Englishnoteforsemester 3 and 4

2013 - 2014
English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi
2013-2014 Mirwais Neeka Institute of Higher Education Medical Department
Contents
Topic #
Topic:1 Topic:2 Topic:3 Topic:4 Topic:5 Topic:6 Topic:7 Topic:8
Topic Description
Parts of Speech Tenses Sentence Words, phrases, and Clauses Active voice and Passive voice Direct and Indirect statements Professional Report writing Verbs and its forms
Page #
3 8 29 36 43 46 52 55
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Topic: 1
Parts of Speech
There are thousands of words in any language. But not all words have the same job. For example, some words express "action". Other words express a "thing". Other words "join" one word to another word. These are the "building blocks" of the language. Think of them like the parts of a house. When we want to build a house, we use concrete to make the foundations or base. We use bricks to make the walls. We use window frames to make the windows, and door frames to make the doorways. And we use cement to join them all together. Each part of the house has its own job. And when we want to build a sentence, we use the different types of word. Each type of word has its own job. We can categorize English words into 8 basic types or classes. These classes are called "parts of speech". Following are the parts of speech.
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Noun Verb Adjective Adverb Pronoun Preposition Conjunctions Interjections Articles (not always)
1 Noun
A noun is often defined as a word which names a person, place or thing. Here are some examples of nouns: boy, river, friend, Mexico, triangle, day, school, truth, university, idea, Ahmad movie, aunt, vacation, eye, dream, flag, teacher, class, grammar. Ahmad is a noun because it is the name of a person; Mexico is a noun because it is the name of a place; and boy is a noun because it is the name of a thing. Some grammar books divide nouns into 2 groups - proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns are nouns which begin with a capital letter because it is the name of a specific or particular person place or thing. Some examples of proper nouns are: Mexico, Ahmad, Atlantic Ocean, February, Monday, New York City, Yasimin. If you see a word beginning with a capital letter in the middle of a sentence, it is probably a proper noun. Most nouns are common nouns and do not begin with a capital letter.
2 Verb
A verb is often defined as a word which shows action or state of being. The verb is the heart of a sentence - every sentence must have a verb. Recognizing the verb is often the most important
Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi Page 3

step in understanding the meaning of a sentence. In the sentence The dog bit the man, bit is the verb and the word which shows the action of the sentence. In the sentence The man is sitting on a chair, even though the action doesn't show much activity, sitting is the verb of the sentence. In the sentence She is a smart girl, there is no action but a state of being expressed by the verb is. The word be is different from other verbs in many ways but can still be thought of as a verb. Unlike most of the other parts of speech, verbs change their form. Sometimes endings are added (learn - learned) and sometimes the word itself becomes different (teach-taught). The different forms of verbs show different meanings related to such things as tense (past, present, future), person (first person, second person, third person), number (singular, plural) and voice (active, passive). Verbs are also often accompanied by verb-like words called modals (may, could, should, etc.) and auxiliaries(do, have, will, etc.) to give them different meanings. One of the most important things about verbs is their relationship to time. Verbs tell if something has already happened, if it will happen later, or if it is happening now. For things happening now, we use the present tense of a verb; for something that has already happened, we use the past tense; and for something that will happen later, we use the future tense.
Verbs may be treated as two different parts of speech: o Lexical Verbs (work, like, run) o Auxiliary Verbs (be, have, must)
3 Adjective
An adjective is often defined as a word which describes or gives more information about a noun or pronoun. Adjectives describe nouns in terms of such qualities as size, color, number, and kind. In the sentence The lazy dog sat on the rug (carpet), the word lazy is an adjective which gives more information about the noun dog. We can add more adjectives to describe the dog as well as in the sentence The lazy, old, brown dog sat on the rug. We can also add adjectives to describe the rug as in the sentence The lazy, old, brown dog sat on the beautiful, expensive, new rug. The adjectives do not change the basic meaning or structure of the sentence, but they do give a lot more information about the dog and the rug. As you can see in the example above, when more than one adjective is used, a comma (,) is used between the adjectives. Usually an adjective comes before the noun that it describes, as in tall man. It can also come after a form of the word The man is tall. More than one adjective can be used in this position in the sentence The man is tall, dark and handsome Most adjectives do not change form whether the noun it describes is singular or plural. For example we say big tree and big trees, old house and old houses, good time and good times. There are, however, some adjectives that do have different singular and plural forms. The common words this and that have the plural forms these and those. These words are called demonstrative adjectives because demonstrate or point out what is being referred to.

Another common type of adjective is the possessive (self) adjective which shows possession or ownership. The words my dog or my dogs indicate that the dog or dogs belong to me. I would use the plural form our if the dog or dogs belonged to me and other people.
4 Adverb
We have seen that an adjective is a word that gives more information about a noun or pronoun. An adverb is usually defined as a word that gives more information about a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives and adverbs in terms of such qualities as time, frequency and manner. In the sentence Sue runs fast, fast describes how or the manner in which Ahmad runs. In the sentence Ahmad runs very fast, very describes the adverb fast and gives information about how fast Ahmad runs. Most, but not all adverbs end in -ly as in But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs (ugly is an adjective, supply and reply can both be nouns or verbs). Many times an adjective can be made into an adverb by adding -ly as in nicely, quickly, completely, sincerely. Adverbs of time tell when something happens and adverbs of frequency tell how often something happens.
5 Pronoun
A pronoun is often defined as a word which can be used instead of a noun. For example, instead of saying Ahmad is a student, the pronoun he can be used in place of the noun Ahmad and the sentence becomes He is a student. We use pronouns very often, especially so that we do not have to keep on repeating a noun. This chapter is about the kind of pronoun called a personal pronoun because it often refers to a person. Like nouns, personal pronouns sometimes have singular and plural forms (I-we, he-they). Unlike nouns, personal pronouns sometimes have different forms for masculine/male, feminine/female. Also unlike nouns, personal pronouns have different forms depending on if they act as subjects or objects (he-him, she-her). A subject is a word which does an action and usually comes before the verb, and an object is a word that receives an action and usually comes after the verb. For example, in the sentence Yesterday Yasimin called her mother, Yasimin is the subject and mother is the object. The pronoun she can be used instead of Yasimin and the pronoun her can be used instead of mother. The form of a personal pronoun also changes according to what person is referred to. Person is used here as a grammar word and means:
1st person or the self (I, me, we), 2nd person or the person spoken to (you), 3rd person or the person spoken about (he, she, him, her, they, them).
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There is also a possessive form of the pronoun. Just as we can make a noun possessive as in the sentence That is my father's book to mean That is the book of my father, we can make the pronoun possessive and say That book is his. There are possessive adjective forms (such as my, your, his, her etc.). Possessive pronouns can stand by themselves without nouns, but possessive adjectives, like other adjectives, are used together with nouns. There is also an intensive (concentrated) form of the pronoun which intensifies or emphasizes the noun that it comes after as in the sentence I myself saw him. The reflexive form of the pronoun looks exactly like the intensive form but is used when the subject and object of a verb refers to the same person as in the sentence I saw myself in the mirror. All of this may sound confusing, but if you study the chart below, it will be clearer: Singular Person 1st 2
nd rd
Subject I You he/she/it
Object me you him/her/it
Possessive Mine Yours his/hers
Intensive Reflexive Myself Yourself himself/herself/itself Intensive Reflexive Ourselves Yourselves Themselves
3 Plural Person 1st 2 3

nd rd
Subject We You They
Object us you them
Possessive Ours Yours Theirs
6- Prepositions
A preposition is a word which shows relationships among other words in the sentence. The relationships include direction, place, time, cause, manner and amount. In the sentence She went to the store, to is a preposition which shows direction. In the sentence He came by bus, by is a preposition which shows manner. In the sentence They will be here at three o'clock, at is a preposition which shows time and in the sentence It is under the table, under is a preposition which shows place. A preposition always goes with a noun or pronoun which is called the object of the preposition. The preposition is almost always before the noun or pronoun and that is why it is called a preposition. The preposition and the object of the preposition together are called a prepositional phrase. The following chart shows the prepositions, objects of the preposition, and prepositional phrases of the sentences above.

Preposition To By At Under Object of the Preposition the store Bus three o'clock the table Prepositional Phrase to the store by bus at three o'clock under the table
7 Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that connects other words or groups of words. In the sentence Ahmad and Nasir are friends the conjunction and connects two nouns and in the sentence He will drive or fly, the conjunction or connects two verbs. In the sentence It is early but we can go, the conjunction but connects two groups of words. Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions which connect two equal parts of a sentence. The most common ones are and, or, but, and so which are used in the following ways: and is used to join or add words together in the sentence They ate and drank. or is used to show choice or possibilities as in the sentence He will be here on Monday or Tuesday. but is used to show opposite or conflicting ideas as in the sentence She is small but strong. so is used to show result as in the sentence I was tired so I went to sleep. Subordinating conjunctions connect two parts of a sentence that are not equal. some of the more common subordinating conjunctions such as: after although as because before if since than unless until when while
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. In the sentence Both Jan and Meg are good swimmers, both . . .and are correlative conjunctions. The most common correlative conjunctions are: both . . .and either . . . or neither . . . nor not only . . . but also
8-Interjections
Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi Page 7

When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.
9 Articles
An article is a kind of adjective which is always used with and gives some information about a noun. There are only two articles a and the, but they are used very often and are important for using English accurately. The word a (which becomes an when the next word begins with a vowel - a, e, i, o, u) is called the indefinite article because the noun it goes with is indefinite or general. The meaning of the article a is similar to the number one, but one is stronger and gives more emphasis. It is possible to say I have a book or I have one book, but the second sentence emphasizes that I do not have two or three or some other number of books. The word the is known as the definite article and indicates a specific thing. The difference between the sentences I sat on a chair and I sat on the chair is that the second sentence refers to a particular, specific chair, not just any chair. Many nouns, especially singular forms of countable, must have an article. In English, it is not possible to say I sat on chair without an article, but a demonstrative or possessive adjective can be used instead of an article as in the sentences I sat on that chair and I sat on his chair. Whenever you see an article, you will find a noun with it. The noun may be the next word as in the man or there may be adjectives and perhaps adverbs between the article and the noun as in the very angry, young man.
A short overview on the table of parts of speech

part of speech function or "job" example words example sentences
Verb
action or state
(to) be, have, do, like, work, sing, can, must pen, dog, work, music, town, London, teacher, John
EnglishClub.com is a web site. I like EnglishClub.com.
Noun
thing or person
This is my dog. He lives in my house. We live in London.
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a/an, the, 2, some, good, big, red, well, interesting I have two dogs. My dogs are big. I like big dogs.
Adjective
describes a noun
Adverb
describes a verb, adjective or adverb
quickly, silently, well, badly, very, really
My dog eats quickly. When he is very hungry, he eats really quickly. Tara is Indian. She is beautiful.
Pronoun
replaces a noun links a noun to another word
I, you, he, she, some
Preposition
to, at, after, on, but
We went to school on Monday.
Conjunction
joins clauses or sentences or words
and, but, when
I like dogs and I like cats. I like cats and dogs. I like dogs but I don't like cats.
Interjection
short exclamation, sometimes inserted into a sentence
oh!, ouch!, hi!, well
Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are you? Well, I don't know.
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Topic: 2
1- Present Indefinite Tense
Present Indefinite for Repeated Actions
Tenses
Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually does not do. Examples:

I play tennis. She does not play tennis. Does he play tennis? The train leaves every morning at 8 AM. The train does not leave at 9 AM. When does the train usually leave? She always forgets her purse. He never forgets his wallet. Every twelve months, the Earth circles the Sun. Does the Sun circle the Earth?
Present Indefinite for Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a fact was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is not important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make generalizations about people or things. Examples:

Cats like milk. Birds do not like milk. Do dogs like milk? Kandahar is in Afghanistan. Kandahar is not in the America. Windows are made of glass. Windows are not made of wood. Kandahar is a small city. It is not important that this fact is untrue (False).
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Present Indefinite for Scheduled Events in the Near Future

Speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled events in the near future. This is most commonly done when talking about public transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled events as well. Examples:

The train leaves tonight at 6 PM. The bus does not arrive at 11 AM, it arrives at 11 PM. When do we board the plane? The party starts at 8 o'clock. When does class begin tomorrow?
Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Speakers sometimes use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is happening or is not happening now. This can only be done with Non-Continuous Verbs and certain Mixed Verbs. Examples:

I am here now. She is not here now. He needs help right now. He does not need help now. He has his passport in his hand. Do you have your passport with you?
2- Present continuous tense

Expressing any event, which is happening now
Use the Present Continuous with Normal Verbs to express the idea that something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be used to show that something is not happening now. Examples:
You are learning English now. You are not swimming now. Are you sleeping? I am sitting.
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I am not standing. Is he sitting or standing? They are reading their books. They are not watching television. What are you doing? Why aren't you doing your homework?
Longer Actions in Progress Now

In English, "now" can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second. Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in a restaurant.)
I am studying to become a doctor. I am not studying to become a dentist. I am reading the book of Computer. I am not reading any books right now. Are you working on any special projects at work? Aren't you teaching at the university now?
Present continuous expressing Near Future

Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that something will or will not happen in the near future. Examples:
I am meeting some friends after work. I am not going to the party tonight. Is he visiting his parents next weekend? Isn't he coming with us tonight?
Repetition and Irritation (negative emotion) with "Always"

The Present Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens. Notice that the meaning is like Simple Present, but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and "verb+ing."
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Examples:
She is always coming to class late. He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up. I don't like them because they are always complaining.
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Present Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Present. Examples:
She is loving this chocolate ice cream. Not Correct She loves this chocolate ice cream. Correct
3- Present Perfect Tense

Unspecified Time Before Now
We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc. Examples:
I have seen that movie twenty times. I think I have met him once before. There have been many earthquakes in Pakistan. People have traveled to the Moon. People have not traveled to Sun. Have you read the book yet? Nobody has ever climbed that mountain. Has there ever been a war in the United States? Yes, there has been a war in the United States.
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4- Present Perfect Continuous

Duration from the Past Until Now
We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect Continuous. Examples:
They have been talking for the last hour. She has been working at that company for three years. What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes? Dr. Ahmad has been teaching at the university since June. We have been waiting here for over two hours! Why has Yasimin not been taking her medicine for the last three days?
Recently, Lately
You can also use the Present Perfect Continuous WITHOUT a duration such as "for two weeks." Without the duration, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately." We often use the words "lately" or "recently" to emphasize this meaning. Examples:
Recently, I have been feeling really tired. She has been watching too much television lately. Have you been exercising lately? Shazia has been feeling a little depressed. Shazia has not been practicing her English. What have you been doing?
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Present Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Present Perfect.
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Examples:
Sam has been having his car for two years. Not Correct Sam has had his car for two years. Correct
5 Past Simple (Indefinite)

Completed Action in the Past
Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind. Examples:
I saw a movie yesterday. I didn't see a play yesterday. Last year, I traveled to Japan. Last year, I didn't travel to Korea. Did you have dinner last night? She washed her car. He didn't wash his car.
Duration in Past
The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc. Examples:
I lived in Pakistan for two years. Yasimin studied Pashto for five years. They sat at the beach all day. They did not stay at the party the entire time. We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.
How long did you wait for them? We waited for one hour.
Habits in the Past


The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc. Examples:
I studied Persian when I was a child. He played football when he was in school. He didn't play the piano. Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid? She worked at the movie theater after school. They never went to school, they always skipped class.
Past Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true. This use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression "used to." Examples:
She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing. He didn't like tomatoes before. Did you live in Kabul when you were a kid? People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.
6 Past Continuous
Interrupted Action in the Past
Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time. Examples:
I was watching TV when she called. When the phone rang, she was writing a letter. While we were having the picnic, it started to rain. What were you doing when the earthquake started? I was listening to my iPod, so I didn't hear the fire alarm. You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off.
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While Ahmad was sleeping last night, someone stole his car. Salim was waiting for us when we got off the plane. While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went off.
What were you doing when you broke your leg?
I was snowboarding.
Specific Time as an Interruption
As described above, the Past Continuous is interrupted by a shorter action in the Simple Past. However, you can also use a specific time as an interruption. Examples:
Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner. At midnight, we were still driving through the desert. Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.
Parallel Actions
When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions were happening at the same time. The actions are parallel. Examples:
I was studying while he was making dinner. While Shazia was reading, Ahmad was watching television. Were you listening while he was talking? I wasn't paying attention while I was writing the letter, so I made several mistakes. What were you doing while you were waiting? Salim wasn't working, and I wasn't working either. They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.
Atmosphere
In English, we often use a series of parallel actions to describe the atmosphere at a particular time in the past. Example:
When I walked into the office, several people were busily typing, some were talking
on the phones, and customers were waiting to be helped. One customer was yelling at a secretary and waving his hands. Others were complaining to each other about the bad service. Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi Page 17

Repetition and Irritation with "Always"
The Past Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happened in the past. The concept is very similar to the expression "used to" but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and "verb+ing." Examples:
She was always coming to class late. He was constantly talking. He annoyed everyone. I didn't like them because they were always complaining.
7 Past Perfect
Completed Action Before Something in the Past
The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past. Examples:
I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Karachi. I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet. Ahmad knew Kabul so well because he had visited the city several times. Had Shazia ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand? She only understood the movie because she had read the book. We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked in advance. Had you ever visited the U.S. before your trip in 2006? Yes, I had been to the U.S. once before.
IMPORTANT Specific Times with the Past Perfect
Unlike with the Present Perfect, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the Past Perfect. Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary. Example:
She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in
1996.
MOREOVER
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If the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past can be used instead of the Past Perfect when "before" or "after" is used in the sentence. The words "before" and "after" actually tell you what happens first, so the Past Perfect is optional. For this reason, both sentences below are correct. Examples:
She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in
1996. She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.
HOWEVER If the Past Perfect is not referring to an action at a specific time, Past Perfect is not optional. Compare the examples below. Here Past Perfect is referring to a lack of experience rather than an action at a specific time. For this reason, Simple Past cannot be used. Examples:
She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not Correct She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. Correct
8- Past Perfect Continuous

Duration Before Something in the Past
We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past. "For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the duration does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the past. Examples:
They had been talking for over an hour before Ahmad arrived. She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of
business. How long had you been waiting to get on the bus? Jasim wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work. Ahmad had been teaching at the university for more than a year before he left for Asia.

How long had you been studying English before you moved to America? Ha not been studying English very long.
Past Continuous vs. Past Perfect Continuous

If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since Friday," many English speakers choose to use the Past Continuous rather than the Past Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Past Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Past Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the past. Study the examples below to understand the difference. Examples:
He was tired because he was exercising so hard. THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WAS TIRED BECAUSE HE WAS EXERCISING AT THAT EXACT MOMENT. He was tired because he had been exercising so hard. THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WAS TIRED BECAUSE HE HAD BEEN EXERCISING OVER A PERIOD OF TIME. IT IS POSSIBLE THAT HE WAS STILL EXERCISING AT THAT MOMENT OR THAT HE HAD JUST FINISHED.
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Past Perfect. Examples:
The motorcycle had been belonging to George for years before Tina bought it.
Not Correct The motorcycle had belonged to George for years before Tina bought it. Correct
9 Future Simple
Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to." Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. These different meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with time and practice, the differences will become clear. Both "will" and "be going to" refer to a specific time in the future.
"Will" to Express a Voluntary (with intent) Action


"Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. A voluntary action is one the speaker offers to do for someone else. Often, we use "will" to respond to someone else's complaint or request for help. We also use "will" when we request that someone help us or volunteer to do something for us. Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we refuse to voluntarily do something. Examples:
I will send you the information when I get it. I will translate the email, so Mr. Ahmad can read it. Will you help me move this heavy table? Will you make dinner? I will not do your homework for you. I won't do all the housework myself! I'm really hungry. I'll make some sandwiches. I'm so tired. I'm about to fall asleep.
I'll get you some coffee. The phone is ringing. I'll get it.
"Will" to Express a Promise

"Will" is usually used in promises. Examples:
I will call you when I arrive. If I am elected President of the Afghanistan, I will make sure everyone has
access to inexpensive health insurance. I promise I will not tell him about the surprise party. Don't worry, I'll be careful. I won't tell anyone your secret.
"Be going to" to Express a Plan

"Be going to" expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the idea that a person intends to do something in the future. It does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not. Examples:

He is going to spend his vacation in Kabul. She is not going to spend her vacation in Kabul. A: When are we going to meet each other tonight?
B: We are going to meet at 6 PM. I'm going to be an actor when I grow up. Ahmad is going to begin medical school next year. They are going to drive all the way to Kabul. Who are you going to invite to the party? A: Who is going to make Jasim's birthday cake? B: Sue is going to make Jasim's birthday cake.
"Will" or "Be Going to" to Express a Prediction

Both "will" and "be going to" can express the idea of a general prediction about the future. Predictions are guesses about what might happen in the future. In "prediction" sentences, the subject usually has little control over the future and therefore Previous methods do not apply. In the following examples, there is no difference in meaning. Examples:
The year 2222 will be a very interesting year. The year 2222 is going to be a very interesting year. Ahmad will be the next President. Ahmad is going to be the next President. The movie "Zenith" will win several Academy Awards. The movie "Zenith" is going to win several Academy Awards.
IMPORTANT
In the Simple Future, it is not always clear which USE the speaker has in mind. Often, there is more than one way to interpret a sentence's meaning.
No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, the Simple Future cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Simple Future, Simple Present is used. Examples:
When you will arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Not Correct When you arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Correct
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10- Future Continuous Tense

Future Continuous has two different forms: "will be doing " and "going to be." Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Continuous forms are usually interchangeable.
FORM Future Continuous with "Will"
[will be + present participle] Examples:

You will be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight. Will you be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight? You will not be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.
FORM Future Continuous with "Be Going To "
[am/is/are + going to be + present participle] Examples:

You are going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight. Are you going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight? You are not going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.
Interrupted Action in the Future
Use the Future Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the future will be interrupted by a shorter action in the future. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time. Examples:
I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight. I will be waiting for you when your bus arrives. I am going to be staying at the Kabul Hotel, if anything happens and you need to
contact me. He will be studying at the library tonight, so he will not see Shazia when she arrives.
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Notice in the examples above that the interruptions (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because the interruptions are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses.
Specific Time as an Interruption in the Future
As described above, the Future Continuous is interrupted by a short action in the future. In addition to using short actions as interruptions, you can also use a specific time as an interruption. Examples:
Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner. I WILL BE IN THE PROCESS OF EATING DINNER. At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the desert. WE WILL BE IN THE PROCESS OF DRIVING THROUGH THE DESERT.
REMEMBER In the Simple Future, a specific time is used to show the time an action will begin or end. In the Future Continuous, a specific time interrupts the action. Examples:
Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to eat dinner. I AM GOING TO START EATING AT 6 PM. Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner. I AM GOING TO START EARLIER AND I WILL BE IN THE PROCESS OF EATING DINNER AT 6 PM.
Parallel Actions in the Future
When you use the Future Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions will be happening at the same time. The actions are parallel. Examples:
I am going to be studying and he is going to be making dinner. Tonight, they will be eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time. While Ahmad is reading, Jasim will be watching television.
Atmosphere in the Future
In English, we often use a series of Parallel Actions to describe atmosphere at a specific point in the future.
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Example:
When I arrive at the party, everybody is going to be celebrating. Some will be
dancing. Others are going to be talking. A few people will be eating pizza, and several people are going to be drinking Tea. They always do the same thing. REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses
Like all future tenses, the Future Continuous cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Continuous, Present Continuous is used. Examples:
While I am going to be finishing my homework, she is going to make dinner. Not
Correct While I am finishing my homework, she is going to make dinner. Correct AND REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs
It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Future Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Future. Examples:
Jane will be being at my house when you arrive. Not Correct Jane will be at my house when you arrive. Correct
11- Future Perfect

Future Perfect has two different forms: "will have done" and "be going to have done." Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Perfect forms are usually interchangeable.
FORM Future Perfect with "Will"

[will have + past participle] Examples:
You will have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S. Will you have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.?
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You will not have perfected your English by the time you come back from the
U.S.
FORM Future Perfect with "Be Going To"

[am/is/are + going to have + past participle] Examples:
You are going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from
the U.S. Are you going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.? You are not going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.
Completed Action Before Something in the Future

The Future Perfect expresses the idea that something will occur before another action in the future. It can also show that something will happen before a specific time in the future. Examples:
By next November, I will have received my promotion. By the time he gets home, she is going to have cleaned the entire house. I am not going to have finished this test by 3 o'clock. Will she have learned enough Chinese to communicate before she moves to
Beijing? Ahmad is probably going to have completed the proposal by the time he leaves this afternoon. By the time I finish this course, I will have taken ten tests. How many countries are you going to have visited by the time you turn 50? Notice in the examples above that the reference points (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because the interruptions are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses.
REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, the Future Perfect cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect, Present Perfect is used.

Examples:
I am going to see a movie when I will have finished my homework. Not
Correct I am going to see a movie when I have finished my homework. Correct
12 - Future Perfect Continuous

Future Perfect Continuous has two different forms: "will have been doing " and "be going to have been doing." Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Perfect Continuous forms are usually interchangeable.
FORM Future Perfect Continuous with "Will"
[will have been + present participle] Examples:

You will have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives. Will you have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives? You will not have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.
FORM Future Perfect Continuous with "Be Going To"
[am/is/are + going to have been + present participle] Examples:

You are going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally
arrives. Are you going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives? You are not going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.
NOTE: It is possible to use either "will" or "be going to" to create the Future Perfect Continuous with little or no difference in meaning.
Duration Before Something in the Future
We use the Future Perfect Continuous to show that something will continue up until a particular event or time in the future. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Friday" are all durations which can be used with the Future Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous;

however, with Future Perfect Continuous, the duration stops at or before a reference point in the future. Examples:
They will have been talking for over an hour by the time Ahmad arrives. She is going to have been working at that company for three years when it finally
closes. Jasim will have been teaching at the university for more than a year by the time he leaves for America. How long will you have been studying when you graduate? We are going to have been driving for over three days straight when we get to Sea. A: When you finish your English course, will you have been living in Kandahar for over a year? B: No, I will not have been living here that long.
Notice in the examples above that the reference points (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because these future events are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses.
Cause of Something in the Future
Using the Future Perfect Continuous before another action in the future is a good way to show cause and effect. Examples:
Jasim will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an
hour. Shazia's English will be perfect when she returns to Germany because she is going to have been studying English in the United States for over two years. Future Continuous vs. Future Perfect Continuous
If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since Friday," many English speakers choose to use the Future Continuous rather than the Future Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Future Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Future Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the future. Study the examples below to understand the difference. Examples:
He will be tired because he will be exercising so hard. THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WILL BE TIRED BECAUSE HE WILL BE EXERCISING AT THAT EXACT MOMENT IN THE FUTURE.
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He will be tired because he will have been exercising so hard. THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WILL BE TIRED BECAUSE HE WILL HAVE BEEN EXERCISING FOR A PERIOD OF TIME. IT IS POSSIBLE THAT HE WILL STILL BE EXERCISING AT THAT MOMENT OR THAT HE WILL JUST HAVE FINISHED.
REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses
Like all future forms, the Future Perfect Continuous cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect Continuous, Present Perfect Continuous is used. Examples:
You won't get a promotion until you will have been working here as long as Tim. Not
Correct You won't get a promotion until you have been working here as long as Tim. Correct
Topic: 3
There are five kind of sentences 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Declarative/assertive sentence Optative sentence Imperative sentence Interrogative sentence Exclamatory sentence
Sentence
1-Declarative /Assertive sentence

A sentence which makes a statement and ends with a full stop (.) is called declarative/ assertive sentence.
Kinds of declarative/assertive sentence
The following are the kind of declarative sentence. 1) 2) 3) 4) Positive/Simple/affirmative sentence. Negative sentence Emphatic sentence Cleft sentence.
1.1 Simple/Positive/Affirmative sentence

a sentence which makes a simple statement is called simple/positive/affirmative sentence. Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi Page 29

Ex He is going to university They are playing I can speak English She should help us We must obey our elders. He could have killed him
1.2 Negative sentence

A sentence which makes negative statement is called negative sentence. Ex He is not going to university. They are not playing. I cannot speak English. She should not help us. He could not killed him.
Double negative sentence

A sentence which has got two nots is called double negative sentence. Two nots are not possible in one sentence. One is not and the other one is a prefix which gives negative sense. And notice that double negative sentences give positive meanings. Ex He is not unit. (it means, he is fit.) It is not impossible. (it means, it is possible.) This book is not incomplete. (it means, it is complete.)
1.3 Emphatic sentence.

A sentence which contains stress /emphasis is called emphatic sentence. Ex (You)Do serve your parents. (You)Do come tomorrow. (You)Do drive but carefully. He does come here. She does go to university. Nasir, I have listened that he comes here every days. I will go to Kabul tomorrow. I will do this work.
1.4 Cleft sentence

To emphasis or stress a subject, object or particular word with a loud and stress voice. Ex It was Ahmad who/that I give the book. Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi Page 30

It was our university who/that minister supported.
2- Optative sentence
A sentence which contains a wish/desire or a pray is called optative sentence. If we express a pray, we put may at the beginning and sign of exclamation (!) at the end of the sentence and in some sentence God comes and in some doesnt come. Structure of using May May + Sub/God+ IV + Obj + ! Ex May you defeat them! May you reach there safe and sound! May we succeed! May God save him from evil eyes! May God make her successful in final examination!
Structure of using Would that/O that / Wish Would that/O that + sub + axillary verb + adj + noun Ex Would that he were the president of Afghanistan! (currently he is not) Would that they were honest! (They are not) O that Kandahar had been a peaceful city! (Kandahar was not peaceful) Would that she had a son! (She doesnt has a son) Would that we had honest leader for our country! (We do not have) Structure of using Wish I + wish+ subject + had+ adj+ noun Ex I wish she had a son! I wish we had honest leader for our country! I wish I lived near the university!
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I wish they had not played him!
3- Imperative sentence
A sentence which contains a command/order, request, proposal/suggestion, offer, invitation, instruction or an advice is called imperative sentence. Imperative sentence starts from first form of the verb and You is the subject of the imperative sentence but it usually not used in the sentence but understood. Imperative sentence may either affirmative or negative.
Ex
Affirmative Close the door. Stand up. Learn this lesson by heart. Turn on the fan. Be silence. Negative Dont make a noise. Dont talk. Dont be disloyal. Dont call him.
Imperative sentence for request

Affirmative Please come here. Please go from this place. Negative Please dont disturb them. Please dont leave university.
Imperative sentence for Directions or instructions.

Ex Take one tablet twice a day with water. Walk dont turn. Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi Page 32

First but the battery in the laptop then start it.
Imperative sentences for advice.

Teacher to student: My dears, dont waste your times. Father to his son: always respect your teachers. Obey your elders. Server your parent. Work hard.
Imperative sentences for Invitation

Come to my wedding. Come and eat lunch with me tomorrow.
Imperative sentences for Offers

Have this cup of tea. Take my book. Take admission in our university.
Imperative sentence for Suggestions/Proposals

Let us go to university. Let us play football. Let us help them in studies. Let us not go to university. Dont let us go out of university. Dont let us be in favor of bad people.
4 Interrogative sentence.
A sentence in which we ask a question and ends with a questions mark is called interrogative sentence. Kinds of interrogative questions. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Yes/No questions. Tag questions. W.H word questions. Negative Yes/No Questions. Alternative questions. Page 33

6) Polite questions.
4.1-Yes/No Questions
Yes, no questions are asked with help of the helping or model auxiliary verbs of the sentence and the answer of Yes, no questions are usually given short with help of the same helping or model auxiliary verb. Ex. Does she go to university? Did they cheat him? Has he been reading since morning? Should he come there? (Yes she does/ no she doesnt) (Yes they did/ No they didnt) (Yes, he has been/No, he has not been) (Yes, he should/ No, he should not)
4.2-Tag questions
Tag questions are small questions, they are asked with the help of the helping or model auxiliary verb of the sentence and are used after a simple or negative statement to confirm the statement. After a simple statement, negative & interrogative tag questions is used and after a negative statement, interrogative tag question is used.
Statement
She is coming with us. She is not coming with us. I cant speak English well. We should help them
Tag questions
Isnt she? Is she? Can i? shouldnt we?
Answers
Yes, she is. No, she isn. No , you cant Yes, we should.
4.3-W.H questions
W.H questions are like What, who, how, why, when, where, whom, whose etc. are introduced by W.H words and W.H questions are used to ask about the reason, time, place, manner of happening something or about the person who did it or to whom it happened or nature of work or nature of profession or nature of designation or to know about the things. Ex Why did it happen? What happened? Where did it happened? When did it happen? Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi (Reason) (Nature of action) (Place) (Time) Page 34

What time did it happen? How did it happen? Whose fault was it? Whom did he kill? Which car he was driving? (Exact time) (Manner)
4.4- Negative Yes/No questions

In negative question, we want to confirm positive statement which both of the speaker and the listener are already aware about. Ex
Positive statement
She is coming to university They went to Kabul He has finished his work He will helping us
Yes/No questions
isnt she coming to university? didnt they go to Kabul? hasnt he finished his work? wont he help us?
Short Answers
Yes, she is Yes, they did. Yes, he has Yes, he will
4.5-Alternative questions
Alternative questions expect their answers from the alternatives given in the questions. Ex Did you go by bus or by train? What would you like tea or coffee? Which ice cream do you like strawberry or chocolate?
4.6 Polite questions

Polite questions are used to ask someone in a very poli te and formal way. Ex Would you like to have a cup of tea with me? Could you help me? Would you mind giving me a pen? Would you write a letter for me?
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5- Exclamatory sentence.
A sentence which expresses a sudden and strong feeling of sorrow/surprise and happiness and ends with sign of exclamation is called exclamatory sentence. Exclamatory sentences can be categorized into two things. 1- Interjection 2- What/How words.
5.1- Interjection
Those words or phrases which express sudden and strong feeling of surprise/sorrow or happiness are called interjection. Ex Ah! Good, there he is. Aha! This is the place where they hide themselves. Hurrah! We won the match. Oh God! He came again.
5.2- What/How exclamation.

Ex. What a beautiful bird it is! What a fast bus it was! What cheap car we bought! How hot this tea is! How heavy the table is! How carelessly they were using it!
Topic: 4 Phrases, words, and clauses

Conditional Sentence
Conditional sentences have two parts separated by comma(,). The first part of the conditional sentence is condition of the event and the second part of the sentence is the result of the event. Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi Page 36
English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters Conditional Sentences for future events
Ex 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) If you work hard, you will pass. If it is rains today, we shall not go for a walk. If I go to Kabul, I will stay there in hotel. If you own up your fault, I will pardon you. If the students do struggle in their studies, they shall pass easily in the final exam.
Conditional Sentences for events have occurred in past.

Ex 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) If he had worked hard, he would have passed. If you had not helped me, I would have failed in final examination. If you have worked hard, you will have passed. If it had rains that day, we would not have gone for a walk. If he had abused me, I would have taught him a lesson.
Using May
May word is to express prayer, respect, ability, request, and prediction related to the present tense. Ex 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) May I take you book? May I teach you this topic? You may come in. You may knead the flour know. May the king live long. May our teacher recover soon. It may rains today. I may hand you over to the police.
Using Might be
Might be and Might be able to words are to express ability, prediction related to the future tense. Ex 1) 2) 3) 4) You might be able to study there. She might be able to pass in final exam. He might have eaten. He might have come.
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Using Never
Never word is used to express any action or events which always not happen either in past or near future. Ex 1) 2) 3) 4) You never listen to me. You never go there. Never play with bad boys. Never abuse anybody.
Using May as well

May as well phrase is used to prior an action on another action. Ex 1) 2) 3) 4) I may as well as talk to the wall. You may as well speak Pashto. You may as well enjoy the music. You may as well start Political Science course instead of Medical Science.
Using Should have

Ex 1) 2) 3) 4) He should have spoken the truth. I should not have written this letter. I should have met you. You should have told me.
Using have to, has to

Ex 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) I have to go to Kabul. We have to come to school even on Friday. I have to apply for leave. I have to take bath daily. She has to learn English.
Using had to
Ex 1) I had to do his work. 2) She had to go with me. Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi Page 38

3) I had to walk home. 4) I had to consult a doctor.
Using will have to

Ex 1) 2) 3) 4) She will have to meet me. You will have to do it yourself. We will have to speak the truth. You will have to give your affidavit.
Using Will + S + have to + V(1) + O?

Ex 1) 2) 3) 4) Will she have to come in? Will you have to go now? Where will you have to go? Will you not have to sit there free?
Using be going to
Ex 1) 2) 3) 4) He is going to watch TV. I am going to leave this work. The baby is going to prissy. Are you going to study?
Using Although and though

1) Though he was poor yet he was honest. 2) Although he failed yet he did not lose heart. 3) Although she is my neighbor yet she doesnt talk to me.
Using Either
1) 2) 3) 4) Either you or your friend is wrong. Either keep silent or go out then. Either you or your friend was there. Either you or your brother is
Using neither
1) Neither, I nor my friend has disclosed this secret. 2) Neither he returned my book nor did he pay its price. Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi Page 39

3) Neither Ali nor I have a book. 4) Neither he is lamb nor is he blind.
Using As soon as
1) 2) 3) 4) As soon as we reached at home, they went. As soon as saw a lion, he climbed up a tree. As soon as he comes here, we will play football. As soon as he reached at home all people were happy.
Using About to
1) 2) 3) 4) The quests are about to come. The sun is about to set. I am about to go. They were about to be punished.
Using fond of
1) I am fond of football. 2) She is fond of reading. 3) They are not fond of cricket. 4) What is he fond of?
Using Used to and got used to

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) He is used to going to bed late. I am used to smoking. You are used to speaking English. He has got used to smoking. I have got used to living in Afghanistan. Have you got used to playing hockey?
The use of what, which, who, whose, whom, when, how many, how much and why.
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) What is the time by your watch? Which is your cycle? Who is knocking at the door? Whose pen is this? Whom did you call? How many pen you have? How did you break your pen? How much sugar is required? When will he come? Page 40

10) Where does he live? 11) Why were you absent yesterday?
Using Still/Yet
1) 2) 3) 4) Its still raining. I eat a lot but still I am hungry. He is not come yet. He has not got a job yet.
Using Would you like

1) Would you like some tea? Yes please. 2) Would you like cigarette? No thanks. 3) Would you like to have dinner with me tonight?
Using I think that

1) I think that you were there. 2) I think that he is a teacher. 3) I think that they were my friends.
Using wonder express happiness and strange.

1) 2) 3) 4) I wonder at him. I wonder if you could help me. I wonder if you could come. Your brother is wonder.
Using Unless
1) He doesnt go unless you come. 2) She doesnt go unless he comes. 3) You cant stay here unless I allow.
Using Whether
1) Whether she goes or not but I will go. 2) Whether you go with me or not, but I must go. 3) Whether you respect him or not but everybody does.
Using Seem
1) It seems as if he were mad. 2) It seems as if it will rain today. Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi Page 41

3) He seems to be your father.
Using No Harm
1) Theres no harm in speaking truth. 2) Theres no harm in trying. 3) There was no harm in going there.
Using its no
1) Its no laughing matter. 2) Its no weeping matter. 3) It was no worrying matter.
Using its no use

1) Its no use weeping now. 2) Its no use writing now. 3) Its no use going there now.
Using As Long As
1) As long as God is with us, nobody can harm us. 2) As long as he is alive, he will not let me marry her. 3) As long as I am here, you move about freely.
Using Not to speak

1) Not to speak of buying a car, I cant even buy a bicycle. 2) Not to speak of talking with her, I cant even go to her room. 3) Not to speak of getting position in class, I cant even pass myself.
Using How Long is It Since

1) How long is it since you visited the museum? 2) How long is it since a son born to you? 3) How long is it since you didnt get the position?
Using Since
1) I have not read a word since I left university. 2) He has lived in this house since he came to Kandahar. 3) It is a week since the university has been closed.
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Topic: 5
1. Active voice 2. Passive voice
Active Voice, Passive Voice
There are two special forms for verbs called voice:
The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb: active Subject verb object > Cats eat fish.
The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb: passive Subject Verb < Fish are eaten by cats. object
Why is active voice better?

Active voice is clearer and more direct, because it puts the doer (Active Person) of the action first and follows a logical order: Doer of action + action + receiver of action (if any) Also, an active voice sentence is always shorter than the same sentence in passive voice. And of course, active voice is activeso it makes our writing more dynamic and energetic. For these reasons, it is usually better to write in active voice and to rewrite any passive voice sentences to make them active.
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Do I need to avoid passive voice entirely?

No, passive voice makes good sense in the following situations: when the doer of the action is unknown: The lights were left on. [You don't know who left them on.] when the doer of the action is less important than the receiver: The package was delivered this morning. [It doesn't matter who brought it.] when the doer of the action is someone you don't want to name: I was given the wrong directions. [You don't want to blame anyone in particular.] If you write most of your sentences in active voice and use passive voice only when one of these three situations applies, your writing will be clearer, more concise and more effective.
1) When Active statement is in Present indefinite tense

Active statement
a) b) c) d) e) He loves his son. They play cricket. They wash out harmful acids Do you like apple? Who boils eggs?
Passive statement
His son is loved by him. Cricket is played by them. Harmful acids are washed by them Is apple liked by me? By whom eggs are boiled?
2) When Active statement is in Past indefinite tense

Active statement
a) b) c) d) e) She bought a book I brought this news to him I did not knock the door Did he ring the bell? Why did you not return my camera?
Passive statement
A book was bought by her. This news was brought by me to him The door was not knocked by me. Was the bell rung by him? Why was my camera not returned by you?
3) When Active statement is in Future indefinite tense

Active statement
a) b) c) d) e) He will sell a house. I shall invite him Shall we sing songs? Who will help her? When will they recite the holly Quran?
Passive statement
A house will be sold by him. He will be invited by me. Will songs sung by us? By whom will she be helped? When will the Holly Quran be recited by Page 44

them?
4) When Active statement is in Present continuous tense

Active statement
f) g) h) i) j) We are doing our duty. You are cheating me. Is he reciting the Holy Quran? Why are you eating rice? Who is making a noise?
Passive statement
Our duty is being done by us. I am being cheated by you. Is the Holy Quran being recited by him? Why are rice being eaten by you? By whom is a noise being made?
5) When Active statement is in Past continuous tense

Active statement
k) He was playing football. l) The teacher was teaching us a new lesson. m) Was he driving a car? n) Why was the teacher punishing them? o) Who was knocking the door?
Passive statement
The football was being played by him We were being taught a new lesson by the teacher. Was a car being driven by him? Why were they being punished by the teacher? By whom was the door being knocked at?
6) When Active statement is in Present perfect tense

Active statement
p) q) r) s) t) I have bought a house We have won the match. His he killed the lion? Why has he punished me? The clock has struck five.
Passive statement
A house have been bought by me. The match have been won by us. His the lion been killed by him? Why have I been punished by him? Five has been struck by the clock.
7) When Active statement is in Past perfect tense

Active statement
u) v) w) x) y) He had already made tea. They had finished the work. She had changed her clothes. Had the doctor tested my eyes? Who had seen the lion?
Passive statement
Tea had already been made by him. The work had been finished by them. Her clothes had been changed by her. Had my eyes been tested by my doctor? By whom had the lion been seen?
8) When Active statement is in Future perfect tense

Active statement
z) You will have taken tea. aa) They will have mocked at us. bb) He will have finished the work. cc) We should not have told a lie? dd) Why you will have punished the student.
Passive statement
Tea will have been taken by you. We will have been mocked by them. The work will have been finished him. A lie should not have been told by us. Why will have the student been punished by you?
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Topic: 6
Direct and Indirect Speech
There are two ways to conveying someones message to another one. 1) Direct speech 2) Indirect speech 1-Direct speech In direct speech, we convey the message of the speaker in his own actual words without any change to another person. 2-Indirect speech In indirect speech, we convey the message of the speaker in our words to another person.
For example: Direct speech "I'm going to the cinema", he said. Indirect speech He said he was going to the cinema.
Tense change
As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense: (the tense on the left changes to the tense on the right): Direct speech Present simple She said, "It's cold." Present continuous She said, "I'm teaching English online." Present perfect simple Indirect speech simple Past She said it was cold. continuous Past She said she was teaching English online.
Past perfect simple She said, "I've been on the web since 1999." She said she had been on the web since 1999. Present perfect continuous She said, "I've been teaching English for seven years." Past simple She said, "I taught online yesterday."
She said she had been teaching English for seven

years. perfect Past She said she had taught online yesterday.
Past perfect continuous
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Past continuous She said, "I was teaching earlier." Past perfect She said, "The lesson had already started when he arrived." Past perfect continuous She said, "I'd already been teaching for five minutes." Modal verb forms also sometimes change: Direct speech will She said, "I'll teach English online tomorrow." can She said, "I can teach English online." must She said, "I must have a computer to teach English online." shall She said, "What shall we learn today?" may She said, "May I open a new browser?" would Indirect speech perfect continuous Past She said she had been teaching earlier.
NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had already

started when he arrived.
Past perfect
NO CHANGE - She said she'd already been teaching

for five minutes.
Past perfect continuous
She said she would teach English online

tomorrow.
could She said she could teach English online. She said she had to have a computer to teach
English online. had to
should She asked what we should learn today. might She asked if she might open a new browser.
Indirect speech He said he might go to the cinema.
!Note - There is no change to; could, would, should, might and ought to. Direct speech "I might go to the cinema", he said.
You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still true i.e. my name has always been and will always be Yasimin so:Direct speech Indirect speech She said her name was Yasimin. "My name is Yasimin", she said. or
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She said her name is Yasimin. You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event. Direct speech (exact quote) "Next week's lesson is on reported speech", she said. Indirect speech (not exact) She said next week's lesson will be on reported speech.
Time change
If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the time of reporting. For example we need to change words like here and yesterday if they have different meanings at the time and place of reporting. Now + 24 hours - Indirect speech She said yesterday's lesson was on presentations. or She said yesterday's lesson would be on presentations. Expressions of time if reported on a different day this (evening) Today these (days) Now (a week) ago last weekend Here next (week) Tomorrow
"Today's lesson is on presentations."
that (evening) yesterday ... those (days) Then (a week) before the weekend before last / the previous weekend There the following (week) the next/following day
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In addition if you report something that someone said in a different place to where you heard it you must change the place (here) to the place (there). For example:At work "How long have you worked here?" At home She asked me how long I'd worked there.
Pronoun change
In reported speech, the pronoun often changes. For example: Me Direct Speech She said, "I teach English online." "I teach English online", she said. Reported Speech "I teach English online." She said she teaches English online. or She said she taught English online. You
Note:
When reporting speech is in present tense or future tense then there will no change of tense in reported speech.
1) When reporting speech is in present tense

Direct Speech
a) He says to them, You waste your time.
Indirect Speech
He says to them that they waste their time. Page 49

b) You say to me, He is a bad boy. c) He says to me, I go to my University by Car. d) He says, I had been coming to Kandahar since 1995. You say to me that he is a bad boy. He says to me that he go to his university by bus. He says that he had been coming to Kandahar since 1995.
2) When reporting speech is in Future tense

Direct Speech
a) He will say, My mother is very kind to me. b) She will say, I have spoken the truth. c) He will say to his teacher, I respect you. d) He will say to me, You can not help me.
Indirect Speech
He will say that his mother is very king on him. She will say that she has spoken the truth. He will say to his teacher that he respect him. He will say to me that I can not help him.
3) When reporting speech is in Past tense

Direct Speech
a) He said, I am not feeling well today . b) They said to us, We respect you very much. c) Ali said, I am quite well. d) They said , We have met the president. e) Khalid said, I can not do it. f) She said, I shall be staying here. g) I said to him, I went there last night. h) The boy said, I wish my father was here. i) I said to him, he will betray his trust.
Indirect Speech
He said that he was not feeling well that day. They said to us that they respected us very much. Ali said that he was quite well. They said that they had met the president. Khalid said that he could not do it. She said that she should be staying there. I said to him that I had gone there the previous night. The boy wished that his father was there. I said to him that he would betray his trust.
4) When reporting speech is in past and reported speech is a universal truth then there is no change in reported speech of indirect statement.
Direct Speech
a) He said, God is one. b) Teacher said, Honesty is the best policy. c) My Mother said, God is merciful. d) The teacher said, The Earth is round.
Indirect Speech
He said that God is one. Teacher said that Honesty is the best policy. My Mother said that God is merciful. The teacher said that the Earth is round.
5) When reported speech is an interrogative statement then we will use either Whether or if word and putting full stop at the end of the statement.
Direct Speech
Indirect Speech
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a) The teacher said to the boy, Did you do your home work yesterday? b) Najeeb said to me, Why are you laughing? c) Farmer said to me, What have you got in your basket ? d) He said to me, Do you like mangoes? e) He said to me, Where do you live? f) Khalid said, Are children playing? g) He said to you, Will you go to Kabul Tomorrow? h) Saba said to her sister, would you like to take tea? The teacher asked the boy if he had done his home work the previous day. Najeeb asked me why I was laughing. Farmer asked me what I had got in my basket. He asked me if I liked mangoes. He asked me where did I live? Khalid asked me if children were playing. He enquired him if you/whether you would go to Kabul next day. Saba asked her sister if she would like to take tea.
6) When reporting speech is in past tense and reported speech is an imperative statement then we using to instead of that.
Direct Speech
a) The manager said to the peon, Get out of my office. b) I said to her, consult a doctor. c) Ali said to me, Try your luck again. d) He said to me, Do not betray your friends. e) Ali said to me, Please forgive me this time.
Indirect Speech
The manger ordered the peon to get out of his office. I suggested her to consult a doctor. Ali encouraged me to try my luck again. He advised me not to betray my friends. Ali requested me to forgive him that time.
7) When reporting speech is in past tense and reported speech is any wish or prayer.
Direct Speech
a) They said, May we reach Mecca very soon. e) He said ,May I catch this train today.
Indirect Speech
They prayer that they might reach Mecca very soon. He wished that he might catch that train that day.
8) When reporting speech is in past tense and reported speech is any Exclamation statement.
Direct Speech
f) Ali asked to me, Hurrah! We have got the decision. g) He said, Alas! I have missed the cricket match today.
Indirect Speech
Ali exclaimed with joy that we had got the decision. He exclaimed with sorrow that he had missed the cricket match that day.
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Topic: 7 Professional report writing

1- Application for vacation 2- Application of Disease 3- Cover letter
1 Application for vacation

To, Chancellor of Mirwais Neeka University Dear Mr. Mutmaeen, I am writing to request a leave for about 3 days starting December 31, 2013 up to January 02, 2014, to spend my new year with my family in Kabul I shall resume my study on January 03, 2014. Im hoping for your kind consideration regarding this matter. Thank you very much, more power and may God bless you always. Yours sincerely,
(Signature)
Mr. Ahmad Identification: MS-001-91A
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2- Application of Disease
To, Chancellor of Mirwais Neeka University Dear Mr. Mutmaeen,
It is to be stated that I am suffering from anemia as well as food poisoning. As you know that living separately in hostels causes many health related problems. Due to deficiency of iron and other vital nutrients, my skin has turned pale and I constantly feel dizzy and tired in every class. I have not been able to concentrate fully on my subjects. Doctor advised me complete rest for one week along with a suggested diet from a dietitian Therefore please grant me leave for this week from December 19, 2013 to December 27, 2013 so that I can recover as soon as I could before the examinations are due. Also please ask the teachers to corporate with me by giving me ten to fifteen minutes extra from their schedule if I am unable to understand anything. I will be thankful to you for your kind consideration. Regards,
Yasimin Identification: MS-001-91A
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3- Cover Letter
To: Subject: HR Manager Request for Job
Respected sir: With due respect and humble submission I want to express that I am greatly interested to work with your estimated organization. I am Confident on myself to fulfill the responsibilities which will be given to me. Due to my background and work experience, I would be most grateful if you kindly consider my application and provide me a chance of service under your kind control. I assure you if I am hired I will provide my ability and hardworking for your entire satisfaction. Thank you for your kind consideration.
Youre truly ABDUL HADI
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Three Forms of the Verbs

Verbs in which all three forms are different
Past Participle Form Meaning ing form Pashto Meaning
Base Form
Past Form
Arise Awake Be Bear Beat Begin Bid Bite Blow Break Choose Do Draw Drink Drive Eat Fall Fly Forbid Foresee Forget Forgive Forsake Freeze
Arose Awoke Was/Were Bore Beat Began Bade Bit Blew Broke Chose Did Drew Drank Drove Ate Fell Flew Forbade Foresaw Forgot Forgave Forsook Froze
Arisen Awoken Been Born/Borne Beaten Begun Bidden Bitten Blown Broken Chosen Done Drawn Drunk Driven Eaten Fallen Flown Forbidden Foreseen Forgotten Forgiven Forsaken Frozen
Arising Awaking Being Bearing Beating Beginning Bidding Biting Blowing Breaking Choosing Doing Drawing Drinking Driving Eating Falling Flying Forbidding Foreseeing Forgetting Forgiving Forsaking Freezing
Occur/ come up Up / Alert Exist / be real Allow /accept Hit / strike Start / open Offer / propose Sink (go under) your teeth into Explode/ carry up Select Act Sketch Ex Drink water Steer Ex eat food Drop / go down Take to the air Prohibit / prevent Predict Not remember Excuse Discard / leave as it is Cool / solidify
Fracture/ smash
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Give Go Grow Hide Know Lie Gave Went Grew Hid Knew Lay Given Gone Grown Hidden Known Lain Giving Going Growing Hiding Knowing Lying Provide / offer Go away /come (antonym) Secrete / take cover Identify / recognize Be positioned / lie down/ tell untruths Error/ fault/ blunder/ inaccuracy Cut / cut down Leave behind / go beyond /Pass Criticize / tell off Be carried an animal Circle/sound Increases/ grow See (when 2 form)/ saying Look stitch Moving Cut off View Get smaller/ minimize Shouting Go under/ go down Kill/ murder
nd
Develop/ expand
Mistake Mow Overtake Re-prove Ride Ring Rise Saw See Sew Shake Shave Show Shrink Sing Sink Slay
Mistook Mowed Overtook Re-proved Rode Rang Rose Sawed Saw Sewed Shook Shaved Showed Shrank Sang Sank Slew
Mistaken Mown Overtaken Re-proven/Reproved Ridden Rung Risen Sawn/Sawed Seen Sewn/Sewed Shaken Shown Shrunk Sung Sunk Slain
Mistaking Mowing Overtaking Re-proving Riding Ringing Rising Sawing Seeing Sewing Shaking Showing Shrinking Singing Sinking Slaying

Page 56
Shaven/Shaved Shaving

Slide Sow Speak Spin Spit Split Spoil Spread Spring Stand Steal Stride Strike Strive Swear Swell Swim Take Thrive Throw Tread Undergo Undertake Wake Wear Weave Slid Sowed Spoke Span/Spun Spat/Spit Split Spoilt/Spoiled Spread Sprang Stood Stole Strode/Strided Struck Strove Swore Swelled Swam Took Threw Trod Underwent Undertook Woke Wore Wove Slid/Slidden Sown Spoken Spun Spat/Spit Split Spoilt/Spoiled Spread Sprung Stood Stolen Stridden Sliding Sowing Speaking Spinning Spitting Splitting Spoiling Spreading Springing Standing Stealing Striding Slipping Spread/ propagate Talk Rotate/ twist Discharge/ cough up Divide Destroy/ decay/ improve (antonym) Expand Coil/ jumps Position Take by force/rob Step/improve Crash into/ attack Struggle Promise Inflate/ puff up Go into water Get Do well/ grow Walk Experience/ go through Take on Get up Put on Twist/ interlace/connect
Struck/Stricken Striking Striven Sworn Swollen Swum Taken Thrown Trodden Undergone Undertaken Woken Worn Woven Striving Swearing Swelling Swimming Taking Throwing Treading Undergoing Undertaking Waking Wearing Weaving
Throve/Thrived Thriven/Thrived Thriving
Catch (antonym)
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Withdraw Write Withdrew Wrote Withdrawn Written Withdrawing Writing Take out/ remove Composing of text
Verbs in which all two forms are identical

Base Form Past Form Past Participle Form ing form Meaning Pasto Meaning
Abide Alight Bend Behold Bleed Bring Buy Bind
Abided Alit/Alighted Bent Beheld Bled Brought Bought Bound
Abided Alit/Alighted Bent Beheld Bled Brought Bought Bound
Abiding Alighting Bending Beholding Bleeding Bringing Buying Binding
Stand for Burning Turn/curve Observe/watc h Lose blood Carry/ take in Pay money for Attach
Transmit Broadcas Broadcast/Broadcast Broadcast/Broadc Broadcasting ed asted t Burn Build Breed Catch Cost Clap Clothe Come Creep Dare Deal Dig Burnt/Burned Built Bred Caught Cost Clapped/Clapt Clad/Clothed Came Crept Dared Dealt Dug Burnt/Burned Built Bred Caught Cost Clapped/Clapt Clad/Clothed Come Crept Dared Dealt Dug Burning Building Breeding Catching Costing Clapping Clothing Coming Creeping Daring Dealing Digging Be on fire
Construct/Ma ke Type/kind/var iety Hold Charge Put your hands together Provide clothes for Arrive steal Challenge Contract Break up

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earth Dream Dwell Feed Feel Fight Find Fit Foretell Flee Fling Dreamt/Dreamed Dwelt Fed Felt Fought Found Fit/Fitted Foretold Fled Flung Dreamt/Dreamed Dreaming Dwelt Fed Felt Fought Found Fit/Fitted Foretold Fled Flung Dwelling Feeding Feeling Fighting Finding Fitting Foretelling Fleeing Flinging Vision Stay/settle Provide for/ give to eat Sense Facing some challenge Discover Healthy Predict Run away/escape Throw/let fly
Forecast Forecast/Forecasted Get Grind Hang Have Hear Hold Inlay Input Keep Kneel Knit Lay Lead Lean Leap Learn Got Ground Hung/Hanged Had Heard Held Inlaid Input/Inputted Kept Knelt/Kneeled Knit/Knitted Laid Led Leant/Leaned Leapt/Leaped Learnt/Learned
Forecast/Forecast Forecasting ed Got/Gotten Ground Hung/Hanged Had Heard Held Inlaid Input/Inputted Kept Knelt/Kneeled Knit/Knitted Laid Led Leant/Leaned Leapt/Leaped Learnt/Learned Getting Grinding Hanging Having Hearing Holding Inlaying Inputting Keeping Kneeling Knitting laying Leading Leaning Leaping Learning
Estimate/pred ict Obtain Crush/break up Hang up contain Listen to Catch
Decorate/inse rt Enter Keep on Go down on you knee Put down Go ahead Rest/ be supported
Join/interlace
Jump/increas e Study
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Leave Lend Lie Light Lose Make Mean Meet Melt Left Lent Lied Lit Lost Made Meant Met Melted Left Lent Lied Lit Lost Made Meant Met Molten/Melted Misunderstood Leaving Lending lying Lighting Losing Making Meaning Meeting Melting Misunderstan ding Misleading Give the wrong impression about Listen more Give Go away Borrow (antonym) Tell untruth Darkness (antonym)
Misplace/ be unable to find Create Involve/aim Get together Freeze (antonym)
Misunder Misunderstood stand Mislead Misled
Misled
Overhear Overheard Pay Preset Prove Rid Run Say Seek Sell Send Shear Shine Shoot Sit Sleep Paid Preset Proved Rid/Ridded Ran Said Sought Sold Sent Shore/Sheared Shone Shot Sat Slept
Overheard Paid Preset Proven/Proved Rid/Ridded Run Said Sought Sold Sent Shorn/Sheared Shone Shot Sat Slept
Overhearing Paying Presetting Proving Ridding Running Saying Seeking Selling Sending Shearing Shining Shooting Sitting Sleeping
Predetermine d Show Free/clear Walk fast Speak Look for Put up for sale Send out Cut off Polish Kill Take a seat Be dead to the world
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Sling Slink Sneak Speed Spell Spend Spill String Strip Stick Sting Stink Sweat Sweep Slung Slunk Sneaked/Snuck Sped/Speeded Spelt/Spelled Spent Spilt/Spilled Strung Stript/Stripped Stuck Stung Stank Sweat/Sweated Swept/Sweeped Slung Slunk Sneaked/Snuck Sped/Speeded Spelt/Spelled Spent Spilt/Spilled Strung Stript/Stripped Stuck Stung Stunk Sweat/Sweated Swept/Sweeped Slinging Slinking Sneaking Speeding Spelling Spending Spilling Stringing Stripping Sticking Stinging Stinking Sweating Sweeping Throw/hung Creep/steal Creep marry
Sunburn Sunburned/Sunburnt Swing Teach Tell Think Tear Swung Taught Told Thought Tore
Sunburned/Sunbu Sunburning rnt Swung Taught Told Thought Torn Understood Vext/Vexed Wed/Wedded Wept Wended/Went Wet/Wetted Won Wound Withstood Wrung Withheld Zinced/Zincked Swinging Teaching Telling Thinking Tearing Understandin g Vexing Wedding Weeping Wending Wetting Winning Winding Withstanding Wringing Withholding Zincking
Understa Understood nd Vext/Vexed Vex Wed Weep Wend Wet Win Wind Wed/Wedded Wept Wended/Went Wet/Wetted Won Wound
Withstan Withstood d Wrung Wring Withhold Withheld Zinced/Zincked
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Verbs in which all three forms are identical
Base Form Past Form Past Participle Form ing form Pashto Meaning
Bet Burst Become Bid Cast Cut Hit Hurt Let Put Quit Read Set Shed Slit Shut Sublet Thrust Upset
Bet Burst Became Bid Cast Cut Hit Hurt Let Put Quit Read Set Shed Slit Shut Sublet Thrust Upset
Bet Burst Become Bid Cast Cut Hit Hurt Let Put Quit Read Set Shed Slit Shut Sublet Thrust Upset
Betting Bursting Becoming Bidding Casting Cutting Hitting Hurting Letting Putting Quitting Reading Setting Shedding Slitting Shutting Subletting Thrusting Upsetting
Page 62

Englishnoteforsemester 3 and 4

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2013 - 2014

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

2013-2014 Mirwais Neeka Institute of Higher Education Medical Department

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

Subject I You he/she/it

Object me you him/her/it

Possessive Mine Yours his/hers

3 Plural Person 1st 2 3

Subject We You They

Object us you them

Possessive Ours Yours Theirs

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

A short overview on the table of parts of speech

EnglishClub.com is a web site. I like EnglishClub.com.

This is my dog. He lives in my house. We live in London.

Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

describes a verb, adjective or adverb

quickly, silently, well, badly, very, really

replaces a noun links a noun to another word

I, you, he, she, some

to, at, after, on, but

We went to school on Monday.

joins clauses or sentences or words

and, but, when

short exclamation, sometimes inserted into a sentence

oh!, ouch!, hi!, well

Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

Present Indefinite for Facts or Generalizations

Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

Present Indefinite for Scheduled Events in the Near Future

Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

2- Present continuous tense

Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

Longer Actions in Progress Now

Present continuous expressing Near Future

Repetition and Irritation (negative emotion) with "Always"

Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

3- Present Perfect Tense

Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

4- Present Perfect Continuous

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

5 Past Simple (Indefinite)

Habits in the Past

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters

Past Facts or Generalizations

Course Instructor: Engr. Abdul Hadi

English Text Notes for 3rd and 4th Semesters