If motor-driven vapor compression chillers are much more energy efficient than absorption chillers,

then why are we even having this conversation? In a hunt for LEED® points or in applications with
certain demands, absorption could be just the ticket to sustainability and/or economy.
BY VINCENT A. SAKRAIDA, P.E., LEED® AP

D
oes the idea of using steam, hot water, or direct-fired
burners to generate chilled water sound like an oxymo-
ron? Well, absorption chillers use these thermal energy
sources to produce chilled water. Beyond the type of
thermal energy source, absorption chillers are also clas-
sified by whether they are single- or double-effect. The goal of this article
is to provide the reader with a basic description of absorption chillers
and their advantages, specific applications, performance standards, and
energy efficiency, plus how they can be used to gain LEED® certification
points.
WATER AS A REFRIGERANT
How about using water as a refrigerant and lithium bromide as
a salt to absorb the water? These are certainly not easily understood
concepts. However, water has a very high specific heat and latent heat
of vaporization, which makes it a great refrigerant.
How is water boiling at 212°F going to create chilled water at 44°?
First, the boiling temperature of water is a direct function of pres-
sure and at a pressure of 1 atmosphere (29.92 Hg), water boils at
212°. When the pressure on the water is decreased, the water boiling
temperature is lowered. The following table gives the total pressure in
inches of mercury and the corresponding approximate water boiling
temperature at different pressures:
Absolute pressure Water boiling point (°F)
29.92 Hg (1 atm) 212°
2.99 Hg (0.1 atm) 115°
1.01 Hg 80°
0.30 Hg (0.01 atm) 45°
0.23 Hg 38°
Absorption chillers have substantially reduced internal pressures
to take advantage of the lower water boiling temperatures. Absorp-
tion chiller internal pressures can range from 0.1 atmosphere (atm)
to below 0.01 atm.
ABSORPTION CHILLER DESCRIPTION
There are a number of absorption chillers available, including single-
effect indirect-fired (steam, hot water); double-effect indirect-fired;
and double-effect direct-fired (gas and/or oil burner). Single-effect
absorption chillers have a single generator/concentrator and con-
dense all vaporized refrigerant in a single condenser. Double-effect
absorption chillers have two generator/concentrators and the vapor-
ized refrigerant from the high temperature generator/concentrator is
the thermal source for the low temperature generator/concentrator,
reducing the cooling requirement for the vaporized refrigerant.
Single-effect indirect-fired chillers are typically available in capaci-
ties between 100 and 1,350 tons with one manufacturer providing
a unit up to 2,000 tons. Double-effect indirect-fired chillers are
typically available in capacities between 100 and 1,500 tons, although
one manufacturer provides a unit up to 5,000 tons. Double-effect
direct-fired chillers are typically provided in capacities between 100
and 1,500 tons.
A description of the various single-effect, indirect-fired absorp-
tion chiller components is provided below followed by a description
of the double-effect absorption chiller component that is different
than the single-effect absorption chiller.
Single-effect absorption chiller. The single-effect indirect-fired
absorption chiller has five main steps (Figure 1): condensing (con-
denser), expansion (expansion pipe), evaporation (evaporator),
absorption (absorber), and generator/concentrator. See Figure A for
schematic chiller diagram and Diagram 1 for the Duhring pressure/
temperature diagram. Like the vapor compression chillers, absorp-
tion chillers have a high-pressure side (generator/concentrator, con-

36 En g i neer ed Sy stem s March 2009

 Basics For Absorption Chillers
0.1 ATM
5
1 Cooling water out
Steam
Condensor
Evaporator
3
0.01 ATM
Solution
Heat Absorber
Exchanger
6
Absorber
spray pump
Cooling water in
Generator pump
FIGURE 1. Single-effect absorption refrigeration cycle.
denser) and low-pressure side (expansion
pipe, evaporator, absorber). The following
component descriptions will include some
available options and standard operating
parameters:
• Condenser. In the condenser, the cooling
water absorbs the heat of condensation
from the vaporized refrigerant, changing
the refrigerant into a liquid.
• Expansion. The liquid refrigerant (water)
travels from the condenser (0.1 atm)
through expansion piping to the evapo-
rator (less than 0.01 atm) during which
the liquid refrigerant experiences a drop
in pressure and temperature. The liquid
refrigerant is discharged into a pan within
the evaporator.
• Evaporator. The liquid refrigerant (water)
is pumped to the chilled water tube bun-
dle top and sprayed on the tube bundle.
At the low evaporator pressure (less than
0.01 atm), the liquid refrigerant vapor-
izes at approximately 38°, removing energy
from the chilled water. Most lithium bro-
mide absorption chillers can only produce
chilled-water supply temperatures down to
Chilled
water out
Chilled
water in
2
Evap.
spray
4 pump
Purge pump
40°. Liquid refrigerant that is not vaporized
drops down to the pan and is recirculated.
Liquid refrigerant that is vaporized travels
from the evaporator to the absorber.
• Absorber. The vaporized refrigerant enters
a liquid lithium-bromide solution spray
within the absorber. The lithium bromide
solution absorbs the vaporized refrigerant
and the cooling water absorbs the heat of
vapor absorption. After the absorption,
the liquid lithium-bromide solution takes
one of two paths. One path has the liquid
bromide solution mixing with a concen-
trated lithium bromide solution and being
pumped to the absorber spray nozzles. The
other path has the liquid bromide solution
being heated and pumped to the generator/
concentrator.
• Generator/concentrator. The lithium-
bromide solution enters the generator/
concentrator and is heated by steam or
hot water, raising the lithium bromide
solution to a temperature where the liquid
refrigerant (water) vaporizes and travels to
the condenser, completing the refrigerant
cycle. The concentrated lithium bromide
solution flows down to the absorber, com-
w w w. esmag a zin e. c o m 37
Basics For Absorption Chillers
Steam fired
Generator
8 Steam
Steam
High temp.
Generator
Pump
6 0.01 ATM
7 Chilled
High
temp.
Hx
Comp.
Hx
FIGURE 2. Double-effect absorption refrigeration cycle.
pleting the absorber cycle.
• Double-effect absorption chiller. The
double-effect chiller condensing (condens-
er), expansion (expansion pipe), evapora-
tion (evaporator), and absorption (absorb-
er) steps are the same as the single-effect
chiller. The double-effect chiller has an
additional generator/concentrator step that
improves the overall efficiency of the chiller
(Figure 2). The following is a description
of the double-effect chiller generator/con-
centration:
• Generator/concentrator. The lithium-bro-
mide solution enters the low-temperature
generator/concentrator and is heated by the
high temperature generator/concentrator
vaporized refrigerant, raising the lithium-
bromide solution to a temperature where
the liquid refrigerant vaporizes and travels
to the condenser. The high-temperature
vaporized refrigerant discharges into the
condenser.
The concentrated lithium bromide solu-
tion takes one of two paths. One path has the
lithium-bromide solution flowing down to
the absorber, being mixed with higher con-
centrated lithium-bromide solution com-
ing from the high temperature generator/
concentrator, heated, and discharged into
absorber. The other path has the lithium-
bromide solution being heated and pumped
to the high temperature generator/concen-
trator where steam, hot water, or direct-
0.1 ATM
5
1 Cooling water out
Condensor
Chilled
water out
Evaporator
3
water in
2
Low Absorber
temp. Evap.
spray
Hx 4 pump
Absorber Purge pump
spray pump
Cooling water in
Generator pump
fired heating is applied to raise the lithium
bromide solution to a temperature where
the liquid refrigerant vaporizes and travels
to the condenser. The highly concentrated
lithium bromide solution is mixed with the
concentrated lithium bromide going to the
absorber.
CHILLER PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
The primary absorption chiller performance
standard is ARI Standard 560 (2000 Standard
for Absorption Water Chilling and Water
Heating Packages). ARI Standard 560 applies
to water cooled single-effect steam chillers,
water cooled single-effect hot water chillers,
water cooled double-effect steam chillers,
water cooled double-effect hot water chillers,
and water cooled double-effect direct-fired
chillers. This standard provides testing stan-
dard conditions, rating requirements, mini-
mum data requirements for published rat-
ings, and integrated part load value (IPLV)
or non-standard part load value (NPLV).
For performing the IPLV testing, ARI
Standard 560 has established standard con-
ditions for absorption chillers including:
• Entering condenser water temperature: 85°
• Condenser water flow rate: 3.6 gpm/ton
(single-effect indirect fired)
• 4.0 gpm/ton (double-effect indirect fired,
double-effect direct-fired)
• Condenser water-side fouling factor: 0.00025
• Evaporator leaving water temperature: 44°
• Evaporator water flow rate: 2.4 gpm/ton
w w w. esmag a zin e. c o m 39
 Basics For Absorption Chillers

1 Condensor
0.10

0.09

0.08

2 Expansion
0.07

5 Generator
0.06 concentrator 6 Solution heat exchanger
Pressure (ATM)

0.05

0.04

0.03

4 Absorber
0.02

3 Evaporator
0.01

0
0 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 ˚F

Diagram 1. Single-effect Duhring diagram.

• Evaporator waterside fouling factor: 0.0001

• Tube-side fouling factor (steam): 0.000 (indirect fired)
• Tube-side fouling factor (hot water): 0.0001 (indirect fired)

It is very important to understand that chillers rarely operate at their maximum capacity. ARI
used typical building types and operations in 29 different cities to develop a chiller loading profile
during a typical year. The resulting chiller loading profile is at 100% capacity about 1% of the
time, 75% capacity about 42% of the time, 50% capacity about 45% of the time, and 25% capac-
ity about 12% of the time. These values are incorporated into the IPLV equations, which are:

IPLV = 0.01A + 0.42B + 0.45C + 0.12D

(coefficient of performance [COP]) where:

A = COP at 100% capacity (condenser water at 85° )

B = COP at 75% capacity (condenser water at 77.5° )
C = COP at 50% capacity (condenser water at 70°)
D = COP at 25% capacity (condenser water at 70°)

IPLV = 1 (MBtuh/ton) where:

(0.01/A) + (0.42/B) + (0.45/C) + (0.12/D)

A = MBtuh/ton at 100% capacity (condenser water at 85° )

B = MBtuh/ton at 75% capacity (condenser water at 77.5°)
C = MBtuh/ton at 50% capacity (condenser water at 70°)
D = MBtuh/ton at 25% capacity (condenser water at 70°)
When evaluating different chiller energy usage, the IPLV provides the most accurate aver-
age chiller energy usage. When the known parameters are different than prescribed above, the

w w w. esmag a zine . c o m 41
 Basics For Absorption Chillers

Single-effect indirect fired 1,000 ton single-effect indirect fired

Double-effect indirect fired 1,100 ton double-effect indirect fired
Double-effect direct fired 1,250

1.5 1,200
1.4
1.3 1,150

1.2
1,100

Chiller capacity (tons)

1.1
1,050
1.0
0.9 1,000
COP

0.8
950
0.7
0.6 900
0.5
850
0.4
0.3 800
0.2
0.1
0.0 0
0 25 50 75 100 Chiller % 0 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 CW Temp (F)
Loading
GRAPH 1. Chiller part-load energy usage. GRAPH 2. Chiller capacity vs. condenser entering water temperature.

42 En gi neer ed S y stem s March 2009

Basics For Absorption Chillers

part-load performance becomes NPLV which has the same equation

as the IPLV. Ultimately, the chiller’s energy usage is primarily based
upon the “lift” or temperature difference between the chilled water
leaving temperature and condenser water leaving temperature.
Lowering the condenser water leaving temperature or raising the
chilled water leaving temperature will reduce lift and energy usage
of chiller, but not necessarily chilled water system. Raising the con-
denser water leaving temperature or lowering the chilled water leav-
ing temperature will increase lift and energy usage of chiller.

CHILLER OPERATING PERFORMANCE

As with motor-driven vapor compression chillers, absorption chill-
ers do not operate at the standard operating conditions noted above.
Though there are many variables that can be evaluated; for this
article, absorption chiller COP vs. part -load percentage and chilled
water leaving temperature vs. chiller capacity shall be evaluated.
Note that the graphs are illustrative only. It is important that you
use the particular chiller performance data for the equipment you
are evaluating.
Effect of part-load operation on chiller efficiency. Looking at
Graph 1, all three types of absorption chillers are most efficient at
50% part load with the single-effect indirect-fired chiller having
a 9.4% increase in efficiency; the double-effect direct-fired chiller
having a 10% increase in efficiency; and the double-effect indirect-
fired chiller having a 16.7% increase in efficiency. At part loads
below 50%, the chiller efficiencies are lower as the chiller part load
is lower.
Effect of chilled water leaving temperature. The standard
chilled water leaving temperature is 44°. Looking at Graph 2, chiller
capacity increases as the chilled water leaving temperature increases.
At a chilled water leaving temperature of 48°, the chiller capacity
increased 8% for single-effect absorption chiller and increased 9.5%
for double-effect absorption chiller as compared to chilled water
leaving temperature of 44°.
Conversely, the chiller capacity decreases as the chilled water
leaving temperature decreases. At a chilled water leaving tempera-
ture of 40°, the chiller capacity decreased 14.5% for single-effect
chiller and decreased 11.4% for double-effect absorption chiller as
compared to chilled water leaving temperature of 44°.

ABORPTION CHILLERS AND LEED®

The USGBC LEED for New Construction, Version 2.2, has a man-
datory prerequisite to reduce ozone depletion by utilizing no CFC
refrigerants in new construction and phasing out CFC refrigerants
during renovation of existing facilities. Since the two frequently used
absorption chiller refrigerants are ammonia and water, absorption
chillers meet the Energy & Atmosphere Prerequisite 3, Fundamental
Refrigerant Management, requirement of no CFC refrigerants.
The USGBC also provides the opportunity for obtaining a credit
for Enhanced Refrigerant Management. Understanding some lower
ozone-depleting refrigerants are also less efficient, the Energy &
Atmosphere Credit 4, Enhanced Refrigerant Management has devel-
oped a formula that weighs a refrigerant’s ozone depletion and global
warming potentials. If the project’s total installed refrigerant has an
average atmospheric impact less than a 100, it is eligible for the credit
(See USGBC for further information on formula).
The credit also recognizes “natural refrigerants” like water, carbon
dioxide, ammonia, and propane as having a lower atmospheric dam-

w w w. esmag a zin e. c o m 45
Basics For Absorption Chillers
age potential and will allow projects exclusively using natural refrig-
erants to claim the credit without using the Enhanced Refrigerant
Management formula. Absorption chillers can be a key component in
meeting the USGBC strategy of reducing atmospheric damage.
ABSORPTION CHILLER ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Absorption chiller energy efficiency is based upon fuel consump-
tion per ton cooling while motor driven vapor compression chiller
energy efficiency is based upon kW/ton cooling. The COP is a method
for determining overall chiller energy performance.
For absorption chillers, the COP formula is:
COP = Eu / Ea
where: Eu = useful energy obtained (Btuh)
Ea = energy used (Btuh)
For motor-driven chillers, the COP formula is:
COP = 12
KW/ton x 3.412
Per manufacturer supplied information, the coefficient of performance
range for the different absorption chiller types are as follows:
46 En gi neer ed S y stem s March 2009
Absorption chiller type COP range
Hot water or steam
single-effect chiller . . . . . . . 0.60 to 0.75
Hot water or steam
double-effect chiller . . . . . . 1.19 to 1.35
Direct fired double-effect
chiller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.07 to 1.18
Looking at the COP ranges, the single-effect chiller is the least
energy-efficient absorption chiller type with the hot water, steam,
and direct-fired, double-effect absorption chillers being almost
twice as energy efficient. The hot water and steam double-effect
absorption chillers are the most energy efficient absorption chill-
ers, but how do they compare to motor driven vapor compression
chillers?
The two motor-driven vapor compression chillers being utilized
for energy efficiency comparison are the water cooled rotary screw
chiller and the water cooled centrifugal chiller. Per manufacturer
supplied information, the water cooled rotary screw chiller has a
COP range of 3.90 to 5.40 while the water cooled centrifugal chiller
has a COP range of 7.00 to 8.79. The result is that motor driven
vapor compression chillers are 4 to 7 times more energy efficient
than absorption chillers. This leads to a question: Why would you
want to use an absorption chiller?
 Basics For Absorption Chillers

ADVANTAGES OF USING ABSORPTION CHILLERS

In an energy-efficiency competition, motor-driven vapor compres-
sion chillers will beat absorption chillers every time. However, there
are specific applications where absorption chillers have a substantial
advantage over motor-driven vapor compression chillers. Some of
those applications include:

• For a facility that has a cogeneration power plant or other thermal

energy generating process with excess thermal energy, absorption
chillers can utilize this excess thermal energy to produce chilled water
instead of all the excess thermal energy being wasted.
• For a facility that has inadequate electrical infrastructure or bringing
electrical infrastructure to the facility is cost prohibitive, absorption
chillers have a substantially lower electrical power requirement than
motor driven vapor compression chillers.
• For a facility with high electrical power cost and low fuel cost,
absorption chillers may have a lower operating cost than motor
driven vapor compression chillers.
• For a facility that requires substantial system reliability, the lower
electrical requirements for absorption chillers will reduce emergency
generator load requirements.
• For a facility that has high electrical demand charges, absorption
chillers can be used as part of a peak shaving strategy.
• For a facility that has very low acoustical and/or vibration require-
ments, absorption chillers have lower noise and vibration generation
than motor driven vapor compression chillers.
• For a facility wanting to use a “natural refrigerant,” absorption chill-
ers are a good choice.

SUMMARY
The future for absorption chillers is bright. With power utilities
increasing electrical demand charges during peak hours as a strategy
to delay building new power generating stations, absorption chillers
can be the corner stone for an electrical demand limit strategy. With
absorption chillers using “natural refrigerants,” they will become
more attractive as more restrictions are placed on HCFC and other
refrigerants. With the improved lithium bromide solution concentra-
tion control, absorption chillers are more reliable. ES

Sakraida is a senior project manager with

Jacobs Consultancy in their Denver office. He
is a graduate of Georgia Institute of Technology
with a BME and has 25 years of experience
designing mechanical systems for laborato-
ries, pharmaceutical production, industrial, and
other high-technology facilities. He has exten-
sive experience designing central plant systems
(steam, chilled water, hot water) lab utilities (RO,
DI, compressed air, N2), and HVAC systems. Reach him at Vincent.
Sakraida@jacobs.com.

48 En gi neer ed S y stem s March 2009