1

Unit 1
REVIEW OF PLANE TRIGONOMETRY





































1. analyze a right triangle.
2. add vectors in parallelogram and polygon method.
3. use trigonometric identities.
4. analyze oblique triangles.
5. draw graphs of trigonometric functions.
6. define a complex number.
7. illustrate the graphical representation of a complex number.
8. convert complex numbers to different forms.
9. perform mathematical operations of complex numbers.
10. apply complex numbers.
11.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, you
are expected to:

2






complex number polygon method
conjugate quadrant

cosine law rectangular form
exponential form right triangle
oblique triangle sine law

parallelogram trigonometric form
polar form vector addition





1.1 The Right Triangle










=

1.1.1 Solution of a Right Triangle
Referring to Figure 1.1, the relationships of the sides a, b, and c can be expressed as

2
=
2
+ b
2

(Pythagorean Theorem)
To find c, a, and b
=
2
+ b
2

a =
2
b
2

b =
2
a
2







Important Terms

3

Example 1.1. Solve for b and the angles A and B.







Given: = 12
= 13
Find: side b and angle B
Known: =
2
a
2


=

; = sin
1
a
c

+ = 90 ; B = 90 A
Solution: b = 13
2
12
2


b = 5
= sin
1
12
13

= 67.38

= 90 67.38
= 22.62
Answer: = 5 , = 22.62
Example 1.2. Find the sides a and b.







= 13 = 12


40


= 13


40
4

Solution:
Solving for a =

= sin
= 13sin40
= 8.36
To find b =

= cos
= 13 cos 40
= 9.96
Drill Problems

1. The height of the tower is unknown. There is now no way that you can climb the
tower to determine its height. The only possible way is to use a transit to find the
angle of elevation of the tower (u) and the distance (d) between the transit and the
foot of the tower. If the height of the transit is 1 meter (m), determine the height of
the tower.








Input any value of d and u and click answer. Be sure you have solved the problem with the assumed
values of d and u before knowing the answer.

2. Find the x and y components of the force exerted by the father in pulling the cart
with his child riding.
D m u Answer m
u

d
5













Input any value of F and u and click answer. Be sure you have solved the problem with the assumed
values of d and u before knowing the answer.




1.2 Vector Addition

1.2.1 Parallelogram Method












1.2.2 Polygon (Head to Tail method) Method
F N u Answer

F
x
F
y
N
y

F
1
F
T


x F
2





F
u
6









Note: F
1
and F
2
are the given vectors, and F
T
is the equivalent (total or resultant) vector.


Example 1.3. Determine graphically the resultant of the following forces using:
(a) parallelogram method.
(b) polygon method.












Solution:
(a) By parallelogram method, get first the resultant of F
1
and F
2
and call it F
A
. Then use again
parallelogram method to determine the resultant vector of F
A
and F
3
to get the total or
equivalent force.
y

F
T


F
1

F
2







F
1




F
2

F
3




7














(b) Using polygon method













F
A
F
1

F
T



F
2

F
3




F
2
F
1
F
3



F
T




8

1.3 Formulas Involving Addition or Subtraction of Functions

sin
2
o + cos
2
o = 1
sec
2
o = 1 + tan
2
o
csc
2
o = 1 + cot
2
o
1.4 Sine and Cosine of the Sum or Difference of Two Angles

sin (o |) = sin o cos | cos o sin |
cos (o +|) = cos o cos | - cos o sin |
cos (o - |) = cos o cos | + cos o sin |
sin (-A) = -sin A
cos (-A) = cos A
sin (x + 90) = cos x
cos (x + 90) = - sin x
sin (x 90) = - cos x
sin (180 - x) = sin x
cos (180 - x) = - cos x
1.5 Double Angle Formulas

sin 2o = 2 sin o cos o
cos 2o = cos
2
o sin
2
o = 2cos
2
o 1 = 1 2 sin
2
o
tan2o =
2 tan o
1
2
o

cot 2 =

2
o 1
2 cot o


2
o =
1 +2o
2


2
o =
1 2o
2


1.6 Oblique Triangles


o


o
b

9

1.6.1 Sine Law

sin
=

sin
=

sin

1.6.2 Cosine Law







2
=
2
+
2
2bc cos A
Example 1.4. Find the x and y components of F
1
.












c a



A b


F
1
= 18 N

F
T
=

30 N








F
2
= 20 N







B

c a



A b C
10

Solution:









| can be found by applying cosine law:
F
T
2
= F
1
2
+ F
2
2
- 2 F
1
F
2
cos |
30
2
= 18
2
+ 20
2
2(18)(20) cos |
| = 104.15

Then o = 180 - | = 180 - 104.15 = 75.85
Considering F
1

F
1x
= F
1
cos o
= 18 cos 75.85
= 4.4 N

o F
1y
= F
1
cos o
= 18 sin 75.85
= 17.45 N






F
1
= 18 N

F
T
=

30 N







o | o
F
2
= 20 N







This is also
equal to F
1




F
1
= 18 N

F
1y




o
F
1x




11

1.7 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions









Note: It is assumed that the amplitude of these waves is 1.


Drill Problem

1. Two horses are pulling a barge along a canal as shown in the figure. The cable connected to
the first horse makes an angle of u
1
with respect to the direction of the canal (x-axis), while
the cable attached to the second horse makes an angle of u
2
. The first horse exerts a force F
1

and the second horse exerts a force F
2
. Find the total force exerted by the two horses.
y = sin x
y = cos x
(a)
(b)
12









Input any value of F
1
and F
2
. Assume values of not less than 600 N. Also input values of u
1
and u
2

that are less than 90. Solve first the problem with the assumed values before clicking the answer.

2. A school bus leaves a school at 1 PM traveling at a speed of v
1
along a straight road. At 2 PM
it turns right at an angle of u with respect with the first road and runs at a speed of v
2
. What
will be its distance from the school at 2:30 PM?








Input any value of v
1
and v
2
and u . Solve first the problem using the assumed values before clicking
the answer.


F
1
N F
2
N u
1

u
1


Ans N
v
1
kph v
2
kph u





Answer N
13

1.8 The Quadrants









Counterclockwise rotation Clockwise rotation
















270

3
2
t

0 or 360
(0 or 2t)

180
(t/2)

90
(t/2)

II I

IV

III

-270

3
2
t

0 or 360
(0 or 2t)

-180
(-t/2)

-90
(-t/2)

II I

IV

III


I II III IV


0 90 180 270 360
0

2
t
3
2
t 2t

14

Problem Set No. 1
REVIEW OF PLANE TRIGONOMETRY

1. A ladder leans against a wall with its foot 10 ft from the wall. If the ladder makes an angle of
60 with the ground, how long is the ladder.
a. 20 ft
b. 15 ft
c. 10 ft
d. 5 ft

2. In no. 1, how far above the ground is the top of the ladder.
a. 12.73 ft
b. 13.72 ft
c. 17.32 ft
d. 19.73 ft

3. A tower 160 ft casts a shadow 92.4 ft long on the ground. Find the angle of elevation of the
sun. (The angle of elevation is the angle with its rays make with level ground.)
a. 35
b. 60
c. 45
d. 75

4. From the top of a tower at C the angle of depression of point A is 56. If the distance between
point A and point B (the foot of the tower) is 180 meters, how high is the tower?
a. 168.94 m
b. 178.5 m
c. 230.89 m
d. 266.86 m

5. A boy pushes a force of 15 lb toward north. Another boy pushes the same box toward east
with a force of 20 lb. Find the resultant force.
a. 25 lb
b. 30 lb
c. 35 lb
d. 40 lb

6. One of the diagonals of a parallelogram makes angles of 2235 and 4848, respectively, with
two adjacent sides. If the diagonal is 18.54 ft long, find the lengths of the sides of the
parallelogram.
a. 7,25 ft, 13.73 ft
b. 7.51 ft, 14.72 ft
c. 8.34 ft, 15.83 ft
d. 9.35 ft, 16.72 ft

7. In the figure shown below, find the magnitude of F
1
if F
2
= 100 N and makes an angle of 30
with the respect to the x axis and the resultant of the two forces is 167 N and makes an angle
of 50 with respect to the x axis.
15









a. 80.64 ft
b. 82.64 ft
c. 89.49 ft
d. 90.29 ft
















F
1
F
2
16

1.9 Complex Numbers
y (imaginary axis)
+ 1 = + jA
-A A x (real axis)



1 = - j
A complex plane.
A complex number is one of the form
x j y
that is, it is the sum of a real number and an imaginary one.
A complex number is the conjugate of another if their imaginary parts are of opposite signs.
For example, -5 + j6 is the conjugate of 5 j6.
1.9.1 Graphical Representation of Complex Numbers








Let z be the vector connecting origin and point P whose coordinates are x and y. Then, in complex
form
z = x + jy
u
r
y
x
P (x, y)
17

To find r and u in terms of x and y:
r =
2
+
2
Note that r is the magnitude of z
u = tan
-1

To find x and y in terms of r and u:
x = r cos u
y = r sin u
1.9.2 Forms of a Complex Number

Rectangular Form: z = x + jy
Trigonometric Form: z = r cos u + j r sin u
= r (cos u + j sin u)
Polar Form: z = r cjs u = r Z u
Exponential Form: z = re
ju
, where u is in radians

1.9.3 Addition and Subtraction of Complex Number

1.9.3.1 Algebraic Method
(a) Addition. To add two or more complex numbers, add the real parts and then the
pure imaginary parts.

Example 1.5. Add z
1
= 5 + j3 and z
2
= -2 j5
Solution: z
1
+ z
2
= (5 + j3) + (-2 j5)
= 3 - j2
(b) Subtraction. To subtract one complex number from another, subtract the real parts
and then subtract the pure imaginary parts.

Example 1.6. Subtract z
1
= 5 + j3 by z
2
= -2 j5
Solution: z
1
- z
2
= (5 + j3) - (-2 j5)
= 7 + j8
1.9.3.2 Graphical Method
18

(a) Addition. Use parallelogram method to find the sum of two or more complex
numbers.

Example 1.7. Add z
1
= 5 + j3 and z
2
= -2 j5
Solution:
First plot z
1
and z
2
.
1. Use parallelogram method to determine the sum.
2. Count the x and y components of the sum.











As you can see the sum is 3 - j2
(b) Subtraction.

Example 1.8. Subtract z
1
= 5 + j3 by z
2
= -2 j5
Solution:
1. First plot z
1
and z
2
.
2. Take the negative of z
2
. This is the opposite of z
2
.
3. Find the difference using parallelogram method. This is similar to addition.
4. Counting the x and y components, the result is 7 + j8.


0
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
19















1.9.3 Transformation of a Complex Number from One Form to Another

Example 1.9. Express each of the following in rectangular, polar and exponential forms.












0
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
u
3
u
4
u
4
u
2
u
1
r
4
r
3
r
2
r
1
z
2
0
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
z
1
z
3
z
4
20

Solution:
Note: Always use the smaller angle between the positive real axis (the reference) and the vector.

For z
1
: r
1
= 4
2
+ 5
2
= 6.4 For z
2
: r
2
= 6
2
+3
2

= 6.71
u
1
= tan
-1

5
4
= 51.34 u
1
= 180 - tan
-1

3
6

= 153.43



For z
3
: r
3
= 4
2
+ 5
2
= 6.4 For z
4
: r
4
= 6
2
+4
2

= 7.2
u
3
= 180 - tan
-1
5
4
= 128.66 u
4
= tan
-1

4
6
= 33.69
Answers
Rectangular Form Polar Form Exponential Form
z
1
4 + j5 6.4 Z51.34 6.4 e
j0.8961
z
2
-6 + j3 6.71 Z153.43 6.71 e
j2.6779
z
3
-4 - j5 6.4 Z-128.66 6.4 e
j2.2455
z
4
6 j4 7.2 Z-33.69 7.2 e
-j0.588


1.9.4 Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers

(a) Multiplication of Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form

Example 1.10. Multiply z
1
= 5 + j2 by z
2
= 3 j4
Solution:
z
1
z
2
= (5 + j2)(3 j4)
= (5)(2) + (j2)(3) + (5)(-j4) + (j2)(-j4)
= 10 + j6 j20 j
2
8 where j
2
= -1
= 10 + j6 j20 (-1)(8)
= 18 j14
21

(b) Multiplication of Complex Numbers in Polar Form

Let z
1
= r
1
Zu
1
z
2
= r
2
Zu
2


z
1
z
2
= r
1
Zu
1
r
2
Zu
2
= r
1
r
2
Zu
1
+ u
2



Example 1.11. Multiply z
1
= 20Z45 by z
2
= 2Z-30
Solution: z
1
z
2
= (20Z45 )( 2Z-30)
= 202Z45+(-30)
= 40Z15
(c) Division of Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form

Example 1.12. Divide z
1
= 5 + j2 by z
2
= 3 j4
Solution:

=
5 + j2
3 j4


Rationalize, i.e., multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the
denominator. The conjugate of z
2
= 3 j4 is

= 3 + j4

=
5 + j2
3 j4

3 + j4
3 + j4

=
7 + 26
3
2
+ 4
2
=
7 + 26
25
= 0.28 + j1.04


(d) Division of Complex Numbers in Polar Form

Let z
1
= r
1
Zu
1
z
2
= r
2
Zu
2

1
Zu
1

2
Zu
2
=

2
Z u
1
+ u
2



Example 1.13. Divide z
1
= 20Z45 by z
2
= 2Z-30
Solution:

=
20Z45
2Z30
=
20
2
Z 45 (30) = 10Z75




22

Problem Set No. 2
COMPLEX NUMBERS
1. Add the following using algebraic and graphical methods.
(a) 8 + j4, 4 j6 (b) -7 j7, 8 + j3, 5 j3
2. Perform the following using algebraic and graphical methods.
(a) (8 + j4) (4 j6) (b) (-7 j7) + ( 8 + j3) (5 j3)
3. Convert the following to polar and exponential forms:
(a) (8 + j4) (b) (-4 + j6) (c) (-7 j7) (d) ( 8 - j3)
4. Convert the following to rectangular and exponential forms.
(a) 6Z60 (b) 12Z-300 (c) 10Z120 (d) 9Z-120
5. Convert the following to rectangular and polar forms.
(a) 5e
j1.45
(b) 9e
-j0.9823
(c) 12e
jt/3
(d) 7e
-jt
6. Perform the following. Express answers in polar form.
(a) 30Z45 4Z-30
(b) 30e
jt/4
4Z-30
(c)
30Z45 4Z30
30Z45 + 4Z30

(d) (5Z15 + 4e
-jt/3
)(30 e
jt/4
- 4Z90)
8. Solve this problem using complex numbers: In the figure shown below, find the magnitude of
F
1
, its anlge with respect to the + x aixs, its x and y components , if F
2
= 100 N and makes an
angle of 30 with the respect to the x axis and the resultant of the two forces is 167 N and
makes an angle of 50 with respect to the x axis.












F
1
F
2
23

Unit 2
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY




































1. define electricity.
2. name some scientists who contributed to the development of
electricity and electronics.
3. discuss the scientists contributions to electricity and electronics.
4. quote some applications of electricity and electronics.
5. identify various electrical components.
6. use metric prefixes in simplifying large and small numbers.
7. perform mathematical operations involving powers of ten and
metric prefixes.
8. discuss the difference between direct current and alternating
current.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, you
are expected to:

24






Electricity

semiconductor
static electricity

active element
dynamic electricity

passive element
Resistor

electrical quantities
Resistance

metric prefixes
Inductor

direct current
Inductance

alternating current
Transformer


2.1 Definition of Electricity


Electricity is a physical phenomenon arising from the existence and
interaction of electric charge. It is a form of energy generated by friction,
heat, light, magnetism, chemical reaction, etc.


2.1.1 Two Types of Electricity:
a. Static electricity electricity at rest. It cannot flow from one place to another.
b. Dynamic electricity also known as current electricity. Electricity in motion. It can be
transmitted from one place to the other.

2.1.2 Methods of Producing Electricity
There are six methods for producing electricity:
1. Magnetism
2. Chemical action
3. Pressure
4. Heat
5. Friction
6. Light

2.1.3 Electrical Effects
With the exception of friction, electricity can be used to cause the same effects that cause it.
Important Terms

25

1. Magnetism
2. Chemical action
3. Pressure
4. Heat
5. Light

2.2 History of Electricity and Electronics
Prehistoric people experienced the properties of magnetite permanently magnetized
pieces of ore, often called lodestones. These magnetic stones were strong enough to lift pieces of
iron.
The philosopher Thales of Miletus (640 546 B.C.) is thought to have been the first person who
observed the electrical properties of amber. He noted that when amber was rubbed, it acquired the
ability to pick up light objects such as straw and dry grass. He also experimented with the lodestones
and knew of its power to attract iron. By the thirteenth century, floating magnets were used for
compasses.
One of the first important discoveries about static electricity is attributed to William
Gilbert (1540-1603). Gilbert was an English Physician who, in a book published in 1600, described
how amber differs from magnetic loadstones in its attraction of certain materials. He found that
when amber was rubbed with a cloth, it attracted only lightweight materials, whereas loadstones
attracted only iron. Gilbert also discovered that other substances, such as sulfur, glass, and resin,
behave as amber does. He used the Latin word electron for amber and originated the word electrical
for the other substances that acted similar to amber. The word electricity was used for the first time
by Sir Thomas Browne (1605-82), an English physician.
Following Gilberts lead, Robert Boyle published his many experimental results in 1675.
Boyle was one of the early experiments with electricity in a vacuum.
Otto von Guericke (1602 1686) built an electrical generator and reported it in his
Experimental Nova of 1672. This device was a sulfur globe on a shaft that could be turned on its
bearing . When the shaft was turned with a dry hand held on the surface, an electrical charge
gathered on the globes surface. Guericke also noted small sparks when the globe was discharges.
In his studies of attraction and gravitation, Guericke devised the first electrical generator. When a
hand was held on a sulfur ball revolving in its frame, the ball attracted paper, feathers, chaff, and
other light objects.
Another Englishman, Stephen Gray (1696-1736), discovered that some substances conduct
electricity and some do not. Following Grays Lead, a Frenchman named Charles du Fay
experimented with the conduction of electricity. These experiments led him, to believe that there
were two kinds of electricity. He called one type vitreous electricity and the other type resinous
electricity. He found that objects having vitreous electricity repelled each other and those having
26

resinous electrify attracted each other. It is known today that two types of electrical charge exist,
positive and negative. Negative charge results from an excess of electrons in a material and positive
charge results from a deficiency of electrons.
A major advance in electrical science was made in Leyden, Holland, in 1746, when Peter van
Musschenbroek introduces a jar that served as a storage apparatus for electricity. The jar was
coated inside and out with a tinfoil, and a metallic rod was attached to the inner foil lining and
passed through the lid. Leyden jar were gathered in groups (called batteries) and arranged with
multiple connections, thereby further improving the discharge energy.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-90) conducted studies in electricity in the mid-1700s. He theorized
that electricity consisted of a single fluid, and he was the first to use the terms positive and negative.
In his famous kite experiment, Franklin showed that lightning is electricity.
Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806), a French physicist, in 1785 proposed the laws
that govern the attraction and repulsion between electrically charged bodies. Today, the unit of
electrical charge is called the coulomb.
Luigi Galvani (1737-98) experimented with current electricity in 1786. Galvani was a
professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna in Italy. Electrical current was once known as
galvanism in his honor.
In 1800, Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), an Italian professor of physics, discovered that the
chemical action between moisture and two different metals produced electricity. Volta constructed
the first battery, using copper and zinc plates separated by paper that had been moistened with a
salt solution. This battery, called the voltaic pile, was the first source of steady electric current.
Today, the unit of electrical potential energy is called the volt in honor of Professor Volta.
A Danish scientist, Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851), is credited with the discovery of
electromagnetism, in 1820. He found that electrical current flowing through a wire caused the
needle of a compass to move. This finding showed that a ,magnetic field exists around a current-
carrying conductors and that the field is produced by the current.
The modern unit of electrical current is the ampere (also called amp) in honor of the French
physicist Andr Ampre (1775-1836). In 1820, Ampre measured the magnetic effect of an electrical
current. He found that two wires carrying current can attract and repel each other, just as magnets
can. By 1822, Ampre had developed the fundamental laws that are basic to the study of electricity.
One of the most well known and widely used laws in electrical circuits today is Ohms law. It
was formulated by Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854), a German teacher, in 1826. Ohms law gives us
the relationship among the three important electrical quantities of resistance, voltage, and current.
Although it was Oersted who discovered electromagnetism, it was Michael Faraday (1791-
1867) who carried the study further. Faraday was an English physicist who believed that electricity
could produce magnetic effects, then magnetism could produce electricity. In 1831 he found that a
moving magnet cause an electric current in a coil of wire placed within the field of the magnet. This
effect, known today as electromagnetic induction, is the basic principle of electric generators ands
transformers.
27

Joseph Henry (1797-1878), an American physicist, independently discovered the same
principle in 1831, and it is in his honor that the unit of inductance is called the henry. The unit of
capacitance, the farad, is named in honor of Michael Faraday.
A paper published by James Prescott Joule in 1841 claimed the discovery of the relationship
between a current and the heat or energy produced, which today we call Joules law. The unit of
energy is called the joule in his honor.
In the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell (1831-79), a Scottish Physicist, produced a set of
mathematical equations that expressed the laws governing electricity and magnetism. These
formulas are known as Maxwells equations. Maxwell also predicted that electromagnetic waves
(radio waves) that travel at the speed of light in space could be produced.
It was left to Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857-94), a German physicist, to actually produce
these waves that Maxwell predicted. Hertz performed this work in the late 1880s. Today, the unit of
frequency is called the hertz.

The Beginning of Electronics
The early experiments in electronics involved electric currents in glass tubes. One of the first to
conduct such experiments was a German named Heinrich Geissler (1814-79). Geissler found that
when he removed most of the air from a glass tube, the tube glowed when an electrical potential
was placed across it.
Around 1878, Sir William Crookes (1832-1919), a British scientist, experimented with tubes
similar to those of Geissler. In his experiments, Crookes found that the current in the tubes seemed
to consist of particles.
Thomas Edison (1847 1931), experimenting with the carbon-filament light bulb that he had
invented, made another important finding. He inserted a small metal plate in the bulb. When the
plate was positively charged, a current flowed from the filament to the plate. This device was the
first thermionic diode. Edison patented it but never used it.
The electron was discovered in the 1890s. The French physicist Jean Baptiste Perrin (1870
1942) demonstrated that the current in a vacuum tube consists of negatively charged particles.
Some of the properties of these particles were measured by Sir Joseph Thomson (1856 1940), a
British physicist, in experiments he performed between 1895 and 1897. These negatively charged
particles later became known as electrons. The charge on the electron was accurately measured by
an American physicist, Robert A. Millikan (1868 1953), in 1909. As a result of these discoveries,
electrons could be controlled, and the electronic age was ushered in.

Putting the Electron to Work
A vacuum tube that allowed electrical current in only one direction was constructed in 1904 by John
A. Fleming, a British scientist. The tube was used to detect electromagnetic waves. Called the
Fleming valve, it was the forerunner of the more recent vacuum diode tubes.
28

Major progress in electronics, however, awaited the development of a device that could
boost, or amplify, a weak electromagnetic wave or radio signal. This device was the audion,
patented in 1907 by Lee de Forest, an American. It was a triode vacuum tube capable of amplifying
small electrical signals.
Two other Americans, Harold Arnold and Irving Langmuir, made great improvements in the
triode tube between 1912 and 1914. About the same time, de Forest and Edwin Armstrong, an
electrical engineer, used the triode tube in an oscillator circuit. In 1914, the triode was incorporated
in the telephone system and made the transcontinental telephone network possible.
The tetrode tube was invented in 1916 by Walter Schottky, a German. The tetrode, along
with the pentode (invented in 1926 by Tellegen, a Dutch engineer), provided great improvements
over the triode. The first television picture tube, called the kinescope, was developed in the 1920s by
Vladimir Zworykin, an American researcher.
During World War II, several types of microwave tubes were developed that made possible
modern microwave radar and other communications systems. In 1939, the magnetron was invented
in Britain by Henry Boot and John Randall. In the same year, the klystron microwave tube was
developed by two Americans, Russell Varian and his brother Sigurd Varian. The traveling-wave tube
was invented in 1943 by Rudolf Komphner, an Austrian-American.
The Computer
The computer probably has had more impact on modern technology than any other single type of
electronic system. The first electronic digital computer was completed in 1946 at the University of
Pennsylvania. It was called the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC). One of the
most significant developments in computers was the stored program concept, developed in the
1940s by John von Neumann, an American mathematician.
Solid State Electronics
The crystal detectors used in the early radios were the forerunners of modern solid state devices.
However, the era of solid state electronics began with the invention of the transistor in 1947 at Bell
Labs. The inventors were Walter Brattain, John Bardeen, and William Shockley.
In the early 1960s, the integrated circuit was developed. It incorporated many transistors and
other components on a single small chip of semiconductor material. Integrated circuit technology
continues to be developed and improved, allowing more complex circuits to be built on smaller
chips.
The introduction of the microprocessor in the early 1970s created another electronics
revolution: the entire processing portion of a computer placed on a single, small, silicon chip.
Continued development brought about complete computers on a single chip by the late 1970s.

Major Events in Electrical Sciences and Engineering

1672 Ottoo von Guiricke published Experimenta Nova.
29

1675 Robert Boyle was published Production of Electricity.
1746 The Leyden jar was demonstrated in Holland.
1750 Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning conductor.
1767 Joseph Priestley published the Present State of Electricity.
1786 Luigi Galvani observed electrical convulsion in the legs of dead frogs.
1800 Alessandro Volta announced the voltaic pile.
1801 Henry Moyes was the first to observe an electric arc between carbon rods.
1820 Hans Oersted discovered the deflection of a magnetic needle by current on a
wire.
1821 Michael Faraday produced magnetic rotation of a conductor and magnet- the
first electric motor.
1825 Andre-Marie Ampere defined electrodynamics.
1828 Joseph Henry produced silk-covered wire and more powerful electromagnets.
1831 Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction and carried out
experiments with an iron ring and core. He also experimented with a magnet
and rotating disk.
1836 Samuel Morse devised a simple relay.
1836 Electric light from batteries was shown at Paris Opera.
1841 James Joule stated the relation between current and energy produced.
1843 Morse transmitted telegraph signals from England to France.
1850 First channel telegraph signals from Baltimore to Washington, D.C.
1858 Atlantic telegraph cable was completed and the first message sent.
1861 Western Union established telegraph service from New York to San Francisco.
1862 James Clerk Maxwell determined the ohm.
1873 Maxwell published Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism.
1874 Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone.
1877 Thomas Edison invented the telephone.
1877 Edison Electric Light Company was formed.
1881 First hydropower station was brought into use at Niagara, New York.
1881 Edison constructed the first electric power station at Pearl Street, New York.
1883 Overhead trolley electric railways were started at Portrush and Richmond,
Virginia.
1884 Philadelphia electrical exhibition was held.
1885 The American Telephone and Telegraph Company was organized.
1886 H. Hallerith introduced his tabulating machine.
1897 J.J. Thomson discovered the electron.
1898 Guglielmo Marconi transmitted radio signals from South Foreland to Wimereux,
England.
1904 John Ambrose Fleming invented the thermionic diode.


2.3 Applications of Electricity and Electronics


30








Computers Communications







Medicine Automation







Consumer Products

2.4 Circuit Components and Measuring Instruments
Resistors
31

These can be the carbon-composition type or wound with special resistance wire. Their function is to
limit the amount of current or divide the voltage in a circuit.



Capacitors
A capacitor is constructed of two conductor plates separated by an insulator (called a dielectric). Its
basic function is to concentrate the electric field of voltage across the dielectric. As a result, the
capacitor can accumulate and store electric charge from the voltage source. Furthermore, the
dielectric can discharge the stored energy when the charging source is replaced by a conducting
path.
When ac voltage is applied, the capacitor charges and discharges as the voltage varies. The practical
application of this effect is the use of capacitors to pass an ac signal but to block a steady dc voltage.










Capacitors Inductors
Inductors

An inductor is just a coil of wire. Its basic function is to concentrate the magnetic field of electric
current in the coil. Most important, an induced voltage is generated when the current with its
associated magnetic field changes in value or direction. Inductors are often called chokes.
In the practical application of a choke, the inductor can pass a steady current better than alternating
current. The reason is that a steady current cannot produce induced voltage. Note that the effect of
a choke, passing a steady current, is the opposite of that of a coupling capacitor, which blocks dc
voltage.
Transformers
32

A transformer consists of two or more coil windings in the same magnetic field. Induced voltage is
produced when the current changing in any winding. The purpose of a transformer is to increase or
decrease the amount of ac voltage coupled between the windings. However, the transformer
operates only with alternating current.

Transformers Semiconductor Devices
Semiconductor Devices
These include diode rectifiers and transistor amplifiers, either as separate, discrete components or as
part of an IC chip. A diode has two electrodes; the transistor has three. In addition, the silicon
controlled rectifier (SCR) and triac are used for power-control circuits.
Active and Passive Elements
Active elements - are capable of delivering power to some external device.
Examples: dependent and independent voltage and current sources
Passive elements are capable of receiving power. They are able to store to store finite amounts of
energy and then return that energy later to various external devices. Examples are resistors,
inductors, and capacitors.

Electronic Instruments
Typical instruments include the power supply, for providing voltage and current; the voltmeter, for
measuring voltage; the ammeter, for measuring current; the ohmmeter, for measuring resistance;
the wattmeter, for measuring power; and the oscilloscope for observing and measuring AC voltages.
33



2.5 Electrical Quantities and Units with SI symbols.




Quantity Symbol Unit Symbol
Capacitance C farad F
Charge Q coulomb C
Conductance G Siemen S
Current
I
ampere A
Energy W Joule J
Frequency F hertz Hz
Impedance Z ohm O
Inductance L henry H
Power P Watt W
Reactance X ohm O
Resistance R ohm O
Voltage V Volt V
34

2.6 Metric Prefixes
Power of Ten Value Metric Prefix Metric Symbol
10
9
one billion giga G
10
6
one million mega M
10
3
one thousand kilo k
10
-3
one-thousandth milli m
10
-6
one-millionth micro
10
-9
one-billionth nano n
10
-12
one-trillionth pico p





















35

Problem Set No. 3
METRIC PREFIXES

I. Express each of the following as quantity having a metric prefix:

1) 31 10
3

a. 0.31 mA
b. 3.1 mA
c. 31 mA
d. 310 mA

2) 5.5 10
3

a. 5.5 kV
b. 55 kV
c. 550 kV
d. 5.5 MV

3) 200 10
12

a. 200 pF
b. 200 nF
c. 200 F
d. 2000 pF

4) 0.000003
a. 3 F
b. 30 F
c. 3 nF
d. 30 nF

5) 3,300,000 O
a. 3.3 k
b. 33 k
c. 3.3 M
d. 33 M

6) 350 10
9

a. 35 nF
b. 350 nF
c. 3.5 pF
d. 35 pF
36


II. Express each quantity as a power of ten:

7) 5
a. 5 x 10
-3
A
b. 5 x 10
-6
A
c. 5 x 10
-9
A
d. 50 x 10
-3
A

8) 43
a. 43 x 10
-3
V
b. 43 x 10
-6
V
c. 43 x 10
-9
V
d. 43 x 10
-12
V

9) 275 O
a. 275 x 10
6
V
b. 275 x 10
3
V
c. 275 x 10
-3
V
d. 275 x 10
-6
V

10) 10
a. 10 x 10
12
W
b. 10 x 10
9
W
c. 10 x 10
6
W
d. 10 x 10
3
W

III. Add the following quantities:

11) 6 + 3 A = _________ mA
a. 6.03
b. 60.03
c. 6.003
d. 6.3

37

12) 550 + 3.2 V = _________ V
a. 375
b. 37.5
c. 3.75
d. 0.375
13) 12 O + 6800 O = ________ kO
14) 1880
15) 188
16) 18.8
17) 1.88

18) 15 + 7500 = __________ MW
a. 0.0225
b. 0.225
c. 2.25
d. 22.5



























38

2.7 Comparison of AC and DC





Direct Current. The DC electricity, flows in one direction. The flow is said to be from negative to
positive. The normal source of a DC electricity, is the dry cell or storage battery.
Alternating Current. The AC electricity constantly reverses its direction of flow. It is generated by
machine called generator. This type of current is universally accepted because of its limited number
of applications with the following advantages.
1. It is easily produced.
2. It is cheaper to maintain.
3. It could be transformed into higher voltage.
4. It could be distributed to far distance with low voltage drop.
5. It is more efficient compared with the direct current.

Comparison of DC Voltage and AC Voltage

DC Voltage AC Voltage
Fixed Polarity Reverses polarity
Can be steady or vary in magnitude Varies between reversals in polarity
Steady value cannot be stepped up or down by
a transformer
Can be stepped up or down for electric
power distribution
Easier to measure Easier to amplify
Heating effect is the same for direct or alternating current















AC

+ DC Voltage AC Voltage
39

Objective Test No. 1
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY
1. Which of the following is not an electrical quantity?
time
power
current
voltage
2. The unit of current is
volt
watt
joule
ampere
3. The unit of voltage is
ohm
volt
watt
farad
4. The unit of resistance is
ohm
hertz
henry
ampere
5. 15,000 W is the same as
15 W
15 mW
15 kW
15 MW
6. The quantity 4.7 x 10
3
is the same as
0.0047
470
4700
47,000
7. The quantity 56 x 10
-3
is the same as
0.056
0.560
560
56,000
8. The number 3,300,000 can be expressed as
3.3 x 10
-6

40

3.3 x 10
6

3.3 x 10
9

3.3 x 10
12

9. Ten milliamperes can be expressed as
10 A
10 mA
10 kA
10 MA
10. Five thousand volts can be expressed as
5 kV
50 MV
500 kV
5000 kV
11. Twenty million ohms can be expressed as
20 O
20 mO
20 MO
20 MW
12. Hertz is the unit of
time
power
frequency
inductance
13. An oscilloscope is usually used to measure
rms voltage
average voltage
maximum voltage
effective voltage
14. A step-down transformer,
lowers both the voltage and current.
increases both the voltage and current.
lowers the voltage and increases the current.
lowers the current and increases the voltage.

15. The prefix pico means
10
-15
of a unit
10
-12
of a unit
10
-9
of a unit
10
-6
of a unit

41

Objective Test No. 2
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY
Note: Answers of some items may not be found in this text. Look for answers in other references.
1. Discovered the difference between conductors and insulators in 1729.
Luigi Galvani
Stephen Gray
Alessandro Volta
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

2. Discovered Galvanic action in 1780.
Luigi Galvani
Stephen Gray
Alessandro Volta
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

3. Invented the electric dry cell in 1800.
Luigi Galvani
Stephen Gray
Alessandro Volta
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

4. Discovered electromagnetism and invented in 1820.
J W Ritter
Luigi Galvani
William Herschel
Hans Christian Oersted

5. Discovered thermoelectricity in 1821.
J W Ritter
T J Seebeck
Stephen Gray
Hans Christian Oersted

6. Developed Fourier analysis in 1828.
T J Seebeck
Stephen Gray
Hans Christian Oersted
Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier

7. Formulated Ohms Law in 1826.
T J Seebeck
George S. Ohm
Hans Christian Oersted
42

Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier

8. Discovered electromagnetic induction in 1831.
T J Seebeck
George S. Ohm
Michael Faraday
Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier
9. Invented the transformer in 1831.
T J Seebeck
George S. Ohm
Michael Faraday
Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier
10. Formulated the law of electrolysis in 1834.
George S. Ohm
Charles Babbage
Michael Faraday
Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier
11. Invented the electric motor in 1837.
Samuel Morse
Charles Babbage
Michael Faraday
Thomas Davenport
12. Invented the magnetohydrodynamic battery in 1839.
Samuel Morse
Charles Babbage
Michael Faraday
Thomas Davenport
13. Discovered the photovoltaic effect in 1839.
Samuel Morse
Michael Faraday
Edmond Becquerel
Thomas Davenport
14. Invented the fuel cell in 1839.
William Grove
Michael Faraday
Edmond Becquerel
Thomas Davenport
15. Invented the differential resistance measurer in 1843.
John Herschel
William Grove
43

Charles Wheatstone
Edmond Becquerel
16. Formulated KCL and KVL in 1845.
John Herschel
George S. Ohm
Gustav Kirchhoff
Charles Wheatstone
17. Invented submarine cable insulation in 1847.
Charles Wheatstone
Gustav Kirchhoff
George S. Ohm
Werner Siemens
18. Discovered magnetostriction in 1847.
James Prescott Joule
Gustav Kirchhoff
George S. Ohm
Werner Siemens
19. Invented the lead acid cell in 1860.
Plante
Michael Faraday
George Boole
J P Reis
20. Invented the Leclanche in 1868.
Plante
Georges Leclanche
James Clerk Maxwell
J P Reis
21. Invented the induction motor in 1888.
Henry Hunnings
Nikola Tesla
Augustus Desire Waller
Thomas Alva Edison
22. Discovered electron in 1897.
Joseph John Thomson
Guglielmo Marconi
Wilhelm Rontgen
Almon Brown Strowger
23. Invented Nickel-iron cell in 1900.
Guglielmo Marconi
Thomas Alva Edison
44

Almon Brown Strowger
Joseph John Thomson
24. Invented synchronous induction motor in 1902.
Ernst Danielson
Heaviside and Kennely
Thomas Alva Edison
Max Planck
25. Discovered superconductivity in 1911.
Lee De Forest
Thadius Cahill
Alessandro Artom
Kamerlingh Onnes
26. Discovered neutron in 1932.
James Chadwick
Tellegen and Hoist
H S Black
Julius Lilienfield
27. Conceptualized FET in 1935.
James Chadwick
Westinghouse Co.
E H Armstrong
Oskar Heil
28. Invented Digital Voltmeter in 1952.
M V Wilkes
J I Nishizawa
Yoshire Nakamats
Andy Kay
29. Invented LED in 1960.
Leo Esaki
J I Nishizawa
Allen and Gibbons
Andy Kay
30. Invented IC in 1958.
G T Wright
Johnson and deLoach
Jack Kilby
Prager, Chang and Weisbrod


45




Direction: Search for names of scientist who contributed to the development of electricity, electrical
components and instruments found in this puzzle. Encircle the name or word vertically,
horizontally, backward, upward or downward.

C A B A D E T S R E O N A I T S I R H C S N A H O Q W E
H R T T U C Y R Y Q O O N P H A S D F G H J U K H W L Z
A L E S S A N D R O V O L T A Z X C V B N M Q V M W E R
R L L Y V P M U I P A S D T L U I O P T P A Q S M D F I
L E U C G A I J O S E P H H E N R Y H J K Y K L E Z T N
E W O D S C C B D F G H J K S L R E S I S T O R T A R A
S X J Z R I H E Z X C V B N O I M Q C E D R T Y E U A V
D A T I T T A N O P T G I H F J E K J Z X C N V R B N L
U M T Q W O E J R Y M U B I M I O P A S D F G H J K S A
F K O Z X R L A C V H B N M I R O B E R T B O Y L E F G
A R C U M Q F M W R O Y U M L I P O T A S K A S D F O I
Y E S H V J A I K P N R E T E M T L O V K L Z A C V R G
B L E N W M R N Y O O Z J F T W A X Q E W E R T T Y M I
A C R A W B A F N U M I P O U M U T C D R E Z X C V E U
N S P Q W E D R R X I T K Y S E M I C O N D U C T O R L
W E S I R O A A M P S A S D F S T E P H E N G R A Y G H
O M E L Z X Y N C V G B W A T T M E T E R B N M Q W E R
R A M L U I O K E O R B N E H C S S U M N A V R E T E P
B J A P O G A L S D O F G H J K Q K L M N I B J C K X Z
S X J C S V B I B N E P M E N O F B C K F X P L M L R G
A C X V B Q N N B M G Q D W E R T Y H U I O P A S F E R
M Y A G S D F G H M J W I L L I A M G I L B E R T Y T Y
O P O O Z I U Y N G T R E W Q J A S D F G H H J K L E M
H D H G C H A R L E S A U G U S T I N D E C O U L O M B
T A S D F G H J K L A A W R I T Y U I O P P A S D F M G
R A N D R E A M P E R E H G H J Z D Y Q W C E D R T A E
I B K L C M N B V E K C I R I U G N O V O T T O B V C X
S A H E I N R I C H R U D O L P H H E R T Z A Z X C V B







How Much Have You Learned?

46

Unit 3
INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE





































1. identify sine waves and measure their characteristics.
2. explain how frequency and period are related.
3. measure the following voltage or current values of a sine wave:
instantaneous, peak, peak-to-peak, rms, and average.
4. define a form factor.
5. describe how sine waves are generated.
6. measure points on a sine wave in terms of angular units.
7. determine the phase angle lead and phase lag.
8. express sine waves with a mathematical formula.
9. discuss phasors and how they can be used to represent sine
waves.
10. Apply Ohms law and Kirchhoffs laws to ac circuits as well as to dc
circuits.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, you
are expected to:

47






alternating current

peak value

power transmission

peak-to-peak value

electricity

rms value

sine wave

average value

waveform

Faraday's law

cycle

electromagnetic induction
polarity

phase

alternation

phasor

period

Ohm's law

frequency

Kirchhoff's law

instantaneous value



3.1 The Alternating Current


Alternating current circuits improves the
versatility and usefulness of electrical
power system. Alternating current plays a
vital role in todays energy generation

Important Terms

48

Once a big controversy ensued between the proponents of the of the DC
electricity led by Thomas Edison and the advocates of the AC electricity led
by George Westinghouse. According to Thomas Edison,

The AC electricity is dangerous, because it involves high voltage
transmission lines.
The AC advocates on the other hand, countered that:
The AC alternation is just like a handsaw which cuts on the upstroke and the down stroke.
The high voltage in the transmission line could be reduced to the desired voltage as it passes the
distribution line.

3.2 The Power Transmission


Figure 3-1. Electricity leaves the power plant. (2) Its voltage is increased at a step-up transformer. (3) The
electricity travels along a transmission line to the area where power is needed. (4) There, in the substation,
voltage is decreased with the help of step-down transformer. (5) Again the transmission lines carry the
electricity. (6) Electricity reaches the final consumption points.
More than 90 per cent of the electrical energy used for commercial purposes is generated as
alternating current. This is not due primarily to any superiority of alternating over direct current so
far as applicability to industrial and domestic uses is concerned. In fact, there are many instances
49

where direct current is absolutely necessary for industrial purposes, such as municipal traction,
electrolytic processes, and certain types of arc lamps; also, direct current motors are superior for
elevators, printing presses, and many variable-speed drives. However, for these various purposes
the energy is generated and transmitted almost always as alternating current and then converted to
direct current.
Some of the reasons for generating electrical energy as alternating current are the following:
Alternating current can be generated at comparatively high voltages, and these voltages can
be raised and lowered readily by means of static transformers.
For constant-speed work, the alternating-current induction motor is more efficient than the
direct-current motor and is loess in first cost and in maintenance, owing in part to the fact
that the induction motor has no commutator.

A circuit operating at increased voltage, has a lower power loss, power voltage drop, and
economically constructed for using smaller copper wires. On transmission and distribution line,
power loss is the most important problem to resolve. This is the main reason why Alternating
Current (AC) gained more favor and acceptance during the middle part of the 19
th
century. In the
USA, an ordinary house current is described as 120 volts 60 Hertz.

3.3 The Sine Wave

Waveforms are a graphical representation of how voltage or current varies with time. The most
common type of a waveform is the sine wave.
The sine wave is one very common type of alternating (ac) and alternating voltage. It is also referred
to as a sinusoidal wave or, simply, sinusoid. The electrical service provided by the power companies
is in the form of sinusoidal voltage and current.

Sine waves are produced by two types of sources: rotating electrical machines (ac generators) and
electronic oscillator circuits, which are in instruments known as electronic signal generators.

Figure 3.2. The Sine Wave
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
v
o
l
t
a
g
e
o
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
time (sec)
50







Figure 3-3. Parts of a Sine Wave
3.3.1 Cycle
A cycle is a complete set of positive and negative values.

3.3.2 The Polarity of a Sine Wave






(a) Positive voltage: current direction as shown.







(b) Negative voltage: current reverses direction

Figure 3-4. Alternating current and voltage.

Positive
alternation
Vs





0 t

+

Vs
_

+

Vs
_

_

Vs

+


VS








Negative
alternation

Voltage (V) or
Current (I)
Peak (maximum) value
Negative-going zero-
crossing
Positive-going
zero crossing
51

3.3.3 The Period of a Sine Wave
The period (T) of a sine wave is the time required to complete one cycle.

3.3.4 The Frequency of a Sine Wave

Frequency is the number of cycles that a sine wave completes in 1 sec.

The Unit of Frequency

Frequency (f) is measured in units of hertz, abbreviated Hz. One hertz is equivalent to one cycle
per second; 60 Hz is 60 cycles per second; and so on.

3.3.5 Relationship of Frequency and Period

The relationship between frequency and period is very important. The formulas for this relationship
are as follows:

f =
1

; T =
1

Example 3.1. The period of a certain sine wave is 10 ms. What is the frequency?

Solution:
f =
1

=
1
10 ms
= 100 Hz

Example 3.2. The frequency of a sine wave is 60 Hz. What is the period?

Solution:
T =
1

=
1
160 Hz
= 16.67 ms















.
52

Problem Set No. 4
SINE WAVES

1. Describe one cycle of a sine wave.

2. At what point does a sine wave change polarity?

3. How many maximum points does a sine wave have during one cycle?

4. How is the period of a sine wave measured?

5. Define frequency, and state its unit.

6. Determine f when T = 5 s.
a. 200 kHz
b. 20 kHz
c. 2 kHz
d. 200 Hz
7. Determine T when f = 120 Hz.
a. 8.33 ms
b. 6.33 ms
c. 4.25 ms
d. 2.45 ms

8. A sine wave goes through 5 cycles in 10 s. What is its period?
a. 1 s
b. 2 s
c. 2 s
d. 2 s

9. A sine wave has a frequency of 50 kHz. How many cycles does it complete in 10 ms?
a. 200 cycles
b. 400 cycles
c. 500 cycles
d. 600 cycles






53

3.4 THE 60-Hz AC POWER LINE






Practically all homes in the Unites States are supplied alternating voltage between 115 and 125 V
rms, at a frequency of 60 Hz. This is a sine-wave voltage produced by a rotary generator. The
electricity is distributed by high voltage power lines from the generating station and reduced to the
lower voltages used in the home. Here the incoming voltage is wired to all the wall outlets and
electrical equipment in parallel. The 120-V source of commercial electricity is the 60-Hz power line
or the mains, indicating it is the main line for all the parallel branches.
Advantages. The incoming electric service to residences is normally given as 120 V rms. With an rms
value of 120 V, the ac power is equivalent to 120-V dc power in heating effect. If the value were
higher, there would be more danger of a fatal electric shock. Lower voltages would be less efficient
in supplying power.
Higher voltage can supply electric power with less I
2
R; sine the same power is produced with less
I. Note that the I
2
R power loss increases as the square of the current. For applications where large
amounts of power are used such as central air-conditioners and clothes dryers, a line voltage of 240
V is often used.
The advantage of ac over dc power is greater efficiency in distribution from the generating
station. Alternating voltages can easily be stepped up by means of a transformer, with very little
loss, but a transformer cannot operate on direct current. The reason is that a transformer needs the
varying magnetic field produced by an ac voltage.
Using a transformer, the alternating voltage at the generating station can be stepped up to
values as high as 500 kV for high-voltage distribution lines. These high-voltage lines supply large
amounts of power with much less current and less I
2
R loss, compared with a 120-V line. At the
home, the lower voltage required is supplied by a step-down transformer. The step-up and step-
down characteristics of a transformer refer to the ration of voltages across the input and output
connections.
The frequency of 60 Hz is convenient for commercial ac power. Much lower frequencies would
require much bigger transformers because larger windings would be necessary. Also, too low a
frequency for alternating current in a lamp would cause the light to flicker. For the opposite case,
too high a frequency results in excessive iron-core heating in the transformers because of eddy
currents and hysteresis losses. Based on these factors, 60 Hz is the frequency of the ac power line in
54

the United States. It should be noted that the frequency of the ac power mains in England and most
European counters is 50 Hz.

3.5 Voltage and Current Values of a Sine Wave

3.5.1 Instantaneous Value
Figure 3-5 illustrates that any point in time on a sine wave, the voltage (or current) has an
instantaneous value. This instantaneous value is different at different point in the curve.
Instantaneous values are positive during the positive alternation and negative during the negative
alternation. Instantaneous values of voltage or current are symbolized by lower case v and i,
respectively.

Figure 3-5. Example of instantaneous value of a sine voltage.


3.5.2 Peak Value
The peak value of a sine wave is the value of voltage (or current) at the positive or the
negative maximum (peaks) with respect to zero. Since the peaks are equal in magnitude, a sine wave
is characterized by a single peak value, as is illustrated in Figure 3-6. For a given sine wave, the peak
value is constant and is represented by V
P
or V
m
for voltage and I
P
or I
m
for current.

-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
V
v
o
l
t
s
time (ms)
v
2
v
1
t
1
t
2
55



Figure 3-6. Example of a peak value of a sine wave.


3.5.3 Peak-to-Peak Value
The peak-to-peak value of a sine, as illustrated in Figure 3-6, is the voltage (or current) form the
positive peak to negative peak. Of course it is always twice the peak value as expressed in the
following equations:

V
PP
= 2V
P

I
PP
= 2I
P

3.5.4 rms Value
The term rms stands for root mean square. It refers to the mathematical procedure which this value
is derived. The rms value is also referred to as the effective value. Most ac voltmeters display rms
voltage. The 220 V at your wall outlet is an rms value.
The rms value of a sine wave is actually a measure of the heating effect of a sine wave. For
an example, when a resistor is connected across an ac (sine wave) source, as shown in Figure 3-7(a),
a certain amount of heat is generated by the resistor. Part (b) shows the same resistor connected
across a dc voltage source.
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
v
o
l
t
a
g
e
o
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
time (sec)
V
p
V
p-p
56

















Figure 3-7. When the same amount of heat is being produced in both cases, the sine wave has an rms value
equal to the DC voltage.
The value of the AC voltage can be adjusted so that resistor gives off the same amount of
heat as it does when connected to the DC source.
The rms value of a sine wave is equal to the dc voltage that produces the same
amount of heat in a resistance as the sinusoidal voltage.
The peak value of a sine wave can be converted to the corresponding rms value using the following
relationships for either voltage or current:
V
rms
=
V
p
2


I
rms
=
I
p
2

Using these formulas, we can also determine the peak value knowing the rms value, as
follows:
V
P
= 2 V
rms
I
p
= 2 I
rms

V
12 V
R
30
XWM1
V I
R
30
XWM1
V I
E
12 Vrms
60 Hz
0
(a)
(b)
57

3.5.5 Average Value
The average value of a sine wave when taken over one complete cycle is always zero, because the
positive values (above the zero crossing) offset the negative values (below the zero crossing).
To be useful for comparisons, the average value of a sine wave is defined over a half-cycle
rather than over a full cycle. The average value is the total area under the half-cycle divided by the
distance of the curve along the horizontal axis. The result is expressed in terms of the peak value as
follows for both voltage and current sine waves:
V
avg
=
2
t
V

I
avg
=
2
t

58

Problem Set No. 5
VALUES OF SINE WAVE VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
1. Derive the formula for the rms value of current.

2. Derive the formula for the average value of a sine wave in half-cycle.

3. A sine wave has a peak value of 12 V. Determine the following values:
(a) rms (b) peak-to-peak (c) half-cycle average
4. A sinusoidal current has an rms value of 5 mA. Determine the following value:
(a) peak (b) half-cycle average (c) peak-to-peak
5. A direct current of 12.5 A flows in a 25-ohm noninductive resistance. Determine maximum
value of an alternating current that will produce heat at the same rate in this resistance.
a. 2 A
b. 12.5 A
c. 17.68 A
d. 31.25 A

6. Number 6 AWG underground cable, which supplies a series incandescent lamp system with
alternating current is guaranteed to operate safely with 5,000 volts (rms) alternating. If the
system were changed to direct current, at what voltage would it be safe to operate the
system?
a. 3535.53 V
b. 5,000 V
c. 7071.07 V
d. 10,000 V












59

3.6 Sine Wave Voltage Sources
A. An AC Generator

An AC generator is a rotating electrical machine that uses the principle of electromagnetic
induction. It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.














Figure 3-8. An elementary generator.
3.6.1 Parts of an Elementary Generator
1. Magnetic Poles provide the magnetic field
2. Loop of wire cuts the magnetic field so that emf will be induced.
3. Slip rings connected to the loop of wire.
4. Brushes slide with the slip rings to collect the current from the loop of wire.
5. Terminals - connected to the load

3.6.2 Generation of Alternating EMFs.

1
2
3
4
5
60

The generation of emf started with the discovery of electromagnetism by Hans Christian Oersted in
1820. He found that when current flows through a coil a magnetic field is established around it as
shown in Figure 3-9.


Figure 3-9. Magnetic lines of force around a current-carrying conductor.

After the discovery (by Oersted) that electric current produces a magnetic field, scientists
began to search for the converse phenomenon from about 1821 onwards. The problem they put to
themselves was how to convert magnetism into electricity. It is recorded that Michael Faraday was
in the habit of walking about with magnets in his pockets so as to constantly remind him of the
problem. After nine years of continuous research and experimentation, he succeeded in producing
electricity by converting magnetism. In 1831, he formulated basic laws underlying the phenomenon
of electromagnetic induction (known after his name), upon which is based the operation of most of
the commercial apparatus like motors, generators and transformers etc.

3.6.3 Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday summed up the above facts into two laws known as Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction.

First Law. It states that whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is always
induced in it.
or
whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in that conductor.

Second Law. It states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux-
linkages.

61

Explanation. Suppose a coil has N turns and flux through it changes from an initial value of
1
webers
to the final value of
2
webers in time t seconds. Then, remembering that by flux-linkages mean the
product of number of turns and the flux linked with the coil, we have
Initial flux linkages = N
1
, and final flux linkages = N
2



induced e.m.f. e =
N
2
N
1

2

1
Wb/s or volt e =
N(
2

1
)

2

1
volt


Putting the above expression in its differential form, we get

e =
d(N)
dt
=
Nd
dt
volt

Usually, a minus sign is given to the right-hand side expression to signify the fact that the induced
e.m.f. sets up current in such a direction that magnetic effect produced by it opposes the very cause
producing it . (Lenzs Law)

e =
Nd
dt
volt

3.6.4 Three Ways of the Generation of Voltage.
A voltage can be developed in a coil of wire in one of three ways; these are (1) by changing
the flux through the coil as shown in Figure 3-10, (2) by moving the coil through a magnetic field so
that flux cutting results as in Figure 3-11, and (3) by altering the direction of the flux with respect to
the coil as shown in Figure 3-12. In the first of these the voltage is said to be an induced emf and, in
accordance with Faradays law, its magnitude at any instant of time is given by the equation
In CGS
e = N
u

10
8

where N = number of turns in the coil
u = flux in maxwells
t = time in seconds

u

= rate at which flux, in maxwells, changes through the coil

In SI
e = N
u

volts
where: u = the flux in Weber (Wb)
62













Figure 3-10. Induction of voltage due to the change of flux which results from the changing current.



Figure 3-11. Electromagnetic Induction in a Coil
e
63











Figure 3-12. Electromagnetic induction in a coil with magnetic field moving.
Note particularly that, by this method (the fist method) of developing an emf, there is no physical
motion of coil or magnet; the current though the exciting coil that is responsible for the magnetism is
altered to change the flux through the coil in which the voltage is induced. By the second or third
method there is actual physical motion of coil or magnet, and in altered positions of coil or magnet
flux through the coil changes. A voltage developed in either of these ways is said to be a generated
emf and is given by the equation
e = Blv x 10
-8
volts
64

where: B = flux density, lines per square inch
l = length of the wire, in., that is moved relative to the flux
v = velocity of the wire, in. per second, with respect to the flux
In SI:
e = Blv volts
where: B = flux density in Tesla or Wb/m
2
l = length of the wire that is moved relative to the flux, in meters
v = velocity of the wire with respect to the flux, in meters per second
In CGS:
e = Blv x 10
-8
volts
where: B = flux density in Gauss
l = length of the wire that is moved relative to the flux, in centimeters
v = velocity of the wire with respect to the flux, in centimeters per second
Note that formulas above are applied to a length of conductor as shown in Figure 3.11. If there N
number of conductors they are just multiplied by N. Also take note that B, l, and v are mutually
perpendicular so that
e = N Blv volts
Example 3.3. A coil has 500 turns in which a current rises a current from 0 to 0.25 A in 0.1 s. As the
current rises linearly, it produces a flux of 2.5 Wb. What is the induced emf in the coil?
Solution: e =
N(
2

1
)

2

1
=
500(2.5 Wb 0)
0.1 0
= 0.0125
Example 3.4. A piece of conductor 10 cm long moves across a magnetic field of 10,000 gauss at a
velocity of 120 cm/sec. What is the voltage across the conductor?
Solution: e = Blv x 10
-8
= (10,000)(10)(120) x 10
-8
= 0.12 V

3.7 Generation of a Sine Wave Voltage

There are actually many turns of wire in the coil of a generator but in Figure 3-13 shows only a single
turn. Considering one side of the single-turn coil, as this cuts magnetic field a voltage is induced
across it. Figure 3-13 shows the direction of flux, induced emf, and the movement of conductor.
These directions are determined by following the right-hand rule.
65


Figure 3-13. Generation of emf in a conductor.
Now, the cross-section of the conductor is being considered as shown in Figure 3.14. As the
conductor rotates around the magnetic field flux cutting results and an emf is induced across it. As
this continually rotated a sine wave voltage is produced.


Figure 3-14. Sine wave voltage produced by the rotating conductor.

3.7.1 Reasons for using alternating current (or voltage) of sinusoidal form:
An alternating current (or voltage) sinusoidal form is normally used because of the following
reasons:
1. Mathematically, it is quite simple.
66

2. Its integrals and differentials both are sinusoidal.
3. It lends itself to vector representation.
4. A complex waveform can be analyzed into a series of sine waves of various frequencies,
and component can be dealt with separately.
5. This waveform is desirable for power generation, transmission and utilization.









3.7.2 Equations of the Alternating Voltages and Currents











Figure 3.15. Conductor that rotates at an angle of u.
In a single-coil generator the e.m.f. generated in one side of the coil which contains N conductors, is
given by,

e = N Bl v

Using SI units, B = flux density in Wb/m
2
or Tesla, N = number of turns, l length of the wire that is
moved relative to the flux, in meters, and v = velocity of the wire with respect to the flux, in meters
per second
67


Total e.m.f. generated in both sides of the coil is

e = 2BNl v sin volt

From Figure 3.13, getting the v sin u -component because that is the one which is perpendicular to
the field, the equation becomes,

e = 2BNl v sin volt

Now, e has maximum value of Em (say) when = 90. Hence,

E
m
= 2BNl v

Therefore e = E
m
sin

If b = width of the coil in meters ; f = frequency of rotation of coil in Hz, then v = bf

E
m
= 2 B N l ( b f) = 2 f N B A volts
Example 3.5. A square coil of 10 cm side and 100 turns is
rotated at a uniform speed of 1000 revolutions per minute,
about an axis at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of 0.5
Wb/m2. Calculate the instantaneous value of the induced
electromotive force, when the plane of the coil is (i) at right
angles to the field (b) in the plane of the field.


Solution:

Let the magnetic field lie in the vertical plane and the coil in the horizontal plane. Also, let the angle
be measured from X-axis.

Maximum value of the induced e.m.f., Em = 2 f N Bm A volt.
Instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f. e = Em sin
Now f = 100/60 = (50/3) rps, N = 100, B
m
= 0.5 Wb/m
2
, A = 10
2
m
2


(a) In this case, = 0
e = 0
(b) Here = 90, e = E
m
sin 90 = E
m


Substituting the given values, we get
e = 2 x (50/3) x 100 x 0.5 x 10
2
= 52.3 V Answer
3.7.3 Factors That Affect Frequency in ac Generator
(a) rate of rotation of the loop
(b) magnetic poles


60 Hz 120 Hz
68











f = number of pole pairs x revolution per second

Example 3.6 A four-pole generator has a rotation speed of 100 rev/sec. Determine the frequency
of the output voltage.
Solution: f = number of pole pairs x revolution per second

=
4
2
(100) = 200 cycles per second or 200 Hertz (Hz)

3.7.4 Factors That Affect Amplitude in ac Generator

Number of turns (N)
Rate of change with respect to the magnetic field

B. Signal Generator- a source of sine wave and other waveforms which uses electronic
oscillator circuits.

3.7.5 Derivation of the RMS Value of Voltage or Current
Mid-ordinate Method
In Fig. 3-16 are shown the positive half cycles for both symmetrical sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal
alternating currents. Divide time base t into n equal intervals of time each of duration t/n seconds.
Let the average values of instantaneous currents during these intervals be respectively i
1
, i
2
, i
3
.... i
n

(i.e. mid-ordinates in Fig. 3-16). Suppose that this alternating current is passed through a circuit of
resistance R ohms. Then,
N



S S



N




1 revolution = 2 cycles
69









Figure 3-16.

Heat produced in 1
st
interval = 0.24 x 10
-3

1
2
Rt/n kcal (where 1/J = 1/4200 = 0.24 x 10
-3

Heat produced in 2
nd
interval = 0.24 x 10
-3

2
2
Rt/n kcal
: : : :
: : : :
Heat produced in nth interval = 0.24 x 10
-3

2
Rt/n kcal
Total heat produced in t seconds is = 0.24 x 10
-3
Rt

1
2
+
2
2
+ +

Now, suppose that a direct current of value I produces the same heat through the same resistance
during the same time t. Heat produced by it is = 0.24 x 10
3
I
2
Rt kcal. By definition, the two amounts
of heat produced should be equal.

0.24 x 10
-3
I
2
Rt = 0.24 x 10
-3
Rt

1
2
+
2
2
+ +

I
2
=

1
2
+
2
2
+ +

and I =

1
2
+
2
2
+ +

= square root of the mean of the squares of the instantaneous
currents

Similarly, the r.m.s. value of alternating voltage is given by the expression

V =

1
2
+
2
2
+ +

t/n

i
n
i
4
i
3
i
2
i
1
i
n
i
3
i
2
i
1
Current Current i
4
t

t

70


Analytical Method
The standard form of a sinusoidal alternating current is i = I
m
sin t = I
m
sin .
The mean of the squares of the instantaneous values of current over one complete cycle is (even the
value over half a cycle will do).
=

2
u
(2t 0)
2t
0

The square root of this value is =

2
u
2t
2t
0
put i = I
m
sin and integrate
Hence, the r.m.s. value of the alternating current is
I =

2
= 0.707 I
m
Hence, we find that for a symmetrical sinusoidal current

r.m.s. value of current = 0.707 . max. value of current

The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is of considerable importance in practice, because the
ammeters and voltmeters record the r.m.s. value of alternating current and voltage respectively. In
electrical engineering work, unless indicated otherwise, the values of the given current and voltage
are always the r.m.s. values.

It should be noted that the average heating effect produced during one cycle is

= I
2
R = ( I
m
/2)
2
R = I
m
2
R

Average Value

The average value Ia of an alternating current is expressed by that steady current which transfers
across any circuit the same charge as is transferred by that alternating current during the same
time
.
In the case of a symmetrical alternating current (i.e. one whose two half-cycles are exactly similar,
whether sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal), the average value over a complete cycle is zero. Hence, in
their case, the average value is obtained by adding or integrating the instantaneous values of current
over one half-cycle only. But in the case of an unsymmetrical alternating current (like half-wave
rectified current) the average value must always be taken over the whole cycle.

(i) Mid-ordinate Method

With reference to Fig. 11.16, I
av
=

1
+
2
+ +

This method may be used both for sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal waves, although it is specially
convenient for the latter.
71



(ii) Analytical Method

The standard equation of an alternating current is, i = Im sin
I
av
=
u
(2t 0)
2t
0
putting the value of i and integrate

I
av
=
2
t
I
m
= 0.637 I
m

Form Factor
It is defined as the ratio, K
f
=


=
0.707

0.637

= 1.1. (for sinusoidal alternating currents only)

In the case of sinusoidal alternating voltage also, K
f
=


=
0.707

0.637

= 1.11

As is clear, the knowledge of form factor will enable the r.m.s. value to be found from the arithmetic
mean value and vice-versa.


Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor

It is defined as the ratio K
a
=


=

/2
= 2 = 1.414 (for sinusoidal AC only)
For sinusoidal alternating voltage also, K
a
=

/2
= 1.414
Knowledge of this factor is of importance in dielectric insulation testing, because the dielectric stress
to which the insulation is subjected, is proportional to the maximum or peak value of the applied
voltage. The knowledge is also necessary when measuring iron losses, because the iron loss depends
on the value of maximum flux.


3.8 Angular Relationship of a Sine Wave







270

3
2
t
0 or 360
(0 or 2t)

180
(t/2)

90
(t/2)

II I

IV

III

72









3.8.1 Radian-Degree Conversion

rad =

180
x degrees
degrees =
180

x radians

3.8.2 Sine Wave Angles

3.9 Phase of a Sine Wave

The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement that specifies the position of the sine wave
relative to a reference.

(a) In Phase




0 90 180 270 360
0

2
t
3
2
t 2t

73


Two or more waveforms are said to be in phase if they reach their zero and maximum values at
the same time.



(b) Out-of-Phase one wave either leads or lags the other.

o Lagging Phase Difference
o Leading Phase Difference



In these two waveforms, sine wave A leads sine wave B by 90 or sine wave B lags sine wave A by 90

Note: To get the phase angle always consider the positive-going zero crossing nearest to the
reference or to other wave.


Example 3.7 What is the phase angle between the two sine waves in the figures below? Which one
is lagging? Which one is leading?








-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c
u
r
r
e
n
t

time (sec)
i1
i2
I
1m
I
2m
A B
0 45
Solution:

The phase angle | between the
two sine waves is 45 (| = 45 -
0). Sine wave A leads B by 45
B

A
74










3.10 The Sine Wave Equation


Figure 3-17. Sine wave with phase angle of 0.
The equation of a sine wave is
y = A sin (u |)
where: y = ordinate; the value of the sine wave at an angle u.
A = amplitude ( the peak or maximum value)
| = the phase angle which is the angle between the reference (the origin) and the given sine
wave.

In the sine wave of Figure 3.17, the phase angle | is 0 since its positive-going zero-crossing is at 0
(or at the origin), so that the equation becomes,
y = A sin u

0 30 90
Solution:

The phase angle | between the
two sine waves is 60(| = 90 -
30). Sine wave A lags B by 60
or sine wave B leads sine wave
A by 60.
B

A
A
y
u
75

Example 3.8 Assuming that the sine wave below is a voltage, find its value at 30 and 60.




Solution: The equation is v = V
m
sin u

At u = 30, v = 90 sin 30 = 45 V

At u = 60, v = 90 sin 60 = 77.94 V


3.11 Expressions for Phase-Shifted Sine Waves







Phase-shifted to the right Phase-shifted to the left
y = A sin (u - |) y = A sin (u + |)
Example 3.9 Determine the instantaneous value at the 90 reference point on the horizontal axis
of each sine wave current.
V
90 V




30 60



|


|

76


Solution:
The equation of sine wave current a is, a = A sin (u - 60); where A = 10 A
so that a = 10 sin (u - 60) A;
When u = 90
a = 10 sin (u - 60) = 10 sin (90 - 60) = 5 A
The equation of sine wave current b is b = B sin (u + 30) A; where B = 8 A
so that b = 8 sin (u + 30)
When u = 90
b = 8 sin (u + 30) = 8 sin (90 + 30) = 6.93 A

The equation of sine wave current c is c = C sin (u + 0); where C= 5 A
so that b = 5 sin u A
When u = 90
c = 5 sin u = 5 sin 90 = 5A
3.12 Expression of Voltage/Current in terms of Time

-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
u (degrees)
c
b
a
A
B
C
E
1m
E
2m
30 0 60
77

In Figure 3.13,
u = 2t

x f (cycle/second) x t ( time in sec)

u = 2tft radians

u = 360 ft degrees

where 2tf = e (angular velocity in radians/second)

or e = 360 f (degrees per second)

and so from e = E
m
sinu, this equation becomes

e = E
m
sinet
This equation can also be written as
e(t) = E
m
sinet
meaning e is a function of t.

and for current

i = I
m
sinet





Example 3.10 A 60-Hz alternating current has an rms value of 42.42 A making its maximum value
of 60 A. Draw current wave to scale. Find the time corresponding to an angle of 45, 90, 135 ,
225 , and 270 .

Solution





60 A
45 90 135 225 270
V
m
or I
m

v or i


u u (degrees or radians)
t t (seconds)
78










Use the formula u = 360 ft

t =
u
360 f
=
u
360 (60)



when u = 45, t =
u
360 (60)
=
45
360 (60)
= 2.08 ms

when u = 90, t =
u
360 (60)
=
90
360 (60)
= 3.85 ms

when u = 135, t =
u
360 (60)
=
135
360 (60)
= 6.25 ms

when u = 225, t =
u
360 (60)
=
225
360 (60)
= 10.42 ms

when u = 270, t =
u
360 (60)
=
270
360 (60)
= 12.5 ms




Example 3.11 A sine-wave alternating voltage has a maximum value of 170 volts and a frequency
of 25 Hz. Determine (a) value of voltage 0.001, 0.004, 0.01 sec after crossing zero axis in a positive
direction; (b) angles corresponding to each value of time; (c) rms and average (for a half-cycle)
values.

Solution













(a) The equation of the voltage is, v = 170 sin 2t25t V
170 V
T = 40 ms
79


(1) when t = 0.001 sec; v = 170 sin [2t25(0.001)] = 26.59 V
(2) when t = 0.004 sec; v = 170 sin [2t25(0.004)] = 99.92 V
(3) when t = 0.01 sec, v = 170 sin [2t25(0.01)] = 170 V

(b) The formula is u = 360ft degrees = 360(25)t

(1) when t = 0.001 sec; u = 360 x 25

x 0.001 sec = 9

(2) when t = 0.004 sec; u = 360x 25

x 0.004sec = 36

(3) when t = 0.01 sec; u = 360x 25

x 0.01 sec = 90

(c) V
rms
=
170
2
= 120.21 V

V
avg
=
2
t
(170) = 108. 23 V
Problem Set No. 6
EXPRESSION AND PHASE RELATIONSHIP OF SINE WAVES
Solve the following problems. Draw the corresponding sine waves.
1. Sine wave A has a positive-going zero crossing at 30. Sine wave B has a positive-going zero
crossing at 45. Determine the phase angle between the two signals. Which signal leads?

2. One sine wave has a positive peak at 75, and another has a positive peak at 100. How much
is each sine wave shifted in phase from the 0 reference? What is the phase angle between
them?

3. Make a sketch of two sine waves as follows: Sine wave A is the reference, and sine wave B lags
A by 90. Both have equal magnitude.

4. Convert the following angular values from degrees to radians:
(a) 30 (b) 45 (c) 135 (d) 300
5. Convert the Following angular value from radians to degrees:
(a) t/8 (b) t/2 (c) 3t/5 (d) 6t/5
6. A certain sine wave has a positive-going zero crossing at 0 and an rms value of 20 A. Calculate
its instantaneous value at each of the following angles:
(a) 15 (b) 50 (c) 135 (d) 300
7. Sine wave A lags sine wave B by 30. Both have peak values of 15 V. Sine wave A is the
reference with a positive-going zero crossing at 0. Determine the instantaneous value of sine
wave B at 30, 45, 90, 180, 200, and 300.

80

8. A 50-Hz alternating current has a maximum instantaneous value of 42.42 A. It crosses the zero
axis in a positive direction when time is zero. Determine (a) time when current first reaches a
value of 30 A; (b) time when current, after having gone through its maximum positive value,
reaches a value of 36.7 A; (c) value of current when the time is 1/120 sec; (d) value of time
when current first reaches a negative value of 21.21 A.

9. A current is given by i = 22.62 sin 377t. Determine (a) maximum value; (b) rms value; (c)
frequency; (d) radians through which its vector has gone when t = 0.01 sec; (e) number of
degrees in (d); (f) value of current at instant in (d).

10. A 25-Hz emf has an rms value of 250 volts, is zero and increasing positively when t = 0.
Determine (a) maximum value; (b) equation; (c) radians at t = 1/75 sec; (d) degrees in (c); (e)
emf at time t in (c).



3.13 Addition of Sine Waves

(a) In Phase Sine Waves




The equation of i
1
= I
m1
sin et and that of i
2
= I
m2
sin et
The sum (total, resultant, or equivalent) of the two waveforms is
i
T
= (I
m1
+ I
m2
) sin et
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c
u
r
r
e
n
t

time (sec)
i1
i2
I
1m
I
2m
81


Example 3.12 If the maximum values of i
1
and i
2
are 15 A and 20 A respectively, and the frequency
is 60 Hz, find the equation of the resultant of the two waves.

Solution
The equation of i
1
= 15 sin 2t60t A and that of i
2
= 20 sin 2t60t A
The resultant equation is
i
T
= i
1
+ i
2

= 15 sin 2t60t A + 20 sin 2t60t A
i
T
= 35 sin 2t60t A Answer

The figure below shows the waveform of the resultant current


Example 3.13 Find the equation of the resultant of the two 60-Hz sine waves below.
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
time (sec)
i1
i2
iT
82


The equation of e
1
= 90 sin (2t60t 30) V and that of e
2
= 70 sin (2t60t - 30) V
or converting 30 to radians we have, t/6 radians
So that e
1
= 90 sin (2t60t t/6) V and e
2
= 70 sin (2t60t - t/6) V
The resultant equation is
e
T
= 160 sin (2t60t - t/6) V Answer

The figure below shows the resultant voltage.


(b) Waves Differing in Phase by 90 degrees
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
v
o
l
t
a
g
e
u (degrees)
e1
e2
E
1m
E
2m
30
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
v
o
l
t
a
g
e

u (degrees)
e1
e2
eT
E
Tm
30
83





Let A = be the maximum value of sine wave a
B = the maximum value of sine wave b
C = the maximum value of the sum or resultant of the two sine waves
| = the phase angle of the resultant.
The equation of sine wave a = A sin et and b = B sin (et + 90) = B cos et and
c = C sin(et + |)
Now, find C and | in terms of A and B
a + b = c
A sin et + B cos et = C sin(et + |)
Expanding sin(et + |) = sinet cos | + cos et sin |
A sin et + B cos et = C (sinet cos | + cos et sin |)
A sin et + B cos et = C sinet cos | + Ccos et sin |
Equating coefficients of sin et,
A = C cos | (1)
Equating coefficients of cos et,
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
a
b
c
90 0 90 180 270 360
C
B
A
|
84

B = C sin | (2)
To find C, square equations 1 and 2 then add,
A
2
+ B
2
= C
2
(cos
2
| + sin
2
|)
A
2
+ B
2
= C
2

C

= A
2
+ B
2

To find |, divide equation 2 by equation 1

B
A
=
C si n |
C cos |
= tan | ; | = tan
-1

B
A

Hence,
A sin et + B cos et = c

= A
2
+ B
2
sin (et + tan
-1

B
A
)


Example 3.14 A 60-Hz current i
1
=

9 sinet A is added to 60-Hz current i
2
= 15coset, where e =
2t60. Determine (a) the equation of the resultant current; (b) time at which the two currents are
equal.

Solution

i
T


= I

1
2
+ I

2
2
sin (et + tan
-1
I

2
I

1
)
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c
u
r
r
e
n
t

u (degrees)
i1
i2
iT
90 | 0 90 180 270 360
I
Tm
I
2m
I
1m
85

where I
m1
= 9 A , I
m2
= 15 A , e = 2t60 rad/sec.

i
T


= 9
2
+ 15
2

sin (2t60 t + tan
-1

15
9
)
so that , i
T


= 17.49 sin (2t60t + 59.04) or i
T


= 12.04 sin (2t60t + 1.03)

(c) Waves Differing in Phase Other than 90 degrees




Example 3.15 Two 25-Hz emfs differing in phase by 105 are given by
e
1
= 120 sin (et + 60) V and e
2
= 60 sin (et - 45) V
Solution

e
T =
e
1
+ e
2

= 120 sin (et + 60) + 60 sin (et - 45)

= 120 (sin etcos60 + coset sin 60) + 60 (sin et cos 45 - cos et sin 45)

= 60sinet + 103.92 coset + 42.43sin et - 42.43cos et

= 102.43 sinet + 61.49 coset

Following the formula
c

= A sin et + B cos et = A
2
+ B
2
sin (et + tan
-1

B
A
)
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
v
o
l
t
a
g
e
u (degrees)
e1
e2
eT
60 0 45
86

where A = 102.43, B = 61.49
and let c = be the e
T
Therefore,

e
T
= (102.43)
2
+ (61.49)
2
sin (et + tan
-1
61.49
102.43
)
e
T =
119.47 sin (et + 30.98) V

In this equation, I
Tm
= 119.47 V and | = 30.98










Problem Set No. 7
ADDITION OF SINE WAVES
1. An emf e
1
= 100 sin 2t60t is in series with an emf e
2
= 120 sin 2t60t. Determine (a) their
resultant e
3
; (b) angle between e
1
and e
3
.

2. Two currents i
1
= 12 sin 2t60t and i
2
= 9 cos 2t60t flow in a wire. (a) Determine the equation of
resultant current i
3
and angle u between i
1
and i
3
; (b) Determine rms value of i
3
.

3. Two 50-Hz currents i
1
= 2.5 sin (t - 15) and i
2
= 3.5 sin (t - 75) flow in a common wire.
Determine (a) their resultant i
3
; (b) angle between i
1
and i
3
.

4. Two 50-Hz emf having rms values of 22.6 and 33.9 volts differ in phase by an angle of 60, the
latter current lagging and its positive-going zero crossing is at 0. Determine the resultant emf if
they are connected in series.


87

















3.14 Introduction to Phasors

Phasors can be used to represent time-varying quantities, such as sine waves, in terms of their
magnitude and angular position (phase angle)
Sine Waves Phasor Diagram





i = 60 sin (et + 0) A

= 42.43 AZ0

60 A i
88








e = 120 sin (et - 60)

= 84.85 V Z-60







e = 120 sin (et - 60)

= 84.85 V Z-60
Note: For the magnitude of the phasors always use the rms value of the sine wave voltage and
current.


3.15 Addition of Sine Waves and Phasors

Example 3.16 Find the total current if the maximum values of i
1
and i
2
are 20 and 15 amp,
respectively.
120 V
e


60

| =
60
E

60
120 V
e

| =
60

60


E



89


Solution For the maximum values of the currents:
I
1
= 14.14 A
I
2
= 10.61 A

= 14.14Z0 + 10.61Z0
= 24.75 AZ0
To convert this to a sine wave equation, the maximum value of the total current
I
Tm
=\2(

24.75) = 35 A. The equation of the total current is
i
T
= 35 sin(et + 0)
Example 3.17
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
time (sec)
i1
i2
iT

I
1
= 14.14 A I
2
= 10.61 A
24.75 A



24.75 A



90


Solution E
1
=
90
2
= 63.64 A
\2
E
2
=
70
2
= 49.5 A

= 63.64 VZ-30 + 49.5 VZ-30

= 113.14 VZ-30
To convert this to a sine wave equation, the maximum value of the total current
E
Tm
= 2 (

113.14) = 160 A. The equation of the total current is
e
T
= 160 sin(et - 30)
Example 3.18 A 60-Hz current i
1
=

9 sinet A is added to 60-Hz current i
2
= 15coset, where e =
2t60. Determine (a) the equation of the resultant current; (b) time at which the two currents are
equal.

Solution
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
v
o
l
t
a
g
e

u (degrees)
e1
e2
eT
E
Tm
E
1m
E
2m
30
E
2
= 49.5 V
E
T
= 113.14 V
E
1
= 63.64 V
30
91


The resultant equation of the two waves is,
i
T


= 17.49 sin (2t60t + 59.04) A
Converting these sine waves as phasors,







Adding the phasors,

=

6.36 AZ0 + 10.61 A Z90
= (6.36 + j0) + (j10.61)
= 6.36 + j 10.61
= 12.37 A Z59.04


-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c
u
r
r
e
n
t

u (degrees)
i1
i2
iT
90 | 0 90 180 270 360
I
Tm
I
2m
I
1m
I
2
=

I
T
= 12.37 A
10.61 A

| = 59.04

I
1
= 6.36 A











92






















Problem Set No. 8
PHASOR ANALYSIS

1. Sketch the sine waves represented by the phasor diagram shown. Find also the rms value of the
resultant.


E
1
= 25 V

45 E
2
= 15 V
60
93






2. An emf e
1
= 100 sin 2t60t is in series with an emf e
2
= 120 sin 2t60t. Determine (a) their
resultant
3

in polar form (b) angle between

1

and
3

.
3. Two currents i
1
= 12 sin 2t60t and i
2
= 9 cos 2t60t flow in a wire. (a) Determine theresultant
current
3

in polar form

; (b) Determine rms value of
3

.

4. Two 50-Hz currents i
1
= 2.5 sin (t - 15) and i
2
= 3.5 sin (t - 75) flow in a common wire.
Determine (a) their resultant
3

(b) angle between

1

and
3

.

5. Two 50-Hz emf having rms values of 22.6 and 33.9 volts differ in phase by an angle of 60, the
latter current lagging and its positive-going zero crossing is at 0. Determine the resultant emf if
they are connected in series.









3.16 Ohms Law and Kirchhoffs Laws in AC Circuits

When time-varying ac voltages such as the sine wave are applied to resistive circuits, the
circuit laws that you studies earlier still apply. Ohms law applies to resistive ac circuits in the same
way that it applies to dc circuits. If a sine wave voltage is applied across a resistor as shown in the
figure below, a sine wave current flows. The current is zero when the voltage is zero and is maximum
when the voltage is maximum. When the voltage changes polarity, the current reverses direction.
As a result, the voltage and current are said to be in phase with each other.
94

When using Ohm;s law in ac circuits, remember that both the voltage and the current must
be expressed consistently, that is, both as peak values, both as rms values, both as average values,
and so on.






Sine wave voltage produces a sine wave current.












Note: A quantity with no rms subscript is understood as rms quantity. For instance, in 110
V (rms) the rms can be deleted and it is still understood as an rms quantity; in I(rms) = 110 V or I =
110 V (rms) can be written as I = 110 V.

The Power formulas P = I
2
R =

= IV are applicable to both DC and AC circuits,

Where I and V = are either dc values and rms values
v
i
VAC
R
I
R1 = 1 kohm
110 V dc
=
In DC circuit,

I =
V
R

R = V
I
R1 = 1 kohm
V ac
In AC circuit,

V
rms
= RI
rms
or =
I
rms
=

R

or

I =
V
R

95

P = power in watts
R = resistance
Example 3.19 Determine the rms voltage across each resistor and the rms current. The source
voltage is given as rms value.





Solution
The total resistance of the circuit is
R
T
= R
1
+ R
2
= 1 kO + 560 O = 1.56 kO
Use Ohms law to find the rms current,
I
rms
=
V
s(rm s)
R
T
=
110
1.56
= 70.5 mA
The rms voltage drop across each resistor is
V
1(rms)
= I
rms
R
1
= (70.5 mA)(1 kO) = 70.5 V
V
2(rms)
= I
rms
R
2
= (70.5 mA)(560 O) = 39.5 V



Problem Set No. 9
OHMS LAWS AND KIRCHHOFFS LAWS IN AC CIRCUITS

1. Three resistors are connected in series across a 120-V (rms) source. The voltage drop across R
1
is
60 V (rms) and across R
2
is 40 V (rms). Find the peak voltage across R
3
.

2. Three resistors that are connected in parallel have currents of 6 A, 5 A, and 8 A. Find the total
rms current. All values are given in rms.

Vs = 110 V
R1 = 1 kohm
R2 = 560 ohms
96

3. A 117- V 60-Hz source is connected to a series circuit consisting of three resistors. If the ohmic
values of the latter are 20, 30, and 40 ohms, respectively, calculate the current through the
circuit and the voltage drop across each resistor.

4. Three incandescent lamps (resistors) are connected in parallel, and to a 115-volt 60-Hz source. If
the lamp ratings are 75, 100, and 150 watts, (a) calculate the rms value of the resultant current,
(b) write the equation for the resultant current.

5. A resistance load of 4 ohms is connected to a 220-V 60-Hz line which leads back to the source
through a pair of wires, the resistance of each of which is 0.08 ohm. What is the voltage at the
source?














Objective Test No. 3
INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

1. The difference between alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) is
a. AC changes value and DC does not.
b. DC changes direction and AC does not.
c. DC changes value and AC does not.

2. When using circuit laws and rules we must use
97

a. maximum value.
b. effective value
c. average value
d. peak-to-peak value

3. If the peak value of a sine wave is 20 V, the rms value is
a. 14.14 V
b. 6.37 V
c. 7.07 V
d. 0.707 V

4. The average value of a 10-V peak sine wave over one complete cycle is
a. 0 V
b. 6.37 V
c. 7.07 V
d. 5 V

5. The instantaneous value of a 15-A peak sine wave at a point 32 from its positive-going
zero crossing is
a. 7.95 A
b. 7.5 A
c. 2.13 A
d. 7.95 V

6. The value of ac that would have the same effect in power produced as a similar value
of DC is known as
a. peak value.
b. rms value
c. average value
d. peak-to-peak value

7. If e
1
= A sin et and e
2
= B sin (et - u) then
a. e
1
lags e
2
by u
b. e
2
lags e
1
by u
c. e
2
leads e
1
by u

8. The equation for 25 cycles current sine wave having rms value 30 amperes will be
a. 30 sin 25t
b. 30 sin 50t
c. 42.4 sin 25tt
d. 42.4 sin 50tt

9. A phasor is a
98

a. line representing the magnitude and direction of an alternating current.
b. line which represents the magnitude and phase of an alternating current.
c. color band for distinguishing between different phases of a 3-phase supply.
d. Instrument used for measuring phases of an unbalanced 3-phase load.

10. A 60-Hz frequency would cause an electric light to
a. turn on and off 120 times per second.
b. flicker noticeable.
c. turn and off 180 times per second.
d. turn and off 60 times per second.

11. The difference between the positive peak value and the negative peak value of a sine
wave is called the
a. maximum value
b. average value
c. effective value
d. peak-to-peak value

12. The relationship between frequency f, number of revolutions per second n and pair of poles p
is given by
a. f = n/p
b. f = n/2p
c. f = np
d. f = 2np

13. The root-mean-square (rms) value of ac is the same as
a. instantaneous value
b. effective value
c. average value
d. maximum value

14. The rms value of sine wave is equal to
a. 0.637 max. value
b. 0.707 max. value
c. 0.506 max. value
d. 1.414 max. value

15. Form factor is defined as
a. rms value/peak value
b. max. value/rms value
c. rms value/average value
d. effective value/rms value

16. The value of form factor for a pure sine wave is
99

a. 1.414
b. 0.707
c. 0.637
d. 1.11

17. The value of peak factor for a pure sine wave
a. 1.414
b. 0.707
c. 0.637
d. 1.11

18. Which of the following statement concerning the sinusoidal waveform, is most correct?
a. it represents AC
b. it represents DC
c. it represents half-wave rectified AC
d. it represents sum of AC and DC

19. The average value of a sine wave is \2 times the maximum value.
a. true
b. false

20. The form factor of dc supply voltage is always
a. infinite
b. zero
c. 0.5
d. unity

21. The rms value of a sinusoidal AC current is equal to its value at angle of ______ degrees.
a. 90
b. 60
c. 45
d. 30





Directions: Solve the crossword puzzle. Use the given clues to arrive at the right answer.
How Much Have You Learned?

100


1 2 3C
R V Y
E 2 4 C
Q R L
U A 3
E G
N E 5 H A S O R
C V
y A 4
L
U 6
E 6
7

7 8


9 8


DOWN ACROSS
1 number of cycle per second 1 electromagnetic induction
2 0.637 x peak value 2 maximum value
3 a set of positive and negative values 3 effective value
4 Gustav _____________ 4 V = IR
5 positive and negative 5 a line representing an AC voltage or current
6 common waveform 6 symbol T
7 relative time difference 7 flow of electrons
8 alternating current 8 saw tooth, sine wave, triangular wave
9 value of voltage or current at any instant

Unit 4
INDUCTOR AND INDUCTANCE
101


























1. describe the basic construction of an inductor.
2. define inductance.
3. explain how an inductor stores energy.
4. relate various physical parameters to inductance value.
5. explain why practical inductors have both resistance and
capacitance.
6. state Lenzs law and Faradays law.
7. identify various types of inductors.
8. determine total series inductance.
9. determine total parallel inductance.
10. define time constant as related to an inductive circuit.
11. describe some common inductor applications.
12. check out an inductor with an ohmmeter.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, you
are expected to:

Important Terms

102

inductor

winding resistance

electromagnetic field

winding capacitance

self-inductance Faradays law

henry

Lenzs law

induced voltage

permeability

energy storage

time constant

core

4.1 The Inductor

When a length of wire is formed into a coil, as shown in Figure 4-1, it becomes a basic inductor.
Current through coil produces an electromagnetic field. The magnetic lines of force form a strong
magnetic field within and around a coil.. The net direction of the total magnetic field creates a north
and a south pole, as indicated.







Figure 4-1. A coil of wire forms an inductor. When current flows through it, a three-dimensional
electromagnetic field is created, surrounding the coil in all directions.

4.2 Self-Inductance

When there is current through an inductor, an electromagnetic field is established. When the
current changes, the electromagnetic field also changes. An increase in current expands the field,
and a decrease in current reduces it. Therefore, a changing current produces a changing
electromagnetic field around the inductor (coil). In turn, the changing electromagnetic field
produces a voltage across the coil in a direction to oppose the change in current. This property is
called self-inductance, but it is usually referred to as simply inductance. Inductance is symbolized by
L.
Inductance is a measure of a coils ability to establish an induced voltage as a result of a
change in its current and that induced voltage is in direction to oppose that change in current.
103


4.2.1 The Unit of Inductance

The henry, symbolized by H, is the basic unit of inductance. By definition, the inductance is one
henry when current through the coil, changing at the rate of one ampere per second, induces one volt
across the coil. In many practical application, millihenries (mH) and microhenries (H) are the most
common units. A common schematic symbol for the inductor is shown in Figure 4-2.



Figure 4.2. Symbol of inductor
4.3 The Induced Voltage in an Inductor
A changing current in an inductor causes a changing magnetic field though it. Since according to
Faradays law a changing magnetic field results to the induction of voltage across the inductor.
The formula for the induced emf (or voltage) across the coil or inductor is,

where e
L
= the induced emf across a coil or inductor in volts (V)
L = the inductance in henry (H)
di/dt = rate of change of current in amp/sec.
Example 4.1 A group of electromagnets that create a flux in a dc generator the field circuit has
an inductance of 15 henrys. If the 2.6 amp excitation is interrupted in 0.04 sec by the opening of the
field switch, what average voltage is induced in the winding?
Solution e
L
= 15 x
2.6
0.04
= 975 volts
4.4 Energy Storage

An inductor stores energy in the magnetic field created by the current. The energy stored is
expressed as follows
W = LI
2
As you can see, the energy stored is proportional to the inductance and the square of the current.
When I is in amperes and L is in henries, the energy is in joules.
L
104


4.5 Physical Characteristics

The following characteristics are important in establishing the inductance of a coil, the core material,
the number of turns of wire, the length, and the cross-sectional area.
4.5.1 Core Material

As discussed earlier, an inductor is basically a coil of wire. The material around which the coil is
formed is called the core. Coils are wound on either nonmagnetic or magnetic materials. Examples
of nonmagnetic materials are air, wood, copper, plastic, and glass. The permeabilities of these
material are the same as for a vacuum. Examples of magnetic materials are iron, nickel, steel, cobalt,
or alloys. These materials have permeabilities that are hundreds or thousands of times greater than
that of a vacuum and are classified as ferromagnetic. A ferromagnetic core provides a better path for
the magnetic lines of force and thus permits a stronger magnetic field.
The permeability () of the core material determines how easily a magnetic field can be
established. The inductance is directly proportional to the permeability of the core material.
4.5.2 Parameters

As indicated in the Figure 4-3, the number of turns of wire, the length, and the cross sectional area of
the core are factors in setting the value of inductance. The inductance is inversely proportional to
the length of the core and directly proportional to the cross-sectional area. Also, the inductance is
directly related to the number of turns squared.






Figure 4-3. Factors that determine the inductance of a coil.
This relationship is as follows:
L =

where L is the inductance in henries, N is the number of turns, is the permeability, A is the cross-
sectional area in meters squared, and l is the core length in meters.
105


Example 4.2 Determine the inductance of the coil below. The permeability of the core is 0.25 x
10
-3
.



Solution
L =

=
4
2
(0.25 x 103)(0.1)
0.01
= 40 mH
4.6 Winding Resistance
When a coil is made of a certain material, for example, insulated copper wire, that wire has a certain
resistance per unit of length. When many turns of wire are used to construct a coil, the total
resistance may be significant. This inherent resistance is called the dc resistance of the winding
resistance (R
w
). Although this resistance is distributed along the length of the wire, it effectively
appears in series with the inductance of the coil, as shown in Figure 4-4. In many applications, the
winding resistance can be ignored and the coil considered as an ideal inductor. In other cases, the
resistance must be considered.







(a) The wire has resistance (b) Equivalent circuit

Figure 4-4. Winding resistance of a coil.



4.7 Winding Capacitance

When two conductors are placed side by side, there is always some capacitance between them.
Thus, when many turns of wire are placed close together in a coil, a certain amount of stray
capacitance is a natural side effect. In many applications, this stray capacitance is very small and has
no significant effect. In other cases, particularly at high frequencies, ti may become quite important.
The equivalent circuit for an inductor with both its winding resistance (R
w
) and its winding
capacitance (C
w
) is shown in Figure 4-5. The capacitance effectively acts in parallel.






0.01 m
0.1 m
2

N = 4
R
w
L
C
w




R
w
L


106




(a) Stray capacitance between each (b) Equivalent circuit
loop appears as a total parallel capacitance
Figure 4-5. Winding capacitance of a coil.
4.8 Faradays Law

Faraday found that by moving a magnet through a coil of wire, a voltage was introduced across the
coil, and that when a complete path was provided, the induced voltage an induced current.
The amount of induced voltage is directly proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic field with respect to the coil.
This principle is illustrated in the Figure 4-6, where a bar magnet is moved through a coil of wire. An
induced voltage is indicated by the voltmeter connected across the coil. The faster the magnet is
moved, the greater is the induced voltage.
When a wire is formed into a certain number of loops or turns and is exposed to a changing
magnetic field, a voltage is induced across the coil. The induced voltage is proportional to the
number of turns of wire in the coil, N, and to the rate at which the magnetic field changes.






Figure 4-6. Induced voltage is created by a changing magnetic field.
4.9 Lenzs Law
Lenzs law adds to Faradays law by defining the direction of induced voltage as follows:
When the current through a coil changes and an induced voltage is created as a result of
the changing magnetic field, the direction of the induced voltage is such that it always opposes the
change in current.
In Figure 4-7 (a), the current is constant and is limited by R
1
. There is no induced voltage
because the magnetic field is unchanging. In part (b), the switch suddenly is closed, placing R
2
in
parallel with R
1
and thus reducing the resistance. Naturally, the current tries to increases and the
107

magnetic field begins to expand, but the induced voltage opposes this attempted increases in current
for an instant.
In part (c), the induced voltage gradually decreases, allowing the current to increase. In part
(d), the current has reached a constant value as determined by the parallel resistors, and the induced
voltage is zero. In part (e), the switch has been suddenly opened, and, for an instant, the induced
voltage prevents any decreases in current. In part (f), the induced voltage gradually decreases,
allowing the current to decreases back to a value determined by R
1
. Notice that the induced voltage
has a polarity that opposes any current change. The polarity of the induced voltage is opposite that
of the battery voltage for an increases in current and aids the battery voltage for a decreases in
current.





(b) At instant of switch closure:
Expanding magnetic field
induces voltage, which prevents
increase in total current.
(a) Switch open: Constant current
and constant magnetic field;
no induced voltage.
108









Figure 4-7. Demonstration of Lenzs law: When the current tries to change suddenly, the
electromagnetic field changes and induces a voltage in a direction that opposes that change in
current.


4.10 Classifications of Inductor
Inductors are made in a variety of shapes and sizes. Basically, they fall into two general categories:
fixed and variable.


(a) Fixed (b) Variable
(c) Right after switch closure: The rate
of expansion of the magnetic field
decreases, allowing the current to
increase as induced voltage
decreases.
(d) Switch remains closed: Current
and magnetic field reach
constant value.
(e) At instant of switch opening:
Magnetic field begins to collapse,
creating an induced voltage, which
prevents decrease in current.
(f) After switch opening: Rate of
collapse of magnetic field decrease,
allowing current to decrease back to
original value.
109

Both fixed and variable inductors can be classified according to the type of core material. Three
common types are the air core, the iron core, and the ferrite core. Each has a unique symbol, as
shown.


Adjustable (variable) inductors usually have a screw-type adjustment that moves a sliding
core in and out, thus changing the changing the inductance.
4.11 Types of Inductor:
(a) fixed molded inductors
(b) variable coils
(c) toroid inductor

4.12 Inductors in Series and Parallel

When inductors are connected in series, the total inductance, L
T
, is the sum of the

individual
inductances. The formula for L
T
is expressed in the following equation for the general case of n
inductors in series:
L
T
= L
1
+ L
2
+ L
3
+ . . . + L
n
Notice that the formula for inductance in series is similar to the formula for resistance in series.



Figure 4-8 Inductors in Series
When inductors are connected in parallel, the total inductance is less than the smallest inductance.
The formula for total inductance in parallel is similar to that for total parallel resistance.

1

=
1

1
+
1

2
+
1

3
+ +
1

L1
15H
L2
20H
L3
30H
Ln
60H
(a) Air core (b) Iron core (c) Ferrite core


L
1
L
2
L
3
L
n

110

Figure 4-9 Inductors in parallel
The general formula states that the reciprocal of the total inductance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual inductances. L
T
can be found by taking the reciprocals of both sides of
the equation.
L
T
=

+ +

or L
T
= (L
1
-1
+ L
2
-1
+ L
3
-1
+ . . . + L
n
-1
)
-1
4.13 Inductors in DC Circuits

When there is constant direct current in an inductor, there is no induced voltage. There is, however,
a voltage drop due to the winding resistance of the coil. The inductance itself appears as a short to
DC. Energy is stored in the magnetic field according to the formula W = LI
2
. The only energy loss
occurs in the winding resistance (P = I
2
R
w
).
This condition is illustrated in Figure 4-10.






Figure 4-10. Energy storage and loss in an inductor. The only dc voltage drop across the coil is due
to the winding resistance.
4.14 Time Constant

Because the inductors basic action is to oppose a change in its current, it follows that current cannot
change instantaneously in an inductor. A certain time is required for the current to make a change
from one value to another. The rate at which the current changes is determined by the time
constant. The time constant for a series RL circuit is
t =

where t is in seconds when L is in henries and R is in ohms.

111

Example 4.3 A series RL circuit has a resistance of 1 kO and an inductance of 1 mH. What is the
time constant?

t =

=
1
1
= 1 s

4.15 Energizing Current in an Inductor
In a series RL circuit, the current will increase to 63% of its value in one time constant interval after
the switch is closed. The buildup of current is analogous to the buildup of capacitor voltage during
the charging in an RC circuit; they both follow an exponential curve and reach the approximate
percentages of final value as indicated in the Figure 4-11.







Figure 4-11. Energizing current in an inductor
The change in current over five time constant intervals is illustrated in Figure 4-12. When the
current reaches its final value at approximately 5t, it ceases to change. At this time, the inductor acts
as a short (except for winding resistance) to the constant current. The final value of the current is
V
s
/R
w
= 10 V/10 O = 1 A.
0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t

63%
86%
95%
98%
99%
Considered 100%
Final current
112



Figure 4-12. Illustration of the exponential buildup of current in an inductor. The current
increases another 63% during each time constant interval. A winding resistance of 10O is
assumed. A voltage (V
L
) is induced in the coil that tends to oppose the increase in current.

Example 4.4 Calculate the time constant for the circuit shown below. Then determine the current
and the time at each time constant interval, measured from the instant the switch is closed.






20 V
R
100 ohms
L
50 mH
113

Solution
I
final
=

=
20
100
= 0.2 A


t =

=
50
100
= 0.5 ms
At 1t = 0.5 ms: i = 0.63(0.2 A) = 0. 126 A
At 2t = 1.0 ms: i = 0.86(0.2 A) = 0. 172 A
At 3t = 1.5 ms: i = 0.95(0.2 A) = 0. 190 A

At 4t = 2.0 ms: i = 0.98(0.2 A) = 0. 196 A

At 5t = 2.5 ms: i = 0.99(0.2 A) = 0. 198 A ~ 0.2 A

4.16 Inductor Applications

Power Supply Filter

rf Choke

Tuned Circuits

4.17 Testing Inductors

The most common failure in an inductor is an open coil. To check for an open, remove the coil from
the circuit. If there is an open, an ohmmeter check will indicate infinite resistance, as shown in
Figure 4-13. If the coil is good, the ohmmeter will show the winding resistance. The value of winding
resistance depends on the wire size and length of the coil. It can be anywhere from one ohm to
several hundred ohms.

Occasionally, when an inductor is overheated with excessive current, the wire insulation will melt,
and some coil will short together. This produces a reduction in the inductance by reducing the
effective number of runs and a corresponding reduction in winding resistance.





Figure 4-13. Checking a coil by measuring the resistance.
114

Problem Set No. 10
INDUCTOR AND INDUCTANCE



1. Derive the formula for the energy stored in an inductor.

2. Derive the formula for the inductance.

3. Derive the formula for the total inductance of series inductors.

4. Derive the formula for the total inductance of series inductors.

5. Convert the following to millihenries:
a. 1 H b. 250 H c. 10 H d. 0.0005 H

6. How many turns are required to produce 30 mH with a coil wound on a cylindrical coil having a
cross-sectional area of 10 x 10
-5
m
2
and a length of 0.05 m? The core has a permeability of 1.2 x
10
-6
?
a. 3536 turns
b. 3679 turns
c. 3987 turns
d. 4502 turns

7. A 12-V battery is connected across a coil with a winding resistance of 12 O. How much current is
there in the coil?
a. 1 A
b. 2 A
c. 3 A
d. 4 A

8. How much energy is stored by a 100-mH inductor with a current of 1 A?
a. 0.02 J
b. 0.04 J
c. 0.05 J
d. 0.09 J

9. The current through a 100-mH coil is changing at a rate of 200 mA/s. How much voltage is
induced across the coil?
a. 0.02 V
b. 0.04 V
c. 0.01 V
d. 0.08 V

10. Suppose that you require a total inductance of 50 mH. You have available a 10-mH coil and a 22-
mH coil. How much additional inductance do you need?
a. 16 mH
b. 18 mH
c. 20 mH
d. 36 mH
115


11. Determine the total parallel inductance for the following coils in parallel: 75 H, 50 H, 25 H,
and 15 H.
a. 7.14 H
b. 8.90 H
c. 9.28 H
d. 10.67 H

12. You have a 12-mH inductor, and it is your smallest value. You need an inductance of 8 mH.
What value can you use in parallel with the 12-mH to obtain 8 mH?
a. 12 mH
b. 18 mH
c. 20 mH
d. 24 mH




































116

Objective Test No. 4
INDUCTOR AND INDUCTANCE


1. When the current though an inductor increases, the amount of energy stored in the
electromagnetic field
Decreases
remains constant
increases
doubles

2. When the current though an inductor doubles, the stored energy
Doubles
Quadruples
is halved
does not change

3. The winding resistance of a coil can be decreased by
reducing the number of turns
using a larger wire
changing the core material

4. The inductance of an iron-core coil increases if
the number of turns is increased
the iron core is removed
the length of the core is increased
larger wire is used

5. An inductor, a resistor, and a switch are connected in series to a 12-V battery. At the instant the
switch is closed, the inductor voltage is
0 V
12 V
6 V
4 V

6. An ohmmeter is connected across an inductor and the pointer indicates an infinite value. The
inductor is
Good
Open
shorted
resistive

7. The property that opposes any change in current
mutual inductance
friction
self-inductance
losses

117

8. An open coil has
infinite resistance and inductance
zero resistance and inductance
zero resistance and infinite inductance
infinite resistance and zero inductance

9. If the number of turns in an inductor is increased, its inductance will
Vary
Decrease
increase
remain the same
10. At DC steady state, an inductor acts like ___________.
an open circuit
a short circuit
a capacitor
an insulator
11. Unit of inductance
Farad
Ohm
Henry
siemen
















118

Unit 5
CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE





































1. describe the basic construction of a capacitor.
2. define capacitance and tell how it is measured.
3. explain how a capacitor stores energy.
4. state Coulombs law and discuss how it relates to an electric field and
the storage of energy.
5. illustrate the charging and discharging of a capacitor.
6. relate various physical parameters to capacitance value.
7. determine total series capacitance.
8. determine total parallel capacitance.
9. define time constant as related to a capacitive circuit.
10. relate the charging and discharging of a capacitor to the time
constant.
11. explain why a capacitor blocks dc.
12. explain why a capacitor produces no energy loss.
13. explain the significance of reactive power in a capacitive circuit.
14. describe some common capacitor applications.
15. check out a capacitor with an ohmmeter.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, you
are expected to:


119





dielectric

voltage rating
charging

dielectric strength
discharging temperature coefficient
capacitance

leakage
farad

dielectric constant
Coulombs law

time constant
energy storage

permittivity





5.1 The Capacitor: Basic Construction







Figure 5-1. Basic Construction of Capacitor

In its simplest form, a capacitor is an electrical device constructed of two parallel conductive plates
separated by an insulating material called the dielectric.
dielectric
Parallel metal plates
terminal
Important Terms

120

5.2 Charge Storage of Capacitor
In the neutral state, both plates of a capacitor have an equal number of free electrons, as indicated in
Figure 5-2. When the capacitor is connected to a voltage source through a resistor, electrons
(negative charge) are removed from plate A, and an equal number are deposited on plate B. As plate
A loses electrons , plate B gains electrons, plate A becomes positive with respect to plate B. During
the charging process, electrons flow only through the connecting leads and the source. No electrons
flow through the dielectric of the capacitor because it is an insulator. The movement of electrons
ceases when the voltage across the capacitor equals the source voltage. If the capacitor is
disconnected from the source retains the stored charge for a long period of time (the length depends
upon the type of capacitor) and still has the voltage across it. Actually charged capacitor can be
considered as a temporary battery.

Figure 5-2. Illustration of a capacitor storing charge.

5.3 Capacitance
The amount of charge per unit of voltage that a capacitor can store is its capacitance, designated C.
That is, capacitance is a measure of capacitors ability to store charges. The more charge per unit of
voltage that a capacitor can store, the greater its capacitance, as expressed by the following formula:
121

C =

where C is the capacitance, Q is charge, and V is voltage
The Unit of Capacitance
The farad (F) is the basic unit of capacitance. By definition,
One farad is the amount of capacitance when one coulomb of charge is stored with one
volt across the plates.
Most capacitors that you will use in electronics work have capacitance values in microfarads (F) and
picrofarads (pF).
5.4 How a Capacitor Stores Energy

A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field that is established by the opposite charges
on the two plates. The electric field is represented by lines of force between the positive and
negative charges and concentrated within the dielectric.









Electric field exists between the plates of a charged capacitor.




A force exists between a charged bodies.

Lines of force
Q
1
Q
2







d









d


Q
1
F Q
2


d


122

5.5 Coulombs law
A force exists between two charged bodies that is directly proportional to the product of
the twp charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies.
This relationship is expressed as
F =

2

where F is the force in newtons, Q
1
and Q
2
are the charges in coulombs, d is the distance between
the charges in meters, and k is a proportionality constant equal to 9 x 10
9
.

5.6 The Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The formula for the energy stored by a capacitor is as follows:
W = CV
2

where the energy, W, is in joules when C is in farads and V is in volts.

5.7 Voltage Rating

Every capacitor has a limit on the amount of voltage that it can withstand across its plates. The
voltage rating specifies the maximum dc voltage that can be applied without risk of damage to the
device. If this maximum voltage, commonly called the breakdown voltage or working voltage, is
exceeded, permanent damage to the capacitor can result.
Both the capacitance and the voltage rating must be taken into consideration before a
capacitor is used in a circuit application. The choice of capacitance value is based on particular circuit
requirements (and or factors that are studied later). The voltage rating should always be well above
the maximum voltage expected in a particular application.

5.8 Dielectric Strength
The breakdown voltage of a capacitor is determined by a dielectric strength of the dielectric material
used. The dielectric strength is expressed in volts/mil (1 mil = 0.001 in.) Table 5-1 below typical
values for several materials. Exact values vary depending on the specific composition of the material.


123

Table 5-1. Some Common Dielectric Materials and their Dielectric Strengths.
Material Dielectric Strength
(volts/mil)
Air 80
Oil 375
Ceramic 1000
Paper 1200
Teflon 1500
Mica 1500
Glass 2000

5.9 Temperature Coefficient

The temperature coefficient indicates the amount and direction of a change in capacitance value
with temperature. A positive temperature coefficient means that the capacitance increases with an
increase in temperature or decreases in temperature. A negative coefficient means that the
capacitance decreases with an increases in temperature or increases with a decreases in
temperature.
Temperature coefficients typically are specified in parts per million per degree Celsius
(ppm/C). For example, a negative temperature coefficient of 150 ppm/C for a 1-F capacitor
means that for every degree rise in temperature, the capacitance decreases by 150 pF (there are one
million picofarads in one microfarad).

5.10 Leakage

No insulating material is perfect. The dielectric of any of any capacitor will conduct some very small
amount of current. Thus, the charge on a capacitor will eventually leak off. Some types of
capacitors have higher leakages than others. An equivalent circuit for a nonideal capacitor is shown
in Figure 5-3. The parallel resistor represents the extremely high resistance of the dielectric material
through which leakage current flows.


124






Figure 5-3. Equivalent Circuit for a Nonideal Capacitor

5.11 Physical Characteristics of a Capacitor

The following parameters are important in establishing the capacitance and the voltage rating of a
capacitor: plate area, plate separation, and dielectric constant.

5.11.1 Plate Area

Capacitance is directly proportional to the physical size of the plates as determined by the plate area.
5.11.2 Plate Separation

Capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates.
5.11.3 Dielectric Constant
As you know, the insulating material between the plates of a capacitor is called the dielectric. Every
dielectric material has the ability to concentrate the lines of force of the electric field existing
between the oppositely charged plates of a capacitor and thus increase the capacity for energy
storage. The measure of a materials ability to establish an electric field is called the dielectric
constant or relative permittivity , symbolized by c
r
(the Greek letter epsilon).
Capacitance is directly proportional to the dielectric constant. The dielectric constant
(relative permittivity) is dimensionless, because it is a relative measure and is a ration of the
absolutely permittivity, c, of a material to the absolute permittivity, c
o
, of a vacuum, as expressed by
the formula:
c
r
=
c
c

The value of c
o
is 8.85 x 10
-12
(farads per meter).


C
R leak
125

Table 5-2. Some Common Dielectric Materials and their Dielectric Strengths.
Material Typical c
r
values
Air (vacuum) 1.0
Teflon 2.0
Paper (paraffined) 2.5
Oil 4.0
Mica 5.0
Glass 7.5
Ceramic 1200



5.12 Formula for Capacitance in Terms of physical Parameters

An exact formula for calculating the capacitance in terms of the three quantities mentioned is as
follows:
C =
A c
r
(8.85 x 10
12
F/m)
d


where A is in square meters (m
2
), d is in meters (m), C is in farads (F) and c
r
is the

relative
permittivity.


Example 5.1 Determine the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor having a plate area of 0.01
m
2
and a plate separation of 0.02 m. The dielectric is mica, which has a dielectric constant of 5.0.
Solution
C =
A c
r
(8.85 x 10
12
F/m)
d


=
(0.01
2
)5.0(8.85 10
12
/)
0.02

d
= 22.13 pF
5.13 Types of Capacitors

- Mica Capacitors
126

- Ceramic Capacitors
- Paper/Plastic capacitors
- Electrolytic Capacitors
- Variable Capacitors
- Air Capacitors
- Trimmers and Padders
- Varactors


5.14 Series Capacitors






While charging, I = Q/t is the same at all points so that all capacitors store the same amount of
charge (Q
T
= Q
1
= Q
2
= Q
3
)

By Kirchhoffs voltage law,
V
s
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3

Using the fact that V = Q/C, we can substitute into the formula for Kirchhoffs law and get the
following relationship (where Q = Q
T
= Q
1
= Q
2
= Q
3
):

1
+

2
+

3

Canceling out Q we have,

1

=
1

1
+
1

2
+
1

3

Taking the reciprocal of both sides gives the formula for the total capacitance:
C
T
=
1
1

1
+
1

2
+
1

3

Voltage Division in Series Capacitors
V
x
=

x V
s
C1 C2 C3
Vs
127

where V
x
is the voltage across C
x
which is any capacitor, such as C
1
, C
2
,

and so on.

5.15 Parallel Capacitors








The charged stored by the capacitors together equals the total charge that was delivered from the
source:
Q
T
= Q
1
+ Q
2
+ Q
3

Using the fact that Q = CV, we can substitute into the preceding formula and get the following
relationship:
C
T
V
s
= C
1
V
1
+ C
2
V
2
+ C
3
V
3
Since V
s
= V
1
= V
2
= V
3
, they can be canceled, leaving
C
T
= C
1
+ C
2
+ C
3
, etc.

5.16 Capacitors in DC Circuits

In this section, the response during charging and discharging of a simple capacitive circuit with a dc
source is examined. Figure 5-4 shows a capacitor connected in series with a resistor and a switch to
a dc voltage source. Initially, the switch is open and the capacitor is uncharged with zero volts across
its plates. At the instant the switch is closed, the current jumps to its maximum value and the
capacitor begins to charge. The current is maximum initially because the capacitor has zero volts
across it and therefore, appears as a short; thus, the current is limited only by the resistance. As time
passed and the capacitor charges, the current decreases and the voltage V
C
across the capacitor
increases. The resistor voltage is proportional to the current during this charging period.

C1 C2 C3
Vs
128


Figure 5-4 Charging and discharging of a capacitor.


After a certain period of time, the capacitor reaches full charge. At this point, the current is zero and
the capacitor voltage is equal to the dc source voltage, as shown in Figure 5-4. If the switch were
opened now, the capacitor would retain its full charge (neglecting any leakage).
In Figure 5-4, the voltage source has been removed. When the switch is closed, the capacitor
begins to discharge. Initially, the current jumps to a maximum but in a direction opposite to its
direction during charging. As time passes, the current and capacitor voltage decrease. The resistor
voltage is always proportional to the current. When the capacitor has fully discharged, the current
and the capacitor voltage are zero.

Remember the following about capacitors in dc circuits:

129

1. Voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
2. Current in a capacitive circuit can change instantaneously.
3. A fully charged capacitor appears as an open to nonchanging current.
4. An uncharged capacitor appears as a short to an instantaneous change in current.


5.17 The RC Time Constant

As you have seen, when a capacitor charges or discharges through a resistance, a certain time is
required for the capacitor to charge fully or discharge fully. The voltage across a capacitor cannot
change instantaneously, because a finite time is required to move charge from one point to another.
The arte at which the capacitor charges or discharges is determined by the time constant of the
circuit.

The time constant of a series RC circuit is a time interval that equals the product of the resistance
and the capacitance.

The time constant is symbolized by t , and the formula is as follows

t = RC

Recall that I = Q/t. The current is the amount of charge moved in a given time. When the resistance
is increased, the charging current is reduced, thus increasing the charging time of the capacitor.
When the capacitance is increased, the amount of charge increases; thus, for the same current, more
time is required to charge the capacitor.


Example 5.2 A series RC circuit has a resistance of 1 MO and a capacitance of 5 F. What is the
time constant?

Solution t = RC = (1 MO)(5 F) = 5s

5.18 The Charging Curve

















i
c
Initial value 100%

37%
14%
5%
2%
1%
0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t

130

Voltage and Current in a Capacitor during charging
































Voltage across the
capacitor






Current through the capacitor

time
time
131

Problem Set No. 11
CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE

1. Two capacitors connected in parallel across a 250-V mains have charges of 3,000 C and 5,000
C, respectively. Find the total capacitance of the combination.
a. 32 F
b. 45 F
c. 56 F
d. 76 F

2. A 0.4-F capacitor has a charge of 20 C. How much is the voltage across it?
a. 20 V
b. 30 V
c. 45 V
d. 50 V

3. The equivalent capacitance of two capacitors in series is 2.4 F. If one of the capacitors has a
capacitance of 4 F, what is the capacitance of the other?
a. 2 F
b. 4 F
c. 6 F
d. 8F

4. Three capacitors having capacitance of 4 F , 6 F and 8 F respectively are connected in series.
Find the equivalent capacitance of the combination.
a. 1.08 F
b. 2.84 F
c. 1.84 F
d. 4.84 F

5. The energy stored in a 0.125 F capacitor is 50 J, solve for the charge accumulated.
a. 3.54 mC
b. 5.34 mC
c. 6.23 mC
d. 8,45 mC

6. A certain capacitor is charged at 48 volts after its stored energy is 5.76 x 10
-2
joules. What is the
capacitance of the capacitor?
a. 25 F
b. 50 F
c. 75 F
132

d. 89 F
7. Calculate the capacitance between two plates each of which is 100 cm
2
and 2 mm apart in air.
a. 44.27 nF
b. 48.90 nF
c. 56.84 nF
d. 76.43 nF

8. A capacitor whose plates is 20 cm x 3.0 cm and is separated by a 1.0-mm air gap is connected
across a 12-V battery. Determine the charge accumulated on each plate after a long time.
a. 43.89 nC
b. 56.32 nC
c. 63.75 nC
d. 89.56 nC
9. Three capacitors A, B, and C are charged as follows: A: 10F, 100 volts; B: 15 F, 150 volts; C:
25 F, 200 volts. They are then connected in parallel with terminals of like polarity together.
What is the voltage across the combination?
a. 165 V
b. 175 V
c. 185 V
d. 195 V
10. A given capacitor has a capacitance of 100 F. Calculate its elastance.
a. 1,000 D
b. 10,000 D
c. 100,000 D
d. 1,000,000 D

11. Three capacitors of 5 F , 10 F and 15 F respectively are connected in series across a 100-V
supply. Solve for the voltage across the 15-F capacitor.
a. 18.2 V
b. 19.6 V
c. 20.7 V
d. 25.4 V






133

Objective Test No. 5
CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE

1. Which of the following statement(s) accurately describes a capacitor?
The plates are conductive.
The dielectric is an insulator between the plates.
Constant dc flows through a fully charged capacitor.
A practical capacitor stores charge indefinitely when disconnected from the source.

2. The capacity of a condenser is proportional to ___________.
area of its plates
volume of its plates
the specific resistance of the plate material
the temperature coefficient of the plate material

3. The capacity of the capacitor is inversely proportional to ________.
the temperature of the dielectric
the material of the dielectric
the thickness of the dielectric
the permeability of the material and inductance

4. The capacitors in series have the same _______.
voltage
capacity
charge
energy loss

5. The capacitors are named according to the _______ used.
material of the plate
dielectric used
enclosures used
voltage

6. When one of the following statements is true?
There is current through the dielectric of a charging capacitor.
When a capacitor is connected to a DC voltage source, it will charge to the value of the
source.
An ideal capacitor can be discharged by disconnecting it from the voltage source.
7. A capacitance of 0.01 F is larger than
0.00001 F
100,000 pF
134

1000 pF
all of the above

8. When the voltage across a capacitor is increased, the stored charge
increases
decreases
remains constant
fluctuates

9. When the voltage across a capacitor is doubled, the stored charge
stays the same
is halved
increases by four
doubles

10. The voltage rating of a capacitor is increased by
decreasing plate area
increasing plate separation
increasing the plate area
a and b
11. The capacitance value is increased by
decreasing plate area
increasing plate separation
decreasing plate separation
increasing plate area
12. An uncharged capacitor and a resistor are connected in series with a switch and a 12-V battery.
At the instant the switch is closed, the voltage across the capacitor is
12 V
6 V
24 V
0 V
13. In Question 12, the voltage across the capacitor when it is fully charged is
12 V
6 V
24 V
-6 V

14. An ohmmeter is connected across a discharged capacitor and the needle stabilizes at
approximately 50 kO. The capacitor is
good
charged
too large
135

leaky

15. A good capacitor has a __________ resistance.
negligible
very high
negative
none of these

16. A capacitor opposes any change in __________.
current
voltage
Resistance
flux

17. The capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to
area of its plate
thickness of dielectric

18. Capacitors are used to
filter AC currents and pass DC currents
filter AC and DC currents
filter DC currents and pass AC currents
pass AC and DC currents

19. A capacitor consists of two _________
insulators separated by a conductor.
conductors separated by an insulator
conductors
insulators

20. Capacitors designed to be used in places where a high dielectric breakdown voltage is important
.
paper capacitors
ceramic capacitors
electrolytic capacitors
mica capacitors

21. Reciprocal of capacitance.
Inductance
Elastance
Reluctance
Daraf

22. The capacitance of a capacitor is NOT affected by _____.
136

type of dielectric material
distance between plates
area of the plates
type of material used in the plates

23. The capacitor stores the electricity in the shape of _____.
dynamic charge
static charge
current electricity
molecules

24. Capacitors are used in electric circuits to ____________.
store energy
introduce a voltage drop
produce a low opposition path to high frequencies
all of these
















137

Unit 6
ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

























1. Apply Ohms law and Kirchhoffs laws to ac circuits as well as to dc circuits.
2. explain the behavior of a resistor and other purely resistive load in ac circuit.
3. explain the behavior of an inductor in ac circuit.
4. discuss the behavior of a capacitor in ac circuit.
5. analyze the response of an RL, RC, and RLC circuit with a sine wave input.
6. define impedance.
7. determine the impedance of both series and parallel RL, RC, and RLC circuit.
8. convert a parallel circuit to an equivalent series circuit.
9. determine the effects of frequency on an RL, RC, and RLC circuits in terms of
changes in impedance and phase angle.
10. define conductance, capacitance, capacitive and inductive susceptance, and
admittance.
11. Apply Ohms law to RC circuits in order to find current and voltage value.
12. determine the true power, reactive power, and apparent power.
13. define power factor and explain its significance.
14. explain how RL, RC, and RLC circuits are used as phase-shifting circuits (lead
and lag network).

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

138

6.1 AC Circuit with Resistance Only

This is a circuit in which the applied voltage is ac connected to any resistive load.

What is a resistive load?

Any component which convert electrical energy to heat and light energy such as lamp, flat iron,
electric stove, etc. These components are made up of metals which posses certain amount of
resistance. The most common type of resistive load is resistor in which the common function is to
resist and limit the amount of current. Heat is also produced by the resistor when current flows
through it. Motor also have resistance because their windings are made up of copper wire.



.


Let V
R
be the voltage across the resistor (or any resistive load) in rms value
V
s
be the source voltage in rms value.
Note:
The load here represents any purely resistive load, that is, a load which has resistance only.
rms value is used because it is the effective value in the circuit.
V
R
= V
s
because there is only component in the circuit.
If the sine wave equation of the of V
s
is v
s
= V
sm
sinet the equation of V
R
is definitely v
R
= V
Rm
sinet.

To find the current through the resistor using Ohms law,
=

R
R
=
V
R
m
si n et
R


Let

=
V
R
m
R

so that the equation of the current i = I
Rm
sinet.

where i = is the instantaneous value of the current
V
S
and V
r
= the instantaneous value of voltage source and the voltage across the purely load,
respectively.
I
Rm
, V
Sm
, V
Rm
= the maximum value of the current through the load, maximum value of the
voltage source, and the maximum value of the voltage across the resistor.

R
Vs
139

As you can see, the phase angle of current and voltage are both equal to zero.


6.1.1 The Phase Relationship of Current and Voltage

When the equation of the voltage across the resistor is v
R
= V
Rm
sinet the current is i = I
Rm
sinet,
therefore,

In a purely resistive load the current is in phase with the voltage.
This phase relationship is illustrated below where the phase angles of the voltage and current are
both zero meaning one of the positive-going zero crossings is at 0.







If in case the phase angle of voltage is 30, then the phase angle of current is also 30
Note: The phase angle that is being referred here in the angle of positive-going zero crossing of a
sine wave nearest to the origin.


-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
current through the
resistor
voltage across the
resistor
0 90 180 270 360

I
R
V
R




Phasor Diagram
140








If the equation of the voltage across the resistor is v = V
Sm
sin (et + 30) then the current is
i = I
Rm
sin (et + 30).
From I
Rm
=
V
R
m
R
since, I
Rm
= 2 I
R

rms
and V
Rm
= 2 V
R

rms


2 I
R

rms
=
2 V
R rm s

Canceling 2 , we have,
I
R

rms
=
V
R rms

or simply I
R
=
V
R

Also V
R
= I
R
R
R =
V
R
I




Note: These formulas are the same as in DC circuit and these are applicable regardless of the
frequency of the source because frequency has no effect on the resistance.


-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
iR
vR
V
Rm
I
Rm
30


V
R

I
R
30









Phasor Diagram
141

Example 6.1 In the circuit below, find the sine wave equation of the current if the source is 120 V
(rms).





Solution
The maximum value of the source is 2 (120) = 169.71 V. Assuming that its positive-going
zero-crossing is at 0, therefore its equation is v
S
= 169.70 sin 2t60t and the voltage across the
resistor is v
R
= 169.70 sin 2t60t.
Using the formula I
R
=
V
R

=
169.70 sin 2t60t V
100 O
, so that the equation of the current is
i
R
= 1.697 sin 2t60t A answer

Another solution is simply using the formula I
R
=
V
R

where V
R
= V
s
= 120 V

I
R
=
120 V
100
= 1.2 V the rms value of which is 2 (1.2) = 1.6971 A,

The equation is also

i
R
= 1.697 sin 2t60t A answer
Example 6.2 In the circuit below, find the value of the resistance if the v
R
= 127.28 sin (et - 60)
V and i
R
= 14.14 sin(et - 60) A.



Solution
R =

=
127.28 sin (et 60) V
14.14 si n(et 60) A
= 9 O


Example 6.3 Find the rms value of the current in the circuit shown below
R
100 ohms
Vs
120 V
60 Hz
R
Vs
142





Solution
I
R
=
V
R

=
100 V
10
= 10 O

6.1.2 The Power in a Circuit with Resistance Only











-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
new axis
iR
vR
P
0 90 180 270 360
P
ave
R
10 ohms
Vs
100 V
R
E
143

Let p = be the instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor, where p = v
R
i
R

In the sine waves below i
R
= I
Rm
sin et and v
R
= V
Rm
sin et, so that
p = (I
Rm
sin et )(V
Rm
sin et)
= I
Rm
V
Rm
sin
2
et where sin
2
et =
1 cos2et
2


p = I
Rm
V
Rm

1 cos2et
2


The average value of the power wave is
I
R
m
V
R
m
2


P =
I
R
m
V
R
m
2


where P = average value of the power. This average value is also known as true or active power.

6.1.3 What is meant by true power?

This is the rate at which energy is being dissipated by the resistor or any resistive load.


6.1.4 The Formula of True Power

From P =
I
R
m
V
R
m
2
, I
Rm
= 2 I
Rrms
or 2 I
R
and V
Rm
= 2 V
Rrms
or 2 V
R




Note: Eliminating rms does not change the meaning of the voltage and current; they are still rms
values.

Then the power formulas are

P = I
R
V
R
= I
2
R =

where P = power in watts
I
R
= rms value in case of ac circuit and dc value in case of dc circuit.
V
R
= rms value in ac circuit and dc value in dc circuit
R = resistance in ohms


Example 6.4 The emf and current waves of a circuit having resistance only are
e = 170 sin 2t60t and i = 14.14 sin 2t60t. Determine (a) equation of power wave; (b) frequency of
power wave; (c) maximum value of power wave; (d) average power; (e) power when t = 1/480 sec,
1/240 sec, 1/90 sec. (f) Draw voltage, current, and power waves.

Solution

144

(a) p = ei
= (170 sin 2t60t)(14.14 sin 2t60t)
= 2403.8 sin
2
2t60t
= 2403.8
1 cos22t60t
2


=
2403.8
2
(1 - cos22t60t)

= 1201.9 (1 - cos22t60t) watts
= 1201.9 (1 - cos2t120t) watts

(d) f = 120 Hz
(e) P
max
= 2403.8 watts
(f) P
ave
= 1201.9 watts
(g) From the power wave equation p = 1201.9 (1 - cos2t120t) watts
when t = 1/480 sec ; p = 1201.9 [1 - cos2t120(1/480)] = 1201.9 watts
when t = 1/240 sec p = 1201.9 [ 1 - cos2t120(1/240)] = 2403.8 watts
when t = 1/90 sec ; p = 1201.9 [ 1 - cos2t120(1/90)] = 1802.85 watts


Example 6.5 A lamp load consist of thirty 100-watt lamps each taking rated power from a 120-V
supply. Determine (a) power when supply is DC; (b) power when supply is 60-Hz sinusoidal AC; (c)
equation of AC voltage wave if voltage is zero and increasing when t = 0; (d) equation of current
wave; (e) equation of power wave.
Solution
(a) P = 30 lamps x 100 watts/lamp = 3,000 watts
-500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
iR
vR
p
145

(b) 3,000 watts also because the frequency has no effect on the resistance.
(c) e = v
R
= \2(120) sin 2t60t = 169.71 sin 2t60t V
(d) I =

=
3,000
120
= 25 A
I
m
=2 (25) = 35.36 A
The equation of the current wave is i = 35.36 sin 2t60t A
(e) p = ei
= (120 sin 2t60t)(35.36 sin 2t60t)
= 4243.2 sin
2
2t60t
= 4243.2
1 cos22t60t
2


=
4243.2
2
(1 - cos22t60t)

= 2121.6 (1 - cos22t60t) watts
= 2121.6 (1 - cos2t120t) watts


6.2 AC Circuit with Inductance Only

Practically, all inductors have resistance in them because they are made of metals and metals have
resistance. In this lesson inductors are considered as ideal, meaning the resistance is zero or
negligible.
6.2.1 What are some examples of inductive loads?
Inductors, motors, and everything that is made of coils of conductors .





(a)




Vs
L
146


(b)
Figure 6-1. (a) An inductor connected across an ac source; (b) The waveforms of voltage and
current in the inductor.
Note: L represents the inductance of a load which is considered as purely inductive.

6.2.2 Phase relationship of Current and Voltage in a Purely Inductive Load

In the waveforms shown in Figure 6-1(b) the current lags the voltage by 90 or the voltage leads the
current by 90. The equation of voltage across the capacitor is v
L
= V
Lm
sin et V and the current is i
L
=
I
Lm
sin (et - 90) A. Just subtract 90 from the phase angle of the voltage (that is 0 - 90 = -90).
In case the phase angle of the voltage is other than 0, say +30, the phase angle of the current
would be 30 - 90 = -60. The equation of the voltage would be v
L
= V
Lm
sin (et + 30) V and that of
the current is i
L
= I
Lm
sin (et - 60) A.
If the equation of current is i
L
= I
Lm
sin (et + 30) A, the equation of the voltage is v
C
= V
Cm
sin (et +
120) V. Add 90 from 30 since the voltage is leading the current by 90.


Example 6.6 The waveform below is the voltage across an ideal inductor. Draw the waveform for
its current if its maximum value is 5 A. Write also their sine wave equations.







-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
V
Lm
I
Lm
current through the
inductor
voltage induced by the
inductor
0 90 180 270 360
147



Solution

The equation of the voltage is v
L
= 120 sin (et + 60) V and that of the current is i
L
= 5 sin (et - 30)
A.

6.2.3 Why the Current Lags the Inductor Voltage by 90

As you know, a sine wave voltage has a maximum rate of change at its zero crossings and a zero rate
of change at the peaks. From Faradays Law you know that the amount of voltage induced across a
coil is directly proportional to the rate at which the current is changing. Therefore, the coil voltage is
maximum at the zero crossings of the current where the rate of change of the current is the greatest.
Also, the amount of voltage is zero at the peaks of the current where its rate of change is zero. This
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
V
Lm
= 120 V
60
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
60 30
V
Lm
= 120 V
I
Lm
= 5A
148

relationship is shown in Figure 6-1(b) . As you can see, the current peaks occur a quarter cycle after
the voltage peaks. Thus, the current lags the voltage by 90.

6.2.4 The Inductive Reactance, X
L

In Figure 6-2, an inductor is connected to a sine wave source. Note that when the source voltage is
held at a constant amplitude value and its frequency is increased, the amplitude of the current
decreases. Also, when the frequency of the source is decreased the current amplitude increases.
The reason is as follows: when the frequency of the applied voltage increases, its rate of change also
increases, as you already. Now if the frequency of the applied voltage is increased, the frequency of
the current also increases. According to Faradays law and Lenzs law, this increase in frequency
induces more voltage across the inductor in a direction to oppose the current and cause it to
decrease in amplitude. Similarly, a decrease in frequency will cause an increase in current.
A decrease in the amount of current for a fixed amount of voltage indicates that opposition
to the current has increased. Thus, the inductor offers opposition to current which varies directly
with frequency.


Figure 6-2. The current in an inductive circuit varies inversely with the frequency of the applied
voltage.

The opposition to sinusoidal current in an inductor is called inductive reactance.
The symbol for inductive reactance is X
L
, and its unit is the ohm (O)
Formula: X
L
= 2tfL
where X
L
= the inductive reactance in ohms (O)
f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
L = the inductance in henry (H)
149

X
L
is proportional to the frequency and inductance
Example 6.7 A sinusoidal voltage is applied to the circuit in Figure. The frequency is 1 kHz.
Determine the inductive reactance.





Solution X
L
= 2tfL
= 2t(1 kHz)(5 mH) = 31.4 O

6.2.5 Ohms law in Inductive Circuits

The reactance of an inductor is analogous to the resistance of a resistor. In fact, X
L
, just like R, is
expressed in ohms. Since inductive reactance is a form of opposition to current, Ohms law applies
to inductive circuits as well as to resistive circuits and capacitive circuits, and it is stated as follows:
V
L
= I
L
X
L
where V
L


= the voltage across the inductor in volts (V).

I
L
= the current through the inductor (A)
X
L
= the inductive reactance in ohms (O)
Example 6.8 Determine the rms current.




Solution
First calculate X
L
:
X
L
= 2tfL = 2t(10 kHz)(100 mH) = 6283 O
Using Ohms law, we obtain

Vs
L = 5 mH
5 V
10 kHz
L = 100 mH
150

I
L
=
V
L
X
L
=
5 V
6283 O
= 795.8 A

6.2.6 Power in an Inductor







As discussed earlier, an inductor stores energy in its magnetic field when there is current through it.
An ideal inductor (assuming no winding resistance) does not dissipate energy; it only stores it. When
an ac voltage is applied to an inductor, energy is stored by the inductor during a portion of the cycle;
then the stored energy is returned to the source during another portion of thee cycle. There is no net
energy loss. Figure above shows the power curve that results from one cycle of inductor current
and voltage.

6.2.7 Instantaneous power (p)
The product of instantaneous voltage, v
L
, and instantaneous current, I
L
, gives instantaneous power, p.
At points where v
L
and i
L
is zero. When both v
L
and i
L
are positive, p is also positive. When either v
L

or i
L
is positive and the other negative, p is negative. When both v
L
and i
L
are negative, p is positive.
As you can see, the power follows a sinusoidal-type curve. Power values of power indicates that
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
vL
iL
p
0 90 180 270 360
Vs
L
151

energy is stored by the inductor. Negative values of power indicate that energy is returned from the
inductor to the source. Note that the power fluctuates at a frequency twice that of the voltage or
current, as energy is alternately stored and returned to the source
6.2.8 True Power (P
true
or simply P)
Ideally, all of the energy stored by the inductor during the positive portion of the power cycle is
returned to the source during the negative portion. No net energy is consumed in the inductance, so
the power is zero. Actually, because of winding resistance in a practical inductor, some power is
always dissipated. But since in this lesson, the inductor is considered ideal so its resistance is
negligible so its power dissipation or true power is zero
.
6.2.9 Inductive Reactive Power (Q
L
)
The rate at which an inductor stores or returns energy is called its reactive power, Q
L
. The inductive
reactive power (so called because this is the reactive power of the inductor) is nonzero quantity,
because at any instant in time, the inductor actually taking energy from the source or returning
energy to it. Reactive power does not represent an energy loss. The following formula apply:
Q
L
= V
L
I
L
Q
L
=
V
L
2
X
L


Q
L
= I
L
2
X
L
where Q
L
= the inductive reactive power in volt-ampere reactive (VAR or var)
V
L
= the rms voltage across the inductor in volts (V)
I
L
= the

rms current through the inductor in amperes (A)
X
L
= the inductive reactive in ohm (O)

Example 6.9 A 10-V rms signal with a frequency of 1 kHz is applied to a 10-mH coil with a
negligible resistance. Determine the reactive power (Q
L
) and the true power (P).
Solution
X
L
= 2tfL = 2t(1 kHz)(10 mH) = 62.83 O
I =
V
L
X
L

=
10 V
62.83

= 159.16 mA

We can find the inductive reactive using the three formulas:
Q
L
= V
L
I
L
= (10 V)(159.16 mA) = 1.59 VAR
152

Q
L
=
V
L
2
X
L
=
(10 V)
2
62.83
= 1.59 VAR
Q
L
= I
L
2
X
L
= (159.16 mA)
2
(62.83) = 1.59 VAR
For the true power, P = 0 because there is no resistance in the inductor.
6.3 AC Circuit with Capacitance Only








Note: The capacitor in the circuit above is considered ideal, meaning the resistance is negligible.

What are some of the components that are considered capacitive?

Basically, all capacitors and synchronous motors.

6.3.1 The Phase Relationship of Current and Voltage in a Purely Capacitive Load
The current leads the voltage by 90, or the voltage lags the current by 90.
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
iC
vC
V
cm
I
cm
90 0 90 180 270 360
Vs
C
153

In the waveforms above the equation of voltage across the capacitor is v
C
= V
Cm
sin et V and the
current is i
C
= I
Cm
sin (et + 90) A. Just add 90 from the phase angle of the voltage (that is 0 + 90 =
90).
In case the phase angle of the voltage is other than 0, say +30, the phase angle of the current
would be 30 + 90 = 120. The equation of the voltage would be v
C
= V
Cm
sin (et + 30) V and that of
the current is i
C
= I
Cm
sin (et + 120) A.
If the equation of current is i
C
= I
Cm
sin (et + 30) A, the equation of the voltage is v
C
= V
Cm
sin (et -
60) V. Subtract 90 from 30 since the voltage is lagging the current by 90.

Example 6.10 The waveform below is the voltage across an ideal capacitor, draw the waveform for
its current if its maximum value is 5 A. Write also their sine wave equations.









Solution






The equation of the voltage is v
C
= 120 sin (et + 60) V and that of the current is i
C
= 5 sin (et +
150) A

6.3.2 Why the current leads the voltage by 90?
60


60

120 V
60
154

A sine wave voltage is shown in the figure below. Notice that the rate at which the voltage is
changing varies along the sine wave curve, as indicated by the steepness of the curve. At the zero
crossings, the curve is changing at a faster rate than anywhere else along the curve. At the peaks,











the curve has a zero rate of change because it has just reached its maximum and is at the point of
changing direction.
The amount of charge stored by a capacitor determines the voltage across it. Therefore, the rate
at which the charge is moved (Q/t = current) from one plate to the other determines the rate at
which the voltage changes. When the current is changing at its maximum rate ( at the zero
crossings), the voltage is at its maximum value (peak). When the current is changing at its
maximum rate (zero at the peaks), the voltage is at its minimum value (zero). This relationship is
illustrated in the figure. As you can see, the current peaks occur a quarter of a cycle before the
voltage peaks. Thus the current leads the voltage by 90.

6.3.3 Capacitive Reactance, X
C

Capacitive reactance is the opposition to sinusoidal current, expressed in ohms and
symbolized by X
C
.

In Figure, a capacitor is connected to a sine wave voltage source. Note that when the source
voltage is held at a constant amplitude value and its frequency is increased, the amplitude of the
current increases. Also, when the frequency of the source is decreased, the current amplitude
Zero rate of change
Zero rate of change
Maximum negative
rate of change
(steepest)
Maximum negative
rate of change
(steepest)
155

decreases. The reason is as follows: When the frequency of the voltage increases, its rate of
change also increases. This relationship in the figure, where the frequency is doubled.
The current in a capacitive circuit varies directly with the frequency of the applied voltage.












Rate of change increases with the frequency.

Now, if the rate at which the voltage is changing increase, the amount of charge moving though the
circuit in a given period of time must also increase. More charge in a given period of time means
more current. For example, a tenfold increase in frequency means that the capacitor is charging and
discharging 10 times a much in a given time interval. Therefore, since the rate of charge movement
has increased 10 times, the recurrent must increases by 10 because I = Q/t.
An increase in the amount of current for a fixed amount of voltage indicates that opposition
to the current has decreased. Therefore, the capacitor offers opposition to current, which varies
inversely with frequency. The opposition to sinusoidal current called capacitive reactance. The
symbol for capacitive reactance is X
C
, and its unit is the ohm (O).
You have just seen how frequency affects the opposition to current (capacitive reactance) in
a capacitor. Now lets see how the capacitance affects the reactance. Figure shows that when a sine
wave voltage with a fixed amplitude and frequency is applied to a 1-F capacitor, a certain amount of
current flows. When the capacitance value is increased to 2 F, the current increases. Thus, when
the capacitance increases, the opposition to current (capacitive reactance) decreases. Therefore, not
B A
B has the
greater rate of
change (steeper
slope, more
cycles)
156

only is the capacitive reactance inversely proportional to frequency, but it is also inversely
proportional to capacitance:
X
C
is proportional to
1
fC


It can be proven that the constant of proportionality is 1/2t. Therefore, the formula for X
C
is
X
C
=
1
2tfC

where X
C
= the capacitive reactance in ohms (O)
f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
C = capacitance in farad (F)
The 2t term comes from the fact that a sine wave can be described in terms of rotational motion,
and one revolution contains 2t radians.

Example 6.11 A sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor. The frequency of the sine wave is 1
kHz. Determine the capacitive reactance.




Solution

X
C
=
1
2tfC
=
1
2t(1 kHz )(0.005 F)
= 31.83 kO
6.3.4 Ohms Law in Capacitive Circuits
The reactance of a capacitor is analogous to the resistance of a resistor. In fact, both are expressed
in ohms. Since both are forms of opposition to current, Ohms law apply to capacitive circuits as well
as to resistive circuits and is stated as follows for capacitive reactance:
V
C
= I
C
X
C
where V
C
= the rms voltage across the capacitor in volts (V)
I
C
= the rms current through an inductor in amperes (A)
Vs 0.005 F
157

X
C
= the capacitive reactance in ohms (O)

Example 6.12 Determine the rms current through the circuit shown below.



Solution
X
C
=
1
2tfC
=
1
2t(10 kHz)(0.005 F)
= 3.183 kO
Applying Ohms law:
I
C
=
V
C(rm s)
X
C
=
5 V
3.183 kO
= 1.57 mA


6.3.5 Power in a Capacitor

As discussed earlier, a charged capacitor stores energy in the electric field within the dielectric. An
ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy; it only stores it. When an ac voltage is applied to a
capacitor, energy is stored by a capacitor during a portion of the voltage cycle. There is no net
energy loss. Figure below shows the power curve that results from one cycle of capacitor voltage
and current.





Vs = 5 V
10 kHz
0.005 F
Vs C
158


6.3.6 Instantaneous Power (p)
The product of instantaneous voltage, V
C
, and instantaneous current, I
C
, gives instantaneous power,
p. At point where v
C
or I
C
is zero, p is also zero. When both v
C
or I
C
is positive and the other negative,
p is negative. When both v
C
and I
C
are negative, p is positive. As you can see, the power follows a
sinusoidal-type curve. Positive values of power indicate that energy is stored by the capacitor.
Negative values of power indicate that energy is returned from the capacitor to the source. Note
that the power fluctuates at a frequency twice that of the voltage or current, as energy is alternately
stored and returned to the source.
6.3.7 True Power (P)
Ideally, all of the energy stored by a capacitor during the positive portion of the power cycle is
returned to the source during the negative portion. No net energy is consumed in the capacitor, so
the true power is zero. Actually, because of leakage and foil resistance in a practical capacitor, a
small percentage of the total power is dissipated. But in this lesson, the capacitor is considered as
ideal (meaning the capacitor has infinite resistance) so the true power is zero.
6.3.8 Capacitive Reactive Power (Q
C
)
The rate at which a capacitor stores or returns energy is called its capacitive reactive power, Q
C
. The
capacitive reactive power is a nonzero quantity, because at any instant in time, the capacitor is
actually taking energy from the source or returning energy to it. Reactive power does not represent
an energy loss. The following formulas apply:
Q
C
= V
C
I
C

Q
C
=
V
C
2
X
C

Q
C
= I
C
2
X
C
where Q
C
= capacitive reactive power in volt-ampere reactive (VAR or var)
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
iC
vC
p
P
m
90 0 90 180 270 360
V
Cm
I
cm
159

I
C
= current through the capacitor
V
C
= rms voltage across the capacitor
X
C
= capacitive reactance
Example 6.13 Determine the true power and the reactive power in the circuit shown.





Solution
P = 0
X
C
=
1
2tfC
=
1
2t(60)(110F)
= 24.114 O
Q
C
=
V
C
2
X
C
=
(110 V)
2
24.114 O
= 501.78 VARS













110 V
60 Hz
110 F
160

Problem Set No. 12
AC CIRCUIT WITH RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE, AND CAPACITANCE ONLY
1. Prove that the average value of power in a purely resistive load is P = V
R
I
R
.

2. An electric flatiron whose heating element is practically a pure resistance takes 480 watts when
connected across 115-V DC mains. Determine (a) power that it takes from 120-V 60-Hz mains;
(b) its resistance; (c) equation of AC voltage, current, and power waves (draw waves), zero time
being when voltage is going through zero and increasing positively; (d) maximum value of
power; (e) instantaneous power when t is 1/480 sec. (f) Show graphically that average power
over 1 cycle is product of rms volts and amperes.

3. A large room is illuminated by twenty 150-watt lamps and thirty 100-wattt lamps. If the circuit
voltage is 116, calculate the total current.

4. How much power is represented by a circuit in which the voltage and current equations are e =
160 sin314t and i = 42.5 sin 314t?

5. By applying integration, prove that the average power or true power in a purely inductive load or
ideal inductor is equal to zero.

6. Derive X
L
= 2tfL.

7. Calculate X
L
for f = 5 kHz and L = 100 mH. (Answer: 3141.59 )

8. At what frequency is the reactance of a 50-H inductor equal to 800 O? (Answer: 2.54 kHz)

9. A 50-mH inductor is connected to a 12-V rms source. What is the true power? What is the
reactive power at a frequency of 1 kHz? (Answers: 0 W, 458.366 mH)

10. Calculate the rms current in the figure below. (Answer: 0.6366 A)



11. The emf and current waves of a circuit having inductance only are e = 141.4 sin 2t25t and i = -17
cos 2t25t. Determine (a) equation of power wave; (b) frequency of power wave; (c) maximum
value of power wave; (d) average power; (e) power when t = 1/200 sec, 1/100 sec, 1/80 sec. (f)
Draw voltage, current, and power waves. (Answers: a. p = -1201.9 sin4t25t W, b. 50 Hz, c.
2403.8 W, d. 0 W, e. -1201.9 W, 0 W, 849.87 W)


E
120 Vpk
60 Hz
0
L
500mH
1
2
120 V
60 Hz
161

12. A pure inductance takes 4 amp from 120-V(rms) 60-Hz mains. Determine (a) equation of voltage
and current waves, zero time being when current is going through zero and increasing positively;
(b) equation of power wave; (c) maximum instantaneous power; (d) average power; (e)
maximum energy stored in inductance; (f) rate at which emf of self-induction is changing when t
= 1/240 sec. (g) Plot all three waves. (Answers: a. 169.71 sin (2t60 t + t/2), 5.66 sin 2t60t, b.
480.28 sin 4t60t, (c) 960.56 W, (d) de/dt = L

13. A reactance coil whose resistance is negligible takes 1.060 amp from 120-V 60-Hz mains.
Determine (a) inductance; (b) current when connected to 220-V 60-Hz mains.

14. By applying integration prove that the average power or true power of an ideal capacitor is equal
to zero.

15. Prove that X
C
=
1
2tfC



16. Calculate X
C
for f = 5 kHz and C = 50 pF. (Answer: 636.62 k)


17. At what frequency is the reactance of a 0.1-F capacitor equal to 2 kO? (Answer: 796 Hz)

18. Calculate the rms current for the circuit shown below. (Answer: 0.6283 A)





19. A 1-F capacitor is connected to an ac voltage source of 12 V rms. What is the true power?
(Answer: 0)


20. In problem 19, determine reactive power at a frequency of 500 Hz. (Answer: 0.4524 VAR)

21. A capacitance of 4 F is connected across a 40-V (rms) 1,000 Hz power supply. Determine (a)
rms current; (b) maximum instantaneous current; (c) equations of current and emf waves, zero
time being when current is crossing zero axis in a positive direction; (d) maximum rate of
change of current and of emf. (Answer: a. 1.01 A b. 1.43 A, c. 1.43 sin 2t1000t, 56.57 sin
(2t1000t - t/2), d.

22. The emf and current waves in a circuit having capacitance only are e = 311 sin 2t50t and i = 5.65
cos 2t50t. Determine (a) equation of power wave; (b) frequency of power wave; (c) maximum
value of power wave; (d) average power; (e) power when t = 1/800 sec, 1/400 sec, 1/300 sec. (f)
Draw the waves. (Answers: a. 878.58 sin 4t50t, b. 100 Hz, c. 1757.15 W, d. 0, e. 621.25 W,
878.58 W, 760.87 W)

1 V
1 MHz
0.1 F
162

23. A 4-F capacitor is connected across an emf of 50 volts (rms), 1,000 Hz. Determine (a) equation
of emf and current, zero time being when emf is crossing axis in a positive direction; (b) equation
of power wave; (c) maximum instantaneous power; (d) average power; (e) maximum energy
stored in capacitor; (f) maximum rate of change of current. (g) Plot all three waves.

24. In a power circuit it is desired to obtain a 90 leading current of 60 amp by the use of capacitors,
the voltage supply being 600 volts, 60 Hz. (Capacitors are used on power systems to correct
power factor.) Determine (a) required capacitance; (b) current that capacitance would take at
440 volts, 120 Hz.

25. It is desired to obtain 43.5 A at 2,300 volts, 60-Hz, by means of a capacitors. Determine (a)
necessary capacitance in microfarads; (b) kVA rating of capacitor.



























163

6.4 Power Factor

The Power factor is the ratio of true power and apparent power. The power factor ranges from 0 to
1.
pf =
P
S

where pf is the power factor which can expressed as a decimal or percentage.
P true power in watts (W)
S apparent power in volt-amperes (VA). The apparent power is just the product of the total
voltage and the total current in an ac circuit.
From the power triangle below which will be learned later, it can be seen that P/S is cos |. Therefore
pf =
P
S
= cos |






6.4.1 Types of Power Factor

Unity pf (pf = 1) - the voltage and current are in phase. A purely resistive load has a unity
power factor since the voltage and current are in phase. Any circuit whose total inductive
reactive power is equal to the total capacitive reactive power will have a unity power factor.

Lagging pf (pf is between 0 to 1) the current lags the voltage by an acute angle |.

Leading pf (pf factor is between 0 to 1) the current leads the voltage by an acute angle |.

Zero pf if the voltage and current are out of phase by exactly 90. Any circuit which has a
zero true power has zero pf. The purely inductive or capacitive load would have a zero pf
since the true power is zero and the voltage and current are out of phase by exactly 90.


S Q


|
P




P

P true power
Q reactive power
S apparent power
| - the phase angle between the total
current and the total voltage or
power factor angle.
164

6.5 Series Resistance and Inductance








Characteristics:
1. There is a common current in the circuit, that is, I
T
= I
R
= I
L
.
2. The total voltage is the algebraic sum of the voltage across the resistor and across the
inductor.
3. the apparent power is the algebraic sum of the true power (power taken by the resistive
load) and the inductive reactive power in the inductor.

Omit the current wave, and drawing the total (resultant) voltage. In this case, the total or resultant
voltage is the source or applied voltage.




-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
iT
vL
vR
90 0 90 180 270 360
V
Lm
V
Rm
I
Tm
Vs
R
L
165









The Phasor Diagram of a Series RL Circuit.
Note: The angle of the reference is not always zero. It can be any angle other than 0. The figure
below shows an example. This applies to the succeeding circuits.








-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
vR
vL
vT
V
Tm
V
Lm
V
Rm
90 0 90 180 270 360


V
L
V
S

|

I
T

V
R
(ref)




V
L
V
S
|
|


V
R

I
T


(ref)

166

V
T
=

V
R
+ jV
L
volts total voltage in rectangular form
V
R
= V
T
cos| V
L
= V
T
sin|
V
T
=

V
T
Z| volts total voltage in polar form
where V
T
- is the magnitude of the total voltage
V
R
the voltage across the resistance of the load
V
L
- the voltage across the inductance of the load.
| - the phase angle, the angle between the total voltage and the total current.
The magnitude of the total voltage determined by using Pythagorean Theorem.
V
T
= V
R
2
+ V
L
2
and
| = tan
-1
V
L
V
R

From the rectangular form of the total voltage, divide each parameter by I since it is common in the
circuit.

V
T
I
T
=
V
R
I
R
+ j
V
L
I
L

But,
V
T
I
T
=

Z ,
V
R
I
R
= R ,
V
L
I
L
= X
L
so that,
Z = R + jX
L
the rectangular form of the impedance
where impedance in ohms (O)
- resistance in ohms (O)

inductive reactance in ohms (O)

6.5.1 What is impedance?

The impedance is the joint effect of combining resistive and reactance (inductive or
capacitive) in an AC circuit. Impedance is also defined as the total opposition to alternating current.
The figure below shows the impedance triangle of a series RL circuit.

167







The impedance triangle of a series RL circuit.

= Z| polar form of the impedance
where Z the magnitude of the impedance of the circuit.
| - the phase angle.
By Pythagorean Theorem, the magnitude of the impedance is,
= R
2
+ X
L
2
And
| = tan
-1
X
L
R
which is the same as in the phasor diagram

now for the Power Triangle,








The Power Triangle in Series RL Circuit.

X
L





R
X
L

Z


|
R




























V
L
V
S


|


I
T

V
R
(ref)





S
Q
L



|


P






168

Multiply the voltages by the current,

=
= +

the rectangular form of the apparent

power
= Z| the polar form of the apparent power
where = the magnitude of the apparent power
| = power factor angle which is similar to the phasor diagram and impedance triangle.

The magnitude of the apparent power can be found by Pythagorean Theorem.
=

P
2
+ Q
L
2

and | = tan
-1
Q
L
P


which is the same as in the phasor diagram
Also,
=
P
cos |
=
P
pf

P = S cos | = I
T
V
T
cos |
Example 6.14 In the circuit below, determine the magnitudes of the following:
a. the impedance
b. total current
c. voltage across the resistor and inductor
d. power, reactive power, and apparent power
e. angle between the total current and the total voltage
f. power factor










R = 75
Vs= 24 V
60 Hz
L = 290 mH
169









Solution
(a) X
L
= 2tfL = 2t(60 Hz)(290 mH) = 109.33 O
Z

= (75)
2
+ (109.33)
2
= 132.58 O
(b) I
T
=
V
T
Z
=
24 V
132.58 O
= 181.02 mA = I
R
= I
L


(c) V
R
= I
R
R = (181.02 mA)(75 O) = 13.58 V
V
L
= I
L
X
L
= (181.02 mA)(109.33 O) = 19.79 V
(d) P = I
R
2
R = (181.02 mA)
2
(75) = 2.46 W
or P = I
R
V
R
= (181.02 mA) (13.58) = 2.46 W
Q
L
= I
L
2
X
L
= (181.02 mA)
2
(109.33) = 3.58 VAR
or Q
L
= I
L
V
L
= (181.02 mA)(19.79) = 3.58 VAR
S

=

P
2
+ Q
L
2
= (2.46)
2
+ (3.58)
2
= 4.34 VA
(e)
| = tan
-1
V
L
V
R
= tan
-1
19.79
13.58

= 55.54

| = tan
-1
X
L
R
= tan
-1
109.33
75

= 55.54

(f) pf =
P
S
=
2.46
4.34
= 0.567 or 56.7% lagging (because the current is lagging)

or cos | = cos 55.55 = 0.567 lagging

Example 6.15 A 6-ohm resistor and an 8-ohm inductive reactance when connected in series across
a 60-Hz supply take 12 amp. Determine (a) impedance of circuit; (b) voltage across resistor; (c)


V
L
= 19.79 V


V
S
= 24 V


|

=

55.54


V
R
= 13.58 V I
T
(ref)



170

voltage across reactance; (d) circuit voltage; (e) power; (f) angle between current and voltage; (g)
power factor; (h) inductance. (i) Draw phasor diagram.
Solution





(a) Z

= 6
2
+ 8
2
= 10 O
(b) V
R
= I
R
R = (12 A)(6 O) = 72 V
(c) V
L
= I
L
X
L
= (12 A)(8 O) = 96 V

(d) V
T
= V
R
2
+ V
L
2
= (72)
2
+ (96)
2
= 120 V
(e) P = I
R
V
R
= (12 A)(72) = 864 W
(f)
| = tan
-1
V
L
V
R
= tan
-1

96
72


= 53.13

| = tan
-1
X
L
R

= tan
-1

8
6

= 53.13

(g) pf = cos 53.13 = 0.6 or 60% lagging
(h) Phasor diagram:







R =6
Vs=?
60 Hz
XL = 8
12 A


V
L
=
96 V

V
S
= 120 V

|

=

53.13



V
R
= 72 V I
T
(ref)



171

Example 6.16 the equation of the emf on an inductive circuit is e = 400 sin 377t and the current is i
= 40 sin (377t - 60). What is the inductance?
Solution:

= 282.82 Z0

= 28.28 Z 60

=
282.82 Z0
28.28 Z60

= 10 Z60
In rectangular form,

= 5 +8.66
so that R = 5 and

= 8.66
and =

e
=
8.66
377
= 22.97

Example 6.17 An induction motor which is connected to 120-V 50-Hz source draws a current of 5 A.
If the power factor of the motor is 95% lagging, find (a) the apparent power, (b) the true power that
it takes.

Solution:
(a) =

= (5)(120) = 600

(b) =

| =

= 51200.95 = 570







172

Problem Set No. 13
SERIES RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE
1. A 0.0159-henry inductance coil and a 4-ohm resistor are connected in series across 240-V 60-Hz
mains. Determine (a) reactance; (b) impedance; (c) current; (d) true power; (e) phase angle;
(f) power factor; (g) voltage across resistor; (h) voltage across inductance coil. (i) Draw phasor
diagram. (Answers: a. 5.99 , b. 7.2 , c. 33.33 A, d. 4443.56 W, e. 56.27, f. 0.555 lagging, g.
133.32 V, h. 199.65 V)

2. When a 12-ohm resistor and an unknown inductance coil of negligible resistance are connected
in series across a 120-V 50-Hz supply, the current is 8 amp. Determine (a) reactance; (b)
inductance; (c) phase angle; (d) power; (e) power factor; (f) voltage across resistor and across
inductance coil. (g) Draw phasor diagram. (Answers: a. 9 , b. 28.65 mH, c. 36.87, d. 768 W,
e. 0.8, f. 96 V, 72 V)

3. The corrected readings of a voltmeter, an ammeter, and wattmeter when connected to measure
the voltage, current, and power of a circuit known to consist only of resistance and inductance
coil in series are as follows: volts, 118; amperes, 3.27; power, 320 watts. The frequency is 60 Hz.
Determine (a) power factor; (b) circuit phase angle; (c) resistance; (d) reactance; (e)
inductance; (f) voltage across resistance and inductance coil. (g) Draw phasor diagram.
(Answers: a. 0.8293, b. 33.97, c. 29.93 , d. 20.16 , e. 53.48 mH, f. 97.87 V, 65.92 V)

4. The primary of a telephone induction coil has an effective resistance of 60 ohms and an
inductance of 0.154. Determine (a) impedance at 1,000 Hz; (b) current that it takes when 50
volts at 1,000 Hz is impressed across it; (c) power to coil. (Answers: a. 969.47 , b. 0.05157 A,
c. 0.1596 W)

5. The current in a circuit known to consist only of resistance and inductance in series is 8.31 amp
when the circuit is connected across 120-V 25-Hz mains; when connected across 120-V 60-Hz
mains the current is 5.30 amp. Determine the resistance and inductance. (Answers: 51.22 mH,
12 )

6. The current in a series inductive circuit is 7.5 amp at 25 Hz. The circuit takes 425, watts, and the
power factor is 0.47. Determine (a) circuit voltage; (b) series inductance; (c) resistance. (d)
Draw phasor diagram. (Answers: a. 120.57 V, b. 90.33 mH, c. 7.55 )

.






173

6.6 Series Resistance and Capacitance










-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
iT
vR
vC
0 90 180 270 360
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
vR
vC
vT
0 | 90 180 270 360
V
Tm
V
Cm
V
Rm
Vs
R
C
174







Phasor Diagram of Series RC Circuit

V
T
=

V
R
jV
C
volts total voltage in rectangular form
V
R
= V
T
cos| V
C
= V
C
sin|
V
T
=

V
T
Z| volts total voltage in polar form
where V
T
= is the magnitude of the total voltage
V
R
= the voltage across the resistance of the load or resistor
V
C
= the voltage across the capacitance of the load or capacitor
| = the phase angle, the angle between the total voltage and the total current.
The magnitude of the total voltage is determined by using Pythagorean Theorem.
V
T
=

2
+ V
C
2
and | = tan
-1
V
C
V
R

From the rectangular form of the total voltage, divide each parameter by I since it is common in the
circuit.
V
T
I
T
=
V
R
I
R
+ j
V
C
I
C

But,
V
T
I
T
=

Z ,
V
R
I
R
= R ,
V
C
I
C
= X
L
So that,
Z = R - jX
C
the rectangular form of the impedance
where Z = impedance in ohms (O)


V
R
I
T
(ref)


|


V
T
V
C







175

R = resistance in ohms (O)
X
L
= capacitive reactance in ohms (O)





The impedance triangle of a series RC circuit.
Z = ZZ| polar form of the impedance
where Z = the magnitude of the impedance of the circuit.
| = the phase angle.
By Pythagorean Theorem, the magnitude of the impedance is,
Z

= R
2
+ X
C
2
and | = tan
-1
X
C
R
which is the same as in the phasor diagram
Now for the Power Triangle,







Power Triangle in Series RL Circuit.

Multiply the voltages by the current,
V
C
x I
C
= Q
C
R



X
C
R


|


Z


X
C

V
R
I
T
(ref)


|


V
C


V
T





P
| Q
C







S






176

V
R
x I
R
= P
V
T
x I
T
= S
S = P + jQ
C
the rectangular form of the apparent power
S = SZ| the polar form of the apparent power
where S = the magnitude of the apparent power
| = power factor angle which is similar to the phasor diagram and impedance triangle.
The magnitude of the apparent power can be found by Pythagorean Theorem.
S

= P
2
+ Q
C
2
and
| = tan
-1
Q
C
P



which is the same as in the phasor diagram
also,
S =
P
cos |
=
P
pf



Example 6.16 In the circuit below, determine the magnitudes of the following:
a. the impedance
b. total current
c. voltage across the resistor and capacitor
d. power, reactive power, and apparent power
e. angle between the total current and the total voltage
f. power factor








V
R


= 13.85 V I
T
(ref)
|

=

54.74


V
C
= V
S
=


19.6 V

24 V







24 V
60 Hz
75 ohms
25 F
177

Solution

(a) X
L
=
1
2tfL
=
1
2t(60 Hz)(25 F)
= 106.1 O

Z

= (75)
2
+ (106.1)
2
= 129.93 O
(b) I
T
=

=
24
129.93 O
= 184.71 mA = I
R
= I
C


(c) V
R
= I
R
R = (184.71 mA)(75 O) = 13.85 V
V
C
= I
C
X
C
= (184.71 mA)(106.1 O) = 19.6 V
(d) P = I
R
2
R = (184.71 mA)
2
(75) = 2.56 W

or P = I
R
V
R
= (184.71 mA) (13.85) = 2.56 W
Q
L
= I
L
2
X
L
= (184.71 mA)
2
(106.1) = 3.62 VAR
or Q
L
= I
L
V
L
= (184.71 mA)(19.6) = 3.62 VAR
S

=

P
2
+ Q
L
2
= (2.56)
2
+ (3.62)
2
= 4.43 VA
| = tan
-1
V
C
V
R

= tan
-1

19.60
13.85
= 54.75
| = tan
-1
X
L
R



= tan
-1

106.1
75
= 54.74


(e) pf =

=
2.56
4.53
= 0.578 or 57.8% leading (because the current is leading)

or cos | = cos 57.8 = 57.8%

Example 6.17 A 6-ohm resistor and an 8-ohm inductive reactance when connected in series across
a 60-Hz supply take 12 amp. Determine (a) impedance of circuit; (b) voltage across resistor; (c)
voltage across reactance; (d) circuit voltage; (e) power; (f) angle between current and voltage; (g)
power factor; (h) inductance. (i) Draw phasor diagram.
Solution


178







(a) Z

= 6
2
+ 8
2
= 10 O
(b) V
R
= I
R
R = (12 A)(6 O) = 72 V

(c) V
C
= I
C
X
C
= (12 A)(8 O) = 96 V

(d) V
T
=

2
+

2
= (72)
2
+ (96)
2
= 120 V
(e) P = I
R
V
R
= (12 A)(72) = 864 W

(f)
| = tan
-1
V
C
V
R


= tan
-1
96
72


= 53.13

| = tan
-1
X
C
R

= tan
-1

8
6

= 53.13


(g) pf = cos 53.13 = 0.6 or 60% leading
(h) Phasor diagram:









V
R
= 72 V I
T
(ref)


|

=

53.13


V
S
= 120 V
V
L
= 96 V






Vs=?
60 Hz
6 ohms
8 ohms
12 A
179

Problem Set No. 14
SERIES RESISTANCE AND CAPACITANCE

1. A 50-ohm resistance and an 80-F capacitor are connected in series across 115-V 60-Hz mains.
Determine (a) current; (b) power; (c) power factor; (d) voltage across resistor; (e) voltage
across capacitor. (f) Draw phasor diagram. (Answers: a. 1.92 A, b. 184.32 W, c. 0.8333, d. 96
V, e. 63.67 V)

2. A current of 2 amp at 60 Hz flows in a circuit with the resistor and a capacitor in series. The
voltage across the resistor is 60 volts, and that across the capacitor is 90.8 volts. Determine (a)
circuit voltage; (b) power; (c) power factor; (d) capacitance. (e) Draw vector diagram.
(Answers: a. 108.83 V, b. 120 V, c. 0.5513, d. 58.43 F)

3. A circuit with a resistor and a capacitor in series takes 200 watts at a power factor of 0.40 from
200-Volt 50-Hz mains. Determine (a) current; (b) power-factor angle; (c) resistance; (d)
impedance; (e) capacitance. (Answers: a. 2.5 A, b. 66.42, c. 32 , d. 80 , e. 43.41 F)

4. A circuit with a resistor and a capacitor in series takes 3.0 amp, 216 watts, at 0.6 power factor
from a 60-Hz supply. Determine (a) resistance; (b) circuit voltage; (c) capacitive reactance; (d)
capacitance; (e) power-factor angle. (Answers: a. 24 , b. 120 V, c. 32 , d. 82.89 F, e. 0.6)

5. A 33-ohm resistor is in series with a 35.3-F capacitor across a constant potential source of 100
volts. Determine (a) frequency that will give current of 2.0 amp; (b) circuit power; (c) power
factor. (Answers: a. 120 Hz, b. 132 W, c. 0.66)

6. A circuit with a 50-F capacitor and an adjustable resistor in series is connected across 120-V 60-
Hz mains. To what value of ohms must the resistor should be adjusted for the circuit to take 80
watts? (Two values of resistance will satisfy this condition.) (Answers: 162.7 , 17.3 )
















180

6.7 Series Resistance, Inductance, and Capacitance













E
12 Vrms
60 Hz
0
R
1.0k
L
1.0mH
C
1.0F
1
2
3
4
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
iT
vR
vL
vC
90 0 90 180 70 360
V
Lm
V
Cm
V
Rm
I
Tm

181













To find the resultant or total voltage which is also the voltage source, V
S
.






-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
vR
vL
vC
vT
90 0 90 180 270 360

V
L




V
R
I (ref)


V
C

182











The phasor diagram if V
L
> V
C
V
X
= the net reactive voltage.
Formulas
V
T
= V
R
+ jV
L
- jV
C
the rectangular form of the total voltage
V
T
= V
R
+ j(V
L
- V
C
)
V
T
= V
R
+ j V
X
where V
X
= V
L
- V
C

V
T
= V
T
Z| the polar form of the total voltage
where
V
T
=

2
+

2
| = tan
-1
V
X
V
R

V
X
= net reactive voltage
From V
T
= V
R
+ jV
L
- jV
C
we can divide this by the total current since it is common in the circuit , that
is, I
T
= I
R
= I
L
= I
C
V
T
I
T

=

V
R
I
R

+ j
V
L
I
L
j
V
C
I
C

where
V
T
I
T

= Z ,
V
R
I
R
= R ,
V
L
I
L
= X
L
,
V
C
I
C
= X
C

V
L



V
X
= V
L
- V
C
| |
V
R
I (ref)





V
C

183

So that
Z = R + jX
L
- jX
C
the rectangular form of the impedance
Z = R + j(X
L
- X
C
)
Z = R + jX
net
X
net
= X
L
- X
C

Z = ZZ|
where Z =
2
+

2
| = tan
-1

X
ne t
R

X
net
= net reactance



For the power triangular, multiply each quantity in the phasor diagram by the each corresponding
current.















X
L



X
net
= X
L
- X
C
| |
R

I (ref)

X
C


V
L





V
R
I (ref)


V
C


Q
L



P





Q
C

184










S = P + jQ
L
- jQ
C
rectangular form of the apparent power
S = P + j(Q
L
- Q
C
)
S = P + jQ
net
where Q
net
= Q
L
- Q
C
= net reactive power
S = SZ| polar form of the apparent power
where S =
2
+

2
| = tan
-1

Q
ne t
P

Now if V
L
< V
C
, the formulas above, that is for V
L
> V
C
, also apply. But the V
T
and V
X
will have a
different direction as shown below. The Power factor here is leading because the total current is
leading the total voltage by an angle |.








The Phasor Diagram if V
C
> V
L

Q
L


S
Q
net
= Q
L
- Q
C

P




Q
C


V
L


V
R
I (ref)


|

V
X
= V
C
V
L


V
T

V
C




185

Example 6.18 In the circuit below, determine the magnitudes of the following:
(a) the impedance
(b) total current
(c) voltage across the resistor, inductor and capacitor
(d) power, reactive power (inductive and capacitive), and apparent power
(e) angle between the total current and the total voltage
(f) power factor






Solution

(a) impedance






By complex quantities we can get the rectangular and polar form of the impedance,
Z = 50 + j48.63 j22.10 = 50 + j26.53 O
Converting this to polar form
Z = 56.6 OZ27.95
If the required is only the magnitude, Z = 56.6 O

Or use the formula for the magnitude of the impedance
Z = R
2
+ X
ne t
2

where X
net
= X
L
- X
C
Vs= 110 V
60 Hz
50 ohms
120 F
L = 129 mH
X
L
= 48.63 O


R = 50 O

X
C
=

22.10 O
X
L
= 48.63 O

X
net
= Z = 56.6 O
26.53 O | = 27.95
R = 50 O
X
C
=

22.10 O
186

Z = R
2
+ (X
L
X
C
)
2


Z = 50
2
+ (48.63 22.10)
2

= 56.6 O
(b) I
T
=
V
T
Z


=
110 V
56.6 O

= 1.94 A
(c) V
R
= I
R
R = (1.94 A)(50 O) = 97 V
V
L
= I
L
X
L
= (1.94 A)(48.63 O) = 94.34 V
V
C
= I
C
X
C
= (1.94 A)(22.10 O) = 42.87







(d) P = I
R
2

R = (1.94 A)
2
(50 O) = 188.18 W

Q
L
= I
L
2

X
L
= (1.94 A)
2
(48.63 O) = 183.02 VARs
Q
C
= I
C
2

X
C
= (1.94 A)
2
(22.10 O) = 83.18 VARs
S = P
2
+ Q
ne t
2
= P
2
+ (Q
L
Q
C
)
2

= (188.18)
2
+ (183.02 83.18)
2


= 213.03 VA
(e) To find |, we can use any of these formulas, the value of | = 27.95
| = tan
-1

| = tan
-1

V
L
V
C
V
R

| = tan
-1
Q
L
Q
C
P

(f) pf = cos 27.95 = 0.883 or 88.3% lagging; since the current is lagging the total voltage as seen
in the phasor diagram.
V
L
= 94.34 V
V
T
= 110 V
V
net
=
51.47 V | = 27.95
R = 50 O
V
C
=

42.87 V
I (ref)
187

Problem Set No. 15
SERIES RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE

1. A series circuit with 12 ohms resistance, 32 ohms inductive reactance, and 20 ohms capacitive
reactance is connected across 240-volt 60-Hz mains. Determine (a) impedance; (b) current; (c)
voltage across each circuit element; (d) power; (e) power factor and a power-factor angle. (f)
Draw phasor diagram. (Answers: a. 16.97 , b. 14.14 A, c. 169.68 V, 452.48 V, 282.8 V, d.
2399.28 W, e. 0.7071, 45)

2. A voltage of 220 volts at 60 Hz is impressed on a circuit having a 50-ohm resistor, 25-F
capacitor, and a 0.2-henry inductor in series. Determine (a) impedance; (b) current; (c) voltage
across resistor, inductor, capacitor; (d) total power; (e) power factor and power factor angle. (f)
Draw phasor diagram to scale. (Answers: a. 58.67 , b. 3.75 A, c. 187.5 V, 282.75 V, 397.88 V,
d. 703.125 W, e. 0.8522, 31.55)

3. A 15-ohm resistor, a 0.25-henry inductor, and a 100-F capacitor are connected in series across
200-volt 25-Hz mains. Determine (a) current; (b) power; (c) voltage across resistor, inductor,
capacitor; (d) apparent power; (e) power factor and power factor angle. (f) Draw phasor
diagram to scale. (Answers: a. 7 A, b. 735 W, c. 105 V, 274.89 V, 445.62 V, d. 1400 VA, e.
0.5248, 58.34)


























188

6.8 Parallel Resistance and Inductance
















Let V
T
= V
T
Z0; since this is a parallel circuit, V
R
= V
L
= V
T
= V
T
Z0;
I
R
=

Z0

-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
vT
iR
iL
0 90 180 270 360
V
Tm
I
Lm
I
Rm
Vs
R L
I
R
V
T
(ref) I
R
V
T
(ref)
|


I
L

I
T




189

I
L
=

Z0

Z90
=

Z0

Based on the phasor diagram above
I
T
= I
R
- jI
L
the rectangular form of the total voltage
I
T
= I
T
Z| the polar form of the total voltage
where
I
T
=

2
+

2


| = tan
-1

From I
T
= I
R
- jI
L
Divide by V
T
or by the corresponding voltage,

where

= admittance (Y ) in siemens (S)

= conductance (G ) in siemens (S)

= inductive susceptance (B
L
) in siemens (S)
Y = G - jB
L
Y = YZ| polar form of admittance
Where Y =
2
+

2


| = tan
-1

Power Factor: pf = cos| lagging (the total current is lagging the total voltage in this circuit by an
angle |).

Admittance, Conductance, and Susceptance
Admittance the reciprocal of admittance; the property of a circuit to allow the flow of alternating
current.
Y =
1

190

Conductance the reciprocal of resistance; the property of a circuit to allow the flow of current.
G =
1

Susceptance - the reciprocal of reactance.
B
L
inductive susceptance; the ability of inductor to allow the flow of alternating current
B
C
inductive susceptance; the ability of a capacitor to allow the flow of alternating current
B
L
=
1

B
C
=
1

6.9 Parallel Resistance and Capacitance










-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
vT
vR
vC
90 0 90 180 270 360
V
Tm
I
Cm
I
Rm
E
12 Vrms
60 Hz
0
R
1.0k
C
1.0F
2
4
191








Let V
T
= V
T
Z0; since this is a parallel circuit, V
R
= V
C
= V
T
= V
T
Z0;
I
R
=

Z0

I
C
=

Z0

Z90
=

Z0

Based on the phasor diagram above
I
T
= I
R
+ jI
C
the rectangular form of the total voltage
I
T
= I
T
Z| the polar form of the total voltage
where
I
T
=

2
+

2


| = tan
-1

From I
T
= I
R
+ jI
C
Divide by V
T
or by the corresponding voltage,

where

= admittance (Y ) in siemens (S)

= conductance (G ) in siemens (S)

= capacitive susceptance (B
C
) in siemens (S)

Y = G + jB
C
rectangular form of admittance
Y = YZ| polar form of admittance
where Y =
2
+

2



I
C
I
C
I
T





|


I
R
V
T
(ref)

I
R
V
T
(ref)




















192

| = tan
-1

Power Factor: pf = cos | leading (because the total current is leading the total voltage by an angle
|)


6.10 Parallel Resistance, Inductance, and Capacitance







E
12 Vrms
60 Hz
0
R
1.0k
L
1.0mH
C
1.0F
24
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
vT
vR
vC
vL
90 0 90 180 270 360
V
Tm
I
Lm
I
Cm
I
Rm
193










Let V
T
= V
T
Z0; since this is a parallel circuit, V
R
= V
L
= V
C
= V
T
Z0;

Z0

Z0
X
L
Z90
=

Z0
+jX
L
Z90

Z0
X
C
Z90
=

Z0
jX
C
Z90

Based on the phasor diagram above

the rectangular form of the total voltage

+ (

Z| the polar form of the total voltage

where

2
+

2
+

2

where

( ) =

| =
1

From

Divide by V
T
or by the corresponding voltage,


I
C
I
C


I
T

|


I
R
V
T
(ref)

I
R
V
T
(ref)



I
L


I
L


















194

= +

where

= admittance (Y ) in siemens (S)

= conductance (G ) in siemens (S)

= capacitive susceptance (B
C
) in siemens (S)

= inductive susceptance (B
L
) in siemens (S)
= +

= + (

)
= +



is the net susceptance

= Z|
where =
2
+

2

| =
1

6.11 True Power, Reactive Power, and Apparent Power

= +

rectangular form of the apparent power

= + (

) where

= net reactive power

= Z| polar form of the apparent power
where =
2
+

2


| =
-1

195











These directions of P, Q
L
and Q
C

are applicable to any type of circuit
Power factor: pf = cos| leading (because the total current leads the total voltage by an angle |).
Note: These formulas can be used even if B
C
< B
L
only that that in this case the power factor is
lagging.

Example 6.19 A 24-ohm resistor and a 0.0796-henry inductor are connected in parallel across 115-
volt 60-Hz mains. Determine (a) current in resistor; (b) current in inductor; (c) total current; (d)
power factor; (e) power-factor angle. (f) Draw phasor diagram.
Solution





V
T
= V
R
= V
L
= 115 V
X
L
= 2tfL = 2t(60Hz)(0.0796 H) = 30 O

(a)

=
115
24 O
= 4.79 A

(b)

=
115
30 O
= 3.83 A

Q
L



P





Q
C

0.0796 H
24 ohms
115 V
60 Hz
196

(c)

2
+

2
= (4.79)
2
+ (3.83)
2
= 6.13


or

= 4.79 3.83 . Converting to polar form I

T
= 6.13 AZ-38.65
The magnitude of the total current is I
T
= 6.13 A
(d) | = tan
-1

= tan
-1
3.83
4.79
= 38.65

(e) pf = cos| = cos 38.65 = 0.78
(f) Phasor diagram






Example 6.20 An 80-ohm resistor and a 4.0-F capacitor are connected in parallel across a 240 volt
400-Hz supply. Determine (a) current in resistor; (b) current in capacitor; (c) total current; (d)
power-factor angle; (e) power-factor. (f) Draw phasor diagram.






V
T
= V
R
= V
C
= 115 V

=
1
2tfC
=
1
2t(400 Hz)(4 F)
= 99.47 O

(c)

=
240 V
80 O

= 3 A

(b)

=
240 V
99.47O
= 2.41 A
80 ohms
240 V
400 Hz
4 F
I
R
= 4.79 A V
T
(ref)
| = 38.65
I
L
=

3.83 A I
T
= 6.13 A
197

2
+

2
= (3)
2
+ (2.41)
2
= 3.85
Or

= 3 + 2.41. Converting to polar form I

T
= 3.85 AZ38.78
The magnitude of the total current is I
T
= 3.85 A
(e) | = tan
-1

= tan
-1
2.41
3
= 38.78

pf = cos| = cos 38.78 = 0.78
(f) Phasor diagram






Example 6.21 A 25-ohm resistor, a 0.1-henry inductor, and a 160-F capacitor are connected in
parallel across 200-volt 25-Hz mains. Determine (a) current to resistor, inductor, capacitor; (b) total
current; (c) power-factor angle; (d) power factor. (e) Draw vector diagram.





Solution V
T
= V
R
= V
L
= V
C
X
L
= 2tfL = 2t(25 Hz)(0.1 H) = 15.71 O

=
1
2tfC
=
1
2t(25 Hz)(160 F)
= 39.79 O

(a)

=
200 V
25 O
= 8

=
200 V
15.71 O
= 12.73 A

I
R
= 4.79 A V
T
(ref)

| = 38.65


I
L
=

3.83 A I
T
= 6.13 A
I
C
= 2.41 A I
T
= 3.85 A

| = 38.78

I
R
= 3 A V
T
(ref)
25 ohms
200 V
25 Hz
160 F
0.1 H
198

=
200 V
39.79 O
= 5.03 A
(b)

2
+

2
= (8)
2
+ 5.03 12.73
2
= 11.10

or

= 8 + 5.03 12.73 = 8 7.7

Converting to polar form

= 11.10Z 43.91
So ,

= 11.10
(c) | = 43.91

(d) pf = cos 43.91 = 0.72











6.12 Conversion of Parallel or Combination Circuits to Series Circuit

Example 6.22 Transform the circuit below to series circuit:





X
L
= 48.63 O B
L
=
1
48.63

= 20.56 mS
Vs= 110 V
60 Hz 50 ohms 120 F
L = 129 mH
I
L
= 5.03 A


I
R
= 8 A V
T
(ref)

| = 43.79
I
net
= 7.7 A
I
T
= 11.10 A




I
L
= 12.73 A










199

X
C
= 22.10 O B
C
=
1
22.10


= 45.25 mS
R = 50 O G =
1
50
= 20 mS
Y = G + jB
C
- jB
L
= 20 mS + j45.25mS

- j20.56 = 20 mS + j24.69 mS
Converting to polar form
Y = 31.774 mSZ 50.99
where =

=
1
31.774 mS Z 50.99
= 31.47 OZ 50.99
Converting Z to rectangular form
= 19.81 24.45 O
In this form R = 19.81 O and X
C
= 24.45 O (capacitive reactance because the operator is j)
To find the capacitance;
=
1
2t

=
1
2t(60)(24.45)
= 108.49 F

Therefore, the equivalent series of the parallel RLC above is a series components that consists R =
19.81 O and capacitance of C = 108.49 F






Example 6.23 Determine the series components of an impedance 60 OZ60 connected across a
60-Hz source.
Solution Given Z = 60 OZ60
Convert to rectangular form Z = 30 + j51.96 O
From this, R = 30 O and X
L
= 51.96 (inductive reactance because the operator is +j)
For =

2t
=
51.96
2t60
= 137.83
Therefore the series components are R = 30 O and L = 137.83 Mh
Vs= 110 V
60 Hz
19.81 ohms
108.49 F
200

Problem Set No. 16
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
1. A 40-ohm resistor and an inductor are connected in parallel across 120-volt 50-Hz mains, and
the total current is 6.0 amp. Determine the inductance. (Answer: 73.46 mH)

2. A circuit consists of a resistor and a 53.0-F capacitor in parallel across 120-volt 60-Hz mains.
The total current is 4 amp. Determine ohms of resistor. (Answer: 37.5 )

3. A 50-ohm resistor, an 80-ohm inductive reactor, and a 60-ohm capacitive reactor are
connected in parallel across 240-volt 60-Hz mains. Determine (a) current to resistor, inductor,
capacitor; (b) total current; (c) power-factor angle; (d) power factor. (e) Draw phasor diagram.
(Answers: a. 4.8 A, 3 A, 4 A, b. 4.9 A, c. 11.77, d. 0.979)
4. A 30-ohm resistor and a 0.0637-henry inductor are connected in parallel across a 120-V ac
supply. Determine (a) frequency at which total current will be 7.22 amp; (b) power factor of
the circuit. (c) Draw phasor diagram. (Answers: a. 50 Hz, b. 0.554)
















201

Unit 7
Combination Circuits and
Network Theorems


























7.1 Combination Circuits

Example 7. 1. A non-inductive resistor and an impedance coil are connected in parallel across 208-
volt 60-Hz mains. The resistor takes a current of 2.25 amp; the impedance coil takes a current of 1.5

1. solve the required parameters of a series/parallel combination circuit.
2. analyze a circuit using the network theorems such as Maxwells Mesh
Equations, Nodal Analysis, Thevenins Theorem, Nortons Theorem,
Superposition Theorem, and Millmans Theorem

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you
are expected to:

202

amp; the total current is found to be 3.1 amp. Determine (a) power-factor angle and power factor of
circuit; (b) power to circuit; (c) power-factor angle and power factor of impedance coil; (d) effective
resistance of impedance coil; (e) inductance of impedance coil.







The equivalent components of impedance coil are resistance and inductance.
Let V
T
= 208 VZ0







To find |
circuit
, let us consider this triangle








Using cosine law,
(1.5)
2
= (2.25)
2
+ (3.1)
2
2(2.25)(3.1)cos|
circuit

R = ?
208 V
60 Hz
Lcoil =?
Rcoil = ?

3.1 A



I
R
= 2.25 A I
coil
= 1.5 A

I
R
= 2.25 A

V
T
(coil)
|
circuit
|
coil

|
coil
equal to I
coil

I
coil
= 1. 5 A I
T
= 3.1 A

I
R
= 2.25 A


|
circuit


I
T
= 3.1 A I
coil
= 1.5 A





203

|
circuit
= 27.06
(a) |
circuit
= 27.06; pf = cos |
circuit
= cos 27.06 = 0.89 lagging
(b) Let us find S: S = V
T
I
T
= (208)(3.1) = 644.8 VA
The figure below is the corresponding power triangle of the circuit since the current is lagging.




cos | =

and P = S cos| = Spf = 644.8 (0.89) = 573.87 watts

(c) To find |
coil
, consider again this triangle


Using cosine law,


(3.1)
2
= (2.25)
2
+ (1.5)
2
- 2(2.25)(1.5)coso
o = 109.9
Now |
coil
= 180 - o = 180 - 109.9 = 70.1
pf
coil
= cos|
coil
= cos 70.1 = 0.34
(d) To find V
Rcoil
and V
Lcoil
, let us consider this triangle





S = 644.8 VA Q
L
= ?

| = 27.06

P = ?

I
R
= 2.25 A


o

|
coil

I
T
= 3.1 A I
coil
= 1.5 A






V
coil
= 208 V V
L
coil

|coil = 70.1
V
R
coil

204

= 208 70.1 = 70.8

= 208 70.1 = 195.58

=
70.8 V
1.5 A
= 47.2 O

=
195.58 V
1.5 A
= 130.39 O
and =

2tf
=
130.39
2t(60)
= 0.3459
Example 7.2 A unity power-factor load of 1,794 watts is connected in parallel with a load of 1,656
watts operating at a lagging power factor of 0.6. If the line voltage is 115, calculate (a) the current in
each load, (b) the load current, (c) the total power, (d) the overall power factor, (e) the reactive
volt-amperes.
Note: Let













Solution:
Load 1: unity power factor as defined a load with unity power factor is a purely resistive load.
P
1
= I
R1
V
R1
L
o
a
d

1
Vs = 115 V
L
o
a
d

2
I
1
= 15.6 A V
T
(ref)
|
1
=
53.13

I
2
= 24 A I
T
= ?
205

where P
1
= 1,794 watts
V
R1
= V
S
= 115 V, since resistance is the only component in load 1
I
R
= ?

1
=

1
=
1,794 W
115
= 15.6
Load 2: lagging power factor ; the components are resistor and inductor.
P
2
= 1,656 watts pf = 0.6, with this |2 = cos
-1
0.6 = 53.13

The power triangle for load 2




To find S
2
:
2
=

2
cos|
2
=
1,656 W
cos 53.13
= 2,760 VA
S
2
= I
2
V
2

2
=

2
=
2,760 VA
115 V
= 24
I
2
=

24 AZ-53.13 (negative because this current is lagging the total voltage)

Q
L2
=

S
2
sin |
2
= 2760 sin 53.13 = 2,208 VAR
For the total current
I
T
= I
1
+ I
2

= 15.6Z0 + 24 AZ-53.13
= (15.6 + j0) + (14.4 j19.2)
= 30 j19.2
= 35.62Z-32.62



Q
L2
= ?
S
2
= ?
| = 53.13
P = 1,656 W
206

The equivalent power triangle of the circuit:








P
T
= 3,450 W
|
T
= tan
-1
2,208
3,450

= 32.62
Q
L2
= Q
T
= 2,208 VARs

Example 7.3 In the circuit shown below, let Z
1
= 50 + j75, Z
2
= 80 + j25, Z
3
= 100 + j70, determine :
a. the total impedance
b. the total current
c. the total power
d. the total reactive power
e. apparent power
f. the current in each impedance












Q
L
= 2,208 VAR


|
T
= ?

P1 = 1,794 watts P2 = 1,656 watts
PT = 3,450 watts


120 V
60 Hz
50 ohms
75 ohms
80 ohms
25 ohms
100 ohms
70 ohms


I
1
I
3


I
2
207

a.

= 50 + 75 +
80+2510070
80+25+ 10070
= 105.03 +71.536 O
= 127.0775 OZ34.2588
b.

=
120Z0
127.0775 OZ34.2588
= 0.9443 Z 34.2588
c. =

= 0.9443
2
105.03 = 93.656
d. =

= 0.9443
2
71.536 = 63.789 ()
e. =

= 0.9443120 = 113.315 VAR
f.

= 0.9443 Z 34.2588
By current divider

= 0.9443 Z 34.2588
10070
18045
= 0.6212 Z 55.2146

= 0.9443 Z 34.2588
80+25
18045
= 0.4265 Z 2.8686


















208

Problem Set No. 17
COMBINATION CIRCUITS

1. A 25-ohm resistor and an unknown capacitor are connected in parallel across a 100-volt 50-Hz
supply, and the total current is 4.75 amp. When the resistor and capacitor are connected
across a 100-volt supply of unknown frequency, the current is 6.41 amp. Determine frequency.

2. In order to measure the power taken by a small 120-V 60-Hz single-phase induction motor, it is
connected in parallel with a non-inductive resistor across 120-V 60-Hz mains. The currents
measured are as follows: resistor current, 3.0 amp; motor current, 4.2 amp; total current, 6.7
amp. Determine (a) power factor of circuit; (b) power factor of motor; (c) power to motor;
(d) total power to circuit.









3. A parallel circuit consisting of a resistor, an impedance coil, and a capacitor of negligible loss is
connected across a 100-volt 25-Hz supply and takes a current of 3.1 amp. The current to the
resistor is 2.5 amp, that of the capacitor 2.0 amp and that to the impedance coil, 2.8 amp,
Determine (a) power-factor angle and power of entire circuit; (b) power factor and power-
factor angle of impedance coil; (c) resistance of impedance coil; (d) reactance and inductance
of impedance coil.

4. A parallel circuit consisting of a non-inductive resistor, an impedance coil, and a capacitor of
negligible loss is connected across 120-V 60-Hz mains and takes 6 amp lagging current at a
power factor of 0.936. The resistor takes 4 amp., and the capacitor 3 amp. Determine (a)
power to the impedance coil; (b) current to impedance coil; (c) power-factor angle and power
factor of impedance coil.

5. The following information is given in connection with three loads connected to a 220-V source:
load A = 12 A at unity power factor; load B is 40 amp at a power factor of 0.5 lagging; load C is
20 amp at a leading power factor of 0.9. Calculate (a) the total current, (b) the total power,
(c) the reactive volt-amperes, (d) the overall power factor.



R motor = ?
L motor
R = ?
120 V
60 Hz

I
T
= 6.7 A




I
m
= I
R
=
4.2 A 3 A
209

6. With a secondary load, the primary of a telephone induction coil, having an effective
resistance of 240 ohms and an inductance of 0.01583 henry, is in parallel with a 2-F capacitor
of negligible resistance. With 50 volts at a frequency of 1,000 Hz across the primary, determine
(a) current to primary; (b) current to capacitor; (c) line, or total, current; (d) power to entire
circuit; (e) phase angle between line current and voltage.


7. The currents at the junction point in a circuit have the following values I
1
= (16 j4) A and (8 +
j22) A. Calculate (a) I
1
+ I
2
, (b) I
1
I
2
, and (c) I
2
I
1
.

8. Calculate the equivalent impedance of a circuit in which a coil of wire having a value of 5
OZ53.2 is connected parallel with a capacitive reactance of 6.25 ohms.

9. A coil of wire having a value of (5 + j8) ohms is connected in series with a capacitive reactance
X
C
, and this series combination is then connected in parallel with a resistor R. If the equivalent
impedance of the circuit is 4 OZ0, calculate the values of X
C
and R.

10. When a small ac motor is operating at rated load from a 115-V 60-Hz source, it takes 287 watts
at a lagging power factor of 0.6. (a)















210

Objective Test No. 6
ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

1. A sine wave voltage is applied across an inductor. When the frequency of the voltage is
increased, the current
a. decreases
b. increases
c. does not change
d. momentarily goes to zero

2. An inductor and a resistor are in series with a sine wave voltage source. The frequency is set so
that the inductive reactance is equal to the resistance. If the frequency is increased then
a. V
R
> V
L
b. V
L
< V
R

c. V
L
= V
R
d. V
L
> V
R

3. A sine wave voltage is applied across a capacitor. When the frequency of the voltage is
increased, the current
a. increases
b. decreases
c. remains constant
d. ceases
4. A capacitor and a resistor are connected in series to a sine wave generator. The frequency is set
so that the capacitive reactance is equal to the resistance and, thus, an equal amount of voltage
appears across each component. If the frequency is decreases,
a. VR > VL
b. VL < VR
c. VL = VR
d. VL > VR
5. In an ac circuit, the voltage _____________.
a. leads the current
b. lags the current
c. is in phase with the current
d. is any of the above, depending on the component
6. The voltage lags behind the current by cycle in a ___________ circuit.
a. pure capacitor
b. pure inductor
c. pure resistor
d. capacitance with inductor
7. The unit of inductive reactance is the _________________.
a. henry
211

b. Tesla
c. farad
d. ohm
8. When voltage and current are in phase in an ac circuit, the ____________.
a. impedance is zero
b. resistance is zero
c. resistance is zero
d. phase angle is 90
9. The impedance of a circuit does not depend on ____________.
a. current
b. frequency
c. resistance
d. capacitance
10. The power dissipated as heated in an ac circuit depends on its ____________.
a. resistance
b. capacitive reactance
c. inductive reactance
d. impedance
11. The power factor of a circuit in which X
L
= X
C
____________.
a. is zero
b. is one
c. depends on the ratio X
C
/X
L

d. depends on the value of R
12. The inductive reactance of a 1-mH coil in a 5-kHz circuit is ____________.
a. 3.1 O
b. 6.3 O
c. 10 O
d. 31 O

13. The capacitive reactance of a 5 F capacitor in a 20 kHz circuit is __________.
a. 0.63 O
b. 1.6 O
c. 5 O
d. 16 O
14. A 2-F capacitor is connected to a 50-V, 400-Hz power supply. The current that flows is
a. 0.20 mA
b. 0.25 A
c. 0.30 A
d. 0.40 A
212

15. In a series ac circuit R = 10 O, X
L
= 8 O, and X
C
= 6 O when the frequency is f. The impedance at
this frequency is __________.
a. 10.2 O
b. 12 O
c. 24 O
d. 104 O
16. The total voltage in a series RL circuit ________ the current by an angle _____.
a. lags, of 90
b. lags between 0 to 90
c. leads, between 0 to 90
d. leads, between 90 and 180
17. In a series RL circuit, the inductor current _____ the resistor current.
a. lags
b. leads
c. is equal
d. is negative
18. The impedance triangle is similar to the __________ triangle with the resistance phasor in place
of the ____________.
a. current, resistor current
b. current, resistor voltage
c. voltage, impedance
d. voltage, resistor voltage
19. In the impedance triangle the inductive reactance and impedance phasor are analogous to the
______ and _______ phasor respectively in the voltage triangle.
a. inductive voltage, total voltage
b. inductive current, total current
c. inductive voltage, resistive voltage
d. inductive current, resistive current
20. In a series RL circuit phasor diagram, total voltage may be represented by the _____ phasor and
the resistor voltage may be represented the ___________ phasor.
a. current, voltage
b. current resistance, current
c. impedance, resistance
d. impedance, inductance
21. The phase angle of a series RL circuit is the angle between the ________ phasor and the
_________ phasor.
a. resistance, inductive reactance
b. resistance, impedance
c. inductive reactance, impedance
d. none of these
213

22. The phase angle of series RL circuit may be computed as ________ or __________ or
___________.
a. cos
-1
R/X
L
, sin
-1
X
L
/R, tan
-1
R/Z
b. cos
-1
R/Z, sin
-1
X
L
/R, tan
-1
R/X
L
c. cos
-1
Z/X
L
, sin
-1
R/Z, tan
-1
X
L
/R
d. cos
-1
R/Z, sin
-1
X
L
/Z, tan
-1
X
L
/R
23. A(n) _______ stores and returns energy to a circuit while a(n) _________ dissipates energy.
a. resistor, impedance
b. resistor, inductor
c. inductor, resistor
d. inductor, reactance
24. For an RL circuit, the power factor cannot be less than ______ or greater than ________.
a. 0, 1
b. 1,0
c. 0, -1
d. -1, 0
25. The voltage across the capacitor _________ the current through it by ______.
a. lags, 45
b. lags, 90
c. leads, 0
d. leads, 90
26. If the resistance in a series RC circuit is increased the magnitude of the phase angle ______.
a. increases
b. remains the same
c. decreases
d. changes in an indeterminate manner
27. In a series RC circuit, the current _______ the total voltage by an angle _______.
a. lags, of 45
b. lags, of 0
c. leads, between 0 to 90
d. leads, of 90
28. The resistance phasor of a series circuit points to the right. The capacitor reactance phasor
points ______ while the diagonal of the rectangle having there two phasors as sided represents
their ________.
a. up, impedance
b. down, impedance
c. left, current
d. up, total voltage
29. The phase angle for a series RC circuit is defined as the angle between the _______ and the
_______ phasors.
214

a. current, resistance voltage
b. current, total voltage
c. resistance voltage, capacitor voltage
d. R, X
C

30. The phase angle for a series RC circuit may be computed as the angle between the _______ and
_________ phasors.
a. resistance, impedance
b. reactance, impedance
c. reactance, impedance
d. none of these
31. The power dissipated in a series RC circuit with R = 10 ohms and X
C
= 10 ohms carrying an
effective current of 3 amperes is ________ watts.
a. 30
b. 30/2
c. 90
d. 90/2
32. The magnitude of the power factor of an RC circuit with R = 10 ohms and X
C
= 10 ohms, 1.2 amp
effective is
a. 1
b. 0.5
c. 0.707
d. 0
33. The magnitude of the power factor of an RC circuit with R = 30 ohms, X
C
= 40 ohms and E = 100 V
effective is
a. 60
b. 80
c. 100
d. 120
34. The net reactance in an RLC circuit is
a. XL
b. XC
c. XC + XL
d. XL XC
35. The impedance of a series RLC circuit is
a.
2
+

2
+

2

b.
2
+

2
+

2

c.

2
+

2

d.
2
+

2

215

7.2 Network Theorems

To recall Kirchhoffs laws solve for the current in each impedance in the circuit below so that you
will have a basis for the answers in the network theorems. Remember that whatever network
theorem you use will arrive at the same result.








Let V
s
= 120 VZ0
By KVL at loop I

120 Z0 (50 + 75)
1
(80 + 25)
2
= 0
50 + 75
1
+ (80 + 25)
2
= 120 equation 1
By KVL at loop 2
(80 +25)
2
(100 70)
3
= 0 equation 2
By KCL at node a

1

2

3
= 0 equation 3
Equating (1) , (2) and (3)
50 + 75
1
+ (80 + 25)
2
= 120
(80 +25)
2
(100 70)
3
= 0

1

2

3
= 0


120 V
60 Hz
50 ohms
75 ohms
80 ohms
25 ohms
100 ohms
70 ohms
I II
I
B

I
A

I
1

a
I
3



I
2




216

Then using determinant method


=
50 + 75 (80 + 25) 0
0 (80 +25) (100 70)
1 1 1
= 22,125 8,150

1
=

120 (80 + 25) 0

0 (80 +25) (100 70)
0 1 1

22,125 8,150
=
21,600 +5,400
22,125 8,150
=

= 0.7805 0.5316 = 0.9443Z 34.2589

2
=

50 + 75 120 0
0 0 (100 70)
1 0 1

22,125 8,150
=
12,000 +8,400
22,125 8,150
=

= 0.3544 0.5102 = 0.6214Z 55.2127

3
=

50 + 75 (80 + 25) 120

0 (80 +25) 0
1 1 0

22,125 8,150
=
21,600 + 5,400
22,125 8,150
=

= 0.4265 Z 2.862

7.2.1 Maxwells Mesh Equations

Example 7.3 In the circuit below, determine the current I
1
, I
2
, and I
3
.

Solution:








120 V
60 Hz
50 ohms
75 ohms
80 ohms
25 ohms
100 ohms
70 ohms
I II
I
B

I
A

217

Let V
s
= 120 VZ0
At mesh I
120Z0

50 + 75

80 + 25 +

80 + 25 = 0
120 + 0

[(50 + 75) + (80 + 25)] +

(80 + 25) = 0
120 (130 + 100) +

(80 + 25) = 0
(130 + 100)

(80 + 25)

= 120 equation 1
At mesh II

80 + 25 +

80 + 25

100 70 = 0

[(80 + 25) + (100 70)] +

(80 + 25) = 0

(180 45) +

(80 + 25) = 0
(80 + 25)

(180 45)

= 0 equation 2
Equate equations 1 and 2
130 + 100

80 + 25

= 120
(80 + 25)

(180 45)

= 0

Using determinant method

=
130 + 100 80 + 25
(80 + 25) (180 45)
= 22,125 8150

120 80 + 25
0 (180 45)

22,125 8150
=
21,600 +5,400
22,125 8150
= 0.7805 0.5316
= 0.9443 Z 34.2589

130 + 100 120

(80 + 25) 0

22,125 8150
=
9,600 3,000
22,125 8,150
= 0.426 0.0213
= 0.4265 Z2.862
218

To find
1
,
2
, and
3


1
=

= 0.9443 Z 34.2589

2
=

= 0.7805 0.5316 0.426 0.0213 = 0.3545 0.5103
= 0.6214Z 55.2127

3
= 0.4265 Z2.862




For problem set No. 20 solve the load current in each network using the network theorem being
required to apply.













(a )

















(b)



E
120 Vrms
60 Hz
0
R1
10
L1
150mH
L
250mH
C1
30F
R
50
R3
25
E
120 Vrms
60 Hz
30
R1
10
L1
150mH
L
250mH
C1
30F
R
50
R3
25
E1
150 Vrms
60 Hz
-45
L
O
A
D
L
O
A
D
219

Problem No. 18
NETWORK THEOREMS


7.2.2 Mesh Analysis


7.2.3 Nodal Analysis


7.2.4 Thevenins Theorem


7.2.5 Nortons Theorem


7.2.6 Superposition Theorem


7.2.7 Millmans Theorem














220

Unit 8

Power Factor Correction or Improvement
























1. discuss power factor correction or improvement.
2. determine sizes of capacitors to improve or correct the power factor
of a system.


LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson,
you are expected to:

221

Introduction
Most industries use a large number of electric motors; therefore, industrial plants represent highly
inductive loads. This means that industrial power systems operate at a power factor of less than
unity (1.0). However, it is undesirable for an industry to operate at a low-power factor, since the
electrical power system will have to supply more power to the industry than is actually used.
A given value of volt-amperes (voltage x current) is supplied to an industry by the electrical
power system. If the power factor (pf) of the industry is low, the current must be higher, since the
power converted by the total industrial load equals VA x pf. The value of the power factor decreases
as the reactive power (unused power) drawn by the industry increases. This is shown in Figure 8-1.
We will assume a constant value of true power, in order to see the effect of increases in reactive
power drawn by a load. . The smallest reactive power shown (VAR
1
) results in the volt-ampere value
of VA
1
. As reactive power is increased, as shown by the VAR
2
and VAR
3
values, more volt-amperes
(VA
2
and VA
3
) must be drawn from the source. This is true sine the voltage component of the
supplied volt-amperes remains constant. This example represents the same effect as a decrease in
the power factor, since pf = W/VA, and, as VA increases, the pf will decrease if W remains constant.
Utility companies usually charge industries for operating at power factors below a specified
level. It is desirable for industries to correct their power factor to avoid such charges to make
more economical use of electrical energy. Two methods may be used to cause the power factor to
increase: (1) power-factor corrective capacitors, and (2) three-phase synchronous motors. Since the
effect of capacitive reactance is opposite to that of inductive reactance, their reactive effects will
counteract one another. Either power-factor-corrective capacitors, or three-phase synchronous
motors, may be used to add the effect of capacitance to an AC power line.









Figure 8-1. Effect of increases in reactive power (VAR) on apparent power (VA).

Q
3
(vars)
S
3

Q
2
(vars)
S
2
|
3

|
2
Q
1
(vars)
S
1
|
1

P
T
(watts)
222


An example of power factor of power factor correction is
shown in Figure 8-2. We will assume from the example that
both true power and inductive reactive power remain constant at values of 10 kW and 10 kVAR. In
Figure 8-2(a), the formulas show that the power factor equals 70 per cent. However, if 5-kVAR
capacitive reactive power is introduced into the electrical power system, the net reactive power
becomes 5 kVAR (10 kVAR inductive minus 5 kVAR capacitive), a shown in Figure 8-2(b). With the
addition of 5 kVAR capacitive to the system, the power factor is increased to 89 per cent. Now, in
Figure 8-2(c), if 10-kVAR capacitive is added to the power system, the total reactive power (kVAR)
becomes zero. The true power is now equal to the apparent power; therefore, the power factor is
1.0, or 100 per cent, which is characteristic of a purely resistive circuit. The effect of the increased
capacitive reactive power in the system is to increase or correct the power factor and, thus, to
reduce the current drawn from the power distribution lines that supply the loads. In many cases, it is
beneficial for industries to invest in either power-factor-corrective capacitors, or three-phase
synchronous motors to correct their power factor.
Capacitors for Power Factor Correction
Static capacitors are used for power factor correction in the system. They are constructed similarly
to the smaller capacitors used in electrical equipment, which have metal-foil plates separated by
paper insulation. Ordinarily, static capacitors are housed in metal tanks, so that the plates can be
immersed in an insulating oil to improve high-voltage operation. The usual operating voltages of
static capacitors are from 230 volts to 13.8 kilovolts. These units are connected in parallel with
power lines, usually at the industrial plants, to increase the system power factor. Their primary
disadvantage is that their capacitance cannot be adjusted to compensate or changing power factors.
Power factor correction can also be accomplished by using synchronous capacitors
connected across the power lines. (Three-phase synchronous motors are also called synchronous
capacitors). The advantage of synchronous capacitors over static capacitors is that their capacitive
effect can be adjusted as the system power factor increases or decreases. The capacitive effect of a
synchronous capacitor is easily changed by varying the DC excitation voltage applied to the rotor of
the machine. Industries considering the installation of either static or synchronous capacitors should
first compare he initial equipment cost and the operating cost against the savings brought about by
an increased system power factor.






223

























Figure 8-2. Illustration of the effect of capacitive reactance on an inductive circuit:
(a) Reactive power = 10 kVAR inductive, (b) Reactive power = 10 kVAR inductive, and 5 kVAR
capacitive, (c) Reactive power = 10 kVAR inductive, and 10 kVAR capacitive.
=
10 kW
10 kVA
= 1 or 100%
=
2
+

2
= 10
2
+ 0
2
= 10
where

= 10 10 = 5

=
10 kW
11.18 kVA
= 0.8945 or 89.45 %
=
2
+

2
= 10
2
+ 5
2
= 11.18
where

= 10 5 = 5

=
true power
apparent power
=

=
10 kW
14.14 kVA
= 0.707 or 70.7 %

=

2
+

2
= 14.14 kVA

224

What is Power Factor Correction or Improvement?

Power factor correction or improvement consists of adding a capacitive reactive power to an ac
circuit in such a manner that the apparent power drawn from the source is reduced without altering
the current through or the voltage across the load itself.
In commercial use, the power factor should be close to unity for efficient distribution of
electric power. However, the inductive load of motors may result in a power factor of 0.70, as an
example, for the phase angle of 45. To correct for this lagging inductive component of the current
in the main line, a capacitor can be connected across the line to draw leading current from the
source. To bring the power factor up to 1.0, that is unity pf, the value of capacitance is calculated to
take the same amount of volt-amperes as the VARS of the load.

What is the purpose of correcting power factor?

1. To make use of electrical energy more economical. This can be proven by analyzing Figure 8-
3 and Figure 8-4(b). In Figure 8-3 without the capacitor for power factor correction the
current is 4.55 A. If a capacitor is connected across the load the current becomes 3.13 A.
Lowering the current means lowering the energy used by the load.
2. To reduce the cost of materials since cost of wires and cables depend on their sizes. In a high
current application large size of wire should be used. Small current uses small sizes of wires.
3. It is desirable for industries to correct their power factor to avoid such charges. Electrical
utility companies impose penalties to the users in which electrical loads have very low power
factor.

What is the proper connection of the power factor devices? Series or Parallel

To find out, let us consider this problem: In the circuit below, an induction motor is connected across
a 220-V 60-Hz source, find the current through the motor or the current in the line.


Figure 8-3. An induction motor in which the power factor is to be corrected.
220 V
60 Hz
Induction Motor
700 watts, 70 % lagging
power factor
225

The power triangle is shown below





To find |
= | = 0.70 ; | =
1
0.70 = 45.57
To find the current,
= | =

=
700 W
(220 V)(0.70)
= 4.55

To find the resistance and inductance of the motor,






Note: The motor is composed of resistance and inductance since the current is lagging by 70%.
To find R,
Using the formula =
2
=

2


=

2
=
700 W
(4.55 A)
2
= 33.81

For the inductance,

= | = 33.81 45.57 = 34.49 O

=

2tf
=
34.49 O
2t(60)
= 91.49


Q
L

S

| = 45.57
P = 700 W
X
L
X
L

Z

| = 45.57
R
226

The equivalent circuit for the motor would be a series RL of resistance 33.81 O and inductance 91.49
mH.



Now connect a 32-F in series with the motor across the same source (see Figure 8-4a). To find the
current.
=
2
+

2

where = 33.81 O

= 34.49 O because the frequency has not changed

=
1
2t(60)(32x10
6
)
= 82.89 O
=

(33.81)
2
+ 34.49 82.89
2
= 59.04 O
Then =

=
220 V
59.04 O
= 3.73
As you can see, the current is lowered but this current is not the rated current in the motor. The
load current is altered in this case, thus, this is not the correct connection of the capacitor.








(a) (b)
Figure 8-4. (a) A capacitor connected in series with the motor, (b) A capacitor connected in parallel
with the motor. This is the correct connection of the power factor correction device because in
this circuit the current in the load is not altered and the line current is lowered.
R = 33.81 ohms
91.49 mH
R = 33.81 ohms
91.49 mH
C = 88 F
220 V
60 Hz
R = 33.81 ohms
91.49 mH
C = 88 F
220 V
60 Hz
3.73 A

3.13 A
227

Now let us connect the capacitor in parallel with the motor (Figure 8-4b) The corresponding power
triangle is shown below.

= | = 700 45.57 = 714.07 VARS

The capacitive reactive power is calculated by using the formula Q
C
= V
C
2
/X
C

=
(220)
2
82.89
= 583.91 VARS

= 714.07 583.91 = 130.16 VARS

| =
1

130.16
700
= 10.53
Q
L
= 714.07 VARS
S

| = 45.57

P = 700 W


Q
C
= 583.91 VARS

Q
L
Q
C





S
new
Q
net
= 130.16 VARS
| = 45.57

P = 700 W



228



pf = cos | = cos10.53 = 0.983 or 98.3%, the power factor is increased from 70% to 98.3%.
For the total current
= | = 700 10.53 = 688.21 VA

=
688.21 VA
220 V
= 3.13
In this circuit the current is lowered without altering the current in the motor and the power factor is
increased. Therefore the correction of capacitor and other power factor correction devices is parallel
with the load or across the power lines.

How to Obtain a Unity Power Factor

In order to obtain a unity power factor Q
L
= Q
C
so that the P = S








Example 8.1 An electric motor has an inductance of 0.045 H and a resistance of 30 ohms.
a) Calculate the current though the motor when connected to a 24-V 60-Hz power source;
b) Calculate the power used by the motor;
c) Calculate the power factor of the load;
d) A capacitor is to be connected in across the load so that its power factor becomes 96%
lagging. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor.
e) Repeat (c) for 96% leading.
f) Repeat (c) for unity power factor.

Solution:
(a)

= 2t = 2t(60)(0.045) = 16.96 O
Q
L

S Q
C
- Q
L
= 0
P













229

=
2
+

2
= (30)
2
+ (16.96)
2
= 34.36 O






=

=
24
34.36 O
= 0.6985 A
(b) =
2
= (0.6985)
2
(30) = 14.64 W

(c) =

I
T
V
T
=
14.64
(0.6985)(24)
= 0.8732 or 87.32%
or
| =
1

R
=
1

16.96
30
= 29.48
then = | = 29.48 = 0.87
(d)

The power triangle of the load,






By connecting a capacitor so that its power factor becomes 0.96 lagging,
For a 0.96 pf: | =
1
0.96 = 16.26


24 V
60 Hz
R = 30 ohms
L = 0.045 H
= 14.64tan29.48
= tan|

= 8.276


|
old
= 29.48
= 14.64

P = 14.64 W
230

= 8.276

16.26 =
8.276

14.64

= 8.276 14.64 16.26 = 4.006 VARS

=
(24)
2
4.006
= 143.78 O
=
1
2t(60)(143.78)
= 18.45 F

(e) |
new
=

16.26 (still 16.26 because the power factor is 0.96)









|

Q
L

S
old

|
old
Q
net
= 8.276 - Q
C

|
new
= 16.26

Q
C
= ?

Q
C
= ?
Q
L

S
old

|
old

|
new
= 16.26 Q
net
= Q
C
- 8.276
S
new


Q
C








231

16.26 =

8.276
14.64

= 12.55 VARS

2
12.55
= 45.9 O
=
1
2t(60)( 45.9)
= 57.79 F

(f) To make the power factor unity, Q
L
= Q
C
. Since Q
L
= 8.276 VARS, Q
C
is also equal to
8.276 VARS.
Q
C
= 8.276 VARS

=
(24)
2
8.276
= 69.6 O
=
1
2t(60)( 69.6)
= 38.11 F















.
232

Problem Set No. 19
POWER CORRECTION OR IMPROVEMENT


1. A 5-kW AC motor has a power factor of 65% lagging when it is connected to a 200-V 50-Hz
mains. What effective current does the motor draw? What is the current through the motor
when a capacitor of 80 F is connected in parallel to the motor? What is the power factor in
this case?

2. In ac circuit takes a load of 160 kVA at a lagging power factor of 0.75 when connected to a
460-V 60-Hz source. What value of capacitance that must be connected across the load to
make the power factor 0.89 lagging?

3. A small ac motor used in a washing is, in effect, an RL circuit. If the machine takes 311 watts
and 4.5 amp from a 115-V source when operating normally, calculate its power factor.

4. An induction motor draws 6.0 A at 0.8 lagging power factor from 208-V 60-Hz source.
(a) What value of capacitance must be place in parallel with the motor to raise the overall
power factor to unity?
(b) What are the magnitudes of the final motor current, capacitor current, and line
current?

5. What value of capacitance is required to produce an overall power factor of 0.96 lagging with
the motor of Problem 4?

6. A synchronous motor capable of operating with a leading power factor draws 15 kW from a
distribution transformer while driving an air compressor. The remainder of the load on the
transformer is 80 kW at 0.85 lagging power factor.
(a) How many kilovars of capacitive reactive power must the synchronous motor produce to
raise the overall power factor to 0.96 lagging?
(b) What is the reactive factor of the synchronous motor operating in this manner?

7. The power factor of a load on a 120-V 60-Hz source is raised from 0.707 lagging to 0.866
lagging by connecting a 53-F capacitor across the load. What is the active power of the
load?

8. The power factor of a load on a 120-V 60-Hz is raised from 0.866 lagging to 0.966 leading by
connecting a 110 - F capacitor in parallel with the load. What is the rms load current?


233

Objective Test No. 7
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION OR IMPROVEMENT

1. A power factor of 1 indicates that the circuit phase angle is
a. 90
b. 45
c. 180
d. 0
2. Energy sources are normally rated in
a. watts
b. volt-amperes
c. volt-amperes reactive

3. The magnitude of the power factor of an RC circuit with R = 10 O, X
C
= 10 O and 12 A
effective is
a. 1
b. 0.5
c. 0.707
d. 0
4. The current in a series inductive circuit is 7.5 A at 25 Hz. The circuit takes 425 W, and the
power factor is 0.47. The resistance of the circuit is
a. 7.32 O
b. 7.56 O
c. 7.86 O
d. 7.98 Og
5. A circuit with a resistor and capacitor in series takes 200 W at a power factor of 0.40 from
200-V 50-Hz supply. The capacitance of the circuit is
a. 32 F
b. 43.4 F
c. 66.4 F
d. 80 F
6. In a pure reactive circuit, the power factor is
a. lagging
b. zero
c. leading
d. unity
7. Power factor is defined as the ration of
a. volt-amperes to watts
b. watts to volt-amperes
c. volt-ampere reactive to watts
234

d. watts to volt-ampere reactive
8. In a series circuit consisting of resistance and reactance, power factor is defined as the ratio of
a. resistance to impedance
b. resistance to reactance
c. reactance to impedance

9. For a parallel circuit consisting of resistance and reactance the value of power factor is the
ratio of
a. impedance to reactance
b. reactance to impedance
c. resistance to impedance
d. impedance to resistance
10. It is not easy to find the value of impedance in parallel circuit but power factor can be easily
obtained as the ratio of
a. active current to line current
b. reactive current to line current
c. line current to active current
11. The power factor of ac circuit containing both a resistor and a capacitor is
a. more than unity
b. leading by 90 degrees
c. leading power factor
12. In an ac circuit, a low value of reactive volt-ampere compared and with watts indicates
a. high power factor
b. unity power factor
c. leading power factor

13. In a given ac circuit when power factor is unity the reactive power is
a. maximum
b. equal to I
2
R
c. zero
14. The capacitor for power factor correction are rated in terms of
a. voltage
b. VA
c. kW
d. kVAR



235

Unit 9
RESONANCE




























1. define resonance.
2. discuss the characteristics of a series resonance.
3. discuss the characteristics of a parallel resonance.
4. find the frequency for resonance.
5. solve the parameters of a circuit for resonance.


LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson,
you are expected to:

236

9.1 Resonant Effect
Inductive reactance increases as the frequency is increased, but capacitive reactance decreases
with higher frequencies. Because of these opposite characteristics, for any LC combination there
must be a frequency at which the X
L
equals the X
C
, as one increases while the other decreases. This
case of equal and opposite reactances is called resonance, and the ac circuit is then a resonant
circuit.
Any LC circuit can be resonant. It all depends on the frequency. At the resonant frequency,
an LC combination provides the resonance effect. Off the resonant frequency, either below or
above, the LC combination is just another ac circuit.
The frequency at which the opposite reactances are equal is the resonant frequency. This
frequency can be calculated as f
r
= 1/(2t\LC) where L is the inductance in henrys, C is the
capacitance in farads, and f
r
is the resonant frequency in hertz that makes X
L
= X
C
.
In general, we can say that large values of L and C provide a relatively low resonant
frequency. Smaller values of L and C allow higher values for f
r
. The resonance effect is most useful
for radio frequencies, where the required values of microhenrys for L and picofarads for C are easily
obtained.
The most common applications of resonance in RF circuits is called tuning. In this use, the LC
circuit provides maximum voltage output at the resonant frequency, compared with the amount of
output at any other frequency either below or above resonance. This idea is illustrated in Figure 9-
1, where the LC circuit resonant at 1000 kHz magnifies the effect of this particular frequency. The
result is maximum output at 1000 kHz, compared with lower or higher frequencies.







(a) (b)
Figure 9-1. Applications of resonance. (a) LC circuit resonant at f
r
of 1000 kHz to provide
maximum output at this frequency. (b) Wavemeter as an example of tuning an LC circuit for
resonance at different frequencies.



Resonant
LC circuit

f
r
= . 1 .
2t\LC
= 1000 kHz
237

For the wavemeter in Figure 9-1(b), note that the capacitance C can be varies to provide resonance
at different frequencies. The wavemeter can be tuned to any one frequency in any range
depending on the LC combination.
Tuning in radio and television are applications of resonance. When you tune a radio to one
station, the LC circuits are tuned to resonance for that particular carrier frequency. Also, when you
tune a television receiver to a particular channel, the LC circuits are tuned to resonance for that
station. There are almost unlimited uses for resonance in ac circuits.
From Wikipedia
Resonance of a circuit involving capacitors and inductors occurs because the collapsing magnetic
field of the inductor generates an electric current in its windings that charges the capacitor, and then
the discharging capacitor provides an electric current that builds the magnetic field in the inductor.
This process is repeated continually. An analogy is a mechanical pendulum.
At resonance, the series impedance of the two elements is at a minimum and the parallel impedance
is at maximum. Resonance is used for tuning and filtering, because it occurs at a particular frequency
for given values of inductance and capacitance. It can be detrimental to the operation of
communications circuits by causing unwanted sustained and transient oscillations that may cause
noise, signal distortion, and damage to circuit elements.
Parallel resonance or near-to-resonance circuits can be used to prevent the waste of electrical
energy, which would otherwise occur while the inductor built its field or the capacitor charged and
discharged. As an example, asynchronous motors waste inductive current while synchronous ones
waste capacitive current. The use of the two types in parallel makes the inductor feed the capacitor,
and vice versa, maintaining the same resonant current in the circuit, and converting all the current
into useful work.
Since the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance are of equal magnitude, L = 1/C, so:

where = 2f, in which f is the resonance frequency in hertz, L is the inductance in henries, and C is
the capacitance in farads when standard SI units are used.
The quality of the resonance (how long it will ring when excited) is determined by its Q factor, which
is a function of resistance. A true LC circuit would have infinite Q, but all real circuits have some
resistance and smaller Q and are usually approximated more accurately by an RLC circuit.




238

9.2 Series Resonance








(a)





(b)

(

b)

Figure 9-2. Series Resonance. (a) Schematic diagram of series RLC, (b) Graph to show reactances
X
C
and X
L
are equal and opposite at the resonant frequency f
r
.






X
L
, O X
L
= 2tfL
X
L
= X
C
at f
r

f
r
frequency

X
C
= 1/(2tfC)

X
C
, O

C = 106 pF
XC = 1500 ohms
L = 239 H
XL = 1500 ohms
300 V
10 O
239



















Figure 9-3. Graphs showing maximum current at resonance for the series circuit
shown in Figure 9-2. (a) Amplitudes of individual cycles. (b) response curve to show
amount of I below and above resonance. Values of I are in Table 9-1.







I, A 30 Current maximum at f
r





20




10




600 800 1000 1200 1400
Frequency, kHz
Highest current
value at f
r







Small current values Small current values
below f
r
above f
r


(a)
(b)
240

.
Table 9-1
Series-Resonance calculations for the Circuit in Figure 9-2.

f
kHz
X
L
=
2tfL
X
C
=
1/(2tfL)
Net Reactance, O Z, O I =
V
T
/Z
A

V
L
=
IX
L
V
V
C
=
IX
C
V
X
C
- X
L
X
L
X
C

600 900 2500 1600 1600 0.19 171 475
800 1200 1875 675 675 0.44 528 825
1000 1500 1500 0 0 10 30 45,000 45,000
1200 1800 1250 550 550 0.55 990 688
1400 2100 1070 1030 1030 0.29 609 310

9.3 Characteristics of a Series Resonance:
a. The inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance of the circuit are equal.
b. Therefore, the impedance is minimum and is equal to the resistance of the circuit.
c. Hence, the current in the circuit is maximum and is equal to E/R.
d. The current through the circuit is in phase with the applied voltage.

This condition is known as resonance. The series RLC circuit if Figure 9-2(a) is called a
resonant circuit, and the frequency at which resonance occurs is called the resonant frequency of
the circuit.

The letter symbol for resonant frequency is f
r
.

Since at resonance X
L
= X
C
, then 2tfL = 1/2tfC, for which

=
1
2tLC

where f
r
is in hertz, L is in henrys, and C is in farads.
241

9.4 Q-factor of a Series Circuit
In the case of an RLC circuit it is defined as equal to the voltage magnification in the circuit at
resonance.
=
1

where R = resistance; L = inductance; C = capacitance
In the case of series resonance, the higher quality factor, i.e., Q factor means not only higher
voltage magnification but also higher selectivity of the tuning coil.

Example 9.1 A coil in a tined circuit in a radio receiver has an inductance of 300 H and a
resistance of 15 O. What value of capacitance must be connected in series with the coil for the
circuit to be series resonant at 840 kHz?
Solution:

= 2t = 2t (840 ) (300 ) = 1583 O

At resonance,

= 1583 O
C =
1
2t x (840 kHz ) x (1583 O)
= 120

9.5 Parallel Resonance







At 65 I
L
= I
C
and I
T
= I
R
. This condition is called parallel resonance. Other characteristics of parallel
resonance are:
1. The admittance of the circuit is minimum and is equal to the conductance of the circuit.
2. The current drawn is minimum.
E
120 Vrms
65 Hz
0
R
100
L
200mH
C
30F
242

3. The phase angle between the current and voltage is zero, the power factor is unity.
4. The resonant frequency is given by

=
1
2tLC
if the resistance in the inductance and
capacitance branches is negligible.


9.6 Half-Power Frequencies
The half-power frequencies are those frequencies at which the power dissipation in the circuit is half
of the power dissipation at resonant frequency f
r
. They are the corresponding frequencies f
1
and f
2
at
the value of current =

2
; where I
o
is the current at resonance in RLC series circuit.












Hence power P
o
drawn by the circuit at resonance is

0
=
0
2

Power in the circuit at f
1
=

2
=
1
2

2
(=half the power at resonance)
Power in the circuit at f
2
=

2
=
1
2

2
(=half the power at resonance)

9.7 Bandwidth and Selectivity
frequency
I
0

current

0.707 I0




f
1
f
r
f
2
10




600 800 1000 1200 1400
Frequency, kHz
243

The difference (f
2
f
1
) is called the bandwidth of the resonant network. The ratio of the bandwidth to
the resonant frequency is defined as the selectivity of the circuit.
When frequency is varied in RLC circuit, the selectivity becomes

2

1

=
1

0

Example 9.2 A parallel resonant circuit having L = 100 H and C = 10 pF. If Q of the circuit is 50,
what is the bandwidth of the resonant circuit?
Solution:

=
1
2tLC


=
1
2t100 x 10
6
10 x 10
12


= 503 kHz
















244

Problem Set No. 20
RESONANCE

1. A series circuit with a 12-ohm resistor and a 32-ohm inductive reactance is connected across 240-
volt 60-Hz mains. Determine (a) capacitive reactance that will make circuit resonant; (b)
current; (c) circuit power; (d) value of capacitance and inductance.

2. Prob. 1 determine for resonance (a) value of capacitance C with resistance R, inductance L, and
frequency as given; (b) value of inductance L with C and f as given; (c) value of f with L and C as
given; (d) voltage across inductor and capacitor in (a) , (b) , (c); (e) current and power in (a), (b),
(c).

3. In a series circuit the resistance is 1,000 ohms and the inductance 0.008 henry and the
capacitance is adjustable. Determine (a) value of capacitance to give resonance at 1,000 Hz; (b)
current if emf is 40 volts; (c) voltage across inductance and across capacitance; (d) power.


























245

Objective Test No. 8
RESONANCE

1. There will ________ be a frequency called the ______ frequency, at which _______.
a. sometimes, natural, X
L
= X
C

b. always, natural, R = 0
c. always, resonate, X
L
= X
C

d. sometimes, resonant, R = 0

2. For the series RLC circuit at resonance the current amplitude is _____ for a fixed voltage
amplitude and power factor.
a. minimum, zero
b. minimum, unity
c. maximum, zero
d. maximum, unity

3. In an RLC circuit, the current at resonance is
a. maximum
b. minimum
c. infinity
d. zero

4. In RLC circuits, the current at resonance is
a. minimum in parallel circuit and minimum in series circuit.
b. maximum in parallel circuit and minimum in series circuit.
c. maximum in either parallel or series circuit.
d. minimum in either parallel or series circuit.

5. A series resonance is capacitive at f = 100 Hz. The circuit will be inductive somewhere at
a. f < 100 Hz
b. f > 100 Hz
c. f = 100 Hz by increasing the value of the resistance
d. none of these
6. At frequency less than the resonant frequency
a. series circuit is capacitive and parallel circuit is inductive
b. series circuit is inductive and parallel circuit is capacitive
c. both circuits are inductive
d. both circuits are capacitive.

7. The value of current at resonance in a series RLC circuit affected by the value of
246

a. R
b. C
c. L
d. all of these
8. In resonant circuit, the power factor at resonance is
a. zero
b. 1
c. 0.5
d. 0.707
9. Which of the following statement is true for a series RLC circuit tuned at resonant frequency
a. the voltage across C > applied
b. the voltage across L > applied voltage
c. the voltage across L and C > applied voltage
d. the voltage across both L and C < applied voltage

10. The power factor at resonance in RLC parallel circuit is
a. zero
b. 0.08 lagging
c. 0.8 lagging
d. unity

11. The quality factor of RLC circuit will increase if
a. R increases
b. R decreases
c. impedance increases
d. voltage increases

12. Higher the Q of a series circuit,
a. broader it resonance curve
b. b. narrower its pass band
c. greater its bandwidth
d. sharper its resonance

13. Selectivities of different resonant circuits are compared in terms of their
a. impedances
b. reactances
c. frequencies
d. bandwidths






247

References
Electrical Power Systems Technology. Stephen W. Fardo, Dale R. Patrick
Electrical Engineering, Chester Dawes
Electric Circuits, Charles Siskind
Understanding AC Circuits, Dale R. Patrick
Electric Circuit Fundamentals, Thomas L. Floyd
1001 Solved Problems in Electrical Engineering, Romeo Rojas
Textbook-Reviewer in Electrical Engineering, Marcialito M. Valenzona
Electricity: Principles and Application, Richard J. Fowier