of the Everglades

The restoration of the Everglades is an ongoing effort to remedy damage inflicted on the environment of southern Florida during the 20th century. It is the most expensive and comprehensive environmental repair attempt in history.[1] [2] The degradation of the Everglades became an issue in the United States in the early 1970s after a proposal to construct a jetport in the Big Cypress Swamp. Studies indicated the airport would have destroyed the ecosystem in South Florida and Everglades National Park.[3] After decades of destructive practices, both state and A portion of the C-38 canal, finished in 1971, now backfilled to restore the federal agencies are looking for ways to Kissimmee River floodplain to a more natural state balance the needs of the natural environment in South Florida with urban and agricultural centers that have recently and rapidly grown in and near the Everglades. In response to floods caused by hurricanes in 1947, the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project (C&SF) was established to construct flood control devices in the Everglades. The C&SF built 1400 miles (2300km) of canals and levees between the 1950s and 1971 throughout South Florida. Their last venture was the C-38 canal, which straightened the Kissimmee River and caused catastrophic damage to animal habitats, adversely affecting water quality in the region. The canal became the first C&SF project to be reverted when the 22-mile (35km) canal began to be backfilled, or refilled with the material excavated from it, in the 1980s. The restoration of the Kissimmee River is projected to continue until 2011. When high levels of phosphorus and mercury were discovered in the waterways in 1986, water quality became a focus for water management agencies. Costly and lengthy court battles were waged between various government entities to determine who was responsible for monitoring and enforcing water quality standards. Governor Lawton Chiles proposed a bill that determined which agencies would have that responsibility, and set deadlines for pollutant levels to decrease in water. Initially the bill was criticized by conservation groups for not being strict enough on polluters, but the Everglades Forever Act was passed in 1994. Since then, the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers have surpassed expectations for achieving lower phosphorus levels. A commission appointed by Governor Chiles published a report in 1995 stating that South Florida was unable to sustain its growth, and the deterioration of the environment was negatively affecting daily life for residents in South Florida. The environmental decline was predicted to harm tourism and commercial interests if no actions were taken to halt current trends. Results of an eight-year study that evaluated the C&SF were submitted to the United States Congress in 1999. The report warned that if no action was taken the region would rapidly deteriorate. A strategy called the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) was enacted to restore portions of the Everglades, Lake Okeechobee, the Caloosahatchee River, and Florida Bay to undo the damage of the past 50years. It would take 30years and cost $7.8billion to complete. Though the plan was passed into law in 2000, it has been compromised by politics and funding problems.

Restoration of the Everglades

58

Background
The Everglades are part of a very large watershed that begins in the vicinity of Orlando. The Kissimmee River drains into Lake Okeechobee, a 730-square-mile (1900km2) lake with an average depth of 9 feet (2.7m). During the wet season when the lake exceeds its capacity, the water leaves the lake in a very wide and shallow river, approximately 100 miles (160km) long and 60 miles (97km) wide.[4] This wide and shallow flow is known as sheetflow. The land gradually slopes toward Florida Bay, the historical destination of most of the water leaving the Everglades. Before drainage attempts, the Everglades comprised 4000 square miles (10000km2), taking up a third of the Florida peninsula.[5] Since the early 19th century the Everglades have been a subject of interest for agricultural development. The first attempt to drain the Everglades occurred in 1882 when a Pennsylvania land developer named Hamilton Compartments established by C&SF projects that separated the Disston constructed the first canals. Though these historic Everglades into Water Conservation Areas and the attempts were largely unsuccessful, Disston's purchase Everglades Agricultural Area. Twenty-five percent of the original Everglades are preserved in Everglades National Park. of land spurred tourism and real estate development of the state. The political motivations of Governor Napoleon Bonaparte Broward resulted in more successful attempts at canal construction between 1906 and 1920. Recently reclaimed wetlands were used for cultivating sugarcane and vegetables, while urban development began in the Everglades.[6] The 1926 Miami Hurricane and the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane caused widespread devastation and flooding which prompted the Army Corps of Engineers to construct a dike around Lake Okeechobee. The four-story wall cut off water from the Everglades. Floods from hurricanes in 1947 motivated the U.S. Congress to establish the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project (C&SF), responsible for constructing 1400 miles (2300km) of canals and levees, hundreds of pumping stations and other water control devices. The C&SF established Water Conservation Areas (WCAs) in 37% of the original Everglades, which acted as reservoirs providing excess water to the South Florida metropolitan area, or flushing it into the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico.[7] The C&SF also established the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA), which grows the majority of sugarcane crops in the United States. When the EAA was first established, it encompassed approximately 27% of the original Everglades. By the 1960s, urban development and agricultural use had decreased the size of the Everglades considerably. The remaining 25% of the Everglades in its original state is protected in Everglades National Park, but the park was established before the C&SF, and it depended upon the actions of the C&SF to release water. As Miami and other metropolitan areas began to intrude on the Everglades in the 1960s, political battles took place between park management and the C&SF when insufficient water in the park threw ecosystems into chaos. Fertilizers used in the EAA began to alter soil and hydrology in Everglades National Park, causing the proliferation of exotic plant species.[8] However, a proposition to build a massive jetport in the Big Cypress Swamp in 1969 focused attention on the degraded natural systems in the Everglades. For the first time, the Everglades became a subject of environmental conservation.[9]

Restoration of the Everglades

59

Everglades as a priority
Environmental protection became a national priority in the 1970s. Time magazine declared it the Issue of the Year in January 1971, reporting that it was rated as Americans' "most serious problem confronting their communitywell ahead of crime, drugs and poor schools".[10] When South Florida experienced a severe drought from 1970 to 1975, with Miami receiving only 33 inches (840mm) of rain in 197122 inches (560mm) less than average.[11] media attention focused on the Everglades. With the assistance of governor's aide Nathaniel Reed and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service biologist Arthur R. Marshall, politicians began to take action. Governor Reubin Askew implemented the Land Conservation Act in 1972, allowing the state to use voter-approved bonds of $240million to purchase land considered to be environmentally unique and irreplaceable.[12] Since then, Florida has purchased more land for public use than any other state.[13] In 1972 President Richard Nixon declared the Big Cypress Swampthe intended location for the Miami jetport in 1969to be federally protected.[14] Big Cypress National Preserve was established in 1974,[15] and Fakahatchee Strand State Preserve was created the same year.[12] In 1976, Everglades National Park was declared an International Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO,[16] which also listed the park as a World Heritage Site in 1979. The Ramsar Convention designated the Everglades a Wetland of International Importance in 1987.[17] Only three locations on earth which have appeared on all three lists: Everglades National Park, Lake Ichkeul in Tunisia, and Srebarna Lake in Bulgaria.[18]

Kissimmee River
In the 1960s, the C&SF came under increased scrutiny from government overseers and conservation groups. Critics maintained its size was comparable to the Tennessee Valley Authority's dam-building projects during the Great Depression, and that the construction had run into the billions of dollars without any apparent resolution or plan.[19] The projects of the C&SF have been characterized as part of "crisis and response" cycles that "ignored the consequence for the full system, assumed certainty of the future, and succeeded in solving the momentary crisis, but set in motion conditions that exaggerate future crises".[20] The last project, to build a canal to straighten the winding floodplain of the Kissimmee River that had historically fed Lake Okeechobee which in turn fed the Everglades, began in 1962. Marjory Stoneman Douglas later wrote that the C&SF projects were "interrelated stupidity", crowned by the C-38 canal.[21] Designed to replace a meandering 90-mile (140km) river with a 52-mile (84km) channel, the canal was completed in 1971 and cost $29million. It supplanted approximately 45000 acres (180km2) of marshland with retention ponds, dams, and vegetation.[22] Loss of habitat has caused the region to experience a drastic decrease of waterfowl, wading birds, and game fish.[23] The reclaimed floodplains were taken over by agriculture, bringing fertilizers and insecticides that washed into Lake Okeechobee. Even before the canal was finished, conservation organizations and sport fishing and hunting groups were calling for the restoration of the Kissimmee River.[22] Arthur R. Marshall led the efforts to undo the damage. According to Douglas, Marshall was successful in portraying the Everglades from the Kissimmee Chain of Lakes to Florida Bayincluding the atmosphere, climate, and limestoneas a single organism. Rather than remaining the preserve of conservation organizations, the cause of restoring the Everglades became a priority for politicians. Douglas observed, "Marshall accomplished the extraordinary magic of taking the Everglades out of the bleeding-hearts category forever".[24] At the insistent urging of Marshall, newly elected Governor Bob Graham announced the formation of the "Save Our Everglades" campaign in 1983, and in 1985 Graham lifted the first shovel of backfill for a portion of the C-38 canal.[25] Within a year the area was covered with

Structure 65B on the Kissimmee River is destroyed by the Army Corps of Engineers in 2000 to restore the natural flow of the river.

Restoration of the Everglades water returning to its original state.[26] Graham declared that by the year 2000, the Everglades would resemble its predrainage state as much as possible.[25] In 1992, the Kissimmee River Restoration Project was approved by Congress in the Water Resources Development Act. The project was estimated to cost $578million to convert only 22 miles (35km) of the canal; the cost was designed to be divided between the state of Florida and the U.S. government, with the state being responsible for purchasing land to be restored.[27] A project manager for the Army Corps of Engineers explained in 2002, "What we're doing on this scale is going to be taken to a larger scale when we do the restoration of the Everglades".[28] The entire project is estimated to be completed by 2011.[27]

60

Water quality
Attention to water quality was focused in South Florida in 1986 when a widespread algal bloom occurred in one-fifth of Lake Okeechobee. The bloom was discovered to be the result of fertilizers from the Everglades Agricultural Area.[29] Although laws stated in 1979 that the chemicals used in the EAA should not be deposited into the lake, they were flushed into the canals that fed the Everglades Water Conservation Areas, and eventually pumped into the lake.[11] Microbiologists discovered that, although phosphorus assists plant growth, it destroys periphyton, one of the basic building blocks of marl in the Everglades. Marl is one of two types of Everglades soil, along with peat; it is found where parts of the Everglades are flooded for shorter periods of time as layers of periphyton dry.[30] Most of the phosphorus compounds also rid peat of dissolved oxygen and promote algae growth, causing native invertebrates to die, and sawgrass to be replaced with invasive cattails that grow too tall and thick for birds and alligators to nest in.[31] Tested water showed 500parts per billion (ppb) of phosphorus near sugarcane fields. State legislation in 1987 mandated a 40% reduction of phosphorus by 1992.

Cattails indicate the presence of phosphorus in the water. Cattails are an invasive species; they crowd out sawgrass and grow too thick for birds or alligators to nest in.

Attempts to correct phosphorus levels in the Everglades met with resistance. The sugarcane industry, dominated by two companies named U.S. Sugar and Flo-Sun, was responsible for more than half of the crop in the EAA. They were well-represented in state and federal governments by lobbyists who enthusiastically protected their interests. According to the Audubon Society, the sugar industry, nicknamed "Big Sugar", donated more money to political parties and candidates than General Motors.[32] The sugar industry attempted to block government-funded studies of polluted water, and when the federal prosecutor in Miami faulted the sugar industry in legal action to protect Everglades National Park, Big Sugar tried to get the lawsuit withdrawn and the prosecutor fired.[33] A costly legal battle ensued from 1988 to 1992 between the State of Florida, the U.S. government, and the sugar industry to resolve who was responsible for water quality standards, the maintenance of Everglades National Park and the Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge.[11] A different concern about water quality arose when mercury was discovered in fish during the 1980s. Because mercury is damaging to humans, warnings were posted for fishermen that cautioned against eating fish caught in South Florida, and scientists became alarmed when a Florida panther was found dead near Shark River Slough with mercury levels high enough to be fatal to humans.[34] When mercury is ingested it adversely affects the central nervous system, and can cause brain damage and birth defects.[35] Studies of mercury levels found that it is bioaccumulated through the food chain: animals that are lower on the chain have decreased amounts, but as larger animals eat them, the amount of mercury is multiplied. The dead panther's diet consisted of small animals, including raccoons and young alligators. The source of the mercury was found to be waste incinerators and fossil fuel power plants that expelled the element in the atmosphere, which precipitated with rain, or in the dry season, dust.[34] Naturally occurring bacteria in the Everglades that function to reduce sulfur also transform mercury deposits into

Restoration of the Everglades methylmercury. This process was more dramatic in areas where flooding was not as prevalent. Because of requirements that reduced power plant and incinerator emissions, the levels of mercury found in larger animals decreased as well: approximately a 60% decrease in fish and a 70% decrease in birds, though some levels still remain a health concern for people.[34]

61

Everglades Forever Act

In an attempt to resolve the political quagmire over water quality, Governor Lawton Chiles introduced a bill in 1994 to clean up water within the EAA that was being released to the lower Everglades. The bill stated that the "Everglades ecosystem must be restored both in terms of water quality and water quantity and must be preserved and protected in a manner that is long term and comprehensive".[36] It ensured the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) and the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) would be responsible for researching water quality, enforcing water supply improvement, controlling exotic species, and collecting taxes, with the aim of decreasing the levels of phosphorus in the region. It allowed for purchase of land where pollutants would be sent to "treat and improve the quality of waters coming from the EAA".[37]

Aerial view of stormwater treatment areas in the northern Everglades bordered by sugarcane fields on the right

Critics of the bill argued that the deadline for meeting the standards was unnecessarily delayed until 2006a period of 12yearsto enforce better water quality. They also maintained that it did not force sugarcane farmers, who were the primary polluters, to pay enough of the costs, and increased the threshold of what was an acceptable amount of phosphorus in water from 10ppb to 50ppb.[38] Governor Chiles initially named it the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Act, but Douglas was so unimpressed with the action it took against polluters that she wrote to Chiles and demanded her name be stricken from it.[38] Despite criticism, the Florida legislature passed the Act in 1994. The SFWMD stated that its actions have exceeded expectations earlier than anticipated,[39] by creating Stormwater Treatment Areas (STA) within the EAA that contain a calcium-based substance such as lime rock layered between peat, and filled with calcareous periphyton. Early tests by the Army Corps of Engineers revealed this method reduced phosphorus levels from 80ppb to 10ppb.[40] The STAs are intended to treat water until the phosphorus levels are low enough to be released into the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge or other WCAs.

Wildlife concerns
The intrusion of urban areas into wilderness has had a substantial impact on wildlife, and several species of animals are considered endangered in the Everglades region. One animal that has benefited from endangered species protection is the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), whose holes give refuge to other animals, often allowing many species to survive during times of drought. Once abundant in the Everglades, the alligator was listed as an endangered species in 1967, but a combined effort by federal and state organizations and the banning of alligator hunting allowed it to rebound; it was pronounced fully recovered in 1987 and is no longer an endangered species.[41] However, alligators' territories and average body masses have been found to be generally smaller than in the past, and because populations have been reduced, their role during droughts has become limited.[42] The American Crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) is also native to the region and has been designated as endangered since 1975. Unlike their relatives the alligators, crocodiles tend to thrive in brackish or salt-water habitats such as estuarine or marine coasts. Their most significant threat is disturbance by people. Too much contact with humans causes females to abandon their nests, and males in particular are often victims of vehicle collisions while roaming over large territories and attempting to cross U.S. 1 and Card Sound Road in the Florida Keys. There are an estimated 500 to 1,000crocodiles in southern Florida.[43]

Restoration of the Everglades

62

The most critically endangered of any animal in the Everglades region is the Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi), a species that once lived throughout the southeastern United States: there were only 2530 in the wild in 1995. The panther is most threatened by urban encroachment, because males require approximately 200 square miles (520km2) for breeding territory. A male and two to five females may live within that range. When habitat is lost, panthers will fight over territory. After vehicle collisions, the second most frequent cause of death for panthers is intra-species aggression.[44] In the 1990s urban expansion crowded panthers from southwestern Florida as Naples and Roseate spoonbills, along with other wading birds, have decreased by 90% since the 1930s and Ft. Myers began to expand into the western Everglades and Big 1940s. Cypress Swamp. Agencies such as the Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service were responsible for maintaining the Clean Water Act and the Endangered Species Act, yet still approved 99% of all permits to build in wetlands and panther territory.[45] A limited genetic pool is also a danger. Biologists introduced eight female Texas cougars (Puma concolor) to diversify genes, and there are between 80 and 100panthers in the wild as of 2008.[44] Perhaps the most dramatic loss of any group of animals has been to wading birds. Their numbers were estimated by eyewitness accounts to be approximately 2.5million in the late 19th century. However, snowy egrets (Egretta thula), roseate spoonbills (Platalea ajaja), and reddish egrets (Egretta rufescens) were hunted to the brink of extinction for the colorful feathers used in women's hats. After about 1920 when the fashion passed, their numbers returned in the 1930s, but over the next 50years actions by the C&SF further disturbed populations. When the canals were constructed, natural water flow was restricted from the mangrove forests near the coast of Florida Bay. From one wet season to the next, fish were unable to reach traditional locations to repopulate when water was withheld by the C&SF. Birds were forced to fly farther from their nests to forage for food. By the 1970s, bird numbers had decreased 90%. Many of the birds moved to smaller colonies in the WCAs to be closer to a food source, making them more difficult to count. Yet they remain significantly fewer in number than before the canals were constructed.[46] [47]

Invasive species
Around 6million people moved to South Florida between 1940 and 1965. With a thousand people moving to Miami each week, urban development quadrupled.[48] As the human population grew rapidly, the problem of exotic plant and animal species also grew. Many species of plants were brought in to South Florida from Asia, Central America, or Australia as decorative landscaping. Exotic animals imported by the pet trade have escaped or been released. Biological controls that keep invasive species smaller in size and fewer in number in their native lands often do not exist in the Everglades, and they compete with the embattled native species for food and space. Of imported plant species, melaleuca trees (Melaleuca quinquenervia) have caused the most problems. Melaleucas grow on average 100 feet (30m) in the Everglades, as opposed to 25 to 60 feet (7.6 to 18 m) in their native Australia. They were brought to southern Florida as windbreaks and deliberately seeded in marsh areas because they absorb vast amounts of water. In a region that is regularly shaped by fire, melaleucas are fire-resistant and their seeds are more efficiently spread by fire. They are too dense for wading birds with large wingspans to nest in, and they choke out native vegetation.[49] Costs of controlling melaleucas topped $2million in 1998 for Everglades National Park. In Big Cypress National Preserve, melaleucas covered 186 square miles (480km2) at their most pervasive in the 1990s.[50]

Restoration of the Everglades

63 Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius) was brought to Southern Florida as an ornamental shrub and was dispersed by the droppings of birds and other animals that ate its bright red berries. It thrives on abandoned agricultural land growing in forests too dense for wading birds to nest in, similar to melaleucas. It grows rapidly especially after hurricanes and has invaded pineland forests. Following Hurricane Andrew, scientists and volunteers cleared damaged pinelands of Brazilian pepper so the native trees would be able to return to their natural state.[51] The species that is causing the most impediment to restoration is the Old World climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum), introduced in 1965. The fern grows rapidly and thickly on the ground, making passage for land animals such as black bears and panthers problematic. The ferns also grow as vines into taller portions of trees, and fires climb the ferns in "fire ladders" to scorch portions of the trees that are not naturally resistant to fire.[52] Several animal species have been introduced to Everglades waterways. Many tropical fish are released, the most detrimental being the blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus), which builds large nests in shallow waters. Tilapia also consume vegetation which would normally be used by young native fishes for

Climbing ferns overtake cypress trees in the Everglades. The ferns act as "fire ladders" that can destroy trees that would otherwise survive fires.

cover and protection.[53] Reptiles have a particular affinity for the South Florida ecosystem. Virtually all lizards appearing in the Everglades have been introduced, such as the brown anole (Anolis sagrei) and the tropical house gecko (Hemidactylus mabouia). The herbivorous green iguana (Iguana iguana) can reproduce rapidly in wilderness habitats. However, the reptile that has earned media attention for its size and potential to harm children and domestic pets is the Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus), which has spread quickly throughout the area. The python can grow up to 20 feet (6.1m) long and competes with alligators for the top of the food chain.[54] Though exotic birds such as parrots and parakeets are also found in the Everglades, their impact is negligible. Conversely, perhaps the animal that causes the most damage to native wildlife is the domestic or feral cat. Across the U.S., cats are responsible for approximately a billion bird deaths annually. They are estimated to number 640 per square mile; cats living in suburban areas have devastating effects on migratory birds and marsh rabbits.[55]

Homestead Air Force Base

Hurricane Andrew struck Miami in 1992, with catastrophic damage to Homestead Air Force Base in Homestead. A plan to rejuvenate the property in 1993 and convert it into a commercial airport was met with enthusiasm from local municipal and commercial entities hoping to recoup $480million and 11,000jobs lost in the local community by the destruction and subsequent closing of the base.[56] On March 31, 1994, the base was designated as an Air Reserve Base, functioning only part-time.[57] A cursory environmental study performed by the Air Force was deemed insufficient by local conservation groups, who threatened to sue in order to halt the acquisition when estimates of 650flights a day were projected. Groups had previously been alarmed in 1990 by the inclusion of Homestead Air Force Base on a list of the U.S. Government's most polluted properties.[58] Their concerns also included noise, and the inevitable collisions with birds using the mangrove forests as rookeries. The air force base is located between Everglades National Park and Biscayne National Park, giving it the potential to cause harm to both. In 2000, Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt and the director of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency expressed their opposition to the project, despite other Clinton Administration agencies previously working to ensure the base would be turned over to local agencies quickly and smoothly as "a model of base disposal".[59] [60] Although attempts were made to make the base more environmentally friendly, in 2001 local commercial interests promoting the airport lost

Restoration of the Everglades federal support.

64

Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan

Sustainable South Florida
Despite the successes of the Everglades Forever Act and the decreases in mercury levels, the focus intensified on the Everglades in the 1990s as quality of life in the South Florida metropolitan areas diminished. It was becoming clear that urban populations were consuming increasingly unsustainable levels of natural resources. A report entitled "The Governor's Commission for a Sustainable South Florida", submitted to Lawton Chiles in 1995, identified the problems the state and municipal governments were facing. The report remarked that the degradation of the natural quality of the Everglades, Florida Bay, and other bodies of water in South Florida would cause a significant decrease in tourism (12,000jobs and $200million annually) and income from compromised commercial fishing (3,300jobs and $52million annually).[61] The report noted that past abuses and neglect of the environment had brought the region to "a precipitous juncture" where the inhabitants of South Florida faced health hazards in polluted air and water; furthermore, crowded and unsafe urban conditions hurt the reputation of the state. It noted that though the population had increased by 90% over the previous two decades, registered vehicles had increased by 166%.[61] On the quality and availability of water, the report stated, "[The] frequent water shortages... create the irony of a natural system dying of thirst in a subtropical environment with over 53 inches of rain per year".[61] Restoration of the Everglades, however, briefly became a bipartisan cause in national politics. A controversial penny-a-pound (2 cent/kg) tax on sugar was proposed to fund some of the necessary changes to be made to help decrease phosphorus and make other improvements to water. State voters were asked to support the tax, and environmentalists paid $15million to encourage the issue. Sugar lobbyists responded with $24million in advertising to discourage it and succeeded; it became the most expensive ballot issue in state history.[62] How restoration might be funded became a political battleground and seemed to stall without resolution. However, in the 1996 election year, Republican senator Bob Dole proposed that Congress give the State of Florida $200million to acquire land for the Everglades. Democratic Vice President Al Gore promised the federal government would purchase 100000 acres (400km2) of land in the EAA to turn it over for restoration. Politicking reduced the number to 50000 acres (200km2), but both Dole's and Gore's gestures were approved by Congress.[63]

Central and South Florida Project Restudy

As part of the Water Resources Development Act of 1992, Congress authorized an evaluation of the effectiveness of the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project. A report known as the "Restudy", written by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the South Florida Water Management District, was submitted to Congress in 1999. It cited indicators of harm to the system: a 50% reduction in the original Everglades, diminished water storage, harmful timing of water release, an 85 to 90% decrease in wading bird populations over the past 50years, and the

Natural water drainage patterns prior to development in South Florida, circa 1900

Restoration of the Everglades

65

decline of output from commercial fisheries. Bodies of water including Lake Okeechobee, the Caloosahatchee River, St. Lucie estuary, Lake Worth Lagoon, Biscayne Bay, Florida Bay, and the Everglades reflected drastic water level changes, hypersalinity, and dramatic changes in marine and freshwater ecosystems. The Restudy noted the overall decline in water quality over the past 50years was caused by loss of wetlands that act as filters for polluted water.[64] It predicted that without intervention the entire South Florida ecosystem would deteriorate. Canals took roughly 170 billion US gallons (640Gl) of water to the Atlantic Ocean or Gulf of Mexico daily, so there was no opportunity for water storage, yet flooding was still a problem.[65] Without changes to the current system, the Restudy predicted water restrictions would be necessary every other year, and annually in some locations. It also warned that revising some portions of the project without dedicating efforts to an overall comprehensive plan would be insufficient and probably detrimental.[66] After evaluating ten plans, the Restudy recommended a comprehensive strategy that would cost $7.8billion over 20years. The plan advised taking the following actions:

Current water drainage patterns in South Florida in 2005

Planned water recovery and storage implementation using CERP strategies

Create surface water storage reservoirs to capture 1500000 acre feet (1.9km3) of water in several locations taking up 181300 acres (734km2).[67] Create water preserve areas between Miami-Dade and Palm Beach and the eastern Everglades to treat runoff water.[67] Manage Lake Okeechobee as an ecological resource to avoid the drastic rise and fall of water levels in the lake that are harmful to aquatic plant and animal life and disturb the lake sediments.[67] Improve water deliveries to estuaries to reduce the rapid discharge of excess water to the Caloosahatchee and St. Lucie estuaries that upset nutrient balances and cause lesions on fish. Stormwater discharge would be sent instead to reservoirs.[68] Increase underground water storage to hold 16 billion US gallons (61Gl) a day in wells, or reservoirs in the Floridan Aquifer, to be used later in dry periods, in a method called Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR).[68] Construct treatment wetlands as Stormwater Treatment Areas throughout 35600 acres (144km2), that would decrease the amount of pollutants in the environment.[68] Improve water deliveries to the Everglades by increasing them at a rate of approximately 26% into Shark River Slough.[68]

Restoration of the Everglades Remove barriers to sheetflow by destroying or removing 240 miles (390km) of canals and levees, specifically removing the Miami Canal and reconstructing the Tamiami Trail from a highway to culverts and bridges to allow sheetflow to return to a more natural rate of water flow into Everglades National Park.[69] Store water in quarries and reuse wastewater by employing existing quarries to supply the South Florida metropolitan area as well as Florida Bay and the Everglades. Construct two wastewater treatment plants capable of discharging 22 billion US gallons (83Gl) a day to recharge the Biscayne Aquifer.[69] The implementation of all of the advised actions, the report stated, would "result in the recovery of healthy, sustainable ecosystems throughout south Florida".[70] The report admitted that it did not have all the answers, though no plan could.[71] However, it predicted that it would restore the "essential defining features of the pre-drainage wetlands over large portions of the remaining system", that populations of all animals would increase, and animal distribution patterns would return to their natural states.[71] Critics expressed concern over some unused technology; scientists were unsure if the quarries would hold as much water as was being suggested, and whether the water would harbor harmful bacteria from the quarries. Overtaxing the aquifers was another concernit was not a technique that had been previously attempted.[72] Though it was optimistic, the Restudy noted, It is important to understand that the 'restored' Everglades of the future will be different from any version of the Everglades that has existed in the past. While it certainly will be vastly superior to the current ecosystem, it will not completely match the pre-drainage system. This is not possible, in light of the irreversible physical changes that have made (sic) to the ecosystem. It will be an Everglades that is smaller and somewhat differently arranged than the historic ecosystem. But it will be a successfully restored Everglades, because it will have recovered those hydrological and biological patterns which defined the original Everglades, and which made it unique among the worlds wetland systems. It will become a place that kindles the wildness and richness of the former Everglades.[73] The report was the result of many cooperating agencies that often had conflicting goals. An initial draft was submitted to Everglades National Park management who asserted not enough water would be released to the park quickly enoughthat the priority went to delivering water to urban areas. When they threatened to refuse to support it, the plan was rewritten to provide more water to the park. However, the Miccosukee Indians have a reservation in between the park and water control devices, and they threatened to sue to ensure their tribal lands and a $50million casino would not be flooded.[74] Other special interests were also concerned that businesses and residents would take second priority after nature. The Everglades, however, proved to be a bipartisan cause. The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) was authorized by the Water Development Act of 2000 and signed into law by President Bill Clinton on December 11, 2000. It approved the immediate use of $1.3billion for implementation to be split by the federal government and other sources.[75]

66

Implementation
The State of Florida reports that it has spent more than $2billion on the various projects since CERP was signed. More than 36000 acres (150km2) of Stormwater Treatment Areas (STA) have been constructed to filter 2500 short tons (2300t) of phosphorus from Everglades waters. An STA covering 17000 acres (69km2) was constructed in 2004, making it the largest manmade wetland in the world. Fifty-five percent of the land necessary for restoration, totaling 210167 acres (850.5km2), has been purchased by the State of Florida. A plan named "Acceler8", to hasten the construction and funding of the project, was put into place, spurring the start of six of eight construction projects, including that of three large reservoirs.[76]
A changing economy, too, hurt the plan. It passed in a year with a record budget surplus, but the climate changed sharply after the terrorist attacks of 2001. Some state officials say the plan, which involves dozens of complex engineering projects, also got bogged down in federal bureaucracy, a victim of analysis paralysis. The New York Times, November 2007

Restoration of the Everglades Despite the bipartisan goodwill and declarations of the importance of the Everglades, the region still remains in danger. Political maneuvering continues to impede CERP: sugar lobbyists promoted a bill in the Florida legislature in 2003 that increased the acceptable amount of phosphorus in Everglades waterways from 10ppb to 15ppb and extended the deadline for the mandated decrease by 20years.[77] A compromise of 2016 was eventually reached. Environmental organizations express concern that attempts to speed up some of the construction through Acceler8 are politically motivated; the six projects Acceler8 focuses on do not provide more water to natural areas in desperate need of it, but rather to projects in populated areas bordering the Everglades, suggesting that water is being diverted to make room for more people in an already overtaxed environment.[78] Though Congress promised half the funds for restoration, after the War in Iraq began and two of CERP's major supporters in Congress retired, the federal role in CERP was left unfulfilled. According to a story in The New York Times, state officials say the restoration is lost in a maze of "federal bureaucracy, a victim of 'analysis paralysis' ".[79] In 2007, the release of $2billion for Everglades restoration was approved by Congress, overriding President George W. Bush's veto of the entire Water Development Project the money was a part of. Bush's rare veto went against the wishes of Florida Republicans, including his brother, Governor Jeb Bush. A lack of subsequent action by the Congress prompted Governor Charlie Crist to travel to Washington D.C. in February 2008 and inquire about the promised funds.[80] As of June 2008, the federal government has spent only $400million of the $7.8billion legislated.[81] Carl Hiassen characterized George W. Bush's attitude toward the environment as "long-standing indifference" in June 2008, exemplified when Bush stated he would not intervene to change the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) policy allowing the release of water polluted with fertilizers and phosphorus into the Everglades.[82]

67

Reassessment of CERP
Florida still receives a thousand new residents daily and lands slated for restoration and wetland recovery are often bought and sold before the state has a chance to bid on them. The competitive pricing of real estate also drives it beyond the purchasing ability of the state.[83] Because the State of Florida is assisting with purchasing lands and funding construction, some of the programs under CERP are vulnerable to state budget cuts.[84] [85] In June 2008 Governor Crist announced that the State of Florida will buy U.S. Sugar for $1.7billion. The idea came when sugar lobbyists were trying to persuade Crist to relax restriction of U.S. Sugar's practice of pumping phosphorus-laden water into the Everglades. According to one of the lobbyists who characterized it as a "duh moment", Crist said, "If sugar is polluting the Everglades, and we're paying to clean the Everglades, why don't we just get rid of sugar?"[62] The largest producer of cane sugar in the U.S. will continue operations for six years, and when ownership transfers to Florida, 187000 acres (760km2) of the Everglades will remain undeveloped to allow it to be restored to its pre-drainage state.[86] In September 2008 the National Research Council (NRC), a nonprofit agency providing science and policy advice to the federal government,[87] submitted a report on the progress of CERP. The report noted "scant progress" in restoration because of problems in budgeting, planning, and bureaucracy.[88] The NRC report called the Everglades one of the "world's treasured ecosystems" that is being further endangered by lack of progress: "Ongoing delay in Everglades restoration has not only postponed improvementsit has allowed ecological decline to continue". It cited the shrinking tree islands, and the negative population growth of the endangered Rostrhamus sociabilis or Everglades snail kite, and Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis, the Cape Sable seaside sparrow. The lack of water reaching Everglades National Park was characterized as "one of the most discouraging stories" in implementation of the plan.[88] The NRC recommended improving planning on the state and federal levels, evaluating each CERP project annually, and further acquisition of land for restoration. Everglades restoration was earmarked $96 million in federal funds as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 with the intention of providing civil service and construction jobs while simultaneously implementing the legislated repair projects.[89] In January 2010, work began on the C-111 canal, built in the 1960s to drain irrigated farmland, to reconstruct it to keep from diverting water from Everglades National Park. Two other projects focusing on restoration are also scheduled to start in 2010.[90] Governor Crist announced the same month that $50 million would be earmarked for

Restoration of the Everglades Everglades restoration.[91] In April of the same year, a federal district court judge sharply criticized both state and federal failures to meet deadlines, describing the cleanup efforts as being slowed by "glacial delay" and government neglect of environmental law enforcement "incomprehensible".[92]

68

Notes and references

[1] Grunwald, p.2. [2] Schmitt, Eric (October 20, 2000). " Everglades Restoration Plan Passes House, With Final Approval Seen (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9D02E3DF103EF933A15753C1A9669C8B63& scp=1& st=nyt)", The New York Times, p.1. [3] J. V. F. (October, 1969). "Special Feature: Recent Developments in Everglades Controversy", BioScience, 19 (10), pp.926927. [4] Lodge, p.20. [5] Lodge, p.14. [6] Dovell, Junius (July 1948). "The Everglades: A Florida Frontier", Agricultural History 22 (3), pp.187197. [7] Light, Stephen, J. Walter Dineen "Water Control in the Everglades: A Historical Perspective" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8 [8] Snyder G.H., J. Davidson, "Everglades Agriculture: Past, Present and Future" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8 [9] Mueller, Marti (October 10, 1969). "Everglades Jetport: Academy Prepares a Model", Science, New Series, 166 (3902), pp. 202203. [10] "Issue of the Year: The Environment" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,942377,00. html). Time. 1971-01-04. . Retrieved 2008-05-20. [11] Gunderson, Lance, et al. (1995). "Lessons from the Everglades", BioScience, 45, Supplement: Science and Biodiversity Policy, pp.S66S73. [12] "History" (http:/ / friendsoffakahatchee. org/ history. php). Fakahatchee State Preserve. Friends of Fakahatchee State Preserve. 2005. . Retrieved 2008-05-20. [13] Grunwald, p.262 [14] Nixon, Richard (February 8, 1972). "51 - Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program" (http:/ / www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=3731). The American Presidency Project. . Retrieved 2008-05-10. [15] "Laws & Policies" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ bicy/ parkmgmt/ lawsandpolicies. htm). Big Cypress National Preserve. National Park Service. April 20, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-05-20. [16] "Everglades National Park, Florida, United States of America" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080510070315/ http:/ / www. unep-wcmc. org/ sites/ wh/ everglad. html). United Nations Environment Program. March 2003. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. unep-wcmc. org/ sites/ wh/ everglad. html) on May 10, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-05-19. [17] "Park Statistics" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ parknews/ parkstatistics. htm). Everglades National Park. National Park Service. July 24, 2006. . Retrieved 2008-05-21. [18] Maltby, E., P.J. Dugan, "Wetland Ecosystem Management, and Restoration: An International Perspective" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8 [19] Davis, Jack (January 2003). "'Conservation is now a dead word': Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the transformation of American environmentalism." Environmental History, 8 (1) pp.5376. [20] Holling, C.S. "The Structure and Dynamics of the Everglades System: Guidelines for Ecosystem Restoration" in Everglades : The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8 [21] Douglas (1987), p.229. [22] "Environmental Setting: The Altered System" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esas/ index. html). Circular 1134. U.S. Geological Survey. November 2, 2004. . Retrieved 2008-05-19. [23] "Kissimmee River Restoration" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080413000104/ http:/ / www. saj. usace. army. mil/ dp/ krr/ index. htm). Army Corps of Engineers Jacksonville District. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. saj. usace. army. mil/ dp/ krr/ index. htm) on April 13, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-05-19. [24] Douglas (1987), p.227. [25] Angier, Natalie (1984-08-06). "Now You See It, Now You Don't" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,921744,00. html). Time. . Retrieved 2008-05-20. [26] Douglas (1987), p.232. [27] "Kissimee River History" (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ evergladesforever/ about/ history. htm). Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2006. . Retrieved 2008-05-19. [28] Morgan, Curtis (December 15, 2002). "Florida's Kissimmee River Begins to Recover from Man-Made Damage", The Miami Herald [29] Lodge, p.230. [30] Lodge, p.37. [31] Davis, Steven. "Phosphorus Inputs and Vegetation Sensitivity in the Everglades" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8 [32] Grunwald, p.282.

Restoration of the Everglades

[33] Grunwald, pp.286287. [34] Lodge, pp.231233. [35] "Mercury Studies in the Florida Everglades" (http:/ / sflwww. er. usgs. gov/ publications/ fs/ 166-96/ ). FS-166-96. U.S. Geological Survey. November 9, 2004. . Retrieved 2008-06-01. [36] "Florida Statutes (Supplement 1994) [Everglades Forever Act (http:/ / exchange. law. miami. edu/ everglades/ statutes/ state/ florida/ E_forever. htm)"]. Chapter 373: Water Resources, Part IV. Management and Storage of Surface Waters, 373.4592 Everglades improvement and management. University of Miami School of Law. 1997. . Retrieved 2008-05-21. [37] Alexa, Micheal; D'Isernia, Luke; Minton, Laura; Miller, Dulcy; Corbett, Sarah. "Handbook of Florida Water Regulation: Florida Everglades Forever Act" (http:/ / edis. ifas. ufl. edu/ FE609). Chapter 373: Water Resources, Part IV. Management and Storage of Surface Waters, 373.4592 Everglades improvement and management. University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Science. . Retrieved 2008-05-21. [38] Grunwald, p.301. [39] "Long Term Plan Overview" (https:/ / my. sfwmd. gov/ portal/ page?_pageid=2294,4946718,2294_4946541:2294_4946386& _dad=portal& _schema=PORTAL). South Florida Water Management District. 2008. . Retrieved 2008-05-21. [40] "Periphyton-based Stormwater Treatment Area (PSTA) Technology" (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ docs/ fs_psta_hires. pdf) (pdf). The Journey to Restore America's Everglades. December 2003. . Retrieved 2008-05-22. [41] "American Alligator, Wildlife Species Information" (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ species/ species_accounts/ bio_alli. html). www.fws.gov. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. February 2008. . Retrieved 2008-07-12. [42] Lodge, p.236. [43] "American Crocodile" (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ verobeach/ images/ pdfLibrary/ amcr. pdf) (pdf). Multi-Species Recovery Plan for South Florida. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. . Retrieved 2008-05-24. [44] "Florida Panther Frequently Asked Questions" (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ floridapanther/ panther_faq. html). Florida Panther National Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. . Retrieved 2008-05-24. [45] Grunwald, p.293. [46] Bancroft, G. Thomas, et al. "Relationships among Wading Bird Foraging Patterns, Colony Locations, and Hydrology in the Everglades", in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8 [47] Lodge, pp.233234. [48] Grunwald, p.229. [49] Lodge, pp.237240. [50] Tasker, Georgia (August 22, 1998). "Federal Experts Warn of Alien Plant Invasion", The Miami Herald. [51] Lodge, p.241. [52] Lodge, p.242. [53] Lodge, pp.243244. [54] Lodge, p.244. [55] Lodge, pp.244245. [56] "Call for Environmental Study Delays Plan for a Florida Airport" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9E04E0DD113EF936A15751C1A961958260). The New York Times. December 25, 1997. . Retrieved 2008-06-03. [57] "History of Homestead Air Force Base" (http:/ / www. homestead. afrc. af. mil/ library/ factsheets/ factsheet. asp?id=3401). United States Air Force. 2008. . Retrieved 2008-05-23.. [58] Zaneski, Cyril (August 24, 1998). "New Environmental Study Begins on Homestead, Fla., Airport Project", The Miami Herald. [59] Zaneski, Cyril (January 8, 2000). "Plans for Airport at Former Homestead, Fla., Air Force Base Grounded", The Miami Herald. [60] Morgan, Curtis (January 6, 2001). "Miami-Area Officials' Plans for Air Force Base May Be Disrupted", The Miami Herald. [61] "Chapter 1: Background and understanding" (http:/ / dlis. dos. state. fl. us/ fgils/ agencies/ sust/ tocs. html). The Governor's Commission for a Sustainable South Florida. State of Florida. October 1, 1995. . Retrieved 2008-05-23. [62] Kennedy, John; Deslatte, Aaron (2008-06-29). "Big sugar took its lumps, then dealt" (http:/ / www. orlandosentinel. com/ news/ local/ state/ orl-glades2908jun29,0,1040699. story?track=rss). The Orlando Sentinel. . Retrieved 2008-06-29. [63] Grunwald, pp.311313. [64] US Army COE and SFWMD, p.iii. [65] Tibbetts, John (August, 2000). "Making Amends: Ecological Restoration in the United States", Environmental Health Perspectives, 108 (8), pp.A356A361. [66] US Army COE and SFWMD, pp.ivv. [67] US Army COE and SFWMD, p.vii. [68] US Army COE and SFWMD, p.viii. [69] US Army COE and SFWMD, p.ix. [70] US Army COE and SFWMD, p.x. [71] US Army COE and SFWMD, p.xi. [72] Grunwald, p.319. [73] US Army COE and SFWMD, p.xii. [74] Kloor, Keith (May 19, 2000). "Everglades Restoration Plan Hits Rough Waters", Science, 288 (5469), pp.11661167.

69

Restoration of the Everglades

[75] "Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 2000" (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ wrda2000/ wrda. aspx). The Journey to Restore America's Everglades. November 4, 2002. . Retrieved 2008-05-23. [76] "Restoring the River of Grass" (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ evergladesforever/ ). Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2006. . Retrieved 2008-05-24. [77] (April 21, 2003). " Everglades in Peril (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9F04E3D8133AF932A15757C0A9659C8B63& scp=1& st=cse)", The New York Times, Section A, p.22. [78] Grunwald, Michael (October 14, 2004). " Fla. Steps In to Speed Up State-Federal Everglades Cleanup (http:/ / pqasb. pqarchiver. com/ washingtonpost/ access/ 711984541. html?dids=711984541:711984541& FMT=ABS& FMTS=ABS:FT)", The Washington Post, p.A03. [79] Goodnough, Abby (November 2, 2007). " Vast Effort to Save Everglades Falters as U.S. Funds Dwindle (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 11/ 02/ us/ 02everglades. html?scp=1& st=nyt)", The New York Times, Section A, p.1. [80] Clark, Lesley (February 13, 2008). " Crist presses lawmakers for Glades funds (http:/ / www. miamiherald. com/ 516/ story/ 416463. html)", The Miami Herald, State and Regional News. [81] June 9, 2008. "Picayune Strand a model for what Everglades restoration will mean" (http:/ / www. sun-sentinel. com/ news/ opinion/ sfl-editafpicayunesbjun09,0,2043626. story) South Florida Sun-Sentinel|Sun-Sentinel (Ft. Lauderdale, Florida). [82] Hiassen, Carl (June 15, 2008). "EPA ducks duty to keep water clean" (http:/ / www. miamiherald. com/ 418/ story/ 569567. html), The Miami Herald, State and Regional News. [83] Barnett, p.185. [84] Fineout, Gary (April 4, 2008). "Deep budget cuts in store for S. Florida", The Miami Herald, State and Regional News. [85] Klas, Mary Ellen (June 12, 2008). " Crist OK's $66B budget with little fanfare (http:/ / www. miamiherald. com/ 548/ story/ 567131. html)" The Miami Herald, State and Regional News. Retrieved on June 12, 2008. [86] Cave, Damien and John Holusha (June 25, 2008). "Florida to Buy Sugar Maker in Bid to Restore Everglades", The New York Times, p.1. [87] Welcome to the National Research Council (http:/ / sites. nationalacademies. org/ nrc/ index. htm), National Research Council website (2008). Retrieved on October 6, 2008. [88] "Progress Toward Restoring the Everglades: Second Biennial Review (Brief)" (http:/ / dels. nas. edu/ dels/ rpt_briefs/ everglades_brief_final. pdf), National Research Council (September 2008). [89] Morgan, Curtis, Clark, Lesley (April 29, 2009). "River of Cash: Stimulus Aid for Glades", The Miami Herald, p1A. [90] Morgan, Curtis (January 27, 2010). "Canal work begins in Everglades project", The Miami Herald, South Florida news. [91] Skoloff, Brian (January 22, 2010). "Gov. Crist proposes $2.1 billion for environment", The Miami Herald, Florida news. [92] Morgan, Curtis (April 25, 2010). "Everglades cleanup said to be mired in 'glacial delay'", The Miami Herald, South Florida news.

70

Bibliography
Barnett, Cynthia (2007). Mirage: Florida and the Vanishing Water of the Eastern U.S., University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472115634 Douglas, Marjory; Rothchild, John (1987). Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River. Pineapple Press. ISBN 0910923941 Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0743251075 Lodge, Thomas E. (1994). The Everglades Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-614-9 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and South Florida Water Management District (April 1999). "Summary", Central and Southern Florida Project Comprehensive Review Study (http://www.evergladesplan.org/docs/ comp_plan_apr99/summary.pdf).

Further reading
Alderson, Doug. 2009. New Dawn for the Kissimmee River. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-3396-2 The Everglades in the Time of Marjorie Stoneman Douglas (http://www.floridamemory.com/ PhotographicCollection/photo_exhibits/everglades.cfm) Photo exhibit created by the State Archives of Florida

Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan

71

Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan

The Central and Southern Florida (C&SF) Project,[1] which was first authorized by Congress in 1948, is a multi-purpose project that provides flood control, water supply for municipal, industrial, and agricultural uses, prevention of saltwater intrusion, water supply for Everglades National Park, and protection of fish and wildlife resources. The primary system includes about 1000 miles (1600km) of levees, 720 miles (1160km) of canals, and almost 200 water control structures. The C&SF Project has performed its authorized functions well, however, the project has had unintended adverse effects on the unique and diverse environment that constitutes south Florida ecosystems, including the Everglades and Florida Bay. The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP)[2] provides a framework and guide to restore, protect and preserve the water resources of central and southern Florida, including the Everglades. It covers 16 counties over an 18000-square-mile (47000 km2) area and centers on an update of the Central & Southern Florida (C&SF) Project also known as the Restudy. The State of Florida (via the South Florida Water Management District) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers are undertaking various projects under CERP to help ensure the proper quantity, quality, timing, and distribution of waters to the Everglades and all of South Florida. The Plan was approved in the Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 2000. It includes more than 60 elements, will take more than 30 years to construct, and was originally estimated to cost $7.8 billion. The goal of CERP is to capture fresh water that now flows unused to the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico and redirect it to areas that need it most. The majority of the water will be devoted to environmental restoration, reviving a dying ecosystem. The remaining water will benefit cities and farmers by enhancing water supplies for the south Florida economy. Numerous lawsuits affecting Everglades restoration are pending before the courts.

References
[1] Development of the Central & South Florida (C&SF) Project (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ about/ restudy_csf_devel. aspx) [2] About CERP: a Brief Overview (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ about/ about_cerp_brief. aspx)

External links
Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (http://www.evergladesplan.org/index.aspx) ACCELER8 (https://my.sfwmd.gov/portal/page?_pageid=1855,2830547,1855_2831083&_dad=portal& _schema=PORTAL&navpage=home) South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Task Force (http://www.sfrestore.org/)

List of invasive species in the Everglades

72

List of invasive species in the Everglades

A tree island in the Everglades covered by Old World climbing fern

Everglades National Park staff took this image of an alligator and Burmese python locked in a struggle.

Invasive species in the Everglades are exotic plants and animals that have aggressively adapted to conditions in wilderness areas in southern Florida. The Everglades are a massive watershed in the southern portion of the U.S. state of Florida that drains overflow from the vast shallow Lake Okeechobee, that is in turn fed by the Kissimmee River. The overflow forms a very shallow river about 60 miles (97km) wide and 100 miles (160km) long that travels about half a mile per day. The network of ecosystems created by the Everglades are surrounded by urban areas to the east in the South Florida metropolitan area, to the west by Naples and Fort Myers, and to the south by Florida Bay, a marine environment that receives fresh water from and is maintained by the Everglades. As it is surrounded on three sides and close to a major transportation and shipping center, it is particularly vulnerable to the importation of exotic species. In the 20th century, Florida experienced a population surge unparalleled in the U.S., accompanied by rapid urban expansion made possible by draining portions of the Everglades. Flood control became a priority and the Central & South Florida Flood Control Project, from 1947 to 1971, constructed over 1400 miles (2300km) of canals and flood control structures in South Florida. The widespread building created new habitats and disturbed established plant and animal communities. Many of the new residents or tourists in Florida were responsible for introducing plant species to the area by accident, or deliberately to improve landscaping. Many animals have been introduced similarly, and have either escaped or been released to proliferate on their own. Several terms are used to identify non-native species: exotic, invader, immigrant, colonist, introduced, nonindigenous, and naturalized. "Naturalized" usually refers to species that have adapted to a region over a long period of time,[1] while "invasive" refers to particularly destructive or aggressive species.[2] Approximately 26% of all fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals in South Florida are exoticmore than in any other part of the United Statesand the region hosts one of the highest numbers of exotic plant species in the world.[3] Many of the biological controls like weather, disease, and consumers that naturally limit plants in their native environments do not exist in the Everglades, causing many to grow larger and multiply far beyond their average numbers in their native habitats. Similarly, animals often do not find the predators or natural barriers to reproduction

List of invasive species in the Everglades in the Everglades as they do where they originated, thus they often reproduce more quickly and efficiently. Concerns over the quality of the Everglades were raised in the beginning of the 20th century, and by 2000 a federally funded initiative was enacted that gave Everglades restoration the distinction of being the largest planned environmental rehabilitation in history. Exotic species control falls under the management of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which has been compiling and disseminating information about invasive species since 1994. Control of invasive species costs $500 million a year, but 1700000 acres (6900km2) of land in South Florida remains infested.[4]

73

Plant species
As the fields of ecology and environmental studies develop, exotic species attract more attention and their effects become more apparent. Mid-20th century biology texts about invading species reflected more complacency than alarm, as contemporary wisdom about them assumed the host environment would be largely immune.[5] Everglades biologist Thomas Lodge writes that in the 1960s, evidence of non-native plant and animal life in South Florida was present but not particularly worthy of notice. Over the past decades, however, the number of exotic species and their spread has increased dramatically.[2] The Everglades hosts 1,301 species of native flora that are tropical or subtropical in nature, which arrived on the Florida peninsula about 5,000 years ago. Winds, water, and birds carried most of the tropical flora. The subtropical species spread from more northern locations.[6] As of 2010 1,392 additional non-native plant species have been identified and established themselves in South Florida.[7] A variety of avenues are available for species to be brought by humans deliberately or by accident: agricultural experiments, in shipping containers, or attached to vehicles. South Florida is a transportation hub for shipping and traffic between the U.S. and the Caribbean and Central and South America. In 1990, 333 million plants were brought into Miami International Airport.[8] Both the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences (IFAS) experiment with plants in laboratories throughout Florida. State, local, and federal government agencies spend millions of dollars to rid South Florida of invasive species and prevent more from entering the region. Plants that are imported to Florida are subject to classification as "Restricted" or "Prohibited", but a new designation is being considered "Not Authorized Pending Plant Risk Analysis", to allow scientists to assess what damage exotic plants may cause to the South Florida environment.[9] A nonproft organization named The Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council lists exotic species as belonging in Category I: "altering native plant communities by displacing native species, changing community structures or ecological functions, or hybridizing with natives"; and Category II: "increased in abundance or frequency but have not yet altered Florida plant communities to the extent shown by Category I".[10] More than 100 species have been placed in Category I, but a few have been singled out for the potential to cause the most destruction based on how rapidly they reproduce, their displacement of native flora by crowding, shading, or fire, excellent adaptations to conditions in the Everglades, and the potential to spread (or evidence that they have spread) into remote areas of the Everglades.[11]
Scientific name Common name(s) Origin / Year(s) introduced Purpose of introduction

List of invasive species in the Everglades

74
Australia, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands / 1906 Landscaping, drainage

Melaleuca quinquenervia

Melaleuca, paper-bark, cajeput, punk tree, white bottlebrush tree

Melaleuca tree seeds were scattered by aircraft in order to drain flooded portions of the Everglades. They were considered excellent landscaping trees as late as 1970 and planted along canals to stabilize soil or act as windbreaks. They grow significantly taller than where they originate, very denselynot allowing wading birds with large wingspans to fly betweenand very rapidly. They are very tolerant of fire and flooded conditions. One tree is capable of producing 20 million seeds year-round. Authorities are attempting to limit the spread of Melaleuca by quarantining stands of trees, felling established ones, and applying herbicide. They are also releasing the melaleuca psyllid (Boreioglycaspis melaleucae), and melaleuca snout weevil (Oxyops vitiosa) that can kill seedlings, that has resulted in the reduction of 85% of melaleuca growth in some places over the past ten years, allowing four times the plant diversity in these locations. Melaleuca control is considered a major accomplishment by the South Florida Water Management District: between 1993 and 2008, the estimated acreage of melaleuca has decreased from 500000 acres (2000km2) to 273000 acres [12] [13] [14] (1100km2) Lygodium microphyllum Old World climbing fern Tropical Asia, Africa, and Australia / Observed already established in 1958 Unknown purpose

The Old World climbing fern has taken over tree islands in the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge in the northern Everglades, completely blanketing some of them, and crowding smaller vegetation by shading native seedlings and overwhelming trees. There is also evidence that it fatally traps mediumand large-sized animals such as deer and turtles. While fire may burn some of the Old World climbing fern, portions of burning fern may break loose and spread fires more quickly. "Fire ladders" are created when ferns grow into the forest canopy, above the line that cypress and other trees naturally tolerate fire damage. The thick rachis fern mats may also trap animals attempting to flee fires. There is no definitive plan to rid ecologically sensitive areas in South Florida of this exotic plant, although herbicides and controlled fires are being explored. Biological agents such as brown lygodium moth (Neomusotima conspurcatalis) and leaf-gall mite (Floracarus perrepae), that feed on and destroy [15] parts of the climbing ferns, were released in 2008, and their overall effects are under evaluation.
[16] [17]

Schinus terebinthifolius

Brazilian pepper, Florida holly, Christmas berry, pepper tree

Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay / 1840s

Landscaping

Brazilian pepper was marketed as a southern alternative to holly. Birds and small mammals have spread its seeds by eating the red berries and expelling them from their digestive tracts, allowing the plants to establish in very remote areas that are difficult to reach and hamper control efforts. The shrub is very successful in highly disturbed areas such as farmland, canals, under powerlines, and natural areas following hurricanes. Its dense structure allows it to form concentrated thickets that displace native vegetation, including some endangered plants, and at its densest keeps wading birds from their migratory feeding locations. It is a particular danger to pine rockland ecosystems, which are very rare outside of Everglades National Park. Brazilian pepper is physically removed with large landmoving [18] [19] [20] [21] equipment and the largest plants treated with herbicides.

List of invasive species in the Everglades

75

Casuarina Australian pine, beefwood, Australia, South Pacific Landscaping equisetifolia, ironwood, she-oak, horsetail tree Islands, Southeast Asia / Late Casuarina glauca, 19th century Casuarina cunninghamiana Three species of tree are considered collectively to be Australian pines. They were planted as windbreaks along canals and agricultural fields, and as shade trees in the middle of the 20th century. They are salt tolerant and grow well in beach areas, displacing native vegetation that prevents coastal erosion, particularly following disturbances like tropical storms. The native habitat of the endangered Cape Sable seaside sparrow (Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis) is directly threatened by the Australian pine. Native seedlings are discouraged by the shade given by Australian pines and furthermore smothered by the dense litter shed by the trees. The Australian pine's shallow roots can disrupt beach nesting animals such as sea turtles and American crocodiles (Crocodylus acutus). Herbicides are effective in removing Australian pines. Fire has also proven effective but is not easily [22] [23] [24] [25] controlled. Colubrina asiatica Latherleaf, Asiatic or common colubrina, hoop with, Asian snakeroot Brought to Jamaica from Asian Medicinal supplies traders in 1850s / Naturalized in South Florida by 1933

Latherleaf grows in dense mats that crowd and shade native vegetation, threatening several endangered plants. It has successfully spread to every protected area in the Florida Keys, and is well entrenched in remote areas of Everglades National Park where it threatens coastal hardwood forests and mangrove islands. Although it grows easily, it does not spread prolifically. Latherleaf is controlled [23] [26] by removing the established plants physically and checking periodically for young shoots. Eichhornia crassipes Water hyacinth, water orchid Amazon basin / 18841890 Waterscaping

Water hyacinths are free floating and have been a particular problem in northern Florida waterways, but since they began to grow in the Everglades, their rapid reproduction (they can double their population every 6 to 18 days and will increase the coverage of surface water by 25% a month if gone unchecked) has impeded the controlled release of water by blocking canals and water control devices. They negatively affect water quality and can crowd other types of natural aquatic vegetation. They are mostly limited to man-made structures like canals, and herbicides have proven to be the most efficient [23] [27] method of controlling water hyacinths. Pistia stratiotes Water lettuce, water cabbage Africa or South America / In Florida by 1774 Possibly accidental

Water lettuce is similar to water hyacinths in that it is also free-floating, reproduces rapidly, blocks canals and water control devices, and can form mats that block sunlight and oxygen to plants an animals under water. Authorities use the same methods to eradicate water lettuce as they do water [28] hyacinths. Neyraudia reynaudiana Burma reed, silk reed, cane grass, false reed Southern Asia / 1916 Escaped from USDA test gardens

Burma reed is a grass with large, dry plume-like flowerets that invades the pine rockland ecosystemone of the most endangered habitats in the statefeeding fires. While pine rocklands are maintained by fire, Burma reed can reach 12 feet (3.7m) tall and burns so hot and highflames can reach 30 feet (9.1m)that it can eradicate the native Pinus elliottii var. densa or slash pine. It spreads [20] [23] [29] [30] prolifically; one plant can produce 120,000 seeds.

List of invasive species in the Everglades

76
Sri Lanka / 1950s Possibly spread from aquariums, found on every continent except Antarctica

Hydrilla verticillata Hydrilla, water thyme, Florida elodea, waterweed

Like the other water plants, hydrilla reproduces rapidly. Although it is not free floating, it grows quickly to the water surface, and if it breaks apart it can form new plants from fragments. It clogs open waterways, blocks sunlight, lowers dissolved oxygen, and otherwise changes water chemistry. Hydrilla also harms fisheries and zooplankton populations. The Kissimmee Chain of Lakes, including Kissimmee, Hatchineha, and Tohopekaliga, have been severely infested with hydrilla. It is managed by being physically removed, and taking all pieces of plants from waterways is integral to avoiding future infestations. The efficacy of herbicides is dependent upon a variety of factors, but their application is credited with, if not eliminating hydrilla in the Kissimmee Chain of Lakes, at least keeping it to a manageable and acceptable presence. Sometimes hydrilla is treated by the release of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) that eat it. Carp, however, may also eat native vegetation, so [23] [31] [32] [33] [34] they are released only where their impact would not be detrimental. Dioscorea bulbifera Air potato, potato yam, air yam Asia: introduced during slave trade / In Florida by 1905 Escaped from USDA test gardens, landscaping

The air potato is an aggressively growing vine that exhibits tubers on the outside rather than underground, which can promote its rapid growth when they fall to the ground. It successfully grows in dryer conditions in South Florida, such as hardwood hammocks and pine rocklands, often completely covering native vegetation well into the canopy region, and is particularly successful after disturbances such as hurricanes, overtaking regions before native plants have an opportunity to grow [23] [35] [36] back. Cupaniopsis anacardioides Carrotwood, Beach Tamarind, Green-leaved Tamarind, tuckeroo tree Australia / 1960s Landscaping

Carrotwood grows easily in many South Florida habitats, including coastal dunes, beaches, marshes, pine rocklands, hammocks, mangrove forests, and cypress swamps. It is spread by birds eating the seeds and dropping them throughout the region. Little is known about carrotwood trees, but for their ability to adapt to multiple types of habitats and conditions pervasive in South Florida, they are listed [23] [37] [38] as an invasive plant with potential for destruction. Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Downy rose myrtle, downy myrtle, hill gooseberry, hill guava Asia / Established by 1924 Landscaping

Downy rose myrtle was recently added to priority invasive species lists for its tendency to overtake pine rockland ecosystems. Typically pine rocklands consist of slash pines towering over saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) understory shrubs and small herbs. It is a system that is maintained by regular fires. Rose myrtle, however, has been noted throughout South Florida, for taking over the role of saw palmetto, and its spread is exacerbated by fire. They are furthermore showing resistance to previously [39] [40] [41] effective herbicides.

List of invasive species in the Everglades

77

Animal species
Although the general effects of invasive animals is not as profound as plants, they are more noticeable in many instances and a constant reminder of the many exotic species in the region. A wildlife biologist and several construction workers near Homestead Air Force Base witnessed a scene where several iguanas sunning themselves in a canal were attacked by a spectacled caiman, to the surprise of all.[42] About 12,500 species of insects are native to Florida, most of which naturally flew into the region from the Caribbean or Southeastern United States. An additional 1,000 have been identified as exotic.[43] Insects create about $1 billion of damage to structures and agriculture in Florida each year. The tide of arriving insects is nearly impossible to control with the volume of goods and shipments coming into South Florida. Imported citrus is a major avenue for damaging insects. Twenty-one species have been imported and released to act as biological control agents: to impede the growth of invasive plants or counter the effects of other insects. Others, such as the Madagascan hissing cockroach (Gromphadorhina portentosa) and European cricket (Acheta domesticus) are sold as pets or fishing bait, and are then released into backyards.[44] Similarly, aquatic invertebrates such as mussels, clams, snails, and melania find their ways into local waters from the bottoms of ships or in bilge holds. The aquarium trade also supplies enthusiasts with exotic species which are dumped or escape into waterways.[45] Excluding insects and other arthropods, 192 exotic animal species have established themselves in Florida as of 2009.[46] More than 50 species of fish have been introduced. Early recorded species were the pike killifish (Belonesox belizanus) and oscar (Astronotus ocellatus). The extensive network of canals throughout South Florida allows many species to disperse more readily than they would under natural conditions as many regions in the Everglades go dry each year or experience extended drought periods. The overall impact of exotic fishes on the native populations and habitats is largely unknown.[47] The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) initiated a task force to concentrate on identifying the most invasive animals. The agency created a list of "Reptiles of Concern" for the Burmese python, African rock python (Python sebae), amethystine python (Morelia amethystinus), reticulated python (Python reticulatus), green anaconda (Eunectes murinus), and the Nile monitor. Florida also began requiring owners to pay a permit fee of $100 a year and place microchips on the animals. These predators are included on the list for their formidable size and aggressive natures; animals that were in the Everglades before the list was created, however, are breeding in the wild.[48] Exotic birds do not attract the same amount of attention. They too have been brought to Florida as part of the pet trade and escape, get released by dealers attempting to avoid quarantine restrictions, or escape from damaged cages and artificial habitats during tropical storms.[49] Typically, however, most nonindigenous birds live closer to populated areas; some populations of birds establish themselves but decline for unapparent reasons.[50] More than 50 species of exotic mammals have been recorded in South Florida, at least 19 of which are self-sustaining.[51] Colonies of feral mammals are established in or around the Everglades, including dogs, pigs, and cats. Wild animals native to other parts of the U.S. have also been established including nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus Linnaeus), coyotes (Canis latrans), and jaguarundi (Herpailurus yaguarondi).[52] Florida has enacted laws to prohibit the release of exotic animals into the wild. To dissuade people from dumping animals, local authorities have begun holding "Nonnative Amnesty Days" in several Florida locations where pet owners who are no longer willing or able to take care of non-traditional pets such as snakes, lizards, amphibians, birds, and mammalsexcluding dogs, cats, and ferretscan deposit animals without being prosecuted for illegal dumping of exotic species.[53] The FWC has furthermore allowed hunters permits to capture Reptiles of Concern in a specific hunting season in wildlife management areas,[54] euthenize the animals immediately and sell the meat and hides.[55]

List of invasive species in the Everglades

78

Invertebrates
Scientific name Paratachardina lobata lobata Paratachardina pseudolobata Common name(s) Lobate lac scale Origin / Year(s) introduced India, Sri Lanka / 1999 Method of introduction Unknown

Lobate lac scale insects infest at least 94 species of native trees in Florida, particularly the wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), cocoplum (Chrysobalanus icaco), and buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus). Severe infestations can kill trees and shrubs, and dense infestations have been found in hardwood hammocks which are defined by the diversity of trees. The infestations are recent and long term effects in protected [56] [57] [58] and threatened areas are under study as of 2005.

Metamasius callizona

Bromeliad beetle, Evil weevil, Mexican weevil

Mexico and Central America / 1989

Possibly imported with Tillandsia bromeliads

This member of the Dryophthoridae family causes specific damage to bromeliads, which are ecosystems unto themselves as the water they hold feeds a host of smaller amphibians and insects. Fifteen species of bromeliads grow naturally throughout the Everglades, and they are also used as ornamental landscaping in residential areas. The bromeliad beetle moved from its initial point of infestation to 12 counties within a decade by being transported by people and subsequently dispersing themselves. They have become established in Big Cypress National Preserve, Florida Panther National Wildlife Refuge, and Fakahatchee Strand Preserve State Park. Adults lay eggs in bromeliad stems and larvae pupate in the stems, possibly causing the plants to detach from their host trees. Adults also feed on the leaves of bromeliads. Not all species of bromeliads are affected by the beetle, but ten are, particularly Tillandsia utriculata and Tillandsia fasciculata, that have been devastated and listed as endangered species because of the infestation. Insecticides are not preferred because they may kill native insects that are natural components of the microsystems associated with bromeliads. Authorities [59] [60] [61] [62] have released Lixadmontia franki, a fly that may control the bromeliad beetle. Pomacea insularum Island apple snail South America / 2000s Dumped from aquariums

Island apple snails are very similar in habit and appearance to the indigenous Florida apple snail (Pomacea paludosa), but it has few predators in the Everglades. It eats macrophytes on such a great scale that it can alter water ecology and cause algal blooms. It grows larger than Pomacea paludosasome have reported measuring the size of tennis ballsand uses the same regions for eating and laying eggs. Their eggs have been found on the same plant stalks as the Florida apple snails' causing Everglades biologists concern: Pomacea paludosa is the primary food the endangered Everglades snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus), that has a beak specifically used for the size of the indigenous Pomacea paludosa and may not be able to eat island apple snails. Adult island apple snails and egg colonies are physically removed, but they are a recent infestation and studies are ongoing to determine [63] [64] how far they have spread and the best ways to eradicate them. Corbicula fluminea Asiatic clam China / In Florida by 1960 Possible importation of food for Asian laborers in British Columbia

Asiatic clams have been in North America for decades, but only recently in South Floridaspecifically in Lake Okeechobee. They can reproduce very rapidly and live successfully in low-quality water. Large beds of clams can displace food and nesting sources for native aquatic animals, and their leftover shells can accumulate on lake and river floors. Black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) feed on Chironomidae that are unable to burrow and establish their own populations due to overabundance of Asiatic clams. The clams furthermore proliferate around water control devices, canal locks, pipes, mesh dividers, and other man-made structures that release water through South Florida. They have, however, proven to be [65] [66] sufficient food sources for ducks and efficiently clean water in eutrophic lakes.

List of invasive species in the Everglades

79

Fish
Scientific name Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus Common name(s) Sailfin, suckermouth catfish, plecostomus Origin / Year(s) introduced South America / 1950s Method of introduction Dumped from aquariums

Suckermouth catfishes are efficient aquarium cleaners that eat benthic algae and weeds. They prefer slow-moving water, canals, lakes, and ponds. In the wild, they can grow considerably larger than their aquarium counterparts and create large burrows into canal and lake beds, which compromise the integrity of shorelines. Their browsing on algae and weeds competes with much smaller native fishes, and birds that attempt to eat them can be harmed by the spiny dorsal fins; 20 strangled brown pelicans [67] [68] [69] were found to have attempted to swallow suckermouth catfishes whole. Walking catfish Thailand / 1960s Escaped or released from stocks

Clarias batrachus

Walking catfish can survive out of water for days as long as they remain moist, and can survive in hypoxic water, or water with low dissolved oxygen levels, by breathing air. They are aggressive feeders that browse on smaller native fishes, and fish and crustacean eggs when food is plentiful. When parts of the Everglades go dry seasonally, walking catfish will eat anything they find. They have been recorded migrating to and depleting fish stocks, prompting aquaculture farmers to fence fish pools to keep them out. They furthermore carry enteric septicemia and can pass it to native and [70] [71] stocked fishes. Cichlasoma urophthalmus Mayan cichlid Mexico, Central America / 1983 Dumped from aquariums

Mayan cichlids are one of 17 species of Cichlidae that are found in the waters in and around the Everglades. They rapidly expanded from two sites near mangrove islands in Florida Bay to being present across the Everglades south of the Tamiami Trail, in marine and brackish water, including freshwater habitats thought to be devoid of exotic species. Their successful establishment led to their being a sport fishing attraction as they can grow quite large in Florida and respond well to fishing lures and nets. They eat a variety of grasses and smaller fishes, invertebrates, and eggs, including those of the Florida apple snail, the primary food of the endangered Everglades snail kite. They are in [72] [73] [74] turn food for wading birds such as snowy egrets (Egretta thula). Oreochromis aureus Blue tilapia, Israeli tilapia Africa, Middle East / 1961 Escaped from stocks for aquatic plant control

Blue tilapia have spread throughout Florida, in both freshwater and brackish environments, and have established a presence in Big Cypress National Preserve and Everglades National Park. They create large nest craters in shallow waters about 2 feet (0.61m) wide, visibly altering native plant [42] [75] [76] communities and impeding the spawning of native fishes.

Reptiles

List of invasive species in the Everglades

80

Scientific name Python molurus bivittatus

Common name(s) Burmese python, Indian python

Origin / Year(s) introduced Southeast Asia / 1979

Method of introduction Imported by/through pet trade

Perhaps no other invasive species has attracted as much media attention at the Burmese python, particularly after spectacular photographs and eyewitness accounts of struggles between native alligators and these snakes were released. Burmese pythons have voracious appetites and have been found to eat animals ranging in size from wrens to white-tailed deer. They share the top of the food chain in the Everglades with alligators and prey on 39 endangered species and 41 additional rare species. They continue to be sold as pets; around 6,000 pythons were imported into Miami from 2003 to 2005. They are removed immediately from Everglades National Park; as of 2007, national park staff report extracting a total of 600 pythons. Another 300 were captured in 2008 alone. A park biologist estimated that between [4] [77] [78] 5,000 and 180,000 Burmese pythons live in wilderness areas in South Florida. Iguana iguana Green iguana Central America / 1960s Imported by/through pet trade

Iguanas have expanded rapidly in the Everglades by eating native vegetation and reproducing very efficiently in urban areas following disturbances accompanied by new plant growth. Following Hurricane Andrew in 1992, there was a significant increase in sightings of iguanas near residential areas. They are drawn to areas near water and build burrows by digging horizontally into inclines. They often live in colonies and their digging worsens erosion near canals, levees, and other man-made structures, leading to canal and levee instability. Although they are primarily herbivores, they have also preyed upon tree snails, which can be native only to single tree islands or have very limited ranges, including Orthalicus reses and [79] [80] Liguus fasciatus which are threatened and rare species. Varanus niloticus Nile monitor Africa / 1990 Imported by/through pet trade

Nile monitors have established themselves in a region surrounding Cape Coralincluding a bird sanctuary at J. N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge on Sanibel Islandas pets that have been released or escaped. Between 2000 and 2004, 60,000 monitors were imported in South Florida. They are excellent swimmers and can run quickly and climb. They have an affinity for eating eggs and pose a specific danger to ground burrowing animals such as owls (Athene cunicularia), sea turtles, gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus), and gopher frogs (Rana capito). They are opportunistic eaters that prey on a variety of crustaceans, fish, lizards, small mammals, and human garbage. Several native egg-laying species such as brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis), American crocodiles, and diamondback [81] [82] terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) are particularly at risk for predation by Nile monitors.

Birds
Scientific name Myiopsitta monachus Common name(s) Monk Parakeet Origin / Year(s) introduced South America / Established by 1969 Method of introduction Imported by/through pet trade

Between 1968 and 1972, more than 64,000 Monk Parakeets were brought to the U.S. They are considered agricultural pests in South America and killed by the thousands. They are included in invasive species lists in Florida for their abilities to rapidly populate and area for an apparent consistent amount of time. They live in large colonies numbering in the hundreds. They are urban pests because their large [83] [84] communals nests form balls of twigs on power lines.

List of invasive species in the Everglades

81
Southeast Asia / 1983 Imported by/through the pet trade

Acridotheres tristis

Common Myna

Common Mynas are prohibited from being imported into the U.S. Like Monk Parakeets, they also live in large communal nests, and are frequently seen near shopping malls where their nests are made in parking lot light poles. They have been reported to attack native purple martins (Progne subis) and in wilderness areas they inhabit next boxes intended for native birds to use or tree cavities, competing with native birds for space. Common Mynas can harbor diseases such as avian malaria that can be spread to native bird [85] [86] populations. Porphyrio porphyrio Purple Swamphen Australia, Europe, Africa, Asia / 1992 Escaped Miami MetroZoo during Hurricane Andrew or released by collectors

The Purple Swamphen resembles the smaller native Purple Gallinule (Porphyrio martinica) and the Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus). Six to eight individuals escaped from the Miami MetroZoo and several others escaped private pens following Hurricane Andrew. They are now established in stormwater treatment areas north of the Everglades, Lake Okeechobee, Everglades National Park, and Big Cypress National Preserve. They are omnivorous, and can live in colonies numbering 50 or more. They are territorial and aggressive, even among themselves. They favor eating spikerush plants, which create [87] [88] suitable habitats for fish populations in Lake Okeechobee.

Mammals
Scientific name Sus scrofa Common name(s) Wild boar, feral pig Origin / Year(s) introduced Europe / Introduced with European settlers in 16th century Method of introduction Food for people

Wild pigs are voracious opportunistic eaters, consuming significant amounts of native vegetation, and they prey on smaller animals. They carry 45 infectious diseases or parasites, such as pseudorabies, eastern equine encephalitis, and brucellosis, which can be spread to other mammals. They have spread trichinosis to the critically endangered Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi). They in turn serve as food for [89] [90] panthers, alligators, and Florida black bears (Ursus americanus floridanus). Felis silvestris catus Domestic / feral cat Europe / Introduced with European settlers in 16th century Companions for people

Domesticated free-ranging and feral cats are the primary cause of bird deaths in the U.S. Although cats may be regularly fed, they have an instinct to hunt and are responsible for decreasing numbers of beach mice (Peromyscus polionotus), cotton mice (Peromyscus gossypinus), the endangered Lower Keys marsh rabbit (Sylvilagus palustris hefneri), scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens), ground-nesting birds and sea turtle hatchlings. They carry diseases that can be spread to bobcats (Lynx rufus) and the Florida panther, including feline leukemia, feline panleukopenia, and rabies. Cats reproduce prodigiously; there are an estimated 5.3 million free-ranging cats in Florida. Most live in feral colonies or are closely associated with residential areas. They furthermore compete with bobcats and other carnivorous mammals in much more prolific numbers than they would naturally. In similar sized territories cats potentially outnumber bobcats 640:1. Authorities address feral cats by urging pet owners to keep cats indoors, trapping and euthanizing the cats, or trapping-neutering-and returning (TNR) them to their territories to live out their lives and die [91] [92] naturally. Rattus rattus Black rat, house rat, roof rat Europe / Introduced with European settlers in 16th century Inhabitants of settlers' ships

Black rats were possibly the first introduced mammals to Florida, followed by pigs. There are a few feral rat species in South Florida, including Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus), but black rats are considerably more populous than any other species of rat. All exotic rats compete with native mice and rodents for food and shelter, but the black rat is noted for significantly affecting the endangered Key Largo woodrat [90] [93] (Neotoma floridana smalli).

List of invasive species in the Everglades

82

Footnotes
[1] [2] [3] [4] Simberloff, et al, p. 5, 22. Lodge, p. 237. Ferriter, et al (2004), p. 1. Florida Invaders (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ upload/ 2008 Florida Invaders For Web. pdf), National Park Service and Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Retrieved on February 3, 2010. [5] Simberloff, et al, p. 3. [6] Lodge, pp. 128129. [7] Rodgers, et al, p. 9-2. [8] Ugarte, Cristina (1998). South Florida Weeds and Mexican Plants: Friends or Foes? (http:/ / www. fleppc. org/ proceedings/ ugarte. pdf) in Florida's Garden of Good and Evil: Proceedings of a Joint Conference of the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council and the Florida Native Plant Society, South Florida Water Management District. Retrieved on February 3, 2010. [9] Rodgers, et al, p. 9-14. [10] Plant Lists (http:/ / www. fleppc. org/ list/ list. htm), Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council Invasive (2009). Retrieved on February 2, 2010. [11] Ferriter, et al (2004), p. 11. [12] Ferriter, et al (2004), p. 11, 13. [13] Lodge, pp. 240241. [14] Rodgers, p. 9-20. [15] Ferriter, et al (2004), pp. 1416. [16] Hutchinson, Jeffrey. Additional Report of Lygodium microphyllum Mats as a Potential Problem for Wildlife (http:/ / www. se-eppc. org/ wildlandweeds/ pdf/ Winter2006-Hutchinson-p7. pdf), University of Florida / IFAS, Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants. Retrieved on February 3, 2010. [17] Rodgers, p. 9-21. [18] Ferriter, et al (2004), pp. 1718. [19] Lodge, p. 241. [20] U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Pine Rocklands: Multi-Species Recovery Plan for South Florida (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ southeast/ vbpdfs/ commun/ pr. pdf). Retrieved on February 2, 2010. [21] Simberloff, et al, pp. 4344. [22] Ferriter, et al (2004), pp. 1819. [23] Lodge, p. 238. [24] Simberloff, et al, p. 42. [25] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-13. [26] Ferriter, et al (2004), pp. 2021. [27] Ferriter, et al (2004), pp. 2223. [28] Ferriter, et al (2004), p. 23. [29] Hammer, Rodger Postcards from Paradise: The Cane Grasses (http:/ / www. se-eppc. org/ wildlandweeds/ pdf/ SU98-HAMMER-P9-11. pdf), Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council. Retrieved on February 2, 2010. [30] Simberloff, et al, p. 44. [31] Hydrilla verticilata (http:/ / www. fleppc. org/ ID_book/ Hydrilla verticillata. pdf), Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council. Retrieved on February 3, 2010. [32] Common Name: Hydrilla (http:/ / www. se-eppc. org/ manual/ HYVE. html), Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council Invasive Plant Manual. Retrieved on February 3, 2010. [33] Simberloff, et al, p. 46. [34] Rodgers, p. 25. [35] Dioscorea bulbifera (http:/ / www. fleppc. org/ ID_book/ Dioscorea_bulbifera. pdf), Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council. Retrieved on February 3, 2010. [36] Simberloff, et al, pp. 4142. [37] Cupaniopsis anacardioides (http:/ / www. fleppc. org/ ID_book/ cupaniopsis anacardioides. pdf), Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council. Retrieved on February 3, 2010. [38] Cupaniopsis anacardioides (http:/ / www. invasive. org/ species/ subject. cfm?sub=5401), Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health (February 2, 2010). Retrieved on February 3, 2010. [39] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-17. [40] Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (http:/ / plants. ifas. ufl. edu/ misc/ pdfs/ rhotom. pdf), UF IFAS. Retrieved on February 5, 2010. [41] Rodgers, p. 9-31. [42] Lodge, p. 244. [43] Simberloff, et al, p. 75.

List of invasive species in the Everglades

[44] Simberloff, et al, p. 9799. [45] Simberloff, et al, pp. 101103. [46] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-2. [47] Trexler, Joel;, Loftus, William F.; Jordan, Frank; Lorenz, Jerome J.; Chick, John H. (2000). "Empirical assessment of sh introductions in a subtropical wetland: an evaluation of contrasting views", Biological Invasions 2, p. 265277. [48] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-3. [49] Simberloff, et al, p. 143. [50] Butler, Christopher (2005). Feral Parrots in the Continental United States and United Kingdom: Past, Present, and Future (http:/ / www. biology. uco. edu/ PersonalPages/ CButler/ jams_butler. pdf), Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery, 19 (2), pp. 142149. [51] Simberloff, et al, p. 158. [52] Brown, Mark T.; Cohen, Matthew J.; Bardi, Eliana; and Ingwersen, Wesley W. (2006). Species diversity in the Florida Everglades, USA: A systems approach to calculating biodiversity (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ ur65434v3124m41u/ fulltext. pdf), Aquatic Sciences, 68 pp. 254277. [53] Nonnative Amnesty Day Events (http:/ / www. myfwc. com/ WILDLIFEHABITATS/ Nonnative_AmnestyDayEvents. htm), Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Retrieved on February 4, 2010. [54] FWC creates special season for capture and removal of reptiles of concern (http:/ / myfwc. com/ NEWSROOM/ 10/ south/ News_10_S_ROC_SpecialSeason. htm), Florida Wildlife Conservation Commission (News release: February 22, 2010). Retrieved on February 22, 2010. [55] Rodgers, p. 9-15. [56] Lodge, p. 242243. [57] Lobate Lac Scale Paratachardina lobata subsp. lobata Chamberlin (http:/ / www. invasive. org/ gist/ products/ gallery/ parlo1. html), The Nature Conservancy (2005). Retrieved on February 3, 2010. [58] Howard, F.W.; Pemberton, Robert; Hamon, Avas; Hodges, Greg; Steinberg, Bryan; Mannion, Catherine; McLean, David; Wofford, Jeannette (November 2002). Lobate Lac Scale, Paratachardina lobata lobata (Chamberlin) (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea: Kerriidae) (http:/ / edis. ifas. ufl. edu/ pdffiles/ IN/ IN47100. pdf), University of Florida IFAS. Retrieved on February 3, 2010. [59] common name: Mexican bromeliad weevil (http:/ / www. entnemdept. ufl. edu/ creatures/ orn/ m_callizona. htm), University of Florida IFAS Entomology Nematology (June 2009). Retrieved on February 4, 2010. [60] Simberloff, et al, p. 84. [61] Frank, J. H.; Fish, D. H. Potential Biodiversity Loss in Florida Bromeliad Phytotelmata due to Metamasius Callizona (Coleoptera: Dryphthoridae), an Invasive Species (http:/ / www. fcla. edu/ FlaEnt/ fe91p001. pdf), Florida Entomologist, 91 (1), pp. 18. [62] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-31. [63] Natural Resources Management: Island Apple Snail (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ upload/ SecureFinalIslandAppleSnailFactSheetlores . pdf), National Park Service. Retrieved on February 3, 2010. [64] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-27. [65] Simberloff, et al, pp. 104105. [66] Havens, Karl; Rosen, Barry Lake Okeechobee Conceptual Model (http:/ / www. sfrestore. org/ crogee/ ra13/ modelpt2. pdf), South Florida Water Management District. Retrieved on February 4, 2010. [67] Nonnative: Suckermouth Catfishes (http:/ / myfwc. com/ WILDLIFEHABITATS/ Nonnative_FW_SuckermouthCatfishes. htm), Florida Wildlife Conservation Commission. Retrieved on February 5, 2010. [68] Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus (Hancock 1828) (http:/ / nas. er. usgs. gov/ queries/ FactSheet. asp?speciesID=768), U.S. Geological Survey (March 21, 2006). Retrieved on February 5, 2010. [69] Hoover, Jan Jeffrey; Killgore, K. Jack; Cofrancesco, Alfred F. (February 2004). Suckermouth Catfishes: Threats to Aquatic Ecosystems of the United States? (http:/ / el. erdc. usace. army. mil/ elpubs/ pdf/ ansrp-v04-1. pdf), Aquatic Nuisance Species Research Program Bulletin, 4 (1), p. 113. [70] Robins, Robert H. Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department: Walking Catfish (http:/ / 128. 227. 186. 212/ fish/ Gallery/ Descript/ WalkingCatfish/ WalkingCatfish. html), Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department. Retrieved on July 24, 2008. [71] Brogan, Christine (September 30, 2003). Walking Catfish (Clarius batrachus) (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ itc/ cerc/ danoff-burg/ invasion_bio/ inv_spp_summ/ Clarius_batrachus. html), Columbia University Introduced Species Summary Project. Retrieved on February 17, 2010. [72] Simberloff, et al, p. 114115. [73] Faunce,Craig H.; Lorenz, Jerome J. (2000). "Reproductive biology of the introduced Mayan cichlid, Cichlasoma urophthalmus, within an estuarine mangrove habitat of southern Florida", Environmental Biology of Fishes 58, p. 215225. [74] Robins, Robert. Mayan Cichlid (http:/ / www. flmnh. ufl. edu/ fish/ Gallery/ Descript/ MayanCichlid/ MayanCichlid. html), Florida Museum of Natural History. Retrieved on February 6, 2010. [75] Simberloff, et al. p. 343. [76] Oreochromis aureus (http:/ / nas. er. usgs. gov/ queries/ FactSheet. asp?speciesID=463), U.S. Geological Survey (March 25, 2009). Retrieved on February 6, 2010. [77] Rodda, Gordon H.; Jarnevich, Catherine S.; Reed, Robert N. (October 29, 2007). What Parts of the US Mainland are Climatically Suitable for Invasive Alien Pythons Spreading from Everglades National Park? (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ n3311274l052777t/ fulltext.

83

List of invasive species in the Everglades

pdf), Biological Invasions 11 pp. 241252. [78] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-21. [79] Meshaka, Walter; Bartlett, Richard; Smith, Henry (September 2004). "Colonization Success by Green Iguanas in Florida", Iguana, 11 (3), pp. 155161. [80] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-33. [81] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-29. [82] Enge, Kevin M.; Krysko, Kenneth L.; Hankins, Kraig R.; Campbell, Todd S.; King, F. Wayne (2004). "Status of the Nile Monitor (Varanus niloticus) in Southwestern Florida", Southeastern Naturalist, 3 (4), pp. 571582. [83] Simberloff, et al, pp. 145146. [84] Monk Parakeet Myiopsitta monachus (http:/ / www. myfwc. com/ WILDLIFEHABITATS/ Nonnative_MonkParakeet. htm), Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Retrieved on February 5, 2010. [85] Common Myna Acridotheres tristis (http:/ / www. myfwc. com/ WILDLIFEHABITATS/ Nonnative_CommonMyna. htm), Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Retrieved on February 6, 2010. [86] Simberloff, et al, p. 154. [87] Johnson, Steven Albert; McGarrity, Monica E. (2009). Florida's Introduced Birds: Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio) (http:/ / edis. ifas. ufl. edu/ uw315), UF IFAS Publication #WEC 270. Retrieved on February 6, 2010. [88] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-25. [89] Rollins, Dale (February 10, 1997. Feral Hogs: The Florida Experience (http:/ / texnat. tamu. edu/ symposia/ feral/ feral-14. htm), Texas A&M University. Retrieved on February 21, 2010. [90] Lodge, p. 179. [91] Lodge, p. 245. [92] Feral Cat Issue Team (March 3, 2003). Issue Assessment: Impacts of Feral and Free-Ranging Domestic Cats on Wildlife in Florida" (http:/ / www. myfwc. com/ docs/ WildlifeHabitats/ Domestic_Cats_whitepaper. pdf), Florida Wildlife and Conservation Commission. Retrieved on February 5, 2010. [93] Simberloff, et al, p. 168.

84

References
Ferriter, Amy; Serbesoff-King, Kristina; Bodle, Mike; Goodyear, Carole; Doren, Bob; Langeland, Ken (2004). Chapter 8E: Exotic Species in the Everglades Protection Area (https://my.sfwmd.gov/portal/page/portal/ pg_grp_sfwmd_sfer/portlet_prevreport/final/chapters/ch8e.pdf), South Florida Water Management District Ferriter, Amy; Thayer, Dan; Bodle, Mike; Doren, Bob (2009). Chapter 9: The Status of Nonindigenous Species in the South Florida Environment (https://my.sfwmd.gov/portal/page/portal/pg_grp_sfwmd_sfer/portlet_sfer/ tab2236041/2009report/report/v1/chapters/v1_ch9.pdf), 2009 South Florida Environmental Report (Volume I), South Florida Water Management District. Lodge, Thomas E. (2005). The Everglades Handbook. Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN 1884015069 Rodgers, LeRoy; Bodle, Mike; Laroche, Francois (2010). Chapter 9: Status of Nonindigenous Species in the South Florida Environment (https://my.sfwmd.gov/portal/page/portal/pg_grp_sfwmd_sfer/portlet_sfer/ tab2236037/2010 report/v1/chapters/v1_ch9.pdf), 2010 South Florida Environmental Report (Volume I), South Florida Water Management District. Simberloff, Daniel; Achmitz, Don; Brown, Tom (1997). Strangers in Paradise: Impact Management of Nonindigenous Species in Florida, Island Press. ISBN 1559634308

List of invasive species in the Everglades

85

External links
United States Department of Agriculture Resources for Florida (http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/ unitedstates/fl.shtml) Florida Rules and Regulations for Nonnative Species and Wildlife Kept as Personal Pets (http://www.myfwc. com/WILDLIFEHABITATS/Nonnative_RuleRegs.htm) Alien Invaders: Exotic Plants in the Everglades (http://www.nps.gov/ever/naturescience/invasiveplants.htm) Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (http://www.fleppc.org/index.cfm) Everglades Cooperative Invasive Species Management Area (http://www.evergladescisma.org/) Mapping Exotic Vegetation in the Everglades from Large-Scale Aerial Photographs (http://www.asprs.org/ publications/pers/99journal/february/1999_feb_179-184.pdf) Exotic Plant Species as Problems and Solutions in Ecological Restoration: A Synthesis (http://planet.botany. uwc.ac.za/NISL/Invasives/Refs/DAntonioandMeyerson.pdf)

86

Indigenous peoples
Indigenous people of the Everglades region
The indigenous people of the Everglades region arrived in the Florida peninsula approximately 15,000years ago, probably following large game. The Paleo-Indians found an arid landscape that supported plants and animals adapted to desert conditions. Climate changes 6,500years ago brought a wetter landscape; large animals became extinct in Florida, and the Paleo-Indians slowly adapted to the new conditions. Archaeologists call the cultures that resulted from the adaptations Archaic peoples. They were better suited for environmental changes than their ancestors, and created many tools with the resources they had. The Seminole family of Cypress Tiger in 1916 Approximately 5,000years ago, the climate shifted again to cause the regular flooding from Lake Okeechobee that became the Everglades ecosystems. From the Archaic peoples, two major tribes emerged in the area: the Calusa and the Tequesta. The earliest written descriptions of these people come from Spanish explorers who sought to convert and conquer them. Although they lived in complex societies, little evidence of their existence remains today. The Calusa were more powerful in number and political structure. Their territory was centered around modern-day Ft. Myers, and extended as far north as Tampa, as far east as Lake Okeechobee, and as far south as the Keys. The Tequesta lived on the southeastern coast of the Florida peninsula around what is today Biscayne Bay and the Miami River. Both societies were well adapted to live in the various ecosystems of the Everglades regions. They often traveled through the heart of the Everglades, though they rarely lived within it. After more than 200years of relations with the Spanish, both indigenous societies lost cohesiveness. Official records indicate that survivors of war and disease were transported to Havana in the late 18th century. Isolated groups may have been assimilated into the Seminole nation, which formed in northern Florida when a band of Creeks consolidated surviving members of pre-Columbian societies in Florida into their own to become a distinct tribe. Seminoles were forced into the Everglades by the U.S. military during the Seminole Wars from 1835 to 1842. The U.S. military pursued the Seminoles into the region, which resulted in some of the first recorded explorations of much of the area. Seminoles continue to live in the Everglades region, and support themselves with casino gaming on six reservations located throughout the state.

Prehistoric peoples

Indigenous people of the Everglades region

87

Cultural Periods in Prehistoric South Florida[1]

Period Dates

Paleo-Indian 10,0007,000 BCE Archaic: Early Middle Late Transitional Glades I Glades II Glades III Historic 7,0005,000 BCE 5,0003,000 BCE 3,0001,500 BCE

1,500500 BCE 500 BCE800 CE 8001200 12001566 15661763

Humans first inhabited the peninsula of Florida approximately 15,000 years ago when it looked vastly different. The west coast extended about 100 miles (160km) to the west.[2] The landscape had large dunes and sweeping winds characteristic of an arid region, and pollen samples show foliage was limited to small stands of oak, and scrub bushes. As earth's glacial ice retreated, winds slowed and vegetation became more prevalent and varied.[3] The Paleo-Indian diets were dominated by small plants and the wild game available, which included saber-toothed cats, sloths, and spectacled bears. Around 6,500 years ago, the climate of Florida began to change, and the land became much wetter. Paleo-Indians spent more time in camps and less time traveling in between sources of water. The large game that were adapted for desert conditions became extinct on the peninsula, probably due to a combination of overhunting and the change of climate.[4] The Paleo-Indians then slowly adapted and became the Archaic peoples of the Florida peninsula, most probably due to the extinction of big game. Archaic people were primarily hunter-gatherers who depended on smaller game and fish, and relied more than their predecessors on plants for food. They were able to adapt to the shifting climate and the resulting change of animal and plant populations. Florida experienced a prolonged drought at the onset of the Early Archaic era that lasted until the Middle Archaic period. Although the population decreased overall on the peninsula, the use of tools increased significantly during this time; artifacts have shown that these people used drills, knives, choppers, atlatls, and awls made from stone, antlers, and bone.[5] During the Late Archaic period, the climate became wetter again, and by approximately 3000 BCE, the rise of water tables allowed an increase in population and cultural development. Florida Indians formed into three similar but distinct cultures, Okeechobee, Caloosahatchee, and Glades, named for the bodies of water around which they were centered.[6] The Glades culture is divided into three periods based on evidence found in middens. In 1947, archaeologist John Goggin described the three periods after examining shell mounds. He excavated one on Matecumbe Key, another at Gordon Pass near modern-day Naples, and a third south of Lake Okeechobee near modern-day Belle Glade. The Glades I culture, lasting from 500 BCE to 800 CE, was apparently focused around Gordon Pass and is considered the least sophisticated due to the lack of artifacts. What has been foundprimarily potteryis gritty and plain.[7] With the advent of a well-established culture in 800 CE, the Glades II period is characterized by more ornate pottery, wide use of tools throughout the South Florida region, and the appearance of religious artifacts at burial sites. By 1200, the Glades III culture exhibited the height of their development. Pottery became ornate enough to be subdivided into types of decoration. More importantly, evidence of an expanding culture is revealed through the development of ceremonial ornaments made from shell, and the construction of large earthworks associated with burial rituals.[7] From the Glades III culture developed two distinct tribes that lived in and near the Everglades: the Calusa and the Tequesta.

Indigenous people of the Everglades region

88

Calusa
What is known of the inhabitants of Florida after 1566 was recorded by European explorers and settlers. Juan Ponce de Len is credited as the first European to have contact with Florida's indigenous people in 1513. Ponce de Len met with hostility from tribes that may have been the Ais and the Tequesta before rounding Cape Sable to meet the Calusa, the largest and most powerful tribe in South Florida. Ponce de Len found at least one of the Calusa fluent in Spanish.[9] The explorer assumed the Spanish-speaker was from Hispaniola, but anthropologists have suggested that communication and trade between Calusa and native people in Cuba and the Florida Keys was common, or that Ponce de Len was not the first Spaniard to make contact with the native people of Florida.[10] During Archaeological subareas of tribes that lived in and around the Everglades from his second visit to South Florida, Ponce de [8] 1513 to 1743 Len was killed by the Calusa, and the tribe gained a reputation for violence to cause future explorers to avoid them.[11] In the more than 200years the Calusa had relations with the Spanish, they were able to resist their attempts to missionize them. The Calusa were referred to as Carlos by the Spanish, which may have sounded like Calos, a variation of the Muskogean word kalo meaning "black" or "powerful".[12] Much of what is known about the Calusa was provided by Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda. Fontaneda was a 13-year-old boy who was the only survivor of a shipwreck off the coast of Florida in 1545. For seventeen years he lived with the Calusa until explorer Pedro Menndez de Avils found him in 1566. Menndez took Fontaneda to Spain where he wrote about his experiences. Menndez approached the Calusa with the intention of establishing relations with them to ease the settlement of the future Spanish colony. The chief, or cacique, was named Carlos by the Spanish. Positions of importance in Calusa society were given the adopted names Carlos and Philip, transliterated from Spanish royal tradition.[13] However, the cacique Carlos described by Fontaneda was the most powerful chief during Spanish colonization. Menndez married his sister in order to facilitate relations between the Spanish and the Calusa.[14] This arrangement was common in societies in South Florida people. Polygamy was a method of solving disputes or settling agreements between rival towns.[15] Menndez, however, was already married and expressed discomfort with the union. Unable to avoid the marriage, he took Carlos' sister to Havana where she was educated, and where one account reported that she died years later, the marriage never consummated.[16]

Indigenous people of the Everglades region

89

Fontaneda explained in his 1571 memoir that Carlos controlled fifty villages located on Florida's west coast, around Lake Okeechobee (which they called Mayaimi) and on the Florida Keys (they called Martires). Smaller tribes of Ais and Jaega who lived to the east of Lake Okeechobee, paid regular tributes to Carlos. The Spanish suspected the Calusa of harvesting treasures from shipwrecks and distributing the gold and silver between the Ais and Jaega, with Carlos receiving the majority.[17] The main village of the Calusa, and home of Carlos, bordered Estero Bay at present-day Mound Key where the Caloosahatchee River meets the Gulf of Mexico.[18] Fontaneda described human sacrifice as a common practice: when the child of a cacique died, each resident gave up a child to be sacrificed, and when the cacique died, his servants were sacrificed to join him. Each year a Christian was required to be sacrificed to appease a Calusa idol.[19] The building of shell mounds of varying sizes and shapes was also of A Calusa wood carving of an alligator head spiritual significance to the Calusa. In 1895 Frank Hamilton Cushing excavated in Key Marco in 1895, on display at excavated a massive shell mound on Key Marco that was composed of the Florida Museum of Natural History several constructed terraces hundreds of yards long. Cushing unearthed over a thousand Calusa artifacts. Among them he found tools made of bone and shell, pottery, human bones, masks, and animal carvings made of wood.[20] The Calusa, like their predecessors, were hunter-gatherers who existed on small game, fish, turtles, alligators, shellfish, and various plants.[21] Finding little use for the soft limestone of the area, they made most of their tools from bone or teeth, although they also found sharpened reeds effective. Weapons consisted of bows and arrows, atlatls, and spears. Most villages were located at the mouths of rivers or on key islands. They used canoes were used for transportation, as evidenced by shell mounds in and around the Everglades that border canoe trails. South Florida tribes often canoed through the Everglades, but rarely lived in them.[22] Canoe trips to Cuba were also common.[23] Calusa villages often had more than 200inhabitants, and their society was organized in a hierarchy. Apart from the cacique, other strata included priests and warriors. Family bonds promoted the hierarchy, and marriage between siblings was common among the elite. Fontaneda wrote, "These Indians have no gold, no silver, and less clothing. They go naked except for some breech cloths woven of palms, with which the men cover themselves; the women do the like with certain grass that grows on trees. This grass looks like wool, although it is different from it".[24] Only one instance of structures was described: Carlos met Menndez in a large house with windows and room for over a thousand people.[25] The Spanish found Carlos uncontrollable, as their priests and the Calusa fought almost constantly. Carlos was killed when a Spanish soldier shot him with a crossbow.[26] Following the death of cacique Carlos, leadership of the society passed to two caciques who were captured and killed by the Spanish.[13] Estimated numbers of Calusa at the beginning of the occupation of the Spanish ranged from 4,000 to 7,000.[27] The society endured a decline of power and population after Carlos; by 1697 their number was estimated to be about 1,000.[23] In the early 18th century, the Calusa came under attack from the Yamasee to the north; many asked to be removed to Cuba, where almost 200 died of illness. Some relocated to Florida,[28] and remnants may have been eventually assimilated into the Seminole culture, which developed during the 18th century.[29]

Indigenous people of the Everglades region

90

Tequesta
Second in power and number to the Calusa in South Florida were the Tequesta (also called Tekesta, Tequeste, and Tegesta). They occupied the southeastern portion of the lower peninsula in modern-day Dade and Broward counties. They may have been controlled by the Calusa, but accounts state that they sometimes refused to comply with the Calusa caciques, which resulted in war.[18] Like the Calusa, they rarely lived within the Everglades, but found the coastal prairies and pine rocklands to the east of the freshwater sloughs habitable. To the north, their territory was bordered by the Ais and Jaega. Like the Calusa, the Tequesta societies centered around the mouths of rivers. Their main village was probably on the Miami River or Little River. A large shell mound on the Little River marks where a village once stood.[30] Though little remains of the Tequesta society, a site of archeological importance called the Miami Circle was discovered in 1998 in downtown Miami. It may be the remains of a Tequesta structure.[31] Its significance has yet to be determined, though archeologists and anthropologists continue to study it.[32] The Spanish described the Tequesta as greatly feared by their sailors, who suspected the natives of torturing and killing survivors of shipwrecks. Spanish priests wrote that the Tequesta performed child sacrifices to mark the occasion of making peace with a tribe with whom they had been fighting. Like the Calusa, the Tequesta hunted small game, but depended more upon roots and less on shellfish in their diets. They did not practice cultivated agriculture. They were skilled canoeists and hunted in the open ocean what Fontaneda described as whales, but were probably manatees. They lassoed the manatees and drove a stake through their snouts.[19] [30] The first contact with Spanish explorers occurred in 1513 when Juan Ponce de Len stopped at a bay he called Chequescha, or Biscayne Bay. Finding the Tequesta unwelcoming, he left to make contact with the Calusa. Menndez met the Tequesta in 1565 and maintained a Pedro Menndez de Avils maintained a friendly friendly relationship with them, building some houses and setting up a relationship with the Tequesta. mission. He also took the chief's nephew to Havana to be educated, and the chief's brother to Spain. After Menndez visited, there are few records of the Tequesta: a reference to them in 1673, and further Spanish contact to convert them.[33] The last reference to the Tequesta during their existence was written in 1743 by a Spanish priest named Father Alaa, who described their ongoing assault by another tribe. The survivors numbered only 30, and the Spanish transported them to Havana. In 1770 a British surveyor described multiple deserted villages in the region where the Tequesta had lived.[34] Archeologist John Goggin suggested that by the time European Americans settled the area in 1820, any remaining Tequesta were assimilated into the Seminole people.[30] Common descriptions of Native Americans in Florida by 1820 identified only the "Seminoles".[35]

Seminole
Following the demise of the Calusa and Tequesta, Native Americans in southern Florida were referred to as "Spanish Indians" in the 1740s, probably due to their friendlier relations with Spain. Between the Spanish defeat in the Seven Years' War in 1763 and the end of the American War of Independence in 1783, the United Kingdom ruled Florida. The term "Seminolie" was first used by a British Indian agent in a document dated 1771.[36] The beginnings of the tribe are vague, but records show that Creeks invaded the Florida peninsula, conquering and assimilating what was left of pre-Columbian societies into the Creek Confederacy. The mixing of cultures is evident in the language influences present among the Seminoles: various Muskogean languages, notably Hitchiti, and Creek, as well as Timucuan. In the early 19th century, a US Indian agent explained the Seminoles this way: "The word Seminole

Indigenous people of the Everglades region means runaway or broken off. Hence... applicable to all the Indians in the Territory of Florida as all of them ran away... from the Creek... Nation".[37] Linguistically, the term "Seminole" comes from the Creek words Sua (Sun God), ma (mother, although in this connotation it is pejorative), and ol (people) to mean "people whom the Sun God does not love", or "accursed".[38] Creeks, who were centered in modern-day Alabama and Georgia, were known to incorporate conquered tribes into their own. Some Africans escaping slavery from South Carolina and Georgia fled to Florida, lured by Spanish promises of freedom should they convert to Catholicism, and found their way into the tribe.[39] Seminoles originally settled in the northern portion of the territory, but the 1823 Treaty of Moultrie Creek forced them to live on a 5-million-acre (20000 km2) reservation north of Lake Okeechobee. They soon ranged farther south, where they numbered approximately 300 in the Everglades region,[40] including bands of Miccosukeesa similar tribe who spoke a different languagewho lived in The Big Cypress.[41] Unlike the Calusa and Tequesta, the Seminole depended more on agriculture and raised domesticated animals. They hunted for what they ate, and traded with European-American settlers. They lived in structures called chickees, open-sided palm-thatched huts, probably adapted from the Calusa.[42]

91

Seminoles such as Charlie Cypress, shown in 1900, have made their home in the Everglades.

In 1817, Andrew Jackson invaded Florida to hasten its annexation to the United States in what became the First Seminole War. After Florida became a U.S. territory and settlement increased, conflicts between colonists and Seminoles became more frequent. The Second Seminole War (18351842) resulted in almost 4,000Seminoles in Florida being displaced or killed. The Seminole Wars pushed the Indians farther south and into the Everglades. Those who did not find refuge in the Everglades were relocated to Oklahoma Indian territory under Indian Removal. The Third Seminole War lasted from 1855 to 1859. Over its course, 20Seminoles were killed and 240 were removed.[41] By 1913, Seminoles in the Everglades numbered no more than 325.[43] They made their villages in hardwood hammocks, islands of hardwood trees that formed in rivers or pine rockland forests. Seminole diets consisted of hominy and coontie roots, fish, turtles, venison, and small game.[43] Villages were not large, due to the limited size of hammocks, which on average measured between one and 10 acres (40000 m2). In the center of the village was a cook-house, and the largest structure was reserved for eating. When the Seminoles lived in northern Florida, they wore animal-skin clothing similar to their Creek predecessors. The heat and humidity of the Everglades influenced their adapting a different style of dress. Seminoles replaced their heavier buckskins with clothing of unique calico patchwork designs made of lighter cotton, or silk for more formal occasions.[44] The Seminole Wars increased the U.S. military presence in the Everglades, which resulted in the exploration and mapping of many regions that had not previously been recorded.[45] The military officers who had done the mapping and charting of the Everglades were approached by Thomas Buckingham Smith in 1848 to consult on the feasibility of draining the region for agricultural use.[46] Between the end of the Third Seminole War and 1930, the tribe lived in relative isolation. The construction of the Tamiami Trail, from 1928 to 1930, a road connecting Tampa to Miami and bisecting the Everglades, brought a steady stream of white people into Seminole territory that altered traditional ways of life. The Seminole began to work in local farms, ranches, and souvenir stands. They cleared land for the town of Everglades, and were "the best fire fighters [the National Park Service] could recruit" when Everglades National Park caught fire in times of drought.[47] As metropolitan areas in South Florida began to grow, the Seminoles became closely associated with the Everglades, simultaneously seeking privacy and serving as a tourist attraction, wrestling

Indigenous people of the Everglades region alligators and selling craftwork. As of 2008, there were six Seminole reservations throughout Florida; they feature casino gaming that support the tribe.[48]

92

Bibliography
Douglas, Marjory [1947] (2002). The Everglades: River of Grass. R. Bemis Publishing. ISBN 0-912451-44-0 Gannon, Michael, ed. (1996). The New History of Florida. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1415-8 Griffin, John (2002). Archeology of the Everglades. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2558-3 Hann, John (ed.) (1991). Missions to the Calusa. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1966-4 McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2302-5 Milanich, Jerald (1998). Florida's Indians from Ancient Times to the Present. University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-1599-6 Tebeau, Charlton (1968). Man in the Everglades: 2000 Years of Human History in the Everglades National Park. University of Miami Press.

Notes and references

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] McCally, p.32. Gannon, p. 2. McCally, p.34. McCally, p.35. McCally, p.36. McCally, p.3739. Goggin, John (October 1947). "A Preliminary Definition of Archaeological Areas and Periods in Florida", American Antiquity, 13 (2), p.114127. [8] Griffin, p.163. [9] Griffin, p.161. [10] Hann, p.45. [11] Griffin, p.161162. [12] Douglas, p.68. [13] Hann, John (October 1992). "Political Leadership Among the Natives of Spanish Florida", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 71 (2), p.188208. [14] Griffin, p.162. [15] Griffin, p.316. [16] Hann, p.289290. [17] McCally, p.40. [18] Griffin, p.164. [19] Worth, John (January 1995). "Fontaneda Revisited: Five Descriptions of Sixteenth-Century Florida", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 73 (3), p.339352. [20] Cushing, Frank (December 1896). "Exploration of Ancient Key Dwellers' Remains on the Gulf Coast of Florida", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 35 (153) , p.329448. [21] Tebeau, p.3841. [22] McCally, p.39. [23] Griffin, p.171. [24] Tebeau, p.42. [25] Griffin, p.165. [26] Douglas, p.171. [27] Griffin, p.170. [28] Griffin, p.173. [29] Milanich, p. 177 [30] Goggin, John (April 1940). "The Tekesta Indians of Southern Florida", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 18 (4), p.274285. [31] United States Congress Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources (2003). "Miami Circle/Biscayne National Park: report (to accompany S. 111)", United States Congress Senate Report 108-4. [32] Merzer, Martin (January 29, 2008). "Access to ancient site may come in near future", The Miami Herald (Florida), State and Regional News. [33] Griffin, p.174.

Indigenous people of the Everglades region

[34] Tebeau, p.43. [35] Tebeau, p.45. [36] Griffin, p.176. [37] McReynolds, p.12. [38] Drew, Frank (July 1927). "Notes on the origins of the Seminole Indians of Florida", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 6 (1), p.2124. [39] Bateman, Rebecca (Winter, 1990). "Africans and Indians: A Comparative Study of the Black Carib and Black Seminole", Ethnohistory, 37 (1), p.124. [40] Tebeau, p.50. [41] Griffin, p.180. [42] Tebeau, p.5051 [43] Skinner, Alanson (JanuaryMarch 1913). "Notes on the Florida Seminole", American Anthropologist, 15 (1), p.6377. [44] Blackard, David (2004). "Seminole Clothing: Colorful Patchwork" (http:/ / www. seminoletribe. com/ culture/ clothing. shtml). Seminole Tribe of Florida. . Retrieved 2008-04-30. [45] Tebeau, p.6364. [46] Tebeau, p.7071. [47] Tebeau, p.5556. [48] "Tourism/Enterprises" (http:/ / www. seminoletribe. com/ enterprises/ casinos. shtml). Seminole Tribe of Florida. 2007. . Retrieved 2008-04-30.

93

External links
State of Florida timeline of indigenous people in the Miami area (http://www.flheritage.com/archaeology/ projects/miamicircle/Tour/historicTL.cfm)

Calusa

94

Calusa
Calusa

Approximate Calusa core area (red) and political domain (blue)

Total population Extinct as a tribe Regions with significant populations United States (Florida) Languages Calusa Religion Native

The Calusa (English pronunciation: /klus/ k-loo-s) were a Native American people who lived on the coast and along the inner waterways of Florida's southwest coast. Calusa society developed from that of archaic peoples of the Everglades region; at the time of European contact, the Calusa were the people of the Caloosahatchee culture. They were notable for having developed a complex culture based on estuarine fisheries rather than agriculture. Calusa territory reached from Charlotte Harbor to Cape Sable, all of present-day Charlotte and Lee counties, and may have included the Florida Keys at times. They had the highest population density of south Florida; estimates of total population at the time of European contact range from 10,000 to several times that, but these are still speculative. Calusa political influence and control also extended over other tribes in southern Florida, including the Mayaimi around Lake Mayaimi (now Lake Okeechobee), and the Tequesta and Jaega on the southeast coast of the peninsula. Calusa influence may have also extended to the Ais tribe on the central east coast of Florida.[1]

Calusa

95

Name
Early Spanish and French sources referred to the tribe, its chief town and its chief as Calos, Calus, Caalus, and Carlos. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, a Spaniard held captive by the Calusa in the 16th century, recorded that Carlos meant fierce people in their language. The Anglo-Americans used the term Calusa for the people by the early 19th century. It is based on the Creek and Mikasuki (languages of the present-day Seminole and Miccosukee nations) ethnonym for the people who had lived around the Caloosahatchee River (also from the Creek language).[2] Juan Rogel, a Jesuit missionary to the Calusa in the late 1560s, noted the chief's name as Carlos, but wrote that the name of the "kingdom" was Escampaba, with an alternate spelling of Escampaha. Rogel also stated that the chief's name was Caalus, and that the Spanish had changed it to Carlos. Marquardt quotes a statement from the 1570s that "the Bay of Carlos ... in the Indian language is called Escampaba, for the cacique of this town, who afterward called himself Carlos in devotion to the Emperor" (Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor). Escampaba may be related to a place named Stapaba, which was identified in the area on an early 16th-century map.[3]

Origins
Paleo-Indians entered what is now Florida at least 12,000 years ago. By around 5000 BC, people started living in villages near wetlands. Favored sites were likely occupied for multiple generations. Florida's climate had reached current conditions and the sea had risen close to its present level by about 3000 BC. People commonly occupied both fresh and saltwater wetlands. Because of their reliance on shellfish, they accumulated large shell middens during this period. Many people lived in large villages with purpose-built earthwork mounds, such as at the Horr's Island. People began creating fired pottery in Florida by 2000 BC. By about 500 BC, the Archaic culture, which had been fairly uniform across Florida, began to devolve into more distinct regional cultures.[4] Some Archaic artifacts have been found in the region later occupied by the Calusa, including one site classified as early Archaic, prior to 5000 BC. There is evidence that the people intensively exploited Charlotte Harbor aquatic resources before 3500 BC. Undecorated pottery belonging to the early Glades culture appeared in the region around 500 BC. Pottery distinct from the Glades tradition developed in the region around AD 500, marking the beginning of the Caloosahatchee culture. This lasted until about 1750, and included the historic Calusa people. A complex society, with high population densities, developed by 800. Later periods in the Caloosahatchee culture are defined in the archaeological record by the appearance of pottery from other traditions. The Caloosahatchee culture consisted of the Florida west coast from Estero Bay to Charlotte Harbor and inland about halfway to Lake Okeechobee, approximately covering what are now Charlotte and Lee counties. At the time of first European contact, the Caloosahatchee culture region formed the core of the Calusa domain. Artifacts related to fishing changed slowly over this period, with no obvious breaks in tradition that might indicate a replacement of the population.[5] Between 500 and 1000, the undecorated, sand-tempered pottery that had been common in the area was replaced by "Belle Glade Plain" pottery. This was made with clay containing spicules from freshwater sponges (Spongilla), and it first appeared inland in sites around Lake Okeechobee. This change may have resulted from the people's migration from the interior to the coastal region, or may reflect trade and cultural influences. There was little change in the pottery tradition after this. The Calusa were descended from people who had lived in the area for at least 1000 years prior to European contact, and possibly for much longer than that.[6]

Calusa

96

Society
The Calusa had a stratified society, consisting of "commoners" and "nobles" in Spanish terms. A few leaders governed the tribe. They were supported by the labor of the majority of the Calusa. The leaders included the tribal chief, or "king"; a military leader (capitn general in Spanish), and a chief priest. In 1564, according to a Spanish source, the priest was the chief's father, and the military leader was his cousin. In four cases in which succession to the position of paramount chief is known, Senequne succeeded his brother (name unknown), and was in turn succeeded by his son Carlos. Carlos was succeeded by his cousin Diorama of a Calusa chief at the FMNH (and brother-in-law) Felipe, who was in turn succeeded by Carlos' cousin, Pedro. The Spanish reported that the chief was expected to marry his sister. The contemporary archeologists MacMahon and Marquardt suggest this statement may have been a misunderstanding of a requirement to marry a "clan-sister". The chief also married women from subject towns and allied tribes. This use of marriages to secure alliances was demonstrated when Carlos offered his sister Antonia in marriage to the Spanish explorer Pedro Menndez de Avils in 1566.[7]

Material culture
Diet
The Calusa diet at settlements along the coast and estuaries consisted primarily of fish, in particular pinfish (Lagodon rhomboides), pigfish (redmouth grunt), (Orthopristis chrysoptera) and hardhead catfish (Ariopsis Felis). These small fish were supplemented by larger bony fish, sharks and rays, mollusks, crustaceans, ducks, sea and land turtles and land animals. When Pedro Menndez de Avils visited in 1566, the Calusa served only fish and oysters to the Spanish. An analysis of faunal remains at one coastal habitation site, the Wightman site (on Sanibel Island), showed that more than 93 percent of the energy (kilocalories) from animals in the diet came from fish and shellfish, less than 6 percent of the energy came from mammals, and less than 1 percent came from birds and reptiles. At an inland site, Platt Island, mammals (primarily deer) accounted for more than 60 percent of the energy from animal meat, while fish provided just under 20 percent.[8] Some authors have argued that the Calusa cultivated maize and Zamia integrifolia (coontie) for food. But, Widmer argues that the evidence for maize cultivation by the Calusa depends on the proposition that the Narvez and de Soto expeditions landed in Charlotte Harbor rather than Tampa Bay, which is now generally discounted. No Zamia pollen has been found at any site associated with the Calusas, nor does Zamia grow in the wetlands that made up most of the Calusa environment. Marquardt notes that the Calusa turned down the offer of agricultural tools from the Spanish, saying that they had no need for them. The Calusa gathered a variety of wild berries, fruits, nuts, roots and other plant parts. Widmer cites George Murdock's estimate that only some 20 percent of the Calusa diet consisted of wild plants that they gathered. However, no evidence of plant food was found at the Wightman site. There is evidence that as early as 2000 years ago the Calusa cultivated papaya (Catrica papaya), a gourd of the species Cucurbita pepo and the bottle gourd, the last two of which were used for net floats and dippers.[9]

Calusa

97

Tools
The Calusa caught most of their fish with nets. Nets were woven with a standard mesh size; nets with different mesh sizes were used seasonally to catch the most abundant and useful fish available. The Calusa made bone and shell gauges used in net weaving. Cultivated gourds were used as net floats, and sinkers and net weights were made from mollusk shells. The Calusa also used spears, hooks, and throat gorges [10] to catch fish. Well-preserved nets, net floats and hooks were found at Key Marco, in the territory of the neighboring Muspa tribe.[11] Mollusk shells and wood were used to make hammering and pounding tools. Mollusks shells and shark teeth were used for grating, cutting, carving and engraving. The Calusa wove nets from palm-fiber cord. Cord was also made from Cabbage Palm leaves, saw palmetto trunks, Spanish moss, false sisal (Agave decipiens) and the bark of cypress and willow trees. The Calusa also made fish traps, weirs and fish corrals from wood and cord. Artifacts of wood that have been found include dugout canoes, paddles, bowls, ear ornaments, masks, plaques, "ornamental standards," and a finely carved deer head. The plaques and other objects were often painted.[12]

Calusa carving of an alligator's head

Housing
The Calusa lived in large, communal houses. When Pedro Menndez de Avils visited the capital in 1566, he described the chief's house, which apparently also served as a council house, as large enough to hold 2,000 without crowding. When the chief formally received Menndez in his house, the chief sat on a raised seat surrounded by 500 of his principal men, while his sister-wife sat on another raised seat surround by 500 women. The chief's house was described as having two big windows, suggesting that it had walls. Five friars who stayed in the chief's house in 1697 complained that the roof let in the rain, sun and dew. The chief's house, and possibly the other houses at Calos, were built on top of earthwork mounds. In a report from 1697, the Spanish noted 16 houses in the Calusa capital of Calos, which had 1,000 residents.[13]

Clothing and personal decoration

The Calusa wore little clothing. The men wore a deerskin breechcloth. The Spanish left less description on what the Calusa women wore. Among most tribes in Florida for which there is documentation, the women wore skirts made of what was later called Spanish moss. The Calusa painted their bodies on a regular basis, but there was no report of tattooing among the Calusa. The men wore their hair long. The missionaries recognized that having a Calusa man cut his hair upon converting to Christianity (and European style) would be a great sacrifice. Little was recorded of jewelry or other ornamentation among the Calusa. During Menndez de Avils's visit in 1566, the chief's wife was described as wearing pearls, precious stones and gold beads around her neck. The heir of the chief wore gold in an ornament on his forehead and beads on his legs.[14]

Calusa

98

Beliefs
The Calusa believed that three supernatural people ruled the world, that people had three souls, and that souls migrated to animals after death. The most powerful ruler governed the physical world, the second most powerful ruled human governments, and the last helped in wars, choosing which side would win. The Calusa believed that the three souls were the pupil of a person's eye, his shadow, and his reflection. The soul in the eye's pupil stayed with the body after death, and the Calusa would consult with that soul at the graveside. The other two souls left the body after death and entered into an animal. If a Calusa killed such an animal, the soul would then migrate to a lesser animal, and eventually be reduced to nothing.[15] Calusa ceremonies included processions of priests and singing women. The priests wore carved masks, which were at other times hung on the walls inside a temple. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, an early chronicler of the Calusa, described "sorcerers in the shape of the devil, with some horns on their heads," who ran through the town yelling like animals for four months at a time. The Calusa remained committed to their belief system despite Spanish attempts to convert them to Catholicism. The "nobles" resisted conversion in part because their power and position were intimately tied into the belief system; they were intermediaries between the gods and the people. Conversion would have destroyed the source of their authority and legitimacy. The Calusa resisted physical encroachment and spiritual conversion by the Spanish and their missionaries for almost 200 years. After suffering decimation by disease, the tribe was destroyed by Creek and Yamasee raiders early in the 18th century.[16]

European contact
The first recorded contact between the Calusa and Europeans was in 1513, when Juan Ponce de Len landed on the west coast of Florida in May, probably at the mouth of the Caloosahatchee River, after his earlier discovery of Florida in April. The Calusa knew of the Spanish before this landing, however, as they had taken in refugees from the Spanish subjugation of Cuba. The Spanish careened one of their ships, and Calusas offered to trade with them. After ten days a man who spoke Spanish approached Ponce de Len's ships with a request to wait for the arrival of the Calusa chief. Shortly thereafter twenty war canoes attacked the Spanish, who drove off the Calusa, killing or capturing several of them. The next day 80 "shielded" canoes attacked the Spanish ships, but the battle was inconclusive. The Spanish departed and returned to At the time of First Contact Puerto Rico. In 1517 Francisco Hernndez de Crdoba landed in southwest Florida on his return voyage from discovering the Yucatn. He was attacked by the Calusa. In 1521 Ponce de Len returned to southwest Florida to plant a colony, but the Calusas drove the Spanish out, mortally wounding Ponce de Len.[17]

Calusa

99

The Pnfilo de Narvez expedition of 1528 and the Hernando de Soto expedition of 1539 both landed in the vicinity of Tampa Bay, north of the Calusa domain. Dominican missionaries reached the Calusa domain in 1549, but withdrew due to the hostility of the tribe. Salvaged goods and survivors from wrecked Spanish ships reached the Calusa during the 1540s and 1550s. The best information about the Calusa comes from the Memoir of Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, one of these survivors. Fontaneda was shipwrecked on the east coast of Florida, likely in the Keys, about 1550, when he was thirteen years old. Although many others survived the shipwreck, only Fontaneda was spared by De Soto route and indigenous groups at time the tribe in whose territory they landed. Warriors killed all the adult men. Fonaneda lived with various tribes in southern Florida for the next seventeen years before being found by the Menendez de Avils expedition.[18] In 1566 Pedro Menndez de Avils, founder of St. Augustine, made contact with the Calusa and struck an uneasy peace with their leader, Caluus, or Carlos. Menndez married Carlos' sister, who took the baptismal name Doa Antonia at conversion. Menndez left a garrison of soldiers and a Jesuit mission, San Antn de Carlos, at the Calusa capital. Hostilities erupted, and the Spanish soldiers killed Carlos, his successor Felipe, and several of the "nobles" before they abandoned their fort and mission in 1569.[19] For more than a century after the Avils adventure, there was little contact between the Spanish and Calusa. Re-entering the area in 1614, Spanish forces attacked the Calusa as part of a war between the Calusa and Spanish-allied tribes around Tampa Bay. A Spanish expedition to ransom some captives held by the Calusa in 1680 was forced to turn back; neighboring tribes refused to guide the Spanish, for fear of retaliation by the Calusa. In 1697 Franciscan missionaries established a mission to the Calusa, but left after a few months.[20] After the outbreak of open war between Spain and England in 1702, slaving raids by Uchise Creek and Yamasee Indians allied with the English Province of Carolina began reaching far down the Florida peninsula. The English supplied firearms to the Creek and Yemasee, but the Calusa, who had isolated themselves from Europeans, had none. Ravaged by new infectious diseases introduced to the Americas by European contact and by the slaving raids, the surviving Calusa retreated south and east. In 1711, the Spanish helped evacuate 270 Indians, including many Calusa, from the Florida Keys to Cuba (where almost 200 soon died). They left 1700 behind. The Spanish founded a mission on Biscayne Bay in 1743 to serve survivors from several tribes, including the Calusa, who had gathered there and in the Florida Keys. The mission was closed after only a few months. When Spain ceded Florida to the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1763, they evacuated the last remnants of the tribes of south Florida to Cuba. While a few Calusa individuals may have stayed behind and been absorbed into the Seminole, no documentation supports that.[21] Cuban fishing camps (ranchos) operated along the southwest Florida coast from the 18th century into the middle of the 19th century. Some of the "Spanish Indians" (often of mixed Spanish-Indian heritage) who worked at the fishing camps likely were descended from Calusa.[22]

Calusa

100

Notes
[1] MacMahon and Marquardt:1-2 [2] Marquadt 2004:2112 Hann 2003:145 [3] Marquadt 2004:2112 Hann 2003:145 [4] Milanich 1994:325 Milanich 1998:337 [5] Milanich 1993. Milanich 1995. [6] Milanich 1993. Milanich 1995. [7] MacMahon and Marquardt.:78-9, 86 Widmer:5-6 [8] Widmer:22431 Marquardt 2004:206 Hann 2003:312 [9] Widmer:22431 Marquardt 2004:206 Hann 2003:312 [10] http:/ / thesaurus. english-heritage. org. uk/ thesaurus_term. asp?thes_no=144& term_no=101289 [11] MacMahon and Marquardt:6970 Marquardt 2004:2067 [12] MacMahon and Marquardt:6971 Marquardt 2004:2067 [13] Hann 2003:356 [14] Hann 2003:335 [15] Winn:1617 [16] MacMahon and Marquardt:8285, 87 [17] MacMahon and Marquardt:1156 [18] Bullen. MacMahon and Marquardt:1167 [19] MacMahon and Marquardt:86, 117 [20] MacMahon and Marquardt:1178 [21] MacMahon and Marquardt:118-21 [22] Marquardt 2004:211

References
Bullen, Adelaide K. (1965). "Florida Indians of Past and Present", in Carson, Ruby Leach and Tebeau, Charlton. Florida from Indian trail to space age: a history. (Vol. I, pp.317350). Southern Publishing Company. Goggin, John M., and William C. Sturtevant. (1964). "The Calusa: A Stratified, Nonagricultural Society (With Notes on Sibling Marriage)." In Explorations in Cultural Anthropology: Essays Presented to George Peter Murdock. Ed. Ward H. Goodenough. New York: McGraw-Hill, 179219.

Calusa

Hann, John, ed. & trans. (1991). Missions to the Calusa. University of Florida Press. Hann, John H. (2003). Indians of Central and South Florida: 15131763. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2645-8 MacMahon, Darcie A. and William H. Marquardt. (2004). The Calusa and Their Legacy: South Florida People and Their Environments. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2773-X

Calusa Mahon, John K. (1985). History of the Second Seminole War 18351842 (Revised Edition). University Presses of Florida. Marquardt, William H. (1992). ed. Culture and Environment in the Domain of the Calusa. Institute of Archaeology and Paleoenvironmental Studies Monograph #1. University of Florida. Marquardt, William H. (2004). "Calusa". In R. D. Fogelson (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast (Vol. 14, pp.204212). Smithsonian Institution. Milanich, Jerald. (1993). ed. "Chapter 10. The Caloosahatchee Region". Florida Historical Contexts. State of Florida Division of Historical Resources. in (http://dhr.dos.state.fl.us/facts/reports/contexts/wwwcalch.pdf) retrieved March 29, 2006 Milanich, Jerald T. (1994). Archaeology of Precolumbian Florida. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1273-2 Milanich, Jerald T. (1995). Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1360-7 Milanich, Jerald T. (1998). Florida's Indians From Ancient Time to the Present. University Press of Florida. Widmer, Randolph J. (1998). The Evolution of the Calusa: A Nonagricultural Chiefdom on the Southwest Florida Coast. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-0358-8 Winn, Ed (2003). Florida's great king: King Carlos of the Calusa Indians (http://books.google.com/ books?id=s1AszUYDaGMC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=soul+pupil+eye+calusa#v=onepage&q=soul pupil eye calusa&f=false). Buster's Books. ISBN0-9658489-3-0.

101

Miccosukee

102

Miccosukee
Miccosukee

Regions with significant populations United States Florida Languages Mikasuki, English Religion Traditional tribal religion, Christianity Related ethnic groups Seminole (Seminole Nation of Oklahoma and Seminole Tribe of Florida), Creek

The Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida are a federally recognized Native American tribe in the U.S. state of Florida. They were part of the Seminole nation until the mid-20th century, when they organized as an independent tribe, receiving federal recognition in 1962. The Miccosukee speak the Mikasuki language, a close relative to the Hitchiti language also spoken by many Florida Seminole. Historically, the Miccosukee trace their origins to the Lower Chiaha, one of the tribes of the Creek Confederacy in present-day Georgia. Under pressure from European encroachment in their territory, they migrated to northern Florida in the early 18th century, where they became part of the developing Seminole nation.[1] By the late 18th century, the British recorded the name Miccosukee or Mikasuki as designating a Hitchiti-speaking group centered around the village of Miccosukee in the Florida Panhandle.[2] Like other Seminole groups, they were displaced during the Seminole Wars (18171858), and many migrated or were forced to relocate west of the Mississippi River to Indian Territory in 1842, after the Seminole Wars.[3] The Miccosukee chief Ar-pi-uck-i, also known as Sam Jones, proved an effective leader during the Second Seminole War.[4] In the 1920s and 1930s, many Seminole established communities along the recently constructed Tamiami Trail, a roadway that ran through the Everglades and connected the cities of Tampa and Miami. The Trail Indians, as they were called, generally kept more traditional practices. They were less interested in establishing formal relations with the federal government than those Seminole who started moving to reservations around the same time. When reservation Seminole organized a tribal government, which was recognized as the Seminole Tribe of Florida, the Trail Indians felt disfranchised. They established an independent tribal government, the Miccosukee Tribe of Florida, which received state recognition in 1957 and federal recognition in 1962.[5]

Miccosukee

103

History
The Miccosukee historically inhabited the upper Tennessee Valley in present-day Georgia, where they were originally part of the Upper Chiaha. Later they split: the Miccosukee (Lower Chiaha) migrated northeast to the Carolinas and the Upper Chiaha, also known as Muscogee, migrated west to northern Alabama. Under continuing encroachment pressure from European-American settlers, many migrated to northern Florida during the 18th and 19th centuries. The Chiaha or Creek formed a major part of the Seminole tribe, which formed in the eighteenth century in Florida through a process of ethnogenesis. More Upper Creek joined them after defeat in the Creek War of 1813-1814. The United States (US) government forced most of the Seminole/Creek from Florida under Indian Removal. Those who remained in Florida fought against US forces during the second and third Seminole Wars. Afterward, they moved into the Everglades to try to evade European-American settlement pressure. During this period, the Miccosukee mixed with the Creek-speaking Seminole, but many maintained their Mikasuki language and identity. The tribe separated from the Seminole in the 1950s to become the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida; they were recognized by the state of Florida in 1957, and gained federal recognition in 1962. The tribe today occupies several reservations in southern Florida, principally the Miccosukee Indian Reservation. The etymological roots of the Miccosukee tribal name have been debated for many years. While the origins have not been fully traced or documented, modern scholarship holds that the name originated among the first Spanish colonizers to reach the North Carolina Basin. In one of the few surviving journals of Juan Ponce de Len, he records that his men called the natives they encountered there micos sucios. This is likely the earliest recorded version of the name that became "Miccosukee."[6] He describes how the name originated: When we arrived on the shores of the Northern islands we encountered an odd group of natives. They lead us to their village where they lived in hollow'd mounds and were fully covered in mud and refuse. My lieutenant, [Diaz de la Torre y Gonzaga-Palacios] exclaimed 'Son como micos sucios' (they are like dirty monkeys). From thence forth, until we departed those cold shores, Mico Sucio was the means by which we referred to these happy natives.[7]

Membership
Each tribe sets its own membership requirements. The Miccosukee accept as members those persons who have Miccosukee mothers and are not enrolled in any other Tribe. Children are born into their mother's clan, from which they gain their status in the tribe, as it is matrilineal.[8]

Business interests
The tribe operates a resort and casino in Miami. The resort is a primary sponsor of the Miccosukee Championship, a Nationwide Tour golf event held in October. Sports sponsorship also extends to multiple NASCAR teams. These include the 2009 Aaron's 499 winning Sprint Cup Series car driven by Brad Keselowski, a Camping World truck driven by Kyle Busch, and a Nationwide car driven by Mike Bliss. The Miccosukee relationship with NASCAR dates to 2002.[9]
Miccosukee Indian Village in 1972

Miccosukee

104

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Pritzker, p. 390. Mahon, p. 189. Mahon, pp. 190191. Mahon, p. 199. Mahon, pp. 202204. Journal Of Etymological Studies Issue 15.12, pp. 34-56 Translation by R. J. Evans-Fitzgerald Miccosukee Tribe (http:/ / www. miccosukeetribe. com), Official Website, accessed 29 Apr 2010 Dave Rodman, "Bodine gets boosts in sponsorship, schedule" (http:/ / www. nascar. com/ 2002/ news/ headlines/ wc/ 03/ 04/ gbodine_sched/ index. html), Turner Sports Interactive, NASCAR, 6 Mar 2002, accessed 29 Apr 2010

References
Mahon, John K.; Brent R. Weisman (1996). "Florida's Seminole and Miccosukee Peoples". In Gannon, Michael (Ed.). The New History of Florida, pp.183206. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0813014158. Pritzker, Barry (2000). A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples (http://books.google. com/books?id=ZxWJVc4ST0AC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q& f=false). Oxford University Press. ISBN0195138775. Retrieved September 10, 2010.

External links
Miccosukee Tribe (http://www.miccosukeetribe.com), Official Website Miccosukee Resort (http://www.miccosukeeresort.com/), Reservations Miccosukee Land Co-op (http://directory.ic.org/records/?action=view&page=view&record_id=768)

Tequesta
The Tequesta (also Tekesta, Tegesta, Chequesta, Vizcaynos) Native American tribe, at the time of first European contact, occupied an area along the southeastern Atlantic coast of Florida. They had infrequent contact with Europeans and had largely disappeared by the middle of the 18th century.

Location and extent

The Tequesta tribe lived on Biscayne Bay [1] in what are now Miami-Dade County and at least the southern half of Broward County. Their territory may have also included the northern half of Broward County. They also occupied the Florida Keys at times, and may have had a village on Cape Sable, at the southern end of the Florida peninsula, in the 16th Century. The central town (also called Tequesta) was probably

Approximate territory of the Tequesta in the 16th century

Tequesta

105

at the mouth of the Miami River. A village had been at that site at least since 1200. The tribal chief was also called Tequesta. The Tequestas arrived in the Biscayne Bay area before the beginning of the Current Era. The Tequestas placed their towns and camps at the mouths of rivers and streams, on inlets from the Atlantic Ocean to inland waters, and on barrier islands and keys.[2] The Tequestas were more or less dominated by the more numerous Calusa of the southwest coast of Florida. The Tequestas were closely allied to their immediate neighbors to the north, the Jaega.[3] Estimates of the number of Tequestas at the time of initial European contact range from 800 to 10,000, while estimates of the number of Calusas on the southwest coast of Florida range from 2,000 to 20,000. Occupation of the Florida Keys may have swung back and forth between the two tribes. Although there is a Spanish record of a Tequesta village on Cape Sable, Calusa artifacts outnumber Tequesta artifacts by four to one at archaeological sites there.

On a map [4] the Dutch cartographer Hessel Gerritsz published in 1630 in Joannes de Laet's History of the New World, the Florida peninsula is labeled "Tegesta" after the tribe.[5] A map from the 18th century labeled the area around Biscayne Bay "Tekesta".[6] A 1794 map[7] by cartographer Bernard Romans labeled this area "Tegesta".

Bronze statue of a Tequesta warrior and his family on the Brickell Avenue Bridge

Origins and language

The archaeological record of the Glades culture, which included the area occupied by the Tequestas, indicates a continuous development of an indigenous ceramics tradition from about 700 BCE until after European contact.[8] The Tequesta language may have been closely related to the language of the Calusas of the southwest Florida coast and the Mayaimis who lived around Lake Okeechobee in the middle of the lower Florida peninsula. There are only ten words from the languages of those tribes for which meanings were recorded.[9] The Tequesta were once thought to be related to the Taino, the Arawakan people of the Antilles, but most anthropologists now doubt this, based on archaeological information and the length of their establishment in Florida. Carl O. Sauer called the Florida Straits "one of the most strongly marked cultural boundaries in the New World", noting that the Straits were also a boundary between agricultural systems, with Florida Indians growing seed crops that originated in Mexico, while the Lucayans of the Bahamas grew root crops that originated in South America.[10]

Tequesta

106

Diet
The Tequestas did practice any form of agriculture. They fished, hunted, and gathered the fruit and roots of local plants. Most of their food came from the sea. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, who lived among the tribes of southern Florida for seventeen years in the 16th Century, described their "common" diet as "fish, turtle and snails, and tunny and whale..."; the "sea-wolf" (Caribbean monk seal) was reserved for the upper classes. According to Fontaneda, a lesser part of the diet consisted of trunkfish and lobster. The "fish" caught included manatees, sharks, sailfish, porpoises, stingrays, and small fish. Despite their local abundance, clams, oysters and conchs were only a minor part of the Tequesta diet (their shells are much less common at Tequesta archeological sites than they are at Calusa or Jaega sites). Venison was also popular; deer bones are frequently found in archeological sites, as are terrapin shells and bones. Sea turtles and their eggs were consumed during the turtles' nesting season.[9] The Tequesta gathered many plant foods, including saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) berries, cocoplums (Chrysobalanus icaco), sea grapes (Coccoloba uvifera), prickly pear fruits (Opuntia spp.), gopher apples (Licania micbauxii), pigeon plums (Cocoloba diversifolia), palm nuts, false mastic (Mastichodedron) seeds, cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto) and hog plum (Ximenia americana). The roots of certain plants, such as Smilax spp. and coontie (Zamia integrifolia), were edible when ground into flour, processed to remove toxins (in the case of coontie), and made into a type of unleavened bread. (Archaeologists have commented, however, on the lack of evidence for coontie use in excavated sites.) Briton Hammond, the sole survivor of an English sloop that was attacked by Tequestas after grounding off Key Biscayne in 1748, reported that the Tequestas fed him boil'd corn.[11] The Tequestas changed their habitation during the year. In particular, most of the inhabitants of the main village relocated to barrier islands or to the Florida Keys during the worst of the mosquito season, which lasted about three months. While the resources of the Biscayne Bay area and the Florida Keys allowed for a somewhat settled non-agricultural existence, they were not as rich as those of the southwest Florida coast, home of the more numerous Calusa.[12]

Housing, clothing and tools

Briton Hammond reported that the Tequesta lived in hutts. No other description is not available of Tequesta housing. Other tribes in southern Florida lived in houses with wooden posts, raised floors, and roofs thatched with palmetto leaves, something like the chickees of the Seminoles. These houses may have had temporary walls of plaited palmetto-leaf mats to break the wind or block the sun. Clothing was minimal. The men wore a sort of loincloth made from deer hide, while the women wore skirts of Spanish moss or plant fibers hanging from a belt. The Tequesta had ocean-going canoes [that were carved with shark teeth], nets, spears, atlatls, bows and arrows (although they may have acquired those after European contact) and utilitarian pottery with little or no decoration.

Customs
By one account, when the Tequestas buried their chiefs, they buried the small bones with the body, and put the large bones in a box for the village people to adore and hold as their gods. Another account says that the Tequestas stripped the flesh from the bones, burning the flesh, and then distributed the cleaned bones to the dead chief's relatives, with the larger bones going to the closest relations. The Tequesta men consumed cassina, the black drink, in ceremonies similar to those common throughout the southeastern United States. The Spanish missionaries also reported that the Tequesta worshipped a stuffed deer as the representative of the sun, and as late as 1743 worshipped a picture of a badly deformed barracuda crossed by a harpoon, and surrounded by small tongue-like figures painted on a small board. There was also a god of the graveyard, a bird's head carved in pine. The painted board and bird's head were stored in a temple in the cemetery, along with carved masks used in

Tequesta festivals. By this time the tribe's shaman was calling himself a bishop. The Tequestas may have practiced human sacrifice. While enroute from Havana to Biscayne Bay in 1743, Spanish missionaries heard that the Indians of the Keys (including, apparently, the Tequestas) had gone to Santaluz (the village of Santa Lucea was at the St. Lucie Inlet) for a celebration of a recent peace treaty, and that the chief of Santaluz was going to sacrifice a young girl as part of the celebration. The missionaries sent a message to the chief begging him not to sacrifice the girl, and the chief relented.

107

Miami Circle
The Miami Circle [13] is located on the site of a known Tequesta village south of the mouth of the Miami River (probably the town of Tequesta). It consists of 24 large holes or basins, and many smaller holes, which have been cut into bedrock. Together these holes form a circle approximately 38 feet in diameter. Other arrangements of holes are apparent as well. The Circle was discovered during an archeological survey of a site being cleared for construction of a high-rise building. Charcoal samples collected in the circle have been radiocarbon-dated to approximately 1,900 years ago.

Post-European-contact History
In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon stopped at a bay on the Florida coast that he called Chequesta, which apparently was what is now called Biscayne Bay. In 1565 one of the ships in Pedro Menndez de Avils' fleet took refuge from a storm in Biscayne Bay. The main Tequesta village was located there, and Menndez was well received by the Tequestas. The Jesuits with him took the Tequesta chief's nephew with them back to Havana, Cuba, to be educated, while the chief's brother went to Spain with Menndez, where he converted to Christianity. In March of 1567, Menndez returned to the Tequesta[1] and established a mission within a stockade, situated near the south bank of the Miami River below the native village. Menendez left a contingent of thirty soldiers and the Jesuit brother Francisco Villareal to convert the Tequestas to Christianity. Villareal had learned something of the Tequesta language from the chief's nephew in Havana. He felt he had been winning converts until the soldiers executed an uncle of the chief. Brother Francisco was forced to abandon the mission for a while, but when the chief's brother returned from Spain, Brother Francisco was able to return. However, the mission was abandoned shortly thereafter, in 1570. Starting in 1704, it was the policy of the Spanish government to resettle Florida Indians in Cuba so that they could be indoctrinated into the Catholic faith. The first group of Indians, including the cacique of Cayo de Guesos (Key West), arrived in Cuba in 1704, and most, if not all of them, soon died. In 1710, 280 Florida Indians were taken to Cuba, where almost 200 soon died. The survivors were returned to the Keys in 1716 or 1718. In 1732 some Indians fled from the Keys to Cuba. In early 1743 the Governor of Cuba received a petition from three Calusa chiefs who were visiting in Havana. The petition, which was written in good Spanish and showed a good understanding of how the government and church bureaucracies worked, asked that missionaries be sent to the Cayos (Florida Keys) to provide religious instruction. The Governor and his advisors finally decided it would be cheaper to send missionaries to the Keys rather than bringing the Indians to Cuba, and that keeping the Indians in the Keys would mean they would be available to help shipwrecked Spanish sailors and keep the English out of the area. The governor sent two Jesuit missionaries from Havana, Fathers Mnaco and Alaa, with an escort of soldiers. On reaching Biscayne Bay, they established a chapel and fort at the mouth of a river feeding into Biscayne Bay that they called the Rio Ratones. This may have been the Little River, in the northern part of Biscayne Bay, or the Miami River. The Spanish missionaries were not well received. The Keys Indians, as the Spanish called them, denied that they had requested missionaries. They did permit a mission to be established because the Spanish had brought gifts for them, but the cacique denied that the King of Spain had dominion over his land, and insisted on tribute for allowing the

Tequesta Spanish to build a church or bring in settlers. The Indians demanded food, rum and clothing, but refused to work for the Spanish. Father Morano reported attacks on the mission by bands of Uchizas (the Creeks who later became known as Seminoles). Fathers Mnaco and Alaa developed a plan to have a stockade manned by twenty-five soldiers, and to bring in Spanish settlers to grow food for the soldiers and the Indians. They felt that the new settlement would soon supplant the need for St. Augustine. Father Alaa returned to Havana,leaving twelve soldiers and a corporal to protect Father Mnaco. The governor in Havana was not pleased. He ordered that Father Mnaco and the soldiers be withdrawn, and the stockade burned to deny it to the Uchizas. He also forwarded the missionaries' plan to Spain, where the Council of the Indies decided that the proposed mission on Biscayne Bay would be costly and impractical. The second attempt to establish a mission on Biscayne Bay had lasted less than three months. When Spain surrendered Florida to Britain in 1763, the remaining Tequestas, along with other Indians that had taken refuge in the Florida Keys, were evacuated to Cuba.[14] In the 1770s, Bernard Romans reported seeing abandoned villages in the area, but no inhabitants.

108

Footnotes
[1] "The Caloosa Village Tequesta A Miami of the Sixteenth Century by Robert E. McNicoll" (http:/ / digitalcollections. fiu. edu/ tequesta/ files/ 1941/ 41_1_02. pdf), Florida International University [2] Hann 2003:140-1 [3] Hann 2003:139 [4] http:/ / www. georgeglazer. com/ maps/ florida/ delaetflorida. html [5] Ehrenberg, Ralph E. "Marvellous countries and lands" Notable Maps of Florida, 1507-1846 (http:/ / www. broward. org/ library/ bienes/ lii14003. htm) [6] "Old Florida Maps" (http:/ / scholar. library. miami. edu/ floridamaps/ view_image. php?image_name=dlp00020000730001001& group=cartographer), University of Miami Libraries [7] "Old Florida Maps" (http:/ / scholar. library. miami. edu/ floridamaps/ view_image. php?image_name=dlp00020000810001001& group=second_spanish), University of Miami Libraries [8] Florida Office of Cultural and Historical Programs. P. 89 [9] Austin [10] Sauer, p. 51. [11] Austin Hann 2003:147 [12] Hann 2003:146 [13] "Miami Circle" (http:/ / www. flheritage. com/ archaeology/ projects/ miamicircle/ More/ tequesta. cfm), Florida Division of Historical Resources [14] "Native Peoples" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ historyculture/ nativepeoples. htm), National Park System, United States Department of the Interior

References
State of Florida Office of Cultural and Historical Programs. "Chapter 12. South and Southeast Florida: The Everglades Region, 2500 B.P.-Contact". Historic Contexts. Version of 9-27-93. Downloaded from (http://dhr. dos.state.fl.us/facts/reports/contexts/comp_plan.doc) on March 27, 2006 Austin, Daniel W. (1997). "The Glades Indians and the Plants they Used. Ethnobotany of an Extinct Culture." The Palmetto, 17(2):7 -11. (http://www.fnps.org/palmetto/v17i2p7austin.pdf) - accessed December 4, 2005 Brickell Point - Home of the Miami Circle (State of Florida site) (http://dhr.dos.state.fl.us/archaeology/ projects/brickellpoint/) - accessed December 4, 2005 Bullen, Adelaide K. (1965). "Florida Indians of Past and Present". In Ruby L. Carson & Charlton Tebeau (Eds.), Florida from Indian trail to space age: a history (Vol. I, pp.317350). Southern Publishing Company. Escalente Fontaneda, Hernando de. (1944). Memoir of Do. d'Escalente Fontaneda respecting Florida. Smith, B. (Trans.); True, D. O. (Ed.). Miami: University of Miami & Historical Association of Southern Florida.

Tequesta Goddard, Ives. (2005). The indigenous languages of the Southeast. Anthropological Linguistics, 47 (1), 1-60. Hann, John H. (1991). Missions to the Calusa. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. Hann, John H. (2003). Indians of Central and South Florida: 1513-1763. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2645-8 Sauer, Carl Otwin. 1966. (Fourth printing, 1992.) The Early Spanish Main. The University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-01415-4 Sturtevant, William C. (1978). "The Last of the South Florida Aborigines". In Jeral Milanich & Samuel Proctor (Eds.). Tacachale: Essays on the Indians of Florida and Southeastern Georgia during the Historic Period. Gainesville, Florida: The University Presses of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-0535-3 Tebeau, Charlton W. (1968). Man in the Everglades (pp.3745). Coral Gables, Florida: University of Miami Press. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 68-17768 The Tequesta of Biscayne Bay (http://fcit.usf.edu/florida/lessons/tequest/tequest1.htm) - accessed December 4, 2005 Wenhold, Lucy L. (Ed., Trans.). (1936). A 17th century letter of Gabriel Diaz Vara Caldern, Bishop of Cuba, describing the Indians and Indian missions of Florida. Smithsonian miscellaneous collections 95 (16). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.

109

Seminole

110

Seminole
Seminole

Seminole portraits Total population est. 18,600 Seminole Nation of Oklahoma 15,572 enrolled Seminole Tribe of Florida Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida Regions with significant populations United States (Oklahoma, Florida) Languages English, Mikasuki, Creek Religion Protestantism, Catholicism, Green Corn Ceremony Related ethnic groups Miccosukee, Choctaw, Muscogee (Creek)

The Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida, who now reside primarily in that state and Oklahoma. The Seminole nation emerged in a process of ethnogenesis out of groups of Native Americans, most significantly Creeks from what is now Georgia and Alabama, who settled in Florida in the early 18th century.[1] The word Seminole is a corruption of cimarrn, a Spanish term for "runaway" or "wild one", historically used for certain Native American groups in Florida.[2] The Seminole are closely related to the Miccosukee, who were recognized as a separate tribe in 1962.[3] After an initial period of colonization in Florida, during which they distanced themselves increasingly from other Creek groups, the Seminole established a thriving trade network during the British and second Spanish periods (roughly 17671821).[4] The tribe expanded considerably during this time, and was further supplemented from the late 18th century with the appearance of the Black Seminoles free blacks and escaped slaves who settled in communities near Seminole towns, where they paid tribute to the Native Americans in exchange for protection.[5]

Seminole However, tensions grew between the Seminole and the United States to the north, leading to a series of conflicts known as the Seminole Wars (18181858).[5] Over the course of the wars most Seminoles were forced to relocate west of the Mississippi River in a process of Indian removal. Perhaps fewer than 200 Seminoles remained in Florida, but those who did fostered a resurgence in traditional customs and a culture of staunch independence.[6] Seminole culture is largely derived from Creek culture. Most Seminoles speak the Mikasuki language, with some (such as those living on the Brighton Seminole Reservation) speaking Creek; English is also prevalent today. The most important ceremony is the Green Corn Dance, which is celebrated largely as it is among the Creeks; other notable Creek-derived traditions include use of the black drink and ritual smoking of tobacco. As the Seminole adapted to the Florida environment, they developed their own local traditions, such as the construction of open air thatched-roof houses known as chickees.[7] The Seminoles who moved west of the Mississippi largely settled in what is now Oklahoma. Today most are enrolled with the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, while others belong to unorganized groups. The Florida Seminoles reestablished limited relations with the U.S. government in the late 19th century, and eventually received 5000 acres (20km2) of reservation land in Florida. However, few Seminole had interest in moving to reservations until the 1940s, when many Seminole Christians relocated to them in order to establish their own churches. Reservation governments were founded, and the Seminole Tribe of Florida received federal recognition in 1957. However, the recognition caused conflict with a group living along the Tamiami Trail, who did not feel appropriately represented; they sought federal recognition as the Miccosukee Tribe, which they received in 1962.[8]

111

History
In the late 18th century, the Lower Creeks, a tribe of Muscogee people, began to migrate into Florida to evade the dominance of the Upper Creeks, effectively displacing the Calusa and Mayaimi tribes with the aid of the Spanish who moved many of them to Cuba, where the tribes' populations were soon decimated by disease. The Seminole intermingled with the Choctaw and other few remaining indigenous people there, some recently arrived as refugees after the Yamasee War, such as the Yuchi, Yamasee and others. In a process of ethnogenesis, they formed a new culture which they called "Seminole", a derivative of the Mvskoke' (a Creek language) word simano-li, an adaptation of the Spanish cimarrn which means "wild" (in their case, "wild men"), or "runaway" [men].[9] The Seminole were a heterogeneous tribe made up of mostly Lower Creeks from Georgia, Mikasuki-speaking Muscogees, escaped African-American slaves, and to a lesser extent, Native Americans from other tribes and even white Americans. The unified Seminole spoke two languages: Creek and Mikasuki (a modern dialect similar to Hitchiti), two different members of the Muscogean Native American languages family, a language group that includes Choctaw and Chickasaw. During the colonial years, the Seminole were on good terms with both the Spanish and the British. In 1784, the treaty ending the American Revolutionary War transferred British rule of Florida to Spain. The Spanish Empire's decline enabled the Seminole to settle more deeply into Florida. They were led by a dynasty of chiefs founded in the 18th century by Cowkeeper. This dynasty lasted until 1842, when the US forced the majority of Seminoles to move from Florida to the Indian Territory (modern Oklahoma) after the Second Seminole War. There is also a village of Black Seminoles who have lived at Red Bays on Andros Island in the Bahamas since the 1820s.[10]

Seminole

112

Religion
Seminole tribes generally follow Christianity, both Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, and their traditional Native religion, which is expressed through the stomp dance and the Green Corn Ceremony. Indigenous peoples have practiced Green Corn ceremonies for centuries. Contemporary southeastern Native American tribes, such as the Seminole and Muscogee Creek, still practice these ceremonies. A high degree of syncretism exists between Christianity and traditional Seminole religion, and Seminole Christian churches often sing hymns in the traditional languages.[11] In the 1950s, federal projects prompted the tribe's reorganization. They created organizations within tribal governance to promote modernization. As Christian pastors began preaching on reservations, Green Corn Ceremony attendance decreased. This created tension between religiously traditional Seminoles and those who began adopting Christianity. In the 1960s and 1970s, some tribal members on reservations, such as the Brighton Seminole Indian Reservation, viewed organized Christianity as a threat to their traditions. Tribal reorganization appeared to be one factor in facilitating Christian conversion, but that also represented social changes of a new generation. By the 1980s, Seminole communities were concerned about loss of language and tradition. Many tribal members began to revive the observance of traditional Green Corn Dance ceremonies, and some moved away from Christianity. By 2000 religious tension between Green Corn Dance attendees and Christians (particularly Baptists) decreased. Some Seminole families participate in both religions.[12]

Seminole Wars
After attacks by Spanish settlers on Native American towns, natives began raiding Georgia settlements, purportedly at the behest of the Spanish. In the early 19th century, the U.S. Army made increasingly frequent incursions into Spanish territory to recapture escaped slaves. General Andrew Jackson's 18171818 campaign against the Seminoles became known as the First Seminole War. Following the war, the United States effectively controlled East Florida. In 1819 the United States and Spain signed the Adams-Ons Treaty,[13] which took effect in 1821. According to its terms, the United States acquired Florida and, in exchange, renounced all claims to Texas. Andrew Jackson was named military governor of Florida. As European-American settlement increased after the treaty, settlers pressured the Federal government to remove the Native Americans from Florida. Slaveholders resented that tribes harbored runaway black slaves, and more settlers wanted access to desirable Coeehajo, Chief, 1837, Smithsonian American Art Museum lands held by Native Americans. Georgian slaveholders wanted the "maroons" and fugitive slaves living among the Seminoles, known today as Black Seminoles, returned to slavery. In 1832, the United States government signed the Treaty of Paynes Landing with a few of the Seminole chiefs. They promised lands west of the Mississippi River if the chiefs agreed to leave Florida voluntarily with their peoples. The Seminoles who remained prepared for war. White settlers continued to press for removal. In 1835, the U.S. Army arrived to enforce the treaty. Seminole leader Osceola led the vastly outnumbered resistance during the Second Seminole War. Drawing on a population of about 4,000 Seminole Indians and 800 allied Black Seminoles, he mustered at most 1,400 warriors (Andrew Jackson estimated they had only 900). They countered

Seminole combined U.S. Army and militia forces that ranged from 6,000 troops at the outset to 9,000 at the peak of deployment in 1837. To survive, the Seminole allies employed guerrilla tactics with devastating effect against U.S. forces. Osceola was arrested when he came under a flag of truce to negotiations in 1837. He died in jail less than a year later. His body was buried without his head, which was preserved. Other war chiefs, such as Halleck Tustenuggee and Jumper, and Black Seminoles Abraham and John Horse, continued the Seminole resistance against the army. After a full decade of fighting, the war ended in 1842. Scholars estimate the U.S. government spent about $40,000,000 on the war, at the time a huge sum. Many Native Americans were forcibly exiled to Creek lands west of the Mississippi; others retreated into the Everglades. In the end, the government gave up trying to subjugate the Seminoles and left the estimated fewer than 500 survivors in peace.[14]
[15]

113

Contemporary
During the Seminole Wars, the Seminole people began to break apart due to the conflict and differences in ideology. The Seminole population had also been growing significantly, though it was diminished by the wars.[16] With the division of the Seminole tribe, some traditions such as powwow trails and ceremonies were maintained among them. The Seminole Nation of Oklahoma and the Seminole Tribe of Florida described below are fully independent nations that operate in their own spheres.[17]

Oklahoma Seminole
As a result of the Second Seminole War (18351842) about 3,800 Seminole and maroons were forcibly removed to Indian Territory (the modern state of Oklahoma).[18] During the American Civil War, the members and leaders split over their loyalties, with John Chupco refusing to sign a treaty with the Confederacy. From 1861-1866, he led as chief of the Seminole who supported the Union and fought in the Indian Brigade.

Seminole woman painted by George Catlin 1834

The split lasted until 1872. After the war, the United States government negotiated only with the loyal Seminole, requiring the tribe to make a new peace treaty to cover those who allied with the Confederacy, to emancipate their slaves, and to extend tribal citizenship to those freedmen who chose to stay in Seminole territory. The Seminole Nation of Oklahoma now has about 6,000 enrolled members, who are divided into fourteen bands, similar to clans. Two are called "Freedmen Bands" (also "Black Seminoles") because they descended in part from escaped slaves who were freed after the Civil War. Band membership is matrilineal: children are members of their mother's band. The group is ruled by an elected council, with two members from each band. The capital is at Wewoka, Oklahoma. Recently tribal citizenship disputes have arisen related to the membership status of "Seminole Freedmen" in Oklahoma.[18]

Seminole

114

Florida Seminoles
The remaining few hundred Seminoles survived in the Florida swamplands avoiding removal. They lived in the Everglades, to isolate themselves from European-Americans. Seminoles continued their distinctive life, such as "clan-based matrilocal residence in scattered thatched-roof chickee camps."[18] Today, the 21st century descendants of the Seminole proudly note the Seminole were never officially conquered. That is one source of the nation's sovereign rights.[19] After the Third Seminole War, the Seminoles in Florida divided into two groups; those who were more traditional and those willing to adapt A Seminole spearing a garfish from a dugout, to the reservations. Those who accepted reservation lands and made Florida, 1930 adaptations were recognized as the Seminole Tribe of Florida. Those who preferred the more traditional lifestyle organized themselves as the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida. Other Seminoles not affiliated with either of the federally recognized groups are known as Traditional or Independent Seminoles.[16] Seminole Tribe of Florida The Seminole worked to adapt, but they were highly affected by the rapidly changing American environment. Natural disasters magnified changes from the governmental drainage project of the Everglades. Residential, agricultural and business development changed the "natural, social, political, and economic environment" of the Seminole.[17] In the 1930s, the Seminole slowly began to move onto federally designated reservation lands within the region. The US government had purchased lands and put them in trust for Seminole use.[20] Initially, few Seminoles had any interest in moving to the reservation land or in establishing more formal relations with the government. Some feared that if they moved onto reservations, they would be forced to move to Oklahoma. Others accepted the move in hopes of stability, jobs promised by the Indian New Deal, or as new converts to Christianity.[21]

Seminole patchwork shawl made by Susie Cypress from Big Cypress Indian Reservation, ca. 1980s

Beginning in the 1940s, however, more Seminoles began to move to the reservations. A major catalyst for this was the conversion of many Seminole to Christianity, following missionary effort spearheaded by the Creek Baptist evangelist Stanley Smith. For the new converts, relocating to the reservations afforded them the opportunity to establish their own churches.[22] Reservation Seminoles began forming tribal governments and forming ties with the Bureau of Indian Affairs.[22] In 1957 the nation reorganized and established formal relations with the US government as the Seminole Tribe of Florida.[17] The Seminole Tribe of Florida is headquartered in Hollywood, Florida. They control several reservations: Big Cypress, Brighton Seminole Indian Reservation, Dania, Florida State Reservation, and Tampa Reservation.[23]

Seminole Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida The relocation to reservations and the federal recognition of the Seminole Tribe of Florida a move largely supported by residents of the reservations caused antiphathy between the reservation Seminole and those who had chosen not to move. In particularly, a group known as the Trail Indians, who lived along the Tamiami Trail, felt disenfranchised by the situation. This was exacerbated in 1950 when some reservation Seminoles filed a land claim suit against the federal government that was not supported by the Trail Indians.[8] Following the recognition of the Seminole Tribe of Florida, the Trail Indians decided to organize their own separate tribal government. They sought recognition as the Miccosukee Tribe, as they spoke the Mikasuki (Miccosukee) language. They received full recognition in 1962, and received their own reservation land, collectively known as the Miccosukee Indian Reservation.[8] The Miccosukee Tribe set up a 333-acre (1.35km2) reservation on the northern border of Everglades National Park, about 45 miles (72km) west of Miami.[24]

115

Commerce
In the United States 2000 Census, 12,431 people reported themselves as Seminole American Indian. An additional 15,000 people identified themselves as Seminoles in combination with some other tribal affiliation or race.[25] The Seminole Tribe of Florida and the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida entered into agreements with the US government in 1957 and 1962, respectively, confirming their sovereignty over tribal lands and agreeing to compensation for seized territory. The Seminole have been engaged in stock raising since the mid-1930s, when they received cattle from western Native Americans. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) hoped that the cattle raising would teach Seminoles to become citizens using agricultural settlements. The BIA also hoped that this program would lead to Seminole self-sufficiency. Cattle owners realized that by using their cattle as equity, they could engage in "new capital-intensive pursuits", such as housing.[26] Since then, the tribes have developed economies based chiefly on sales of duty-free tobacco, heritage and resort tourism, and gambling. On December 7, 2006, they purchased the Hard Rock Cafe chain of restaurants.[27] Florida experienced a population boom in the early 20th century when the Flagler railroad to Miami was completed. The state became a growing destination for tourists and many resort towns were established.[18] In the years that followed, many Seminoles worked in the cultural tourism trade. By the 1920s, many Seminoles were involved in service jobs. In addition, they were able to market their culture [28] by selling traditional craft products (made mostly by women) and by exhibitions of traditional skills, such as wrestling alligators (by men). Some of the crafts included woodcarving, basket weaving, beadworking, patchworking, and palmetto-doll making. These crafts are still practiced today.[17] Fewer Seminole rely on crafts for income because gaming has become so lucrative.[17] The Miccosukee Tribe has sustained itself by owning and operating a casino, resort, a golf club, several museum attractions, and the "Indian Village". At the "Indian Village", Miccosukee demonstrate traditional, pre-contact lifestyles to educate people about their culture.

Seminole clipper ship card

"In 1979, the Seminoles opened the first casino on Indian land, ushering in what has become a multibillion-dollar industry operated by numerous tribes nationwide."[29] This casino was the first tribally operated bingo hall in North America. Since its establishment, gaming has become an important source of revenue for tribal governments. Tribal gaming has provided secure employment, and the revenues have supported higher education, health insurance, services for the elderly, and personal income.[30] In more recent years, income from the gaming industry has funded major economic projects such as sugarcane fields, citrus groves, cattle, ecotourism, and commercial agriculture.[31]

Seminole This has culminated in the purchase by the Seminole Tribe of Florida of Hard Rock Cafe, which previously they had licensed for several of their casinos. The Seminole are reflected in numerous Florida place names: Seminole County; Osceola County; Seminole, a city in Pinellas County; and Seminole, a small community in Okaloosa County.

116

Florida State University connection

The image and name of the Seminole Osceola serves as a symbol for Florida State University (FSU). Several high school athletic programs in the state use the nickname "Seminoles". The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) prohibition against use of Native American logos, signs in stadiums, cheerleader and band uniforms, and mascots as presumed "hostile and abusive" was attempted against FSU and the Seminoles. It is considered on a case-by-case basis elsewhere. FSU was exempted after the threat of litigation by the administration at FSU because the university had an agreement with the 3,100-member Seminole Tribe of Florida of the relationship and details of the images used. During the dispute, the Oklahoma Seminole also endorsed use of the name and image. The "war chant" cheer made by spectators at FSU football games includes the "tomahawk chop", a gesture invented by the fans. At first they pointed to the goal line, encouraging the team to score, but over time, the gesture imitated a tomahawk swinging down. Traditionally, the Seminole seldom used tomahawks. Before converting to modern weaponry, Seminole ancestors used spears with flint, bone or cane tips, war clubs studded with sharks' teeth, and bows and arrows.[32]

Notes
[1] Mahon, pp. 183187. [2] Mahon, p. 183. [3] Mahon, p. 204. [4] Mahon, pp. 187189. [5] Mahon, pp. 190191. [6] Mahon, pp. 201202. [7] Mahon, pp. 183184; 201202. [8] Mahon, pp. 203204. [9] "Definition of Seminole" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ seminole). Merriam-Webster. . Retrieved 2011-03-02. [10] Howard, Rosalyn. (2006) "The 'Wild Indians' of Andros Island: Black Seminole Legacy in the Bahamas." in Journal of Black Studies. Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 275298. Abstract on-line at http:/ / jbs. sagepub. com/ content/ 37/ 2/ 275. abstract . [11] Clark, pp. 750, 752. [12] Cattelino, pp. 6465. [13] (http:/ / alamo-de-parras. welkin. org/ archives/ documents/ adams_oniz_treaty. html) [14] Covington, James W. 1993. The Seminoles of Florida, Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1196-5. pp. 1456. [15] Garbarino, Merwyn S. 1989 The Seminole, p. 55. [16] "Seminole History" (http:/ / www. semtribe. com/ History/ ). Seminole Tribe of Florida. . Retrieved 2011-03-02. [17] Cattelino, p. 41. [18] Cattelino, p. 23. [19] Carl Waldman (2009). Atlas of the North American Indian (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pN51SQAACAAJ& dq=Atlas of the North American Indian& source=gbs_book_other_versions) (3, illustrated ed.). Facts on File. p.159. ISBN9780816068586. . Retrieved 2011-03-02. [20] Cattelino, p. 130. [21] Cattelino, p. 142. [22] Mahon, p. 203. [23] Atlas of the North American Indian, 3rd ed. New York: Checkmark Books, 2009. Print.

Seminole
[24] "Concerning the Miccosukee Tribe's Ongoing Negotiations with the National Park Service Regarding the Special Use Permit Area" (http:/ / commdocs. house. gov/ committees/ resources/ hii46735. 000/ hii46735_0. HTM). Resources Committee, US House of Representatives. September 25, 1997. . Retrieved 2011-03-02. [25] US Census (http:/ / www. census. gov/ prod/ 2002pubs/ c2kbr01-15. pdf). [26] Cattelino, pp. 32 and 34. [27] "Seminoles to buy Hard Rock chain" (http:/ / www. marketwatch. com/ story/ florida-tribe-to-buy-hard-rock-chain-for-965-million). Market Watch. December 7, 2006. . Retrieved 2011-03-02. [28] Cattelino, p. 40. [29] [Robert Andrew Powell (August 24, 2005). "Florida State Can Keep Its Seminoles" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2005/ 08/ 24/ sports/ 24mascot. html?_r=1). New York Times. . Retrieved 2011-03-02. [30] Cattelino. Ibid p. 9. [31] Cattelino. Ibid p. 113. [32] "What kinds of weapons did they use to defend themselves against the Spaniards?" (http:/ / www. semtribe. com/ FAQ/ ). Seminole Tribe of Florida, Frequently Asked Questions. . Retrieved 2011-03-02.

117

References
Adams, Mikala M., Savage Foes, Noble Warriors, and Frail Remnants: Florida Seminoles in the White Imagination, 18651934, Florida Historical Quarterly, 87 (Winter 2009), 40435. Cattelino, Jessica R. High Stakes: Florida Seminole Gaming and Sovereignty. Durham: Duke University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8223-4227-4 Clark, C. Blue. "Native Christianity Since 1800." Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. ISBN 0-16-072300-0. Mahon, John K.; Brent R. Weisman (1996). "Florida's Seminole and Miccosukee Peoples". In Gannon, Michael (Ed.). The New History of Florida, pp.183206. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0813014158.

External links
Seminole Nation of Oklahoma official website (http://www.seminolenation.com/) Seminole Tribe of Florida official site (http://www.seminoletribe.com/) Seminole Clothing Patchwork (http://essay.studyarea.com/Old_Essay/Art/seminole_patchwork.htm) The Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida official site (http://www.miccosukeeresort.com/tribe.html) Hitchiti-Mikasuki Creation Story (http://www.indigenouspeople.net/hitchiti.htm) Annual Seminole Nation Days Celebration (http://www.seminolenation.com/nationdays/) Aponke Resources for the study of Hitchiti and Mikasuki (http://www.wm.edu/linguistics/hitchiti-mikasuki/) History of the Seminole People of Florida by Patricia R. Wickman, Ph.D. (http://www.seminoletribe.com/ tribune/40anniversary/history.shtml) Seminole Portraits (http://www.floridamemory.com/OnlineClassroom/seminoles/photos.cfm) Hand colored lithographs of some of the major Seminole leaders of the Second Seminole War (18351842). From the State Library & Archives of Florida. Seminole Doll Making (http://www.floridamemory.com/OnlineClassroom/seminole_dolls/) Seminole doll maker Mary B. Billie. Interview in Seminole and English with photos. From the State Library & Archives of Florida. Alligator Dance (http://www.floridamemory.com/Collections/folklife/folklife_cd.cfm) Audio of Seminole elder Billy Bowlegs III performing traditional dance and song in 1954. (Track 16 of CD.) From the State Library & Archives of Florida. Seminole history (http://dhr.dos.state.fl.us/facts/history/seminole/) from the Florida Department of State

John Horse and the Black Seminoles, First Black Rebels to Beat American Slavery (http://www.johnhorse. com)

Seminole The Seminole Indians of Florida (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19155), by Clay MacCauley, 1884, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology, from Project Gutenberg

118

119

National Park
Everglades National Park
Everglades National Park
IUCN Category Ib (Wilderness Area)

A white ibis flying over the River of Grass

Location of Everglades National Park Location Nearestcity Coordinates Area Miami-Dade, Monroe, & Collier counties, Florida, USA Florida City Everglades City 25190N 80560W 1508571 acres (6104.97km2) 1494970 acres (6049.9km2) federal December 6, 1947 1,074,764 (in2007)

Established Visitors

Governingbody National Park Service

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Everglades National Park

120
Type: Criteria: Designated: Reference#: State Party: Region: Endangered: Natural viii, ix, x 1979 (3rd session) 76
[1] United States

Europe and North America 19932007; 2010present

Everglades National Park is a national park in the U.S. state of Florida that protects the southern 25percent of the original Everglades. It is the largest subtropical wilderness in the United States, and is visited on average by onemillion people each year.[2] It is the third-largest national park in the lower 48states after Death Valley and Yellowstone. It has been declared an International Biosphere Reserve, a World Heritage Site, and a Wetland of International Importance, only one of three locations in the world to appear on all three lists.[3] Unlike most U.S. national parks, Everglades National Park was created to protect a fragile ecosystem instead of safeguarding a unique geographic feature. The Everglades are wetlands created by a slow-moving river originating in Lake Okeechobee, fed by the Kissimmee River, and flowing southwest at about .25 miles (0.40km) per day into Florida Bay. The park protects an interconnected network of marshland and forest ecosystems that are maintained by natural forces.[4] Thirty-six species designated as threatened or protected live in the park, including the Florida panther, the American crocodile, and the West Indian manatee. The park protects the largest U.S. wilderness area east of the Mississippi River,[5] is the most significant breeding ground for tropical wading birds in North America, and contains the largest mangrove ecosystem in the western hemisphere.[5] More than 350species of birds, 300species of fresh and saltwater fish, 40species of mammals, and 50 species of reptiles live within Everglades National Park.[6] All of South Florida's fresh water, which is stored in the Biscayne Aquifer, is recharged in the park.[5] Although humans have lived in the Everglades for thousands of years, not until 1882 did the region begin to be drained for agricultural or residential use. In the 20th century the natural water flow from Lake Okeechobee was controlled and diverted to the explosive growth of the South Florida metropolitan area. The park was established in 1934 to protect the quickly vanishing Everglades and dedicated in 1947, the same year massive canal-building projects across South Florida began to divert water away from the park. The ecosystems in Everglades National Park have suffered significantly from human activity, and the repair and restoration of the Everglades is a politically charged issue in South Florida.

Everglades National Park

121

Geography
Everglades National Park covers 1509000 acres (6110km2), throughout Dade, Monroe, and Collier counties in Florida.[7] The elevation typically ranges from 0 to 8 feet (2.4m) above sea level, but a Calusa-built shell mound on the Gulf Coast rises 20 feet (6.1m) above sea level.

Geology
The terrain of South Florida is relatively and consistently flat. Although rock formations are not a central draw to Everglades National Park, the limestone that underlies the Everglades is integral to the formation of the diverse ecosystems within the park. Florida was once part of the African portion of the supercontinent Map of Everglades National Park Gondwana. After it separated, conditions allowed a shallow marine environment to deposit calcium carbonate in sand, shells, and coral to be converted into limestone.[8] Tiny bits of shell, sand, and bryozoans compressed over multiple layers forming unique structures in the limestone called ooids which created porous and permeable conditions to hold water.[9] The Florida peninsula appeared above sea level between 100,000 and 15,000years ago. As sea levels at the end of the Wisconsin ice age rose, the water table appeared closer to land. Lake Okeechobee began to flood and convection thunderstorms were created.[10] Vast peat deposits south of Lake Okeechobee indicate that regular flooding had occurred about 5,000 years ago. Plants began to migrate, subtropical ones from the northern part of Florida, and tropicals carried as seeds by birds from islands in the Caribbean.[11] Although the limestone shelf appears to be flat, there are slight risescalled pinnaclesand depressions caused by the erosion of limestone by the acidic properties of the water. The amount of time throughout the year that water is present in a location in the Everglades determines the type of soil, of which there only two in the Everglades: peat, created by many years of decomposing plant matter, and marl, the result of dried periphyton, or chunks of algae and microorganisms that create a grayish mud. Portions of the Everglades that remain flooded for more than nine months out of the year are usually covered by peat. Areas that are flooded six months or less are covered by marl. Plant communities are determined by the type of soil and amount of water present.[12] [13]

Climate
Unlike in the northern portion of Florida, no underground springs feed water into the Everglades system. An underground reservoir called the Floridan Aquifer lies about 1000 feet (300m) below the surface of South Florida.[14] However, the Everglades has an immense capacity for water storage, due to the sponge-like permeable limestone underneath the exposed land. Most of the water arrives in the form of rainfall, and a significant amount is stored in the limestone. Water evaporating from the Everglades becomes rain over metropolitan areas, providing the fresh water supply for the region. Water also flows into the park after falling as rain on Lake Okeechobee and the Kissimmee River, to appear in the Everglades days later. Water overflows Lake Okeechobee into a river 40 to 70 miles (110km) wide, which moves almost imperceptibly.[15] Most of the Everglades see only two seasons: wet and dry. The park's dry season lasts from December to April, when temperatures vary from 53F (12C) to 77F (25C) and humidity is low. Since water levels are low at that time, animals congregate at central water locations, providing popular opportunities for viewing the wildlife.[16] During the wet season, from May to November, temperatures are consistently above 90F (33C) and humidity over 90percent.[17] Storms can drop 10 to 12 inches (300mm) of rain at a time, providing half the year's average of 60inches (152cm) of rainfall in just two months.[18]

Everglades National Park

122

Ecosystems
At the turn of the 20th century common concepts of what should be protected in national parks invariably included formidable geologic features like mountains, geysers, or canyons. As Florida's population began to grow significantly and urban areas near the Everglades were developed, proponents of the park's establishment faced difficulty in persuading the federal government and the people of Florida that the subtle and constantly shifting ecosystems in the Everglades were just as worthy of protection.[19] When the park was established in 1947, it became the first area within the U.S. to protect flora and fauna native to a region as opposed to geologic scenery.[7] The National Park Service currently recognizes nine distinct interdependent ecosystems within the park that constantly shift in size due to the amount of water present and other environmental factors.

Freshwater sloughs and marl prairies

Freshwater sloughs are perhaps the most common ecosystem associated with Everglades National Park. These drainage channels are characterized by low-lying areas covered in fresh water, flowing at an almost imperceptible 100 feet (30m) per day.[20] Shark River Slough and Taylor Slough are significant features of the park. Sawgrass growing to a length of 6 feet (1.8m) or more, and broad-leafed marsh plants, are so prominent in this region that they gave the Everglades its nickname "River of Grass". Excellent feeding locations for birds, Alligators thrive in freshwater sloughs and marl sloughs in the Everglades attract a great variety of waders such as prairies. herons, egrets, roseate spoonbills (Platalea ajaja), ibises and brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis), as well as limpkins (Aramus guarauna) and snail kites that eat apple snails, which in turn feed on the sawgrass. The sloughs' availability of fish, amphibians, and young birds attract a variety of freshwater turtles, alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), water moccasins (Agkistrodon piscivorus conanti), and eastern diamondback rattlesnakes (Crotalus adamanteus). Freshwater marl prairies are similar to sloughs, but lack the slow movement of water; instead, water seeps through a calcitic mud called marl. Algae and other microscopic organisms form periphyton, which attaches to limestone. When it dries it turns into a gray mud.[21] Sawgrass and other water plants grow shorter in freshwater marl than they do in peat, the other type of soil in the Everglades which is found where water remains present longer throughout the year. Marl prairies are usually under water from three to seven months of the year, A Great Blue Heron at Anhinga Trail whereas sloughs may remain submerged for longer than nine months and sometimes remain under water from one year to the next. Sawgrass may dominate sloughs, creating a monoculture. Other grasses, such as muhly grass (Muhlenbergia filipes) and broad-leafed water plants can be found in marl prairies.[22] Animals living in the freshwater sloughs also inhabit in marl prairies. Marl prairies may go dry in some parts of the year; alligators play a vital role in maintaining life in remote parts of the Everglades by burrowing in the mud during the dry season, and creating pools of water where fish and amphibians survive from one year to the next. Alligator holes also attract other animals who congregate to feed on smaller prey. When the region floods again during the wet season, the fish and amphibians who were sustained in the alligator holes then repopulate freshwater marl prairies.[23]

Everglades National Park

123

Tropical hardwood hammocks

Hammocks are often the only dry land within the park. They rise several inches above the grass-covered river, and are dominated by diverse plant life consisting of subtropical and tropical trees, such as large southern live oaks (Quercus virginiana). Trees often form canopies under which animals thrive amongst scrub bushes of wild coffee (Psychotria), white indigoberry (Randia aculeata), poisonwood (Metopium toxiferum) and saw palmetto (Serenoa repens). The park features thousands of these tree islands amid sloughswhich often form the shape of a teardrop when seen from above (see park map) because of the slowly moving water around thembut they can also be found in pineland and mangroves. Trees in the Everglades, including wild tamarind (Lysiloma latisiliquum) and gumbo-limbo (Bursera simaruba), rarely grow higher than 50 feet (15m) due to wind, cold weather, and lightning strikes.[24] [25] The plant growth around the hammock base is nearly impenetrable; however, beneath the canopy hammocks are an ideal habitat for animals. Reptiles (such as various species of snake and anole) and amphibians (such as the American green tree frog, Hyla cinerea), find their homes in the hardwood hammocks. Birds such as barred owls (Strix varia), woodpeckers, northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis), and southern bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) nest in hammock trees. Mammal species living in hardwood hammocks include opossums (Didelphis virginiana), raccoons (Procyon lotor), bobcats (Lynx rufus), Everglades mink (Neovison vison), marsh rabbits (Sylvilagus palustris), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and the rare, critically endangered Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi).[24]

Pineland
2

Dade County was once covered in 186000 acres (750km ) of pine rockland forests, but most of it was harvested by the lumber industry.[26] Pineland ecosystems (or pine rocklands) are characterized by shallow, dry sandy loam over a limestone substrate covered almost exclusively by slash pines (Pinus elliottii var. densa). Trees in this ecosystem grow in solution holes, where the soft limestone has worn away and filled with soil, allowing plants to take hold.[27] Pinelands require regular maintenance by fire to ensure their existence. South Florida slash pines are uniquely adapted to promote fire by dropping a large amount of dried pine needles and shedding dry bark. Pine cones require heat from fires to open, allowing seeds to disperse and take hold. The trunks and roots of slash pines, however, are resistant to fire. Prescribed burns in these areas take place every three to seven years; without regular fires, hardwood trees begin to grow in this region and pinelands become recategorized as mixed swamp forests.[28] Most plants in the area bloom about 16 weeks after a fire.[29] Nearly all pinelands have an understory of palm shrubs, and a diverse ground covering of wild herbs.[28] Pine rocklands are considered one of the most threatened habitats in Florida; less than 4000 acres (16km2) of pineland exist outside the park.[30] Within the park, 20000 acres (81km2) of pineland are protected.[31] A variety of animal species meet their needs for food, shelter, nesting, and rooking in pine rocklands. Woodpeckers, eastern meadowlarks (Sturnella magna), loggerhead shrikes (Lanius ludovicianus), grackles, and northern mockingbirds (Mimus polyglottos) are commonly found in pinelands. Black bears and Florida panthers also live in this habitat.[28]

Fewer than 100 Florida panthers still live in the wild, usually in drier parts of the Everglades, such as hammocks and pinelands.

Everglades National Park

124

Cypress and mangrove

Cypress trees are conifers that are adapted to live in standing fresh water. They grow in compact structures called cypress domes and in long strands over limestone. Water levels may fluctuate dramatically around cypress domes and strands, so cypresses develop "knees" that protrude from the water at high levels to provide oxygen for the root systems. Dwarf cypress trees grow in drier areas with poorer soil. Epiphytes, such as bromeliads, Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides), orchids and ferns grow on the branches and trunks of cypress trees. Everglades National Park features twenty-five species of orchids.[32] Tall cypress trees provide excellent nesting areas for birds including wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo), ibis, herons, egrets, anhingas (Anhinga anhinga), and belted kingfishers (Megaceryle alcyon). Mammals in cypress regions include white-tailed deer, squirrels, raccoons, opossums, skunks, swamp rabbits, river otters (Lontra canadensis), and bobcats, as well as small rodents.[33] [34] Mangrove trees cover the coastlines of South Florida, sometimes growing inland depending on the amount of salt water present within the Everglades ecosystems. During dryer years when less fresh water flows to the coast, mangroves will appear among fresh water plants. When rain is abundant, sawgrass and other fresh water plants may be found closer to the coast. Three species of mangrove treesred (Rhizophora mangle), black (Avicennia germinans), and white (Laguncularia racemosa)can be found in the Everglades. Due to Mangrove trees along the coastline protect the their high tolerance of salt water, winds, extreme tides, high shore from erosion. temperatures, and muddy soils, mangrove trees are uniquely adapted to extreme conditions. They act as nurseries for many marine and bird species. They are also Florida's first defense against the destructive forces of hurricanes, absorbing flood waters and preventing coastal erosion.[35] The mangrove system in Everglades National Park is the largest continuous system of mangroves in the world.[36] Within the Florida mangrove systems live 220species of fish, and a variety of crabs, crayfish, shrimp, mollusks, and other invertebrates, which serve as the main source of food for many birds.[37] Dozens of bird species use mangroves as nurseries and food stores, including pelicans, grebes, tricolored herons (Egretta tricolor), gulls, terns, hawks and kites, and arboreal birds like mangrove cuckoos (Coccyzus minor), yellow warblers (Dendroica petechia), and white-crowned pigeons (Patagioenas leucocephala).[38] The mangroves also support 24species of amphibians and reptiles, and 18species of mammals, including the endangered green turtle (Chelonia mydas), Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), and West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus).[39]

Coastal lowlands
Coastal lowlands, or wet prairies, are salt water marshes that absorb marine water when it gets high or fresh water when rains are heavy. Floods occur during hurricane and tropical storm surges when ocean water can rise several feet over the land.[40] Heavy wet seasons also cause floods when rain from the north flows into the Everglades. Few trees can survive in the conditions of this region, but plantssucculents like saltwort and glassworttolerate salt, brackish water, and desert conditions. Animal life in this zone is dependent upon the amount of water present, but commonly found animals include Cape Sable seaside sparrows (Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis), Everglades snail kites (Rostrhamus sociabilis), wood storks (Mycteria americana), eastern indigo snakes (Drymarchon corais couperi), and small mammals such as rats, mice, and rabbits.[41]

Everglades National Park

125

Marine and estuarine

The largest body of water within the park is Florida Bay, which extends from the mangrove swamps of the mainland's southern tip to the Florida Keys. Over 800 square miles (2100km2) of marine ecosystem lies in this range. Coral, sponges, and seagrasses serve as shelter and food for crustaceans and mollusks, which in turn are the primary food source for larger marine animals. Sharks, stingrays, and barracudas also live in this ecosystem, as do larger species of fish that attract sport fishing. Pelicans, shorebirds, terns, and black skimmers (Rynchops niger) are among the birds frequenting park shorelines.[42]

Human history
Native people
Humans likely first inhabited the South Florida region 10,000 to 20,000years ago.[43] Two tribes of Native Americans developed on the peninsula's southern tip: the Tequesta lived on the eastern side and the Calusa, greater in numbers, on the western side. The Everglades served as a natural boundary between them. The Tequesta lived in a single large community near the mouth of the Miami River, while the Calusa lived in 30villages. Both groups traveled through the Everglades, but rarely lived within them, remaining mostly along the coast.[44]

The sun sets over Shark River Slough.

The diets of both groups consisted mostly of shellfish and fish, small mammals, game, and wild plants. Having access only to soft limestone, most of the tools fashioned by Native Americans in the region were made of shell, bone, wood, and animal teeth; shark teeth were used as cutting blades,[45] and sharpened reeds became arrows and spears.[46] Shell mounds still exist today within the park, giving archaeologists and anthropologists evidence of the raw materials available to the indigenous people for tool construction. Spanish explorers estimated the number of Tequesta at first contact to be around 800, and Calusa at 2,000, although the National Park Service reports there were probably about 20,000 natives living in or near the Everglades when the Spanish established contact in the late 16th century.[47] The Calusa society was more advanced, as they lived in social strata, and were able to create canals, earthworks, and shellworks. The Calusa were also able to resist Spanish attempts at conquest.[45] Although the Spanish had contact with these societies, they established missions further north, near Lake Okeechobee. In the 18th century, invading Creeks incorporated the dwindling numbers of the Tequesta into their own. Neither the Tequesta nor Calusa tribe existed by 1800.[48] Disease, warfare, and capture for slavery were the probably reasons for the eradication of both groups. The only evidence of their existence within the park boundaries is a series of shell mounds that were built by the Calusa.[49] In the early 19th century, Creeks, escaped African slaves, and other Indians from northern Florida displaced by the Creek War formed the area's Seminole nation. After the end of the Seminole Wars in 1842, the Seminoles faced relocation to Indian territory near Oklahoma. A few hundred Seminole hunters and scouts settled within what is today Big Cypress National Preserve, to escape the emigration to the west.[50] From 1859 to about 1930, the Seminoles and Miccosukee, a similar but linguistically unique tribe, lived in relative isolation, making their living by trading. In 1928, surveying and construction began on the Tamiami Trail, along the northern border of Everglades

Everglades National Park National Park. The road not only bisected the Everglades but also introduced a steady, if small, traffic of white settlers into the Everglades.[51] Some members of the Miccosukee and Seminole tribes continue to live within park boundaries. Management of the park includes approval of new policies and procedures by tribal representatives "in such a manner that they do not conflict with the park purpose".[52]

126

American settlements
Following the end of the Seminole Wars, Americans began settling at isolated points along the coast in what is now the park, from the Ten Thousand Islands to Cape Sable. Communities developed on the two largest pieces of dry ground in the area, on Chokoloskee Island and at Flamingo on Cape Sable, both of which established post offices in the early 1890s.[53] Chokoloskee Island is a shell mound, a midden built roughly 20feet (6m) high over thousands of years of occupation by the Calusa. The settlements in Chokoloskee and Flamingo served as trading centers for small populations of farmers, fishermen and charcoal burners settled in the Ten Thousand Islands. Both settlements and the more isolated homesteads could only be reached by boat until well into the 20th century. Everglades City, on the mainland near Chokoloskee, enjoyed a brief period of prosperity when, beginning in 1920, it served as the headquarters for construction of the Tamiami Trail. A dirt road from Florida City reached Flamingo in 1922, while a causeway finally connected Chokoloskee to the mainland's Everglades City in 1956.[54] [55] After the park was established, residents of Flamingo were bought out, and the site was incorporated into the park as a visitor center.[53]

Land development and conservation

Several attempts were made to drain and develop the Everglades in the 1880s. The first canals built in the Everglades did little harm to the ecosystem, as they were unable to drain much of it.[56] However, Napoleon Bonaparte Broward based the majority of his 1904 campaign for governor on how drainage would create "The Empire of the Everglades".[57] Broward ordered the drainage that took place between 1905 and 1910, and it was successful enough that land developers sold tracts for $30 an acre, settling the town of Davie, and developing regions in Lee and Dade counties. The canals also cleared water that made way for agricultural fields growing sugarcane.[58] [59]

A canal lock being constructed in the Everglades in 1906

The 1920s saw a population boom in South Florida that created a demand for land described by author Michael Grunwald as "insanity".[60] Land was sold before any homes or structures were built on it, and in some cases before any plans for construction were in place. New landowners, eager to make good on their investments, hastily constructed homes and small towns on recently drained land. Mangrove trees on the coasts were taken down for better views and replaced with shallow rooted palm trees. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began construction on larger canals to control the rising waters in the Everglades. Nevertheless, Lake Okeechobee continued to rise and fall, the region was covered with rain, and city planners continued to battle the water. The 1926 Miami Hurricane caused Lake Okeechobee levees to fail; hundreds of people who had just moved in south of the lake drowned. Two years later, the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane claimed 2,500lives when Lake Okeechobee once again surged over its levees. Politicians who declared the Everglades uninhabitable were silenced when a four-story wall, named the Herbert Hoover Dike, was built around Lake Okeechobee. This wall effectively cut off the water source from the Everglades.[61]

Everglades National Park Following the wall's construction, South Florida endured a drought severe enough to cause massive wildfires in 1939. The influx of humans had a detrimental effect on the plants and animals of the region when melaleuca trees (Melaleuca quinquenervia) were introduced to help with drainage, along with Australian pines brought in by developers as windbreaks. The region's timber was devastated for lumber supplies. Alligators, birds, frogs, and fish were hunted on a massive scale. Entire rookeries of wading birds were shot to collect their plumes, which were used in women's hats in the early 20th century.[62] However, the largest impact people had on the region was the diversion of water away from the Everglades. Canals were deepened and widened, and water levels fell dramatically, causing chaos in food webs.[63] Salt water replaced fresh water in the canals, and by 1997 scientists noticed that salt water was seeping into the Biscayne Aquifer, South Florida's water source.[64] In the 1940s, a freelance writer and former reporter for The Miami Herald named Marjory Stoneman Douglas began to research the Everglades for an assignment about the Miami River. She studied the land and water for five years, and published The Everglades: River of Grass in 1947, describing the area in great detail, including a chapter on its disappearance. She wrote: "What had been a river of grass and sweet water that had given meaning and life and uniqueness to this enormous geography through centuries in which man had no place here was made, in one chaotic gesture of greed and ignorance and folly, a river of fire."[65] The book has sold 500,000 copies since its publication, and Douglas' continued dedication to ecology conservation earned her the nicknames "Grand Dame of the Everglades", "Grandmother of the Everglades" and "the anti-Christ" for her singular focus at the expense of some political interests.[66] She founded and served as president for an organization called Friends of the Everglades, initially intended to protest the construction of a proposed Big Cypress jetport in 1968. Successful in that confrontation, the organization has grown to over 4,000 members, committed to the preservation of the Everglades.[67] She wrote and spoke about the importance of the Everglades until her death at age 108 in 1998.

127

Park history
Further information: Ernest F. Coe Floridians hoping to preserve at least part of the Everglades began to express their concern over diminishing resources in the early 20th century. Royal Palm State Park was created in 1916; it included several trails and a visitor's center several miles from Homestead. Miami-based naturalists first proposed that the area become a national park in 1923. Five years later, the Florida state legislature established the Tropical Everglades National Park Commission to study the formation of a protected area.[68] The commission was led by a land developer turned conservationist named Ernest F. Coe, who was eventually nicknamed Father of Everglades National Park.[69] Coe's original plan for the park included more than 2000000 acres (8100km2) including Key Largo and Big Cypress, and his Cape Sable seen from Spot Satellite unwillingness to compromise almost prevented the park's creation. Various other interests, including land developers and sport hunters, demanded some of the land be trimmed.[68] The commission was also tasked with proposing a method to raise the money to purchase the land.[70] The search coincided with the arrival of the Great Depression in the United States, and money for land purchase was scarce.[71] The U.S. House of Representatives authorized the creation of the new national park on May 30, 1934, but it passed only with a rider that ensured no money would be allotted to the project for at least five years.[70] Coe's passion and U.S. Senator Spessard Holland's politicking helped to fully establish the park, after Holland was able to negotiate 1300000 acres (5300km2) of the park, leaving out Big Cypress, Key Largo, the Turner River area, and a 22000-acre (89km2) tract of land called "The Hole in the Donut" that was too highly valued for agriculture. Miami Herald editor John Pennekamp was instrumental in pushing the Florida Legislature to raise $2million to purchase the private land

Everglades National Park inside the park boundaries.[72] It was dedicated by President Harry Truman on December 6, 1947, one month after Douglas' book was released.[73] In the same year, several tropical storms struck South Florida, prompting the construction of 1400 miles (2300km) of canals, sending water unwanted by farmers and residents to the ocean.[71] The Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project (C&SF) was authorized by Congress to construct more than a thousand miles of canals and flood control structures across South Florida. The C&SF, run by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, established an agricultural area directly south of Lake Okeechobee, and three water conservation areas, all bordered by canals that diverted excess water either to urban areas or into the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico or Florida Bay. South of these manmade regions was Everglades National Park, which had been effectively cut off from its water supply. By the 1960s, the park The park protects the last stands of pine rockland was visibly suffering. Although the C&SF was directed to provide in Florida enough water to sustain the park, it did not follow through.[74] A proposed airport that would have dire environment effects on Everglades National Park became the center of a battle that helped to initiate the environmental movement into local and national politics. The airport proposal was eventually abandoned and in 1972 a bill was introduced to curb development in South Florida and ensure the national park would receive the amount of water it needed. Efforts turned to repairing the damage wrought by decades of mismanagement: the Army Corps of Engineers changed its focus in 1990 from constructing dams and canals to constructing "purely environmental projects".[75] Regions originally included in Ernest Coe's vision for a national park were slowly added over the years to the park or incorporated into other protected areas: Biscayne National Park, Big Cypress National Preserve, John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park on Key Largo, Ten Thousand Islands National Wildlife Refuge, and Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary were all protected after the park's opening in 1947. Everglades National Park was designated an International Biosphere Reserve on October 26, 1976. On November 10, 1978, most of the park was declared a wilderness area. Wilderness designations covered 1296505 acres (5246.77km2) in 2003about 86percent of the park. It was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site on October 24, 1979 and as a Wetland of International Importance on June 4, 1987.[76]

128

Restoration efforts
Further information: Restoration of the Everglades President George H. W. Bush signed the Everglades National Park Protection and Expansion Act on December 13, 1989 that added 109506 acres (443.16km2) to the eastern side of the park, closed the park to airboats, directed the Department of the Army to restore water to improve the ecosystems within Everglades National Park, and "Direct(ed) the Secretary of the Interior to manage the Park in order to maintain the natural abundance, diversity, and ecological integrity of native plants and animals, as well as the behavior of native animals, as part of their ecosystem."[77] Bush remarked in his statement when signing the act, "Through this legislation that river of grass may now be restored to its natural flow of water".[78] In 1993, however, the park was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger.

A little blue heron hunting near water on Anhinga Trail.

Everglades National Park In 2000, Congress approved a federal effort to restore the Everglades, named the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP), with the objectives of "restoration, preservation and protection of the south Florida ecosystem while providing for other water-related needs of the region",[79] and claiming to be the largest environmental restoration in history. It was a controversial plan; detractors worried that it "relies on uncertain technologies, overlooks water quality, subsidizes damaging growth and delays its environmental benefits".[80] Supporters of the plan included the National Audubon Society, who was accused by Friends of the Everglades and the Biodiversity Legal Foundation of prioritizing agricultural and business interests.[80] CERP projects are designed to capture 1.7 billion US gallons ( m3) of fresh water every day, store it in underground reservoirs and release the water to areas within 16counties in South Florida. Approximately 35600 acres (144km2) of man-made wetlands are to be constructed to confine contaminated water before it is released to the Everglades, and 240 miles (390km) of canals that divert water away from the Everglades are to be destroyed.[81] During the first five years of implementation, CERP was responsible for the purchase of 207000 acres (840km2) of land at a cost of $1billion. The plan aims to spend $10.5billion over 30years, combining 50 different projects and giving them 5-year timelines.[82] The State of Florida has invested more than $2 billion into restoring the Everglades, but the funds have not been matched by the U.S. government.[83] As of June 2008, the U.S. government has spent only $400 million of the $7.8 billion legislated.[84] Initiatives that could aid Everglades restoration The namesake of Anhinga Trail dries its feathers include the U.S. Sugar Land Corp transaction, the C-111 spreader canal and the Tamiami Trail bridging. These projects are supported by groups such as the Everglades Foundation, whose mission is to aid in the efforts of saving Americas Everglades for future generations.[85] In spite of this, Everglades National Park was removed in 2007 from the List of World Heritage in Danger.[86] However, it was listed again on the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2010.[87] The National Research Council reported in September 2008 that no CERP projects had been completed, and the lack of progress on water deliveries to Everglades National Park "is one of the most discouraging stories in Everglades restoration".[88] Everglades National Park was directly hit by Hurricanes Katrina, Wilma, and Rita in 2005. Such storms are a natural part of the park's ecosystem; 1960's Hurricane Donna left nothing in the mangroves but "standing dead snags" several miles wide, but 30years later the area had completely recovered.[20] Predictably, what suffered the most in the park from the 2005 hurricanes were manmade structures. The visitors center and lodge at Flamingo were damaged by 125mph (201km/h) winds and an 8ft (2.4m) storm surge. The lodge had been functioning for 50 years when it was irreparably damaged and eventually torn down in 2009; nothing is slated to replace it.[89]

129

Park economics
Everglades National Park reported in 2005 a budget of over $28million. Of that, $14.8million is granted from the National Park Service, and $13.5million from various sources including CERP, donations, and other grants.[90] The entry fee for vehicles in 2006 ranged from $10 to $200 for bus tours. Of the nearly one million visitors to Everglades National Park in 2006, more than 38,000 were overnight campers, paying $16 a night or $10 a night for backcountry permits.[91] Visitors spent $2.6 million[90] within the park and $48million in local economies.[92] More than 900jobs were sustained or created within or by the park, and the park added value of $35million to local economies.[92]

Everglades National Park

130

Activities
The busiest season for visitors is from December to March, when temperatures are lowest and mosquitoes are least active. The park features four visitor centers: on the Tamiami Trail (part of U.S. Route 41) directly west of Miami is the Shark Valley Visitor Center. A fifteen-mile (24km) round trip path leads from this center to a two-story observation tower. Tram tours are available during the busy season. Closest to Homestead on State Road 9336 is the Ernest F. Coe Visitor Center, where a 38-mile (61km) road begins, winding through pine rockland, cypress, freshwater marl prairie, coastal prairie, and mangrove ecosystems. Various hiking trails are accessible from the road, which runs to the Flamingo Visitor Center and marina, open and staffed during the busier time of the year. The Gulf Coast Visitor Center is closest to Everglades City on State Road 29 along the west coast. The Gulf Coast Visitor Center gives canoers access to the Wilderness Waterway, a 99-mile (160km) canoe trail that extends to the Flamingo Visitor Center.[93] The western coast of the park and the Ten Thousand Islands and the various key islands in Florida Bay are accessible only by boat.

Trails
Several walking trails in the park vary in hiking difficulty on Pine Island, where visitors can cross hardwood hammocks, pinelands, and freshwater sloughs. Starting at the Royal Palm Visitor Center, the Anhinga Trail is a half-mile self-guided tour through a sawgrass marsh where visitors can see alligators, marsh and wading birds, turtles, and bromeliads. Its proximity to Homestead and its accessibility make it one of the most visited sites in the park. The nearby Gumbo Limbo Trail is also self-guided, at half a mile long. It loops through a canopy A view of vast sawgrass expanse north of of hardwood hammocks that include gumbo limbo, royal palms Anhinga Trail gives visitors an opportunity to see (Roystonea), strangler figs (Ficus aurea), and a variety of a freshwater slough up close. epiphytes.[94] Twenty eight miles (45km) of trails start near the Long Pine Key campgrounds and wind through Long Pine Key, well-suited for offroad cycling through the pine rocklands in the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness Area. Two boardwalks allow visitors to walk through a cypress forest at Pa-Hay-O-Kee, which also features a two-story overlook, and another at Mahogany Hammock (referring to Swietenia mahagoni) that takes hikers through a dense forest in the middle of a freshwater marl prairie.[95] Closer to Flamingo, more rugged trails take visitors through mangrove swamps, along Florida Bay. Christian Point Trail, Snake Bight Trail, Rowdy Bend Trail and Coastal Prairie Trail allow viewing of shorebirds and wading birds among the mangroves. Portions of the trails may be impassable depending on the time of year, because of mosquitoes and water levels. Ranger-led tours take place in the busier season only.[96]

Camping and recreation

Camping is available year-round in Everglades National Park. Frontcountry camping, with some services, is available at Long Pine Key, close to the Ernest F. Coe Visitor Center, where 108sites are accessible by car. Near Flamingo, 234campsites with some services are also available. Recreational vehicle camping is available at these sites, although not with all necessary services. Backcountry permits are required for campsites along the Wilderness Waterway, Gulf Coast sites, and sites in the various keys. Several backcountry sites are chickees; others are beach and ground sites.[97]

The campground at Flamingo

Everglades National Park Low-powered motorboats are allowed in the park, although the majority of salt water areas are no-wake zones to protect manatees and other marine animals from harm. Jet skis, airboats, and other motorized personal watercraft are prohibited. However, many trails allow kayaks and canoes. A state license is required for fishing, and although fresh water licenses are not sold in the park, a salt water license may be available. Swimming is not recommended within the park boundaries; water moccasins, snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina), alligators and crocodiles thrive in fresh water. Sharks, barracuda, and sharp dangerous coral are plentiful in salt water. Visibility is low in both kinds.[98]

131

Threats to the park and ecology

Diversion and quality of water
Less than 50percent of the Everglades which existed prior to drainage attempts remains intact today. Populations of wading birds dwindled 90percent from their original numbers between the 1940s and 2000s.[99] The diversion of water to South Florida's still-growing metropolitan areas is the Everglades National Park's number one threat. In the 1950s and 1960s, 1400 miles (2300km) of canals and levees, 150gates and spillways, and 16pumping stations were constructed to direct water toward cities and away from the Everglades. Low levels of Bromeliads flourish on cypress trees as a great water leave fish vulnerable to reptiles and birds, and as sawgrass dries egret passes. it can burn or die off, which in turn kills apple snails and other animals that wading birds feed upon.[93] Populations of birds fluctuate; in 2009, the South Florida Water Management District claimed wading birds across South Florida increased by 335%.[100] However, following three years of higher numbers, The Miami Herald reported the same year that populations of wading birds within the park decreased by 29%.[101] The west coast of Florida relies on desalinization for its fresh water; the quantity demanded is too great for the land to provide. Nitrates in the underground water system and high levels of mercury also impact the quality of fresh water the park receives.[93] In 1998 a Florida panther was found dead in Shark Water Slough, with levels of mercury high enough to kill a human.[102] Increased occurrences of algae blooms and red tide in Biscayne Bay and Florida Bay have been traced to the amounts of controlled water released from Lake Okeechobee.[103] The brochure given to all visitors at Everglades National Park includes a statement that reads, "Freshwater flowing into the park is engineered. With the help of pumps, floodgates, and retention ponds along the park's boundary, the Everglades is presently on life support, alive but diminished."[93]

Urban encroachment
A series of levees on the park's eastern border marks the line between urban and protected areas, but development into these areas threatens the park system. Florida still attracts nearly a thousand new residents every day, and building residential, commercial and industrial zones near Everglades National Park stresses the water balance and ecosystems within the park. On the park's western border, Ft. Myers, Naples and Cape Coral are growing, but no system of levees exists to mark that border.[104] National Geographic rated both Everglades National Park and Big Cypress National Preserve the lowest-scoring parks in North America, at 32 out of 100. Their scoring system rated 55parks in terms of sustainable tourism, destination quality, and park management. The experts who compiled the results justified the score by stating: "Encroachment by housing and retail development has thrown the precious ecosystem into a tailspin, and if humankind doesn't back off, there will be nothing left of one of this country's most amazing treasures".[105]

Everglades National Park

132

Endangered and threatened animals

Thirty-sixfederally protected animals live in the park, some of which face grave concern for survival. The American crocodile is found only in South Florida within the United States. Overhunted for their hides, today they are protected from hunting, but are still threatened due to habitat destruction, and injury from cars when they cross roads to reach waterways. Roughly 50nests exist in Everglades and Biscayne National Parks, and about 1,000 crocodiles currently live in Florida.[106] Numbers of crocodiles in South Florida have risen recently along with the numbers of alligators, and crocodiles were reclassified as "threatened" in the United States in 2007.[107]

The American crocodile has notable differences from the alligator. Habitat destruction and vehicle collisions are its biggest threats.

The Florida panther is one of the most endangered mammals on earth, and they live primarily in the Everglades and the Big Cypress Swamp. About 50 live in the wild. The biggest threats to the panther include habitat destruction from human development, vehicle collisions, inbreeding due to a limited gene pool, parasites, diseases, and mercury poisoning.[108] Four species of sea turtles including the Atlantic green sea turtle, Atlantic hawksbill, Atlantic loggerhead (Caretta caretta), and the Atlantic ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) are endangered, and the leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) is threatened. Although numbers are difficult to determine, since males and juveniles do not return to their birthplace, females lay eggs in the same location every year. Habitat loss and illegal poaching and destructive fishing practices are the biggest threats to these animals.[109] Two species of birds in the park are most in danger of disappearing. The Cape Sable seaside sparrow is restricted to Everglades National Park and the Big Cypress Swamp.[110] In 1981 there were 6,656Cape Sable seaside sparrows reported in its boundaries, but surveys over 10years documented a decline to an estimated 2,624birds by 2002.[111] Attempts to return natural levels of water to the park have been controversial; Cape Sable seaside sparrows nest about a foot off the ground, and rising water levels may harm future populations, as well as threaten the endangered snail kite.[112] The Everglades snail kite eats apple snails almost exclusively, and the Everglades is the only location in the United States where this bird of prey exists. There is some evidence that the population may be increasing, but loss of habitat and food sources keep the estimated number of these birds at several hundred.[113] The West Indian manatee has recently been upgraded from endangered to threatened. Collisions with boats and habitat loss are still its biggest threats.[114]

Drought, fire, and rising sea levels

Fire naturally occurs after lightning storms, but takes its heaviest toll when water levels are low. Hardwood hammock and cypress trees are susceptible to heavy damage due to fire, and some may take decades to grow back.[93] Peat built up over centuries in the marsh can cause fires to burn deep scars in the soil. In 2007, Fred Sklar of the South Florida Water Management District said: "An extreme drought can be viewed almost as catastrophic as a volcano. It can reshape the entire landscape. It can take 1,000 years to produce two inches of peat, and you can lose those couple of inches in a week."[115] Rising sea levels caused by global warming are another threat to the future of the park. Since 1932, ocean levels at Key West have steadily risen over 0.7 feet (0.2m), which could have disastrous consequences for land so close to the ocean.[116] It is estimated that within 500 years freshwater habitats in the Everglades National Park will be obliterated by salt water, leaving only the northern-most portion of the Everglades. Cost estimates for raising or replacing the Tamiami Trail and Alligator Alley with bridges are in the hundreds of millions of dollars.[117]

Everglades National Park

133

Non-native species
Further information: List of invasive species in the Everglades Another growing threat in recent years is the introduction of non-native species into the park. The melaleuca tree causes the most destruction of any plant species, taking large amounts of water and leaving marsh areas desiccated. Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius) has invaded as well, competing with native plants that serve as food for animals, and is difficult to eradicate.[118] The Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus) is one of the most formidable animal species. These snakes are capable of growing up to 20 feet (6.1m) in length, and park visitors have seen them struggling with alligators. As Kenneth Krysko An aerial view of the southwestern tip of from the Florida Museum of Natural History puts it, "These [snakes] Everglades National Park are now the huge apex predator in the Everglades. There's nothing bigger."[119] The first python was found in 1979, with none seen until 1995; between 2001 and 2005, however, more than 230pythons have been discovered within the park boundaries,[119] and they have begun reproducing on their own.[120] When found, pythons are immediately captured and removed. Park biologists say that the exotic pet trade and pet owners who release pythons into the wilderness are responsible for the existence of the snakes within the Everglades. Skip Snow, wildlife biologist at Everglades National Park, said, "All of the Burmese pythons that we see in the park are a product of the international pet trade."[121] Coyotes (Canis latrans) have also been spotted in the park, as well as in Big Cypress National Preserve. Park managers have attributed the lower numbers of wild pigs (Sus scrofa) in both parks to the arrival of coyotes.[122] Numerous exotic bird species are often seen in or on the fringes of the park. Some established species include the common mynah (Acridotheres tristis) and various parrot species, while newcomers such as the sacred ibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus) show signs of increasing numbers.

References
[1] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 76 [2] "Park Statistics" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ parkmgmt/ statistics. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-12-05. [3] Maltby, E., P.J. Dugan, "Wetland Ecosystem Management, and Restoration: An International Perspective" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8 [4] Whitney, p.167 [5] "Everglades National Park" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ index. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-12-05. [6] Robertson, p.27, 21, 38 [7] Everglades National Park / Dry Tortugas National Park (http:/ / home. nps. gov/ ever/ parkmgmt/ upload/ 2008 DRTO EVER Final Supt Annual Report. pdf) Superintendent's Report, 2008 Fiscal Year. Retrieved on May 26, 2010. [8] Lodge, p.3 [9] "Everglades Geology" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ evergeology. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-02-08. [10] McCally, pp. 910. [11] Whitney, p. 108. [12] McCally, pp. 1219. [13] Lodge, pp. 3738. [14] Whitney, p.166 [15] Whitney, p.167, 169 [16] "Dry Season" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ planyourvisit/ dryseason. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-12-05. [17] "Wet Season" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ planyourvisit/ wetseason. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-12-05. [18] Whitney, p.169 [19] Davis, pp. 366369. [20] Robertson, p.9 [21] Whitney, p.164 [22] Lodge, pp. 2932. [23] Lodge, p. 35.

Everglades National Park

[24] "Hardwood Hammocks" (http:/ / www. flmnh. ufl. edu/ fish/ SouthFlorida/ everglades/ hammocks/ HardwoodHammock. html). Florida Museum of Natural History. . Retrieved 2007-11-18. [25] "Tropical Hardwood Hammock" (http:/ / crocdoc. ifas. ufl. edu/ publications/ msrpmap/ tropicalhardwoodhammock/ ). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1999. . Retrieved 2007-11-18. [26] National Park Service (2005). "Habitats in the Park" (brochure). [27] Robertson, p.11 [28] U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. " Pine Rocklands: Multispecies recovery plan for South Florida (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ southeast/ vbpdfs/ commun/ pr. pdf)". [29] Whitney, p.107 [30] Whitney, p.105107 [31] Hammer, p. 8. [32] "International Designations" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ parknews/ internationaldesignations. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-10-31. [33] Sullivan, Janet (1994). "Kuchler type: Cypress savanna" (http:/ / www. fs. fed. us/ database/ feis/ kuchlers/ k091/ all. html#DESCRIPTION). USDA Forest Service. . Retrieved 2007-11-20. [34] Hammer, p. 10. [35] McCally, pp. 7678. [36] Katherisen, K. (2001). "Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems". Advances in Marine Biology. 40. Alan J. Southward (ed.). pp.18251. ISBN978-0-12-026140-6. [37] Whitney, p.292293 [38] Whitney, p.295296 [39] Whitney, p.297 [40] Whitney, p.163 [41] "Wet Prairie" (http:/ / crocdoc. ifas. ufl. edu/ publications/ msrpmap/ wetprairies/ ). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1999. . Retrieved 2007-11-20. [42] "Marine & Estuarine Ecosystems" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ marineestuarine. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-11-20. [43] Tebeau (1963), p. 17 [44] Tebeau (1963), p.17 [45] Tebeau (1963), p.19 [46] Robertson, p. 55 [47] "Native Peoples" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ historyculture/ nativepeoples. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-11-18. [48] Tebeau (1963), p.23 [49] "Calusa Indians" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ bicy/ calusa. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2008-01-23. [50] Tebeau (1963), p.28 [51] Tebeau (1963), p.31 [52] "Current issues" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ parknews/ currentissues. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-01-14. [53] "Pioneer Settlements" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ historyculture/ pioneersettlement. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-11-18. [54] Tebeau (1955), p.6, 15, 21, 59 [55] Tebeau (1968), p.37, 14265 [56] Robertson, p.82 [57] Douglas, p.312 [58] Douglas, p.318 [59] "Swampland for sale" (http:/ / www. evergladesonline. com/ 50years/ swamp. htm). The Everglade Magazine. . Retrieved 2008-01-23. [60] Grunwald, p.178 [61] Grunwald, p.195 [62] Tebeau (1963), p.131132 [63] Grunwald, p.201203 [64] Richey, Warren (1997-09-03). "Reviving Florida's Fragile 'River of Grass'". The Christian Science Monitor: p.4. [65] Douglas, p.375 [66] Davis, Jack (2003). "'Conservation Is Now a Dead Word': Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the Transformation of American Environmentalism." Environmental History; p.53 [67] Klinkenberg, Jeff (1992-02-09). "Marjory Stoneman Douglas, 101: Grande Dame of the Everglades". St. Petersburg Times (Florida): p.1F. [68] Grunwald, p.208209 [69] Clement, Gail. Everglades Biographies: Ernest F. Coe (http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/ reclaim/ bios/ coe. htm), Everglades Digital Library. Retrieved on July 6, 2009. [70] Tebeau (1963), p.137 [71] Klinkenberg, Jeff (1997-12-07). "50 Years of Everglades National Park". St. Petersburg Times (Floridapage=1A). [72] Grunwald, p.212214

134

Everglades National Park

[73] Grunwald, p.206215 [74] Grunwald, p.252 [75] Grunwald, p.275276 [76] "Park Statistics" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ parknews/ parkstatistics. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-12-07. [77] "Legislative Direction: Everglades National Park" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ ever/ presskit/ legislat. htm). National Park Service. 2002. . Retrieved 2007-11-21. [78] Bush, George H. W. (1989-12-13). "Statement on Signing the Everglades National Park Protection and Expansion Act of 1989" (http:/ / www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=17941). . Retrieved 2007-11-21. [79] "FAQs: What you should know about the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP)" (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ facts_info/ faqs_cerp. aspx). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2002. . Retrieved 2007-12-03. [80] Grunwald, Michael (2002-06-26). "Among Environmentalists, the Great Divide". The Washington Post: p.A13. [81] CERP (May 2006). "Fact Sheet: The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP)." The Journey to Restore America's Everglades. [82] CERP (2005). "The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan: The first 5 years." The Journey to Restore America's Everglades. [83] Restoring the River of Grass (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ evergladesforever/ ), Florida Department of Environmental Protection (2006). Retrieved May 24, 2008. [84] June 9, 2008. "Picayune Strand a model for what Everglades restoration will mean" (http:/ / www. sun-sentinel. com/ news/ opinion/ sfl-editafpicayunesbjun09,0,2043626. story) South Florida Sun-Sentinel|Sun-Sentinel (Ft. Lauderdale, Florida). [85] South Florida Water Management District. Northern Everglades and Estuaries Protection Program. (http:/ / my. sfwmd. gov/ portal/ page/ portal/ xweb protecting and restoring/ other everglades) Retrieved 2010-07-23. [86] "Everglades National Park" (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 76). UNESCO. . Retrieved 2007-12-03. [87] Jansen, Bart ( August 3, 2010). "Everglades deemed again in danger" (http:/ / www. news-press. com/ article/ 20100803/ GREEN/ 8030340/ 1007/ RSS0105) News-Press.com [88] "Progress Toward Restoring the Everglades: Second Biennial Review (Brief)" (http:/ / dels. nas. edu/ dels/ rpt_briefs/ everglades_brief_final. pdf), National Research Council (September 2008). [89] Morgan, Curtis (March 23, 2009). "Landmark Hotel in Everglades Now Pile of Rubble", The Miami Herald, State and Regional News. [90] Everglades National Park/Dry Tortugas National Park: Superintendent's Annual Report (2005) [91] "Fees & Reservations" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ planyourvisit/ feesandreservations. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-12-06. [92] Stynes, Daniel (November 2007). "National Park Visitor Spending and Payroll Impacts 2006." U.S. Department of Community, Agriculture, Recreation and Resource Studies; Michigan State University; and National Park Service Social Science Program. [93] National Park Service (2005). "Everglades." (Brochure) [94] Hammer, pp. 2832. [95] Hammer, pp. 4053. [96] Hammer, pp. 6469. [97] Hammer, pp. 3335, 100104, 147. [98] Hammer, pp. 2223, 2526. [99] Grunwald, p.202. [100] SFWMD (2010), p. 6-1. [101] Sessa, Whitney (March 1, 2009). "Taking A Dive: The Wading Bird Population at Everglades National Park Dropped by 29 Percent in 2008...", The Miami Herald, State and Regional News. [102] Stephenson, Frank (1998). "Florida's mercury menace" (http:/ / www. p2pays. org/ ref\01/ 00337. htm). Florida State University Research in Review. . Retrieved 2007-11-20. [103] Morgan, Curtis (2006-09-24). "Mass of green algae is creeping into Biscayne Bay". The Miami Herald (Florida). Domestic News. [104] Grunwald, p.363366 [105] Hamashige, Hope (2005-07-27). "Surprise finds top list of best national parks" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2005/ 06/ 0627_050627_bestparks. html). National Geographic News. National Geographic Society. . Retrieved 2007-11-20. [106] "American crocodile" (http:/ / www. defenders. org/ wildlife_and_habitat/ wildlife/ crocodile. php). Defenders of Wildlife. . Retrieved 2007-11-21. [107] Morgan, Curtis (2007-03-20). "Crocodiles remain rare but are no longer endangered". The Miami Herald (Florida). Domestic News. [108] "Florida panther" (http:/ / www. defenders. org/ wildlife_and_habitat/ wildlife/ panther. php). Defenders of Wildlife. . Retrieved 2007-11-21. [109] "Sea turtles" (http:/ / www. defenders. org/ wildlife_and_habitat/ wildlife/ sea_turtles. php). Defenders of Wildlife. . Retrieved 2007-11-21. [110] So you Want to Know More About...Cape Sable Seaside Sparrow (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ facts_info/ sywtkma_sparrow. aspx) Accessed February 12, 2008 [111] "Species Spotlight: Cape Sable Seaside Sparrow" (http:/ / myfwc. com/ wildlifehabitats/ profiles/ birds/ songbirds/ cape-sable-seaside-sparrow/ ). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. . Retrieved 2007-11-21. [112] Morgan, Curtis (2006-11-01). "Officials move to protect Fla. habitat of endangered bird". The Miami Herald (Florida). Domestic News. [113] "Snail Kite Rostrhamus sociabilis" (http:/ / www. enature. com/ fieldguides/ detail. asp?recnum=BD0105). Enature.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.

135

Everglades National Park

[114] "Florida manatee" (http:/ / www. defenders. org/ wildlife_and_habitat/ wildlife/ manatee. php). Defenders of Wildlife. . Retrieved 2008-01-23. [115] Morgan, Curtis (2007-04-12). "Drought could cripple Everglades' life". The Miami Herald (Florida). Domestic News. [116] Lodge, p.100 [117] Lodge, p.254 [118] "Brazilian Pepper" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070806022337/ http:/ / www. biol. andrews. edu/ everglades/ organisms/ plants/ exotic_plants/ brazillian_pepper/ brazillian_pepper_index. htm). Andrews University. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. biol. andrews. edu/ everglades/ organisms/ plants/ exotic_plants/ brazillian_pepper/ brazillian_pepper_index. htm) on August 6, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-11-20. [119] Mott, Maryann (2005-10-28). "Invasive pythons squeezing Florida Everglades" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2005/ 10/ 1028_051028_pythons. html). National Geographic News (National Geographic Society). . Retrieved 2007-12-03. [120] Cocking, Susan (2007-09-30). "Python infestation on rise in Everglades National Park". The Miami Herald (Florida). Sunday section: Sports. [121] Lovgren, Stefan (2004-06-03). "Huge, Freed Pet Pythons Invade Florida Everglades" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2004/ 06/ 0603_040603_invasivespecies_2. html). National Geographic News (National Geographic Society). . Retrieved 2007-12-03. [122] Cocking, Susan (2007-05-29). "Wily coyotes invade Florida, stalk animals". The Miami Herald (Florida). Sports section.

136

Bibliography
Davis, Jack (2009), An Everglades Providence: Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the American Environmental Century, University of Georgia Press (2009). ISBN 0-8203-3071-X Douglas, Marjory (1947). The Everglades: River of Grass. Florida Classics Library. ISBN 0-912451-44-0 Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-5105-1 Hammer, Roger (2005). Everglades National Park and the Surrounding Area: A Guide to Exploring the Great Outdoors, Morris Book Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-0-7627-3432-0 Lodge, Thomas (2005). The Everglades Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-614-9 McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2302-5 Robertson, Jr. William (1989). Everglades: The Park Story. Florida National Parks & Monuments Association, Inc. ISBN 0-945142-01-3 South Florida Water Management District (2010). Chapter 6: Ecology of the Everglades Protection Area (https:// my.sfwmd.gov/portal/page/portal/pg_grp_sfwmd_sfer/portlet_sfer/tab2236037/2010 report/v1/chapters/ v1_ch6.pdf). 2010 South Florida Environmental Report: Volume IThe South Florida Environment. Retrieved on May 26, 2010. Tebeau, Charlton W. (1955). The Story of the Chokoloskee Bay County and the Reminiscences of Pioneer C. S. "Ted" Smallwood, University of Miami Press. Tebeau, Charlton W. (1963) They Lived in the Park: The Story of Man in the Everglades National Park, University of Miami Press. Tebeau, Charlton W. (1968) Man in the Everglades, University of Miami Press. ISBN 978-0-87024-073-7 Whitney, Ellie et al., eds. (2004). Priceless Florida: Natural Ecosystems and Native Species, Pineapple Press, Inc. ISBN 978-1-56164-309-7

Everglades National Park

137

External links
Official site: Everglades National Park (http://www.nps.gov/ever/) The Everglades in the Time of Marjorie Stoneman Douglas (http://www.floridamemory.com/ PhotographicCollection/photo_exhibits/everglades.cfm) Photo exhibit created by the State Archives of Florida Reclaiming the Everglades: South Florida's Natural History (http://everglades.fiu.edu/reclaim/index.htm) Everglades National Park Protection and Expansion Act (http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/ z?d101:HR01727:@@@L&summ2=m&) UNESCO World Heritage Centre (http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=76) Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness (http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse=NWPS& sec=wildView&wname=Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness)

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

138

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

Marjory Stoneman Douglas Born April 7, 1890 Minneapolis, Minnesota May 14, 1998 (aged108) Coconut Grove, Miami, Florida

Died

Occupation Writer Knownfor Everglades conservation advocacy

Marjory Stoneman Douglas (April 7, 1890 May 14, 1998) was an American journalist, writer, feminist, and environmentalist known for her staunch defense of the Everglades against efforts to drain it and reclaim land for development. Moving to Miami as a young woman to work for The Miami Herald, Douglas became a freelance writer, producing over a hundred short stories that were published in popular magazines. Her most influential work was the book The Everglades: River of Grass (1947), which redefined the popular conception of the Everglades as a treasured river instead of a worthless swamp; its impact has been compared to that of Rachel Carson's influential book Silent Spring (1962). Her books, stories, and journalism career brought her influence in Miami, which she used to advance her causes. Even as a young woman Douglas was outspoken and politically conscious of many issues that included women's suffrage and civil rights. She was called upon to take a central role in the protection of the Everglades when she was 79years old. For the remaining 29years of her life she was "a relentless reporter and fearless crusader" for the natural preservation and restoration of the nature of South Florida.[1] Her tireless efforts earned her several variations of the nickname "Grande Dame of the Everglades"[2] as well as the hostility of agricultural and business interests looking to benefit from land development in Florida. Numerous awards were given to her, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and she was inducted into several halls of fame. Douglas lived until age 108, working until nearly the end of her life for Everglades restoration. Upon her death, an obituary in The Independent in London stated, "In the history of the American environmental movement, there have been few more remarkable figures than Marjory Stoneman Douglas."[3]

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

139

Early life
Marjory Stoneman was born on April 7, 1890, in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the only child of Frank Bryant Stoneman (18571941) and Lillian Trefethen (18591912), a concert violinist. One of her earliest memories was her father reading to her The Song of Hiawatha, at which she burst into sobs upon hearing that the tree had to give its life in order to provide Hiawatha the wood for a canoe.[4] She was an early and voracious reader. Her first book was Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, which she kept well into adulthood until "some fiend in human form must have borrowed it and not brought it back".[4] She visited Florida when she was four years old, and her most vivid memory of the trip was picking an orange from a tree at the Tampa Bay Hotel.[5] From there she and her parents embarked on a cruise from Tampa to Havana.[6]

The Stoneman and Trefethen extended family in 1893. Marjory is held by her father on the right.

When she was six years old, Marjory's parents separated. Her father endured a series of failed entrepreneurial ventures and the instability caused her mother to move them abruptly to the Trefethen family house in Taunton, Massachusetts. She lived there with her mother, aunt, and grandparents who did not get along well and consistently spoke ill of her father, to her dismay.[7] Her mother, whom Marjory characterized as "high strung", was committed to a mental sanitarium in Providence several times. Her parents' separation and the contentious life with her mother's family caused her to suffer from night terrors.[8] She credited her tenuous upbringing with making her "a skeptic and a dissenter" for the rest of her life.[9] As a youth, Marjory found solace in reading, and eventually she began to write. At sixteen years old she contributed to the most popular children's publication of the day, St. Nicholas Magazinealso the first publisher of 20th century writers F. Scott Fitzgerald, Rachel Carson, and William Faulknerwith a puzzle titled "Double Headings and Curtailings". In 1907, she was awarded a prize from the Boston Herald for a story titled "An Early Morning Paddle", about a boy who watches a sunrise from a canoe.[10] However, as her mother's mental health deteriorated, Marjory took on more responsibilities, eventually managing some of the family finances and gaining a maturity imposed upon her by circumstance.[11]

Education and marriage

Marjory left for college in 1908, despite having grave misgivings about her mother's mental state. Her aunt and grandmother shared her concerns, but recognized that she needed to leave in order to begin her own life.[12] She was a good student without having to study too much.[13] She attended Wellesley College, graduating with a BA in English in 1912. She found particular gifts in a class on elocution, and joined the first suffrage club with six of her classmates.[14] She was elected as "Class Orator" at Wellesley, but was unable to fulfill the office since she was already involved in other activities. During her senior year while visiting home, her mother showed her a lump on her breast. Marjory arranged the surgery to have it removed. After the graduation ceremony, her aunt informed her it had metastasized, and within months her mother was dead. The family left making the funeral arrangements up to Marjory.[15] After drifting with college friends through a few jobs for which she did not feel she was well-suited, Marjory Stoneman met Kenneth Douglas in 1914. She was so impressed

Marjory Stoneman in her senior year at Wellesley College

Marjory Stoneman Douglas with his manners and surprised at the attention he showed her that she married him within three months. He portrayed himself as a newspaper editor, and was 30years her senior, but the marriage quickly failed when it became apparent he was a con artist. The true extent of his duplicity Marjory did not entirely reveal, despite her honesty in all other manners. Marjory may have unwittingly married Douglas while he was already married to another woman.[16] While he spent six months in jail for passing a bad check, she remained faithful to him. However, his scheme to scam her absent father out of money worked in Marjory's favor when it attracted Frank Stoneman's attention.[17] [18] [19] Marjory's uncle persuaded her to move to Miami and for the marriage to end. In the fall of 1915, Marjory Stoneman Douglas left New England to be reunited with her father, whom she had not seen since her parents' separation when she was six years old.

140

Writing career
The Miami Herald
Douglas arrived in South Florida when fewer than 5,000people were recorded on the census in Miami, the streets were made of white dust, and it was "no more than a glorified railroad terminal".[20] Her father, Frank Stoneman, was the first publisher of the paper that later became The Miami Herald. Stoneman passionately opposed the governor of Florida, Napoleon Bonaparte Broward, and his attempts to drain the Everglades. He infuriated Broward so much that when Stoneman won an election for circuit judge, Governor Broward refused to validate the election, so Stoneman was referred to as "Judge" for the rest of his life without performing the duties of one.[21] She joined the staff of the newspaper in 1915, originally as a society columnist writing about tea parties and society events, but news was so slow she later admitted to making up some of her stories: "Somebody would say, 'Who's that Mrs. T.Y. Washrag you've got in your column?' And I would say, 'Oh, you know, I don't think she's been here very long'".[22] When her father went on vacation less than a year after her appearance in Miami, he left her the responsibility of the editorial page. She developed a rivalry with an editor at The Miami Metropolis whose greater familiarity with the history of Miami gave her cause to make fun of Douglas in writing. Her father scolded her to check her facts better.[23] Douglas was given an assignment in 1916 to write a story on the first woman to join the US Naval Reserve from Miami. When the woman did not show up for the interview, Douglas found herself joining the Navy as a Yeoman (F) first class. It did not suit her; she disliked rising early and her superiors did not appreciate her correcting their grammar as a typist, so she requested a discharge and joined the American Red Cross, where she was stationed in Paris.[24] She witnessed the tumultuous celebrations on the Rue de Rivoli when the Armistice was signed,[25] and she cared for war refugees; seeing them displaced and in a state of shock, she wrote, "helped me understand the plight of refugees in Miami sixty years later".[26] Following the war, Douglas took on duties as assistant editor at The Miami Herald. She gained some renown through her daily column entitled "The Galley", and had enough influence through the newspaper that she became somewhat of a local celebrity. She amassed a devoted readership and attempted to begin each column with a poem. "The Galley" was topical and went in any direction Douglas chose. She promoted responsible urban planning when Miami saw a population boom of 100,000people in a decade. She wrote supporting women's suffrage, civil rights, and better sanitation while opposing Prohibition and foreign trade tariffs.[27] Some of the stories she wrote spoke of the wealth of the region being in its "inevitable development", and she supplemented her income with $100 a week from writing copy advertisements that praised the development of South Florida, something she would reconsider later in her life.[28] She wrote a ballad in the 1920s lamenting the death of a 22-year-old vagrant who was beaten to death in a labor camp, titled "Martin Tabert of North Dakota is Walking Florida Now". It was printed in The Miami Herald, and read aloud during a session of the Florida Legislature, which passed a law banning convict leasing, in large part due to her writing.[22] "I think that's the single most important thing I was ever able to accomplish as a result of something I've written", she wrote in her autobiography.[29]

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

141

Freelance writer
After quitting the newspaper in 1923, Douglas worked as a freelance writer. From 1920 to 1990, Douglas published 109fiction articles and stories. Her first story was sold to the pulp fiction magazine Black Mask for $600 ($7724 in 2010). Forty of her stories were published in The Saturday Evening Post; one titled "Story of a Homely Woman" was reprinted in 1937 in the Post's best short stories compilation.[30] Recurring motifs in her fiction were their settings in South Florida, the Caribbean, or Europe during World War I. Her protagonists were often independent, quirky women or youthful underdogs who encountered social or natural injustices.[31] The people and animals of the Everglades served as subjects for some of her earliest writings. "Plumes", originally published in the Saturday Evening Post in 1930, was based on the murder of Guy Bradley, an Audubon Society game warden, by poachers. "Wings" was a nonfiction story, also first appearing in the Post in 1931, that addressed the slaughter of Everglades wading birds for their feathers. Her story "Peculiar Treasure of a King" was a second-place finalist in the O. Henry Award competition in 1928.[30] During the 1930s, Douglas was commissioned to write a pamphlet supporting a botanical garden called "An argument for the establishment of a tropical botanical garden in South Florida." Its success caused her to be in demand at garden clubs where she delivered speeches throughout the area, then to serve on the board to support the Fairchild Garden. She called the garden "one of the greatest achievements for the entire area".[32] Douglas became involved with the Miami Theater, and wrote some one-act plays that were fashionable in the 1930s. One, entitled "The Gallows Gate", was about an argument between a mother and father regarding the character of their son who is sentenced to hang. She got the idea from her father, who had witnessed hangings when he lived in the West and was unnerved by the creaking sound of the rope bearing the weight of the hanging body. The play won a state competition, and eventually $500 in a national competition after it was written into three acts.[33] Douglas served as the book review editor of The Miami Herald from 1942 to 1949, and as editor for the University of Miami Press from 1960 to 1963. She released her first novel, entitled Road to the Sun, in 1952. She wrote four novels, and several non-fiction books on regional topics including Florida birdwatching and David Fairchild, the entomologist turned biologist who imagined a botanical park in Miami. Her autobiography entitled Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River was written with John Rothchild in 1987. She had been working on a book about W. H. Hudson for years, traveling to Argentina and England several times. It was incomplete when she died in 1998.[34]

The Everglades: River of Grass

Early in the 1940s Douglas was approached by a publisher to contribute to the Rivers of America Series by writing about the Miami River. Unimpressed with it, she called the Miami River about "an inch long",[30] but in researching it became more interested in the Everglades and persuaded the publisher instead to allow her to write about them. She spent five years researching what little scientific knowledge was recorded about the ecology and history of the Everglades and South Florida. Douglas spent time with geologist Garald Parker, who discovered that all of South Florida's fresh water source was the Biscayne Aquifer, and it was filled by the Everglades. Parker confirmed the name of the book that has since become the nickname for the Everglades when Douglas, trying to capture the essence of the Everglades, asked if she could safely call the fresh water flowing from Lake Okeechobee a river of grass.[35] The Everglades: River of Grass was published in 1947 and sold out of its first printing a month after being released.[18] The first line of the book, "There are no other Everglades in the world", has been called the "most famous passage ever written about the Everglades",[36] and the statement welcomes visitors to the Everglades National Park website.[37] Douglas characterized the Everglades as ecosystems surrounding a river worthy of protecting, that was inescapably connected to the people and cultures of South Florida.[38] She outlined its imminent disappearance in the last chapter titled "The Eleventh Hour":

Marjory Stoneman Douglas Cattlemen's grass fires roared uncontrolled. Cane-field fires spread crackling and hissing in the saw grass in vast waves and pillars and billowing mountains of heavy, cream-colored, purple-shadowed smoke. Training planes flying over the Glades dropped bombs or cigarette butts, and the fires exploded in the hearts of the drying hammocks and raced on before every wind leaving only blackness... There was no water in the canals with which to fight [the fires]... The sweet water the rock had held was gone or had shrunk far down into its strange holes and cleavages.[39] The Everglades: River of Grass galvanized people to protect the Everglades and is compared to Rachel Carson's 1962 expos of the harmful effects of DDT, Silent Spring, as both books are "groundbreaking calls to action that made citizens and politicians take notice".[40] Its impact is still relevant as it is claimed to be a major reason Florida receives so many tourists,[41] and "remains the definitive reference on the plight of the Florida Everglades".[42] It has gone through numerous editions, selling 500,000copies since its original publication. The Christian Science Monitor wrote of it in 1997, "Today her book is not only a classic of environmental literature, it also reads like a blueprint for what conservationists are hailing as the most extensive environmental restoration project ever undertaken anywhere in the world".[43] The downside to the book's impact, according to one writer addressing restoration of the Everglades, is that her metaphor is so prevailingly dominant that it is inaccurate in describing the complex web of ecosystems within the Everglades: "River of Grass" describes one. David McCally wrote that despite Douglas' "appreciation of the complexity of the environmental system" she described, popular conception of the Everglades shared by people who have not read the book overshadows her detailed explanations.[44]

142

Activism
Women's suffrage was an early interest of Douglas', and although she tended to shy away from polemics in her early work at The Miami Herald, on her third day as a society columnist, she chose suffrage and began to focus on writing about women in leadership positions.[45] In 1917 she traveled with Mary Baird Bryan, William Jennings Bryan's wife, and two other women to Tallahassee to speak in support of women's right to vote. Douglas was not impressed with the reception the group got from the Florida Legislature. She wrote about her experience later: "All four of us spoke to a joint committee wearing our best hats. Talking to them was like talking to graven images. They never paid attention to us at all."[46] Douglas was able to vote for the first time after she returned from Europe in 1920. Using her influence at The Miami Herald, Douglas wrote columns about poverty: "You can have the most beautiful city in the world as appearance goes, the streets may be clean and shining, the avenues broad and tree lined, the public buildings dignified, adequate and well kept... but if you have a weak or inadequate health department, or a public opinion lax on the subject, all the splendors of your city will have not value."[47] In 1948 Douglas served on the Coconut Grove Slum Clearance Committee, with a friend of hers named Elizabeth Virrick, who was horrified to learn that no running water or sewers were connected to the racially segregated part of Coconut Grove. They helped pass a law requiring all homes in Miami to have toilets and bathtubs. In the two years it took them to get the referendum passed, they worked to set up a loan operation for the black residents of Coconut Grove, who borrowed the money interest-free to pay for the plumbing work. Douglas noted that all of the money loaned was repaid.[48]

Everglades work
Douglas became involved in the Everglades in the 1920s when she joined the board of the Everglades Tropical National Park Committee, a group led by Ernest F. Coe and dedicated to the idea of making a national park in the Everglades. By the 1960s, the Everglades were in imminent danger of disappearing forever due to gross mismanagement in the name of progress, and real estate and agricultural development. Encouraged to get involved by the leaders of environmental groups, in 1969at the age of 79Douglas founded Friends of the Everglades to protest the construction of a jetport in the Big Cypress portion of the Everglades. She justified her involvement saying, "It is a woman's business to be interested in the environment. It's an extended form of housekeeping."[22] She toured the state giving "hundreds of ringing denunciations" of the airport project,[49] and increased membership of

Marjory Stoneman Douglas Friends of the Everglades to 3,000 within three years. She ran the public information operation full time from her home and encountered hostility from the jetport's developers and backers, who called her a "damn butterfly chaser".[50] President Richard Nixon, however, scrapped funding for the project due to the efforts of many Everglades watchdog groups. Douglas continued her activism and focused her efforts on restoring the Everglades after declaring that "Conservation is now a dead word...You can't conserve what you haven't got."[51] Her criticism was directed at two entities she considered were doing the most damage to the Everglades. A coalition of sugarcane growers, named Big Sugar, she accused of polluting Lake Okeechobee by pumping water tainted with chemicals, human waste, and garbage back into the lake, which served as the fresh water source for the Miami metropolitan area.[52] She compared Florida sugarcane agriculture to sugarcane grown in the West Indies, that she claimed was more environmentally sound, had a longer harvest cycle less harmful to soil nutrients, and was less expensive for consumers due to the higher sugar content.[53] Besides Big Sugar, Douglas spoke about the damage the Army Corps of Engineers was doing to the Everglades by diverting the natural flow of water. The Corps was responsible for constructing more than 1400 miles (2300km) of canals to divert water away from the Everglades after 1947. When the Central & South Florida Project (C&SF), run by former members of the Corps of Engineers, was proposed to assist the Everglades, Douglas initially gave it her approval, as it promised to deliver much-needed water to the shrinking Everglades. But in application, the project instead diverted more water away from the Everglades, changed water schedules to meet sugarcane farmers' irrigation needs, and flat-out refused to release water to Everglades National Park, until much of the land was unrecognizable.[50] [54] "What a liar I turned out to be!" remarked Douglas, then suggested the motivation behind all the digging and diversion in saying, "Their mommies obviously never let them play with mud pies, so now they take it out on us by playing with cement".[55] Douglas was giving a speech addressing the harmful practices of the Army Corps of Engineers when the colonel in attendance dropped his pen on the floor. As he was stooping to pick it up, Douglas stopped her speech and said to him, "Colonel! You can crawl under that table and hide, but you can't get away from me!"[56] In 1973, Douglas attended a meeting addressing conservation of the Everglades in Everglades City, and was observed by John Rothchild: Mrs. Douglas was half the size of her fellow speakers and she wore huge dark glasses, which along with the huge floppy hat made her look like Scarlett O'Hara as played by Igor Stravinsky. When she spoke, everybody stopped slapping mosquitoes and more or less came to order. She reminded us all of our responsibility to nature and I don't remember what else. Her voice had the sobering effect of a one-room schoolmarm's. The tone itself seemed to tame the rowdiest of the local stone crabbers, plus the developers, and the lawyers on both sides. I wonder if it didn't also intimidate the mosquitoes... The request for a Corps of Engineers permit was eventually turned down. This was no surprise to those of us who'd heard her speak.[13] Douglas was not well-received by some audiences. She opposed the drainage of a suburb in Dade County named East Everglades. After the county approved building permits in the Everglades, the land flooded as it had for centuries. When homeowners demanded the Army Corps of Engineers drain their neighborhoods, she was the only opposing voice. At the hearing in 1983, she was booed, jeered, and shouted at by the audience of residents. "Can't you boo any louder than that?" she chided, eventually making them laugh. "Look. I'm an old lady. I've been here since eight o'clock. It's now eleven. I've got all night, and I'm used to the heat", she told them.[57] Later, she wrote, "They're all good soulsthey just shouldn't be out there."[58] Dade County commissioners eventually decided not to drain. Florida Governor Lawton Chiles explained her impact, saying, "Marjory was the first voice to really wake a lot of us up to what we were doing to our quality of life. She was not just a pioneer of the environmental movement, she was a prophet, calling out to us to save the environment for our children and our grandchildren."[22]

143

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

144

Other causes
Douglas also served as a charter member of the first American Civil Liberties Union chapter organized in the South in the 1950s.[50] She lent her support to the Equal Rights Amendment, speaking to the legislature in Tallahassee urging them to ratify it. In the 1980s Douglas lent her support to the Florida Rural Legal Services, a group that worked to protect migrant farm workers who were centered around Belle Glade, and who were primarily employed by the sugarcane industry. She wrote to Governor Bob Graham in 1985 to encourage him to assess the conditions the migrant workers endured.[50] The same year, Douglas approached the Dade County School Board and insisted that the Biscayne Nature Center, which had been housed in hot dog stands, needed a building of its own. The center received a portable building until 1991 when the Florida Department of Education endowed $1.8million for the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Biscayne Nature Center in Crandon Park.[59]

Personal life
Religious views
Although Douglas grew up in an Episcopalian household, she described herself as agnostic throughout her life, and forbade any religious ceremony at her memorial.[22] Douglas tied her agnosticism to her unanswered prayers when her mother was dying.[47] However, she credited the motivation for her support of women's suffrage to her Quaker paternal grandparents whose dedication to the abolition of slavery she admired, and proudly claimed Levi Coffin, an organizer of the Underground Railroad, was her great-great-uncle.[50] She wrote that his wife was a friend of Harriet Beecher Stowe, and had provided Stowe with the story of Eliza in Uncle Tom's Cabin fleeing slavery because Douglas' great-great-aunt took care of Eliza and her infant after their escape.[60] Frank Stoneman grew up in a Quaker colony, and Douglas maintained he kept touches of his upbringing throughout his life, even after converting to Episcopalianism. Writer Jack Davis and neighbor Helen Muir suggest this Quaker influence was behind Douglas' use of "Friends" in naming the organizations Friends of the Everglades and Friends of the University of Miami Library.[47]

Mental health
As a child, Douglas was very close with her mother after her parents' separation. She witnessed her mother's emotional unraveling that caused her to be institutionalized, and even long after her mother returned to live with her, she exhibited bizarre, child-like behaviors.[61] Following her mother's death, her relocation to Miami, and her displeasure in working as the assistant editor at The Miami Herald, in the 1920s she suffered the first of three nervous breakdowns.[46] Douglas suggested she had had "blank periods" before, starting during her marriage, but they were brief. She connected these lapses to her mother's insanity.[62] She eventually quit the newspaper, but after her father's death in 1941 she suffered a third and final breakdown, when her neighbors found her roaming the neighborhood one night screaming. She admitted she had a "father complex", explaining it by saying, "(h)aving been brought up without him and then coming back and finding him so sympathetic had a powerful effect".[63]

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

145

Personal habits
Regardless of her dedication to the preservation of the Everglades, Douglas admitted the time she spent actually there was sporadic, driving there for occasional picnics. "To be a friend of the Everglades is not necessarily to spend time wandering around out there... It's too buggy, too wet, too generally inhospitable", she wrote. Instead, she understood that the health of the environment indicated the general well-being of humanity.[50] Despite Douglas' demure appearanceshe stood at 5feet 2inches Douglas outside her Coconut Grove cottage in the (1.57m) and weighed 100 pounds (45kg), and was always early 1920s immaculately dressed in pearls, a floppy straw hat and glovesshe had an uncanny ability to get her point across. She was known for speaking in perfect, precise paragraphs, and was respected for her dedication and knowledge of her subjects; even her critics admitted her authority on the Everglades.[50] Jeff Klinkenberg, a reporter for the St. Petersburg Times who interviewed and wrote several stories about Douglas, wrote of her, "She had a tongue like a switchblade and the moral authority to embarrass bureaucrats and politicians and make things happen."[64] Douglas was known for haughtily dismissing reporters who had not read her books and asked uninformed questions.[65] She enjoyed drinking Scotch and sherry; as one friend remembered her, "She would come up and have a sherry, and then I would walk her home, and then she'd walk me back, and we would have another sherry. What fun she was."[22] Douglas never learned to drive and never owned a car. Her house also had no air conditioning, electric stove, or dishwasher.[66] She was attached to several men after her divorce, counting one of them as the reason she enlisted in the Red Cross, as he had already gone to France as a soldier. However, she said she did not believe in extramarital sex and would not have dishonored her father by being promiscuous. She told Klinkenberg in 1992, frankly, that she had not had sex since her divorce, saying "I wasn't a wild woman".[64] However, she was fond of saying she used the emotion and energy instead on her work.[1] [67] "People don't seem to realize that the energy that goes into sex, all the emotion that surrounds it, can be well employed in other ways", she wrote in her autobiography.[68]

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

146

Awards, death, and legacy

Honors
Douglas began accruing honors since her early days writing for The Miami Herald. In the 1980s, however, the awards became more prestigious, and her reactions to them mixed. The Florida Department of Natural Resources (now the Florida Department of Environmental Protection) named its headquarters in Tallahassee after her in 1980, which she considered a dubious honor. She told a friend she would have rather seen the Everglades restored than her name on a building. During her polite acceptance speech, she railed against Ronald Reagan and the then-Secretary of the Interior James Watt for their lackluster approach to environmental conservation.[69] The National Parks Conservation Association established the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Award in 1986, that "honor(s) individuals who often must go to great lengths to advocate and fight for the protection of the National Park System".[70] Despite blindness and diminished hearing, Douglas Marjory Stoneman Douglas Building, Tallahassee, Florida, headquarters of Florida continued to be active into her second century, and was honored with a Department of Environmental Protection visit from Queen Elizabeth II, to whom Douglas gave a signed copy of The Everglades: River of Grass in 1991.[71] Instead of gifts and celebrations, Douglas asked that trees be planted on her birthday, resulting in over 100,000 planted trees across the state and a bald cypress on the lawn of the governor's mansion. The South Florida Water Management District began removing exotic plants that had taken hold in the Everglades when Douglas turned 102.[72] In 1993, President Bill Clinton awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest honor given to a civilian. The citation for the medal read, "Marjory Stoneman Douglas personifies passionate commitment. Her crusade to preserve and restore the Everglades has enhanced our Nation's respect for our precious environment, reminding all of us of nature's delicate balance. Grateful Americans honor the 'Grandmother of the Glades' by following her splendid example in safeguarding America's beauty and splendor for generations to come." Douglas donated her medal to Wellesley College. Most of the others she received she stored on the floor of her home.[64] Douglas was inducted into the National Wildlife Federation Hall of Fame in 1999, and the National Women's Hall of Fame in 2000.[73] John Rothchild declared her a feminist before the word existed, but not entirely. Upon hearing that she was to be inducted, she questioned, "Why should they have a Women's Hall of Fame, as I heard they wanted to put me in the other day? Why not a Citizen's Hall of Fame?"[74] Douglas was included in a tribute to pioneering women when television character Lisa Simpson made a papier-mch bust of her with Georgia O'Keeffe and Susan B. Anthony in an early episode of The Simpsons.[75] Some of Douglas' stories were collected by University of Florida professor Kevin McCarthy in two edited collections: Nine Florida Stories in 1990 and A River In Flood in 1998. McCarthy wrote that he collected Douglas' short stories because most people in the 1990s were well aware of her fame as an environmentalist, but many did not know about her career as a freelance writer. "Probably no other person has been as important to the environmental well-being of Florida than this little lady from Coconut Grove", McCarthy wrote in the introduction of A River in Flood.[76]

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

147

Remembrances
Marjory Stoneman Douglas died at the age of 108 on May 14, 1998. John Rothchild, who helped write her autobiography, said that her death was the only thing that could "shut her up" but added, "(t)he silence is terrible".[77] Carl Hiaasen eulogized her in The Miami Herald, writing that The Everglades: River of Grass was "monumental", and praised her passion and her resolve; even when politicians finally found value in the Everglades and visited her for a photo opportunity, she still provoked them to do more and do it faster.[78] The National Wildlife Federation described her as "a passionate, articulate, and tireless voice for the environment".[79] Chairman of the Florida Audubon Society Ed Davison remembered her, saying, "She kept a clear vision of the way things ought to be, and she didn't give a lot of credibility to excuses about why they're not like that. She would give these wonderful, curmudgeonly speeches to which there was no response. You can't holler back to grandmotherly scolding. All you can do is shuffle your feet and say, 'Yes, Ma'am.'"[80] She was aware of it; she was reported saying, "People can't be rude to me, this poor little old woman. But I can be rude to them, poor darlings, and nobody can stop me."[22] Her ashes were scattered over the 1300000 acres (5300km2) of the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness Area in Everglades National Park.[81] In 2000, a Naples, Florida-based composer named Steve Heitzeg wrote a 15-minute orchestra piece to be performed by the Naples Philharmonic entitled Voice of the Everglades (Epitaph for Marjory Stoneman Douglas). Heitzeg explained his motivation for the piece, saying, "She was outspoken, she was direct, she had the energy and belief to make the world a better place."[82] Two South Florida public schools are named in her honor: Broward County Public Schools' Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School and Miami-Dade County Public Schools' Marjory Stoneman Douglas Elementary School.

Douglas home
Douglas' cottage, located in Coconut Grove at 37443754 Stewart Avenue, was built in 1924. She wrote all of her major books and stories in the cottage, and the City of Miami designated it an historic site in 1995, not only for its famous owner, but for its unique Masonry Vernacular architecture.[83] After Douglas' death, Friends of the Everglades proposed making the house part of an education center about Douglas and her life, but neighbors protested, citing issues with parking, traffic, and an influx of visitors to the quiet neighborhood. The house, which had an exterior floodwater line from the 1926 Miami Hurricane and some damage from an infestation of bees, had fallen further into disrepair. For a while, the idea of moving the house to Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Coral Gables, which Douglas helped to develop and where there is a life size bronze statue to commemorate her efforts, was considered.[64] [84] The State of Florida owns Douglas' house and in April 2007 placed it in the care of the Florida Park Service, a division of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Restoration of the floors and counters took place in the following months. Water service was reconnected to the house and the electrical system was updated for safety purposes. All work was approved by the Department of Historic Resources. A park ranger was placed as a resident in the Douglas house to help maintain the structure and property.[85]

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

148

Notable works
Books
The Everglades: River of Grass. Rinehart, 1947. Road to the Sun. Rinehart, 1952. Freedom River Florida 1845. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1953. Hurricane. Rinehart, 1958. Alligator crossing. John Day, 1959. The Key to Paris. Keys to the Cities Series. Lippincott, 1961. Florida the Long Frontier. Harper & Row, 1967. The Joys of Bird Watching in Florida. Hurricane House, 1969. Adventures in a Green World the Story of David Fairchild and Barbour Lathrop. Field Research Projects. 1973. Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River. with John Rothchild. Pineapple Press, Inc. 1987.

Short story collections

Nine Florida Stories by Marjory Stoneman Douglas. Ed. Kevin M. McCarthy. University of North Florida, 1990. "Pineland" "A Bird Dog in the Hand" "He Man" "Twenty Minutes Late for Dinner" "Plumes" "By Violence" "Bees in the Mango Bloom" "September-Remember" "The Road to the Horizon"

A River in Flood and Other Florida Stories by Marjory Stoneman Douglas. Ed. Kevin M. McCarthy. University Press of Florida, 1998. "At Home on the Marcel Waves" "Solid Mahogany" "Goodness Gracious, Agnes" "A River in Flood" "The Mayor of Flamingo" "Stepmother" "You Got to Go, But You Don't Have to Come Back" "High-Goal Man" "Wind Before Morning"

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

149

Notes
[1] Grunwald, p.204. [2] Basse, Craig (May 14, 1998). "Grande dame of the Everglades." St. Petersburg Times (Florida); p.1A. [3] Cornwell, Rupert (May 25, 1998). "Obituary: Marjory Stoneman Douglas." The Independent (London); p.16. [4] Douglas, p.42. [5] Douglas, p.31. [6] Duncan, Scott (May 15, 1998). "Marjory, we loved you so." The Miami Herald; Commentary. [7] Davis, p. 95. [8] Douglas, pp.47,48. [9] Douglas, p.50. [10] Davis, p. 100. [11] Douglas, pp.5354. [12] Douglas, p.69. [13] "Marjory Stoneman Douglas" (http:/ / www. everglades. org/ msd. html). . Friends of the Everglades website. Retrieved on December 17, 2007. [14] Douglas, pp.7778. [15] Douglas, pp.7882. [16] Davis, pp. 158159. [17] Douglas, pp. 86,89. [18] "Marjory Stoneman Douglas." Newsmakers 1998, Issue 4. Gale Group, 1998. [19] Davis, pp. 161162. [20] Douglas, p.103. [21] Douglas, pp.9899. [22] Fichter, Margaria (May 14, 1998). "Pioneering environmentalist Marjory Stoneman Douglas dies at 108". The Miami Herald; Domestic news. [23] Douglas, p.109. [24] Davis, pp. 241245. [25] Douglas, pp.118119. [26] Douglas, p.116. [27] Davis, pp. 276277. [28] Grunwald, p.182. [29] Douglas, p.134. [30] Mason, Kathy. "Marjory Stoneman Douglas." The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives, Volume 5: 19971999. Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002. [31] Davis, pp. 313315. [32] Douglas, p.176. [33] Douglas, p.183. [34] Leposky, Rosalie (1997). "Marjory Stoneman Douglas: A Bibliography". Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings Journal of Florida Literature 8 pp.5573. [35] Davis, pp. 355358. [36] Grunwald, p.205. [37] "Everglades National Park" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ index. htm). Everglades National Park website. National Park Service.. . Retrieved 2007-12-17. [38] Davis, p. 360. [39] Douglas (1947), pp.374375. [40] Hauserman, Julie (October 14, 2007). "Paradise down the drain." St. Petersburg Times (Florida); p.9L. [41] Buchanan, Edna (March 15, 2003). "Miami advice; If you're wondering why so many people flock to Florida, Edna Buchanan nominates three books to explain its unique allure." The Globe and Mail (Canada) p.D19. [42] Davis, Pamela (July 16, 2001). "Women who made a difference". St. Petersburg Times (Florida); p.3D. [43] Richey, Warren (September 3, 1997). "Reviving Florida's Fragile 'River of Grass'." Christian Science Monitor; p.4. [44] McCally, pp.179180. [45] Davis, pp. 229231. [46] Byers, Stephen (January 3, 1999). "The Lives They Lived: Marjory Stoneman Douglas." (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9E07EEDA143FF930A35752C0A96F958260) The New York Times; p.46. Retrieved on 2008-05-02. [47] Davis, Jack (Summer 2001). "Green Awakening: Social activism and the evolution of Marjory Stoneman Douglas's Environmental Consciousness", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 80 (1), pp.4377. [48] "Elizabeth Virrick's work in Coconut Grove's black community: Interview with Marjory Stoneman Douglas" (http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/ two/ transcripts/ SPC95A_10. htm). Florida International University. June 16, 1983. . Retrieved 2008-01-05. Douglas claims in this oral

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

history that the Committee served in the early 1920s. However, according to the websites of Coconut Grove Cares (http:/ / www. coconutgrovecares. org/ about. htm)an updated name for the organization, and the Junior League of Miami (http:/ / www. jlmiami. org/ advocacy. php), the Committee did not begin its service until 1948. [49] Grunwald, pp.257258. [50] Davis, Jack (January 2003). "'Conservation is now a dead word': Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the transformation of American environmentalism." Environmental History 8 (1) pp.5376. [51] Davis, p. 513. [52] "Pollution caused by growing sugar in Florida" (http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/ two/ transcripts/ SPC930_11. htm). Lecture by Marjory Stoneman Douglas in Fort Lauderdale. Florida International University. May 6, 1983. . Retrieved 2008-01-28. [53] "Damages caused by the Army Corps of Engineers and Big Sugar" (http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/ two/ transcripts/ SPC930_12. htm). Lecture by Marjory Stoneman Douglas in Fort Lauderdale. Florida International University. May 6, 1983. . Retrieved 2008-01-26. [54] Grunwald, p.241. [55] Grunwald, pp.241,243. [56] Hauserman, Julie (April 19, 1999). "Leaving an environmental hot seat" St. Petersburg Times (Florida); p.1B. [57] Davis, p. 533. [58] Douglas, p.232. [59] Long, Theodora. "Housed in a hot dog stand" (http:/ / www. biscaynenaturecenter. org). Marjory Stoneman Douglas Biscayne Nature Center. . Retrieved 2007-12-20. [60] Douglas, p.37. [61] Douglas, pp.5657. [62] Douglas, p.167. [63] Douglas, p.188. [64] Klinkenberg, Jeff (August 21, 2006). "Conserving the conservationist." St. Petersburg Times (Florida): p.1E. [65] Klinkenberg, Jeff. "Though expected, the loss of a hero still stings." St. Petersburg Times (Florida); p.6A. [66] Douglas, pp.16,17. [67] Douglas, p.85. [68] Douglas, p.128. [69] Davis, pp. 553554. [70] "Grand Canyon Advocate Receives National Parks Award ([[Press Release (http:/ / www. npca. org/ media_center/ press_releases/ 2005/ page-27601043. html)])"]. National Parks Conservation Association. October 31, 2005. . Retrieved 2007-12-17. [71] Davis, p. 572. [72] Davis, pp. 572574. [73] "Marjory Stoneman Douglas" (http:/ / www. greatwomen. org/ women. php?action=viewone& id=50). . National Women's Hall of Fame website. Retrieved on December 17, 2007. [74] Douglas, p.23. [75] Davis, p. 556. [76] McCarthy, Kevin (1998). "Introduction". A River in Flood; University Press of Florida. [77] Watson, Tracy. (May 15, 1988). "Douglas, Everglades' lifesaver, dies at 108 'River of Grass' spoke for marshes." USA Today; p.8A. [78] Hiaasen, Carl (May 18, 1998). "A fierce advocate for the Everglades." The Miami Herald; Commentary. [79] National Wildlife Federation (2007). "Marjory Stoneman Douglas" (http:/ / www. nwf. org/ about/ inductees_douglas. cfm). . Conservation Hall of Fame website. Retrieved on December 17, 2007. [80] Howard, Jennifer (May 16, 1999). "Websighting: Marjory Stoneman Douglas." The Washington Post: p.X05. [81] Severo, Richard (May 15, 1998). "Marjory Douglas, Champion Of Everglades, Dies at 108." (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9500E0D91330F936A25756C0A96E958260) The New York Times; p.23. Retrieved on 2008-05-02. [82] Fleming, John (November 19, 2000). "The cry of the Everglades." St. Petersburg Times (Florida); South Pinellas Edition, p.10F. [83] City of Miami (1995). Marjory Stoneman Douglas House Designation Report (http:/ / www. historicpreservationmiami. com/ pdfs/ ms douglas hse. pdf) (PDF). Retrieved on January 5, 2008. [84] Smiley, David (September 2, 2007). "Douglas' next-door property now at issue." The Miami Herald; State and Regional News. [85] Editorial (June 2, 2007). "Local Perspectives." The Miami Herald; p.20A.

150

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

151

References
Davis, Jack (2009), An Everglades Providence: Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the American Environmental Century, University of Georgia Press (2009). ISBN 0-8203-3071-X Douglas, Marjory (1947). The Everglades: River of Grass. 60th Anniversary Edition, Pineapple Press (2007). ISBN 978-1-56164-394-3 Douglas, Marjory; Rothchild, John (1987). Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River. Pineapple Press. ISBN 0910923941 Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-5105-1 McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2302-5.

External links
Series of audio interviews with Marjory Stoneman Douglas (http://everglades.fiu.edu/two/contents.htm) sponsored by Florida International University Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Writer and Conservationist (http://scholar.library.miami.edu/msdouglas/) Photographs, bibliography, timeline, essays and links to other resources. Prepared by University of Miami Special Collections. Marjory Stoneman Douglas Papers, University of Miami (http://proust.library.miami.edu/findingaids/ ?p=collections/controlcard&id=141) Finding Aid, University of Miami, Special Collections. Marjory Stoneman Douglas detailed bibliography (http://www.grovebook.com/GA10.htm) Everglades in the Time of Marjorie Stoneman Douglas (http://www.floridamemory.com/ PhotographicCollection/photo_exhibits/everglades.cfm) A photo exhibit on Douglas, provided by the State Archives of Florida Marjory Stoneman Douglas's River of Progress: Modernism, Feminism, Regionalism, and Environmentalism in Her Early Writings (http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0014206/sierra_h.pdf) A master's thesis from the University of Florida about Douglas' short stories Marjory Stoneman Douglas Bibliography (http://www6.miami.edu/english/msdouglas/) "Full Bibliography articles, books, plays, and poetry by Ms. Douglas and articles and books about Ms. Douglas." Marjory Stoneman Douglas Friends and Peers (http://www6.miami.edu/english/msdouglas/MSDpeers. html) Friends and peers who help establish environmental and civic institutions Marjory Stoneman Douglas's Home (http://www6.miami.edu/english/msdouglas/MSDhome.html) Recent and historic pictures Friends of the Everglades (http://www.everglades.org) The non-profit environmental organization founded by Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wellesley Person of the Week, December 11, 2000 (http://www.wellesley.edu/Anniversary/douglas.html)

The Everglades: River of Grass

152

The Everglades: River of Grass

The Everglades: River of Grass
First edition cover Author(s) Country Language Genre(s) Publisher Marjory Stoneman Douglas United States English Nonfiction Rinehart & Company

Publication date November 6, 1947 Media type Pages Print (Hardcover and Paperback) 406 pp

The Everglades: River of Grass is a non-fiction book written by Marjory Stoneman Douglas in 1947. Published the same year as the formal opening of Everglades National Park, the book was a call to attention about the degrading quality of life in the Everglades and continues to remain an influential book on nature conservation as well as a reference for information on South Florida. It was used as recently as 2007 by the New York Times.[1]

Background
Douglas was a freelance writer who submitted stories to magazines throughout the 1920s, 30s and 40s. Her friend Hervey Allen was an editor at Rinehart, responsible for the Rivers of America Series. Allen asked her to write a story about the Miami River, but Douglas did not find it very interesting, calling it only "an inch long".[2] She began learning more about the Miami River though, and in her research, she instead suggested to her editor to write a story about the Everglades. Douglas spent five years researching the Everglades, consulting with Garald Parker of the US Geological Survey, who was studying the Everglades hydrology systems, and eventually wrote nearly 40 papers on the ecosystems in the Everglades.[3]

Reception
The Quarterly Review of Biology reviewed the book and commented on Douglas' "convincing evidence" in her assertion that the Everglades are a river instead of a swamp, and declared that "it is hoped that this excellent account of the area and its history may provide the needed stimulus for the establishment of an intelligent conservation program for the entire Everglades." [4] The Journal of American Folklore praised the book highly, particularly in comparison to other books in the Rivers of America series, and likened Douglas' enthusiastic writing style to that of a previous writer on rural Florida, William Bartram: "We have a well written, readable book containing a wealth of scholarly and scientific data which can be enjoyed by both the general and the academically inclined reader."[5] The Mississippi Valley Review also expressed interest in Douglas' idea that the Everglades is not a mere swamp.[6]

The Everglades: River of Grass

153

Editions
The book has gone through numerous editions, selling over 500,000 copies since its original publication. The last three editions, published by a Florida publisher, Pineapple Press, have updated afterwords: in 1998 by Randy Lee Loftis and Marjory Stoneman Douglas; the 50th anniversary edition in 1997 by Cyril Zaneski; and the 60th anniversary edition in 2007 by Michael Grunwald, author of The Swamp.

References
[1] Greenfield, Beth (March 0, 2007). "Slipping Slowly Into South Florida's Grassy Water." The New York Times: Escapes; AMERICAN JOURNEYS Everglades National Park; Pg. 3. [2] Mason, Kathy. "Marjory Stoneman Douglas." The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives, Volume 5: 1997-1999. Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002. [3] Davis, Jack (January 2003). "'Conservation is now a dead word': Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the transformation of American environmentalism." Environmental History 8 (1) p. 53-76. [4] Giles, Norman (1948). "The Everglades: River of Grass. Rivers of America." The Quarterly Review of Biology; p. 346 [5] Goggin, John (1948). "The Everglades. River of Grass." The Journal of American Folklore; p. 229-231 [6] Dovell, J. E. (1948) "Rivers of America Series. The Everglades: River of Grass." The Mississippi Valley Historical Review; p. 110-111

Article Sources and Contributors

154

Article Sources and Contributors

The Everglades Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464436114 Contributors: -Midorihana-, 5 albert square, A Softer Answer, ALadinN, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Achowat, Adashiel, Aerobird, AgentCDE, Ahoerstemeier, Airplaneman, Aitias, Alansohn, Aldaron, Alex.muller, Americasroof, Amno z, Amorymeltzer, Anaknight, Androsyn, Andylin, AnonEMouse, Ante Aikio, Anthere, Antonio Prates, Aramgutang, Asenine, Atkinson 291, AuthorDent, Awadewit, Awickert, B1oody8romance7, BHC, Baa, Badagnani, Badgernet, Baskaufs, Basketball1997-12, Belovedfreak, Bender235, Bensin, Bibliomaniac15, Big iron, Bkell, Bkonrad, Blamed, Blanchardb, BlueLotusLK, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bped1985, Brambleshire, BrokenSphere, Bryan Derksen, Bullshark44, Bumhoolery, CPAScott, Cacophony, Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, CapeVerdeWave, Capricorn42, Casliber, Catgut, Catholic 85, Click23, Climie.ca, Cloud109, Cobi, CodeCarpenter, Coemgenus, CommonsDelinker, Count DeSheep, Courcelles, Cpdogs101, CrazyC83, Cryptic C62, Cumulus Clouds, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DVD R W, DabMachine, Dachannien, Dacxjo, Dank, Dark Ermac, Davewild, Davinspeak, Dccfiu, Dcordero7965, DeadEyeArrow, Decltype, Delldot, DerHexer, Discospinster, Docu, Donald Albury, Dr. Blofeld, Dycedarg, Ekko, Eliz81, Enam Esru, Enviroboy, Equazcion, EscapedGorilla, EyeSerene, Fangjian, Feezo, FieldMarine, Flamarande, Flingnball567, Fluppy, Fox, Frecklefoot, Gamweb, Gary King, Garylhewitt, Giraffedata, Gogo Dodo, Gracenotes, GraemeL, Grobertson, Gtg204y, Hammbeen, Hbent, Hemidemisemiquaver, Hgriggs, Hmains, I dream of horses, IamCanadianEh, Ikluft, Ilikepie69, Immunize, Instinct, Iridescent, J Clear, Jackol, Jagz, Jake Larsen, Japo, Jaranda, Jarry1250, Jason M, Javert, Jaysweet, Jengod, Jimfbleak, Jmundo, Joellama, John, John Reaves, JohnCD, Johnskate17, Johnson2444, Juliancolton, Jusdafax, Jvinnyalaisa, Kakofonous, Kariteh, Katanada, Kbdank71, KeithBeltham, Kjp993, Knotnic, KnowledgeOfSelf, Koavf, Kralizec!, Ktsparkman, Kuru, L Kensington, La Pianista, Lambiam, Lazulilasher, Leonard G., Leotolstoy, Lesgles, Leuko, Lightmouse, Lucarioxdlol, Lzz, MPF, Malcontent, Manatee97, Maniago, Marek69, MarioFanNo1, Marmote, Marshman, Marymargrand, Master Jay, Materialscientist, Matt Gies, Mattisse, Mav, Maximus Rex, Mbc362, Mboverload, McSly, Meaghan, Melchoir, MezzoMezzo, Michael Devore, Mikenorton, Mimichery, Mm40, Moni3, Moni3ontheroad, Mr. Wheely Guy, Mwanner, Mxn, NERIC-Security, Natural Cut, Nautical Pirate, NawlinWiki, NewEnglandYankee, Nick, Nick1615, Nivix, Noles1984, Npgallery, Omegatron, Orangemarlin, Oxymoron83, P. S. Burton, PL290, Paste, Pfly, Phaldo, Phantomsteve, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Plasticup, Polly, Possum, Postdlf, Prairie hiker, PrincessofLlyr, Pschemp, Psytron, Pupster21, Pwnera, Quintote, RC-0722, RadioBroadcast, Radiojon, Radon210, Rebuttal, RedWolf, Redthoreau, Rentaferret, Rettetast, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257, Richard001, Richard0612, Ricky540, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Ronaldvd, Rrburke, Rror, Russellfsm, ST47, Sam Korn, Sango123, Sceptre, SchfiftyThree, Schlegel, Seaphoto, Sfahey, Sheogorath, Shirulashem, Shoessss, Sionus, Skizzik, Smalljim, Smartguy18, Soundvisions1, Spartan-James, SpikeTorontoRCP, StAnselm, Stemonitis, Stephenb, Sukadickbukiss, Synchronism, THF, Targo, Template namespace initialisation script, Tennekis, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Wilschon, TheDJ, TheOtherJesse, Thehelpfulone, Thgoiter, Thingg, Tide rolls, Tim Ross, TimVickers, Titoxd, Tjmayerinsf, Tom Radulovich, Tony1, TransUtopian, Ulric1313, Uusitunnus, Vberger, Vegaswikian, Viriditas, Vishnava, Vsmith, Waninge, Wetman, Wikiproject1400, William I of Schenectady, WillowW, Wilson44691, Windchaser, Wingsandsword, Womey, Woohookitty, Xee, Xiahou, Yo momma be a hoe, Yonatan, Zalgo, 852 anonymous edits Geography and ecology of the Everglades Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=454415261 Contributors: Acroterion, Awadewit, Bender235, Bibliomaniac15, Biruitorul, CapeVerdeWave, Casliber, Climie.ca, Dank, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Eustress, Fairy gal123, Fiftytwo thirty, Glane23, Guettarda, Juliancolton, Kakofonous, Kevmin, LindsayH, Melchoir, Michael Devore, Miq, Moni3, Neutrality, Noles1984, Persephone's Lot, R'n'B, Rjwilmsi, Robert1947, SandyGeorgia, Scartol, Shyamal, Skizzik, Soundvisions1, StAnselm, TDogg310, Theo F, Tony1, Wavelength, 4 anonymous edits Draining and development of the Everglades Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=461191244 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Antandrus, Art LaPella, Awadewit, Bellhalla, Bender235, CapeVerdeWave, Capitalistroadster, Casliber, Climie.ca, CommonsDelinker, Cuchullain, DOCTORSTEELFORWORLDEMPEROR, Daniel Case, Dank, Darogue, Diligent Terrier, Docu, Dog on a log, Epbr123, Estabanderter, Fifth Rider, Gary King, Geographilia, GoingBatty, GrahamColm, GroveGuy, Halgin, Iridescent, Itfc+canes=me, Jason Recliner, Esq., Juliancolton, KConWiki, KJS77, Ktr101, Kylu, Lightmouse, Looie496, MMZach, Malleus Fatuorum, Maralia, Markgpx, Martin451, Melchoir, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Moni3, Morenoodles, Neutrality, Nsaa, NuclearWarfare, Orangemarlin, Ospalh, Piledhigheranddeeper, Prezbo, R'n'B, Raptus Regaliter Cattus Petasatus, Reywas92, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, RobertsonJeffey, Shimgray, Skizzik, Snowmanradio, Suckajaweia, Sven08, T-rex, Threeafterthree, Tony1, Twjordan, Tyler, Ukexpat, Viriditas, Wavelength, Wbkelley, William I of Schenectady, Woohookitty, Yllosubmarine, Yohan euan o4, 36 anonymous edits Restoration of the Everglades Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464381867 Contributors: A. di M., ALoopingIcon, Alan Liefting, Art LaPella, Attilios, Awadewit, Benwing, Bongwarrior, Brambo, Brandmeister (old), Brianboulton, CapeVerdeWave, Casliber, Civil Engineer III, Ckatz, Climie.ca, CommonsDelinker, Cryptic C62, D156156156, Dabomb87, Dank, Dougalderson, Eastlaw, Ebyabe, Epbr123, FieldMarine, Gadget850, Galoubet, Gott Priapos, GrahamColm, Ground Zero, Hmains, Horologium, Iggy pop goes the weasel, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, Javert, Jerem43, John, Juliancolton, Kakofonous, Kan8eDie, Khatru2, Lightmouse, Lmfao, Maralia, Maverick9711, Moni3, Mr. Absurd, Mrand, Muad, NancyHeise, NuclearWarfare, Pedro, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pmj, Raptor Red, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rst20xx, SandyGeorgia, Skizzik, TDogg310, Tide rolls, Tony1, Trafford09, Wmasterj, Yarnalgo, 31 anonymous edits Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=335954242 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Gius82mont, Jagz, Karanacs, Lightmouse, Moni3, Sagredo, Sgc2002, Skizzik, VMSPROUL, Xenus, 5 anonymous edits List of invasive species in the Everglades Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464310866 Contributors: Alan Liefting, AnOddName, Colin, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Dabomb87, Donlammers, Guettarda, Juliancolton, Look2See1, Ludwigs2, Mandarax, Moni3, Nyttend, Piledhigheranddeeper, Rock4arolla, Snowmanradio, Speciate, Srnec, The Bushranger, Vrenator, Xherin, 11 anonymous edits Indigenous people of the Everglades region Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=462713750 Contributors: Adacore, Awasser55, Bender235, Biruitorul, Circeus, Cryptic C62, Cuchullain, Dank, David Newton, Deconstructhis, Demeter, Donald Albury, DuncanHill, Ealdgyth, Epbr123, Eustress, Giraffedata, GrahamColm, Hmains, Horologium, Iridescent, J.delanoy, JMK, Joyson Prabhu, Karanacs, Ketiltrout, Kozuch, Lightmouse, Look2See1, Michael Devore, Moni3, Moxy, Nick Number, OwenBlacker, Parkwells, PopularOutcast, Prezbo, R'n'B, Reywas92, Rjwilmsi, SandyGeorgia, Skizzik, Sloane, TDogg310, TonyTheTiger, Tpbradbury, TwilligToves, Woohookitty, Zeng8r, 7 anonymous edits Calusa Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=465562381 Contributors: Afs5059, Averette, Avoided, Badagnani, Bender235, Bglh, Boomshadow, Bradeos Graphon, BryanStrome, Calusa1, Charles Matthews, Cuchullain, Curb Chain, Das Baz, Dcfleck, Dmitri Lytov, Donald Albury, Ebyabe, Emb021, Epbr123, Esteedee, GVP Webmaster, Geeklizzard, Gogo Dodo, Heironymous Rowe, Hmains, Homerj2009, Ish ishwar, J.delanoy, James086, Jfpierce, Jfurr1981, Jhinman, Jswfl09, JustAGal, Kbdank71, Kralizec!, Kwamikagami, L Kensington, MPF, Manxruler, Michael Devore, Moni3, Mutinus, Mslimix, NellieBly, Neutrality, Noles1984, Ochib, Origamiemensch, Parkwells, Phantomsteve, Pspiegel, PurseSword, Rahiim03, RedWolf, Remuel, Skarebo, Smokizzy, Stemonitis, TDogg310, Taksim25, Tedelel, TexasAndroid, Thatguy820, The Bushranger, Thethethe123, Tom-, Trondtr, Uyvsdi, Vanished User 8a9b4725f8376, WiccaIrish, Wiki Raja, Woohookitty, Xyzzyva, Yosri, Zeng8r, 126 anonymous edits Miccosukee Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=453817688 Contributors: Akerbeltz, Cateris Brutus, Civil Engineer III, Cuchullain, Dale Arnett, Djembayz, Dmahon1, Donald Albury, DoriWi, Goodgirl, Hutcher, Jz307, Kalel2007, Khatru2, Kintetsubuffalo, MHS, MiamiDolphins3, Michaelpb, Miquonranger03, Mlsquad, Nihiltres, Parkwells, PrestonH, Quidam65, RJFJR, Racepacket, Rjwilmsi, Shenme, Srice13, Stephenb, TexasAndroid, Ulric1313, Uyvsdi, WhisperToMe, Woohookitty, 51 anonymous edits Tequesta Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=465500189 Contributors: Aeon1006, Afasmit, AndyZ, BD2412, Badagnani, Bobo192, Crouchbk, Cuchullain, Cyb.tachyon, Cyborg Ninja, D-Rock, DOLLARBILL, DVD R W, Daniel Christensen, Danny, Davewild, Donald Albury, Dreadstar, Emb021, Eoghanacht, Epolk, Esteedee, Excirial, Fan-1967, Gaius Cornelius, Geeklizzard, Geodyde, Gurch, Hmains, Ish ishwar, J.delanoy, Johnpacklambert, Kbdank71, Kwamikagami, MPF, Materialscientist, Mike Rosoft, Mild Bill Hiccup, NPrice, Northumbrian, Nutiketaiel, Parkwells, Piast93, Prolog, RJaguar3, RL0919, Reuben, RexNL, Richbrobee, Rjwilmsi, S, Seba5618, Strid3r-, TexasAndroid, The Alcalde, Vanished User 1004, Vanished user 39948282, Versus22, WiccaIrish, Woohookitty, 116 anonymous edits Seminole Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464990399 Contributors: 10metreh, 21655, 2D, A More Perfect Onion, ABF, Aaron Walden, Aaronjs0, Acroterion, AdjustShift, Ahoerstemeier, Akamad, Alansohn, Alarob, Alberuni, Ale jrb, Alexandra.mc, AlimanRuna, Anaxial, Andrei G Kustov, Andynicolelovers01, AngelOfSadness, Angr, Antherius, AppleJuggler, AriGold, Armaced, Armoreno10, Atif.t2, Augwp, Austinbirdman, Awhood, Babbage, BanyanTree, Beantwo, Belissarius, Belovedfreak, Bender235, Beth220, Bhadani, Big Adamsky, Bihco, Bkell, Blanchardb, Bobo192, Brucejfrancis, Bryanw03, CJLL Wright, Calor, Calvin 1998, Camembert, Canjth, CardinalDan, Carwil, Cateris Brutus, Chief Red Eagle, Chriswk313, Civil Engineer III, Cocoaguy, CommonsDelinker, Crazyeasy41, Cuchullain, Cybercobra, D-Rock, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DO'Neil, DVD R W, Dan D. Ric, DarkAudit, DarkKunai, Deeceevoice, Demize, DerHexer, DigitalCatalyst, Discospinster, Djembayz, Dnarcomey, Donald Albury, Donnyhoca, Dramagirl134, Droddfinger, Dylan620, Dysepsion, Emb021, Embryomystic, Epbr123, Epolk, Erico Tachizawa, Euryalus, Evb-wiki, Fashoinestioa, Fastman99, Favonian, Fieldday-sunday, Fireice, FrancoGG, FrankCostanza, Frankenpuppy, Frecklefoot, FreplySpang, Fyrael, G716, Gatemansgc, Gilliam, Gjd001, Gjones0316, Gnangarra, Gogo Dodo, Golbez, GreatWhiteNortherner, Green Giant, Grim23, Grrayson, GuitarWeeps, Gurch, Hallorator, Hmains, Hottentot, Hyacinth, Ianblair23, Inge-Lyubov, Inka 888, Iridescent, Ish ishwar, Islaammaged126, J.delanoy, JForget, Jamesm118, Japanese Searobin, Jewelya17, Jfpierce, JodyB, JoeSmack, Jokron, Jonathan Hall, Joseph opala, JoshuaZ, Jossi, Jna runn, KF, KGasso, Kain Nihil, Kaiwhakahaere, Kaka1713kk, Kbdank71, Kevin Myers, Kevin W., Khoikhoi, KimvdLinde, Kintetsubuffalo, Kitch, KnowledgeOfSelf, Konstable, Korenyuk, Kukini, Kwertii, L Kensington, La Pianista, Lalah1294, LeaveSleaves, Lightmouse, Like You Never Did See, LilHelpa, Lino Mastrodomenico, Little Mountain 5, Look2See1, M7, Magiciandude, Makeswell, Markwiki, Mattheboy, Maxis ftw, Mcelite, Melsaran, Michaeldsuarez, Midgrid, Mimihitam, Misterwaffles, Modernist, Moloch09, Monty845, Morg85213, Mwdinkin, Mxn, Naturespace, NawlinWiki, Nburden, Neonkow, NewEnglandYankee, Nick, North Shoreman, Nyren5, Nyswimmer, OS2Warp, OlEnglish, Omar35880, Optimist on the run, OwenX, Oxymoron83, Papppfaffe, Papyrus688, Parkwells, Peripitus, Persian Poet Gal, Pfly, Pharos, Philip Trueman, Philippe, Phoebe, Pinethicket, PoliticalJunkie, Porsche997SBS, Postmortemjapan, Qqqqqq, Quebec99, Quidam65, R000t, RadioFan, Raeky, Raepetersen, Rahiim03, Random contributor, Raven4x4x, Rawling, Reach Out to the Truth, Reaper Eternal, Rebeccahendrix, RexNL, Rice pud, Richard Keatinge, RichardBond, RickK, Rjensen, Rmhermen, Roadrunner, Robfergusonjr, Rodhullandemu, Roodog2k, Rory096, RossF18, RoyBoy,

Article Sources and Contributors

Rrburke, Rror, Samtheboy, Sanrioprincess66, Sassisch, Sbowers3, Sceptre, SchfiftyThree, Scott Mingus, SemDem, Shirulashem, Sirberus, Skidude9950, Smosh77, Some jerk on the Internet, Sovereignty2013, SpaceFlight89, SpikeJones, Steamroller Assault, Steve Dufour, Stickdummy, Swarm, SwissCelt, TUF-KAT, TYelliot, Tagishsimon, Techman224, Tekiclutch, Teles, Tempodivalse, TexasAndroid, The Literate Engineer, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheSlyFox, Thingg, ThrashedParanoid, Tide rolls, Tim1357, Tjdsportsplaya, Tmathew1us, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tom Radulovich, Tombaxter, Tombomp, Tommy2010, TommyBoy, Tonym88, Toussaint, Tregoweth, Trent, TriniSocialist, Triwbe, TrojanMan, TypoDotOrg, Tzustrategy, Ukexpat, Ulric1313, Urashimataro, Uyvsdi, Vanished user 39948282, Vary, Venu62, Vicki Rosenzweig, WAS 4.250, Walden69, Waterden, Weregerbil, WhisperToMe, WiccaIrish, WikipedianMarlith, Wikiuser100, Willking1979, Wmahan, Woohookitty, Wwagner, Xiahou, Yamaguchi, Yaroslav Blanter, Yawar.fiesta, Zachthebutcher, Zoicon5, ZooFari, 830 anonymous edits Everglades National Park Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464393925 Contributors: -Midorihana-, 30$gummy, Acroterion, Alansohn, Alberrosidus, Alexf, Alxndr, Andre Engels, Andrwsc, Andylin, Appraiser, Aranel, Arpingstone, Averette, B1oody8romance7, Backspace, Bamse, Bibliomaniac15, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Brighterorange, Cacophony, CambridgeBayWeather, Camplouf, CapeVerdeWave, Catholic 85, Chaohwa, Chingchongchinaman, Chris Light, Chrishmt0423, Clarkbhm, Cmsb705, Coemgenus, Colin Angus Mackay, CommonsDelinker, Courcelles, Coveredinsevindust, D6, Dabomb87, Daniel Case, Danny, Dapsv, David McCalister, Dccfiu, Deror avi, Dmwime, Donald Albury, Doncram, Droll, Drummerboy 5513359, Ebyabe, Ecphora, Edward, Enviroboy, Eoghanacht, Epbr123, Eu9zshr9kuyx8\, Evolt, Ex nihil, Fiftytwo thirty, Fl295, Fluffernutter, Footballfan190, Freestar1900, FrickFrack, Funkboy3, Funnyhat, F, Garylhewitt, Geo0910, Goodnightmush, Grace E. Dougle, GroveGuy, Hmains, Hoffmeier, Hoo man, Horologium, Hottentot, Iusethis, JD554, Jagz, Jalen109, Jalo, Jan eissfeldt, Japo, Jaraalbe, Javier martin, Jengod, Jh51681, Jimfbleak, Jllm06, Joey80, Johnskate17, JonHarder, Juliancolton, Jwinius, Kalgari, Karanacs, Kdhenrik, Khatru2, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kozuch, Laura Mihaela90, Law, LeaveSleaves, Lightmouse, Lily15, Luna Santin, MDuchek, MER-C, MONGO, Madhero88, Malepheasant, Malleus Fatuorum, Maralia, Matt Gies, Melchoir, Menchi, Metanoid, Michael Devore, Michael Pusch, Michael1115, Mike5904, Mimichery, Mindraker, Moni3, Moni3ontheroad, Monkeymonkeymonkeymonkey, Monstrocity, Mwanner, NE2, NKSCF, NancyHeise, Nathan.tang, Nationalparks, NawlinWiki, Neutrality, Nika 243, Npgallery, Ohiobill, Outriggr, P199, Paul H., Peacelovebikes, Pedro, Peter Karlsen, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Plasticup, Porsche997SBS, Possum, Prayerfortheworld, Pschemp, R'n'B, Rettetast, Reywas92, Rjwilmsi, Rkitko, Rmhermen, RobertG, RobyWayne, Rufous-crowned Sparrow, SI31, SPUI, SandyGeorgia, Sasquatch, Sb184br, Scartol, Seaphoto, Sillago, Skillz187, Skizzik, Sonicboi, Southeastern Everglades, Starionwolf, TDogg310, Takahashi J, Tide rolls, Tony1, Treisijs, Una Smith, Vicpeters, VitaleBaby, Vrenator, Vsmith, Wavelength, WesleyDodds, WillC, Wimt, WolfgangFaber, Ww2censor, Yamile and edlyn, Yosemite123, Zalgo, Zarcadia, Zereshk, Zoohouse, Zzyzx11, 249 anonymous edits Marjory Stoneman Douglas Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=465357928 Contributors: 21655, Acroterion, Alan Liefting, Amandajm, Anjwalker, Ark30inf, Art LaPella, Auric, Bagumba, Bart Versieck, Belovedfreak, Bluap, Bobo192, CapeVerdeWave, Chanceygardner, Chicheley, Clariosophic, Clearviews, Comayagua99, D6, DESiegel, DarthChrist, Dbunde, Dimadick, Dudebenz, Epbr123, Everyguy, Everyking, Extransit, Fabiform, Falcon8765, FeanorStar7, Gamecuber34, GrahamColm, GroveGuy, HOT L Baltimore, Hammbeen, Hekerui, Hephaestos, Horologium, Inter16, J.delanoy, J04n, Jacobisq, Jaha -geer damani, Janet13, Jaranda, Jimfbleak, JohnCD, Jonnyzoo 93, Juankilla, Juliancolton, Kakofonous, Kbdank71, Kiwidough, KnowledgeOfSelf, LOL, Leibniz101, Lightmouse, LizardJr8, Lmaccork, Longevitymonger, Mangostar, Maralia, Meldouglass, Michael Devore, Michaelcar, Mlaffs, Moni3, Naturalpsychology, Noles1984, OxyMoronMinusOxy, PTSE, Philip Cross, Pigman, Piledhigheranddeeper, Qdiderot, RFD, RWeiss, Raul654, Releposky, Reywas92, Rjwilmsi, Rms125a@hotmail.com, Rose Milphens, SandyGeorgia, Scientizzle, Shearonink, Tide rolls, Tim Ross, Tim1357, Tony1, Trubyjapan, Uisfob, Uncle Dick, WarthogDemon, Wavelength, Wencer, William I of Schenectady, WillowW, Wrad, Yllosubmarine, Zsinj, Zzuuzz, 137 anonymous edits The Everglades: River of Grass Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=414802420 Contributors: Everyking, GrahamHardy, GroveGuy, Maralia, Moni3, Noneforall, Rose Milphens, Skizzik, 2 anonymous edits

155

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

156

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Evergladesareamap.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Evergladesareamap.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Kmusser Image:Everglades Sawgrass Prairie Moni3.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Sawgrass_Prairie_Moni3.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Moni3 Image:1857 Everglades map.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1857_Everglades_map.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 Image:Everglades Geology.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Geology.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3, 1 anonymous edits Image:Florida Everglades Hydrology.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Florida_Everglades_Hydrology.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3, Monkeybait Image:Hurricane Charley 13 aug 2004 1635Z.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hurricane_Charley_13_aug_2004_1635Z.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Image courtesy of the Space Science and Engineering Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Image:Storm at Shark River in Everglades.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Storm_at_Shark_River_in_Everglades.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Barron, CharlesNOTE: Attribution must be given when image is used. Suggested: Photo:Charles Barron / State Library and Archives of Florida (See Title XVIII, Chapter 257, section 35.6 (c) :Any use or reproduction of material deposited with the Florida State Photographic Collection shall be allowed pursuant to the provisions of paragraph (1)(b) and subsection (4) provided that appropriate credit for its use is given.) File:Everglades uneven limestone floor and sawgrass prairie.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_uneven_limestone_floor_and_sawgrass_prairie.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 Image:Historic Everglades Regions.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Historic_Everglades_Regions.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological Survey Image:Everglades Hammock Center.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Hammock_Center.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 File:Everglades vegetation cross section.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_vegetation_cross_section.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological Survey File:Magnify-clip.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnify-clip.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Erasoft24 Image:Big cypress.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Big_cypress.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological Survey Image:Mangrove trees in Everglades.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mangrove_trees_in_Everglades.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 Image:Florida Bay at Flamingo.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Florida_Bay_at_Flamingo.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 Image:Charley Cypress Seminole Everglades.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charley_Cypress_Seminole_Everglades.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown. Image:US War Department Everglades Map 1856.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_War_Department_Everglades_Map_1856.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US War Department Image:Hamilton Disston Land Sale Notice.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hamilton_Disston_Land_Sale_Notice.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jbarta, Kenmayer, Mnmazur, Moni3 Image:Canal in the Everglades Drainage District 1915.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canal_in_the_Everglades_Drainage_District_1915.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 Image:Army CoE sign Hoover Dike.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Army_CoE_sign_Hoover_Dike.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Image:Harry Truman at Everglades National Park.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Harry_Truman_at_Everglades_National_Park.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Infrogmation, Moni3 Image:Everglades canal.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_canal.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US Geological Survey File:Mercury warning sign in Everglades National Park.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mercury_warning_sign_in_Everglades_National_Park.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 Image:ARS Lygodium microphyllum.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ARS_Lygodium_microphyllum.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amada44, Daderot, PDH Image:Future Drainage in South Florida.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Future_Drainage_in_South_Florida.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological Survey Image:South Florida Satellite Image Map.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:South_Florida_Satellite_Image_Map.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US Geological Survey Image:A tree island in a sawgrass prairie in the Everglades.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_tree_island_in_a_sawgrass_prairie_in_the_Everglades.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 Image:Fire in the Everglades.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fire_in_the_Everglades.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Romer, G. W. (Gleason Waite), 1887-1971. Image:Alligator and periphyton.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alligator_and_periphyton.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 Image:Everglades hardwood hammock.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_hardwood_hammock.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 Image:Everglades pine rockland.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_pine_rockland.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological Survey File:Everglades mangroves Buttonwood Canal.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_mangroves_Buttonwood_Canal.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 Image:USGS Northern Everglades image 2001 .jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USGS_Northern_Everglades_image_2001_.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological Survey Image:USGS Southern Everglades Image 2001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USGS_Southern_Everglades_Image_2001.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: USGS Image:Seminole War in Everglades.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: USMC Image:Blueprint for Everglades canals1921.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blueprint_for_Everglades_canals1921.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Model Land Company, Everglades Drainage District Image:Everglades real estate tour buses.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_real_estate_tour_buses.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Fishbaugh, W. A. (William A.) Image:Magazine cutout ladies plume hats.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magazine_cutout_ladies_plume_hats.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Catlow, Patty Munroe, 1900-1991 Image:Baker's Haulover Inlet 1927.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Baker's_Haulover_Inlet_1927.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: w:John Kunkel Small (January 31, 1869- January 20, 1938) Image:Okeechobee hurricane 1928 noaa pics.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Okeechobee_hurricane_1928_noaa_pics.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 File:Kissimmee River Restoration.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kissimmee_River_Restoration.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US Army Corps of Engineers File:Designated areas in the Everglades.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Designated_areas_in_the_Everglades.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological Survey File:Kissimmee River S-65B Destruction.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kissimmee_River_S-65B_Destruction.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Army Corps of Engineers File:Cattails in the Everglades.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cattails_in_the_Everglades.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological Survey

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Stormwater Treatment Area in Northern Everglades.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stormwater_Treatment_Area_in_Northern_Everglades.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological Survey Image:Three Roseate spoonbills.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Three_Roseate_spoonbills.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Lee Karney, released to the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Image:ARS_Lygodium_microphyllum.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ARS_Lygodium_microphyllum.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amada44, Daderot, PDH Image:South Florida Pre-drainage.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:South_Florida_Pre-drainage.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological Survey Image:South Florida Water Drainage Present Day.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:South_Florida_Water_Drainage_Present_Day.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological Survey File:Future Drainage in South Florida.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Future_Drainage_in_South_Florida.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological Survey Image:Lygodium microphyllum in Loxahatchee.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lygodium_microphyllum_in_Loxahatchee.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Peggy Greb, USDA Agricultural Research Service. Original uploader was Moni3 at en.wikipedia Image:Gator and Python.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gator_and_Python.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Lori Oberhofer, National Park Service File:Starr 031108-0008 Melaleuca quinquenervia.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Starr_031108-0008_Melaleuca_quinquenervia.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Forest & Kim Starr File:ARS_Lygodium_microphyllum.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ARS_Lygodium_microphyllum.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amada44, Daderot, PDH File:Starr 031108-0096 Schinus terebinthifolius.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Starr_031108-0096_Schinus_terebinthifolius.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Forest & Kim Starr File:Tree I IMG 2819.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tree_I_IMG_2819.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: J.M.Garg File:Starr 050517-1465 Colubrina asiatica.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Starr_050517-1465_Colubrina_asiatica.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Forest & Kim Starr File:Water hyacinth.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Water_hyacinth.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Photo by Ted Center. File:Pistia stratiotes 1a.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pistia_stratiotes_1a.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Kristjan File:Burma reed burning.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Burma_reed_burning.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown, belongs to National Park Service File:Hydrilla verticillata collection LakeSeminoleFL.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hydrilla_verticillata_collection_LakeSeminoleFL.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Stephen Ausmus, USDA File:Starr 031108-0224 Dioscorea bulbifera.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Starr_031108-0224_Dioscorea_bulbifera.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Forest & Kim Starr File:Starr 031204-0002 Cupaniopsis anacardioides.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Starr_031204-0002_Cupaniopsis_anacardioides.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Forest & Kim Starr File:Rhodomyrtus tomentosa 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rhodomyrtus_tomentosa_2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Franz Xaver File:Lobate lac scale.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lobate_lac_scale.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Jeffrey W. Lotz, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, United States File:Pomacea insularum 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pomacea_insularum_2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Jess Van Dyke, Snail Busters, LLC, Bugwood.org File:Corbicula fluminea.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Corbicula_fluminea.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: USGS File:Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus in Florida US ACE.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pterygoplichthys_multiradiatus_in_Florida_US_ACE.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jan Hoover, US Army Corps of Engineers. Original uploader was Moni3 at en.wikipedia File:Clarias batrachus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clarias_batrachus.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: "Image by: Pam Fuller, USGS" File:USGS image of Mayan cichlid.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USGS_image_of_Mayan_cichlid.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SreeBot File:Blue tilapia identification ASACE.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blue_tilapia_identification_ASACE.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SreeBot File:Python molurus bivittatus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Python_molurus_bivittatus.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Karunakar Rayker from India File:Iguana iguana -Ueno Zoo -Tokyo -Japan-8a.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iguana_iguana_-Ueno_Zoo_-Tokyo_-Japan-8a.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: pelican File:Regenwald nilwaran Varanus niloticus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Regenwald_nilwaran_Varanus_niloticus.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Deadstar, Factumquintus, Ianare, Kilom691 File:Myiopsitta monachus -Florida -two in tree-8.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Myiopsitta_monachus_-Florida_-two_in_tree-8.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Maureen Leong-Kee File:Acridotheres tristis444.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Acridotheres_tristis444.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Benjamint444 File:Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio) near Hodal W4 IMG 6606.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Purple_Swamphen_(Porphyrio_porphyrio)_near_Hodal_W4_IMG_6606.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: J.M.Garg File:Wild Pig KSC02pd0873.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wild_Pig_KSC02pd0873.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA or National Aeronautics and Space Administration File:Domestic cat eating bird on lawn-8.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Domestic_cat_eating_bird_on_lawn-8.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: dr_relling File:Roofrat Hagenbeck 02.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roofrat_Hagenbeck_02.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Kilessan Image:Seminole family Cypress Tiger.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seminole_family_Cypress_Tiger.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: John Kunkel Small Image:Indigenous people of Everglades map.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indigenous_people_of_Everglades_map.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Moni3 at en.wikipedia Image:Calusa carved gator head.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Calusa_carved_gator_head.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 Image:Pedro menendez de Aviles.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pedro_menendez_de_Aviles.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jos Camarn y Boronat (1730-1803), published by Fran(cis)co de Paula Marti in 1791 Image:FLMap-Calusa-core&domain.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FLMap-Calusa-core&domain.PNG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Donald Albury, Gurch, 2 anonymous edits File:Flmn chiefshut.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flmn_chiefshut.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Wtc69789 File:Calusa carved gator head.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Calusa_carved_gator_head.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 Image:CalusaTerritory.GIF Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CalusaTerritory.GIF License: Public Domain Contributors: Bryan Strome File:DeSoto Map Leg 1 HRoe 2008.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DeSoto_Map_Leg_1_HRoe_2008.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Heironymous Rowe (talk). Original uploader was Heironymous Rowe at en.wikipedia

157

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Calusa.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Calusa.png License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Heironymous Rowe, Huhsunqu, Ishwar, Juiced lemon, Origamiemensch, RHorning File:Miccosukee Tribe.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Miccosukee_Tribe.svg License: unknown Contributors: Kalel2007 File:Flag of the United States.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Florida.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Florida.svg License: unknown Contributors: Awg1010, Dbenbenn, Denelson83, DenghiComm, Dzordzm, Ebyabe, Fry1989, Himasaram, Homo lupus, Hystrix, Madden, Mattes, Nightstallion, Pumbaa80, Reach Out to the Truth, Reuvenk, Rocket000, Vantey, Zscout370, 12 anonymous edits File:INDIAN VILLAGE - NARA - 544507.tif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:INDIAN_VILLAGE_-_NARA_-_544507.tif License: Public Domain Contributors: Djembayz Image:FLMap-Tequesta-tribe2.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FLMap-Tequesta-tribe2.PNG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Dalbury at en.wikipedia File:Miami River Brickell Avenue Bridge statue.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Miami_River_Brickell_Avenue_Bridge_statue.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Averette Image:Seminole-portraits.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seminole-portraits.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: complied by Robfergusonjr using public domain sources Image:Coeehajo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coeehajo.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Origamiemensch, Robfergusonjr, 1 anonymous edits Image:Seminole Woman.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seminole_Woman.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: George Catlin File:A Seminole spearing a garfish from a dugout, Florida, 1930 - NARA - 519169.tif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_Seminole_spearing_a_garfish_from_a_dugout,_Florida,_1930_-_NARA_-_519169.tif License: Public Domain Contributors: Dominic, Foroa, JoJan, Rmhermen File:Seminole patchwork shawl.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seminole_patchwork_shawl.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Uyvsdi Image:Seminoleclipper.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seminoleclipper.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Djembayz file: Everglades.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dysmorodrepanis, Huebi, Kersti Nebelsiek, Mehmet Karatay, Snowmanradio, Ultratomio, 1 anonymous edits file:Usa edcp relief location map.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Usa_edcp_relief_location_map.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Uwe Dedering File:Red pog.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_pog.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Everglades National Park map 2005.11.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_National_Park_map_2005.11.png License: Public Domain Contributors: National Park Service, Harpers Ferry Center File:Everglades Natl Park Alligator.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Natl_Park_Alligator.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: National Park Service Photo by Rodney Cammauf File:Everglades - Blue Heron.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_-_Blue_Heron.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Zoohouse File:Everglades National Park Florida Panther.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_National_Park_Florida_Panther.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ALE!, Galpha, Kersti Nebelsiek, Martin H., Moni3, 1 anonymous edits File:Everglades Nat'l Park Mangrove.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Nat'l_Park_Mangrove.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: National Park Service Photo File:Watching Sunset Over Marshes.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Watching_Sunset_Over_Marshes.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Wing-Chi Poon File:Everglades Canal lock.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Canal_lock.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Galpha File:Everglades National Park SPOT 1286.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_National_Park_SPOT_1286.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Cnes - Spot Image File:Everglades Pinelands.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Pinelands.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: MDuchek (talk) File:Littleblueheronsmall.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Littleblueheronsmall.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Mehmet Karatay File:Anhinga crop.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anhinga_crop.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Daniel Schwen File:Anhingatrail.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anhingatrail.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Citypeek, Jalo File:Everglades Campground at Flamingo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Campground_at_Flamingo.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Mwanner File:Everglades National Park cypress.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_National_Park_cypress.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: National Park Service File:Everglades American Crocodile.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_American_Crocodile.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: National Park Service File:Everglades FH020005.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_FH020005.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Deror avi File:Marjory S Douglas Friends photo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marjory_S_Douglas_Friends_photo.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Friends of the Everglades Image:Stoneman Family In 1893.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stoneman_Family_In_1893.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Beria, Bohme, Frank C. Mller, Infrogmation Image:Douglas Wellesley.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Douglas_Wellesley.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Moni3 at en.wikipedia Image:Marjory Stoneman Douglas Cottage.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marjory_Stoneman_Douglas_Cottage.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3 Image:DglsBldg2TLH-16Sep2007.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DglsBldg2TLH-16Sep2007.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Tim Ross

158

License

159

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/