RIVER STRUCTURAL WORKS AND OPERATION Ch3.

Diversion works
by: Ing. Bizuneh Asfaw

Diversion Works

Outline of presentation
1. Introduction 2. Weir and Barrages 3. Basic Design Consideration
Hydrological analysis Hydraulic design Structural design

4. Sediment Control 5. Operation and Maintenance

General Definition of Headwork

Headworks are defined as the facility, which diverts water from a River (lakes and marsh, excluding reservoir), into a canal for irrigation or water supply.

Introduction
In the Multilingual Technical Dictionary on irrigation and drainage issued by the International Commission in Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), Headworks are defined as
A collective term for all works (weirs or diversion dams, head regulators, upstream and downstream River training work and their related structures) required at intakes of main or principal canals to divert and control River flows and to regulates water supplies into the main canals.

At the beginning of the design process, different aspects have to be considered to divert a certain quantity of water from a River, such as;
The flow rate in the River has to be assessed as a function of time and compared with the demand of water which is also a function of time. The diversion demands have to be decided taking into account the multitude of interacting factors of Technical, Environmental, Political and Aesthetic nature etc..

WATER DIVERSION

WATER DEMANDS- Availability: amount, distribution in time, quality parameters, etc

WATER RESOURSES- Availability: amount, distribution in time, quality parameters, etc

LARGE SCALE WATER DIVERSION SCHEMES

SMALL SCALE WATER DIVERSION SCHEMES

River System and its Response to Diversion: Hydrological Aspects Hydraulic Aspects Morphological Aspects Sediment Transport Water Quality Environmental Aspects DIVERSION STRUCTURE Type and Location

SEDIMENT EXCLUDER SETTLLING BASIN WATER CONVEYANCE SYSTEM

Classification of diversion work

Different ways of classifying diversion structures were developed along the time. Among these the most important are according to: a)Hydraulic functions Diversion weirs Barrages Intake structure without regulator works
b) The source River intakes In takes from reservoirs and lakes

c)The slope of the river they are on, which usually also indicates the size of the intake and the sediment size carried by the river that is boulder, gravel, sand and silt respectively: Mountain intakes on steep rivers with slopes greater than about 1:1000 Intakes on plain rivers with slopes 10-4 <s<10-3 In takes on large rivers with slopes less than 1:10,000

Components of head work

Site selection and interaction with other structures

The site selected for the Headworks should be the optimum after studying the following items: Availability of a stable bank at the proposed position of water intake Sufficient water intake must be feasible even during the dry season Least sediment inflow during water intake Least effect of weir construction on up and downstream river Stability of the structure can be expected with economical construction costs Convenience for operation and maintenance.

As far as possible a narrow, straight, well defined channel confined b/n banks not submerged by the highest flood; Location should be where appropriate elevation is available for the off take canal The material of construction such as stone, sand, etc. should be available in the vicinity of the site The site should be easily accessible by road and there should be (enough) workers available in the vicinity of project site. Pondage requirement and interference with the existing structures such as bridges, urban development and valuable farm land need to be considered. Ease for diversion during construction should also be taken in to consideration while selecting site for head works

Purpose of diversion headwork

It raises the water level in the river so that the commanded area is increased (for irrigation projects) It regulates the supply of water in to irrigation or power canal It provides storage of water for a short period It controls the entry of silt in to the canal It reduces the fluctuations in the level of supply in the river.

Function of weirs summarized as Water level management Flow measurement Environmental enhancement Channel stabilisation

The layout of River Diversions

River diversion project includes the intake, the diversion weir, and the approach channel and its training work, the tail water channel, its training works, and appurtenant training works (Boeriu, 2003). The layout design defines. A diversion site in the river. The relative position of the intake and the diversion weir in the river. The geometry of the approach and downstream. The diversion intakes, gated spans, spillway.

Weirs and barrages

Weirs and barrages are permanent river diversion works and are relatively low dams constructed across a river to raise the river level sufficiently to divert the flow in full, or in part, in to a supply canal or conduit for the purpose of irrigation, power generation, domestic and industrial uses, etc. The storage up stream of this barrier can be achieved either by the raised crest, in case of weir or by a raised crest supplemented by gates or shutters working over the crest, in case of barrage.

Comparison between weir and barrage

Weir
Movable Weir A movable weir (figure 3.7) is a structure to secure the required water level for water intake and safe flow of water by means of gate operation and ensure safety against the action of flowing water, etc and other relating external forces Fixed weir A fixed weir (figure 3.9) is such structure as to secure the required water level at the time of intake, to avoid a considerable obstacle to floods and to have a section which is safe enough against external forces and is advantageous from the hydraulic point of view .

Weir types cross sections

Weirs classification based on material of construction

Weirs may be classified according to the material of construction and certain design features as Masonry weirs with vertical drop or vertical drop weirs Rock fills weirs with sloping aprons Concrete weirs with a downstream glacis

Masonry weirs (Vertical drop weirs) consists of:

An impervious horizontal floor or apron A masonry weir wall (with both upstream and downstream faces vertical; or both faces inclined; or upstream face vertical and downstream face inclined) Block protection at upstream end of floor, and a graded inverted filter at the downstream end of floor Launching aprons or impervious aprons (or floors) after block protection and inverted filters. This type of weirs are very old and becoming obsolete

Weir body
U/S wing wall

Under sluice

Downstream Wing wall

Rock fill weir with sloping aprons:

It is the simplest type of construction. It consists of Masonry weir well Dry packed bounders laid in the form of glacis or sloping aprons in the upstream and downstream sides of the weir wall Such type of weir requires huge quantity of rock(stone) and is economical only when stone is easily available at the site

Crest level

Down stream slopping apron

Rock fill

Ma sonr y

Concrete weir with d/s glacis:

It is of recent origin and its design is based on sub-surface flow concept. Hydraulic jump is developed on the glacis due to which considerable energy is dissipated. Protection works such as inverted filter; block protection and lunching apron are provided. It can be constructed on pervious foundation. Sheet piles of sufficient depths are provided both at upstream and downstream ends of the floor. Providing shutters controls the flow over weir. This type of weir is best suited on pervious foundation.

Basic design consideration

Detailed design deals with: Hydrological Analysis, Hydraulic and Structural design of intake weirs, inlets, related structures and operation & maintenance facilities, based on the design criteria and dimensions which are set up in the basic design.

Hydraulic Design of the Weir

Before starting the design of weir it will be interesting to know the effect the construction of a weir has on the regime of the river. The following are the main consequences: The heading up of water upstream during the major part of the year leads to flattering of the surface slope on the upstream side. As a result of a flattering of slope, the silt carrying capacity of the water decreases, causing the heavier grade to deposit in the upstream pond & form Irregular shoals.

Data required
The data required for a design of a weir are: Area of the drainage basin, length & slope of the main river/gully up to the weir site, one day maximum point rainfall data, Maximum Flood discharge that is likely to occur, Minimum discharge, Full supply level of canals, cross section of the river at the weir site, longitudinal section of the river, median size of the river bed material etc.

Shape of the Weir

The shape of the weir is decided based on the practicability and economy of the structure. Whether to use rock fill, masonry or concrete for the construction of the weir & which weir section to adopt, broad/sharp crested or ogee weir depends on the availability of the construction material, the workmanship & the cost of construction.

Clear waterway
The shorter the weir the less will be the cost of the main structure but on account of the increase in discharge per unit run The length of waterway is usually determined from Laceys wetted perimeter. Lacey developed the equations based on the analysis of large amount of data collected on several river gullies. The wetted perimeter, p is given by

Theoretical Rating Curve

Discharge and Head over the Weir

Afflux
It is the difference in water level at any point upstream of the weir before & after the construction of the weir. The Afflux affects the water level appreciably long upstream of the weir. For high afflux the length of the weir is decreased but the cost of training works shoots up so that the risk of failure by scouring & outflanking increases.

Silt Factor
Where: mr= Median size of the river bed material as determined from the sieve analysis All irrigation structures should be designed against scour which occurs due to surface flow. Suitable protection works are provided to check the possibility of scour holes traveling close to the impervious floor & damage the main structure.

Normal Scour depth (R)

The sheet piles & at the upstream & downstream ends of the impervious floor should be provided up to the deepest scour level. According to Lacey, the Normal Scour R in alluvial soil is given by:

Weir Height

Water surface profile at the weir site

The water profile of the weir at the upstream and downstream should be determined which will be used in design of the appurtenant structures of the weir and infixing the dimension of these structures. Therefore, the water profile upstream and downstream of the weir is determined as follows.

Water Surface Profile at the upstream of the Weir

Water Surface Profile downstream of the Weir

Once the crest level is decided, it is required to draw the water profile for the design flood, Q max (For 50 year Return period usually) discharge. The water profile is required to Carry out the stability analysis of the weir, Design the weir structurally, Design the downstream wing wall and protection works downstream of the apron.

Determine the sequent depth D1 and D2:

Energy Dissipation below the Weir

Water flowing over the weir has a very high kinetic energy because of the conversion of the entire potential energy to the kinetic energy. . The energy-dissipating device can be broadly classified into two types. Devices using a hydraulic jump for the dissipation of energy Devices using a bucket for the dissipation of energy. The choice of energy-dissipating device is governed by the tail water depth & the characteristics of the hydraulic Jump, if formed, at the toe. The hydraulic jump type energy dissipaters dissipate excess energy through formation of highly turbulent rollers within the jump.

Structural Design of the Weir

Diversion weirs are constructed from a variety of materials. The most commonly used materials are reinforced concrete, masonry, and gabions. However, whatever materials are used, the structural analysis remains almost the same.

Acting Forces on Weirs

All external forces acting on a weir are the result of flowing water in the canal or river on which the structure is constructed. A typical force system of a weir consists of the following components: Static water pressure of the surface water Uplift water pressure Soil reaction at the weir base Friction forces at the base which develop to balance the horizontal forces Weight of the weir and water wedges.

General Stability Conditions

Design of Weir Wall

The design of the wall involves the determination of its top and bottom widths such that the section will be stable under the condition of maximum stress. Top Width As the main weir body is broad crested weir with vertical upstream & slopping downstream side, the top width is determined considering no tension & no sliding criteria.

Bottom Width
The bottom width should be sufficient so that the maximum comprehensive stresses are within the allowable limit & tension does not develop. The bottom width B of the weir wall is determined by equating the overturning moments to the resisting moments about the outer middle third of the bottom width of the weir wall taking the following critical states of flow. State I: when the upstream water or headwater is at crest level and there is no flow. State II: when water is flowing over the weir crest and the weir is submerged. State III: When water is flowing over the weir crest and weir is discharging with a clear over flow.

Stability Analysis
Taking this into account the stability analysis is done based on the following assumptions: The base of the weir is pervious i.e. water seeps from the upstream side freely through the base to the downstream side No water is flowing over the weir and no water parading is in downstream.

The following points have to be considered while analyzing the stability of the weir body: Factor of safety against overturning Factor of safety against sliding Check for the development of tension failure Check for crushing failure

Theories of Subsurface flow

Blighs Theory Bligh assumed that the interface between the relatively smooth base of a hydraulic structure and the sub-grade forms an easy path through which water can flow. This is called the creep path and its length the creep length.

Khoslas theory
According to this theory, it is absolutely essential to have a reasonably deep cutoff at the downstream end of the floor to prevent piping. Khosla and his associates gave the mathematical solution for a composite floor. Usually, a hydraulic structure consists of a combination of a number of elementary forms. The uplift pressures obtained from the superposition of the individual forms are to be corrected because the individual pressures have been obtained based on the following assumptions: The floor is of negligible thickness There is only one cutoff wall The floor is horizontal

Causes of failures of weirs on permeable foundations

The most common causes of failures of weirs constructed on permeable foundations may be broadly classified into two categories: I. Failure due to subsurface flow The main failures due to the sub surface flow: piping failure, rupture failure of the apron floor & the exit gradient may be steeper than the safe GE. II. Failure due to surface flow Development of scour holes that travels close to the impervious floor and damage the main structure & failure of the structure due to absence of appropriate energy dissipation downstream of the weir.

Measures to be adopted for the above mentioned failures

The thickness of the floor should be sufficient to resist the uplift pressure due to the subsurface flow as the floor is usually designed as gravity section. A suitable graded filter should be provided at the downstream end of the impervious floor to prevent piping & sufficient creep length has to be provided to keep the exit gradient safe.

A device is required at the downstream to dissipate & accommodate the energy due to the surface flow.
Cutoff walls at the upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor should be provided up to the maximum scour level to prevent the main structure against scour.

Depth of pile below the bed level

Floor length
Cutoff walls and aprons are usually provided to prevent the piping under the structure, and to limit the intensity of the uplift so that the stability of the structure will not be threatened. Care must be exercised to ensure that the joint b/n the weir body and upstream apron are properly tied. According to Bligh theory the required creep length is computed as:

L CH
Where: L = Percolation distance (m) H = Maximum head (m) C = Blighs percolation Coefficient

Thickness of the floor

Upstream floor thickness The thickness of the upstream apron can be based on the practice of the construction and perfection of leakage proofing 0.5-1.0m thick is usually sufficient for this purpose in case of masonry. Downstream floor thickness For the downstream apron, the thickness to be determined depends on whether static or dynamic cases are being considered. The lower parts of the apron will generally require larger thickness when the static case is selected, while the opposite is true for the toe section of the weir.

Check by Khoslas theory

In the above portion the thickness of the floor is designed based on the Blighs creep theory. So the safe exit gradient and the floor thickness of the structure will be checked by Khoslas theory. Applying corrections on the key points like thickness, slope, interference (key points are junctions of the floor, the pile lines on either side, the bottom point of the pile line and the bottom corners in the case of a depressed floor.)

Inverted filter and launching apron

Divide Wall
It is masonry or concrete wall with top width of 1.5 to 2.5m constructed at right angles to the axis of the weir and separates the `weir proper` from under sluices. The divide wall extends on the u/s side beyond the beginning of the canal head regulator and on the d/s side, it extends up to the end of the loos protection of the under sluices (see photo) These walls are founded on well foundation closely spaced and taken well bellow the deepest possible scour

The main functions of a divide wall are: To separate the floor of the under sluices which is at lower level from the weir proper, To help in providing a comparatively less turbulent pocket near the canal head regulator resulting in deposition of silt in this pocket and, thus to help entry of silt-free water into the canal; To isolate the pocket u/s of the canal head regulator & facilitate scouring operation; To prevent formations of cross-currents to avoid their damaging effects on the weir

Design consideration
Silt pressure up to the full tank level on the pocket side when the river level is low. At this time there is no water on the river side or the pocket side.

Difference of water pressure of about 0.25 to 2.0m on both sides depending on the height of the wall.

Design of protection work

The concrete floor of a weir or barrage is protected on the u/s as well as d/s by loose apron. In the immediate vicinity of the flood, a certain portion of the loose apron is made non-launching. The non-launching apron prevents the scour hole travel close to the floor or sheet pile line; where as launching apron is designed to launch along the slope of the scour hole to prevent further scooping out of the underlying riverbed material.

Silt Excluder
The basic requirements for satisfactory silt exclusion are: It draws relatively silt free water from the top-layers and excludes heavy laden from bottom layers, Entry of water is smooth so s to void turbulence in water & agitating of silt, It provides a smooth surface by paving or plastering the bed and sides to reduce friction & give chance to the silt in the upper layers to settle down in layers adjacent to the bed from where it is led away downstream, & Velocity is reduced in the pocket so s to attract silt load in lower layer.

Design Procedure

Head Regulator
The purpose of the weir is to create sufficient head to supply the min irrigation canal with the design discharge. The design of head regulator should serve the following objects: To make the regulation of supply in the canal easy To control silt entry into the canal To shut out river floods. The canal head regulator is usually gated to control the mount of flow into the canal

Lay Out of Headregulator

The angle between the stream channel and the diversion channel, has considerable effect on the amount of sediment attracted into the diversion channel. An angle of diversion between 30o and 45o can be adopted when a model study is not available, and sediment excluder is not to be provided

De-Silting Basin

Protecting Side Wall

During flood period, flush flood with high velocity give extreme scour to both banks of the river where diversion weir is located. The scouring damage can bring bout bank failure, increase river sediment content and threaten the safety of min hydraulic structures in the diversion weir project. Therefore Protecting side wall is an essential part of a diversion weir; which is important to design properly protecting side wall.

Design Principle
Protecting side wall layout should be determined by comprehensive studying on Channel current condition, Bank geological condition & Project general layout. Structural steadiness and normal life span & other factors should be considered to determine protecting side wall type & construction materiel & make it can meet the requirement of easy construction and relatively low cost as possible.

Bank Protection Length

Bank protection length depends on: upstream & downstream channel water level of weir site, Channel current direction & velocity during flood process, Bank geological condition, Bank protection type. The top elevation of protecting side wall is treated separately on upstream & downstream of overflow weir. In both cases the top level is: Upstream protecting Wall = upstream HFL + Free board Downstream protecting Wall = downstream HFL + Free board

Sediment Control
An important part of any water resources or water diversion project is the design of effective sediment control measures aimed at reduction of sediment yield from the catchment. The most important of all the measures to reduce soil erosion is the land use management and cropping practices, and these range from arable farming to forestry. Depending on topography and intensity of land use additional engineering works may be necessary. Terracing, check dam, percolation pond, contour farming,

Degradation of the river bed

Degradation involves the lowering of a river bed over a long river reach or several reaches and is often progressive (ongoing). The lowering is achieved by the reduction of sediment load or by the lowering of a downstream control level such as a lake level. The degradation process can move in a downstream direction as well as upstream.

Aggradation of the river bed

Aggradation involves the rising of a river-bed over a fairly long river reach and is usually the result of an increase in bed load from a diversion or from sand/gravel dumping into a river system, or from increased bank erosion upstream. Alluvial fans are aggradation zones due to the fact that there is a sharp reduction in velocity where the river and sediment exit from a gorge onto an alluvial plain.

There are two distinctly different processes of aggradation as shown below

General Features of Flow Diversion

Flow patterns One of the primary design tasks of diversion structures is to keep the amount of sediment diverted to a minimum. For this two well-known hydraulic phenomena are basic Curved flow paths are associated with secondary currents; Increased turbulence increases the sediment content of flow.

Sediment Control at Diversion Weirs

A partial solution is to control the sediment at the canal intake or in the main river channel and if sediment enters the canal then canal structures, such as sediment ejectors, can be incorporated. The various methods are summarized and grouped as

Sediment Control within the River Curvature of a River

One of the simplest methods for control of sediment movement at weirs is to locate a weir near the end of a river bend with the intake on the outside of the bend, because sediment (bedload) generally moves to the inside of the bend. However, the location of an intake at the outside of a river bend generally does not solve the problem of sediment control it is usually necessary to add some form of under sluices to move sediment through the weir.

Role of intake structure in sediment control

The intake structure (or head regulator) is a hydraulic device constructed at the head of an irrigation or power canal, or a tunnel conduit through which the flow is diverted from the original source such as a reservoir or a river. The main purposes of the intake structure are To admit and regulate water from the source, and possibly to meter the flow rate, To minimize the silting of the canal, i.e. to control the sediment entry into the canal at its intake, and To prevent the clogging of the entrance with floating debris.

The raised inlet sill to prevent entry of the bed load of the river; The skimmer wall (with splitter pier) at the inlet to trap floating ice and debris; The coarse rack (trash rack) to trap subsurface trash, equipped with either manual or automatic power-driven rack cleaning devices; The settling basin (sand trap) followed by a secondary sill (entrance sill) diverting the bottom (sediment-laden) layers towards the de-silting canal; The flushing (de-silting) sluice to flush the deposited silt; The intake (head regulator) gates to control the flow rate into the canal; The scouring (tunnel) sluices in the diversion weir to flush the bed load upstream of the inlet sill.

Location and alignment of an intake

The river reach upstream of the intake should be well established with stable banks. As the bottom layers of the flow around a bend are swept towards its inside (convex) bank (see figure 3.30 and 3.31), it is obvious that the best location for an intake (to avoid bed load entry) is the outer (concave) bank, with the intake located towards the downstream end of the bend.

This choice of location from the sediment exclusion point of view is not always possible and other considerations such as the pond (command) levels and their variations, navigation hazards, and location of the diversion structure, pump/power house, and outfalls must be considered

Silt excluder
The silt excluder is a device constructed in the river bed just upstream of the regulator to exclude silt from the water (source) entering the canal. It is so designed that the top and bottom layers of flow are separated with the least possible disturbance, the top sediment-free water being led towards the canal while the bottom sediment-laden water is discharged downstream of the diversion structure through under sluices. The device basically consists of a number of tunnels (Figure 3.36) in the floor of the deep pocket of the river, isolated by a dividing wall.

Silt ejector or extractor

The silt ejector is a device constructed on the canal downstream of the head regulator but upstream of the settling basin (if any), by which the silt, after it has entered the canal, is extracted. Vane type ejector: Vortex tube type ejector. Settling basin

Operation & Maintenance

Systematically operating and maintaining of the system implies a great way in achieving the great goal for which the scheme exists. Proper operation and maintenance work of the scheme can enhance the following intended purposes the target of crops production through irrigation system, increase efficient power production in river runoff hydropower, Improve the live hoods of society, improvement of economic & financial status and preventing the environment for better ecology in sustainable manner.

Operation of Headwork
After a headwork is constructed the main factor in preventing sediment accumulation in front of the intake is the way the gate operates. At the beginning of the irrigation the gates of under sluice should be fully remain close where as the intake gate should be opened. If there is accumulation of sediment is created in front of the intake the sluice gates should be opened. This is to flush out the sediment load that is accumulated in front of the head regulator and not to enter sediment particles to the intake canal respectively. Before operation upstream of the sluice should be cleaned properly to promote effective flushing of sediment

During dry season irrigation the sluice gates remain closed while the off take gate is opened. Operation of silt excluder gates should be done during the start of the rainy season so that the silt is carried away by the high velocity created in the silt excluder and deep channel formed in its front for a long length. During this time the sluice gate should be remain open while the off take gates closed. In case of supplementary irrigation, after the sediment is flushed out, the opposite holds true.

The leakage through the gates (bottom or sideways) has to be stopped, The trash rack behind the sluice gate should be moved during the rainy season or operation of the gates. During lean flow no over flow through the main weir structure is to be encouraged.

Maintenance of Headwork
The efficiency & sustainability of the scheme lie upon the nature of maintenance of the components involved in the system. Where as the system efficiency declines with time because of Accumulation of sediment upstream of the weir Blocking of flow due to the accumulation of logs & debris in the trash rack mesh. Destruction of part of the diversion structures especially the upstream downstream wing wall and protection structure and this result in change in river course Leakage through the closed under sluice Picking up of weir crest and downstream face of the weir with aggressive water

The activities involved in the repair & maintenance of the headwork is: Repair & maintenance of the toe of the weir crest, & the downstream stone pitching, Repair & maintenance of the sidewalls General checking of sidewall & function of weep holes Repair & maintenance of gates & trash rack Periodical flushing of silt deposited in the weir & silt excluder bays