1

DIMENSIONS AND VECTOR ANALYSIS

1.1 DfTRODUCTIOR
All we are aware that the basic purpoee of all sciences is to understand the natural phenomena that occur around us. Amongst all the branches of IlCience, physics is one of the most fundamental. It is the foundation on which the other physical sciences such as chemistry, geology, geophysics, astronomy etc. are based. Physics also plays a very impurtant role in the deve10pment ofbkllogical sciences.
In p~cs we perf'drm experiments, make measurements and then propose theories which predict the results of measurements. In this lesson you will first learn about the units of measurements. Every unit of measurement can be expressed in terms of the basic units. This wi11lead us to the concept of dimensions and their applications in other areas of physics.

We will a1IIo catagorise the physical quantities in two groups namely (i) sealanIlind (nl vectors depending upon their nature. Finally, we will learn the simple mathematical operations associated with scalars and vectors. You will find application of vectors in difl'erent fields of physics which you will learn in other leUons during your COW'IIeof study.

After studyjDa this lesson, you should be able to,

diStinguiah between theJUndl.unental and derived quantities and thfJir S1

unitIt;.
write tI!e dirrumaions 0/ di,fffJl'81l1 physical quantitiea; apply the dirrumaional equations; tli/ffri'htUJte between scaler and !leCtor quantities with eJCl1mplea; find thIJ resultant o/two vectors, andresolve a vector into its components;

and compute the produd o/two vectors.

Physics

1.3

UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS

The laws of physics are defined in terms of physical quantities like distance speed, time force, area, volume etc. These quantities in tum are defined in terms of more basic qurntities like mass, length and time and some others which we will study later. If a person measures the quantity of milk, she should express the volume of milk in some accepted units of volume. Like-wise if an engineer measures the length of a road connecting two cities, he should express the di.tance in an accepted unit of length. Such a procedure makes the life more comfortable. When we travel we have an estimate of distance and time" which helps us proper planning of the journey. If there were no units accepted by all, the life would be miserable. Such units are much more essential in scientific measurements to facilitate communication of information at internationallevel.

1.3.1 The SII Units

Keeping this point of view in mind, there have been attempts over centuries in SC'Jeral developed civilizations to. suggest standard units of measurements at regional or national level. Without !.~':"'lg into the long histoty of the various stages of development in the system of units of measurements, we come to the year 1967 when the XIII General Conference on Weights and Measures, rationalised the MKSA (Metre, Kilogram, Second, Ampere) system of units and adopted a system based on six basic units. It was called the 'System International units' known as SI system of units in all languages. In 1"971 the General Conference added another b~c unit 'mole' for the amount of sub"tance to the Sl The present SI system of units bas _ n base or fundamental Units. These are listed in Table 1.1: Table 1.1: Ba.. Units of the SI Syiltem
Quantity

rJRft
Metre Kilogram Second Amp.ere Kelvin Candela Mole

Symbol

Length
Mass

Time Electric Current Temperature Lumino1.1.s Intensity Amount of Substance

m kg s A K Cd mol

The yard. and mile as units of length are still in use in USA. These are given in Table 1.2. Table 1.2: Units of leli.gth.till in use in claiIy life (USA). 1 mile 1 furlong 1 yard 1 foot 1 yard 1 inch 1 mile

= =
m

= =

=
*

8 furlongs 220 yards 3 feet 12 inch 0.9144 meter (exactly) 2.54 em (exactly)
1.61km

Dimensions and \Lector Analysis The guiding principle in choosing a unit of measurement is to relate it to ~on man's life as far as possible. As an elllllD.ple, take th.\lnit of mass as lei,.", am or the unit of length as metre. In ou!" day to day business we buy food articles in kg or tens of kg. We buy cloth in metres or tens of metres. If gram had been chosen as the unit of mass:or millimeter as unit of length, we would be unnecessarily using big numbers in our daily life. It is for this Fe8SOn that the basic units of measurements are very closely related to our daily life. The SI system is basically a metric system. The smaller and larger units of the basic units are multiples of ten only. They follow strictly the decimal system. These multiples or submultiples are given special names. Theile are listed in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Prefbre. lor Po_n ofTen

Po_oJ PreJfx.
ten

AbbntPfatfon

bample

BJImboI
a f p n
1.1

10-'

100's 10-" 10-"

lQ-6

10""" 10-' 10-' 10' 10' U)3

10"
10" 10'" 10's 10'

atto femto pica nano micro milli centi deci deca hecto kilo mega giga tera peta

m c d da h
k M

G T P
E

femto metre picofarad nanometre micron milligram centimetre decimetre decagram hectometre kilogram megawatt giga hertz tera hertz

fin

pF nm
!.1M

mg
em

dm dag hm kg
MW

GHz THz

em

1.3.2 Standard. of , Length and Time

Once we have chosen the fundamental units ofthe SI, we must decide on the set of sta ndards forthe fundamental quantities.
(I) . . . . : The SI unit of mass is ktlogrtUrL It is the mass of a particular cylinder made of Platinum - Iridium alloy, kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France.

This standard was established in 1887 and there has been no change because this is unusually stable alloy. Prototype kilograms have been made of this alloy and distributed to member states. The national prototype of India is the Kilogram no f,7. This is preselVed at the National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi.

Physics

(U, Lellath: The metric system was established in France in 1792. The metre (also written as meter) was defined to be 1/107 times the distance from the Equator to the North Pole through Paris. This standard Ws abandoned for practical reasons. In 1872 an International Commission was eet up in Paris to decide on more suitable metre standard. In 1875 the new metre was defined. It was defmed as the distance between two lines on a Platinum-Iridium Bar stored under controlled condition. Such standards had to be kept under severe controlled conditions. Even then their safety against natural dis~ters is not gauranteed, and their accuracy is also limited for the present requirements of science and technology. In 1983 the metre was redefmed as follows;
One metre is the distance travelled by light in vacuum in a time interval of 1/299792458 second. This definition establishes that the speed of light in vacuum is 299792458 metres per second. Following this definition a new prototype of one metre can always be prepared even if all the existing standards are destroyed in a natural disaster. This is the greatest advantage of this definition.
(iii' Time: The time interval second was originally defined in tern1s of the time of rotation of earth about its own axis. This time of rotation is divided in 24 parts, each part is called an hour. An hour is divided into 60 lIiinutes -and each minute is subdivided into 60 seconds. Thus one secondis equal to 1 186400 part of the solar day. To be more specific, the mean solar -rut, the basic unit of time, was defined as toX -t;xf,; part of the mean _far.", for the year 1900. This defmitionwas accepted upto 1960. It is known that the rotation of the earth varies substantially with time and tnerefore the length of a day is a variable quantity, may be very slowly varying.

The XIII General Conference on weights and measures in 1967 gave the following defmition of the time interval 'second.

ane second is the time required for Cesium - 133 atom to undergo
9192631770 vibmtions.

This definition has its roots in a device which can be named as atomic clock. The frequency of certain atomic transitions can be measured with an accuracy of 1 part in 101~. Theee frequencies (transitioni are exllem.ely stable and are least affected by the environment,

1.3.3 Derived Units

We have defined the three basic units in mechanics. When these basic units, interact, they give rise to quantities which are melllUred in derived units.. Thus, the units which are obtained by the combination of the fundamental units, are called derftIed WIlD. For example when distance and time interact, they give rise to speed acceleration etc. The speed is measured in metre per second (ml s). Similarly wheI).'length interacts with length. new quantities like area (m2) and volume (m3) etc result. The following tables give some of the derived units commonly used in mechanics and some derived units with special names.
4

Dimensions and Vector An@!ysis Tabl. 1.4: Bzampl of deri...d SI Unite

Quantity
area

BIUnit square meter cubic meter meter per second meter per square se.c kilogram per cubic meter

Symbol

wlume speed or velocity acceleration density

m' m3

m/s m/s" kg/m"

Table 1.5: Bzamplee ofden...d SI Unitnrith Special.ame.

QuanttCJI
force pressure energy, work Power

.MmIe newton
pascal

..

Symbol

Unit Symbol
kg
Nm

joule watt

N Pa J W

mis'

N/m'

Jls

The SI system of units form a coherent set in the sense that the product of any two unit quantities leads directly to the unit" of the resulting quantity. When unit mass (kg) is divided by unit volume (m3) we stra,ight way get the unito(density kg/m3. We should be careful in writing the units of certain quantities in proper order. Let us take the example of work. The unit of work is Newton - meter which has been givena special name Joule. It should be written as Nm and not as mN. If written as mN it would mean 'milli Newton". Now. it is the time to check your progress. Solve the following intext questions and incase you have any problem. check answers given at the end of this lesson.

IRTEXT QUESTIORS 1.1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. 2. 3. '" car ;" moving with a _eel of 80 km/hr. What i. th.. speed in Diatinguillh between the fundamental and the derived unit.

mI.?

The radius of an atom i. 10-'0 m. What will be thiJo value in terms of micro mette?

................................................................... .................................................." .. ..
,
-

4.

Th. total c:owred area of a h"".. ;" 4500 IqUIU8 fe.t. Expnaa thiJo ..... in jUare metres.

1.4

DIMElfSIORS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

It is useful to assign dimension to physical quantities. The three basic dimensions of the three fundamental units. Lerigth. M8.S$ and Time are sym-

bolized respectively as L, M, T. The dimensions of other physical quantities

Physics arc expressed in terms of these symbols. See the following exaJllples.

ilJ speed_
(:l!

distance time'

=; =T =LT

.,

df"nsitv = -----=-, = -

mass kg volume m"

M -.3 = ML L3
m

(3)

force = massx acceleration =kgx,:: MLT-2

The dim~siona1 analysis is a very useful tool in checking the correctness of expr~ssions or equations relating various physical quantities. Let us exaJIline a few cases as examples. Exemple 1.1: The mechanical energy of a particle can be written in two difjtmmt forms as fa) l-'ll mrr and (b) mgh. Are both dimensionally same?
Solution:

la) fbi

>,:, 1m"'" '," M (LIT)' = Y. ML2 'I'"2 mgh = 1M) (LIT') IL) = ML' 'J'"2

We therefore fmd that dimensionally both expressions for energy are equivalent. They differ only by a dimensionless multiplier, (Factor 1/2 in this rase). Example 1.2: Suppose a car starts from rest. The car COuenl a distanoe x in time t while moving with uniform acceleration a. Find an expression.jOr x in terms of t and a. Solation: Suppose the expression for x is of the form,

x ~ an t", (~ . is sign of proportionality) This formula will be correct only if the dimensions on both sides are the same. Left Hand Side (LHS) x= L' - L' MDT" Right Hand Side (RHS) d" t!' - (LIT')" - L"! 'J'"2'" T" - L" '1"'"..... - Lm MO T""""

m"

If the two sides must have the same dimensions then by comparing the dimensions of L, M and T seprately we get

m=l,
Hence
x~

n-2m n- 2 =
n -

0 0

2
IS

at'.
not the proper form of the

We know (may come to know later) that this expression. The correct expression is x y. at'.

The sign of p.opor1ionality is replaced by th, SlgIl of equality with the help of a dimensionless multiplier (1/2 in this case). Example 1.:J: In an experiment with a simple pendulum we come to a,qualitative conclusion thatthe timeperiod Tofthe pendulum depends on the kngth 6

Dimensions and Vector Analysis

of the pendulum l and theiu:iceleration du8 to grallityg. But we do not know the exact dependance. Find the eKQct expression for Tin terms of land 9
SolatioD : Let us assume that
T~

IT' if

Dimensionally L.H.S. - T - LO M' 7'

RHS =

"'fI' .. L"'(L/1")O 0

L - AI' ~

By comparing the powers of L. M and T on both sides m+ nm.--TJ

and -2n-1 n--2 ... m - +Y. and n - -Yo

... Tal".r or

T=2k~

You should bear in mind that the numerical constant (2 It ) cannot be deterI!lined from dimensional analysis.
~pIe

1.4: It is known that.a particle moving in a circuWr orbit has an acceleration which depends on the orbital speed II and radius r 'afthe orbit. Determine the powers of II and r in the expression acceleration a - krI"r' where k as usual is a dimensionless quantity.
LHS RHS

SollltioD:

a- L/1" - LM' T-2 ""r" - (L/7)"'Lo - L-M'T"". Comparing the powers of L M and T OJl'both sides, we get
m+ n-l and m-2

Wegetn--l
II~

a - kIP:--' - k -

Age;" the numerical value of kcannot be obtained from dimensinnalailalvsis. Now, take a pause and do the following questions.

IRTEXT QUESTIORS 1.2_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. A atone ia dropped &om the .........r .. boll buiIdiIIg. The velocity "with which the alOne hila the ground cIepeod. on the 'lei&ht h or the ~ and the """"Ioraticn due '.0 ~ g. Obtain the rior eo.. ...

"*' ................................................. _................................................................ ........ .

-

2.

(X, t+ K,x) lib_ 'y. A and "' ..... in met.... and tin aeCoRd. Obtain the.dim ...siona or K, and K,
The diaplarement oCa m6'riu& perticleia Jlivenby the _ - o n Y- A Sin
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '-_._ . . . . .
~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .u

.................... .

The accel""",tion or a,I"0vmg objeq.ito <tirectly' prpportiona! .to 'the invenoelypi'opOrtion tel ita maaa. What ia the' dimension of Coree?

applied force

8r; i

Pb,ysics

L5

ORDER OF MAGNITUDE

It is quite often useful to know/ calculate the approximate value of a particu1ar quantity. It helps us in checking the results of any lengthy calculation or to know the approximate magnitude of a quantity. The order of magnitude of a quantity is the power of ten of the number that describes the quantity. We know that the speed of light in vacuum is 3 x 10" m/s. We, therefore, say that the order of magnitude is 8 .. If a quantity increases by four orders of magnitude we mean to convey that the quantity has iIicreased by a factor 104 Ezample 1.S: The size of an average room is 6 x5x 4m:'. The room is to ~ completelyfilled with cricket balls without crushing them. Ifthe diameter of a ball is 5 em, estimate the number of balls that will fill the room. Solution: The volume of the room The approximate volume of a ball

= 6 x 5 x 4 = 120 m 3
= 5 x5x 5 x 10'" m 3
= 125 x lQ-6 m 3

(You know that the actual volume of a ball is given by 41fr' where T is the

radius of the ball.)

120 6 Hence the total number of balls = 125xl0-<i ::1 X 10 balls.

A more accurate Calculation may give a result which may differ by factor of ten only. .

Table 1.6: App1'Oldmate value. of certaiD m_ured CJu. .titiH Mean distance from earth to moon Mean radius of the earth Diameter of a hydrogen atom Diameter of anatomic nucleus Mass of Sun Mass of earth Mass ot a Mosquito Mass of an electron One year Oneday .. Period of a souM wave Period of a radio wave

3.8 x 108 m
6.4 x 106 m 1 i< 10-10 m lxlo-14 m 2 x 6 X l x 9.1 lO30 kg loo'kg lO-Skg x 10-31 kg

3.2 X 107s 8.6 X 104 s 1xlQ-3s lxlQ-6s

Now, check your learning by solving the following questions.

INTEXr QUES'I'lONS 1.3._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~

1. A teacher consumes 0.4 unit of electricity per,hour in his bouse. The cost of electric~ ity i. Rs 3/- per unit. Estimate his tots! expenditure on electricity or year.

................................................................................................................."........ ..
2, Estimate the consumption of salt for the'whole country in one year for a popUlation of 900 x lQ".

Oimensions and Vector Anal}'llia

1.6 VECTORS AIID SCALARS / 1.6.1 Scalar Quantities

We know that the physical quantities are always described by some numbers with proper units attached with them. We describe the density of material, the volume of ajar, the distance between two cities, the Speed of a moving car, the forcethat pulls all objects towards-the earth and the torque that ~ens or closes a door. Some of these quantities are ~re8l1ed in numbers with units and it is a complete and correct d.:scription of that quantity. The examples are (i) density of copper - 8.9 x loa kg/m3 (ii) mean radius of the earth - 6.4xlo6m (iii) one day - 8.6 x 10" s; Such quantities do not require any direction to be specified for theif descritpion. These are knoWn as _ _ quantities. '
A _lar CJifAfdlCg has only magnitude and no direction.

1.6.2 Vector Quantities

A vector quantity is a physical quantitY that is described by both the magnitude and the direction. ~is a vector quantity. lfwe apply a fOrce of lOON
Oil an object, we must also SPeci1Y the dfrwctfonin which the force is being applied. Veloc:ftgis an other vector quantity. lfwe describe the motion of an object we mwrt specify how fast it is moving and the directiOn ofits motion.

A IMCCDr .-atuwhas magnitude and direction both.

VectorIIcan always be represented graphically. Let us say that a force of 501;)' N is applied on a body in the direction west to east. This vector quantity ~ C'lll be represented graphically all shown in Fig 1.1. below

'=iiri

ftc1.1: Gnq1Irk:Dl"""""-'af"- 'The line AB represents this vector. The length of the line AB, say 5 em, represents the magnitude SOON. The direction of the vector is from A to B (West to 'east). The pOint A is called the ~r and the point B with an arrow Diark is called the tip (head) of the vector. y ADDthervector CD ofmagnitude 300N force is1epresented by CD (3 em length) pointing in a different direction.

Any two vectors A. and B are said to he . ._ ifthey'bave the same magnit~l(le and point in the same direction. Graphically, therefore, all such vectors which are of the tiame length and parallel to ea,ch other are said to be equal all Shown herein Fig 1.2. The three vectors. A.,. B and c:': are of equal

o '-_______ x
PI&- 103: EqIAal- "'PI>
grap}.b~i.!l.

.en(ed

length (magnitude) and are parallel to each other (po1nt in the same direction). We therefore say that A = B =C.

1.6.3 Addition orVectors

When two or more vectors are added together, like scalar quantities, they must have the same units. Graphically, it is very easy tC' "dd two v~ctors and find the resultant sum.

L,,[ liS have 1"\) \~":llIr, A un.i 1\ :;1'01 ',w have 10 rind their veclor sum R =A + B ...

A
Ca)
nil

Cb)
1.3. Addition oftwo ""ctors, graphlcaUy.

The two vectors are shown in Fig. 1.3. (a). T~ find the sum of the two vectors we adopt the following procedure. First, draw the vector A graphically. Then draw the vector B in such a manner that the tail of the vector B starts from the tip of Vector A as shown in fig. 1.3.(b). We know that a parallel movement does not change a vector. A. vector drawn from the tail of A to the tip oCB is the resultant vector R ~ A + B. Following the same procedure. We can find the sum of more than two vectors also. Let us take three vectors A, B and C and we have to find the vector RA+B+C

A.
Flg 1.4: Addition o/three vt."Cfors in. a graphical manner

DrAwtb, \Tctor A. nr"wthevectorB such that the tail of B s1:8 tsfrom the
10

DiIlletlSlOnS and V"rtor Ana1~ s". tip of A. Then the vector which starts from the tail of A and ends at the tip of vector B is the sum (A+B) .. Following the same rule we can add the vector C to the Vector (A + B) and get to vector R = A t B + C. You can now appreciate that several vectors can be added together in the same manner. Now, following the graphical procedure illustrated above, you can easily sho.,
that

(i) A + B ~ B + A (commutative oj properly vector addition' (1.1) (ii) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (Associative property of vector addition' (1.2)

1.6.4 Subtraction of Vectors

We define the negattueofvectoras a vector which has the same magnitude but points in .the opposite direction. If A is a vector of magnibloe '300 unit s pointing towards east, then -A is a vector of magnitude 300 units poil1ting towards west. Followmg this defmition of... negati,'c vector we can evaluate the difference of two vectors in the same way as we evaluated the sum of two vectors. Let us evaluate R = A - B ' Thi.." can also be written as R - A + (-Bl The graphical construction of finding A - B is shown in Fig 1.5. First we draw the vector A. We thm draw the Vector -B. To find A + I-B), we now draw the vector -'8 such that the tail of -B coincides with the tip of A. A vector wbich I t joins th.. tail of A to the tip of -B is the vector (A - B).

1.6.5 Law of Para11.1o....111. ofV.ctor.

We can find sum of two vectors anylitically without graphic'al construction ,also. Let us evaluate It A + B

Let A and B be two v"ctors and e the angie bl't\veen them. We construct a parallelogram. PQED where PQ - D& z A and PD-QE B Let EF be perpendicular to the line PQ. In A PFE

--------_.-----------------------------11

Physics

'"

- (PF)" + (FE)" ..; (PQ + QF)" + (FE)' - (PQ)" + (QF)" +2(PQ) (QFl + (J'E)' - (PO)' + [(QF)" + (FE)") + 2 PQ.QF -(PQ)" + (QE)" + 2 1'9. QF -(PQ)' + (QE)",+ 2 PQ.QE,(QF /QE)
-.A2 + B'

(1.3)

R"

+ 2AB cos e

(1 ..4)

(1.5) This expression for R 4i equation (1.5) gives us .the magnitude of the sw;n of two vectors A and inclined at an RDgle e between them .
. . . .Ic.ij Wbm. e "0 the twO ~ are parallel to each.other.

thenR -A+B
ii)

(1.68)

WbeDe-n/2, R- .JA'+B'

(1.6 bl

iii)

WhflI1e.. n the two vectors are anflparallel to each other. They are directed oppOllite to each other.
R .JA?+B'-2AB,
or R-B-A
R-A-B
(1.6 c)

The direction of the vectorR with respect toa reference direction be determined analytically. Let the reference direction be the direct:i.oA Oi one.of the vectors, 1lIIY Vector A and R makes an 8DIle a with ..

eM.u.o..

tan or. -

EP" EP' B sin 8 .. . --:-...........--:. PF PQ+QF A+B cos e . Baine tana=A+Bcose

Since A, and e' are lcnl)WD. the direction of. R' (angle a) can. be eaaib' calculated .,.alal _ _ :Wecandiscu.. the same speCiaJ. caseaforwbichwe obtained . the magnitude of R.

when e -0,

tan a-

0, . a- 0
,

11.881

The direction of R coincide_ with A

iiI' e .. n/2. tan a - B/A

iii) 8- ft.

tan a -0." will be ~ the vector A:or.

. ( 1.SC)

(Ub)

Again. it i. time to check your understanding.

i.

12

Dimension$ and Vector AnalJo:Sis

INTEXT QUESTION'S 1.4"_ _ _ _~_ _~_ __

1.

There are three vectors of magnitudes 8. 16 and 20 units oriented arbitrarily in the same plane. What are the minimum and m...mnum values of the;,. resultant?

2.

A'man ~ 3.0 Ian toward. east and then 4 km towarda north. (a) How far away he is from the atartmg point? (b) What i. the direction of hi. final position?

.............................................................................................................................
'

3.

There are two vectors A and B of equal magnitude with an angle Df 60' between them.. Determine the following graphica1J,y (a) A + Ii " (b) A - B (c) B -A (d) A + 2B (e) A - 2Il

............................................................................................................ ,...: ............... .

1.7 PRODUCT OF VECTORS 1.7.1 Scalar Product
The scalar product of two vectors.A and B is defined 11$ a sca1ar quantity which is B. product of the magnitudes of the two vectors multiplied by the cosine of the lingle between the two vectors A.B - AB cose. (1.9) Where e is the angle between the two vectors .A and Bi Fig 1.7. A dot 'sYJ1,lbol between A and. B is put to indicate the scalar product. For this reason the _far product is also called the dot product. The quantities TepTej!lented by the .Vectors A imd B need not have the same . units. The product AB cos e contairis the magnitudes oCthe veCtors onJ.y and is"a scalar quantity. It is therefore easy to appreciate the following relations. A.B - B:A - AB cos e A.(B +C)" - A.B + A.C

(1.10)

(1.11)

We Will find a p~ctical Ulle of~ relations in later Chapter. on mechanic-.

___ plel.S: 7he two vectors are o/magnitudes IA I- 30 and IB I- 40 and the angle 8 -55' ,calculate the magnitude and direction ofths Vector II - A + B.

IIoIutJoll I"

~per equation (1.5)

;

IRI -.JA~' + B~ +:lAB co~~ .

I
1,

- ~(30)~ +(40)~ +2x30x40xcos 55 - (900 + 1600 + 2400 x 0.5736)" IRJ -. 62.2 (magnitude) Bain9 40xQ.81923 ::::2::;.;. .7:.,;:6-=..8 ~a.. A+ Beas9. 30+40xO.57'36 52.944

=-

. 13

Physics

- 0.6189,

- 31.80
A.

The l:1!suJl:antR~angleof31.8withvector

Byemple 1.7 I A carl is being puUed by man A towards e.ast with a force of

of30N.

IN I 70N. Thesomecarl.isbeingpulledby .~ manBtowardsNorth-westwithaforoe 30N ~. 135"

B

"'_..J..._____ A.
~,

(a) CalmlatethBresultantforoeacting on the cart. (hI Find the direction ofthis resultant
forc#l,

70 N

Is '

Eblutloll :
In this problem .

A-70N, B - 30 N,e - 135

. R- J(70)~+{30)2+2x70x30c~a135

- ~4900+900+4200xcoa(90+4S)" - ~5800-4200ain45-.J2821 . ... R,- 53.1 N.

BlliD.9 30x sin (90 +45) _~30.;;.,C;..;08;.;;.4.;;.,S ... ~.;..._ una- A+Bcoa9. - 70+30coa(90+45) -.70+30(41145) 30)(0.7071 21.213 4348 - 70-3D<.7071 - 48.787 - O.

c
1.7.~

V.OtM Produot
-c

The vector product of two vectors A and B ia defined'" a third vector .C whole magnitude is AB sin 8 where 9 is the ~ between the vectors A and S. The vector product is written .

.... I ....

......

"....,...

o....."..".,..~'

l'

LfI/

AxS"C

The msanltude of the prod,uct is

IC 1- AB sin 9

(1.12) (1.13)

There is a edmpte'rwe w find the dfleceton o/tIw wdor C. Stretchthe fingers of your rilht band along the vector A. Now curl the fingers from A towards S through the smaller ansle 8 between A and S. The Thumbwbich is erect points in the direction of the vector C. If one follows this rule one can easily aee b t
AxS--(BXA)

(1.14)

': A and S are in a horilontal plal!.e with an acute angle 9 between them as

---------~--------------------------14

Di1r.ensions and Vector Analysis shown in the figure 1.8 then A x B - C will point vertically upwards and B x A - -C will point vertica1ly downwards. Because of a cross ~ between A.and B, the ~rproduct is also called as cross product. We will make use of these relations later.
y

1.8

RESOLUTION. OF VECTORS

A vector can be resl'\ved into components with respect to a particular co-ordinate system. Fig 1.9 shows a vector A in a rectangular coordinate system. The tail of the vector coincides with the origin 0 of the co-oTdinate system. Let us draw perpendiculars

Ay
L-~

__

_________ X

axes. We get quantities A. and A.,. These are, called components of the vector A. The process is called ruolutfon o/~r into com,porwnta.

from the tip of the vector on the coordinate

Ax
1'1& 1.!I'"","""'P""0n,..!fhII_ A
aIDng 11M! _gular 00I>I'd/naI8 ...... " - , I.

The components A. and A., are A. A cos e ~ - A sin e (1.15) whflre e .1S the ansle which the vector A makes with + X axis. If we know the vector A i.e. we know the magnitude A and the direction with respect to a reference axis. we can obtain the components A. and A.,. Conversely, ifwe know the components, we can obtain the magnitude and direction of the vector. A. Acose A., - Asine A~ +A; A2(cos29+1Ii.n 28) A2

A. ~A; + A; (magnitude) (1.16) tane A.,/A. (direction) (1.17) The sign of tan e detennines tlle quadrant of the co-ordinate axis. . A more convenient wa,y to handle the resolution of more than one vectors in a three dimensional space is to introduce the concept of unit vectors. '!be vector A can be written as .

-+

I I i

Where 1.0 is 'a unit,vector in the direction of A. (A cap over the letter represents a unit vector). In the rectangular co-ordinate system we choose t.l and k as unit vectors along the x, y and z directions respectively. Let us do some simple mathematics for a two dimensional system. This can be easily extended to three dimensions. Following the definition of unit vector.
A. A,.i + Ayj

A=ialAl

(1.18)

B. B.i+Byl

(1.19)

15

This is shoWn in the Fig 1.10.

n
9

+y

~"""""

__

_ _ _ :It

.....
ill
_

.)'-.l.,;.~_,....-----

-y ..... 1.10Cb)

A..i.
..... ~.lOfIl}
A

"","l.lO'~~~""',io_",,'kr _ _ _ ,

!II .. ~ 9"

wll 1_",. _ _ ... "'" """'""" No

Suppose ~ attempt to find the sum of the two vectors A and B.

R=A.+B R,.- A,,+Bz

, thl\ ,Let e-veCtor

-VB,. make an _ ..... nl th X -8XIS. . e e WI

~J

IRI-J{R~+R~)
tanB=We solve the following problem to illustrate the efficacy or thiil analyticaJ . method of addition of vectors.

R"

. . . .pte I.': 7\uo IIIJCtora are gillen below

.1.- 2i+31 and B .. 3i - 4) Find ths awn fJ/ths IIIJCtora A + s- .If.

101"':

Accordina to our nOtation

A" - 2, A.. - 3; .R,.. 2 + ~- 5

~-3-4--1

Bz - 3, B, " ,-4

(a)

. R_.JS3 +1 3 -.;J26*5.1 ' tg'e - RJR. - -1/+5 -, -9.2 e' .willlie 1n the lVquadrant. , .... 1 ' 7\uoJHIirUAG7IdBinthsXYpItme,hall8~(-.3, ~)m
,

and~.

4) m ,....,ci1l8l1l.

WWte.., .ssionaj'or posiCion 1IeCtcQ qf A. cUad B tA ~-,; (bl BvaluGM (JIA ,+ -,; IUId tA ,--,; ' .
5

16

1Io1atloa:
(a) The poai~on vector RA -

1-3 i +2)) W.

JIg .; (2 i;':L4 hin

(h) R,.+",-(-31 +-2J)+{2i +4J)

- (-2i+6Jt

RA -

....

-13i +2])-,.(21 +4]) '-8j. 1/

--51

-2J~

. . . . . . . 1.10: f{avec:tOrCiatldtkdtouedDr. theraultia-9i .ia subtractedfrom C the ~ ia 5i + 4 j

lIoIattoa: Given,

_ .What ia the direction of.

+ C -'-91 -sl 0-."51+4)

By adding we

.e.:; 20--41. 4j;

'

0--214)

By aubtractlnsWellet, , Therefore, tan' ,

2.--141 -12ja --71 -61

-7
,

e - S- -6 -1.167 " AcCOfdinl to the tablea IP.ven here e is in the m quadrant.

, '8'- 221. . (i)
(ii)

. B,.

'

)r. ..,... 1.111 GiCllm

,."tloal

What ia the (oJ ~ and (II) ditlill:JCiDia ofA

A-.-.. . I+1J
:. &"- i +4)
A.~ 1 and A,. -

+.- 61

(al By addiq Ii) and(ii) we pt 2A. -

21 + 8]

... ,

It. -,~It.:+It.~ It.,

(b) tan

-.Ji7.
4

1t.-4

" ..TIXT QUB&TIOR 1.1._____________

1.

e -' A -I' e. tan-I (4).

TMre ill a ..... d'lll block CIa the 1Ioor. ' - - t A ill JNlIinI; it,,1Iitb. "'"'" .. .uS peI'IIOq B ill ~ it ~ the _ ,.... ... The cIInaIfaa. of 'the .... with ....,.. to the IIoor ill 30' In' both _ , Wbo WiD lie . . . to ....... the blOClk em the IIoor man --uaat\)- .uS wb:T? '
17

Physics

2.

A vector A of magnitude 50 m is in the XY plane and makes an angle of 300 with the X - axis. What are the X i!lnd Y components of this veclor?

............................................................................................................................
3.

A force of 200 N is applied on a.body at an angle of 120 with the positive X - axi. What are the directions and magnitudes of the rectangular components of this force?

............. ...............................................................................................................
-

1.9

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT_ _ _ _ _ _ __

Every physical quantity is measured in some system of units. We in physics adopt

the SI.,
In mechanics, kg, ~ and "" are the base units of the SI foJ' measuring ma.is,lengtl , ~d t~mp. r"'!,;Dectl,,-ely. The other 'units are cl~lled der;Vt::d UTl1t:" A standard mass ot an alloy material has been acceptp.d as stanaard kilograrn.

,.

One meter i. the diatance travelled by light in Vl\CUum in secona. , 299192458 One second i. the time required for c. -133 atom to undergo 9192631170 vibratiOn. EvelY physical quantity h .. dimension.. The dimensional lll'a'Iyai. i. a u.eful tool UI check the correctn of mathematic expre.lion. There ere vector and .calar quantitie. Addition and .ubtrection of vectora - Law of perelle1"11l'&lX'of ""ctora. (i]Scalar product R A AS CO.' .9. (ii) Vector product R A , IR I AS oi.'l 8. The direction of R i. e1.o,derlllsd. A vector eon be re.olved inte it. component

1.10 TJtRMUfAJ, QUltSTIOIfS._ _ _ _ _ _ __

,
1, 2.
3.

Th. aver..e .peed of the fute.t train in India i. 120 km/h" in metre per aecond?

What Will be the

.p.e~

Show that the expreuion ut + y, at', where a iii di.tenee, u i. speed lind a i. the aoce1oration of a -inbvina; particle, i. dimen.ional1y co.,..,ct. ' If X At + Elf (where x io diotan.e lind t i. time) i. dimenaionll1ly correct, then ah"", that (A + 3 BI'J h .. ~e dimenaion. of velocity. The diameter of lin atom i. about 10" m. E.timate the number of atom. in 1 m' a .olid. '

4. S.

of

A his boat i. relltin& on .tiIl water. There ere two rope. tied at the .ome point on the boat. One man pull. the boat 1110111 BOUth with a force 12 N mel another mail. pull. it al0lll eut with a force of lIS N. (aj What i. tho re.ultes)t force with which'the boat i. belni pulled? (h) What is the direction of its displacement?
A river i. flowina: toward. eut with ...peed of S Ie nIh . A owi2nmer io IWimmina from' the BOUth bank with a .peed 4 km/h IIIw~ heoding toward. north. (aj Will he be able'to reach the north bank exactly at the oppoaite point? (h) What i. the direction of hi. effeive .peed in water? (e) What i. hi. eective ape.d in the river?

IS.

7.

A boy i. pu1lina table toward. south with .. force S N lind m. aioter i. pu1lina the _ e table toward, e..lt with a force 4N on the horizontal floor of !I:1e heu"'! . Th.... i. a force of friction of IN betw,en the floor and the tablit in .wry direction. 'ii1t.at iii the ' moanitude of the reoultes)t force which i. movin& the I":1>le?
A man

8.

walkin& aero.. hill field. in a cIarIc nicht 10... hi. WIlY. He wll1ka 100 toward. weat and the"; 60 .tepa, toward. north and then .ame .tep. in 'another direction .0 that he apin com back to the .tarting point. How IIW\Y atop. and in
18

.tep.

Dimensions and Vector Analysis

what
9.
di,~etion

he walked in his third movemert? Sol"" the problem graphica1ly.

A person walks along the paths shown in Fig 1.11, starting from the point A and ending at the point B. Find the magni tude of his displacement.
I). particle moves with a velocity

100m

10.

v along east for 5 seconds and then towards

V

north with veloCity

for 5 seconds.

..~g 1.11

300m

(a) How much is the change in velocity per second. (b) Change in velocity per second is de fined as acceleration. What is the direction of the' acceleration?

11. A block of mass 5 kg is sliding on an in clined plane making an angle of 30 with horizontal. What is -,;he m~tude of the' force driving the block along the plane?
12.

Two vectors-are A"" 8 units and B "" 5

units. - The angle between them is 60". Find
Fig 1.12

(oj A.B (b) A x B and its direction, for the following orientation (A and B are in horizontal plane). .

Fill 1.13

13. Two vectors ...... given by A -' 3 -2

i j

and B-2 -5 j , Calculate (A i' B) and (A - B)

ANSWERS TO THE INTEXT QUESTIONS

latex!: Q1aMtlozuI 1.1

h 60,,60 9' - - 22.'2 mi. 2, The- _...lndamental unite are independent units and they are only seven in number. Whereas the derived unit. are obtained by the combination of the fundamental units and there can be any number of derived units. 3. 1O.,"m - 1 micro metre. 4. 1 feet < .1 feet - 1 sq, feet 1)( 12 )( 12 x 2,54 x '2.54 10
- - - 4 =.O~,

1.

--=

80lan

80 x 1000

=-m/a

200

4500 aq feet -45< 9.29 - 418- m' I a _ Quatl.oa 1.2

1.

vocgmhn

RHS -

rI' Ii' - (
MO

\.2

r
-

.1,"

-I,.... T'''''

Compare
(LHS)

L' 1-1

Lm+n T"":1m.

4
2

m+n-l, n-l-n;, n - 'f,o

(RHS) -2m --1

929 10

:. v
2,
y~

oe

. Y'hl< or . g. .,--3 a L 9A

A sin (K,t + K,';

19

""ee LHS- Y-L'M"T"

Quanti~

dieplacem""t ia ..... in meter.

RHS - A .... (K,t + K,,>;I- L' . in ( ) mU8t be djrnenoiOllIe... K,f- L"M" T", DimenojOll of K, - 1':' K,x- )("LT", Dim.,oi"" of K. - L-'

Applied f'on:e
3.

.cceJeration Cl--,

m
Fon:e .- _

IIoaIii: Q
1.

::I.

A persoR may CODlume

ItVmootb 10 tVyur. For popalalion of 900 X 106 Tular la" - 9000 X 10 K

_ Q r at 1.4 ,1. 8, 16, 20 IDIIfPJitude.

Maximum of ........t will be ..ti_ all three ..... ponIIeI - 44 Wlit.. MiDimumwhen antipanllJel- 4 uniU. .

.: lr.
0

1.3 0.4 unitII per hour. In one dIIf 0.4 ~ - 9.6 unitII .:: 10 Wlite/dIIf. Per ,..... 3650 unitII. Cooot 3650 3 - Ra 10950 - . . ~...

- M L 'f<'

.bo"

let

Ia.t Q I a
1.

l.a

:A
3km

2.

(bI __ -4/3-1.33 _ - IIboiat 53"

(III

a- ....

,lin 30"
Pkam
,... .. t l'IIMrin(Jthtt bled: ~ abOw ficwu it ia cle.- th.t pWI~

3.

Gnopbic..,..

IAI - 1-11IIId .. 60".

t>
A
A
,

. . tile bloc:k ia

_tbidl.......

tbN1 pu. . . . it .'

(III

.~
;" ,, , ,

2.

.A.- 50 .,.. 3f1" -

25./i 0\ .. 50 iii! 3f1" - 25.

')-DO

<_
p.

_ _ _ '.

;\h.l .L. .~1-1_l___ IO" _

" - 200 .... 120" - -1t.r.lc ,

..

". - 200 .... 120" -

roo./i .
>
(.

20

2
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
2.1
YO)!

INTRODUCTION

see a number of things moving around you. People, animals; vehicles can be seen moving on land, fish, frogs and other aquatic animals are seen moving in water. The birds and aeroplane move in air. The sun and the moon appear to-move in the sky. Though we do not see but the earth (....1. which we live also moves. It is, therefore, quite apparent that we live in 8 world that is very much in motion. To understand and describe the phySlc. world around you, the study of motion "is very mucb, essential. Motion car. be in a straight line, in a plane or in the space. If the motin'~ -lfthe object is - in only one direction, it is said to be the "motion in a straight line'.. For example, motion of a car on a straight road, motion of a train along its straight rdils, motion of a freely falling body, motion of a lift, and motion o(an athlete running on a straight track.
In this lesson we shall confine our attention to we Illotion in a straight line -leading to the description of motion in general. In the next and the following lessons you will study about the laws of motion, motion in a plane and other various types of motions.

2.2
i

OdJECTlVES
recall distance, ~placement, speed anq velocity; explain relative velocity and average velocity; define acceleration and instantaneous acceleration; draw and interpret position - time graph; draw and interpret velocity - time graph jor uniform and nOn-uniform motio"-,; explain Instantaneous velocity; ,,:.mve 0" ~ apply equaUons motion with constant acceleration; and dRscrib~ :flotion ul'lc/f.,- gravity.

Mter studying this lesson, you should be able to,

! I !

I i
!

oj

Physics

2.3

VELoCITY AND ACCELERATION

In your earlier classes you would have studied that the total length of the path travelled by a body is distance whereas the difference between the initial and final position of the body is called its dfsplac4lment. Basically the displacement is the Sh~rtest distance between the two position and has a certain direction. Thus ~e displacement is a vector quantity' but the distance is a scalar. You would also h!!.ve learnt that the ra~ of change of distance with time is called speed whereas the rate of change of displacement of a body is lmown as its uelocUy_ Unlike speed velpci13T is a vector quanti13T.

2."3.1 Average Velocity

When an object travels with different velocities, its rate of motion is measured by its average veloci13T or average speed. The averageveloci13T of an object is defmed as the rate of change of displacement, whereas the average speed of an object is obtained by dividing the total distance travelled by the total time taken. Let XI and X, are the positions of the object at tl and t, times respectively. Hen"e, average veloci13T displacement v= time taken i.e.
v=X2 -X,

t2 _ tl

or v

= At

Ax

(2.1)

and, average speed

total distance travelled total time taken

For, understanding the average speed and average veloci13T clearly, read the following examples. , .

Example 2.1: An object is moving along the X - axis whose coordinate is x 20f' ms-2 , where t is the time variable. Calculate the average velocity o/the object over the time interval from 3 s to 3.2 s.
K

Solution ~ Given, X. 20 fI m!l'2

We lmow, the average velocity is given by the relation
Vav
2 = t2 -tl

-XI

Ast,
XI

-3s
--20)( (3 S)2 ms'"

20mx9s2

180m

As t, ~ 3.2 s X, - 20 x (3.2 sl" mr - 20 )( 10.;2 m - 204 m 204-180 3.2-3 24 - . msl = 120ms1 U.2

22

Motion in a Straight Line Hence, average velOcity= 120 ms-' Example 2.2: A man nms on a 300m circular track and comes back on the starting point in 2008, What is the average speed and average velocity afthe man? Sohtiou : .Given, - 300 m, 200 s The man comes back to th~ same point :, The displacement - 0 Total distance travelled = . Hence, average speed Time taken Total length of the track.

Time taken to cover this length

and, average velocity

..

=--ms =1.5ms 200 displacl!fuent Time taken =--=Oms- .

200

300

-1

-1

2.03.2 RelativeVeloclty
Whim we say that a bullock cart is moving at 10 km h- ' due south, it means the velocity of the cart with respect to the earth is 10 km h-1 , Infact, the

velocity of a body is always specified with respect to some other body, Thus, the velocity is relative in nature. SupP,OSe a girl is walking in the compartment of a moving train in the direction of the motion of the train. It means the girl is moving with respect to the train. Letthe train is going due west relative to the surface of the earth. The earth in tum is moving due east relative to the sun. The sun itself is moving around our galaxy. Our galaxy is moving relative to other galaxies. Thus ifyou want to find the absolute velocity of the girl, itttiay be a tedious job. All velocities are thus relative. The relative velocity of an object A with respect to another object -B is the rate at which A changes its position relative to B. For example, ttvA and' lie are the velocities of the two point objects along a straight line, the relative velocjty of B with respect to A will be VB - VA' The rate of change of the .relative position of an object with respect to the other object is knOwn as the ,..latfw -locCt.rI of that object with respect to the other.

I ,
! , I i ,

....... 2.3: A car A is moving on roadfrom North to South with a speed of 60 km/ 11. Another car B is movingfrom South to North onthe same road with Q speed of 70 km/ 11. What is the velocity of car B relative to the car'A?

....~,; ~nsidering the direction from South to North as positive, The velocity (ve) of car..l3 - + 70 km/h And, theveIocity (v~) of car A = -60 kIn/I-.

23

Physics Hence, the velocity of car B relative to car A . - v - v .~ ("{;O) = 130 lan/h.

70 -

2.3.3 Acceleration
Whiletravelling in bus or car, you would have noticed that some titne it speeds up and some time slows down, thus changing its velocity. This change occurs with time: Just as the velocity is defined as the time rate of change of position, the acceleration can b.e dilfVwd as ttrne rt:d:e oJ change oJ velocity. The average acceleration of an object is given by, . Final velocity - Initial velocity Average acceleration (aa.) = Til;o.e taken for change in .velocity

aa.

= t2 -tl

U 2 -VI

flv

= M

(2.2)

1 he' fnstantaneotIs ciccelenztion a is dejiried as the limiting value of the average acceleration, as we let t.t approach zero;
lim flv dv a = M ~ 0 At = dt (2.3)

.lU::celeration is a vector quantity and its Sf unit is m/s' .

.\cceleration is a vector and therefore has a direction. In gerteral. for horiz!lfJtal motion, when the aC,celeration is in the same direction as the motion or velocity (notmally taken: to be in the positive direction), the direction is positive. However, an acceleration.may be in th~ apposite direction ofth~ mo-' tion. Then the acceleration is taken as negative which is often ca1led a deceleration or ~ hample 2.4: A cyclist starting from rest attains a veloctty of lS'fanI hiP.
> .

3 min, .compl!1e the accelerQ.t!on ofthe cyclist. f;ollltion : Given, VI = 0

'

15 lanlh t

(25) '"6

m/s

= 3 miri - 180 s.

6 180 a = 0.023 m/s'. , Hence, acceleration of cyclist = 0.023m/ s". Now, it is time to check your progress. Solve the fonowing questions.

:. AcCeleration a

=V 2-1\1 . I t

-x--

25 1

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.1 ____________----'

. I, Is it pooaible to have some aver.., speed but avera,ge velocity to be - . . for a moW1g object? .

............................................................................................................................ ,
.
. . . . . . . . . . . .~ . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 2.

A womlUl went to the market at a speed of 8 lan/h. Finding market closed she returned back to her home with a speed of 10 lan/h. If the market i. 2 km ~ from her home calculate her average velocity and average speed.
................................................................H ................................ ;

24

Motion in.a Straigbthme

3.

Can a moviDg body have relali'lle velocity ....... with .........,t to ""other body? Clive example.
Two can A and B atart. from the same point to

!Ill

4.

JDOVe in perpendicular direebDllll with uniform _de of 30 km/h and 40 km/h reepectiYely. Calculate the <eIative speed of A with respect to B. .

2.4

POSITION - T~ GRAPH

If you roll a ball on ground, you will notice that at different times, the ball has different positions. The different positions and corresponding time can be p~otted on graph giving us certain curve. Such a curve is known as position - time cwve. Generally,. the time is represented on x-axis whereas the position of the body is represented on y-axis. Let us plot a position - time graph for a body at rest. You see the stationary body does not change its position with time. Hence, the position-time graph for a stationary body comes to be a straight line paralled to the time axis. Ifth~ body was at a position of20 m at a certain time and it is at rest, the graph comes to be as shown in Fig 2.1.

1'1& a.l. abodyat,.

- graph far

2.4.1 Position-Time Gral'h rol' 'Unirorm Motion

Now, let us consider a case when an object covers equal distance in equal interval of time. For example, if the object covers a distance of 10 m in each second for 5 seconds, the positions of the object at different times Will. as shown in the following table. Time(!) in (s)
Pasition(~

1 10

2
20

3
30

5
50

in(ml

40

In order to plot this data, take time on x-axis assuming 1 em as 1 s, and position on y-axis with a scale of 1 cm to be equal to 10 m. The position-time graph will be as shown in Fig 2.2.

40

The. curve comes to be ~ht line CI?ld it shows that the slope of the curve is constonti~e. the time rate of change of position oCthe object is constant. It means the speedof the object 1S uniform. Hence, such a motionfn which

too

:rao
1.

1'1& a.a I
motion.
PositIon-Iima_

"

for unifOPAl

25

Physics
the _locft:g of the mOltIng object fa constant fa known as wtfform motion.

In other words we can say that when the moVIng object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, it i's called unVorm motion. For uniform motion the position - time graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis.

2.4.2 Position-Time Graph for.l'fon-UniformMotion

Let us take an example of a train wh,ic:h starts from one station speeds up, then m()Ves with uniform velocity for certain duration and before stopping at other ,station Slows down. In this case you will find that the d'lstcinca r:ouered In equal fnteroala oftVrur __ not equaL Such Cl motion eanbe called as lion-unifOrm motion. Ifthe distances covered in successive intervals are increasing, the Dlotion is said to be accelerated motion. The position-time graph for such an object is as shown in Fig. 2.3, Fromthis graph you will notice that tjJ.e OA, Be and CD portions represent uniform motions but with different velocities. The' portion AB shows the stationaiy position of the body. HoweVer, th.e wholejoumey shown by the graph represents non-uriiform motion.

i
0

j
time (I)
D

---------I

z.

- - .. -

. - - - -. -I C
I A I

t, I t , I

TIme(&)

1'I&3.8,_graph/ar
a~_

l'I&a.4, _ _ _ " .. "

~auw.

See the Fig. 2.4, the position-time graph can be a coritinuous curve also. It means the djstances covered in different intervals of time are di!ferent. Hence, the velocity of the body is changing continuouSly. In such a sitUation in any interval of time the average speed ,of the body can, be determined. The fnstantcureous ~ can also be determined which will be equal to the slope of the cUrve at that'instant.

2.4.3 Interpretation of Positlol1 - Time Gr.aph

As you have seen, the position - time graph of different moving objects can be different. lfit is.straight line parallel to the time axis:; you cansav that . the body is at rest. (Fig' 2.3) But the straight line having inclination with time axis shows that the motion is unifonn.

26

Motion in a Straight Line

(al Velocity from position - time graph: The slope of the straight line of position - time graph gives the velocity of the object in motion.- For determining the slope, choose any two points (say A and B) on the straight line (Fig. 2.3) and form a triangle b'y drawing lines parallel to y axis and x-axis. Thus. from Fig. 2.3. the velocity ofthe object,

t 2 -t, At AC Hence, velocity of object = slope of line AB.

It shows that more the slope (lUI At) of the straight line of position - time

v-

X 2 -X1

IU

BC

graph, more will be the velocity. Notice that the slope is also equal to" the tangent of the angle that the straight line makes with a horizonta1line, i.e., tan 6 = lUI At. Any two corresponding IU and At intervals can be used to determine the slope and thus the velocity.
Example 2.5: The position - time graph pf two bodies A and B is as shown in the figure. Which ofthem has larger velocity? Solution: The body A has larger velocity. Because the slope of the x - t graph for body A is greater. (bl Instantaneous velocity: Asyou have learnt that the velocity of the uniform motion in a straight line is same at every instant. But in the case of the non-uniform motion the position - time graph comes to be a curved line as shown in Fig.2.4. As a result the slope or the average velocity varies, depending on the size of the time intervals selected.' In such a case the velocity of the particle at some one instant of time or at some one point of its path, is called its instantaneous
velocity.

1
!
time

ii

o """':;'-+--r---r-r--

..
2 3
Time (seconds)
FIg 2.5 : Displacement-time grophfar

non~unifonn

motion.

Taking the limit At~ 0, the slope (lUI At) of a line tangeni: to the curve at that point gives the instantaneous velocity. However, for uniform motion the average and instantaneous velocities are the same.
Example 2.6: The position -,time graphfor the motion of a point object is as shown in figure. What distances . 12 with what speeds are travelled by ob- Ii! ject in tiem (i) 0 s to 5 s, (ii) 5 s to 10 s, 'ii 8 (iii)10s to 15 s (iv) 15 s to 20s? , 4 What is the average speedfo" this total journey in time 20 s?

OL-+-+--ii---i---!=::";~

E F

2.5 5

10
time (s)

15 17.5 20

27

Physic;s
Sobattoa: iJ . During 0 s to 5 s distance travened 4 ~ Distance 4 4 The speed . . . . - ---,.,-=-=0.8 m Is . Time 5-0 5 . D) During 5 to 10 s distance travelled - 12 - 4 -8 ~ 12-4 8 'The speed - _-=-=1.6 ~/s 10-5 5 iii) During 10 to 15 s~taI.1ce traveiIed .. 12 -12-6 'The speed- 0 iv) During 15 s to 20 s distance travelled -12~. Distance 12 12 . The speed - . =2.4 ~ /s Time 20-15 5

Stop, and solve the following questions to check your progress.

IlV'tEXT QUBSTIOBS. 2.2,-,-_,-_-,-",--",--_~,--~ 1. Draw the pooition~. time _h r.... amotio;; with -.. lOIXieIendion.

..............................................................................................................................
.

2.

nUl

rolb!win& fi&w'e ahowa the m.pi"""",ant time _ h for twa _dent. A ";d B
. . .
firat?

the fo11cnrin&.
~. Who

who _from th.;.- ochooilOl1clreed>e. their . home. See;t, airefull:y a n d _ '

.....................................................................
! ~ ..................................... .

reachea home

! ....................................... ! - ~

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u

..(iVI Who mowa fat?

H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(vi ~;... the apeeda of.A and B when they . ""'.. each other? ..
(vil Who.takea

1.2

_1bI
3 4
~

II

6 .1'-

............................ ~.,............:! .................. ; ......................................... : ... ~ ............ ~ -

......................................................................... ....................... ..............................

,

m;;.;.;,,~and maximUm time-to reacI1.hqti,.e?'

'
'

. ............... ~ .......................... ~-.................. ~-. 4. WhIch of the follcnriD&_h;'nOt ~...- , . .

.'

.. .....;..................: ..............'~ ........... ~ .................. ,.~ ................... ~~~.'......... ~.~ ..................

...... .. ... ............ ................... ..... ....... .... ,.?

~ ~ : , ~ ~ aive~ of your .....,.;".-, .-

:,

c
(1))
(e)

28

Motion in a Straight, Line

2.5

VELOCITY - TIME GRAPH

Just like the position - time graph, we can plot a graph between the velocities of the moving body and the corresponding time. Such a graph can be termed as velocity - time graph. For plotting a velocity - time graph, generally the time is taken on x-axis and the velocity on y-aXis.

2.5.1 Velocity - Time Graph for Uniform Motion

As you know, in the uniform motion in a straight line the velocity of the body

remain constant i.e. there is no change in the velocity with the change in time. The velocity-time graph for such a uniform motion is a straight line parallel to the time axis, as shown in the figure 2.6.

.;-

l~
10
I
2 3 4

i'

u-'J 0 m/s

f
5
D

IiIDc(II

n .. 3.6, Velo<:ily-tim& graph

fOr uniform -

n .. 3.7,

Veloc/ty'Timegraphfora motion: with constant aooelero:tion.

2.5.2

Velocity-Ti~e

Graph for Non-Uniform Motion

If the velocity of a body changes uniformly with time, the acceleration is ,constant. For constant 'acceleration the average and the instantaneous accelerations are equBI.

The velocj.\y - time graph for such a motion of a body, is a straight line inclined to the time axis, as shown in the figure 2.7 by the straight line All. It is clear from the graph that the velocity increases by equal amounts in equal intervals of time. Since, the slope of the straight line is constant, the acceleration of the body is constant and its magnitude is given by

a-

II, -111

IJ.II

t, -t,

IJ.t

However, there may be case of nonuniform motion in which the rate of v.uia.tionin the velocity is not constant. In such a situation, 1h,e slope of the velocity - time-graph will va!)' at every instant, as shown in Fig 2.8.

oL-------------------t

"iii' 3.8, Velocity-time graph/or ..

motin w:ill wJ:bg a _ t i n .

29

Physics

2.05.3 Interpretation ofVeloo1ty - fimeGraph

As you ha~ seen the. velocity - time graph 9f a body using v -.tBRlpn -

determ.ine the disUulce travel1edby the body and also the accd.eration of the body at different instants. Let us study qpw can we do so.

can

Ia! Detel'lllliDatloa or the dlst_c.. tta_Ue. b,.. the body: Consider,-it velocity - time graph as shown in the .FiaIu;e 2.7, the porti!in ~.ahows the motion with Constant acCeleration, whel'eas the portion CD. shows the constantly retarded motion. The portion BC represents .unifom:a motiOll.
The distance travelled by the body from time under the cmve between t, and t.. . Thus
distance - area oftrapaziumKLMN - Y.)( (KL + MN) )( KN

t, to t.. is given bythe.area

"

- Yo)( (v, + v.l )(

(t.. - t,l

(It) DeteI'iIIl_tioa orthe _"ratioa or the bod,.: As you haVe relld earlier in this

, lesson:, the acceleration of a body is defined as the ratio of the change in its velocity l;9 the time taken. tfyou look at the velocity time graph giVen in the Fig 2.9. The average acceleration is represented by the slope of the chord AB, which is giv~ by
average acceleratlon ((1..) -, 4t

~-- - - - - -

".~

"' . . .

4V

If the point B is taken ClOser and closer to the point)\, and then the average acceleration be computed over shorter and shorter intervals of:time. ,As you have seen earlier, the ~ _r.ratfDn at the point A is defined as the ,limiting value of the average acceleration when the seccmd point is , taken closer and closer to the first. ThUll, the instantaneous a.ceeb:ation. ,limit Av

a - At -+ 0

At = dt

dv

Thus, u..slo'p oJ the ~t at CI point oft u..'.,.lodqf - __ .,...,. , gfNsu..' _z..atfon at that fnstant or at that point. '

'bemple 2.7: 7JteiJelocity-timegraphsfor , three different bodies.A, B, and C are given in the folJm.ujng.firJun.,
Which one htJs the maximum iJccel ation and how tnuch? (ii) Calculate the distances travelled by theSe bodies injirst 3 s. . (iii) Which of theSe three bodies cover the maximum di8tcince at the endof,their journey? (iv) What are the vef:!ties at the instant of2 s?

(i)

:!:s
.!!.

f:
1

30

Motion in a Straight
Solution: (i) Since the slope of the v - t graph gives the acceleration. As the slope of the v - t graph for A body is maximum

Lin~

... its acceleration is maximum.

... a = fl.t

fl.v

= 3 _ 0 = 3 =2 m / s

6-0

(ii) The distance travelled by a body is equal to the area of the v - t graph ... In first 3 s, " the distance travelled by A = Area OAL - V.x6x3-9m. the distance travelled by B = Area OBL - II. x 3 x 3 = 4.5 m. the distance travelled by C .. II. x 1 x 3 = 1.5 m. (iii) At the end of the journey, the maximum distance is travelled by the bodyB, - II. )( 6 x 6 - 18 m.
(iv) At 2 s, the velocity of A the velocity of B the yelocity of C

4m/s 2m/s - 0.80 mls (approx.)

2.6

EQUATIONS OF MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION

As we have studied earlier, for describing the motion ofan object, the physical quantities like distance, velocity and acceleration are used. For the cases

of constant acceleration; the velocitY acquired and the distance travelled in a given time can be calculated by using one or mOl"e of three equations. These equations, generally known as equations oJrrwtionJorconstant acceleration or kinematical equations, are easy to use and will frod many applications in this course. In order to derive these equations, let us take initial time t, to be zero i.e, t, = O. We can then assume t, - tbe the elapsed time. The initial position (x,) and initial velocity (v,) of an object will now be represented by Xu and va and at time tthey will be called x and v (rather than X, and v,). According to the equation 2.1 the average velocity during the time twill be
V=

x-x
t

(2.4)

2.7.1 Jl'irst Equation of Motion

The first equation of motion helps in determining the velOCity of an object after a certain time when the acceleration is given.
As yo:u know from the defmitiQIl of accelerat:ion,

....'hange in velocity (a) T' Acceleration " une taken

... a=v-Vo t (2.5)

31

Physics This equation gives

v= va + at

(2.6)

This is known as the first equation of motion.

Example 2.8: Ifa car startingfrom rest has an acceleTation of 1 Qm/8'. Haw fast will it be going after 5 s?
sOlution: Given, .. 0 Initial vel~ity va Acceleration a = 10 m/s' Time t = 5 s Using first equation of motion v = vo+at Mter, time t = 5 s, the velocity v = 0 + 10 x 5

- 50m/s

2.6.2 Second Equation of Motion

Second equation of motion is used to calculate the position of an object after a time t when it is undergoing constant acceleration a.
F'lmn the definition of average velocity...you know

x-xc
V..,,

So, x -!Ii, + v t

(2.7)

Since, the velocity increases at a uniform nite . the aver:age velocit;y, v... will be midway between the ~tial and final veloci~; :. v.. - (v + vo)/2 (2.8) Combining the equations (2.7) and (2.8), we get,

v x=x o +(v+ o}t

2

Putting v Vo + at,

x=x o + ( vo+at+Vo) t
2 (2.9)

This is known as the second eqllation of mOUon.

Bample 2.9: A car A is travelling on a straight road with a Wliforrn speed. of 60 /ani h. ,Another car B foUowing it is moving with Wlifarm velocity. of 70 /ani h. When the distance betuJeen them is 2.5 Ian, the car B is given (J deacceleration of20 /anlh". At what distcznoe time wiU the car Bcatch up with A?

and

SOlution: Suppose the car B catches up car A, at a distance x after t time. For car A, the distance travelled in t time X 60 )( t For car B, the distance travelled in t time is given by

Motic.n ill a Straight Line x

= ~ + vot + Y. at' = 0 + 70 x t + y. (-20)x t' = 70t- 10 t' .

x But. the ~ betweenbvo cars is

-x-x=2.5

:. (70 t- 10 f') - (60 1) = 2.5 or 10 t' - 10 t+ 2.5 = 0 It gives t .. hour :. x ~ 70 t - 10 t' = 70 x.- 10 X (Y. . = 35 - 2.5 = 32.15 kill.

2.6.3 Third Equation of Motion.

The third equation is used in a situation when the acceleration, position and initial velocity are known, and the final velocity is desired but the time tis not known. From equation (2.7). you have. x- ~ + v. t or x

I I
I

_~ + (11+2110
--

)t

But from equation (2.5), you have V-Vo

t -

I i
!

Substituting this into the above equation, we get

x x

x+--~

o (

V+vo IV-v o ) 2 a

2a ) On aolving this for Ii', we obtain,

- xo+ (

v' -v~'

11I'=v~+2a(X-Xo)

(2.10)

This is known as third equation of motion. Thus, the three equations for constant acceleration are, v = vo+at x - ~ + vot + Y2 at' and v 2 =II~ +2a (x-xol

Bxample 3.10: A motorcyc1.ist moVes along a srraight road with a constant accelerution 4 ms-2 Ifinitially she was at a position of 5 m and had a velocity of 3 m.s-'. find (i) the position and velocity at time t - 2 s. (ii) the position of the motorcyclist when its velocity is 5 m.s-'. Solutio. : We are given, ~ - 5 m, Vo - 3ms-', a- 4 ms-2 (i) Using equation
33

Physics x = x., + vot + II. at' = 5 + 3 x 2 + II. x 4 Position, x ~ 19 m. From equation v = vo:" at = 3+4x:;1 Velocity, v = 11 m ....
(Ii)

(2)'

Using equation v" = vo' + 2a (x-x.,) (5)' (3)' + 2 x 4 x (x- 5) We get; x = 7m. Hence position of the motorcyclist (x) = 7 m.

2.6.4 Motion under gravity

You must 'have noticed that when we throw a body in the upward direction or drop a stone from a cectain height, in both the cases they come down to the earth. Do you' knoY\' why they come to the earth and what type of path they follow? It is because of the gravitational force acting on them. Such type of motions under the influence of gravity only, are also one dimensional or motion in a straight line. Thefreefall ofa bodytowarcb the earth-1$one of the most common uample of motion with (nearly) constant acceleration. In the absence of air resistance it is found that all bodies, irrespective of their size or weight, fall with the same acceleration at the same point on the earth's surface. Though'the acceleratl,on due to gravity varies with altitude, but for the small distances compared toJhe earth's radius, it remains constant throughout the fall. For our practical use the effect of air resistance and the variation in acceleration with altitude is taken negligible . .The acceleration of a freely falling body due to gravity is denoted fly d'. At or near the earth's surface its magnitude is approximately 9.8 m/s'-r-More precise values, and its variation with height and. latitude will be discussed in detail in the lesson 5 of this booklet.

Example 2.11 : A stone is droppedfrom a height of 10 m and itfalls freety Calculate the following, (i) distance travelled in 2 s. (ii) velocity o/the stone when it reaches the ground. (iii) velocity at 3 s.
SolutioD : Given, Height(h) - 10 m. Initial velocity (vo) = 0 Considering, initial position (Yo) to be zero and the origin 0 at the starting point. Thus, the y-axis (vertical axis) below it will be negative. Since, the acceleration is downward .in the negative. y - direction, the value of

a--g- -9.8m/s ..
Using the equation (2.9), Y - Yo + .vot + II. affl We get, Ii - 0 + 0 - II. gff' - -Iia x 9.S )( (2)' --19.6m.
.34

(i)

Motion in a Straight Line

The negative sign shows that the distance is below the starting point ill downward direction.
(Ii)
At the gro~nd Y = -10 m,
.ote: It is important to mention here that In the above example sign of the
acceleration. velocity and position will be positive if

Using equation (2.10), v' v; + 2 a(y- Yo) = 0 + 2 (-9 8) (-10 - 0) v = 14 m./ .

(iii) Using v = Vo of at at t = 3s v - -29.4 m.l.

you take origin at the

ground Ieve.I.

This shows that the velocity of the stone atf m 3 sis 29.4 mls and it is in downward direction. Take a pause and solve the following questions.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.3,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.

A body atarting &:om reat covera a diatance of 40 m in 4 a wttll eonatant IIcceleration along a straight line. Compute itlllinal veloci1;Y .nd the time i1!quired to cover half of
the total distance .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '. . . . . . . . . . . . , .

2.

A car moves along a straight road with constant acceleration 5 mt r. Initially at 5 m its velocity was 3 m/a. Compute ita position and velocity at 1-2 s .

.......... ..................................................................................................................
;

3.

With what velocity should a body be thrown vertically upward 80 that it reaches a height of 25 m? And how long will it be in air?

..............................................................................................................................
4. A ball is thrown upward in the air. 'Is its acCeleration greater while it is heine thrown or after it is thrown?

.............................................................................................................................

2.7

WHAT YOU HAVELEARNT_ _ _ _ _ _ __

The ratio of the displacement of an object to the time interval is known as ~ velocity.

The total distance travelled dovided by the' time taken ia a - - . speed. The rate of change of the relative polition of an objeCt with roap8Ot to the other object i. known as the relauve velocity of that object -:nth respect to the Clther. The change in the velocity in unit time io called acceleration. The position-time graph for a body at reat, i8 a atr.t line parallel to the time axio. The position - time graph for'" ~opn motion i... straight line inclined to the time axis. ' A body covering equal distance in equal intervals of tim. is aaid to be in unitorm motion. The veloCIty of a particle at Borne one instant of time or at aom.e one point of ita path is called its instantaneous velocity. The slope of .the position - time graph gives the velocity. The velocity - time graph for a body moving: with constant acceleration io a straight line inclined to the time axis. .

35

,a
Physics
The area under the velocity - time waph gives the diatance travell4d. The acceleration of the body can be computed by the slope of velocity- time waph.

For explaining the motion of a bodyJ fonowing three equation are used, v - Vo + a.t (ii) X - "b + Vo t +Y.o at'
~)

(iii)

v -

v~ + 2 a.(x- "iJ

2.8
1.
2.

TERJIIlNAL QUESTIONS._ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Distinguish between average speed and average velocity.

A car A moWigwith a speed of 65 ian/h on a straight rooul, is ahe~ef moto<cyde B moWig with the speed of 80 ian/h in the &ame direction. Wh81 is the velocity of B ,reIaIive to A?

3.
4.

How long does a car take to travel 30 m, if it accelerates :Cram rest at a rate of 2.0 m/ r? .
A motorcycliat covers hslf of the dist.mce between two place. ata speed of 30 ian/h and the second hslf at the speed of 60 'ian/h. Compute the average speed of the

motorcycle.
5. A duck flying directly south f.,.. the winter flies with a """stant velocity of 2P km/h for 25 km. How 10"11 doe. it take for the duck to fly this diatance?

6.

B_alore is 1200 ian from New Delhi by air (straight line distance) and 1500 ian by train. If by air it take. 2 bra and by tl'ain20 hrs, fwd the ratio of the average speed in both ~B.' '
A car accelerates 010"8 a straight road from rest to 50 km/h in 5.0 s. What is the magnitude of it~ average acceleration?

7.

8.

"- body with an initiol""locity of 2.0 mI. i. accelerated at 8.0 m/r for 3 ..oonda. (i) How far doe. the body travel during the period of acCeleration? (ii) How far would the

body travel if it were initiolly at reat?

9.

A boll i. released from reat from the top of a. clilI. Takin8 the top of the, clilI as the 'reference (zero) level and upwards as the positive direction. Draw (i)th. displacement-time graph, (il) distance-time graph. (iii) velocity-tUne graph, (i>') speed time graph.

10. A 11011 thrown vertica1ly upward. with a velocity v. from the top of the clilI of height II, . falla to the beach below. Taking \>each ... the reference (zero) level, upward as the .p"..,ttive direction, draw the motion graphs. ce. the graph. between (i) distance -' time; (ii) velocity - time, (iii) displace!nent. time, (iv) speed time grapha.
11. 'A body ia thrown vertica1ly upwa..-d, with a velocity of 10 m/a. What will be the value of the velocity and acceleration 'of the bolly, at the highest point?

12. Two objectJo 'Of different in_., one of 10 g and other of 100 g are dropped from the same height. Will thll][ reach the ground at the same time? Explain your answer.

13. What happens to the unifO("m motion of a body when it i. given an acceleralion at right angle to ita motion?
14. What does the slop of velOcity-time graph at any instant represent?

2.9 ABSWERS TO THE INTEXT QUESTIONS

....... QIIptl 2.1 1. Yea
2: 4 Average speed - ~ - - X 20 2+2
3.

4.

Yes, two movine with same velocity in the same directioo. After 1 hr, the relative distance between A and B will be

car.

8" +

10.

-11.89 km/h, average ""Iocity - 0

- 4(30)2 + (40)2 - 50 km.

36

Motion in a Straight Line

Hence, re1atiye speed of A with respec..1:

Next using ,; - vo' + 2" (x fl

"tJ

to B is 50 km/h.
1a_~2.2

lOJ2 ma-

l.

2.

See Fig 2.2 (i) A, (n) B covera more distance,

2.
3.

(iii) B, (iv) A, (v) SP"'!d 'It.{- - 1.5 km/h, speed of B. - 0.75 (m;.f!!\ (vii) A takes minimum time. .',

Using eq (2.9), x. 21 m, and using eq. (2.6), ,,- 13 ms-I. At maximum height v . 0, using eq, (2.10), "0 ms- I - 22.6 ms-I The body will be in air for the twice of the time it takes to reach the maximum height - 4.5/ . The acceleration of the ball is greater while it is thrown.

-7.JW

3.
4.

In the unifonn motion.

.(a) is not poaaible. because the distance covered cannot be less or zero. _Q_2.3 1. Using x - "i. + vot + Y, at'
Q-

4.

Sm.a-:I

I
37

3
LAWS OF MOTION
3.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous lesson you have studied that it is possible to desCribe the motion oCai'!. object in terms of its displacement, velocity and acceleration. But have yo\!. ever wondered what causes an object to move? What causes a ball rolling along the ground to come to a stop, apparently on its own?

From our everyday experience we mow that we need to push or pull 'an almirah if we wish to change its position in a room. Sin:l:arly, a football has to be kicked in. order to Send it over a large distance. A I;:ricket ball has to be hit hard with a bat to send it across the boundary for a six. Some kind of muscular activity is involved iri these situations and the action and its effect is quite visible. There are, however, many situations where the action is not visible. .For example, what makes rain drops fali on ground? What makes-the earth go round the sun? In this lesson you will discover a close relation between force and motion in the form of Newton's laws of motion. The concept of foree developed in this lesson will be useful in different branches of physics. Let us study about Newton's laws of motion which enable us to predict the behaviour of iI. particle or a sySt~ of particles under the influence of different forces.

3.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesSon, you should be able to,
e1qJlain the meaning of inertia and relate it to force; Mate Newton's laws of motion and illustrate them with examples; dlJjfne momentum, impulse and calculate them in a given situation; e1qJlain tluf law of conservation of momentUm and illustrate it with
examples;

fri.cti.on and rolling friction;

define coefficient of.friction and distinguish between static.fridioJ1, kinetic

sUggest different methods of reducing .friction and highlight the role of friction in every-thly life; and analyse a given situation and apply Newton's laws of motion using.free body diagrams.

Laws of Motion

3.3

CORCEPT 0(1' JI'ORCE AND nmRTlA

A large number of objects around us are known to remaiI). wherever they are placed. These objects cannot move on their own from one pJe.c;; to another place. These objects have to be forced to change th~.r state of rest. Similarly an object which is moving at constant velocity has to be forc~J to change its state of uniform motion. na. Wn4ent:tI of an oI#ject to nmudn In Its state of rest or In Its Stat. of unfform lfnecrr motion is CCln.d
burrtfa.

The state of rest or the state of motion of an object are not absolute. In the . prevwus lesson you have already studied that an object at rest with re, spect to one observer may appear to be in motion with respect to some other observer. Observations show that u.. cIumtIe In -lodtfI of an oI#ject can on,., 1M brov"lat ff _ _ netfore. acts on u.. 1HHIg. You are veIY well familiar with the term force. We use it in so m~y situations in our everyday life. We are exerting force when we are pulling pushing, kicking, hitting etc. Though a force is not visib~e but its effect car. be seen and experienced. Forces are known to have two kinds of effect.'! : (a)

2'IIeJI ..... change thII .,... and thII afire of an oI#ject.. For example, a balloon changes shape according to the forces acting on it.
~

ill)

cdao

frr/IuInu:e thII naotfon of an object.

A force can set an

object into motion or it can bring a moving object to rest. A force can also change the direction of motion. In lesson seven you will study about another effect of force - the rotational or turning effect of force.

3.3.1 Force and Change i.D Motion

Motion of any body is characterised by its velocity. We come across many situations where the velocity of an object is gradually increasing or decreasing. For example, in the case of a body falling freely, the velocity of the object increases continuously. Similarly, in the case of a ball rolled on some horizontal surface, the velocity of the ball is seen to decrease gradually to zero. Observations show that some force is responsible for change in velociq. of a body. Dfrectfon ofIMlodtfI of a bodJf .. alWCIJIII In u.. dfrectfon of its motion. na. ___ of thII bocCIt rDfII change dqtmtltng tq.IOn 'the "" . .CIon offlw.torr- adfntI on it. Ifsome force acts on a body in the direction of its motion, the velocity of the body will increase in magnitude. If the direction of force on the body is opposite to the direction of motion the magnitude of velocity will decrease. In both these cases the object moves in a st:raistlt line. However, if some force acts on a body in a direction perpendicular to its velocity, the magnitude of Velocity of the body remains constant. SUch a force is able to change only the direction of veJ.ocityofthe body. It is'important to note that_locftg of a bodJf changes _ ."., _ -fort:e .. aedng on it. Force is a vector quantity, forthis reason when several forces act on a body simultaneously, their single equivalent foree can be found by vec~or acdition about which you have alreadr read in lesson 1. Every fOl' " has a

39

Physics magnitude and a direc~n. The effect, a force acting on a system can pr(Jdu~e, depends on, (a) the mgnitude and direction of the force; (b) the poi'nt of application offorce; and (c) the duration for which it acts.

3.3.2 Newton's First Law of Motion

We see that in order to move a trolley at constant velocity it has to. be continuously pushed or pulled. Similarly, a horse is seen pulling the cart moving at constant velocity. Is there any net force acting on the trolley or the cart in the situations mentioned here? Galileo was the first to state that in the absence of any-external influence a botly .. annot only be at rest but also moves'.miformly.in a straight line .. He, therefore, regarded uniform rectilinear motion also to be natural siate of borlic<;.
It is now known that action of the horse on the cart is needed fOF balancing

out 'he force of friction on the cart. Similarly force of friction on the trolley ('an be overcome by continuously pushing <>f pulling it. Galileo drew the (',,,ldusion that in the absence of force of friction, a body such as a cart or a trolley, when once set in motion would continue to move at constant velocity. Isaac Newton generalised Galileo's conclusions in the form of a law known as Newton's first law of nwtion which states that a body cOlltinues to. be in the .ftote of rest or in ti,e state of IIlliform motioll ill a straight lille ulliess and until it is actect IIpCIn by sOllie lIet e.weri,"1 force.
As you know. the state of rest or motion of a body depends on its relative

position with respect to the observer. A person in a running car is at rest ",ith respect to another person in the same car. But the same person is in motion with respect to a person standing on the road. For this reason it becomes necessary to record measurements of changes in position, velocity and acceleration and force with respect to a "hosen frame of reference. A reference frame relative to which a body in translatory motion has constant velocity if no net external force acts on it is known as an inertial Jrame oj reJerence. Such a name follows from the property of inertia of bodies due to which they preserve their state of rest or state of ~nifQrm linear tilotion. A reference frame fIxed to the earth (for all practical pur poses) is considered an inc;rtial. frame of reference. . Nowtake a break and try to solve the following questions.

nrrEXT QUESTIONS 3.1

1.
Is it .:orr('ct hi stIlt! that 8 body alnays moves in the direction of net uternal force actinll! nn It

2.

What physical quantity is a measure of inertta of a body?

.

40

Laws of Motion
3.
Can a force change only the direction of velocity of an object keeping ita m8f!)litude constant?

4.

What are the different effe.cta a force is capable of producing?

3.4

CONCEPT OF MOMENTUM

Study of collision of bodies has revealed that there is a quantity mass multiplied by velocity whose net value for the colliding bodies remains unchanged in a collision. TIle prod.w:t oJ _ moJ a body and fta wlocftB 11 U called its linear momentwlt or sfm.ply momentum p. So
P =

mv

(3.1)

In the SI system of units momentum is measured in kgm/s. Momentum is a vector quantity. The direction of momentum vector is the same as the direction of velocity vector. Momentum of an object, therefore, can change

on accoUnt of change in its magnitude alone or direction alone or both. The following examples illustrate this point.
Bxamp1e 3.1: A 2 kg object is allowed to faU freely at t = 0 s. What will be its momentum at fa) t = 0 s, (b) t = 1 sand fe) t = 2 s thping its free-fall ?

Solution: (a) As velocity of the object at t - 0 s is zero, the momentum t'f the object will also be zero.
(hI At t = 1 s, the Velocity of the object will be 9.8 m/s [use v = Vo +atJ pointing downward. So the momentum of the object will be ~

= 19.6 kg, ml s pointing downward. (c) At t = 2 s, the velocity of the object will be 19.6 ml s pointing down
P, = (2 kg)x (9.8 ml s)
ward. So the momentum of the object will now be

Po

(2 kg) x (19.6 m/s) = 39.2 kg m/s pointing downWard.

Thus ,e see that the momentum of a freelyfalling body increases in magnitude only and points in the same direction. Now you think what causes the momentum of Ii freely-falling body to change in magnitude?
I.

_ p i e 30:1 : A rubber ball ofmass 0.2 kg strikes a rigid vertical waU with .a speed of 10 m/ s and rebounds along the original path with the same speed. Find the change in momentum of the ball.

Bolutloa : Here the momentum of the ball has same magnitude before and after the impact but there is a reversal in its direction. The magnitude of momentum is (0.2 kg) (10 m/s) i.e. 2 kg ml s.
i

I
!

If we consider initial momentum vector to be along +x axis, the fmal momentum vector wiD be along-x axis. So if 1', - 2 kg mis, PI = -2 kg m/s and cha"&'l in momentum .0Cthe ball- P,- PI - (-2 kgm/s) - (2 kg m/s)-4kgm/a.

Here negative sign shows that the momentum of the ball changes by 4 kg m/s in the direction of -x axis. What causes this change in mome -tum of the ball?
41

Phy~ics

In actual praotice a rubber ball rebounds from a rigid wall with a speed which is less than its speed before the impact. In such a case the magnitude of the momentum also change ..

3.4.1 Newton's Second Law of Motion

It is now known that a body moving at constant velocity will have constatit momentum. It is already known from Newton's fIrst law of motion that no

net external force acts on such a body.

In example 3.1 we have seen that the momentum of a ball falling freely under gravity increases with time. It is well known that such a body falls under the action of gravitational force acting on it. So there appears to be a connection between change in momentum of an object, net force. acting on it and the time for which it is acting. Newton's second law Of motion gives a quantitative relation between these. According to it tIuI rat:. of change of momentum of a body is dfrectly proportional to tIuI net force acting on tIuI body. Change in momentum of the body takes place in tIuI dfrection of net extern4IJorce acting on tIuI body.

This means that if IJ.p is the change in momentum of a body in time IJ.t due to some net external force F not on it, then
F
~
net

I1p

At

orF

net

=k~ -At

Here value of k, the constant of proportionality, .depends on the choice of units for .F, p and t. In the SI system of units p is measured in kg mis, tis in s and Fis measured in kg ml s'. That gives k = 1. So
= I1p I1t In the limit !J.t .... 0, we can write
F
net

(3.1)

=-

net

dp dt

(3.2)

From equation 3.1, it follows that change in momentum of a body is in the direction of net external force on it. Change in momentum of a body 4uring any time is taken as fInal momentum of the body minus initial momen tum of the body. From Newton's tirst law of motion it follows that a body at rest,j:a[l not mOve on .its own. Similarly if itis already moving, it can not change its velocity on its own. You may recall that if a body has constant velocity, its acceleration must be zero. You may also recall that by change in veloci.ty we mean change in magnitude of velocity or change in its direction or both. Newton's fIrst law also tells us that some net force must act on an object to change its state of motion. So net force acting on an object is the cause of acceleration of the object. Newton's second law of motion gives a quantita- . tive relation between force and acceleratio<"l. rf riue to the application of ~,et f"orce, the velocity of body changes by dv in time dt, then dp = mdv.

42

Laws of Motion Then the equation 3.2 gives, dv

F
net

=m-

dt

(3.3)
Example 3.3: A ball of mass 0.4 kg which starts rolling on the ground at 2Om! s when pushed comes to a stop after 10 seconds. Calculate the force which stops the ball, assuming it to be constant in magnitude throughout. Solution :Given,
m=O.4kg v = 0 mls
m(v - u)
t

u =20m/s = 10 s
lOs

SoF=

0.4 kg (Om Is - 20m Is)

= -D.8 kg m/s' = -0.8 N Here negative sign shows that force on the ball is opposite to its direction of motion. It is evident from the fact that there is a decrease in the momentum of the ball. You are already aware that the ball comes to rest because' of the action of force of friction on it.

1m pulse:

From equation 3.1 it follows that it is the product p.; At that determines change in momentum of a body. So a desired change in momentum can be brought about by a large force acting for a small duration , or by a small force acting for a long duration of time. The quantity F M is called the impulse. Thus, the cha.nge in momentum of a. body is equal to the fmpulse. Like momentum, impulse is also a vector quantity and is in the direction of the change in momentum. Its SI unit of measurement is kg mls or Ns. In deriving equation 3.1 it was assumed that force Fremains constant over time M of its action. There are many situation where the time of action of force is very small, for example, during the impact of a ball and a bat. In such cases F is considered as the average force.

Inertial Mass: The mass of a body defmed by Newton's second law of

motion is called inertial mass of the body. From Newton's second law F m=a The known value offorce and the experimental determination of the acceleration of a body as a result of the force can help us to measure inertial mass of the body. Now stop and by solving the following questions check how much you have learnt.

I
i
t

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.2_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

L Two objects of different m4.Sses have same momentum. Which cf them, is moving faster?

.................................................................................................................................
43

Physics
2. A ball i. thrown up at a speed of 20 mls by a thrower. If the ball return. to the thrower with the aame speed of 20 mls only, will there be any change in (a) momentum of the ball? ................................................................................. (bl magnitude of the momentum of the ball? ...................................... ,........................ . When a ball falls from a height, its momentum increases? What caueee increase in ita momentum?

3.

.............................................................................................................................. ...
~

4.

In which case will there be larger change in momentum of the object? (al A 150 N force acta for 0.1 s on a 2 kg object initiatiy at rest. (bl A 100 N force act. for 0.25 on a 4 kg. object initially at reat.

.......................................................................................................................... ..
".

5.

I. it con-ect to say ~t a fast moving object poaaessea more force than a slow m~ object? Why? .

6.

An ob~~d i. moving at a constant speed in c?natant momentum? Why?

l\

circular path.

Does the object have

................................................................................................................................,
Bampl_ &4 : A ronstant force of 50 N is applied to a body "f 1 0 kg moving initially with a speed of 1 0 m/ s. Haw long will it take the body 10 stop if the force acts Qn it in a direction opposite to its velocity.

Solutioa : Given, Mass of the body,

m
F nct

Tofind :

"

"0

-lOkg --SON -lOm/s

=0 =?
=

Formula(s) F oet = m("

or t-lOOkgm/s -SON

-/,o ) or -50 N

10 kg(

O-l~m IS)

lOOkgm/s SOkgm /s2'

t.:I .._ad.

3.S

FORCES IN PAIRS

It is the gravitational pull of the earth which allows an object to acc:e1era;.c;

toward earth. Does the object also pull the earth? Similarly when wi push an almirah, does the almirah also push us? If so, why don't ?til move in the direction of that force? These situations compel us to asJt whether a single force such as a push or a pull exists? It has been ob c served that actions of two bodies on each other are always mutual. Here, by 'action' we mean 'force of interaction'. So, whenever two bodies interact, they exert force on each other. The force of interaction could be action-at-a-distance type or a contact force type. Thus forces have been found to emerge in Pairs always. But generally we are concerned with one of the forces in a pair which is acting on the object of interest.

3.5.1 "ewtoll'. Third Law of 1I0Uoll

On the basis of his study of interaction between bodies, Newton formulated third law oJ motion which states that to -,." cu:tfon tIwN ..

44

I
f 1

Laws of Motion

equal and opposite reactl.on. The action and req:ction act on differentbodfes.
Here by 'action' and 'reaction' we mean force. It follows from here that a single isolated force does not exist. Thus, When we exert some force on a table by pressing our finger against it, the table also exerts a force of equal magnitude on our finger in the upward direction as shown in Fig. 3.1. Do the forces f, and J; shown here cancel out? It is important to note that f, and J; are acting on different bodies. . The action and reaction in a given situation appear as a pair of forces. Anyone of them cannot exist without the other.

Fig 3.1 : Force f, exerted by the finger on table and force J.,. exerted . by the table on the finger.

If one goes by the literal meaning of words, reaction always follows an action. Whereas action and reaction introduced in Newton's third law exist simultaneously. For this reason it is better to state Newton's third law as when two objects fnteract, the force exerted by the first object on the second (the action) is equal fn magnitude and opposite fn direction to the force by the second object on the first (reaction). Vectorially, if .F'2 is the force which object 1 experiences due to object 2 and F2I is the force which object 2 experiences due to object I, then If m, and

m, are the masses of objects 1 and 2 respectively then

m, a,
=-m,~

F'2 = -F2,

(3.4)

3.5.2 -Internal and External Forces

As you have studied that some net external force on an object causes the object to accelerate. If a car .breaks down it ~ either be towed by some other vehi~le or pushed from behind. Here the force exerted on the car by the tOwing vehicle or the push froin behind acts as the external force on the car. Can the car be moved by a person who is sitting in the car and pushing it from inside? Such a push is called fntemalforce and has no role to playas far asinotion of car is concerned. To make the distinction betWeen in.ternal forces and external forces clear. let us look at some specific examples.

a--_
t=
F

Fig 3.2: Two blocks on a fridtionless horizontal sUrface.

a) Consider two blocks A and B. placed in contact with each other on a f=tionless horizontal suril'ce. When some external force f is applied to

45

Physics them in the direction shown in Fig. 3.2, both the blocks move to the left with the SI!Jlle acceleration. But, what causes the block A on the left to accelerate? It is the force / which the block B on the right exerts on it. In accordance with Newton's third law, block on the left also exerts force/on the block on the. right. However, the forces of magnitude f each which these blocks exert on each other are internal to the system of blocks. b) Whenever bodies collide, the forces involved are 'internal'to the colliding bodies taken as a system. So the absence of any external force on the system dem~ds that total momentum'of the system should be consenred.

3.5.3 Forces in Equilibrium Nuntber oJ Jorr:es fICtlng on cui object or a .".,.". _ said to lHI In equilibrium if the 1I8ctor _ oJ all the Jorca is aero. In accordance
with Newton's second law, acceleration of such an object or system will be zero. Let us take an example. Consider a block of mass m resting on some horizontal surface as shown in Fig 3.3(a). In this situation we can talk about a number offorces. Such as, . (i) gravitational pull of the earth on the block equal in magnitude to mg. (u) force of magnitude mg which the block exerts on earlh.

"''''.>

7 7 >;;"')P

r I>"
Pia. 3.31_)
&

7> PI&- a.31b)

(ill) force of magnitude mg which the block exerts on the surface normally on which it is resting. (iv) force of normal reaction N exerted by the surface on the block in accordance with Newton's third law.

Fig. 3.3(b) shows the forces acting on the block. Since the block is in equilibrium N mg. In the situation described above, is there any frictional force acting on the block? In the next section you will study problems where more than two forces are in equilibrium. Now, it is time for you to check how mUch you have learnt.

INTEXT QUESTlO:NS 3.3_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1, When a high jumper l e _ the ground, where doe. the force which accelerate. the jumper upward. come from ? Identify action - reaction force. in each of the following situations: (a) A man kicks a football. ,........................................ ,............................................ .

2,

46

Laws of Motion
(b) EIorth

pun. the moon. ....................................................................................... .

(e) A ball hit. a wall.................................................................................................

3.

What is the magnitude and direction of the IP"vitationai force which a 60 kg woman exert. on earth?

.................................................................................................................................
4.

Name the forces which are in equilibrium in each of the following aituationsi'
(a) A book reating on a table .................................................................................. ..
(b) A cork Boating in water ..................................................................................... .

(e) A pendulum bob suspended from the ceiling with the help of a string.

.................................................................................................................................
5. Three blocks of JDa8II m each are pieced on top of a table as ebown. Name & force each which i8 internal and external to the system of blocks.

1 2 3

.................................................................................................................................
6. A woman _ _ a large force on an almirah to pueb it forward. The """""" i. not puebed backward be<:auaa the aJmirah _ a amall' force on' woman" I. the BrIIl.Dent gMm here .....- ? Wb,y 1"

3.6

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

Momentum possesses a very useful property of being conselVed under certain conditions. It has been experimentally confirmed and has been proved also that if two bodies interact, the vector swn of the momenta of these bodies remains. unchanged provided the force of mutual interaction is the only force acting on the bodies. The same has been found to be true for more than two bodies interacting with each other. Generally, a numb~of bodies interacting with .each other are said to .be forming a system. If the bodies in a system do not interact with bodies outside the system, the system is said to be a closed system or an isolated system. The law of conservation of momentum is valid for isolated systems only and can be stated as the ..etor InIm 0/ the momenta 0/ IIocffa comprising an _raw spn.m remaflul constant. Here, it follows that it is the total momentum of the bodies forming an isolated system remains unchanged and the momentum of individual bodies may change in mllgllitude alone or direction alone or both depending upon the tyPe of interaction. What causes the momentum of individ:ual bodies in l'n isolated system to change momentum? Conservation of linear momentum is applicable in wide range of phenomena such as collisions, explosions, nuclear reactions, radioactive decay etc.

47

Physics

3.6.1 Conservation of Momentum asa Consequence of Newton's Laws

According to Newton's second law of motion, equation 3.1, the change in momentum !J.p of a body wheh a force F acts on it for time Mis !J.p~ F M. It follows from here that ffno force acts on the body, the change in momentum of the body will be zero. Therefore the momentum.of the body will remain unchanged. This explanation can be, applied to a systelll of bodies also.

Newton's third law can also be used to arrive at the same result. Consider an isolated system of two bodies A and B which interact with each other for time M. If FA and Fa are the forces which they exert on each other then, in accordance with Newton's third law
or
FA =-F.a !J.p, ___ /lpB

or !J.p, + !J.Pa

=0

or !J.Ptotal

So there is no change in the momentum of the system.

3.6.2 A Few IllustratioDs of the CODservatil)D of Momentum

a) Recoil of a gun : When a bullet is fIred from a gun, the gun recoils. The velocity v, of the recoil of the gun can be f01:IDd by using the law of conservation of momentum. Let m be the mass of the bullet. being fired from a gun of mass M. If VI is the velocity of the bullet, then the velocity v, of the gun will be such that

m VI + Mv~ = 0 or mvI --Mv,

or v2 = M

-m
VI

(3.5)

Here, negative sign shows that v, is in opposite direction to VI' As generally mM, the recoil velocity of the gun is much smaller than the velocity of the b u l l e t . . b). CoUiHion : In a collision we may regard the colliding bodies as fonning a system. In the. absence of any external force on the colliding bodies such as the force of friction, the system can be considered to be an isolated system. The.forces of interaction between the colliding bodies being internal to the system will not be able to change the momentum of the colliding bodies. Example 3.S : Two coupled troUeys, each of mass m, are moving with initial velocity v. They collide anq couple with three stationary trolleys also of mass m each. What wiUbe the velocity of the trolleys after the impact?
Solution: Let Ii be the velocity of the trolleys after the impact. Momentum before collision * 2 mv Momentum after collission - 5 mil

48

Laws of Motion
In accordance with the law of conservation of momentum 2 mv := 5 mil

or v'=-v 5
0) E:&plollioD of. bomb: A bomb explodes into fragments through the

release of stored energy. Consider a bomb at rest initially which explodes into two fragments A and B. As the momentum of the bomb was zero before explosion, the total momentum of the two fragments formed will also be zero after the explosion. For this reason, the two fragments will fly off in opposite direction with equal momenta. If the masses of the two fragments are equal, the velocities of the two fragments will also be equal in magnitude .

) Rocket propulsion: Flight of a rocket is an important practical application of conservation of momentum. A rocket is a two-body system. It consists of a shell with a fuel tank, which can be considered as one body. The fuel in the fuel tank can be considered as the other body. The shell is provided with a nozzle through which high pressure gases are made to escape. On firing the rocket, the combustion of the fuel produces gases at very high pressure and temperature. Due to their high pressure, these gases escape from nozzle at a high velocit;y. The rocket flies in the opposite direction. The propulsion of the rocket can be explained as follows:
Foran earth based observer, the total momentum of the rocket (shell and fuel) is zero before launching. As a result of combustion of fuel, the ejected gases acquire certain momentum. Considering the shell and the fuel to be forming a closed system, their total D;l.omentum must also be zero after launching. Therefcire, the shell acquires a momentum equal in magOitude to the momentum of the ejected gases but in opposite direction. PropUlsion of a rocket is different from the recoil of a gun in atleast one important aspect as far as the conservation of momentum is concerned. Unlike the bullet, the entire gas from the rocket is not ejected at once. In actual practice, the rocket loses fuel at some rate which is generally constant.
Again it is time to check your progress. Solve the following questions.

IRTJtXT QUESTIONS 3.4-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.

1. the momentum of a ball falling freely conse"",d? Why?

2.

Can a bomb, .initially at rest, explode into (a) two pieces which fty in -opposite directions to each other? (h} three pieces which fly in mutually perpendicu1ar directions?

..................................................................................................................................
3. Why i. the velocity of recoil of a gun much smaller than the velocity of the bullet?

...............................................................................................................................
4.

Two balls of maoa 0.2 kg each are moving along the same line towards each other with a vel"city of 10 mls just before colliding. What will be the total momentum of the
balls after the collision?
;~

.................................................... .......................................................................... .
49

Physics

3.7

FRICTION

It is well known that when we push a ball to make it roll along the ground, the ball does not continue to travel for ever. It rather comes to rest after travelling some distance. Thus the momentum of the ball which was imparted to it during initial push changes to zero. We have already studied that some force on the ball is responsible for change in its momentum. Such a force called the .frlctlonalforce emerges whenever bodies in contact tend to move or move with respect to each 'other. It is the force of friction on an almirah which has to be overcome When we push or pull it along the floor to change its place.
Force offrlctWn is a eontactforee and is always db BCted along the MUfaees in contact. It is commonly known that friction is caused by

roughness of the surfaces in contact. For this reason deliberate attempts are made to make the surfaces rough or smooth depending upon the requirement. Friction opposes the motion of objects,. causes wear and tear and is responsible for loss of mechanic:iJ. energy. aut then, it is d)le to friction only that we are able to walk, drive vehicles and stop moving vehicles. Friction thus plays a dual role in our lives.

3.7.1 Static and Kinetic Friction

It is commQn eXperience that certain minimum force is required to move an object over a surface. To illustrate this point let us consider a block resting on some horizontal surface as shown in Fig. 3.4. Let some external force F _ be applied to the block in the direction showns, such that the block does not move. Ttris is possible only if some other force is acting on . the block which is ofthe same magnitude as Fext but is in oPPosite..ditection. Such a force is called the force of statfe.frlctlon and is represented by symbol I.. As Fext is increased, I. also increases and remains equal to F.., in magnitude untill it reaches a critical value I.(max). When F"", ill. increased further, the block starts to slide and is then subject to klnatle .frlctIon. It is common experience that force needed to set an object into motion is larger than the force needed to keep it moving at constant velocity. For this reason the maximum force of statU:.frlettott fJmax} between a pafr Of stDf- in contact will be larger than the force of kinetfe friction f. between them. Fig. 3.5 shoWs'the variation of lhe . force of friction with the external force.
f.

f.....

f.
7/';')1

rl

f_ -------smooth sliding

F...

hnnn77J;717
(at rest)

F...

Ftc 3.4: Farces acting on the block.

Fi&: 3.5: Variation offorce of[rictiOTL

50

Laws of Motion For a given pair of surfaces in contact, what are the JaLton on which f.(max) and f. depend? It is an experimental fact that f. (max) is directly proportional to the normal force F". So f.(max) ~ F" or f. (m~) = Il. F. (3.6) Here Il, is called the coe.t/fcfent of static .frk:flon. As f. Sf. (max), f. S Il. F. It has also been experimentally found that maxfmumforce of static.trWtion between a pair of surfaces is fndepende~t of the area of contact. Similarly, f. = ~ F" (3.7) Where ~ is the coe.tficUmt of kfnetfc jrk:tfon. Generally Il. >~, but there are exceptions. Moreover, coefficients Il, and ~ are not really constants for any pair of FN surface such as wood on wood or rubber on concrete etc. Value of It. and Il" for a given pair of materials depends on

roug""-. cleanness, temperature. humfdity etc.

As discussed earlier, the normal force F" of the surface on the block can be found by knowing the. force with which the block presses the surface. As shown in Fig 3.6, the normal force FN on the block will be mg where m is the mass of the block. Fill 3.6: Nor;maJforce on the block.

Example 3.6: A 2 kg block is resti,lg on a horizontal surface. The coefficient of static friction between the surfaces in contact is 0.25. Find .he maximum force of static friction between the surfaces in contact.

Solutlon: Here F" = mg and 11. = 0.25 As f.(max) = 11, F. = 11. mg - (0.25) (2 kg) (9.8 m/s2) - 4.9 N.
Example 3.7: A 5 kg block is on a horizontal surface for which It. = 0.1. What will be the ~leratlon o/the block if it is pulled by aID N force acting on it in the horizontal directWn?

Solutio'll'
. As f.. ~ FIf where F" - mg Therefore f. - II., mg - (0.1) (5 kg') (9.8 m/s2) - 4.9 kg m/s2 - 4.9 N Net force on the block = F"", - f. - lON-4.9N - 5.1 N

and therefore, acceleration - a =

F ..... 5.1N --=-m Skg

1.02

mIs'

So the block will have an acceleration of 1.02 externally applied force.

51

mis'

in the direction of

Physics

3.7.2ROlliDg Friction
It is CO!ll!llon experience that it is easier to push or pull objects which are on wheels. The !llotion of a w~eel is different frO!ll the sliding !llotiQn. It is rolling !llotion. The friction in the case of rolling !llotion is known as rollfngfrlctfDn. For the sa!lle nor!I1al force, rollingfriction is !lluch S!llaller than sliding friction. For example when . steel wheels roll over steel rails, rolling friction 7T~;>;?;i>' ~ is about 1/100" of sliding friction between steel and steel. 'JYpical values for coefficient of rolling friction It,are 0.006 for steel on steel and .... 3.7: Deformation of the jIDt 0.02 - 0.04 for rubber on concrete. su.r/Dce during rolling.

0'""

In the case of roIling !llotion of a wheel On SO!lle surface, the point of contact of the wheel has zero relative velocity with respect to the surface. This mean the point of contact of the wheel has no sliding motion. oDJ.y the centre of the wheel moves forward. The origin of roIling friction can be explained as follows. When a ball rolls on some flat surface, it slightly deforms the surface. Figure 3.7 shows the deformation oCthe flat surface during roIling. Because of the surface deformations, a roIling ball.1'!;uI to climb a hill as long as it is rolling. 1f the surfaces in contact are harder, lesser will be the surface defor!llalions and hence smaller the rolling friction.

3.7.3 Importance of Friction

Friction plays very important role in our life. It is because of frictiOn only that we are able to walk o~ hold a tooth brush in our hand. Appreciable friction is required between the brake shoe and the rim of a bicycle for the purpose of stopping it when required. And interestingly, it is the force of friction only which sets a vehicle driven by an engine IIito motion. Discussed below is a situation highlighting role of friction. . WaIldDI: When we are statlding on the floor thereis no net force acting on us in the horizontal or vertical direc.tion. As we begin to walk, we must have some acceleration in the forward direction. Which means that some net external force must act on us in the .forw~ direction. From where does this force come? We create this force on us by pushing the floor in the backward direction. It is due to the friction between the floor and our feet that we are able to obtain the desired force on us. Fig 3.8 showa the direction in which floor is to be pushed by the feet to experience force of friction on it in the forward direction. That explain, why it is difficult for us to walk on a S!llooth/slipper surface.

foIward force of frIdIon

.... 3.8: Forces on the feet whl1e walking.

backward push on the floor

52

Laws of Motion Force of friction~offers hfndrturce too. CIt is the force of friction which brings a moving bi-cycle to rest on a level road if we stop paddling it. Do we need to paddle a bicycle to move it at constant speed on a level road? Friction is responsible for great amount of energy loss in machines. As you will study in lesson 6, work is required to be done in overcoming force of friction. For this reason deliberate attempts are made to reduce friction where it is undesirable.

3.7.4Methods of Reducing Friction

Wheel is considered to be greatest invention of mankind for the simple reason that rolling is much - much easier than sliding. Making use of rolling friction are the ball bearings. In a ball-bearing steel balls are placed between two co-axial cylinders as shown in Fig. 3.9. Generally one of the two cyclinders is allowed to tum with respect to the other. Here the rotati,?n of the balls is almost a frictionless motion. Ballbearings fmd application in almost all type of vehicles and in electric motors such as electric fan.

na: 3.9: Balls in the ball-bearing.

URe of lubrl.cants such as grease or oil between the surfaces in contact reduces friction considerably. In h"avy machines, oil is made to flow over moving parts. It reduces frictional force between moving parts at,.! also p 'eventS them from getting over heated. Presence oflubric8:nts such as oil and grease infact, changes the nature of friction from dry friction to fluid friction which is considerably smaller than the former.

noiu of compressed and purl/fBd air between the surfaces in contact . also reducClsfriction. Italso prevents dustand dirt from collecting on the moving parts. A hover crnft is made to run on a cushion of air provided by powerful air pumps.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.5_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
1.

A tal-'e is tv<

Do

on a floor. 18 aome force: of friction acting on the table?

2. 3.

A book i. \ying on an inclined plane. Is some force of friction acting on the book?

.................................................................................................................................
With F, - 20 N and F, .. 15 N the block of mass 3 kg i. ididing at constant speed. What will happen when F, is t,emoved?
In pushing a box up an inclined plane, i. it better to puah horizontally or to push

4.

para11el to the inclined plane? Why?

.........................., ................................................................................................... ..
On the next p"~' . 'few Guidelines are given which will help you in solving pr lems: A nt.l A!r of solved examples have also been given at the md of t' section. You may try them yourself before go'ing through their solution.

53

Physics

THE lI'REB BODY DIAGRAM TECBlIIQUB

1.
2. 3.
Draw a simple, neat diagram of the system. as perthe given deJocriptIon.

Isolate the objet:tof~ This object will. be called the,.,...1/o4g now. Considez all eJil:4rrt4r.forca acting on the free body and mark them by arrows touching the free body with their line of~ clearly represented.

4.

Now apply Newton's second law l:F- rna (or l:F. = rna. and l:Fy = may)

Rememher: (i) Thore must be net force on the object along the direction of acceleration of the object. Iii) For obtaining a Complete solution, you must have as many independent equations as the number of unknowus.

5.

If the free body diagram of an object is made with reference to a noninertial frame; pseudoforces like the centrifugal fOrce will. slso be considered as real fOrces acting on the object in addition to all other external forces. The direction of such a force will. be opposite to the direction of acceleration of the frame of reference. In some situations you may bave to consider rotationsl motion of the object and hence the experessions, torque, To. 11X, torque = fOrce x fOrce arm are to be used. In such situations one has to balance clockwiae m0ments' with antic10ckwise moments about some axis about which the object rotates or tends to rotate.

6.

Bzemple 3.8: Two blocks of masses m, and '?12 are connected bya string and placed on a smooth horizontal surface. The"lock of mass m2 is pulled by aforce F acting parallel to the horizontal surface. What Will be the acceleration of the blocks and the tension in the string connecting the tr.oo blocks (assuming it to be horizontal)? SolutloD: Let a be the acceleration of the blocks in the direction of F and let the tension in the ~ be T. On applying l:F - rna In the Component form to the free body diagram of m. and. m... we ~ N - 1m. + 11I.)g - 0 and F -1m. + m)a fiii;t--F N- 1m. + 11I.)g, and a = m, + m '

to the free body diagram of

On applying rF- rna in the component fonn m. we get N, - m.g - 0 and T- m, a

N, -

m.g and T = m,.( m, : 111:1)

or

T=( m,.+111:1 1Rt }F

54

Apply rF - rna once again to the free body diagram of m... and see whether you get the same expressions fOT a and T.

Laws of Motion
Blra:IDple 3.9: Two masses m, and m2 (m, >mJ are 60nnected at the two ends of a light inextensible string thm: passes over a light frictionless fof.ed
-

pulley. Find the acceleration of the masses and the terision in the string connecting them when the masses are released.
Solution: Let a be the acceleration of mass m. downward. The" aeeelera tion of mass m.., will also be a only but upward. (Wh:y?). Let T be the tension in the string connecting the two masses.

On applying l:F - ma to" m. and m.., we get

m g- T- m a T- m.., g- m.., a On solving equations (1) and (2) fOil a and Twe get

(1) (2)

a=

ml - 11'1:2 } ( m. + 11'1:2 9

At this stage you can check the prediction of the results thus obtained for the extreme values. of the variables (i.e. m. and Either take m, = or m, and see whether a and Ttake values as "expected.

m..

m..

ny.

BKample 3.10: A trolley ofmass M = 1 0 kg is connected to a block of mass m - 2 kg with the help of a massless inextensible string passing over a light frictionless pulley as shown in Fig (a). The coefficient of kinetic fricIion be-

tween the trolley and the surface is Il .. 0.02. Find a) acceleration of the' trolley. b) tension in the string. Solutio.: Fig (b), (c) shows the free body diagrams of the trolley and the block. Let a be the acceleration of the block and the trolley. For the trolley, F. .. Mgand TMa where JL.FH

.. JL. Mg So T-11,. Mg .. Ma (1) For the block mg - T" rna (2) On adding equations (1) and (2) we get mg- I1,.Mg" (M-+ m)a
" _my=----=-Il-".t_Mi:,.9 or a .. M +m

t.. ..

t.. ..

lei

(2kg)(9.8m
2

I S2) - (o.o2)(IOkg)(9.8m I S2)

(IOkg + 2kg)
2

..

19.6kgm/s -I.96kgm/s -147 12 "I2kg -. m s

So a .. 1.47 m/s' From equation (2) T .. my - ma .. m (g - a) .. 2 kg (9.8 mis' - 1.47 m/s'l .. 2 kg (8.33 m/s'l So T .. 16.66N

55

Physics

IBTEXT QUESTIONS
1.

3.6,~_ _ _ _ _ _ _.,..-_ _

A block of mass m is held on a rough inclined surface of inclination 8 . Show in a diagram, various forces acting on the black.

2,

A force of 100 N acta on two blocks A and B of m ....se. 2 kg and 3 kg respectively placed in contact on a smooth horizontal surface as shqwn, What i. the magnitude of force which block A exert. on block B? What will be the tension in the string when a 5 kg object suspended from it is pulled up with (s) a velocity of 2 m/s ? (b) an acceleration of 2 m/s' ? In the reference frame attached to a freely falling body of mas. 2kg, what is the .magnitude and direction of inertial force on the bO,dy?

3.,

4.

3.8

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT_ _ _ _ _ _ __

The fIurrtIa of a body is its tendency to resist any
ch~e

in its velocity.

Newton'. JIr.c __ states that a body remains in a state of rest 'or in a state of unifonn motion in a straight line as long as net external force acti.."1g on it is Zero.
For a single particle of mu. mmoving with velocity called the linear momentum as p _ mv. r
II

we define a vector quantity p

The impulse of a force F on a particle is equal to the change in momentum of the body and is given by the area under the Force~time curve.
Naurton:". . . . . . . law states that the time rate of change of momentum of a body is. proportional to the re.ultant force acting on the body.

According to- Newton'. second law, acceleration produCed in a body of conatant mass i. directly proportional to net -..mal force acting on the body or F - rna Th. proportiona1ity factor between the net external force and the acceleration it cau... in any object i. the object'. inertial mass.

-.a'. tJdnf ..... atate. that if two bodies A and B inte,'act with each other, then tho .force which body A tixerta on body B will be equal and oppolite to llie fQrce which body B exerts on bodv A.
According to the law of conservation of momentum if no net external force acta on a , syatem of particlea, the total momentum of the of particle. will remain con'atant reprdie8B of tho natura of foree. between the particle.

aYatem

Frictional force i. the force which acta on a bodywh~n the body attempta to alide, alide. or roU. alOIll! a surface. The force of friction i. alwa.v. parallel to the .urface. in contact and oppoaite to the direction of motion of the object. In the case of objects ~ by oome internal mechanism .uch aa a wheel driven by an engine, the f~ C'.! of friction causes motion. The maximum force of lOtatic friction f. (max) between a body and a surface is propor'tional to the normal for"" K acting on the body. This maximum force 0=0_ when the body i. on the verge of a!id:ng. For a body sliding on oome sunace, the magnitude of the force of kinetic friction 1. i. given by 1. where "" i. the cociIicient of kinetic friction for the surfaces in contRct.

""N

56

Laws of Motion
Use 6f rollers and ball - bearings reduces friction and aaaociated eneriY 10ues conoiderably lUI rolling friction i. much amaDor than kin.tic friction. Newton'. laws of motion are applicable only in an inertial. frame oC reference. An inertial frame .is one in which an ioo1eted object haa zero acceleration.. For an object to be in static equilibrium, the vector aum of all the force. acting on it must be aero. nu. is a nocoll8NY and .ufficient condition. for point objecta only.

3.9
1.

TERMIKAL QUESTIOIfS,_ _ _ _ _~_ __

Which of the following will alw"3'll be in the direction of net external force acting <in the body?
(aj displacement'

(cl acceleration

(bl (dl

velocity momentum.

2.

When a COI18timt net external force acta on an object, which of the following mq not change? (aj pooition (bl apeed (cl velocity (dl acceleration . Justify your anower with an example each.

3.
4.

....,und.

I!. 0.5. kg ball is dropped from such a height that it tal!:e. 4 seconds to reach the

Calculate the c!>ange in momentum of the ball.

In which case will there be larger ch&nge in momentum of a 2 kg obj<;ct? (aj When 10 N force acta on it for 1 (bl When 10 N force acta on it for 1 m. Calculate change in momentum in each cue. I!. ball of mao. 0.2 kg fall. in air with an acceleration of 6 on the ball.

5.

mI.',

Calculate the airdrag

6.
7,

I!. load of maoa 20 kg is lifted with the help of a rope at constant acceleration. The load co...... ": height of 5 m in 2 aeconda. Calculate the tension in the rope. I!. ball of maas 0.1 kg moving at 10 mls i. deftected by a wall ~ the same speed in ilie direction shown. What is the II1II8Jlitude of the change in momentum'of the ball?
each with a apeed of 900

8.

Find the _ _ recoil force on a machine gun that i. firina 150 bullets per minute, mI . Maoo of each bullet is 12 g.

9.

E>q>lein wb,y, when _ching faat moving ball, the handa ..... drawn back while the ball is being brouaht to reat.

10. I!. CODatant-force of ....,..utude 20 N act. on a body of maoa :I kg initially at reat for 2 .econdo what will be the velocity of the object after (aj 1 second from start? (bl 3 aecondo from .tart?
11. How doe. a force acting on a block in the direction shoWn here keep the oIiding down the wall?

--ucal

blQck from

12. I!.:I kg block is reotiQg on horiaontal ourface. The coefficient of otatic friction be, tw.en the block and the surface is 0.5, ~ will be the magnitude and direction of the force of friction on the block when the ~de of tho extema1 force acting on the block in the direction shoWn is (aj 0 N (hI 4.9 N (c) 9,8 N

13. For a block on surface the maximuut"force of static friction is 10 N. What will be the, force of friction on the block when a 5 N extema1 force i. applied to it parallel to the owface on which it is reating? .
14. What minimum Coree F is required to keo;p a 5 kg block at rest on an inclined plene of inclination 30". The coefficient of lllatic friction between the block and the inclined plene i. 0.25. 15. Two blocks P and Q oC maoaea .... - 2 kg and m, - 3 kg reapective1)t are placed in contact with eaqh other on a hoiUontai friCtionie.. aurfllce. S~meextema1 Coree FION i. applied tt. tho block P in the directiori shown in Fig Find the following, .

57

Physics
(a) acceleration of the blockS (b) force which the block P exerts on block Q.

16. Two blocks P and. Q of masses "" - 2 kg and m., - 4 kg are connected to a third block R of mass M as shown in Fig. For what maximum value of M will the SYH.t~ be in equilibriUm? The frictional force acting on each block is half the force of normal reaction on it.

17. Explam the role of friction in the case of bicycle brakes. What will happen if a few drops of oil are put on the rim?
18. A 2 kg. block i. pushed up "" incline plane of inclination 8 - 37 imparting it a speed of 20 mI.. How much d;.tance will the block travel before coming to reat? The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block. and the incline is "'" - 0.5. Take 9 - 10 mIs' and use am 37 - 0.6, cos 37 - 0.8.

3.10 ANSWERS TO THE INTEXT QUESTIONS

IDtext Questwus
1.

a1

2.

(e) If the force with which a man kick.

2.
3.

4.

The statement is true for a body which was at rest before the application of Borne net foree. Inertial mass Yea A force can cause translational and rotational motion. [t can al80 deform bodies. Object of smaller m .....
(e) Yes (b) No.

lutext Questlous 3.2

1.

2. 3. 4.
S.

6.

Momentum of the falling ball increue. because gravitational force acta on it in the direction of ita motion. In caoe (b) the change in momentum will be It i_ the F.lit proauct that give. the change in momentum. No. Foree ia not related with momentum. It i. related with the rate of change of momentum. No. Thousb the speed is constant, the velocity of the object change_ due to change in'direction. Hence it. momentum Vrill not be constant.

3.

I.......

4.

lutext Questioua
1.

a3

5.

The jumper i. accelerated upward by the force which the ground exerts on the jUlllbp..... 'lhis force 1. the reaction to the force which the jumper exert_ on the ground.

a football is action then the foFCC whi!'b the football exerts on the man will be ita reaction. (b) 1 the force with which earth pulls the moon i. action then the force which the moon exert. on the earth will be ita reaction, (c) If the force which the ball exerts on the wall is the action then1h& furce which the wall exert. on the ball will be ita reaction. Gravitational force on a 60 kg woman i. 60 x 9.8 N i. 588 N. In """"rdance with Newton'. third law the gravitational force exerted by the woman on the earth will alao be 588 N. It will be directed radially outward. (a) gravitational force on the book and the reaction force qf the table. (b) gravitational force on the eorkand the upthrust i.e. buoyant force. (e) gravitational force on the bob and the tension in the string connecting the bob. Force internal to the sy.tem of blocks : The force with which bloCk 2 pres... block 3. l1"orce external to the system of blocks: 'nle reaction force of .the table,. on the blocks.

58

Laws of Motion
IDtext Queatioaa 3.4
1.

IDtext QueRioaa 3.15

1.

2.

3.

No. The momentu'm of the ball is not conserved because a freely - falling object is under the action of ,a net external force. (a) Yes. The two pieces formed as a result of explosion will have equal. and opposite momenta so that the total momentum of the pieces fonned is zero as before the explosion. (b) Three momentum vectors ean never produce a zero resultant if t:heJ' are not in one plane, a bomb initially at rest cannot explode into three pieces which fly in mutually perpendicular directions. Such an occurrence is not possible as it violates the law of conservation of momentum. In accordance with the law of conservation of momentum, agun recoil. with the same ma.gnitude of momentum u that of the bullet. A. the m .... of the gUn i. generally much larger than the bullet, the ...coil ".,1oc:ity of the gun i.

4.

ratezt QueRioaa 3.6

1.
(h) force of friction f

No, 2. Yes,' 3. 5 m/s2 It is better to push the box by applying the force parallel to the inclined plane. When the force is applied horizontally. only a component of this force will act along the intended direction of motion. Moreover another component of this force will press the box on the incline thereby increasing the force of reaction of the inc:1ine on the box. As a result of thia, the force of friction on the box will also increase.

Various forces acting on the block are (a) force of reaction N of the inclined plane

2.
3.

4.

much _aIler. Zero.

4.

(e) gravitational force mg. Fig. shows them in their appropfiate directions. 60N (8) 49 N (h) 59 N. 19.6 N in the ".,rticaJJY upward .direc-

tion.

59

4
MOTION IN A PLANE
4.1
mTRODUCTION

In the previous ~o lessons you have studied concepts related to moUat' -in a straight line and Newton's Laws of Motion. Certainly these are not eno~_ to describe motion in a plane. Can you describe the JIlotion of object<; moving in 8: plane using the concepts discussed in these l~nlll':How ever, you have also learnt to represent motion graphically in twr -d4nensions. So we will cany forward from there and introduce certain rteweoocepts in this lesson to descn'le motion in a plane, i.e.;motion in two di mensions. In this lesson, you will mainly study about projectile !11~ and circular motion. We will introduce the related concepts 01 ~~ speed, centripetal acceleration, centripetal and centrifugal force to eXplain this kind of motion. Studyin& this lesson will help you answer interesting questions like the followinl : What should the position and speed of an aircraft be so that tli~_ food or medicine packets dropped from it reach people a1J"ected by fioodiior earthquakes? How should an athlete throw a discuss or ajavelin so ~ft covers the maximum horizontal distance? How should roads be deatg;Wd. so.that cars t!Ikini a ~ around a CUlVe do not go oft'the road? Wll.l): should the speed of a satellite be so that it moves in a circular orbit aro~:r:i the earth? And many other such questions. In the next lesson you IidIR. study abol,lt ~other law of nature discovered by Iaaac Newton, _ nam the univ~ law of pvitation.

4.2

OBJ"ECT1VB8

After studyin& this lesson, you should be able to,

dsjine projectile motion and circular motion and give emmples 0/ both; dsrive expre88W"fIJJforthe time o/flight,orange and ~ hlJighto/a projec:ftle; dsrive the equation o/the trajectory 0/ a projectile; clerive expresaio"fIJJ /orvelocity, and acceleration 0/ a pa7ticle in cim.dar motion; dsjine radial and to.ngeniial acceleration.

--- ------------------

Motion in a Plane

4.3

PROJECTILE MOTION

The motion of a cricket ball hit for a six, ajavelin thrown by an athlete, a food packet dropped by an aeroplane are some common examples of projectile motion. To study their motion, we have to first derme projectile motion. So let us begin by asking : What is a projectile motion? You know that near the surface of the earth, every object falls freely with a constant downward acceleration of about 9.81 m S2 due to gravity. Now suppose you throw a ball from some initial position with some initial velocity. Then if all other effects, namely, effects of wind and friction due to air are ignored, the acceleration of the ball is equal to g, the acceleration due to gravity. Thus, the motion of the ball is motion with constant vertical acceleration and zero horizontal acceleration. This kind of motion is called projectile motion. .m general, we deJfne projectile motion as motion which has constant velocity in a certain direction and constant ac celeration in the direction perpendicular to that oJ velocity. A football hit by a child, a speeding bullet, experience only constant vertical acceleration with constant horizontal velocity. Hence they ate all examples of projectile motion (see Fig 4.1). Can you think of some more examples?
In most such cases, the body moves with an initial vertical component of velocity. But we can also launch the body (also called the proJectUe) horizontally without any initial upward component of velocity.
\/'1.

Y\ L x<tV,

. ".

",4.1: _ _ I.. of
projocIiUr

motion.

Having dermed projectile motion, we would like to determine how high and how far it goes and how long it remains in the air. These factors are important if we want to launch a projectile to land at a certain target - for in, stance, a football in the goall

4.3.1 Maximum Height, Time of Flight and Range of a Projectile

Let us analyse projectile motion to determine its maximum height, time of flight and range. In doing so, we will be ignoring all other effects such as wind or air resistance. We can characterise the initial velocity of an object in projectile motion by its vertical and horizontal components. Let us take the positive x-axis in the horizontaidirection and the positive y-axis in the vertical direction (Fig 4.2). Let us assume that the initial position of the projectile is at the origin 0 at t o. As you know, the coordinates of the origin are x cO, y - O. Now suppose the projectile is launched with an initial velocity va at an angle 90 , known as the angle oJ eleucltion, to the x-axis. Its components in the x and y direction are,

61

II... - 110 COS. 9. IIOy - II.

sin 90

(4.1 a) (4.1 b)

I'tc 4.3 I

Maximum height, time offlight and range of a projectile.

Let a,. and a, be the horizontal and vertical components, respectively, of the projectile's acceleration. Then a,. - 0, a, - -g - -9.81 ms-" (4.2) The negative. for fly appears as the acceleration due to graviW is in the negative y direction in the chosen coordinate system.

Notice that ,,-isconatant. Therefore, we can use Eqs (2.6 and 2.9) to write expreeaions lor the horizontal and vettica1 components of the projectile'. velociW and position at time t. These are given by "~ Horizontal motion (4.3 a) since a,. - 0
';~.'...I

(4.3 b) Vertical motion . lIy - IIOy -gt (4.3 c) . Y -IIOyt - '12 ge. (4.3 d) .The vertical position and velociW components are also related through Eq (2.10) as (4.3 e) You will note that the horizontal motion (given by Eq. 4.3 a and b) is motion with constant velociW. And the vertical motion (given by Eqs. 4.3 c and d) is motion with constant (downward) acceleration. The vector'sum of the two respective components would give us the velociW and position of the projectile at any: instant of time. .
-(Ill - .,.

(&fly - &fIOf)

Now let u. make use.of these equations to find out the maximum height, time of flight and range of a projectile.
As the projectile travels through the air, it climbs upto some maximum height (h) and then begins to come dOMl. At tIac tnaCant whim tIac pi rpetlJa ,. at tIac madmwnlutfght, tIac oertic:al c:omporumt oJ fa wloclty This is the instant when the projectile stops to move upward and does not yefbegin to move downward. '''':-'I1S, putting lIy - 0 in Eqs. (4.3 c and d), we get

'a' . .ximum. height:

"..rD.
62

Motion in a Plane

0- vOy- gt
or

t-9

VOy

vsin6 0

(4.4)

Thus, the maximum height of the projectile is Maximum height

Ih=~S:260 I

(4.5)

Note that in our calculation we have ignored the effects of air resistance. This is a good approximation for a projectile with a fairly low velocity. Using Eq, (4.4) we can also determine the time for which the pr~ectile is in the air. This is termed the time oJ flight.

(b) Time of flight: TM eun. oJflfghhJ a proJectUtJ fit eM ttm.

fnWntal IHttuMen the fIIatant oJ fa ~ an4 the Instant wheft U hits the grormd. The time t given by Eq. (4.4) is just the time for half the flight of the ball. Therefore, the total time of flight is

Time of flight

IT .. 2t..

2v0 sin8 9 0

(4.6)

Finally we have to fuld out the distance travelled horizontally by the projectile. This is also ca)led its ""'fI&

(0) Ran,e : The range R of a projectile is calculated simply by multiply-

"It'

. ing its time of flight by its horizontal velocity. Thus, R - (II.) (2t)

211 6 ) _ (llocos6 o) ( oam 0 9

2

- Vo

(2sin60cos6 0 )
9

Since, 2 sin 6 cos 8 - sin 2 8, the range is

(4.7)
You can see that the rangeofa projectile depends on . its initial ~~ ........., II and its direction given by 80

'"

Now Can you determine tf. .. angle at which a disc or a javelin should be thrown 80 that it covers ma...c mum distance horizontally? In other words, for what angle would the range be maximum? Clearly, R will be maxim~ for any speed when sin 2 6. - 1 or 2 60 Thus for R to be nuu:imum at a given speed "0 , 8. - 45. Let us determine these quantities for a particular case.
-

90.

63

Physics
Bxample 4.1: In the centennial Olympics held at Atlanta in 1996, the gold medallist fwmmer thrower threw the hilmmer to a distance of 19.6 m. Assuming this to be the maximum. distance, calculate the initial speed with which the hammer was thrown. What was the maximum height of the hammer? How long did it remain in the air? Igl;l.Ore the height of the thrower's hand above the 9round.. .
Solution: We can ignore the height of the thrower's hand above the ground. Thus the launch point and the point of impact are at the same height. We take the origin of the coordinate axes at the launch point. Since the distance covered by the hammer is maximum, it is equal to the hammer's rangefor eo = 45. Thus we have from Eq (4.7).

or It is given that R
Vo -

v~

=Rg, Vo =.JRg
=

19.6 m. Putting g

9.8 ms-2 we get

~(19.6)m (9.S ms-2 ) _14.01:!D.s- 1

The maximum height arid time of flight are given by Eqs. (4.5) and (4.6), respectively. Putting the value of Vo and sin eo in Eqs (4.5) and (4.6) we get (i90.0S)m2S-2

h-

x(!t

2x9.8 ms-Q 2x (9.8.J2}ms-l

- 2.4Sm

2 xt=1.43s 9.8msNow, that you have studied some concepts related to projectile :!D.otion and their application, you may 1ike to .check your understanding. Try solving the following problems. .

T=

IKTEXT QUESTIONS 4.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. Identify example. of projeetile motion from amo"l the followins aituation. (a) An archer ahoot. an arrow at a tarpt (b) Rocke are eject.d from an expIodi"l volcano (c) A truck move. on a mountainou. road (dj A bomb i. rel ....d from a bomber plan. (e) A boat in a river

.aiI.

2.

Which of the following oiat.",ent. about projeetil. motlorl are true? (i) Th. horioontal component of velocity ciuonP. with time. (ii) Th. vertical component of velocity ~. with time. (iii) Th....... depend. only on the angle of elevation. (iv) Th. tim. of flight depend, ..only on initial velocity. (v) Th. tim. of flight depend. only on the vertical component of initial ""locity.
............................................................. J.........................................

3.

Three baU. thrown at different angIea reach the earn. lIIIilWrlum. height ~Fis. 4.5). (a) Are the vertical componento of the initial velocity the aame for aU the balta? If not, which one h .. the leut vertical velocity component? . (b) Will they aU hove the earne time of fllsht? (e) Which one h .. tho greatelt horiaontal velocity component?

.................................................................................................................................
64

Motion in.a Plane

~.

In the 1968 Olympicain Mexi.c:o City, Bob Beamon broke the recorc\ for the 1on&:jump with ajump of 8.90 m. "-'me hill initia1_ed on take oirto be 9.S ....-1. How clo.. did he come to the maxinium pollllible ranse in the abaence of air reoiatarice? The value of g in Mexioo city i. 9.78 m ....

.................................................................................................................................
Although we have discussed quite a few things about projectile motion. we have still not answered the original question: What is. the path or trajec:oty of the projectile? So let us determine the equation for a projectile's trajectOl.y. .

4.3.2 The Trajectory ora ProjecWe

Do you recognise the shapes of. the projectile trajectories of Figs 4.1, 4.2 and4.3? It is easy to determine the equation for the path or trajectoty of a projectile. You just have to eliminate t from Eqs (4.3 b) and (4.3 d) for x and y. Substituting the value of t from Eq (4.3 b) in Eq (4.3 d) we get

x x2 y=vOy_o_-tg_o
VOJc VOJc

(4.8 a)

UsingEqs (4.1 a and b), Eq (4.8a) becomes (4.8 b) 9 2 x 2 (vocos6 o ) This is the equation of a parabo'lll. You will use this equation in the terminal questions. Thus. if air resistance is neg1igible, the path oJ ""II""~ ItIunchM wWa _ _ horl8Ontal and vertfcal velocfl:Jl .. CI parabola or CI portion oJ CI parabo'lll. In Fig 4.3 you can see IIOme ~ectories of a projectile at different angles of elevation. Eqs 4.5 to 4.7 are often handy for solving problems of projectile motion. For example, these equations are used to calculate the launch speed and the angle of elevation required to hit a target at a !mown range. But you must keep in mind that these equations do not give us a comilia 4.3: lhpdorIa ptOj:II1. plete description of projectile motion. Now, let us summarise the important equations describing projectile motion launched from a point (x yJ with a velocity va at an angle of elevation, 9 .

y - (tan 601 x -

"'

Bta_tloaa or JIaooJeatne Motlo. :

v va cos 9 Vy - va sin e - gt x- AU+ (v. cos 9)t Y - Yo + (vosin 9) t-V. gf'
0.

a.- O

",--g

(4.9 a) (4.9 b) (4.9 c)

'Il:ajectory,
(4.9 d)

65

Physics Notice that these are more general than the ones discussed earlier. The initial coordinates ape left unspecified as (x;,. y.l rather than being placed at (0. 0). Can you dirive this general equation of the projectile trajectory? Do it before studying futther? Thus. far you have studied motion of such objects in a plane. which can be put in the category of projectile motion. In projectile motion. the acceleration is constant both in magpitude and direction. There is another kind of two-dimensional motion of interest in which the acceleration is constant in magnitude but not in direction. This is circular motion. which you will now study.

4.4

CIRCULAR MOTION

The motion at constant speed of a phonograph record or a grinding wheel, the moving hands of an ordinary clock, a vehicle turning around a traffic roundabout can all be idealised as examples of circular motion. The movement of gears, pulleys and wheels involves circular motion. The simplest kind of circular motion is uniform circular motion. Examples are a point on a rotating fan blade or a grinding wheel moving at constant speed. One of the most useful applications of uniform circular motion is putting artificial satellites in circular orbits around the earth. We have benefitted immensely from .he INSAT series of satellites and other artificial satellites, haven't we? So let us first learn about uniform circular motion.

4.4.1 Uldform Circular Motion

By definition, unVorrn circular motton is motton with constant ap.ed en a clrc,. or along a cfrculczr CII'C.

v
~---'.,.

P1

,&;..---fP,

I'tc 4.4(a)' Po.sitions of" particle in

unifonn ci"",Z", motion.

See Fig 4.4a. It shows the positions r, and r2 of a particle in uniform circular motion at two different times t. -and t., respectively. The word 'unifonn'refers to constant speed. We have said that the speed of the particle is constant. What about the particle's velocity? To find out recall the definition of average velocity and apply it to the points P, and P2 for uniform circular motion:
po.

= t2 -t,

'"2 - r.

!ir !it

(4.10 a)

The vector !iris shown in Fig 4.4a. Now suppose you make the time interval M smaller and smaller so that it approaches zero. What happens to !i,.? In particular, what is the direction of lu? It approaches the tangent to 66

Motion in a Plane the circle at the point PI as lit tends j;o zero. Mathematically, we define the instantaneous velocity at the point PI as

v - /1t~O I1t

_ limit I1r

= dr
dt

(4.10 b)

Thus, for uniform circular motion the magnitude of the velocity, i.e., its speed is constant but the velocity vector is not constant. Can you say why? This is because the velocity (which is tangential to the path) is changing direction continuously as the particle travels around the circle (Fig. 4.5b). Because of this change In velocity, uniform circular motion Is accelerated motion. Our main aim in this section is to determine the acceleration of a particle in uniform circular motion. This is also termed centripetal acceleration for reasons you will learn in a short while.

Centripetal acceleration: Consider Fig (4.5). Let the constant

speed of the particle be v and the radius of the circle be r. We have to find the value of acceleration at an instant t, i.e., the instantaneous acceleration of the particle. For this, we have to consider the change in the particle's velocity in an extremely short time inteIVal 11t. In Fig (4.5a) you can see the particle at two positions r l and r 2 , respectively, at instants t, and t, . The intetval lit = t, - tl is very small. The difference between these position vectors is I1r= r 2 - r I

-- i1 ... ~D. AyE

8 "
~

Vz

.'

,
{at

,11,

I'll: 4.11 7Wo posiliona ofptJItic/e in circular motion.

As we decrease t further, r will become smaller (Fig 4.5b). Now look at Figs. 4.5a and b. The velocity vectors at time tl and t, are now placed tail to tail and their difference is
The .angle betweetl the position vectors is 8. Since the velocity vectors are . al~ perpendicular to the position vectors in circular motion, the angle between VI and 1'3 is also 8. Since .the angles 8 in the' triangles ABC and DEF are equal, they an similar. Hence, we have .
DE AC BC .. -=AD OF EF

v-v2 -v,

or

Mapitudeofv Magnitudeofr We can rewrite this as Magnitude of

~tudeofv.

Magnitudeofr

--

v r

V-

~ r

)(

(magnitude of "

67

Physics Now,jf At is made very small, A9 will also be very small. Then the straight line segplent Ar will approximately coincide with the circular ~ between points A and B. Thus the arc length is simply equal to the distaAce travelled by the particle in an extremely small time interval M. Therefore, magnitude of v = vir x (distance travelled in time A9. The magnitude of the acceleration at the instant t is equal to the magnitude of Av diVided by the time interval At, as we make At smaller and smaller making it approach zero. Thus limit magnitude of A v a = At--?O At

limit distance travelled in time At

At

= -;: x At--?O

Now the distance travelled in time At divided by the time At, (as At is made smaller and closer to zero)is just the speed v of the particle.Hence, we have
a = -x v

or

a=v r

(4. 11 a)

What is the direction of this acceleration? Study Fig. 4.Sb again. For very small At the direction of Av will be perpendicular to VI and v2 (which will be nearly parallel in this limiting case). Hence the instantaneous acceleration is perpendicular to the instantaneous velocity. Since the velocity vector is tangential to the circle; the _leratfon ~r points along the ~fus, to-u the centre o/the clrclcr. Since the acceleration of the particle is directed towards the centre of the circle, it is called centripetal _leratfon. Thus, whenever you see a particle moving at constant speed v in a circle (or a circular arc) of radius r, you may be sure that it has an acceleration directedto:ward the centre of the circle, of magnitude rP I r. To sum up : Particle in uniform cireufar motion has a centripetal acceleration given by
a=--r,

v f2 r

a=-

v2 r

(4.11b)

where ;. is the unit vector directed from the centre of the circle to the particle (Fig. 4.5c). Notice that the 'centripetal acceleration given by Eq. (4.11) is changing direction continuously (Fig. 4.Sc). Hence, uniform cirClilar motion is not a case of motion with constant acceleration. 'l1lat is why we cannot use the kinematical equations in this case. We will now work out an example to give you a feel for the magnitude in real life situations.
Example 4.2: Astronauts eKpe7ience high accelemtion in theirflights in space. In their training at NASA in USA for such sitrd:iDns, they are placed in a closed capsule which is fixed at the end of a revolving arm of rodius15 In. The capsule is whirled around-a circular path, just like we whirl a stone tied to a string in a horizontal circle. If the ann rellOlves around the ciTcle at a rate of 24 revolutions per minute, what is the centripetal acceleration of the capsule?

68

Motion in a Plane
Solution: The circumference of the circular path is 2Itx(radius)=2ItxlS m. Since the capsule makes 24 revolutions per minute or 60 s, the time it

takes to go once around this circumference is

211: x15m the speed of the capsule, v - (60 / 24)s
=

~~ s.

Therefore,

38 ms-'

The magnitude of the centripetal acceleration

_v _(38m.s-"_96 a --1- ms -2
r
2

15m)

You may now like to work out some problems to fix these ideas in your mind.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.

In unifonn circular motion, (oj Is the speed constant? (bl I. the velocity constant? (c) Is the magnitude of the acceleration constant? (d) Is acceleration constant? Explain.

2.

An athlete runs around a circular track with a speed of 9.0 ms] and a centripetal acceleration of 3 ms-~. What is the radius of the track?

3.

The Fermi lab aCcelerator is one of the largest particle accelerators. In this accelerator, protons are forced to travel in an evacuated tube in circular orbit of diamete, 2.0 Ian at a speed nearly equal to the speed of light c (99.99995% of the spe.d oi light). What is the centripetal acceleration of these protons? Take ~ - 3 X 108 ms-1

So far you have studied about objects moving in a circle at constahtspeed. But when you start moving a merry-go-round from rest, the speed of a particle on it varies, until it acquires a constant value. What is the velocity and acceleration of such a particle aoving in a circle with 7ariable speed? Let us find out.

4.4.2 Non-Uniform Circular Motion

To deal with such a situation, it is useful to introduce the-concepts of angular veloCity and angular acceleration. Consider once again a partide in circular motion (Fig. 4.5a). The particle turns by an angle .1.6 in time M between the two positions r, and r. We define the average angular speed of the particle as
III
aY

= _8.... 2 _-_8.!..\ t2 _t\

.1.8
Ilt

(4.12 a)

When the angle turned or the angular speed ilia. changes with time, we
Thus,
Ill=

defme ~IIS fUlgUlar ."eed as the limit of the ratio .1.6/M as M is made approach zero.

limit . .1.6 .1.t-tO .1.t

-d8

dt

(4.12 b)

69

Physics So ifwe know 6(t), we can find CD. The units of angular speed are radian per second (00 8""'). If the angular speed of a particle is not constant, then 'it has an angular acceleration. Let CD, and co,. be the angular speeds att:iID.es t. and t,., respectively. The - . " , . atIf/I,lar _ l e i oflan is defined as
w~

-w,

AID

t -'t,
2

=.1t

(4.13 a)

where AID is the change in the angular speed in the time interval.1t The fnatantcIrI80us angular crcc.Ie, __ n is the limit of the ratio AID/M as .1t approaches zero.

limit AID dw a= .1t-+O .1t .. dt

(4.13 b)

Non-uniform circular motion is actually an example: of motion with constant angular acceleration. Let us now determine the velocity" and acceleration a of a particle in circular motion in terms of CD and a , the angular speed and angular acceleration. Consider Fig 4.Sa once again. For very small values of .16, the distance M of the particle between the points A and B is related to 6 as follows : M " rA.6 (4.14) where r is the radius of the circle and it is constant. The average speed v is given by

v =-=r.1t ~
~1~~.

MJ

Making .1t smaller so that it approaches zero and using Eqs. (4.10 b) and

v .1t-+b .1t = r 4t~0 M

limi.1r

limit .18

or

V"

rOll

(4.15)

The direction of "is of COU1'8e along the tangent to the circle. To obtain the acceleration, ~ first fu}d the average acceleration, i.e.,

.1v AID =-=r.1t .1t

limit AID
(4.16)

and make .1t app~ zero. ThUs, using:J!:q. (4~ 13 b) ~ have

~ .. T

4f-+n M .. I'D

70

Motion in a Plane This is the component of acce1etation which arises when the particle's speed II is changing. The situation now is as follows: A particle is in circular motion such that both the magnitude and direction of its velocity are changing (Fig. 4.5a). The velocity is along the tangent to the circle but now the acceleration has two components - one of these is along the tangent to the circle given by Eq. (4.16) (see Figs. 4.5b and c). This component is called the ~l_r.ratfon.
In addition you will recall that a particle moving in a circular path has a

radial component of the acceleration given by rP/ror Ol"rfrom Eq. (4.15). To sum up, the linear acceleration of a particle moving in a circle has two components. radial acceleration - a,. - - - r - -aJl r ;.
.

II~

(4.17 a) (4.17 b)

tangential acceleration - a,. - or r II

where ri is along the tangent to the circular path and is positive by convention for anticlockwise motion. Note that G r is always present as long as anguJar speed is not zero : ~ is present as long as angular acceleration is not zero. You should, now, work out some problems to fix these.ideas in your mind.

JJITEXT QUESTIONS 4.3_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. Conoider a point on the edee of rotating wheel. (aJ Wh"" tho wheel rotate. with conlOtult angular velocity, doe. the point have .. radial acceleration? Doe. it have a tanpntial acceleration?

...... ......................................................................................................................... .
~

(h) When the wheel rot_ with conatant angulllJ' acceleration, doe. the point have a radial acceleration? Doe. it have a tanpntial acceleration?
~c)

Do the magnitude of tho.. acoe1arationa ch..... with time in both cue.?

2.

The .IIJ'th'. orbit about the .un is nOllJ'ty cir<:ular. What is the angular speed of the .1IJ'th (taken as a particle) about the .un? What i. it. llilear speed? What i. it. acceleration with reapect to the sun? Aooume the radius of the orbit to. be 1.5 10' m .

..................................................................................................................................
3. A meny-SO-round of radius 2 m atarto from reot. Its angu1ar .peed increase. at a constant rate of 0.1 rad 0-2. What ~ntial acc:01eration doe. a child standing at ita ouw edee have?

So far you have studied that an object moving in a circle is accclerating. This acceleration has two components - one directed toward the centre of the circle (called ewtb ptal fir radial _leratfoftl; other along the tangent (called tangentfal _lenition). Now you have also studied Newton's laws in lesson 3. From Newton's second law you know that since the object in circuIa.r motion' is accelerating, a net force must be acting on it. What is the direction and magnitude of this force? This is what ~ vill find in the next section. Then we will apply NeWton's laws of motion l<' (nUorm

71

Physics circular motion. This will lead us to answers about why road are banked, orwhy pilots feel pressed to their seats when they fly aircrafts in vertical loops.

4.5

APPLICATIONS OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR IIIOTION

Let us flrst determine the force acting on a particle that keeps it in uniform circular motion. Consider a particle moving with constant speed v in a circle of radius r. From Newton's second law, the net external force acting on a particle is related to its acceleration by F= r n a ' (4.18) For a particle in uniform circular motion, a points toward the centre of the circle and its magnitude is a = !Plr. Therefore, from Eq. (4.18), the net external force on the particle must also point toward the centre of the circle. .

mv 2 mv 2 (4.19) IFI=- . r r This net external force directed toward the centre of the circle with magnitude given by Eq. (4.19) is called the centripetalJorce. An fmportG"nt thing to understand and remember is that the term 'centripetalJOree' don not refer to a type oJJorce oJ interaction lflee the Jorce oJ grauf.tatiqn or eliectrfcalJorce. This term only tells us that the net force of a certain magnitude.,acting on a particle in uniform circular motion is directed towards the centre. It does not tell us how this force is provided.
F=-r;

Thus, the force may be provided by the gravitational attraction between two bodies. For example, in the motion of a planet around the sun, the centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force between the two. Similarly, the centripetal force for a car travelling around a bend is provided by the force of friction between the road and the car's tyres and by banking the road. You will understand these ideas better ifwe apply them to certain concrete examples.

4.5.1 Banking of Road.

Consider a car of mass m travelling with speed v on a curved section of a highway (Fig 4.7). T() keep the car moving uniformly in the circqlar path", a force must act on it. It should be directed towards the centre of the circle and its magnitude must be equal to m!P I r. Here ris the radius of CUrvature of the curved section. y

car
(a)

(b)

mg

J"I& 4~7 : Banking oj roads.

72

Motion in a Plane Now the force of friction between the road and the tyres is often not enough to keep the car in a circular path. Therefore, it is necessary to provide an additional force so that the sum of this force and the force of friction is equal to the centripetal force. Such a force is provided by "banking" of road on cUIVed sections. As a matter of fact, roads are designed to minimise the reliance on frictipn. For example, when car tyres are smooth or there is water or snow on roads, the coefficient of friction becomes negligible. Roads are banked at curves so that cars can keep on track even when friction is negJigible. What is banking of the road? Banking raises the outer edge of the road above the level of the inner edge (Fig. 4.7a). The angle of banking, e, is adjusted for the sharpness of the CUJVe and the maximum allowed speed. Let us now analyse the free body diagram for the car to obtain an expression for e. Let us consider the case when there is no frictional force acting between the car lyres and the road. The forces acting on the car are the car's weight mg and F N , the force of normal reaction. The centripetal force is provided by the horizontal component of F.. Thus, resolving the force FN into its horizontal and vertical components, we can write .

'" . e_ mv "N Sll1 - - r

(4.20 a)

Since there is no vertical acceleration, the vertical component of FN is equal to the car's weight: F. cos e - mg (4.20 b) We have two equations with two unknowns FN and e to determine e, we eliminate F. from Eqs. (4.20 a and b). Dividing Eq. (4.20 a) by Eq. (4.20 b) we get

mv /r tane =----'--mg
or

v2
rg

le=tan-

~I

(4.21)

Hpw do we interpret Eq. (4.21) for limits on v and choice of e? Firstly, Eq. (4.21) tells us that the angle of banking is independent of the mass of the vehicle. So even iarge trucks and other heavy vehicles can ply on banked roads. Secondly, e should be pater for high speeds and sharp curves (i.e., for lower values of". For a given e, if the speed is less than v given by Eq. (4.21), the car will tend to slide down the incline, i.e., move towards the inner edge of the curved road. And if the speed is more than v, it will tend to slide up; i.e., move towards the outer edge of the' CUIVed .road. So a vehicle driver must drive within prescribed speed limits on curves. Other_wise, the vehicle will be pushed off ilie road and there may beaccidents.. Usually, due to frictional forces, there; is a railge of speeds on either Side of v. Vehicles can maintain a stable circular path around CUIVes if their speed remains Within this range. To get a feel of actual numbers, consider the design of a racetrack of radius 300m which has to allow for speeds 73

Physics upto 50 ms- 1 What should the angle of banking be? You may like to quickly use F.q. (4.21) and calculate 6. 1 8 0' tan -I (50ms- )2 = tan-I (300m) (9.81ms 2) You may like to consider another application.

4.5.2 Aircrafts in vertical loops

On Republic Day and other shows by the Indian Air Force you may have seen pilots flying airhafts in vertical loops (Fig. 4.8a). In such situations, at the bottom of the loop, the pilots feel as if they are being pressed to their seats by a fone of gravity equal to several g's. Let us understand why this happens. Fig. 4.8 b shows the 'free body' diagram for the pilot at the bottom of the loop. The forces acting on him are mg and the normal force N exerted by the seat. The net v~rtically upward force is N nig and this provides the centripetal acceleration :
N

Fi& 4.8 : (a) Aircrafts in vertical loops

(b) Free-body diagram for a pilot

N-mg=ma=miP/r orN=m(g+ u2/ij In actual situations, v = 200 m S-I and r = 1500 m which gives
(200ms-1 )2 ] N = mg [ 1 + 9.81ms-2 x 1500m

= mg x 3.7

So the pilots feel as though force of gravity has been magnified by a factor of 3.7 and say that they are experiencing 3.7 9 force. If this force exceeds set limits. pilots may even black out for a while and it could be dangerous. You may now like to apply these ideas to some other situations.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.4,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.

Aircraft. an: usually banked while taking a tum when flying at a constant speed (Fig 4.8). Itt is the f,?rce exerted by the air on the aircraft. Explain why airc:ractB are banked. Draw a freebody diagram for this aircraft. Suppose an aircraft tra.velling at a speed l.I - 100 ms- l makes a tum at a banking angle of 30. What i. the radius of curvatul'e of the turn? Take g10 ms-l ,

.L

Calculate the maximum speed of a car which ~~-_.uc:es a tum of radius 100 m on t't horizontal road. TI.e coefficient of friction betwEt'n the tyres and the roeict is 0.90. Take g. 10 ms-'.

74

Motion in a Plane
3.
An interesting act performed at variety shows is to swing a bucket, of water in a vertical circle such that water does not pour out while the bucket is inverted at the top of the circle. For this trick to be performed successful)y, the speed of the bucket must be larger than a certain minimum value. Determine an expression for the minimum speed of the bucket at the top of the circle in terms of ita radius R. Calculate the speed for R - 1.0 m.

So far you have studied about motion from the point of view of inertial observers. Do you think we are all inertial observers? Remember that the earth is rotating on its axis, i.e., any object on it accelerates. Thus, any frame of reference attached to the earth is non-inertial. So for an accurate description of phenomena occurring on the earth we need to use a n~n inertial frame of reference. You can find several examples of non-inertial frames in your immediate environment. For example, a rotating merry-goround, a bus accelerating from rest. a car rounding the corner and a ball falling freely.

4.6

NON-INERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE

Suppose you are standing on a roadside observing the motion of two buses, A and B. Bus A moves with a constant velocity and Bus B accelerates with respect to you. Then the frames of reference attached to you and Bus A w'e inertial frames of reference with respect to each other. And the frames of reference attached to you and Bus B are non-inertial frames of reference with respect to each other. In general, theframes of ~.,..nce moufng with unVOrm wlocfty wfth ,..spect to each other are burnkd and thou acceleratCng with to each other are non-fnerttaL

,...pect

Imagine you are sitting on a bench in a park and observiJul these activities going around you : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) A child sitting on a rotating meny-go-round; A ball thrown up in the air An elderly man sitting on another bench in a park A youth walking leisurely (with a low uniform speed)

Suppose you attach a frame ofrelerence with the child, the ball, the elderly man and the youth mentioned in (i) to (iv). Can you identify which of these frames are inertia1 and which ones non-inertia1 with respect to you? Clearly, the frames of reference in (i) and (ii) are non-inertial as they are acceleratiIlg. Now that you know what is meant by a non-inertial frame of refer-

ence.

IRTBXT QUESTIONS 4.8,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. A a:Jua half fill.d with ....t.r i. kept, on a horisontal table in a train. Will the free ourf.... of _er remain hotUontal .. the train ltarto?

........................... ,............................. , ............. ,............................................. , .... ......

,

2.

When """ i. driven too fut around a cu"'" it .kid. outward. How ....ould a pass.npt

aittin&: inaide expl. the car'. motion? 'How would an observer standing on a rood explain the .vent?

............... ...................................................................
"

"

.............................. , ........... .

.75

Physics
3. A tiny.."irua.of particle m ... 6 x 10"'9 kg i. in a water auspenaion in a ......trifuge being rotated at an angular speed of 21< x lOS rad .-'. The particle is at a distance of 4 em from the axis of rotation. c..l.culate the net centrifugal force acting on the particle .

.................................................................................................................................
4.

What must the annular speed of the earth be so that the centrifugal force makes objects By off ito surface? Take g - 10 mo-'

Let us now summarise the concepts presented in this lesson.

4.7

WHAT YOUBAVELEARNT?_ _ _ _ _ _ __

PIOjectl1a ...otiDa i. defined .... motion which has constant velocity in a certain direction and constant acceleration in a direction perpendicular to that of velocity.

a -

a, - -g.
",.- " o 8lO9-gt

v. -

x->;'+ (v.cos 9)t

vocos.9

y- Yo+ (v. sin 9 ) R_VoSln

2

gl'

28

Height

Time of Flight

T= 2vosin6

g
R=
2 .
VoSln

28

Range

Tr~ectory

y=(tan6 oIX-

g 2(VoCOS 6 0

2
)

x2

CfrcalGr naotfon, i.e., motion in a circle or along II. circular-arc, i. uniform when the speed of the particle ia constant. A particle undergoing in a circle of radius r at constant speed v has a Wi,," pear _Lot all" given by

....v....... _'-' _

a,

VO =--1' l'

where. r i. the unit vector directed from the centre of the circle to the particle. Tbe speed v of the particle is related to ito angular speed CD by ,,- .... The
Wi'"

pearI - acting on the

mv 2
""

particle i. given by

F=ma, =---.-r
.
T A particle executing non-uniform circular motion haa a centripetlll acceleration

well as a """, " I ........ given by ... - ar where a ia the engutu acceleration and n i. a unit vector, tangent to the circle.

r_Lo,

a, aa

_ _ ." r e J -

moving with uniform velocity with respect to.each oth"" are _ I and the frames accelerating with reapect to each other are , . . ." . . . , .

A body of maas m observed from a non-inenial frame of reference undergoing acceleration a ia acted upon by an _ r l - given by -ma

r-

-_.

Observed from a rotating frame of reference, a particle of ....... m ia acted upon by an inertial force called the cenlJrlfullaJI- 'ConI r where mi. the angular speed of the rotating frame and r the unit vector directed from the origin of the frame to the particle.

mar r

--'-~.-----------~';7'---------------~76.

Motion in a Plane

4.8
1.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
00

Why. does a cyclist bend inward while taking a turn

a circular path?

2.
3. 4. 5.

Explain why the outer rail is raised with respect to the inner on the curved portion of a railway track? If a particle is having circular mOtion _with constant speed, will its-acceleration also be constant?
A stone is thrown from the window of a bus moving on horizontal road. What path

will the stone follow while reaching the ground?

A hunter aims exactly at a monk'ey sitting on a tree. As soon as the hunter fires the ahot, the monkey jumps from the tree. Will the monkey be shot? What would happen, if the moneky had not jumped? A string can sustain a maximum force of lOON without breaking. A mass of 1 kg is tied to one end of the piece of string of 1m long and it is rotated in a horizontal plane. Compute the maximum speed with which the I;!ody can be rotated without breaking

6.

the string?
7. A motorcyclist passes a curve of radius 50 m'with a speed of 10 ms I , What vo;.U be the centrepetal acceleration when tunring the curve? .

8.

A bullet i. fired with an initial velocity 300m.-' at an angle of 30" with the horizontal. At what distance from the gun will the . bullet strike the ground?

9.

The length of the second'. hand of a clock i. 10 em. What i. the sp.ed of the tip of this hand?

10. You must have seen heroes in Hindi m.ms jumping huge gap ..:In horse backs and motor cycles. In this problem consider a daredevil motor cycle rider tIying to cross a gap at a velocity of 100 Ian h-'. (Fig 4.9) Let the angle of incline on either side be 45". calculate the widest gap he can cross.
11. A shell is fired at an angle of elevation of 30" with a velocity of 500 ms'. Calculate the vertical and horizontal component. of the velocity, the maximum height that the shell reaches, and its range.

LR~
Ftc 4.9
land?

.. -.. - ......

m,

,".... --....." ' ' , .,I ~.

-" .... l,.-.~ : ,.'

FIg 4.10

12. An aeroplane drops a food packet from a height of 2000 m above the ground while in' horiaontaillight at a constant speed of 200" Ian h-'. How long does the packet take to fsll to the ground? How far ahead (horizonts11y) of the point of release Joe. the packet

13. A mass m moving in a circle at speed v on a frictionless table is attached to a hanging mass M by a string through a hole in Ih,e table (Fig 4.10). Detennine the .p,ed of mus m for which the mass M would remain at rest. 14. A car i. rounding a curve of radius 220 m at a speed of 60 lan-h- 1 What is the centrifugal force on a p_nger of mass m - 85 kg?

77

Physics.

4.9
(1) (2)

ANSWERS TO THE IlfTBXT QUBSTIORS

(3)
(a), (h), (d)
(ii), (v)

lIlteld: Qutio_ '4.1

The _ _ acceIIIl'Iltion ia 11- 0.1 rail . ..... Thu. the tangential acceIoration of the Child ia
... 11.0.1 0.3

(3)

(a) Yea (h) Yea (e) The ball with the DUIXIDlWD ........
Maximum

!'lid"", 3m lIlteJIt QaeetJ.o_ 4.4

(1)

m."

(4)

Ranae -

f)~ (9.5 -=
g

9.78ml

ms-? -2

= 9.23m

Thua, the difference i. 9.23 m - 8.90 m - 0.33m.

Tbia ia aimi1... to the cue of bllllkillc of roada. If the aircraft banka, there i. component of the force r. exerted by the air tdong the radius of the circle to provide the centripetal .cc.leration. f'is. 4.11 ahowa the free body ~ The radiUI of cumoture i.

lIlteat Que.tioD. 4.:1

(1)

(8) Yel (h) No (c) Yeo (d) No The velocity and acceleration lU"e not conetant becau8e their direction. are changing continuoualy. Since

=l0J3m
- 17.3 m.

(2)

(3)

Q=-.
r

2(3"108_1)2 a
..-3

.. g)(,IlT l1li

. ...13

.0

1.0"w m

IDteat QutIolia 4.3

(1)

acceI....uon but no taatlCtial .......... tion .. it. ..,.w... ap.,ad ito conet.ol.t.

(a) The point on the whMl baa alUilll

..... ...11
(2) The force of rriction proicIll the -.lripetlll acceIorUi.on I
"",2

(b) N..... it baa both radlilll and tIIrIpIn tilll acceIeratiou. (e) in _ (a) tIu mapltude of radiaI_e1orUi.on ito co.n IItcIt. In cue (b) the 1I~"'de of ,tao diIIl aeceIOI'Ui.an ito DDt 'Xlnlltclt but'the mapltude of tanpntid ~118 con_to

PI -/IoIN.r IIIinoe the 1'01.4 18 boNontal N

Tbue ~ IIIG'. - r
"'1/

me

(2)

Thl...-tll IDOYU 211: ~.d ....,.. ill. sea dqe IU'OUnd thl aIUl.. Therefo.., It.

1II1&U1'" 'PI.d
.., .. :II' rw:l _ :I )( 10..17 ndl-I. 3e5" :14 "SHe t501 Linear aplad v - ... - :I lit' rad I'" 1.S 10" m
3.0 10' m ,.' Acoe1enIjan' with ..ap.ot to the eun
(3)

or"' ....... or 1/ (0.9. 10 m ," 100 m)"

II

30 ma-I

,; (300" 1(i4 a-I )2 0013 -. ...11 -6,,10.

r
l.S"lu- m

Refer to JrIc. 4.1:1 .JunrinIJ the '"' b~ cIi..-m for the bucket lit the top of the In order thIIt ___ in the bucket doe. not f.n but keepa moviq ill. the citcIe, the force me Ihould prooric\e the OII1lripeial~. At tho top. of the circle

circI..

.",1/2

IIIG' - - -

----------.--------------------------78

Motion in. a Plane

orv-Rg

:. v -

Jii9
(2)

Thi. i. the minimum value of the bucket'. opeed at the top of the wrtical circle. For R - 1.0 m and taking g- 10m."' .... get
11."10 m.8-1 .3.2 ma-1

where 1ft i. the maaa of the water and the glaaa. (Fig 4.13). The .urr.... of the water take. up a position normal to F as shown.

lat QuUoa4,&
(1) When the train .torta it h .. en 1I<X>81 ration, .e,y a. Thu. the total force octin&: on water in the from. of refer IIIIC8 attached to the train io J' - "'" - ilia

To the paooenger sitting inside, a centrifugal force (-rmi' /" acta on the car. The greater v io the larger r would 1>6. To an ob_r standing on the road, the car moving in a curve hu a centripetal acceleration p n by mtP / r. Once again, the greater V i., the larpr rwill be. The net centrifua:al force on the p ..... ticle i. F - mlli'r - (6 " 10-" Ira) " (2 K" 10' tad r')'" (0.04 m) - 9.6 " 10-laN.

(3)

AKSWBRS TO TBB TBRIIIKAL QUJC8TIOKS

6;
10 mr'

7. 8.

2_'" 8.83" 10'm

or 0 (20 m'r')t + lit (-10 m04 " f

or t -4L Thul R V,t 20 ma-' "4 I 80m. Thul the wideat PI' il 80 m.

II. K/a _.-'. 10. Let u. IirIIt conwrt the wIoaity to unita ofm r' ,

11. The vertical component of Ibe shell'l

wlocity - (SOO mr') COl 30 2803 mr' The horiaontaJ component of the aheIl'. wloc'ity
(800

1001az1h -I 100 x 1000 iDa-I I5Ox-l5O 27.8 mr'

HoriaontaJ componant of wIocIty

V. 28 COB 4S mr' 19.8 mr' 20 mr' Vortial compcm.ant of wIocIty V,. 19.8 mr' 20 mr' Por the wid.at PI' the ~.ctoIy ....u1d IlkII the on. abown in .... 4: 1. Th. -..,. _ down to ita oriainal helaht as it erou the fbi. _ana that in the time it trawIa the diatanca R, itretumoto the ...... luqht h O. N_, uailli the equation lor Y -,OlMnt of diatIIn... h V" t + lit ~

- 28

mr'

M..amum hoqht of the aheIl

280

ma-'

mr') Bin 30"

"'--~-..,,--

(800_-1

.in~ 30

2 x 10_-:1

,ap.

3128m. Ranp of the ahell

..:.....--~-=--10_-:1
12800 3 m.

(5001118-1 )~ lin 150"

'9

Physics
12. In this case the height is 2000 m. The packet is' dropped at a horizontal speed of 200 km h-' or (200 x 1000)/(60 x 60) m 8- 1 55.6 rns-1. To fmd the time of flight we use the equation y- y. - (u. sin 9.,)t- 'h g/' . Putting y - y. - - 2000 m (the minus sign occurs because the origin is taken at the aircraft) and 9 0 we get -2000 m - -'h ge or f - 400 s (g- 10 ms-,) t=20s. The horizontal distance covered by the packet is given by x- x" "" L. cos OJt - (55.6 ms') x 20 s. = 1112 m.
n '"

the tension in the string connecting m. This provides the centripetal force for m to move in a circle. Thus,
T- Mg

and T- mV'/r or Mg - mV'fr

:. u

=-rg

or u -

~7
mu 2

14. The centrifugai fQf"Ce on the car is

F _. - r -r

13. The mass M would remain at rest if the net external force on it is ze.,ro. There are two force on the mass M. Mg and T, the ten.ion in the string. If the string is considered massless, T is also

F . N
_
220 m
X

85 kg x (60,000)2
(3600)2

- 107 N.

-80

5
GRAVITATIONAL MOTION
5.1 IRTRODUCTIOK

You may recall from your earlier studies that planets move around the sun in concentric circles with sun at the centre. You have also learnt in lesson 4 that a centripetal force is required for circular motion. What kind of force keeps the planets in theiJ: orbit? Throw a ball up or let a book slip from your hands. Where do they go? These fall on the Earth. It is a common observation that bodies close to the earth fall on it if they are free . . Does the moon also fall towards the earth? Sir Issac Newton a, British Scientist, replied these questions through his law of gravitation.
In this lesson we shall study the law of gravitl!.tion, its universal nature and its consequences. This law has helped in the-development of satellites, space probes and geostationuy satellites. We shall also learn the difference between inertial and gravitational masses, satellite motion IIDd phenomenon of weightlessness, in this lesson.

5.2

OBJEC'l'lVES
state and explain the uniuersallaw of gravitation;

After studying this lesson, you should be able to,

distinguish between inertial mass and gmvitational mass and show their

equiualeru:e; analyse the variation in the value of'g' due to differentfactors; state Kepler's law$ ofplanetary motion; find relation between time of rotation and radius of orbit of a planet or
satellite: , .

identify the force responsible for planstary ~on; ool",late the ~ velocity and the escape velocity; recognise condition for a satellite to be geoSkdionary and recognise the applications of satellites; and ~ the height for a synchronous satellite.

Physics

5.3

UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION

You see that a mango falls from the tree on the Earth. Does the Moon also fall towards the Earth? Yes indeed! (Had there been no centripetal force acting on the Moon, it would move" away tangentially, see Fig. 5.1] .,
-

Is there any connection between these two falls? How motion of Moon about the Earth and motion of plaaets about the Sun are connected. Can you think of some relation between the stars and galaxy. Many more such questions about the position of heavenly bodies come to mind. Newton provided a colierent answer to these.

1
(I)
1m......."

m1

t-----

r-

.... f--... ffi2

1'1&

11.1 , Falling of(a) Masa m and (b) of Moon towczrda Earth

1'1, 11.:1, Gravltational_

b _ ma.sau m, and m, (rn,'m,J

Newton used the knowledge of Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his laws of motion to give the famous law of gravitation. The law is stated as ~hptJl'tfc" in the un_.... ClttrcIct. the other pcII'tU:" wfCh afore. whfch ,. dfr:tltl ,proportional to the product oJ the rn_a oJ the ptJl'tfc,.. and tnw,..eW ,proportional to the aquarw oJ the d~

between them.
The force is attractive only and acts along the line joining the masses (such a force is called centralfore.). Mathematically we ma,y write DC m l )( '"-l

'0

'oocr~
or
(5.1)

Here G, the constant of proportionality, is known as the unw.r.al eon.tGnt oJ gn:wttaUon and is the force of gravitation. The law may also be written as follows (See Fig 5.3).

'0

ml

", II.' , _m,andm,.

82

-.

m,

F12

'12

m2

.'21

m2

Ora.it_naj -.zc,tion Ie ....luol

GraVitational Motion
m 1m 2 r '2
"

and

'21 .:

-G-2 - rI2

(S.2)

It i~ evident from Fig S.3 that '12 points in a direction opposite to r 2and it is the gravitational force exerted by m, on m 1 and F.,1 is the gravitational force on m, by mass m" The gravitationaljorce is always czttracttue. Its magnitude is given by

1'01 = Fo

= G m,m2
r'

(S.3)

Though this law is universal in nature, it cannot be used for atomic and subatomic particles. "The force is mutual according to Newton's third law of motion that is m, attracts m, and in turn m, attracts m, so that The force of gravitation is very important for large masses. Let us see what happens at small distance in the following example.
Example 5.1 : TWo girls of masses 40 kg and 50 kg respectively are (a) standing at a distance of 0.50 m, (b) separated by a distance of 6.67 x 1 ()6 m. Neglecting otherforces, calculate the force ofgmvitational attraction between them. Given the value of gmvitational constant G = 6.67 x 1 (FII Nm2 kg-2.

'21 = -',2

(S.4)

Solution: The force of gravitation is given by (in magnitude)

F. = G m , m 2 G r2

In case (a) 11 2 F. _ 6.67 x 1O- Nm kg-2 x SO kg x 4<Jkg G(0.5)2 In case (h)

F.
G

S.336 x 10-' N

= 6.67 X10-11 Nm' kg-2 x 50kg x 4<Jkg = 3 X10-21 N (6.67 X 10 6 )2 m 2

Rot.: All bodies are taken ... point .",....,s throughout this 1eon.

5.3.1 Universal CohstaDt of GravitatioD

The constant G appearing in eqs. (5.1) to (5.3) is known as the universal constartt of gravitation. Its value is . G = 6.67 X 10-11 Nm2 kg"2 and its dimensions are IciJ - 1M-I L3 1"2J We can deftne G by taking m, - m, = 1 kg and r = 1 m in eq. (5.3). Then Fo - G Thus, the gravitational constant G f.s numerlcally equal to the jorce oj CIttrcrctfon between two point masses 1 kg flGCh placed at a df.s. tcznce oj 1 m In afro The value of Gis same for any pair of masses be it stars and galaxies or two shotput spheres anywhere.
Example 5.2: A mass of 1 kg placed on the surface of the Earth is attracted by a force of 9" 8 N. Taking mass of the Earth ME = 6. a x UJ> kg and its radius R.=6.4 x 1()6 m, calculate the value o/G.

83

Ph}'Slcs
Solution: Using eq. (5.3) we can write
G=

MEm
SubstitUting the values of given quantities, we get G = 9.8N x (6A x 10" m}2 . 6.0 X 1024 kgx lkg 6.7 x 1O-11Nm2 kg-2

F~

5.3.2 Universal Nature of the Law of Gravitation

You may be thinking that Newtons law of gravitation is applicable only for the members of the solar family. It is infact universal in nature. We can use it between any two mass points on the Earth or bodies in intergalaciic space. It was stated in the previous section that falling of the Moon and an object on the Earth have some connection. This may be agitating your mind what connection? Let us explore it. The distance of the moon from the Earth is rm - 3.84 x lOS m and the _ radius of the Earth is R,,- 6.37 x 106 m., It takes the Moon 27.3 days to go round the Earth once in iUt circular orbit. (Fig. 5.4). The centripetal acceleration of the Moon (being it;J. circular orbit) is given by
ac

.. -2.72X1o' m..

= rm

v2

411"2 = T2 r m
8

as v -

2n r T

PIa 5.4 I Jfoon retJOIfling _

the -

Substit11ting the values of Tand rm' we have, (27.3 x 24 x 3600f But the value of acceleration due to gravity acting on a freely falling_body is 9 - 9.8 mil""".
c

= 411"2 x 3.84 X 10

2.72xl0-3ms~

Newton overcame the difficulty in the two values of acceleration by hypothesising that force of gravitation decreases with increase in distance from the Earth according to a defmite law. Let us assume .

a.

=(~J, which gives R.

2

9.80 ms(3.84 x 108 m)m 2.72 X 10-3 ms-2 = 6.37xl0"m

or 3600 - (6C.Im

Which gives m - 2. so that

84

Gravitational Motion

(5.5) or
U c Ot

1/rm2

(5.6)

It shows that the acceleration (centripetal in case of Moon) produced by force of gravi1:Ji!.tion is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. It is directed towards the Earth. Similar conclusion may be drawn about the Sun-planet system. The force is directed towards the Sun. Thus grrDIitatfonalJoree f.s an inverse square law centralJoree. The law of gravitation applies not only to the Sun and planet system but also to any two point masses. It is universal in nature. The occurance of tides on sea, the formation of the universe, observation of moons of Jupiter and Saturn have been successfully explained with the help of the law of gravitation.
Let us take a pause and solve these questions.

INTEXT QUESTIONS
1.
I

5.1_~

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

State the anumption, if any made in the. formulation of the -law of gr~tation.
............................................................................................................... j

2.

A mass ~ is accelerated towards another mass acceleration of 7rI.;z not seen towards m" ?

m..r such that

:"'t.

Wny the

3.

-The force of gravitation between two bodies of equal masses. each 111, placed at distance ris Fa' Find the magnitude of tho force if (i) each body has mass 3 mand (ii) the separation is changed to 4r.

........................................................................... .................................................... .
~

4.

masSes 16 g each are IlUspended with a tor ..on lOCi oflength 2m. When two lead sphere_ of m ... 10-kg each are brought near the ""8pensl"d .pheres sa shown in the figure, the spheres are displaced through 2mm each. The toraional rod is deflected tIaroui!I> an OIlIIIe of 0.02 radian. Calculate the val..... of G if the torsional .couple' per unit twiat of the llUapension wire i. 1.66 x 10-< Nm. .

In a cavendish experiment two lead. spheres of

5.

At a point between the Earth and the Moon, the gravitational pun. of the Moon and the Earth are balanced. Estimate the distlUlCO of this point from the Earth.

..................................................................................................................................
5.4

IlntRTlALlIIASS AND GRAVITATIONAL MASS

You may recall from Newton's second law we have and from Newton's law of Gravitation we have

'=ma

Mm. - r ,.,G --ar2

85

Physics Does m stand for the same property in the two equations? It may be seen that the mass m characterises two different properties of an object, these are resistance to a change in its velocity and its gravitational interaction with other mass.

5.4.1 Inertiallllass
When we push a chair and a cot with the same forr:e we find that chair moves faster than the cot. It shows that greater mass offers greater resistance to motion. Thus, mass characterises resistance to motion. This mass of the body is called the inertial _ m,. Using Newton's second law of motion you have verified the law of conservation of linear momentum in lesson 3. According to this law
(m,), All, =

-(m...l, All,

(5.71

The masses (m,), and (~I, in this equation are inertial masses. If m, is a prototype kilogram, ~ can boo found by measuring changes in velocities. However, it is not easy to determine A ", and A II,

5.4.2 Gravitational Mass

In Newton's Law of gravitation you hwe seenthat the gravitational force Fa is proportional to the mass. Thus, this mass characterises the gravitational force and is known as the gravttattolUd _ (m"I. To measure m" we use the definition of weight,

W; (mdG 9 Thus, W, - (m,)G 9

=(m,)G

(m,}G

(5.8)

The weights W, and W, can be measured by a pan or spring balance. If :m,IG is a prototype kilogram, (~IG can be found.

5.4.3 Concept of Weight

TheJorce wftla which the krth attracUCI 60. III eaUad tt. IHfght w: Thus, weight is a force whose magnitude is proportional to the mass of the body and direction is downward towards the Earth. The unit of weight is. the same as the unit of force. So, the weight is measured in Newton. The Earth's gravitational force is callod ~e gravity. This force of gravity, according to the Newton's second law ofmntion, causes acceleration called the acceleration due to gravity '{/ in a freely falling body. Thus .F=mo a=mog=W The magnitude of the weight is given by
(5.9)

W= mg (5.10) We shall see in later section that 9 changes from place to place. Therefore,

the weight of a body also depends on the lOcation of the body..n.. __ is an fntrlnsfc proJMrl:ll oJ a bodg but -tJht III t:he &drlnafc prop., t,p.
Bxample 5.3 : A mass oj 15 9 is suspended With a vertical spring which is extended by 15 division on a scale placed by its side. Find ra) the weight oj the body a'ld (b) thB-spring constant oJthe spring. Each division on the scale is equal to 1 mm. Solutioa: (a)W= mg - 15 x l<r' kg x 9.8 ms-' = 0.147 N. The same result may be expressed in gravitatiorial units in which W-15 x 1O-3kgwt

86

Gravitational Motion 1 kgwt = 9.8 N. (b) The spring exert restoring force F = -/ex where k is the spring constant. In equilibrium

IFI =;,1 WI
:. /ex = mgor k= mg/x

k_15X10-3 kg x 9.8 ms'!hus O.Ol!lm

9.8 Nm-I

5.4.4 Properties of Inertial Mass

The inertial mass has,-following distinct properties, (i) These can be added algebraicaD.r-i;e. M = m l + m., + m, + ...... ; iii) It remains unaffected by the presence of other body's masses; (iii) It is conserved during physical or chemical combinations; (iv) It is independent of the shape, size and the state of the matter; (v) It depends on the total quantity of the matter in the body; (vi) Its value changes at speeds approaching the speed of light, then

mHmo , v'
1-c2
of light.

where m" is the rest mass of the body and ~ is the speed

,Again, take a break and check you progress.

'tNTEXT QUESTIONS 5.2_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

l. , Distinguish between inertial mass and gravitational mass. ~alance to measure the two masses.

Do you use the same

2.

If v c, will it make any difference if mass is measured by applying horizontal force or allowed it to fall freely?

.- .................... ..........................................................................................................
~

3.

A body is suspended with a spring iba1ance attached to the ceiling of an elevator. The l- ,,janeie shows a reading of 5 division when the elevator is stationary. During downward acceleration of the elevator the balance shows aero reading. Do you think that the inertial and gnwitstion mass of the body are equal, justify your answer.

4.

Why the weight of a body does not remain constant?

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~

5.

A bowler, imparts a velocity of 10 mao' in 0,5 to a ericket baIl of weight 3 N. Find the borizontal force acting on the ball. Taite g - 10 ms-'.

5.5

ACCELERATION DUB TO GRAVITY AND ITS VARIATION ,

We know that the acceleratioq due to gravity is the acceleration of a body falling freely. Its vallie was determined first of all by Ga1ileo and t,~ found that it was-same for all bqdies., ,In the inertial frame of reference, the gravitational force on a'mass is given by equation (5.3) which is,

81

Physics
F '" GMEm" r

R~ According to the Newtons second law of motion

F= ma Comparing these two equations we find
1.1=- R~

GM E

"

(5.11)

The negative sign indicates that rand 1.1 are measured in opposite directiop.. We see that 1.1 is independent of m hence it has same value for all masses. This is known as the acceleration due to gravity g. With the precision available in the measurement oflength and time (-10-9), the value of gat 45 latitude is 9 - 9.80600 m~ = 9.81 ms-" We may now write

191= GMs = F
R~

(5.12)

Bxample 15.4: 7Wo balls weighing 4.9 Nand 19.2 N respectively are dropped from the same height of 10m. Neglecting air friction, find how long each ball will fake to reach the ground. Take g = 10 ms-2 . Solution! The equation of motion of freely falling body is h=Y.[x=vt+Y.at" til- , 0 ' v0 =0] as the balls are dropped. This gives

'=Vg
t is. independent of mass, so both balls will take the same time to reach the ground. Putting the values of h and 9 we have
t=

fzh

~2XlO w;-=1.4s

5.5.1 Variation in the value of 9

A look on equation (5.12) reveals that the value of 9 depends on M.. and ~. The value of 9 is not constant. It depends on some factors which are being discussed below. The Earth is not a perfect sphere, it is buldging at the equator. It is found that the value of 9 changes by about 0.6 per cent on the Earth. It also changes with altitude, depth and lattitude. Would you like to buy 1 p , more gold for the same money? ,

CAl

Vllriatio. of 9 with altitud.e : Let us

take a body of mass m at point P at'height h from the Earth's surface. (Fig 5.5). Its distance from the centre of Earth OP = (Ra + h). Let the value of acceleration: due to gravity at P be gO. Therefore,

Ii
I
I

ne 5.5: ~ point P at an _."."

II.
.

88

Gravitational Motion

or g= (RB +h)'
On the Earth's surface
Il g=-.-

GMIl

GM
RIl

Dividing these equations we have,

g-

(RB.+h)' 2
RB

( 1+h =1+-+2h (h
RIl RB RB

J
(5;13)

Since R,. > h, we can neglect

(i-J

so that

g=g(l+

~)

or

The .above equation shows that g' < g. We find. that with increase in altitude the value of 9 decreases, it is less than 9.8 ms-2, the value on the surface of the Earth.
Bxample 5.5: Calculate the percentage difference in the value of9 at altitudes fa) 200 km and (b) 40 km. The radius of the Earth is 6400 km.

Solution:
(a)

g'
9

= ~ =(
r2

6400km 6400 + 200 km

)2 = (6400)2. = 0 94 6600'
Ilg xlOO=0.61% g

Ilg=g-g=0.06

So, the percentage variation

g'= ( 6400 km 9 6400 +40 km

(b)

)2 = 0.9937

- /1g = 0.0063 So., the percentage variation = 0.064% . Note that the value of 9 remains same near the surface of the Earth.

BampJe 5.~ Taking ~ of the Earth equal to 6.37 >< 1~ m and 9 = 9.8 m,s-2 find the mass of the Earth. (G - 6.67 x 10-" Nm' kg-2) .. g R~ 9:8 ms~2 x (6.37 x 106m)' Solution: ME = - - = - 5.97 x 10" kg G 6.67 X 10- 11 AIa- 5.97 x 1024 kg Density of the Earth
P _ MB
V gRB'/G3 g 3 ~ 3 n RB . 4 tlGJl.B

89

Physics 3x9.8ms-2 4x3.14x6.67xlO- Nm"kg2 x6.37x106 km

= - - - - - - = - ll

(B) Variatiop. of g with latitude: Two factors, (al position of the body above the surface of the Earth and (bl the latitude at which the body is situated affect the value of g. The first part has already been discussed. It is the rotation of Earth about its wn axis which gives rise to the second type of variation. y

Consider a mass point P on the Earth's surface at a latitude A as shown in Fig 5.6. Due to the rotation of the Earth from West to East on its own axis running North-South, the mass at P experiences a centrifugal force. It describes a circle of radius r, the radius of the Earth being RE Had the Earth been stationary FG would act along PO. The mass point P describe a circle of radius r=R.eosle Fig. 5.6;Th. effect ofrotatWn of the Earth Where A. is the latitude of P. The centrifugal force on P is on the value of 'g'. I Fe I = mror From lession 1, you know that force can be resolved into two rectangular components namely Fe cos Ie alorig OP and Fe sin Ie tangential to the Earth at P. The tangential component has no effect along PO. The net force along PO is thus F=FG-FC cosle In lesson 4, you have learnt Fe = mror, therefore; on writing magnitudes mg = mg - mror cos Ie org=g-R.orcoS' A 15.14) We see that, (i) the rotation of Earth decreases the value of 9 (ii) the increase in the value of Ie increases the value of g. The value of 9 thus changes from place to place on the Earth, its mcvdmum value is at the pole fA. = 90"} and minimum at the equator fA.= OJ.
Example 5.7: Calculate the value of 9 at (a) the equator, (b) the poles, and

Ie} at a latitude of 45. Given

(R.}..= 6378.4 km, (RE ),.,.. = 6356. 9 km, ME

= 5.97

x 1 (11< kg.

Solution: At latitude Ie, the value of acceleration due to gravity is g = 9 - R.uP COS2 1e (a) At the equator Ie= 0, cosO = 1, w= 2ft/T Therefore,
gt':{1

_ GM E

- (R.)~-q

4ft2 [ . . , (R) E cq T' . 9 =9

-E W

2]

90

Gravitaqonal Motion 6.67 X 10-11 Nm 2 kg-2 x 5.97 X 10 24 kg or

g.q =

.(6.3784 x 10 6 m)'

6.3784 x 10 0 m (86400)s

9.78038 ms~2 (b) At the poles A. = 90, cos A = 0, g- = g = GME /(R.)2pol. 6.67 x 10- 11 Nm 2kg-2 x 5.97 X 10 24 kg GM
:9pole =

(RE )pole =

(6.3569

10 6 )

= 9.854 ms-2

(c) At latitude 45, cos 45 =

g=

/.,[2

6.67 X 10- 11 Nm 2kg-2 x 5.97 (6.371 x 10 6

mt

1024 kg

4n 2 x 6.371 x 106 m

(86400 s)

= 9.80620 ms'.

C, Variation of 9 with Depth: If we measure the value of 9 inside a mine, will it be the same as on the surface of the Earth? Let us explore it. Consider a point P at a depth h below the surface of the Earth as shown in Fig. 5.7. The mass at P may be considered to be situated inside a spherical shell of thickness h and on the surface of the sphere of radius (RE-h), where RE is the radius of the Earth. The gravitational effect at P due to the shell is zero as the point P lies inside the shell. Therefore, the effective gravitational field at P is only due to the sphere of radius (RE - h). The earth is divided into a shell of thickness h and a symmetrical sphere of radius (R. - h). Fig 5.7, A moss pault Pat depthh. The mass of the sphere = 3 n (RE -h) P If the value of acceleratior..due to gravity at P is g, then

Also 9

= Ji2 =
E

GM

G-R~p R2
E

Dividing these two equations we have

g' 1-nG(RE - hlp RE - h h -= - . =1-9

1- nGREP

RE

RE

or

g=g

, (1

--) RE

hI

(5.15)

We find that acceleration due to gravity decreases with increasing depth (g < g). But it is important to note that variation of gwith depth is-not a simple affair At the centre of Earth h -

R. ' then

g=

9(1- ::) =

The uneven variation in the value of 9 with depth is complex in nature and it depends on the density of the Earth at different depths. Now, it is time to check your. progress.

DlTEX1 QUESTIONS 5.3._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.
The .......tational fon:e on an ollject depend_ linearly on ita man, wily i. then the acceleraIion of a free1y falling object independent of m ....?

.......................................................................................................:..........................
2. you ...... free to bUll gold from a dealer at the equator or polea. To &et maximum gOld for your money wou1d you like it to be weighed by a spring acale at the pole or equator?
In the Britiah syatem the unit of length, mass and time are foot, slug respectively. What will be the .unit of G in this sytem?
and.~

3.

4.

Determine the fractional decrease in the value of 9 due to increase in the elevaIiQll by 8 Ian near the aurface of the Earth R. - MOO km. The m ..... of aateroid Cere. i. approximately 7 10'" kg end ita diameter i. 1100 km.. What ill the value of acceleration due to sravity at ita surface? What would be the' weight of an 80 kg astronaut on this asteroid? .

5.

..................................................................................................................................

5.6

KEPLER'S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

The planet and stars in the sky have always attracted scientists to find out about these heavenly bodies. Throughout the last few decades of the sixteenth century, a -nanish astronomer Tycho Brahe made precise measurements of the position of the planets and various others bodies of the solar system. Johannes Kepler made a detailed analysiSOiOf the measurements and announced three laws which describe planetary t.otion.. These laws are thereafter called Kepler's laWs of Planetary motion.
I. of orbits : The orbit of any planet around the SUn is an ellipse tiiIth the

SUn at one oJthe Jodi oJthe elipse.

L ,or are.. : The line joining the Sun and the pl.:met, called the mdius vector, sweeps equal areas in equal intervals oJtime.
I..... of perlo.. : For any two planets in the Solar system, the squares ofthe periods of revolution are proportional to the cube of their average diStance from the Sun, i.e.

-'---'T.,2 - r,'
2 2

T,2

r?

or 'P' .. .,.
92

(5.16)

Gravitational Motion Almost all planets have elliptical orbits and circle is a special case, (See Fig. '5.8). For most practical purposes we take the orbit nearly circular. In calculational work, in general, we consider planets in isolation as if the interaction of planets is not there (though the actual situation is different). We fmd that the speed of comets increases when they come Closer to the Sun. So, is the case with the planets. They become slower when they move away from the Sun. It is explained by the law of areas.

PIa: 5.8, _

.,planets an>wtd the sun

in elliptWal ori>it.
Area ASB A .... CSD A .... ESP

Blatmple 5.8: The mass ofplanet Jupiter is 1,90 x 1 (P7 kg and its radius is 7.14 x 107 m. Calculate the acceleration offreefall on Jupiter. By w/wt factor would your weight be larger than your weight on Earth?
Solution:
g=--=~~~~~~~~~~

GM

6.67xlO-11 Nm 2 kg-2 x 1.90 X 1 0 27 kg (7.14

R'

x10 mf
7

= 22.9 ms-' Weight on Jupiter - mg = 22.9 mN Weight on Earth = mg = 9.8 mN

times 9.8m Blatmple 5.9: Calculate the mean distance from the Sun of hypothetical platlets fJaving periods fa) 50 year, (b) 100 year. Mean distance of the Earth from the Sun is equal to 149.6 x 10' m.

' F actor

= 22.9m = 2.33

Solution: From Kepler's third law of motion we have

;>=T! , ,
Consider the Earth as another body at a distance" from the Sun. Now for the first hypothetical planet we write '

r' ,

T.' ,

r,' = (T.lT,)' = (149.6 = (149.6 x 10' m)' 2500 So, r, = 2.03 x 10'2 m
(a) (b) For the second planet
, r'

r:

x10' m)' (50 y/ly)'

Here T, is taken as the period of the Earth about the Sun which is 1 year.

ri =(7;J' 1; . or r,",(1;)2 = r, T,
A

Thus,': - (149.6 109 m)" (100 y/1y)2 _ (149.6 X 109 )3 10,000 m a or r. - 3.2 x 10'2 m.
\.

93

------------------------~'PhySIcs Now, take a break and solve the following questions.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.4_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~

1.

Show that Kepler's second law is the law of conservation of momentum

............................................................................................................................... ;.
,

2.

Does the Moan obey Kepler's laws of motion?

.... ,............................................................... -........................................ 1

3. Does a
~met

move .faster at aphehelion or perihelion?

4.

4 Astronomical Ob8etyations shows that Mercury moves. fastest and Pluto slowest, why is it BO?
The ratio of the radii of the two Earth satellites A and B i. of their Cal periods (h) acceleration and (e) speeds.

5.

r./r. -

2 . What are thenio

5.7

MOTION OF SATELLITES

Every one of you have seen the Moon. You also know th...t itrevoJiles around the Earth in circular orbit. Like Earth, Naptune has one m.o~, Uranus has four moons, Saturn ten and Jupiter has maximum nlU;lIber ..f moons 12. These moons revolve round the respective planet and an; !:'..ned the natural satellites. Thus, we can say that the satellite is a body~ moves .around a planet. There are. artifk:ial satellites also. Eveislfille Russia launched its ftrst man-made satellite Spu.'nik-I in October 1957, the sky has been flooded with the artificial satellites, we have our oWn satellites in the same crowed. Let us now find how satellite .can move around the Earth at a certain height.
An object thrown horizontally from some height hits .the ground like any

projectile. The motion of projectile has been discussed in lesson 4. What happens when the objected is thrown hard enough? It will escape leaving the Earth and go around in elliptical orbit (see Fig. 5.10). The orbit will be a circle for a certain velocity of projection. The object travels in the curved path due to gravity and forward momentum.
Clmdar 0IbIt
E1HpticBloo1JiI

n.

11.10,

1'Fo~

of object with different speeds at different heights

We see that a satellite may be put in an orbit provided(a) it is taken to a certain suitable height and (h) given a proper h~nta1 velocity so that it falls continuously without hitting the Earth. ..
"94 . ...

Gravitational

M~

The condition (b) is a characteristic of circular motion as shown in Fig 5.11. In the absence of centripetal force provided by the gravity, the object wm fly off along a tangent in the direction ofve1ocity. Such a situation can be visualised by whirling a small stone tied at one end of the string. If the hand stops pulling at the string the stone will fly off tangentially. Now decrease the length of the string by pulling a part of it in, we see that the stone now moves faster. Similarly. satellites close to the Earth move faster.

-.. ,----........:'"' -- t/--.....

,,

t
,

--

..--

FIg s.u: The uolocity is at each point o/the orbit and object contlr.uously falls towards EcUth to remain in circular orbit

tangen!ial

Fig 5.12: Satellite launch using a multistage rocket.

5.7.1 (a' Orbital Velocity

Th.. velocity with which a satellite or planet reuolves in its orbit is called its orbital velocity. Like the orbit of a planet, for simplicity the orbit of the satellite is also taken as circular. As pointed out in the preceding section we need a velocity (vo) to put the satellite in a desired orbit. Since gravity provides the centripetal force in the circular orbit of the satellite of radius r, we have
-r--

mv~ _ GM8m

or vo

=~G~E
gRi,
so that

using eq. (5.12) we have G~ =

I Vo=~ =~J[J
~
R8 +h

(5.17).

From eq. (5.17) we see that the orbital velocity is (a) independent of the mass of the satellite (b) inversely proportional to the square root of the radius of the orbit. If the satellite is at a height h from the surface of the Earth then ./ r = R,. + h and
,/
Vo

= R8

9S

Physics When the satellite moves close to the Earth h

vo = ,JgRE
D

= 0 and r::. ~, so
(5.18)

8km.s-'

Bzemple ~ 10: Find the orbital velocity a/the satellite around the Earth at heights (a) 70 kin (b) 230 km Take the radius a/the Earth 6.37 x 1(1' m.

801ation: (a) r - ~ + h - (6370 + 70) x 10' km

Vo

6.44 x 10" m
2

= Rg - = 6. 37 x 10 6 m
r

9.8ms6 6.44xlO m

783 -I =. 5kms

Thus v. .. 8 km S-I which is the orbital velodty for a satellite revolving close to the Earth.
(b) r Vo

Ra + h" (6.37 + 0.23) x 10' m =.6.6 x 10

=6.37x10 6 m 9.8ms: =7.385kms-1 6.6xlO m

We find that even at an altitude of230 lan, the orbital ve10dty of the satellite is nearly same as for a satellite close to the Earth.

lb) Time Period of the Satellite

It is defined as the tfiRe fn which the :rtrteRfte makes 0". completes Nf/iOfutton CV01I7Id the earth. The time of revolution is, thus, equal to the circumfrance of the circular path divided by the orbital speed v. T- 27fT/v. Substituting for Vo from eq. (5.17 1) we have

or This is the basic equation of motion of a satellite. When r::. Ra. i.e. fC?I" a satellite close to earth,
T
2 _

(5.19)

--""B 9

47r ..

5.7.2 Bllcape Velocity

You m~st have observed that when a body is thrown in the uprward direction, it reaches a certain height and CQIIles back to the earth. But when it is liVen greater initial velocity, it reacher greater height before coming back to the earth. If the body is given certain IIdnimum initial velocil3' from the ~ ofthe earth, so that it goes beyond the gravitational field of earth, then, the velocity is said to be the _ape ...1ocUy. In other words the - r ' ...loc:ftj, can ". d4fned _ the III!Jocfty whfeh wm

96

Gravitational t.otion
take the P,-oJectf.le (body) to the fr!(fn.ite distance away aboIte the tntrface oJ the earth when projected upwards.

Let us calculate its value. We know the work needed to take a mass m from the surface of the earth to infinity is equal to
aM m

R: '

where ~ is

the mass of the earth and R. is the radius,of the earth. Ifa body is to be able to do this amount of work (and so to escape), it needs
to have at least this amount of kinetic energy at the moment it is projected. Hence, the minimum velocity vea to be given to a body so as to escape

earth's pull is given by II. m v' = ea

V ..

GMEm
RE

= (2GME)" =~2GME
RE RE
gRg2, we have

Since

G~ =

v.. =

~2~:i,

or

Veo -

~I

(5.20)

using equation (5.18) we have

Yes

=./2vo
Vo

(5.21)

Taking

= 7.91 km S-I, we have 11.2 km S-I. The e~ape velocity is thus about 3/2 times the orbital velocity.

vea

B .... mp~,5.11:

A body is launched from tM Earth (R~ = 1.5 X 10" m). Calculate tts..escape velocity so that it gets out of the puu of the Sun

Solution:
Vea

~2GM.
ReI

=[2 X 6.67 X 10- Nm kg-2

. 1.5 X 1011m
g-1

II

,
X

2 X 1030kg]'
.

= 4.22 X 104 ms-l

or v.. - 42.2 km

Compare it with the escape velocity for Earth (v.. = 11.2 km S-I). Thus, it is much more difficult for a body to escape out of the solar system.

5.7.3 Geostationary Satellite

A .--lUte whfeh remalns./fxed dfret:t.ly over a point Oft the tntrfof the Zarth while rew'blfng in ita orfJtt is know _ ~1UII'Jf or aynchro_ sateRite. To an observer in the satellite, the Earth will appear

stationary hence the name geostationary. In other words the time period of the satellite is exactly equal to time of rotation of the Earth onits axis, that is, one day (86400 s). 97

:>hysics lie know from eq. '(5.19) that-the pe"iod of revolution and the ,dis~ce of he satellite from the Earth are related. lie can fmd the height over the sur'ace of the Earth of a satellite whose ime period is 1 day that is it becomes I synchronous satellite. Using ,q.(5.19) we may write,
r

-PIg S.13 , Two positions SandS' oj ;' J<ostatIonary satellite at height 36,000 km over the swface oftheEatth

T' g Ri ]1 =[41t"
R.. + h, therefore,
1"

lince r =

h+Rg =. [ 41t" gRi

]i
Rg

or h [ 41t" g Ri

T'

]i -

(5.22)
X

'aking T = 1 day = 86400 s, R. = 6.38 h = 42250 - 6380 = 35870 knl or h -= 36,000 knl.

106 m and 9

= 9.81 ms-2

36,000 knl height over the suiface f the Earth and a booster engine helps in fixing it in the circular orbit. It ; worth noting that the geostationary satellite is to be installed in the quitorial plane, otherwise its orbit will not be geostationary. In other osition the orbital plane changes continuously. INSAT I-B is an Indian eostationary satellite. he advent of geostationary satellites have brought a sea change in the eld of communications. Three synchronous satellites can cover the whole lobal communication if they ate placed at 120 with each other at an ltitude of about 36,000 knl.
~. 7.4

~ multistage rocket places the satellite at

Application of SateWtea

he satellites are being used in various fields for diverse purposes. The pplications are based. on two things (i) infrared photography and (ii) relay. olar panels are used to supply energy to the satellite systems. Some of leir applications are given below. Communication satellite, such as INSATseries of satellites of 'India:, are used in 'lV, radio telegraphy and radio communication.

In guiding and tracking of missiles during war.

These are used in remote sensing including (a) detection of troops and veblcufar movement. (h) oil and mineral exploration (c) detection of military hardwares.

In weather forcasting.
98

Gravitational Motion 5. 6. 7. These are used to locate atmospheric and oceanic disturbances such as cyclones and low pressure regions. These are being used to detennine the exact shape, dimensions and atmosphere of other planets and their moons. These are b.eing used in the environmental studies, pollution and popUlation determination and crop pattern on the Earth. Satellites are helping in charting ecology, forest and jungle cover, desert and glacier movements. ~

8.

Example 5.12: Ittakes 7 hour and 3~ minfor the satellite phobos to complete one round about the planet Mars. The orbital radius of Phobos is 9.4 x 1 Cf' m Find the mass ofMars.

Solution: The relation between orbital radius and time period is given as

r'=-'-GM 41C' Assuming Mars to be stationary and G'" 6.67

We have
M T= (7 x 3600 + 39 x 60)s.
r3

T'

10-11 Nm2

kg-2,

= 411"2
T 2G

4(3.14)2 x (9.4 X 106 m)3 (2.754 x 10 4 S)2 x 6.67 X 10-11 Nm 2 kg-2

= 0.6606 x 1021

kg.
question~.

Stop, and check your progress by solving the following

~EXT

QUESTIONS 5.5._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

'1.

Determine the mass of the Earth from the following data Radius of the orbit of Moon ~ - 3.84 x 10" m Period of the Moon - 27.3 days Gravitational constant (G) - 6.67 X 10-11 Nm' ~'

2.

Assuming Jupiter to be. stationary, find ita mass. Ita sateJljte Suropa has a period of 3.55 days and its orbital radlus is 6.71 x loe m.

3.

Due to some unforseen event the orbital plane of the 10 satellite of Jupiter does not paSs through the centre of Jupiter. Will the orbitaf 10 be stable?

4.

How high a man can jump on moon where acceleration due to gravity is. 1/6 times acceleration due to gravity on the Earth,

5.

Icarus is an asteroid behaving like a small planet. It can have a close approach to' the Earth. Its apbelion distance is 2.946 x lOS km and perihelion distance is 2.8 x 107 Ian. Calculate the period of revolution of Icarus. Take Earth's mean distance from the sun - 1.496 10" Ian and ita periud 365 days. IHint : rl = -(28.0 + 294.6) x 10 Ian,r2 = 149.6 x 10 Ian.
1 6 6

Use Kepler's law of

motion.!

99

rnySlcs

5.8 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARlIT_ _ _ _ _ _----.:-_ _

111e point mas.es attract each other anywhere in the universe. This force of attraction ia called gravitalional force. According to Newton's law of gravitation, the force of attraclion betwee., two point

r r 111. value of Gia 6.67_10'" Nm' kg" and it has djmenoion. of (M-' L" .T4). The gravitational force i. a central force, it act. along the line joining !;he two point maaaea.

maNe. at a diotance'r i. given

-"1"

by

-an;

"'2 r

= -Gr;m2 r

The force of gravitation i. both ~ i.e.

that r.~.111e mass which cheracterioe. oppoaition (r.oiotancel to accaleration under a rorce given by Newton'. law r - rna ia \mown aa inertial maas ..... 111e lila. . which characterise. the graVitational force on the body i. called the gravitational in_ ...... Under ordinasy copditiono the inertia1ll1Uo of a body and it. gravitalional maaa are equal. However, if the speed of motion become. comparable to the speed of light the inertial mass will change. Weight iathe gravitalional force acting on a body due to the Earth (planet) - ..... 111e acceletal:ion couaed by gravity in a freely fa11ing body i. called accaleration due to gravity 'g. 111e 1IaiUf> of 'g at altitude h i. given by g' - 9 (1 - ~I RJ 111. value of g change. with latitude A. and i. given by g-g -Gi'R.coaA. The motion of pbineto around the Sun io governed by Kepler'. law. I'In1t Z- : Each planet move. around the Sun in elliptical orbito. s ....... Z-: 111e line joining the Sun and the plariet """"'P. equa1 areas in equal interva1. of time. ThInf 1.-: The aquare of the time ~od of revolution i. direc:tJ.y pn>portional to the cube of it. average distance from the SWl. 7" '" .. The... law. are equaJly applicable to the motion of satellites aa welL 111e orbital velocity of a satellite i. given by
"0

m,

attraota "" and .... attract.

m,

.uch

=~GME r-

= 1?E

~;.

f!

For satellite. clooe to the Earth orbital wlocity io

"0 '" .J9 RE

8 k:m 0"

Eacape velocity no the valoc:ity of P"'!iecfion on the Earth with ....hich a body can eacape out of the gravitational field of the planet or the SWl.

".. - .j2gR"

-.J2,,0 -1l.2k:m

.-1 for Earth.

The period of motion of satellite

no given by

Geoatationaly utellite ia a satellite which remains fixed over a certain point on the surface of, the Earth. It. period of rotation i. equal to the period of rotation of the Earth about ito own axia that i. 1 cJ-.y, The height at which a geootationaty satellite ,. placed ail""" the aurf""" of the Earth ia ailout 36,000 km. For a stabl. orbit, the geoatationaty satellite should remain in the equitorial plane.

100

Gravitational Motion

5.9
1.

TERMINAL QUESTIORS,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

State and explain Newton's law of gravitation.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Can gravitationa1 force be repulsive? Two artificial satellite, one'loner to surface and the other away, are revolving round the e~. which one haa longer period of revolution? Which for~e keeps an artificial satellite revolving in its orbits? Does
th~

orbital velocity of a satellite depend upon its rnaaa?

Is the escape velocity lOr two bodies of different masse. on the aurface of earth same ' or ditrerent?

7" S. 9.

State Kepler. laws of planetary motion. Derive Kepler'. law8 using Newton'. laws of gravitation and hi. laws of motion. If two muse. SOx 107 kg and 40 x 107 kg respectively are placed at a distance of 6.67 m, calculate the orc::e of a.ttraction between.

10. Aaauming Earth to be spherically symmetrical, detennine the value of g at a height 0.13. 10 m above ita surface. Take the maaa of the earth M. - 5.97 x 10" kg and it. radius R. - 6.37 10 m. 11. Would you be able to stand on Jupiter where the value of acceleration due to gravity i. about 3 time. that on the Earth? ' 12. There i. a planet called Egabbac in another solar system whose radius i. twice that of the Earth but maaa dewoity is same as that of the Earth. If the acceleration of a falling body on that planet is 19.6 ma-4, does it obey the law of gravitation? 13. Show that the m .... of a planet is given by m - r 2 giG, where g i. the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the planet ofradf'us ~p' p 14. Find the period of a satellite 40,000 Ian from the centre of Earth. Mas. of Earth 5.98 x 10" Irg. 15. Considering the m .... of the Moon as 7.4 x 10" kg and radius as 1740 10' m, calculate the value of 9 on the surface of the moon. 16. The acceleration of gravity at the surface of a planet is half that on the surface of the earth. If the radius of the planet is half the rarlills of the earth, how is its mass related to the mas. of the earth? 17. An astronaut weigh. 100 kg on the earth. What is hi. weight on a planet x which has

RE a radius .. - and am....

-~

'2

-.

11_

ME --? 8

18. Calculate the escape velocitr on the surface of the moon. Given, mass of the moon 1.35 x 1CJ22 kg and radius of moon - 1.60 x 10 m. 19. An artificial satellite i. revolving around the earth at height of 800 Ian above the surl'ace of the parth. Find ita orbital velocity and the time period of revolution. 20. Mars has a mean diameter of 6,720 Ian and earth of 12,800 km. The mass of Mars is 0.11 time. the m ...... of.earth. (a) What i. the ell<:llpe velocity on Mars? In) How does the mean dewoity of Mars compare with that of earth? (e) What is the ....uue of g on Mars?

5.10 ANSWER TO THE INTEXT QUESTIONS

iH'BXTQnaTIO.S 5.1 1. All bodiea'-we considered to be point muses 2. The acceleration of "\ will be negligible flection couple - tonional couple Torque - force x'moment ann, i.e.''C - Fa I also Torque ~ - 01, Equating we ha"" Fa 1- 011 5. 3.41 100m
~TBX'l

(....... - ,,\.y

(iilE./16 4. 6.64 " 10"'" Nm2 lqr' [Hint: In equilibrium condition the de3. (i19P'a

QUBSTlO 5.2

1. The two mas... are measured by different techniques.

101

Physics
2. No difference.
3. The two masses will be equal as the speed of the elevator is small compared to the

speed of light.
4. Weight depends on the value of 9 which

varies with place, altitude depth etc.

5.6N

IBIIiXT QUBsTIOIiS 5.3

1. a- F/m is constant as Foe m. 2. At the equator, aa the weight will be mea sured les8 there. 3. lb-ft' (alug)" 4. 2.5>10'" 5. 0.15 mr, 12 N

which proves Keplers third law of motion and also ,Newton's taw of gravitation i. proved. 2. Yes 3. At the perihelion that is when it is closest to the Sun. 4. Because planets obey Kept."s third law of mation. TI oc r-, mercury haa minitnum rand Pluto maximum II - 21<r1 T.
5. (a)

1.33 x 10"", 1.33 x 10"", 1.32 x 10", 1.34 > 10"', 1.32 > 10"", 1.33 x 10:10 m 3 .-a The result shows that a c R2 is constant

IBIIiXT QUBsTIOIiS 5.4 1. Areas of Triangle made by radius 'h " v,

2,/2,

(b) '14,

(c)

1/./2

So,

-IhT V2 2
mrl

(b) Yes ratio r"/T' i. almost constant.

vt

..

mr2 v2

IBTBXT Q"OESTlOlliiJ 5.5 1. 6.04 > 10" kg.

2. 1.90 > 10" kg. 3. No. 4. 6 times higher compared to the Earth. 5. 409 days.

(c) Venus and Naptune

(d) Mercury and Pluto (e) 1.33 > 10"", 1.32 > 10"", 1.327 > 10>0,

EXTENDED LEARNING
G,I'1IIiaPl

new
inten~ty

Gravitational field is defined as some modification or a condition in the space around a point mass. This field acts on any other mass m placed anywhere in the field. The field
intensity is defined as the force acting on a unit mass in the field. So, the field
I

Fa i. 1=l'lm. On the Earth 1- - = g

m

GM. The g;avitationallield intensil or simply field ia thus, 9 = - R2 r

, It ia a vector field which acts towards mass M. The general form of the field intensil is

GM given by.- - - r
r3

It has the dimensions of acceleration and is independent of the mass point m but depends on the mass M which ~ created the field. The force acting on a point mass m in the field
j.

'-m.
tF

GAt"

rill PateatW Br ...,

Tbe g;avitational potential energy of a point """'" ia due to ita locaIion in the gravitational field. The potential eneqy difference ia found by calndating the wmk done in taking a unit point mass &om one point in th.. field to anotIieI' point . . . .st the gravitationallield. It can be ahown either by numerical method or in~ that the potential energy of a mass m

in the field ofmass Jlat a di_ _ ,from ilia'given by

It must be noted that the P.E is taken zero at infinity.

rr- - 6,-

Un

. . .1' "maI .........

If a body ia to be taken from any point near ita .wfao:e to a far 011 point, ..,.,rk has to be done on it against earth's g;avitational puU. However, if the _ process i. to be accomplished i.e. the, _ body , ia to be brought from a far 011 point to a point n ..... the surface of the earth, worl< ia done on it by the earth. The tota1 amount of worl< done OIl a unit maasbody to brine it from infinity to a point n ..... the surface of earth is called gn",;.tational potential at that point.

w.. know that the earth atI:racaI ......ybocI;y to...a:d. ita centre.

102

lUIOW
'_-l.ni?b!J~? -)"1J-> ~J-'N H<~r;
"j

E.o

'1fq nT".!') ',I' I 3"'}~ll~:':-: 'nlSiTI rtf ':.i"trrlJ' ino'}! 'J;f1 'V.!J "V! :rru .rjJ'-~ir;~n -!o gl>r.! .~ grUfn!.,n -,;, 'Y},' [rId"/.' ,L(1 .:rho1: lr;-in-)(fI ~~f1wb T1t; '.'l! ~i ;d10'11 ':)riJ ,hf;,i nl :t\: f~';d;:'; \,'~:li'_:9.J~ -0-1 lij;i lJ~"d~ ,,~dq GL ~.!'Il qu 11 d,[ 1fr <".:i ,j,/;,
-qR 9~'I6) ')dr~n (.J':'[tTfqn ,.Hi! :rl,
. Hf~::')b ,!~ tl. 'nJiI .. < ~,..r t'~J

h<}fi')f'id~ ,;:'.~.(:_ rOn!!!n

'Hi'

f!)tb.i

'/jftq

jjff)h

>

')J:J f-;

) ire'.]..-: r:, V) 3d fHi > ') f!(J! ., :-j

r .II Jill,

OO'lo'iJ

1I!.G

;:m()~) .6
'(1 "

1[0

s.i1o(l

;hoW J f .. a
rU ;'.
t

-Gib ~ 2"-')'IOn:: 'WUO?] dtim f'g{aqr

j'f-;rj!W0RH{).A;RD.EDRGY ',<", ';','

---Ii"'

'urff'rnl . s"

,gil' ",p rT' , ,'. - ,'-d

1;1:
\11

.n

j(1"hn')

)J,fq:--:t!i

,-

-~-,

{i

,aJ
INTROD~CTION

--.-.---

"

_ _._

l'~ - "'n i _ __ ._ .". ---1

6.1

-",,' _ "

Until now we have sbldied the motion of objects in ter!Iut of Newton's laws of motion. Force plays ~ k~_ ~.le in determining th,!t~J.tt state motion of these objects. But Sf ~ it is not easy to apply N~'s second law to find the change in, speed (lnagnitude-ofmstantaneous've1ocity).

of

~-'h i, j .t': ':;!:T-'l fl.';) '}VI (One Ilfthe facts about energy is that it has manyfQl'mlilil Weneec:\to lrnder-

In this lesson we will iLtrod~tbe conc~WDFk.and-el/..ergy and use them to study the changes oecuring in a . Energy and momentum are significant ~cah, qu_titjftS as they ankClltns~,Lawslof vonservation of energy and linear momentum are,wlecliil)umtcvatane\iDgrmany processes we observe around us.

stand a few fOnna.BkrJlltiWltitj .... gyandpotenli.Jlenergy;ofa1sys1J!iD..

~<f~~~cfm'Ce'i'eDi~'IJy .. ~\8l'e'~to

-W!\u~~&It~1 Ol"ldfteti~~8i\'d\lt@fi\~'1h some physical systems. ,h""vm

""1",,)

i6AI

OBJECTIVES

-Mei'iilu'a.jingthia'lCisoll.I'}mISbOUld' ):jtj,>able"'.to,' '" h,', :La "lq,","l<3 ikfine and calculate the work doTfi!"'by\'a'Y6~" - ,'."" ',','"" "';,\ define and calculmethe k:inetUtfllllliirgg'orandJ.Jec*;"',h ,)f"': uci;,,!c<o stateaJfd'~~.~'tIuioriml;" '., ,:. ,,,' '" .J") ""oj; definepowerofGsystempeifomringworkandrecognisells~ define consen.oo.tive force and relate the work doMliy'it 01\ a system with the change in its potelltioJ energy; \, ' \. < ' \ ',' ! i define potentio.l energy and obtain expressions fist' ~tfal potentioJ energy and elastic potentio.l energy; , i, () state and apply the prindple ofOllnsenircztionc1/~~oI'G

'Jttuh CIPPIlI~..ti~etlirv-.tmo~cmdc-WiPl!cfollisiim

ODns~~l'OW 'Srl:t rl:lirlV{.. no <:70::t:::lJ'll state ..,... aP'PlilfM l'ciW oJ OIInseT11CmOn OJ energy; and

':>liT

s:c:..a

Physics

6.3

WORK

We use the word 'work' in many senses. For example when we are studying we are doing mental work but when we are carrying a bag of cement upstairs or lift it up we do physical work against gravity. In fact, the work is done only when the object gets displaced in the direction of the force applied. The force can be 'constant or variable. Let us study it in detail.

6.3.1 Work Done by a Constant Force

Let us consider a constant force F acting ouan object that moves a distanced along a straight line; see Fig. 6.1. Fmakes an angle 6 with respect to displacement d. We derme the work W done by the constant force F on the object as it under goes the displacement d by the relation

I W= Fdcos 61
F-

(6.1)

~J_-_---_ne

-_[_1_/_
d
0,

.-

t------=,.:----'---I
6.1 : The work done by' on. the object in a displacement d is Fd oos 9.

n... component ofF "kong d is F oos

We can write Eq (6.1) as W= (Fcos6) d=F11d (6.2) Where F'l is the component of Falong d (refer Fig .6.1). The worlle done by a constantforee on an object is the product of the component of the force along the direction of motion and the distance mo'/led. In Vector form the work done is given by W= Fdcos e = F.d

Example 6.1: Calculate the work done byaforee F placement of 2 m vertically upward.

(4i + 3J)N in a dis-

Solution :The displacement d = ,(2m)). We use Eq. (6.3) to calculate work done. Accordingly we have W = F. d = (4 f + 3 J) . (2 J) = 4 t. (2 J)+ 3 J . 2 J = (0 + 6) N.m ,.; 6 J. Work done by the given force is 6 J.

6.3.2 The factors on which the work depend

If an object does not move under the action of a force " then the work done by the force, W= 0 because d= 0 in Eq. (6.1). For example, you push very

104

Work and Energy . .

hard against a wilD, but the wall does not move, then you have done no work. ExertiIig force is not to be confused with work being donel ",.; _ _ claD

It is esseritialto understand that the work done by a force as given in Eq. (6.1) depends not onlY. on mqnitudes of ,and d but also on the angle It latbeworkdoaebyt between the two vectors , and d. Depending 011. tile value of the angle 8, ou:tJDc on ~161)""u the work done by a force on an object am be positive, negative or even to ......dote IV_I zero.

:=:
f.,..

-- Valt of _rk: From the defining equation of work, Eq (6.1), the 81 unit of work is' the Newton.metre iN:.m) which is given a special name, the Joule (J). o-~ ill ~ _tIw _rlt _ _ . . .J - of- n.wton iii dt8p1ardng tIw '-'II ". one metre in tIw _ "" -tiM. 1 Joule - (1 Newton) (1 metre) 1 J - 1 N.m.
~,. 6.2: A person lifts a bag of mass 5 kg. raising it vertically, with . negligible acceleration to a height of I m above the ground. . a} What is the foree, eJrerled by the man on the bag? b) How1rtUch worIt is done by the man on the bag? c) How much worIt is clone by the gravitatit:mllljoroe on the bag?

Boilltloa: 'is the force exerted by the man on the bag. , - -mg(:..... 0). The resultant or net force on the bag , must,;pe zero.; seelig 6.2. i.e, .1'1 - I mgl- 5 kgx 9.8 ms-a F-49 N.

Solution:

The force exerted by tile person on the , bag is 49 N (verticaIJ,yupward).

b)

a" 0

From Eq (6.1), the work Wpdone by the person onthe bag. is IP-ven "'" by W;-Fdcoa8 (49 N) (1 m) (cos 0). lPI&a.a I AJhlo ..... dlagramof"'" bag, -.49J. The w'ork done by the pelSOll on the bag is 49 J.

c)

The work WI done by the gravitationaHorce on the bag, ~ (6.1) is W -.Fdcosu - (mg) d.coa (180) -(49N) (1 m) (-1) - -49J. The work done by the gravitation8J. force on the bag is - 49 J.

6.3.3 Work Do. . by._ V.nab1e, ~l'Ce

Let llS consider a case in whiCh Jtxj v8Jyjllg with the Jlt)aitioI1 JC of the object(s} see Fig 6.3. We ,lrish to calcuhite, the ''irork, done by, Jtx) in the interval Xjand x,. The work done is calculated aver a number of intervals of displacement width A chosen small enough so thIlt It-"I can be cOnsidered ~t. (See fig 6;3 a). 105

on .,nob
(d .s-aob *,OW -t.n
~ntns f;~,tollo

~t1T

It,,rl1 ,.,vum 10ft '" b ILsw "ill tud .Ils 's 1znisllS b"lBri I:>~o 8fbd >l"lOW b~eul . 0" .,d 0' jon 'no1 ;gni:h"x3
"V.6

IJO'~

,=xjawn

,(do I1R flO '{ji!ClJO~ltJrum " ~rl.1 '{d ~(]Ob 1I1ow ~fl' ~i !1, .:to Rfli1::>S .~"\.\. l ~u ~w U .(3) noltallp3 ! ,..,VI ~JJ.ILnis.:J 0.1

.p3 ni

F It'>'lrn

.s~;~7.f-

nob :;how cit

llB 'Il.

'Ii

e~.,bnll

zi

e ,,18m; ,,[11 ,e "lgllB ,,/it

'io e bu'

yJno ,t'~~~~l(1.i))

wt"d .,dt

.--

2('('106

Work~~q

T~.Wprk

done by the restoring f o r c e - ' : /l 7!oq 5lJB"l"VS) "I of the spring is equal to the area., . \ . bounded by , _ -1Oi!~!tficfdf.) II<> i,,,,:n.,'1 '" ''lOW ""mrbsm fIi ordinates X. and x,. . Xi fl : W

'~l

"""Ii'll

Tl1erfhet(l~1hyItbt; ~.qHnl. ,:)'lloq '10 n~1j!I:'jb

. ~~~
'II 10

acts ,agjimjfJtbei diilpJaccuoqlaJduo[. = !1!HWj "l"'Ho ,'." i'rrtrr

~";:1'1SllW' 'l1iiFJarHrt~J&03~OJ1bOL I ai'l"""ofr.io

d'lR-C;

R,,~WJ.JrP8:tLW-" " '. :l~i orlw tl"W e"msL 1 "luonod oi (W) 'II taChe to whlfe strererunglt m " . , 1 1 1 fl" m.s j to X. (extension in Fig 6.5) is negative ::I " "

".

wll-,a.fl .

8-ct1-

from Eq (6.1), because 'and dare ~6.I11 G ... _ , .... iiik h ji~(I.j O~CM!Mlh.~1.,O" 10 lurlJ sJ lrlW,:{"if~.brtli"",tJlrbl ":liGJTl,,mmo:)

FtfJIi! Rqf6T.'IW~6'P"Wtlli~ di6>~i i",nirbGm s '~d b~silrJU ~l"n., 10 W- Area of the shaded region in Fig 6.5 .Hil'llO[i.;.! 1 10 .,hn !nBJ2nC:l
W- Sum of area of the rectangle and.~ ~!I'~

ii,t-5. rlW){ I

U!/W"II

J"~(xrUX[J.!(Jcr"'IJ\'}l(bsf''.II4qf)l WI\ ,olu", h, -1>-.0 slqnmx3.

2 ]
,2."'\lJOj'

~.. _iH tr \!ll 3non

....... , .... , .... "

........

<

'I?
8.oL

Physics day. However, quite often time factor involved in work done is to be considered in many situations. In order to give a measure to a quantity that involves both work and time required to achieve it, we introduce the concept of po_. We define power as til. tfme rr;rte ojdofng _ric. If an amount of work Wis carried out in time t, then the average power P of the agent doing work is given as P(average power) -

W t

(6.8)

In machines where work is earned out at a constant rate WePt .

Acco~ tq the definition of power from Sq. (6.8), the unit of power is that ofwotkPj;;1.lnit time. Power (Watt) = Joules per second. i.e. W- J/s. , In SI.utiits, the 1UIlt of power is 1 Joule per second. This unit isclilled watt (W) in honour of James Watt who is 'credited with 'the development of
steam

engine.,

1 W = IJs- l Commercially kilowatt - hour (1 kWh) (a unit ,of energy taken from the rate of energy utilized by a machine) is the work done in one hour working at a c:mstant rate of 1 kilowatt
1 kWh 3.6 )( 10'J - 3.6 MJ.
J:ulm,pr. 6.4: A motor has its power rating as 1.5 Kw. How much UJOJ"k is done by it in 2 hours.
lIo1V.tloD: Work done W .. p)( t [from Sq. (6.8)1

W - 1.5 kW )( 2 h - L5)( 2 kWh

-3kWh
- 3 )( 10' W )( 60 )( 60 s - 10.8 MJ.

Now, it is the time to check how much you have understood. Try to answer the fonov8ing questions;

INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.1. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.

>

.~'

State, clearly with reaaon, if the fonoWing quantities of worle ere positive, zero or ne,ative. (II) work done ~ a perSon in 10wering a hac containing food pn.. (hI ~ it';';;; by the I!J"""itational force on the hac while it is being put down on the . sround . . . (el ....... dane by the force o-f' friction on a book Jyihg on the table.
.,,~

",,-,<

.................................................................................................................................
2.
II. box ia pwohed alcmg a hem-tal ourI'ace ~ a force of 5 N OWl' a diatance of 2 m. . ," " ..... much work ia done on the box, if the force _lied i. paralled to the lIlll'face?
.................................................................. h ........ .. ................ .

3.

An object UJi.Ies .... a diIp'_t d- (3t+.4Jmwbi\e a force , - (4f- 2j N acta. How much work ia done by the force?
, . , " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u;, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

"

Work and &ergy

4. A spring of apring ...",.uu,.t k - 100 Nm-I i. compre8lled by 2 em by .... block to it. How much work does tbe spring do on tbe block? .. .
~ ....................................... u

attached

...........................................................................

6.4

WORK AND CHANGE IN B01WETIC ENERGY: (Work-Energy Theorem)

When we see an object (say a ball) at rest on a horizontal surface and some later see it moving with a certain speed, we conclude that a force must have acted on it from Newton's second law. Has work been performed on it? If so, how much? Can we calculate the amount of work that has been performed on an object in terms of the change in its state of motion? We attempt to relate work with change in state of a body in motion in this section.

-F"",

,..

Fig 6.6 : The work done by the force F_ oue,. the displacement d on the object W _ .. , _ d.
The velocity Dfthe object ~s from v. to P, in the displacement.

Consider the situation in which a constant net force I'.e' acting along the displacement d of a body of mass m. See figure 6.6. The work done W. e, by the net force ' .... ' from Eq. (6.1) we have W.e, = Ed cos e = Fnet d cos (0) i.e. W.et = Friel d = mad (F net = mal

= m (ad)
Wnet ="~ I 2 ; ' .. .1'
.

~rv2

v 2)

(v 2 = v2 + 2 ad) f
1

(6.9) The left hand side of Eq (6.9) is the work done by the net force F Get or the net work W..,. The right hand side of Eq. (6.9) is the difference of the quantity

~ mri' associated with the object at initial and fmal points.

We defme

(~)
1

mri' as the kfnetk: energy(K) of an object of mass m mov-

ing with speed v.

K
a -

mri'

(6.10)

109

.=.sS~~.L

(li10

Workand,~

b)

Tht:"Work 40ne
~,as

by"~'feft!t':m *I!;p~

W, jsftiom Wmk...Eil.ergy

given ,by Eq (6.9).", ;,~,,,,W ...;,~,":w.t:' J:!"v!,',~,\W,q, ~,l"tt~;"f"So,

,W_=;,;,2,J"

,; ,; ,

c)

Note that work done IS negative. "I,,"' 0'' '0,;,,[; Distance tnoved while the force acts iIiI;~~~~}l~ ~1,(6,.!), W-Fdcos 6

We have found that the wor~.d~e,by,th,e~,f~~ is42~, ,give:q, ~t the force opposing the motion, &;"180" Subs'tittiting the vaIues ofF, kna 6, 42J -4 N;d.cos (180) - 4N.d
aVITAV5!:il.~O:::>.\l101f.[

GYfA 3.VITAV5I38VW:)
23:)S! O~!,

8,0

i.e, d = ~ = 105 m

b)

The work done by woman, W- Fd COli 8

f1:om Eq.

(6,1) is,

_. , " -".
~',;:.-{'.v

~~';;:k'~~~;:'f~~!~~,~.~!~lO:~'2:~' W-16-Q'J.\'-' , ,q" " .. , "_

llCr~I~()cl-(~I .. ,. ,,'~i, .
!,_,

,~.

t l ..

c)

From enerv theolem ofEq. (6.11)

we have

"

III tbe~[irilla1i~fkti.*'~ ill'W.~8'e1i~i~:y'Ails~aII tMh"the{\fotlt dooe by woman. So we cOnclude that lIODI.e other force is ~volved in the net work. '1'II.e net force ia Ie.. than the force dertedby"~e 'IIrOIDiIft; the ,other Coree actini.pinst the Corce oC woman. Frictions! force is involvedl
Stop, lind try to 1IO~~!t6~q\ie~b. 'lr'yi,i.!'.:n;'i1hableto'u* theae questions correctly, read the previous aection.,m. , H
"

W-M

'

oj

LGIH_.'ifl;~~,,-r;l:

)jp,j,~"AP~jP'F.iIr,~~,Wf&Y,~~i"~"~,~lO~',~
\'>:

"")1:' Ii l".'J

(~',

"'l

'

:'1

~'"

. ~L)" II,~i.uu ,;';'"(~".io')')' ~ ......... ~'1..,.-.j) HhC';' ., ..'O)_i.;o .iH (~.. _ 0' ~ .;. ~.~ It"''-'' ........ !. ":!' I , .:,:,,,~tI "",,:* ~ !' ~_ iI ,.lIo ~I.I.

-Z-'-'XS

""''''m71ttW

'n.

rma z .,,-,

111

Physics
2. How much work is done on a body if the increaae in kinetic energy is 4.50 J .

..................................................................................................................................
3. A block moving With a kinetic energy of 100 J comes to rest while moving on rough horizontal surface
(a) Which froce does work on it?

(b) How much is the work done by it on the block?

...................................................................... ......................... ................................

,
;

6.5

CONSERVATIVE AND NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES

In this section we will examine three forces - elastic force (spring force), gravitational force and the kinetic frictional force with regard, to the work I?erformed by them in a round trip. i.e, let us calculate the work done by each one of them on object,

(a) in taking it from an initial position to a final position, in a path:

(b) bringing it back to the same initial position in the same path, as a

simple situation to deal with.

Aforee is said to be conservative if it does no net work on an object in a round trip for any conservative foree.
W.." =

W; ...2 + W2 ...1

= 0

(6.12)

We have discussed the work done by the spring force in section 6.3 and from Eq (6.7), the work done is given, W = -"2k(x,- x, ) where Xl and x, refer to the final and initial position coordinates. The work done by the spring in taking it from position 1 to 2 ~
1
2 2

1. Elastic (Spring) Force:

1 ""' 2-\. W; ...2 = "2"\X}

Xi

2)

and while it is brOUght back from position 2 to 1 (initial position).

The net work done by the spring in the round trip

W.., = Hi"'2 +~"'1 =0.

Therefore, the elastic force is a conservative force. We could have obtained, the same result, by substituting, Xi for the entire trip, in Eq. (6.7) directly. .

x,

Consider the motion of a ball, ihrown ver~ tically up; during both upward and downward motion till it comes ba:ck to initial position. In this case also the net work done by the gravitational force on the ball in the round trip is zero, henQC it is a conservative force.

2. Gravitational force :

112

Work and EneI'gy So, when a ball moves up and comes down to its initial position, the net work done by the gravitational force acting on it is zero.. Try to verify it yourself.

3. lI'rictlonal force : If we consider the frictional force acting on a

body, then we find that the frictional force does negative work while moving from postiltn one to second

Jr..... =FdcosfJ=F,dcos(I800)
- -F,d. For the return trip

w, ..., =FdcosfJ=F, (d)cas(180")

as frictional force acting on a body always opposes the movement (and therefore against).
The net work done by frictional force on the round trip is non zero. Therefore, the frictional force is a non-conservative force.
~lIIatic:

foreean4. ~_lforee ",.. conaeruatfue forces u.frlctfo-lforee fa CI ftOftoCOIUNtl'llatflleJ_.

whflNl

Thus from the above examples we notice that the work done by a conservative force is ~.. (or recapturable) in the sense that if the work is.. done "" an object on something else in one part of its path, an equivaI.Cnt amount of work will be done on the object in its return path.. For example, in the case 01" a spring force, the work done on the spring ill deforming it is recovered when the spring comes back to its original configuration (shape and size). Simjlarly, in the caSe of a ball moving up, the work done on the ball in raising it to a certain height is equal to the ~ork done by" the gravitational force on the ball (recovered) in its downward journey. The work done against conservative forces are recapturable where as it is not so in the case of non-conservative forces. That is why non-conservative forces also known as ....fpat .... foiea.

are

We will find it useful to relate work done by conservative force and potenttal .,..,., of a system where it operates. This is dealt in the next section.

kamp" 6. .,: The spring oonstant of a spring is 16001'lm-1 CalCulate the work done by the spring.
i)
ii) iii)'
II)

0 (equilibrium pOsition) to x, - 0.1 xi -Otox,-0.2m

Xi -

x. - 0.2 em to x,- 0.1 m-

ill) FUu:l the sum ofwork done by the spring in (ii) and (iii),

Comparv it with your CUI8WI!r in (i).

iii) What do you inter from it?

~~hI1H ;hoW ""'uMP~0i1i20q lsillJli 211. oj I1'Nob 2"mOJ btrn qa a!lVom Ilsd B n"dw .08 \1 '(1WRt'~~ I?Yrtkt;,~IIPR8 !fRJB~?1fn7r},n()dBlivBTS "dt '{d "nob >how

. i> f1Us'tf~lJJ?;)1U1thsn~~pil1 k,riJ l:Jbl.flO:J ?wl1 : s~)'Iollsnoi:t:;,h'll .S

W; = --t(xf
-

x,

2 .

.lba'luoy

"JirfIWQ~\~~~(f\tIfi~ia.'1'lIi~oi~ni
_ -Y. x 1600 Nm- I x 0.01 m'
WI - - BJ.

"ill l.mH bail ?W a?ri1 ,~bod bII0""2 01 "no no1iaoq mO"I18ItrJom

("08 OGO~ \) ;.\ = Saw \;';\. = ,... ill

.h (l- = qh:l mu:t~,., "ill '10"1

ii)

Similarly for Ai - 0 to X. - 0.2 m W; - -Yo x 1600 Nm- I [(0.2 m)' - 0') - - Yo x 1600 x 0.04 J.

W; - - 32 J. . iii) Likewise, for ~ - 0.2 m to

bf!tll\Vi"'~l~'f{o!!{.y... (Wog'~ 8 ni1 ,)B ",:nollsnoi1::lh1 a8

x.- O.lm.

(008J)wo(\;) {.\ = S200 \l.\ =

I<-'~
'

- - 800 Nm- I (0.01 m' - 0.04 m O)

.(:tanis).l8 "'Iol",.,,,ill

. ,''''''''-1 ""fjSV'l52n<J?-nofl Ii ai ,,::nollsnoi1oh1 "ill ."'101 Net work, done by the spring in stretching from equilibirum poaition "., .nltirllf8IJ't\ ~Bi'1Md'~ra"l:ft'\d~BtA1!FpIlraf.M.)?:no\ :)lUDl:l. - W, + W. - - 32 J .p~'lJ;w13n,"9&!~o:).non n 21s::no\!nnolbh\_

.:n"J);JjQ9 ~J~r~rqR\'~~91~ "ill no ,,:nollsnoihhl '{d "nob )['10W hn "ciT

ivl

5'lDOn 5W e"lqlI1Bx5 5vodE "ill mO'I12wfT ....J"''I'tW~~ t!ie {I_~tI""":addlil~ljltrn -"'JII}iolc1siHOdl(6'l:Itm'PtiliSoiti'filtM. . .DttMP.!IUiW~111W<two ........,.e byit~~~iPo ~l>,g9n~dtftDfjft~to~
li<rl:t

-'~?f!'l)"i ~ 5nob )how '}cH

111

'>JlJ ,~.ndmdtlDt)Ftlie!JlllllYl ~.ibt:IltiD~llq8rla) noi1s11l8a

-vi.,'! Net~igI:th.:apri".~QIIQt~"w'laiwl_""

grHf,~ ttW"flG :mob )/'10W .. nt

.9::nol

~nhq2 S

to 928::1 "ill ni ."Iqm.sx" 'IO"!

)NO N "fl ti!tigrta ~~m~MM,Qi"l$.tfiea! lIe~a1iIirW'aiiiFa~ ~d~"~!j "'1 n< (')""~'/O-li;-i)" rfcro;illno 5::>'Yol isnoDB1ivE'Il! "ill '{d "no,
,'{"mLJot

mAtlQ~Qll'" e)3 Idl .Judsv 1321105 J21iiBgH 5itub >1 tbW 511 [
"1l,rtllOltillllN . . . . lIfho ri 't"d.1)...,1fiIIcfltlaii&lilL:4uw:J-non 10 :;.,ll::> "ilia! 02 ion by the 1I'I"'itati...w force on '-':'-'0\ 9IfliDq,t&iUb 2 nworul oew ,,'IS 2"'l'l01
"9~
,fIOl r'-ji ?

wJult i8 the ,I)~, .1JlII'k clone, by F"1(itatiozW force , "Ill! ''\In,,iIil''wi in ltl1~fd~P9' Qlmq2 n \0 lrm1",,0') \1fmq<,- "In: : ~.i' 9! ....................................................,............................ .\!f~nqe ~r\1 \!d 9
cll

in m ilon.ontally .!~ AS &om A to B. ~B Y). ,ft~~~V1ciIIIA is'IQi1t:?ill{''1 oJ luhell

Ei'
,-

:Ii bna lliw 5 W '

x:l

ii{f

W~fi\Olllfc,tcilJ{.n5qo

n 51"rlw

rn"j2,{2

8 10 \!'Q~_91

::A"\OI.lJ.h

2.

............................. .. ....... ............................... ,......... ..............................................

~ ~

'

~'

~Jl4

1.r.Drahrp1lrl6.r~ A?l.Oriqf'Jul-isfplbeed<mD~.a.iicrtkaboUe,meftoorii6/

room which is 10 m above the ground.

.C(i5[1<'

IBiJn:>roq 1""00'
< . .

-J-

Find the potential energy associated with load. . . T T with re~rM:t fQ the ahM ~ . ~ t>.o aMOIT83U9 rX3:TVI.
bJ,,~m~,tg ~lflt~,fPfm)+e,.,;<!".", c) with respect to the sutjace a/the earth.
............ " ... , ...... .,. . . . .

<> M""'!" ';.":

""d',.,.

.c",,, .. ,,

"' .... -...

eSblH B

.. ....... U';;"mgy where";;f is' 'the 'inass, .'II' is the liertical' poSitiotf c60tditiate of t!re~tl'Pte.i!t'''I:b; ~I:!e'~t lleirig"ltll kt'1'llmd"levc!l,

"i'1I1~Bifnqa ae_sm 10) '.:a"l~1}~ !FOt1n~JOQ eli 11iw b!:l'n::,h,-u'::" ",i ::iniy.f}~ a) Potential energy as gIven by Eq.

!!,.:_ ' ...

me

i.e., Uz 0 (qr.:y=!!=rS"'lQ
.cit .. ,

t10!!",;~q

')({]

"<:0. '1n:~b

>l:J')';'

1c _,:::, __ [~ "')['11 ~;[

!f'i"J'

i,e"

U= 10 kg x 9.8 ms-:;J x 12.5 m ':;1j :~n ~fl'oh 141~"J; ......... 9.'.::'..2.45 J ........ ... ......... . .. c) ... U .... !.O.kg.x. 9 .S.m.:..x.12.S..m..... . ...... = 12~SbI!('lq b.~x.shn e"~ moit m':.J Of ~~d b9rf:~1~'12 ~j jrT.~.V; b)
lI'6lifj>:t Pateii:tJIdtBaW*,,"o)

~,Jh:.~~~A~~=~~~~~~:~~;f~~,~~i~.~~;
1~'1J ~dt ....~
f.6t' ...,

(b"~

OO.pI

';,~ _~j,nqe
'l1]

l-

t'

cilu;i. ;'til 'cd

0<:01, ", ,b,w "',",,, 'N,,'\

is!

.. Wlumall

. erll.tion}........
"'.',""...

it. say;!!. cpn:;;ider a mass m on the surface.;Q(~F ~NtM Bt;V!~~Jl.Wc f} p,~t siH~~~ (Vfiithout any acclerationl), Then"'the applied force J:, = ' . '/because there IS no accel-

see.that.p.QtentW..en~fgymeanaj";!!t.wb.<lt

....... ....
........

..... ..

....

...... .. .
H.-ff,,',

~ee~l::)OJq ~dt iIi

~1'9H') :J,lln"~Q'~ ~H ':1~atirl.: ~rit

et

p;

The work done by the external agent from Eq (6.1).

..
~

- my h cos (0) - myh

Physics The external agent does mgh amount of work on the mass m. But the mass m hasn't gained any speed. What happened to the work done by the agent on the mass in lifting it? The answer is the work done mgh has been 'stored'. in the earth-mass system. It is potentially available. All we need to do is to extract it to let.go of the mass. The mass will drop down a distance h. The kinetic energy acquired in the fall is,
K= Y. mrf' K= mgh.

= Y.

m (2 gl1)

Thus, the work done by the agent in changing the configuration (relative position of mass - earth system) is recovered during the faIl of mass m (original configuration). The energy potentially _flab,. by the ufrtIa! oj posftfon oj mass m with respect to the earth fa known (IS graDItational potential energy oj mass - earth system. Likewise, a .wound-up watch spring, for example, has potential energy. For as it unwinds, it does work to move the hands of the watch. The watch spring acquired its potential energy because work was done on it by the person in winding up (chaning the configuration of spring watch system). Potential energy is associated with a system, and not with a single particle. When conselVative forces perform work in a system, potential energy of a system changes. Only changes in potential energy do count in calculating work done (see Eq 6.13). Now, solve the following questions and check how much you have learnt about potential energy.

IN'rEXT QUESTIONS 6. 4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
1.

When a maaa spring is compressed will its potential energy increase or decrease?

...................................................................... .........................................................
;

2.

When a mass spring is stretched will it. potential energy (of m ..... spring) decrease?

.......................................................................................................................... ......
~

3.

A body of mass 4 kg is lifted vertically by 2 m at con_tant 8peed, by a penoon.

(a) what i. the amount of work done by the person on the body? (hI how much work is done by the gravitational force on the body? (cl what i. the change in the gravitational potential energy of the system body-earth. (dl what i.r. the net work done on it?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~o' . \

....................................................................................................................... .........,
~

4.

A .pring (k - 1400 Nm'1 ill stretched by 10 an from ita relaxed position. (al how much work is done by the elastic farce of the spring on the asent atretching it?

.................................................................................................................................
(hI how much wark i. done by the asent on the spring?

..................................................................................................................................
(el what is the change in potential energy in tho PJ:OCe..?

..................................................................................................................................
116

Work and

EneJ:&Y

6.7

CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

Consider a system in which only conseIVRtive forces perform work (such as mass - spring or ball- earth system). We have then, from work-energy theorem ofEq. (6.11).
Wcon =IlK

Where Wro.. refers to the work done by a conservative force. We have from the defining relationship ofEq (6.13).
Wron =-Ilu

where Wcon refers to the work by conservative force. Combining the above two equation we have
/lK=-IlU

In other words, for-a system in which- a conservative force does work, we can write ilK + IlU= 0 (6.14) What does the above equation (6.14) mean?
In any process, if the kinetic ensrgy of the sysWin inc:reases, the potential ensrgy decreases by an equal amount and vice wrsa.

We define a quantity E, called the mechanical ensrgy of a sYstem as the sum of kinetic energy K and potential energy U. E=K+U (6.15) We then write Eq. (6.14) in the modified form as IlE = 0 (Conservative forces only) (6.16) The mechanical energy of a system remains a constant. This is called the principle of consenratfon of mechanical ensrgy for conservative forces. In other words, the mechanical energy of a system is comieroed, meaning it neither increases nor decreases. Now we see the reason for the name 'conservative force" : for such forces ~orking on a system the mechanical energy is conserved or remains a constant. Let us now consider an example for the use of conservation of mechanical energy.

Example 6.8 : A toy car comes down a slide (see Fig. 6.7) a/height 1 mfrom point A. Calculate (a) the speed a/the car al the point Band (b) the height at which it will have half the speed a/the bottom Solution: (a) Applying law of conservation of mechanical energy, from Eq (6.17)
i.e. I;' mvA' + mgy, ~ Y. mvs' + mgyB. Substituting VA = 0; YA = 1 m and Ys = 0,
E, =

E;.

~'!by-

6': t:li9.8 ms-') (1 m)

= Y. mvs' Cancelling the mass 'Tri, we find Vs' = 1!}.6 m 2 s-' :. Ii =4.43ms- 1 B Speed of the car at the point B is 4.43 ms- I

~_~_~__ -="._
FlII6.7:Atoy_ooming

down a slide.

117

.r.ft..l~es

..... ".[j., . .}.,."

.

1."., "-)
"

"'I

---

- .

Notice that the ..n"Ah~. I / f , - A~I, . Jm""".....d I.. 2 .. the bookj could not-b;-;;;;:r to'';;l~r\ti.;'~'Il'''J}.t(m;-'~w~:H:bn .~n6rrl'J constant . . lllide i. irregular in 1ili~ ~d[lIdi.lI~Hnu,Wrl.'~'.lojlw_n()' illustrate. the ulOefuln_ of the principle of conservation of mech...u..l~,

! -~-

.-

"

;; .iwritllOi/&li ihto' 'oibMiikiitiiiff Ht'.h~~ itt'et&'fIiI' ~!f..&l.rlJiliNrtlSW.i D

[1

_ d law (work energy theorem, in particularl "'" can apply this princ:iPl'rw fT.S' i I . """oervation of mechanical energy to solve problema without havit)&tQ JlI>~ fOrce and aa:eleuotion which ""'" ill A compt;~d way. 1

"WE

'-\nr<J~rr I,+"

.n,

nur1BCj-'"') 'j'!OOb

"ift

B'JOb H;d

'

'" IH''IiIWittl ri6r~"tb%!&JA~lBI>lR ~

". For exampie. the b?Y.. car p!<>plem could not ,be ~d u~ Newton'. second

_ _ _ _ ~WIa1M>IIIIAiO.Up9 nn ;;:0

",,,"n~,,,!),,,~. '<':>t!'\an~

~lit ~~ n ID;3n930

dj <~j~'!n \!_"4J!Ii~~iJ!"~~i"'r:ql'l'b'i.~j technique c:annot e uaed.~~ ,!~,RfPt~'Jtf~')9{)~~ -!~""'l;r} :Jhlli)I '1.; HHJ~ .: i (JIO principle of conservation of eners:r can be used in ~ a wid" ..;ipti ", problem in mechanica ~ ,~'''i~!!f:~ ~o~1be:u.e4f~rl ','
"Note that We have used Eq. (6.191
" .
..J , . , iF; Fl'"
-./)

i (j ~

eli.

AIt:~ O{~~~,OIJlloI:ilM!llvin8;t!:atqy r. '!W ~bl-m",),,,,d~'hrr ",iT

.!

fl~;"!~~l"~' i'~~~9rc:u~ ~~-.l~<:";!l)r''-:)I) ';1; ;: ~\?h'.!T)r!i ',-)(ii!-Jn ,;r 'If;iIoB~,(Qrooar~frioIimud """",,,<PIe> t/)o!~:on,tAe< ~!~I(;')'o

.. ;~'rIOm\st:_WIW'IltNt""'~ ""_~1t0t6oal(!i"I\''1<\ ,;n"""'!an~ ........ So RM!~~a..~",{"!I~'"",*,~o;l1

oonoervation of mechanical """"IIIfR~~ ,16, t?I-Tl'!lffifl'l' ~,fflI"Jffll4 ~" ' j in Here, in the toy-car problem we have ignored frictional forcel "'
.,

. iD8 problema.

'

.;

:118

Work and Energy

Vertical motioD : Let a body is thrown vertically upward with an. initial speed vO' What is the maximum height attained?

Applying the Eq. (6.15) to the points 1 and 2 (lowest and highest positions in the trajectory). 2
I

We have. Y, mv,' + mgy, = y. mv/ + 1TI!/Y.z or mg (y, - g,) = mg " - = Y. m (v,' - v,'). or h
""'"
= -'----'-

(v; - v~)
29

Substituting the values VI - va and v, = 0 (no vertical velocity). we get h

......
-....!!..

/II
1'1&6.8

29

'Ibis is in confirmity with the result discussed in lesson 2 earlier.

Now. let us check how much you have learnt about potential energy.

Jl'fl'EX't QUESTIONS 6.5,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.
An obj_ of ....... 2 kg ia ttawoIIiJlB with a speed of 10....-' an a horizontal surface Wbat ...... ita (8) What ita Kinetic """'1IY'l (hI What ia ita Potential --v?

u.

2.

(at

I. m"dllmical ener&Y always ~

(bJ I. it .......,. a poailifto quantity?

...................................................................................................................................
3

(8) When a ball ia tilling vm1icaIIy.

doea ita potentia1 _

iru:zoeaM?

4.

AU - AK; Doe. thia ecp.etion

lOp'

ld the principle of CODIIOl'IatiOD of

_?

.................................................................................................................................
6.8 TBB LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ElIERGY
you would have noticed that bouncing ball looses height after every bounce and finsIIy comes toresL A swiIlg comes to stop after a number of oscillations. /I. oicketbaD moves on e:horizontaI ground lnosing its speed. Haven't we ohsetved these? What do we eonclude? MeChanical energy of a system is not conserved whe.tc9eI non~ (dissipative) forces operate or perfonn work; What happeos to tbe 'miSsing' energy 4E/ We find a clue in the fact that bo1h the block and swface (1see the figure) aver Which it slides become"slightly W!U'JheI'. (thermometer does. find out) A part of the. mechanical =ergy being transfo~ed into kinetic energy of
119

Physics the disordered motion of the particles (atoms and molecules) that make up the block and the surface over which it slides. We call such energy internal energy (thermal energy) and represent it by Urn" W,ri<liUH = -At'.n, (6.17) Now we can rewrite or modify the work - energy theorem of Eq. (6.11).
W=AK not

as W

=I,w
COl'll

ro

+ I,w_

=I!J{

where ~ ~ W and ~ ....t WI'JM refer to the work done by all the conservative forces and non-conservative forces on the system. Substituting from Eq (6.13) and Eq (6.17). we write the work - energy theorem as
-(UU) + (-.t1U .. ) = I!J{

(6.18) or (!.1U)+(-Wint )+I!J{=O This is the statement of the law of the conseroation of energy. This law is more comprehensive than the law of conservation of mechanical energy of Eq. (6.17) which is valid only for conservative forces. In new situations. say involving chemical, electrical, magnetic and I;ludear phenomena, we can always identify new quantities like U;n' (of Eq. 6.18) to expand the scope of definition of energy (Le., to include other forms of energy like chemical, electrical. magnetic and nuclear etc.). So we can always write UU + I!J{ + .t1UinI. + (Changes in other forms of energy) = 0 for an isolated system. This is known as the law of conservation of energy. It can be stated that the energy can be transfonned from one fonn to another fti an fso.. . lated system but it cannot be created or des1:royed; the total enM"fI1J

Of the system always remains constant.

Take a pause and solve the following questions.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.6,_ _ _ _ _ _1.

_ _ __

Energy is transformed from one {ann to another. Name the transformations of energy in the following in the Conn from . ,_ ............... to ...................... .
(a) lifting of a book by a boy ................................................................................... .
(h) burning of candle ...................................................................................
(e) a moving truck on a road ..................................................................
(d) emiSBion of light by sun ........................................................................ ,..

2.

A foot-ball kicked by a player leaves the ground and after travelling in air reaches the ground and comes to a stop at some other position on the ground. Identify the energy transfonnation in this process. Is energy of the ball conserved?

6.9

COLLISIONS AND KINETIC ENERGY TRANSJl'ER

In daily experience, when two objects hit each other we speak of collision as an event. The objects that collide might be, a cricket ball and a bat, a
120

Work and Energy hammer and a nail or at times two or more.vdIicles.pn the roadl

A comet approaching the sun, swings around it and continues its course
with an increased speed is also .an example of collision. Here the particles (comet and sun) do not actually 'touch'. However there is an interactive force, gravitational force, that is not a contact force. Our knowledge of the atomic and subatomic world - electrons, protons, neutrons - have come from experiments involving collisions, There are two iInportant laws to be followed in all collisions, namely, laws of conservation of energy and momentum. Here we apply these laws to look at the transfer of kinetic energy from one particle to another.

6.9.1 Inelastic Collisions In One Dimension

In inelastic colli:!lions the kinetic energy of the system is not conserved, although the total energy of the system remains constant. The lost kin~tic energy is transformed into internal energy. A bullet fired into a target getting embedded is-an example pf an inelastic collision - sometimes knmvn . as a perfect inelastic collision. We will fiIld answers to questions :" Hpwmuch of kinetic energy transfer takes place? How much of it ~ains in the system? Applying law of conservation of momentum, we get 1n,V" = (m, + ~)vr
or

vf =

m1 m1 +rn,

Vli

(6.19)

(a) Before colliSSlon

(b) After collisipn

o~

atrest

The final velocity of the combined particle will always be less than that of the incoming particle. The final kinetic energy K; of the system is K; = Y. (m, + m.,) V(
=

-(m, +.m,) . I
2

("'i m, +m,
K;

Vii

J
(6.20)
(~I m, ).

K = 1 TIltV~; I 2{TIlt +rn,) rn,

.
I.e.

I -

1 +. ~

'tilt
,
.

. K; is leSser than~.

It depends upon

CUe .) A maaive pIjojectUe: When

rn.

1I!..i' Eq (6.20) reduces to K; =- ~

The loss.in kinetic energy is minimum. In fact the kinetic energy is con121

Physics selVed! This is what would be expected if a large mass hit a dust particle at rest.
Ca_ b) Equal ma._.: When m, = m." Eq. (6.20) becomes

Ki Kf = 2
Half of the kinetic energy of the system is dissipated. Case c) A ma..ive target: When

(6.21)

m,

m"

so that -

m2 -+ IX m,
(6.22)

Eq (6.20) reduces to Ky ~ O!

The kinetic energy of the system is completely ~issipated. This case is like that of a lump of putty hitting the ground and not bouncing back at all! .

6.9.2 Elastic Collisions In One Dimension

Kinetic energy of the system is conselVed in an elastic collision. Consider the collision of two particles one of them at rest before the collision.
Vlj
----->

at rest

VII
~

V2f_

0)

0)

.0)

----->

(a) Before Collission

(b) After Collision

ng 6.8 : Change of velocities due to oollisiJn

Applying the law of conselVation of momentum to the system, we get m, v" = m, v" + m., v'r (6.23) ConselVation of kinetic energy of the system results in Y. m 1 v Ii.2 a Y.m 1 v If2 + Y, .. m (6 24) ""'2 v' 2f We have to solve the Eq (6.23) and Eq (6.24) to fmd the values of v, rand v2 f" Rewriting Eq (6.23), we have (6.25) m. (v.; - VI r ) = m., v, r . Eq (6.24) is rewritten as (6.26) m l (v" - Vlf) (v" + v n) = m.,v.r ' Dividing Eq (6.26) by Eq (6.~5), we get
VI;

+ v'r = v.r

(6.27)

Substituting the value of v2 r from Eq (6.25) in Eq. (6.23) and simplitYing, we find +m 2 v2 r is evaluated from (6.25) as . 2m.
1

Vu

m. =m

-m2

Vh

(6.28)

V 2f

= ;n~-+-~

Vii

(6.29)

In

Work anijEnergy .The target will always. be positive value,( i.e., ",. will be parallel to VIf) it moves forward. From Eq (6.28), we fmd that v, ,maybe positive value or negative value. If m. > m" the projectile moves forward after collision, otherwise it rebounds, ifm,<m,. What about the energy transfer from m, to m, ? Eq (6.28) and Eq (6.~~) are rewritten as
v1/

1- ("':! = [ 1+ m

/ m,
/

l]

Vii

(6.30)

and v 2,

= 1 + (m2

/ ml) Vii

(6.31)

Three situations are considered

C... a) A ma.uve ,rojectUe :When m l m, , we have VI'':' vn and V2f .:. 2v,; (6.32) After the collision with a lighter target, the velocity of the projectile is little ch......::.ged, and the target moves with a velocity twice that Qf the projectile.
Ca.. b}BcJ.d.I m ..... : When m l = m, we obtain, v,, = 0 and v2(= ",; (6.33) Particles of equal mass exchange their velocities. Particle m, stops. Particle m, (target) moves away with the velocity of the projectile! Case c) A massive target: When m, m,

v - - v II. and v 2r = 2-v H m li

2

m,

(6.34)

When a ping-pong ball moving with a certail1 speed hits a stationary cricket ball, the ping-pong reb ounces with the same speed. Cricket ball doesn't gain any noticeable speed. The maximum kinetic energy transfer takes place between two identical masses in an elastic collision. J:xample 6.9: A 1.5 /qJ body is at rest. Itis 'hit' hedd-on bya body of 0.5 kg moving with a spef:d of 0.2 ms-'. aj What is the final velocity of each bo.dy? bj In what direction does each move after the interaction.

SoiutioJl :

Vii _ 0.2 ms-'

m, - 0.5 kg

--+

V 2;

=0

Before m, - 1.5 kg

Mter m, In drawing the diagram 'after' we assume directions to be similar.

m,

--+

""

. ~--,

...-

.... ,-'

123

We might be proved wrong! Considering velocities 01" motions to the right side as +Ye, let us apply the rules: 1From law of conservation of momentum,

where Pt total 'momentum of the system 'before' and P, total momentum 'after' the event i.e. collision. Substituting, we have 0.5 kg )( 0.2 ms-' - 0.5 kg " v" + 1-5 Kg )( v", Simplify we get 0.2 ms-' - v" + 3 v.. (1). 2. From law of conservation of Kinetic energy, (collision is assumed to be elastic if not specified otherwise.
K;-~

Pt-P,

i.e. Y. V~i - Y. m, V~I + Y. m., Substituting the values, '10 )( 0.5 kg )( (0.2 ms-')' - '10

m.

vi

x 0.5 kg (V~I) + Y. )( 1-5 kg vi

0.04m s-' - II~I + 3'10 I I i (2) From equations (1) and (2) have two unknowns v" and 11...
On eliminating one of them (v" or v..) from these, -we get an equation containing only one variable (Simple equation))

:lnrmy _ _

"'" pouIbIc as [tbccqUa_laa_ c one! (i.e. containa 'C of an uok:ooIm quaDBut In !II\J*'" ._oo\J .... Ia ...,.,...""" cdutklo me""''' d above

We have one of the solution as v" = -0.10 ms-' and 11.. - +0.10 ms-' What about the other solution? Find the other combination of v" and v... The incident ball m., (0.5 kg mass) bourwes back so that its final velocity is in the opposite direction to its direction of movement before the collision.
So signs do matter as we are dealing with a vector ph,ysical quantiW the momentum)

~"""--

Now, solve the following questions and check your progress. -

DtTBXT QUESTIONS 6.7_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _'-1.

3kg
A

15....- 1
eSkg B Coneider motion of ollied to the risbt as positiw.

(aj Wl-.at iII_ the momentum of A7 ..........................................................................: ..

(bl What i.-the momentum of B? ............................................................................ .

(4 What ill the total momentum of A end B? ......................................................... ..

(d)

Wb.t will the momentum of the -.ystom later on? (after collision).......................... .

(e) If aft.... collision. A and B atick together and move. what will be the common velocity? ....................................................... _................................................ :.... ..
(I) I. kinetic energy of the -.ystom conaerved? .........................................................

(g) I. it an elastic collision? ..................................................................................... ..

124

Work and Energy

6.11 WBATYOUHAVELEARNT_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Wark. done by a constant force F is W = Fd cos 6 = r.d. where e is the angle between , and d . Unit of work is 1 Joule a...."d Work is a scalae. The .ark done by a force is equal to the area bounded by the F versus x (position) graph between two positions. Work done by the elastic force of the spring. obeying Hook's law W - -% k {xr:l- Xi.~ where k is the spring constant, as it is stretched or compressed from Xi to .l} cooftlinates of the initial and fmal position. Power is time rate of wOrk and its SI Unit is Watt (W) (a IJs-'). When an object with mass m moves with speed v. its kUletic energy K is given by K - % mY'. Kinetic energy is a scalar and positive physical quantity. 'nle worl:c:-energy theorem; Wnet "" Kr - 1\ = AK. 11lc change in the kinetic energy of an object is eqUal to the work done by all the forces that act on' it. A force is said to be conse1'V8.tive if it does no net work on an object that moves through a round trip. Whereas a non-conservative force (dissipative forcej does non zero net work over a round trip of an obj eet. Work done by a conservative force on a system is equal to the negative of change in potential energy associated at two positions "" and X, (initial ~ and final UJ. W_ --(U,- U) The reference level - zero level of potential energy is conveninently chosen. Energy 'storedl in a spring is known as Elastic potential energy and it is U;;" 1h kr, where x is the amount of stretching or compression from equilibrium position. 111e energy 'stored' in a mass m. near the earth's surface is known as Gravitational potential energy and it is U "" mgy, where y is the vertical position coordinate of the location of the maas m with respect to the surface of the earth. Whenever only conservative forces act on a system; the total mechanical energy E = U + K remains constant. 'When non-conservative forces work on a system, W "" l1E, the change in mechani.:-al energy of a closed system is equal to the work don';'by non-conservative forces. Energy may be transfonned from one kind to another in an. isolated system, but it cannot be created or destroyed. Total energy of a system remains Constant. Collisions are events in which the interaction between two particles or objects lasts for a very short interval of time. Luvs .of conservation of linear momentum and conservation of energy are the ruleF the game in any collision. Pi - P,i In an elastic collision kinetic energy is conser an inelastic collision the kinetic energy is partly dissipated or transfonned in t .... kinds (forms) of energy.

6.12 TERMINAL QUESTIONS,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. Why is the work done by kinetic friction force always negative?
Can the normal reaction force on an obje:ct ever do work on it? Explain.

When A doe. work on B, does B also do any work on A? Explain.(Use: Newton's laws of motion) 4. A pebble thrown with a certain speed enters into the water of a pohd below. Will the angle of throw have any relationahip with the speed of the pebl:lle at the instant of enay into the horizontal 1erd of water? Explain. S. Which doe. WOrk : hamm.... or the nail, a cricket bat or a ball? Explain. 6. Identify the forces acting on the book when it is lifted upwards. State whether each of them i. conservat:ive or non-conservative. 7. The earth is eIoRat to the lAm in winter. When is the gravitational potential of the oystem the maximum in the elliptical path of the earth about the sun. S. Can the mechanical anergy of a system be n_tive. Explain. 9. A.te1li.te 1QOWI:8 in an elliptical orbit about the earth. Does the kinetic energy of the satellite change? Explain. 10. An automobile is travelling at conatant speed. What energy transformations are taking place?

3.

2.

125

Physics
11.

U{M - mgy for an object near the surface. U(rl =

-GM m

for au object above the

earth's surface. Does it mean that potential energy of the system can be positive and negative at the same time? Explain. 12. Show that

UfrJ :::: - - - has dimension of e ....ergy.

r

-GlI6n

13. Work is done by a force on a body if on~y it changes the speed of motion of an object already in motion. Justify it. 14. A person lifts a 2 kg book from the table to a shelf 2 m above it. (a) Find the force exerted by the person if it is carried out very slowly. (negligible ~erationl (b) How much work is carried out by the person on the book? {el Find the net work done on the book? 15. A constant f _ 0110 N do.... 20 J 01 work on a box in moviDg it by 4 m. What;' the angle involved between the two vector quantities? 16. A bo<\y moves along a straight path by {2i + 3jlmwl!ilc a force , . (41 + 2jJN_ CIIlit. Find (a) the work done by the force ,. in the process, and (bl the angle between the force and displacement of the bo<\y. 17. A force of ION acts on a bag of mass 2 kg at rest on a frictionless surface. Th!! force is applied horizontally while it moves 3 m. (a) How much work is done on the bag? (bl What is the kinetic energy 01 the bag at the end of 3 m? (el What is the speed acquired by it (bag) in the process?
If the friction is not negligible J.l. - 0.21 fmd the quantities of {al. (bl and(cl considering the frictional force. 18. A 50 kg person runs up a long flight of stair. in 4 s. The height of the stairs is 4.5 m. Calculate his power output. 19. A block of mass 0.5 kg is attached to the free end of a spring on a horizontal frictionless surface. The spring is compressed by 0.10 m and released. "nle spring conatant k 50 Nm-l. (al What is the maximum velocity acquired by the block? (bl What is its speed when it i8 0.06 m from tho relaxed position? 20. Find the speed of 4 kg block {after it is releasedl when it traveIa 2 m? Uoe energy considerations. See Fig 6.9.

(dl

T 1
I'tg 6.9

,
"

"",,

~
I'tg 6.11

11
I'tg 6.10

21.(aI Find the work done on the bob of mass 100 g in the swing from A to B. (Fig 6.101 (bl What i. its speed at B. if the spoed at A is zero? 22. A 0.2 kg ball attached to a string is given an initial. wIocity 01 S .....,. ~ 6.11). If it swings in a vettica1 plane with a radiua r 0.5 Ill. NegIectiaa: frictioDal ...... cr.t.mine the speed at position (a) B (bl C and (e) D (if at all it reacIuoaq 23. In CODBervative force acting on the air increaoee its ki:netic """'BY by 200 J. ARuming it to be W... force. Find the change in potantial """'BY' (b) the ...ecbmri"'" ...........,. of 51 system. 24. Estimate the l"I1DIling speed 01 a pole. VIIIIlter who c\ears a bar 01 II m. 25. A4kg block startsmoviDgwith 128Joliuitialkioetic-vona 3O"t>J-. H _ _ will it go up the plaDe. lI"egligibJe friction;. iavoJ.wd bet,,_ the """'-. 26. What height would. one kg 01 - . . . have ... fall tIutrqb to cbange its ~ po~ """'BY by 4.2 kJ? .

126

Work and Energy

27. Show that the magnitude of the velocity of a projectile, at any point in its trcYectory, is independent of th~ angle of projection. but varies only with the speed of projection. :lB. A 5 g bullet is fired horizontally into a 3 kg wooden block resting on a horizontal aurface. The block. with bullet embedded in it, comes to rest after travelling a dis tance of 25 em. The coefficient of friction involved is 0.2. What was the speed of the bullet. 29. An explosion break.can 'lbject into two unequal pieces, of mass ratios 1: 1.5. The energy re\eaaed in the process is 4500 J. Find their individual kinetic energy.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

_~(6.1)

(h) -78.4J

2. 3. 4.
1.

(a) -ve; F acting against displacement (h) .....; F in the direction of displacement (e) 0; No displacement 10J. 4J -2 x 10-" N. (a) 100 J
(h) 100 J 450 J

_~(6.2'

2.

3. Friction; -100 J. I a _ ~'J_ (6.8) 1. (a) Zero

(h) -mgh

(e) 78.4J Zero 4. -700 J 700 J 700 J I a _ Qaest:IoDs (6.S, 1. (a) 100 J (h) Zero (e) 100 J 2. (a) No (only when conservative forces work on the system). (b) No (depends on sign of potential
(d) (a) (h) (e)

3.

(c) +mgh (d) Zero 2. (a) -0.5 J (h) +0.5 J (c) Zero (d) -0.5 J (e) .+0.5 J (I) Zero I a _ Qwwttuow 1. (a) -mgh
(h) +mgh (e) -mgh

4.

energy and amount). (a) Yes (b) No (remains constant). No (4U+AK-O(repreaentationofconservation of mechanical energy). Chemical to griMtational Chemical to light and heat

1a_~16.6'

Ca) (b)

(e) . Sunlight

fIi.4J

Id) Chemical to kinetic mainly Ie) Nuclear to electromagnetic light. -~.... (6.7)

2.
3.

(d) +mgh (e) No (a) Incre....e. (h) Inero....e. (a) 78.4 J

12 kgms-' + 12 Icgms-' Ie) Zero (d) Zero (e) Zero

(h)

I&)

(f) (g)

No No

127

7
ROTATIONAL MOTION
7.1
DlTRODUCTION
So far you have studied'the motion of particles under gravitational and other forces. DId u.. equation o/motfon o/the part.fcle Involve its mass? The reason that the size of the particle does not appear in its equation of motion is that we ide8llzed the particles as point part.fcfeshaving only mass and no size. Such particles are also called mass points. In real life there are no such particles. The bodies that we have to deal with, have large number of particles. Even a tiny marble consists of millions of particles. However, in the previous lessons we have seen that the size of a body has not been taken in to account. For example the size of a planet revolving around the sun has not been considered and it was taken just a point particle. However, when we have to study the rotation of a body, the finite size of the body cannot be ignored. For example,when we consider phenomena connected with the rotation of the body on its own axis, we do take note of its finite size.
In this lesson we will study the rotational motion of bodies, so their finite

sizes become important for us.

7.2

OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to,

define a rigid body and realize that it is an idealization; define the centre of mass ofa rigid body and recognize its importmu:e; recognize that the general motion of a rigid body consists ofboth translational motion and rotational motion; define moment of inertia and realize its physical significance; state theorems ofparallel and perpendiC/llar axes and apply them; define torque and compute the direction of rotation produced by a torque define angular momenium and write down the equation of motion of a
rigid body; state the principle of conservation of angu/a.r momentum and cite a few exnmp/es in support of this principle; and caIcu./ate the velocity acquired by a rigid body at the end ofits motion on an inclined plane.

Rotational Motion

7.3

RIGID BODY

We have noted above that point particles or point masses are idealizations. In real life we meet systems or bodies which consist of a large number of particles. We have also noted that when these systems interact with other systems which are at distances very much larger compared to their sizes. then their sizes can be ignored. Can you give two examples of such cases where the sizes ofthe bodies are not important? But when we have to consider the rotation of a body about an axis. then the ltody has to be considered as a whole and the size of the body becomes important. When we consider the rotation of a system. we generally assume that during rotation the distances between its constituent particles remain fixed. Such a system of particles is called a rlgi.d body. We tlefUw a rlgi.d body as one In which the dlstt:uu:es between the particles do not change as the body mows about. The above definition implies that the shape of a rigid body is preserved d~ ing its motion. However. like a point particle a rigid body is also an idealization, because ifwe apply large pressures the distances between the particles do change, may be by vel)' small amounts. Therefore, in nature there is nothing like a really rigid body. For most purposes, a solid body is a good enough approximation to a rigid body. A cricket ball. a wooden block. a steel disc, even the earth and the moon would all be considered as rigid bodies in this lesson. Could a bob ofplasticine be considered a rigid body? Now, let us check what you have understood about rigid body.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.
.

A frame is made of six wooden rods. The rods are attached to each other in such a:WJq that they cannot move. Can this system be considered a rigid body?

............................................................................................................................
If the distances between the particles of a body do not remain fixed as it moves about, what would be the 'nature of path. described by the particles?

2.

............................................................................................................................

7.4

CEln'RE OF MASS (C.M.) OF A RIGID BODY

2

Before we deal with rigid bodies consisting of several particles. let us consider a much simpler case. Suppose we have a system of two particles of equal masses joined by a rod which has no mass and whose length remains fixed. Can we consider this system of two particles a rigid body? Suppose that the two particles are at heigl;l.ts z, and :z;. from a horizontal surface (Fig 7.1).

Zf

129

Physics

Suppose, further that the gravitational force is uniform in the smaIl region in which the two particles move about. The force on particle 1 is mg, and the force on the other particle is also mg. The total force acting on the system is therefore 2 mg. The problem now is to frod a point somewhere in the system so that if a force 2 mg acts at that point, the motion of the system would be the same as with two forces, mg each, acting on the two particles. The potential energy of particle 1 is mgz, and that of particle 2 is mgz., Suppose the force 2 mg acts at the point C at a height z from the horizontal surface. Since this must be equal to the combined potential energy of the" two particles. we have 2 mgz - mgz, + mgz., (7.1)
(7.2)

In this case the point 0 lies midway between the two particles. If the two masses are unequal then this point will not be in the middle. If the mass of particle 1 is m, and that of particle 2 is rn.,. then instead of (7.1) we have

(m, + rn.,)gz- m, gz, + rn,gz.,

so that

(7.3)

(7.4)

The point C is ca1Jed the centre oflD'" (CM).

SUppose that the mass of the particle is twice that of the other, find theloca tion ofthe eM.
When a body consists of several par ticles, then we generalize (7.4) to de fme its CM. If the particle with mass m, has coordinates (x" Yl' z,) with respect to some coordinate frame, mass rn, has coordinates (X2, y." z,), and so on (Fig 7.2), then the coordinates of CM are given by
Z
y

.. =-.. (:~~; z,.)

,...

C"(~"'lk ~

" '"

"

" ""

"

=-'--M

(7.5)

130

Rotational Motion

(7.6)

z =--'-'-M

Lm,z,

17.7)

where , denotes the sum over all particles and, therefore, =M the total mass of the body. Why did we go to such length to define CM? Recall that the rate of change of displacement is velocity, and the rate of change of velocity is ac~eleration. If a denotes the acceleration of particle 1 along the x-axis, then from (7.5) we could write
(7.8)

Lm,

L , m,

where ax is the acceleration of the centre of mass along the x-axis. Similar equation can be written for accelerations along y - and z-axis. These equations can, however, be combined into a single equation using vector notation. Instead of (7.8) we have
Ma=

m, a, +

Tn.,., + ............ Tn.,.,

(7.9)

But the product of mass and acceleration is force. Ill, a, is therefore the sum of all forces acting on particle 1. Similarly, gives the net force acting on particle 2. The right hand side is, thus, the total force acting on the body. The forces acting on a body can be of two kinds. Some forces can be due to sources outside the-body. These forces are called the _uIILIII forces. A familiar example is the force of gravity. Some other forces arise due to the interaction among the particles of the body. -These are called internal forces. Normally in the case of a rigid body, the sum of theinternal forces is zero. Therefore, the accelerations of the individual particles of the body are due to the or resultant, of the external forces. In the light of this, we may write (7.9) in the form

sum,

Ma-'

...

(7.1O)

This shows that the CJI of a body _ _ as though all the _ _ of the body _ cotu:erd:rat8d at that pofnf; and it was crc:t.d upon IIg the .sum oJ all the -a.nual,lorca aCey fng on the body. The fact that the motion of the CM is detenninedby the external forces and that the internal ExplOSion forces have no role in this at all leads to very interesting consequences. You are already familiar with the motion (Jf a body thrown at an angle to the-vertical, the motion of the projectile. Do you recaU what this motion is like?' JI

-~PathofCM'
,

.\

\
x

131

/Physics
puppose the projectile is a bomb which explodes in midair and breaks up mto several fragments. The explosion is caused by the-ffiternal forces. There is no change in the external force, which is the force of gravity. The centre of mass of the projectile, therefore, continues on the parabolic path (Fig 7.3) which the bomb would have described if it had not exploded. Have you noticed how important is the centre of mass of a rigid body? More of this importance you are going to see very soon. Let us, therefore, see how the centre of mass of a system can be found by taking a simple example.
Example 7.1: Supposefour masses, 1.0 kg, 2.0 kg, 3.0 kg and 4.0 kg are located at the comers of a square whose each side is 1.0 m. Where would be ibi'centre ofrrwSs?

801utioa: We can always make the square lie in a plane. Let this plane be the (x, y) plane. Further, let one of the corners fall at the origin and the sides are the x -y axes, Then the coordinates of the foUr masses are: m, (0,0), m, (1.0, 0), m" (1.0, 1.0) and m. (0,1.0) where all distances are in metres (Fig 7.4). Form (7.5) and (7.6), we get,

(D,I.D)

t I.D.l )
/

l~o~~------~.~.-----

(0.0)

(1.0.0)

x = LO x 0+2.0x1.0+3.0x LO+4.0 xO m
1.0 + 2.0 + 3.0 + 4.0

=. 0.5 m
y = 1.0 x 0+2.0 x 0+3.0x 1.0+4.0 x LO m LO + 2.0+3.0 + 4.0
=0.7m The CM has coordinates (0.5 m, 0.7 m) and is marked C in Fig 7.4. We notice. that the CM is not at the centre of the square although the square is a symmetrical figure. What oould be the reason for the eM not being at the
centre?- .

C.M. of Some Bodies

Was it not simple to calculate the position of the eM? But unfortunately it is true only for very simple systems. The bodies that we have to deal with have very large number of particles and this simple method does notwork. The computation of the CM of such bodies isa.complicated affair. The fact that the masses of all the particles of a rigid body are equal, makes things somewhat simpler. If the body is regular in shape and possesses some symmetry, say it is cylindrical or spherical, then the calculation is a little bit more simplified. But even then these Chlculations are beyond the scope of this unit. But keeping in mind the importance of CM, we give in Table 7.1 the position of the CM of some regular and symmetric bodies. 132

Rotational Motion

Table 7.1 : C8Jdres ofJfa.u of-me l'BfIU'lararuJ. ~ IJodWs

Position of Centre of. . . .
1'riangularplat'e

Point of intersection of the three

medians

ED
.

Regular polygon anti cirrular plate

---t---

At the geomtotrical center of the figure

Cylinder anti sphere At the geometrical center of the figure

.'+ &~
I ; I
I

--~

I I

Pyramid anti cone

On line joining vert'ix with center

of base and at ~ of the length meB!J\lnd from the base.

~ ~
~V

FIgure with axial symmetry

Some point on the axis of symmetry

~h

FIgure with oen.ter of symrnetr:y

At the center of symmetry

Now, it is time to cpeck yOUI' progress.

D(1.6J

DlTEXT QUESTIONS 7.2

1. The. grid shown here ..... particlea A, B, C, 0 ....d E of .......... 1.0 q, 2.0q, 3.0 q,.4.0 q....d 5.0 q. FiruI the centre of maaa of the ..,.atem. 8("",.,

................................................................................
133

,,(.f..zl

2.

If three particJea of _ . m, - 1 kg, m. - 2 kg, and .... - 3 kg are situ_ at the ' comers of an equilateral triansle of side 1.0 metre, find the centre of ........ of the

.,..tem.
3. Show that the diatancea of the two particles from their centre of proportional to their 1DUR8,
DlBIIII

i. inveneJy

7.5

ROTATIOlfAL MOTIOlf OF A RIGID BODY

You must have played a game in which you toss a ball to a friend and the friend tosses it back to you IFig 7.5). Ftay this game once again, but this time mark some points on the surface of the ball. Notice the pam traced out by each point. Haw are the paths traced by different points related to one an~ other?

.,.7.11: _

t!1f" _

.,. 7.60 _

"If" .... """".

Paths IFig 7.6), thenits motion is called tnmaIation1 motion. The motion of
all the particles beingidentical, the centre of mass must also be tracing out an identical path. Therefore, th,~jraDslA,tiona1 motion of the body may be Iepresented by the motion of its centre of ~ We have seen that this motion is given by (7.10),

If a rigid body moves in such a way that all its particles move along parallel

Ma-'

Do you now see the advantage of defining a centre of masS of a body? With its help the translational motion of a body can be described by an equation simjlar to that of single particle. The particle here has mass equal to the mass of the whole body. It is located at the centre of mass and iaacted upon by the sum of all the external forces which are acting on t1)e rigid body.

Have you ever seen in motion the ball delivered by a spin bowler in the pme of cricket? Ifyou have, ther. you must have seen that the ball rotates while moving forward. lfyou have not seen this, yon can peifucm a little experiment of your own. With your friend play the pme of ton 'ng the ball, .uyou did-earlier. But this time give t1J.e ball a twist or spin before tossing to your friend. Notice the movements of the points on the ball carefully. This time the points on .the balf would undergo .looping motiOn, something like shown in Fig 7.7. This shows that the general motion of a rigid body is a comb~tion oftrail.:!dation and rotation. The earth also performs these two
134

mow

Rotational Motion motions at the same time. It rotate!' on its axis while advancing it its orbit round the sun.

,-;-, 0 ' " ". 0 ...

... - _ 4 ....
-

,"".

.... ".- ...

1

-'

'',

, ... "
~

'

/.('- ...
\ 1

...

-r"

\.1
PlaT

PIa T.T

While the general motion of a rigid body consists of both translation and rotation: if one point in the body is fixed, it cannot have translational motion. It can then only rotate. The most convenient point for this purpose is the CM of the body. You must have seen a grinding stone (the chakki). The handle of the stone moves in a circular path. All the points on the stone also movein circular paths round an axis passing through the centre of the stone (Fig 7.8).
The motion 0/ G rlg#d bod:g In whkh Gll the parttc_ o/"the bod:g describe cfrcular pczth5 ,. known the rotCltfollGl motion.

We have noted above that the translational motion of a rigid body can be described by an equation similar to that of a single particle. You are already familiar with such equations. Therefore, in this lesson we concentrate only on the rotational motion of a rigid body. The rotational motion can be obtained by fixing a point of the body. For the sake of convenience this point can be the CM. The rotation is then about an axis passing through the CM.
In the linear motion of a body that you studied in earlier lessons, the mass of the hody plays a very important role. It determines the acceleration acqUI 1 by the body for a given force. Is there a similar quantity for the rota,;onaImotion too? Let us find out?

7.5.1 lIoment

or Inertia

Let C be the centre of mass of the rigid body and let the body rotate about an axis through

this point (Fig 7.9). Imagine a particle of mass m, at a distanCe of r, from the axis of rotation. Let v denote the magnitude of its velocity. Then its kinetic energy is. Y. m, v~. Similarly the kinetic energy of another
particle of mass m., is Yo m., v~. If we add the kinetic energies of all the particles, then we get the total energy of the body. If T denotes the total kinetic energy of the body then
135
AxiS of r01lltion.L

to the plane oftlla paper PIa T.9 ; A

ana:ds.

rigid bGcIy

'*'11 abou'

Physics

T=

II.

ml

V;

+ V.

m.,V~

+ .....
(7.11)

=~ '!m.v 2 ~2
,
II

wnere

L
1

indicates, as before, the sum over all the particles of the body.
~' '"

You have leri in earlier lessons the relation between the lineaiveloc1ty and the ang\Ilar velooity. The angular velocity is usually denoted by 0). What is the relation between v arwf (J) ? Using this relation in (7.11 we get
T=

r:

L~m; (T; W)2

,

(7.12)
.'

Since all the particles have the same angular velocity, .therefore 00 is same for all of them. This equation may be rewritten as,

=-/00

1 2

(7.13)

The quantity (7.14) is called the momem oJ inerlfa of the body.

It is important to remember that the moment oJ fnerlfa is defined with

reference to the axis of rotation. Therefore, wherever we mention moment of inertia, the. axis of rotation must be specified. In the present case I is the moment of inertia about an axis passing through the point C (Fig 7.9). The unit of moment of inertia is obvious from its it~on. lUis kg m'. The moment of inertia of a rigid body is often written as
/= MK:'

(7.15)

where Mis the total mass of the body and K is called the~... Or~D of the body. The radius oJgyratlon Is that cUstancefrom the axis oJ rotation where the whole mass oJ the body c:art be p'l4t!ed to get the SCUIle moment oJ fnertIa which the body aetually Iuu. .There is certain advantage in writing moment of inertia in this form. If the body isreguJar andhas the same properties every where (such a body is Caned homogeneous), then K Can be computed from its geometry andthe moment of inertia can be easily calculated. Table 7.2 shows the moments of inertia of a few regular bodies. . .f
136

Rotational Mollotl
Tab.. 7.2 : .Moment of IIwrtft& of _ _ regular bod,..
~
Hoop about cylinder axis Annular cylinder (or ring) about CJlinder axis

I-lIB"

'-1 (R.
""-

+ Ril }

Solid cylihder about cylinder axis

Solid cylinder (or disk) about a central diameter

,- "..2

1-II.

+ III' I.

~ .
'-IT-

Thin rod about

axis through centre.l to length

~
'-"'"""'r
",'

Thin rod about axis through one end .l to leneth

Solid sphere about any -diameter

Thin spherical sheD about aoy diameter

'--,2-

,-1!!f!Hoop about any diameter

o.

-1 (:)
". \

R,

"

Hoopabout~

tangent line

Compare this with thekinetict-nergyofa body in linear motion. What do you find? In the rotational motion the role of mass has been taken over by the moment of inertia and the angular velocity has replaced the linear ve.locity.

~carefully at equation (7.13).

Phyaical sign'Seance of J.
The physical Rinni~ o/the momento/inertia is that itperforms the same role in t/1e ~"';;;;'n that the mass ~in linetu motiorL

Jqst as the mass of a body resists cltange in its sta~ ofiinear n on, the moment 0/ inertia resists a Change in its rotational motion. This pI' 'erIy of
137

the moment of inertia has been put to a great practical use. Most machines which produce rotational motion have as one of their components a disc which has a very large moment of inertia. Exam pIes of such machines are the steom engine and the automobile engine. The disc with a large moment of inertia is called.aflywheel To understand how a flywheel works, imagine that the driver of the engine wants to increase suddenly the speed. Because of its large moment of inertia, the flywheel rcsi"ts this attempt. It allows only a gradual increase in speed. Similarly, it works against the at. tempts to suddenly reduce the speed, and allows only a slow !Iecrease in the speed. Thus, the flywheel, with its large moment of inertia, prevents jerky motions and ensures a smooth ride for the passangers. We have noted that in rotational motion the angular velocity corresponds to tIle linear velocity in linear motion. Since angular acceleration (denoted usually by <X) is the rate of change of angular velocity, it must corresponds to the linear acceleration in the linear motion. Use similar argument to show that the angle e through which a body rotates corresponds to the distance cauered in linear motion. We can now writ!' down relations for the rotatIonal motion similar to the ones you have derived for the linear motion.

e., Olot + Yo <X t'

(7.16)

We have mentioned above that for the rotational motion of a rigid body its eM is kept ftxed. It is not necessary tha.t CM be kept fIXed, it is convenient to do so. Any other point can be fIXed and the body can still have rotational motion. But now the axis of rotation will pass through this ftxed point. The moment of inertia about this axis would be different from the moment of iJlertia about an axis passing through the CM. What is the relation between these two? Let us ftnd out.

7.5.2 Theorems of'lnonlent of inertia

There are two theorems which connect moments of inertia about various axes. These are (i) (ii)

the theorem ofparaUel axes, and the theorem ofperpendicular axes.

We explain below th~se theorems and their applications. Suppose the given rigid body rotates about an axis passing through any point P other than the centre of mass. The moment of inertia about this axis can be found from a knowledge of the moment of inertia about a parallel axis through the centre of mass. If 1 denotes the required moment of inertia and {, dc;not.es the moment of inertia about a parallel axis through the eM, then l={,+MtP
d

(7.17)

where Mis the mass of the body and dis the distance between the two axes (Fig 7.10). This is known as the theorem of parallel *Be .. The other useful theorem concerning the moment of inertial is known the theorem ofperpendicular axes. It is applicable only to plane bodies. Let us choose three mutually perpendicular axes, two of which, say x and y are in the plane of the body, and the thir<l, the z axis. .s perpend.. lIar to the 138

--------------_.- ------

Rotational MOtion plane (Fig 7.11), The theorem states that the sum of the moments of inertia about axes x and y is equid to the moment of inertia abqut the z axis.
z

c 4--='--1

FIg 1.10: Theorem a/parallel axes.

Fie7.11:.Theorema/_ _ axes.

Thus,
I,
=

Ix + -y T

(7.18)

We illustrate the use of these theorems by the following example. For example let us take a hoop shown in Fig 7.12. Table 7.2 shows that its moment of inertia about the cylinder axis is MR', where M is its mass and R its radius. The theorem axes tells us that this must be equal to the sum of the moments of inertia about two diameters which are perpendicular to each other. Now the symmetry of the hoop tells us that the moment of inertia about any diameter i~ the same as about any, other diameter. This means that all the diameters are equivalent and any two perpendicular diameters may be chosen. Since the moment of inertia about each is the same, say rd , (7.18) gives
MR' = 2Id

and therefore

I. = 'hMR' .
Let us now take a point P on (he rim. Consider a tangent to the hoop at this point which.is parallel to the axis of the hoop. The distance between the two axes is obviously equal to R. The moment of inertia about the tangent is found by the application of the theorem of parallel axes. It is given by
""",
1

= MR'

+ MR'

= 2MR'.

It rilUst be noted that many of the entries in Table 7.2 have been computed

using the theorems of parallel and perpendicular axes.

7.5.3 Torque and Couple

Have YOll ever noticed that we always open the door by applying force at a pointJ'ar fi'om the hinges? What happens if you try to open a door by apply139

ing force near the hinges? Carry out this little activity. You would realize that much more effort is needed to open the door if you apply force near the hinges. Whyis it so? .

You would also have noticed that for turning a screw we use a spanner with a long handle. What is the advantage of a long handle?

Let us seek IIDSWe:t'S to these questions.

Suppose 0 isa point fixed in the body so that bodyQU1 rotate about an.axis through 1hi.s poiJit (Fig 7.13). Let a force of ma,.,itude F be applied at the point.B along the line AD. If AD passes through the point 0, the forCe F will not be able to rotate the body. The farther is the line AD from 0, the greater is the abilil of the force to tum the body about the axis through O. The CUnIIfn,tr -tfecC td -fore- .. _n.r ....... Ita magnitude is given by or -.Fa- Fraine

(7.19)

The units of torque are Newton-metre, or Nm. The torque is actua1ly a vector quantil. TheVectorfonn of (7.19) is
(7.20)

which gives both the magnitude and the

direction of the torque. What is the direction in which the bodY wolWl tum? .'I'o find 1hi.s we notice that by the rulea of~ product (refer tolel1aon I), or illperpendicuIar to the plane containing vectors rand'
(Fig "'.14). If we extend the thumb of the

r;i&ht band in the direction of T. th~ the direction of~ of the body is given by the IIOIUIe in which the fin&ers are curled. Apply 0.. aboue n(Ie and shoW tMto.. tuming .JlfICt 0/0.. force in Fig 7.13 is in 0.. GI'IticIoc::kwi dnc:Cion.

the body is the

11 there. are ..vend torques acting on. body then the net torque acting on II\UI1 of all the torques. po you _ anycorreapondence between the role of torque in the rotational motion and the role of force in the 1Inear motion? We will_the coueapondei1c:e better a little later. For the moment suppose that there are two forces of equal niagnitude acting on the body in opposite directions (Fig 7.15). The two torques on the body have magnitudes
T, -

(a+btF

'C" - aF.

-.

'ra-~

turDiag effects of the two torques are in the oppOsite directions.

140

Rotational Motion Therefore, the net turning effect on the body is

T-T I -T

=bF
.

(7.21)

in the direction of the larger torque, which in this case is 1: I

PIc 7.111 : 7Iuo oppositeforoes ocIIng on a body.

nil: 7.16 : A

rigid body rotDmlg about on axis

Two equal and opposttefo~ are IJafd fIof- a eouple whose torque is equal to the prodw:t of one of the forces and the perpendiculGr distanc:. between them.

There is another useful expression for torq~e which makes the correspon~ dence between it and force in the linear motio,n quite cjear. Consider a ngllj body rotating about an axis through a point 0 (Fig 7.16). Obviously a par- , ticle like P is rotating about the axis in a circle of radius T. If the circular motion is nonuniform; then the particle experiences forces in the radial direction as wellas in the tangential direction. The radial.force is the familiar centripetal force m(l)"rwhich keeps the particle in the circular path. The tangential force is required to change the magnitude of v, which at every instant is in the direction of. the tangent to the circular path. Its magnitude is ma, where a is the tangent:i.al acceleration.. Th. radfalforce do not prodw:e tIIIIII flo",,.. Can you say why? The tangential force produces a torque ofmagnituds mar. Since a - rOt, whereOt is the angular acceleration, the magnitude of the .torque is nu"1X. If we consider all tf1e particles of the body then .

-Ia..

(7.22)

The similarity between this equation and F = ma shows that 't'performs the same role in rotational motion as F doe!! in linear motion. A list of corresponding quantities in rotational motion and linear motion is giVen in Table 7.3. With the help of this table; we can write down any equation for rotationalmotj.onif we know its correspondi.Dg equation in linear motion.
141

Physics .

" .... 7'.3: CotI .,a....". . . . .lel~... fnIDIIII

.1 ............. ....tian..

a-tIIl

....atioa

Rotatioa aIIoat

n.4 AIda
.

. Disp1acement
VeJ.oci~

x
11=tit
a=eft

An&u1ar disp1acement

e
0)=-

Angularvel~

d8 tit

Acceleration

drI

An&u1ar accele!:iltion
RotationAl ina1ia

c=-

dO).
dt

Maaa
Force
Work

Jl
FOomtJ

I 'f-h

Torque
Wadi: Kinetic energy Power
Angular momentum

W=J.Ftk
YaMV'
P-FV

W=Jd
YdD'
P-"t'(l)

Kinetic energy
Power

I.inear momentum Jill

10)

With the help of{7.22) we can cAlculate the angu1ar acceleration produced. body hy a given. torque.
~

7.2: A uniform disc of IIIGSS 1.0 kg andnxlius 0.1 m am rotate about an axle without friditm. A massless string gOes round the rim (Fig 7.17). 1/a pull of 1.0 kg is applied to the string, find the tJngUlar atr.eletommaofthe disc, the angle through Which

tlMtdiscllJtutesinOne~ and~angu lar ueIocity ofthe disc qfter one _ad.

....tlea: If Rand Jldenote the radiua and Jl1lIlII!i Of the disc, then accordin :to Table 7.2.1- itoJIRI. If Pdenotes the pun then l' - PR. Eq. (7.22) DOW

,m..

IX -

LOx 0.1 . For the angle Uhrough which the diac rotates, we use Eq7.17. Since the initiAl angular veloci~ is zero, we have

1//- PR/I- 2P/ AIR ~x 1.0 = 20rlid lsec2

e- y,,)( 20)( 1.0-10 rad

Fortheve1~aftei one second,

we use Eq 7~16. Wehave

0) - Olf- 20)( 1.0 - 20 rad/sec.

Now, let ua check your progreas.

142

Rotational Motion

Uil'BXT QUEStiON. 7.3,_ _..,---_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.
Four particle., each of _ m, ...... fixed at the COI'...... of a oquare who"" eadl aide ill of Iongth r. Find the _ t of inertia about an axis P""sing tbroua't one of the camera and perpenc!icul.l!lr to the plane of the aqu.....,. calculate aJ.o the moment of inertia about an axis which ill aloog one of the IIidea. Verify your'reauJt by using the theorem of perpeadicu1ar

-.

-_...-

"""

/ r

'M

2.

Find the l'IIdiua of JIII1IIion of a aolid

wil1 bimt to uae TlIb1e 7.2.,

3.

...a- if the axis iIIat.apDt ta the 1Opbere. (You

...........................................................................................................................
Qudticma 7.2 if the axis of rotation _
Calculate the m _ t of Iaertia of the .,.tam IIbown in queation number 1 of Intut thtouah 0 and ill perpencli,cular to the plane of the paper. JI'rom thi1I rmd the mam.ent of inertia about a p .....net llXia throuah the centre of _

.............................................................................................................................
.
.

4.

Ten particlea, each of maaa m, are placed at eli......... r each &om the axis of robU:ion,

.. ""own.

al

Calculate the moment of inmtia of the .,.tom.

..
o o o
Or

Jr'

hi

cIJao&ed to

Suppoa the~.... of plll1iclea 4 end 9 are 3r each. Find the m _ of in'IJ1ia now and """""'"' it with that fGUlld in (a!.

..
~

."

Particle. 2 and 7 we . . .-.1 ta cIiootoGcea 2r each, and pilrtidea 1 and 6 _ eliopl-.l to diatanc:ea 31' each. calCulate once ..... the moment of Iaertia -4 CIIDIpa'8 with thoae fouad in Ia! and (1)1. .

.................................................................................................. ........................ .
7.6 ARGULAR .O-XNTOM
Have you ever seen a toy umbrella. 80ating in air with its direction fixed and wondered how it is able to maintain a fixed direction?
Ifyou'am get hold ofa atoolwbich can rot&te without much mction, you can perform an interestins a.xperiment. Ask a friend ofyoursto sit on the stool

with herarm.s folded. Make the stool rotate fut and then let it go. AskyOur friend to atretcll her anna and notice if there is any change in the speed of rotation of the stooL Ask berto fold her anna 0J1C?I' &pin and observe change in the speed of the stooL
Let Wi trY to understand wby we expected a change in the speed of rotation . ofthe stool in the Jut experiment. For this consider once again a rigid body

rotating about an 88the axis zthrougb a fixed point 0 in the body. All ~he points of the body de8cri1Je CircuJar paths about the axis with the centres of the paths on the u:is. Consider a particle like P at a distance 'i from the axis (FiI7.18). Its linear vel~ is 'im and its momentum is therefore mr.m; 27wJIIG+JCt..t'f6 ...,..... , .-: .... tIte eau_.rn-tlteC1d8

am,

143

PhysiCs'
fa ealled angular momentum, denoted by L. lfwe sum thisproduct"for an the particles of the body, we get

_. .

. -_ . "; .,.w'

" L~(~mir,2}
= [OJ
-,'i7.23)

Remember that the angular velocity is the same for all the particles and the product - the Iulu votoc:ity within brackets is the moment of inertia. ec:&or. Howwtr. ita rigid Ody wo caD fiad fllJee Like the linear momentum,' the angular -.py~.... momentum is also a vector quantity. Eq. ...... AIoJta ay of (7.23) gives only the component of the vec. . . . . ....... tho eompoMDfI r upIor __ tor LaIong the axis ofrotation*. It is important to remember that [ must refer to the jIU!uwlocily ... ,...n.I (7.23) ... _ _ same axis. The units of angular momendo ... in milId. tum are kg-m2 /sec.

a ~ L io 1IOI,...n.1

-.. ...........0_

Recall-now that the rate of change of OJ is IX and lot - 'to Therefore, the rate of cIuuIge oJ angular momentum fa equal to the to,..ue. Or, using the full vector notation,
-='C=I- =1(% dt cit

PII: T.18 A rl/lId body roIaIbIg

about an r:a:is.

elL

dm

(7.25)

which is the equation of motion of a rotating body.

7.6.1 eoaservatlou of angalar momeutum Eq (7.24) shows that VtheN fa no nritorque acdng on the bo4tIutn the
angular momentum.tap cor..1ant. fa the prlnt:ipr. oJ COnNI'IICItfon oJ angular momentum. Along with the conservation of energy and linear momentum, this is one of the most important principles of physics.
The principle of conservation of angular mo'1'e'\Qun allows us to ~ the questions raised in the beginning of Section 5. In the case of the toy umbrella the trick is to make it rotate and thereby impart it some angular momentum. Once it is let go in air, there is-no torque acting onlt. Its angular momentum is then co,nstant. Since angular momentum is a vec~ quantity, its constancy implies fixed direction an~ magnitude.. Thus, the direction of the toy umbrella remains fixed while it is in air.
In the case oCyour friend on the rotating stool, when there is no torque acting on the stool the angular momentum of the stool and the person on it must be conserved. When the person stretches her arms, she causes the momentofinertia of the system toin<=ase. Eq (7.23) implies then thattlle angular Vt'locity must decrease. Similarly, when she folds her arms, the moment ot inertia of the system is decreased. This causes the angular velocity to increase. (It might help you to look at queStion number 4 of Intext Questions 7.4). When your friend ~ hBr,at"1I'I8 why does the moment o/inertia o/the system (the person Ond the.stool) inereasi,i' '. ,
Let us look at a few more examples of the COftI!IC1'Vllti ofmolflditum: SUppose we have a spherical ball of mass M and radius R. The ball-is set rotating

2'11"

144

Rotational Motion by applying a teqw:. to it The torque is then removed. Since there is no external torque" now, whatever angular momentum the ball has acquired must be conserved. The moment of inertia of the ball is 2/5 MR' (faole 7.2). Therefore, it has angular momentum given by . 2 L=-MR'(J} (7.25) 5 where III is its angular velocity. Imagine now that the radius of the ball somehow decreaSes. To conserve its angular momentum, the ball must rotate faster. This is what really happens to some stars, such as those which becomes pulsars (see Box on page 147). W1UJt would happen if the radius a/the ball were to increase suddenly? Acrobats, skaters, divers and other sports persons make excellent use of the principle of conservation of angular momenm to show off their feats. You must have seen on the TV divers jumping off the diving boards during swimming ew:ntsin national orintemational t0urnaments. At the time of jumping the diver gives herself as1ight rotation, by which she acquires some angular momentum. When she is in air, there is no torque acting on her and therefore her angular momentum must be con SCl'VCd. If she folds her body to decrease_moment of inertia (Fig 7.19) her rotation must become faster. If she unfolds herbody then her moment of iaertia increases and she must rotate slower. In this way. by controlq the shape of her body. the diver is able to show off her feat before fall.,. '1.1111 ~jwrJ1Ing."o. dIuIIIg ingmto water. __

Drl'B'XT QUBSTIOI'.
.1.

7.4_~

__,,---,--_ _ __

A IIIOlewle couaiata of two idonac.l atom. of ...... '" soda IODd cliatance II aput. Tbia cIiatance 1'IIIDIIin. IixecL The malecule r o _ about an .,.;. which i. halftra,y between . the two-. with III1jp.I1c apeed .. Calculate the ..,.w.r _entum Of the malecule.

.....................................................,........................................................................ .
.....H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.

A uni!onn cireuIer di8c of _ 2.0 Iq: IODd radiUI 20 em ill rotated abaut one of ito ~ at mlll1jp.l1c apeed of 10 red/_e. Find ito 0J>&UIer momentum about the .,.;. of rotItion.
~

3.

II. whaeI ia rotatiDs at ... quIlor apeed II about ito uia which ia kept wrtiCal. Another . whaeI of the ....... radius but hiolr the man, initially at real, il oIipped an the ...... ale pntIy. The two wIlee1e than _ with the ..mil speed. Find the oamman II\1&Ubor epeed

.............................................................................................................................. ..
~

4.

It ;. IIIIIdthat the ....th .... formed &om contntctincsu claud. . Suppa... 10m. time in the put the radius of the ....th .... 2.5 time. ito pr8801lt radius. .What .... then ito period of rotation an ito awn .,.;.?

....................................... ..................................................................................... .
~

145

Physics

7.7

MOTION ON.AN' INCLINED PLANE

We have already noted that if a point in a rigid body is not fixed, then itcan possess rotational motion as well translational motion (Remember the slow motion picture of a spinning ball?). The general motion of a rigid body consists of both these motions. As an interesting examlJIe of the combined motion, let us consider the motion of cylindrical and spherical bodies on an inclined plane or a slope. Suppose the rigid body has mass M, radiusRand moment of inertia L It is moving down an inclined plane of height h (Fig 7.20). At the end of the journey it has acquired a linear velocity II.and an angular velocity /I). We assume that the loss of energy due to friction is small and can be neglected. The principle of conservation of energy then implies that the sum of the kinetic energies d.ue to translation and rotation must be equal to the potential energy that the body had at the top of the inclined plane. Therefore,
Yo MtP + YoJail = Mgh
If there is no slipping, then II ~ RIll.
(7:26)
PIa T~. _
-plane.

":fa rigidl>c>dy .......

Then we get _MII2 +-1- = Mgh , 2 2 R2

112

(7.27)

To take a simple example, let the body be a hoop. Table 7 A~ shows that ita moment of inertia about its own axis is MR'. Eq; (7.27) then giVes that
"f ..

r.

. (7.28)

Do you notice any thing interesting in this equation? The linear Iuu tunurd out to be tnapentlent oJ the _ and til. radtu. . oJ the hoop. So. a hDop oJ any ".at.rlal and any radtu$ ron. 1Dfth the
1Ipd 01& the

velocftil sam. .'

fncllnedplane.

7.5
1.

Dn'EXT QUBSTIONS._ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A. aolid ophere ron. down a slope without. a1ippina, Wh!Oi will be ita velocity in term. of the heicht of the oIope?

...................................................................................................
2. A aolid cylinder ron. down an inclined pbme witnout a1ippina, What fraetion of it. kinetic energy i" trano1etiona1? Whet is the maanitude of ita velocity after falliD& throuI!h heia:ht HI

......................................................................................................................... ..
;

3.

A uniform oph"e of ........ 2 kg end radius 10 em i. rele"""d from reat on en inclined plane which _ _ 30" q e with the horizontal. Deduce ita (aj ansular accleration. (billnew a<:cleration aoloQg the plane. and (e) kinetic!'D"'ll3' as it travele 2 m a!on8 the phme .

............................................................................................................................
146

Rotational Motion
S~RET

OF PULSARS

An interesting example of the conservatiDn of angular momentum is provided by

1Itars. You must have heard of pulsars. These are stars which &end tow...-d. us pulses of r~ation 0{ great intensity. The pulses are periodic and the periodicity is extremely precise. The time periods range between a few mill.iaeconda to a few seconds. It is believed that" ",ch short time periods show that the stars are rotating very fast. Most of the matter of these stars is in the Conn of neutrons. The'neutron.; as' you miglit be knowing, along with the protons are the building blocks o(the 'atoirtie nuclei. These stars are called 'neutron stars. These stars represent the last 'st*te in the life of some stars. The secret of their fast rotation is their tiny size. The radius of a typical neutron star is only 10 Ian. Compare this with the P8.diUB of the sun, which is about 7 x lOS Ian. The Bun rotates. on its axis with a period of about 25 da;ys. Imagine that the sun suddenly shrinks to the size of a neutron star without any change in its masa. You can show that in order to conse:rve its angular momentum the sun has to rotate with a period as short as the fraction of a millisecond.

7.8

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

A rigid body has rotational as well as translational motion The equation of translational motion may be written in the same form as for a single particle If a point in the rigid body i. fixed then it can only rotate The moment of inertia about an axis of rotation is defined as 1: m; r;2
The moment of inertia plays the same role in rotational motion as the m.asa doe. in linear motion That the turning effect of a force r on a rigid body is given by the torque T ~ K ,. 1'wo equal and opposite forces constitute a couple, the magnitude of whoat tl1rIUt1g" effect is equal to the product of one of the forces and trp- ...... t~" _d bet.een the

1.

forces
The application of an external torque changes the angular momentum of the body If the sum of aU external torquea is zero then the angular momentum of the body remains constant When a cylindrics! or a apherics! body rou. down an inclined plane without slipping, its speed is independent of its mass and radius.

7.9
2. 3. 4, 5.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
I. it possible

The weight Mg of a body is shown generally as acting at the centre of mass of the body. Does this me"" that the earth does not attract other particles?

'?r the centre of

DIUII

of a body to lie outside the body? Give two

exanlPtes ..u JUstify your answer?

Manuals for car.engine requites alwa;ys apecify the torqu!, to be when tightening the cylinder head bolta. I. it the right 'thing to do? Justify your an""",r. In a molecule of carbon monoxide (CO} the nuclei of the two atoms"", 1.13 10"' m apart. Find the location of the centre of mass of the molecule, A grincung wheel" of mass 5.0 kg and diameter 0.20 m is rotating .oith an angular velocity of 490 rad/sec. Find its kinetic enezgy. Through what "distance would it have to drop in free faU" to acquire this kinetic energy?
Two identical spheres, each of mass 1.0 kg and nu:liU8 0.10 m, are attached. at the end of a massle rod. Th" distance between the two baUs i. 0.50 m .. Calculate the moment of i'~ertia of the system about an axis passing through the midpoint of the rod and perr "-!icUlar to it.

.6.

7.

A wheel of ru, ".eter 1.0 mi. rotalUlg about a fixed axis with an initial angular velocity of 2 rev! sec. The angular accelecation is 3 revI sec2 .

147

Physics

at
b)

c) d)

Compute the angular velocity after 2 second.. Through what Bngle has the wheel turned in this time? What is the tangential velocity of a point on the rim of the wheel at r - 2 sec? What is the resultant acceleration of a point on the rim of the wheel at r - 2 sse? A wheel rotating at an angular speed' of 20 rad/ sec is brought to reat by a constant torque in 4.0 seconds. If the moment of inertia of the wheel about the axUo of rotaIion is 0.20 kg-m', find the-work done by the torque in the lirat two seeonda. Two wheels are mounted on the same axle. Wheel A has in_ent of inertia 5 x 10-" kg-m' and wheel B has moment of inertia 0.2' kg-w'. Wheel A i. set spinning at 600 rev/min, while wheel B is stationary. A clutch now act. to join A and B 80 that they must spin together. At what speed will they rotate? Suppose the clutch act. gradually. Will the end result be the same as though they were joined suddenly? (Neglect any friction at the bearingll). How does the rotational kinetic energy- before joining compare with the kinetic en ergy after joining? What torque doe~ the clutch deliver if A makes 10 revolutions during the operation of the clutch?

8.

9.

(aj

(b)
(c)

(d)

10. A solid sphere of mass m rolls down a slope without slipping. Show that the foroe of friction acting on it is (2/7) 1119 sin 9, where 9 is the inclination of the slope.
11. You are gMm two identically looking spheres and told that one of them is Suggest a method to detect the hollow one.

hoIl9w.

12. The moment of inertia of a wheel is 1000 kg-m'. Its rotation is uniformly accelerated. At some instant of time its angular velocity is 10 rad! sec. After the wheel has rotated through an angle of 100 radians, the angular velocity of the wheel becomes 100 rad/sec. Calculate the torque applied to the wheel and the change in its kinetic energy.
13. A disc of radius 10 em and mass 1 kg is rotating about its own axis. It is acce1enUed uniformly from rest. During the first second it rotatee through 2.5 radianII. Find the angle rotated during the nest second. What is the magnitude.of the torque acting on the disc?

ANSWERS TO THE IlfTEXT QUESTIOn

IateJd: QDI.t....... 7 .. 1
1. Yes.
_QWiti.ou7.2 1. The coordinates of given five masses are A (-2, -2), B (-5, -I), C (7, 3), D (2,6) and E (0, 3) and their masses are 1 kg,2 kg, 3 kg, 4 kg and 5 kg respectiveJ;y. Hence, ~s of centre of mass of the system are
~xl+5x2+7x3+2x4+0x5

3kg

~--~2~~-------X
Hence, Cen.tre ,of 1III)lU.

1+2+3+4+5
~

x-

lxO+2x1+3x .5 1+2+3

--m

3.5
6

- --2.47and 15

_ lXO+2XO+3X(Ji/2)

y-

-2 x 1 + (-1) )( 2 + 3 x 3 + 6 x 4 + 3 x 5 1+2+3+4+5

1+2+3

44 - -2.97 15 2. Let the three particle system is as shown in Fig.

3.5 Ji) Centre of )tau is ( -;-'

4""

148

Rotational Motion
Ia_Qa_7.3
1. Moment of inertia of the system about an axis perpendicular to the plane passing point P, - mf' + m12f') + ".,.. - 4 ".,..

:. Common NlgUlar speed "'1 = "~2/3 4. Let the present period of revolution of earth i. To According to the conservation of angular momentum,

M:I. about the axis along the side mf' + mr' - 2 ".,.. 2. M.I. of a solid sphere about an axis tangential to the sphere
=

~M(2.5R)2 X(21r)2
5

To

7
= -

Im'.

Which should be equal to MK'

- SMR x ( T
It gives, To2

21r
)

7 :. K-' - -5 1<'.

or Radius of gyration K - R

Thus. period of revolution of earth in the . past is 'To "'" 2.5 times the present tUne
period.
Ia_~

7.5 1. Using equation 7.27, for a solid sphere

...

6.25 7" :. To - 2.5 T

3. M.1. of the system about an axis perpendicular to. the plane and passing through 0 is = 1 xOA2+2xOB2+3xOC2+4xOD:I +5 x0E2
- lx8+2x26+3x58+4x40+5 x9 - 439 kg m'. 4. (a) M.I. of the system - 10 mf'

-mv+ 2 2

2
x -

rnr. ,2

-mgh.

It gives v -

~ fi"gh
~2
= ~

(bJ M.I. - 26 mf' (oj M.!. - 30 mf' Intezt Qu_1On 7.4 1. Angular momentum
d2 d - ) ., _ m -+m ( 4 4 2

2. For a solid cylinder, I :. Total KE

2
3

- -mv+ ---.-=-mv 2 2 2 R2 4
Hence, fraction of translational K.E.
.!.mv 2
=

1 m",2

,/

L=--

md2 d)

2 2. Angular'momentum about an axis of rotation (<!iameteIj.

~mv2

'=

'3
---7- ...
1+~
5

3. Linear acceleration along the p]ane

L-/{J)= nt-x'" 4
- 2 x - - X 10 - 0.2kgm 4 3. Accord: ~ to conservation of angular momentuDl

"

9.8X~

3.5 ms-2 ,

(.2)2

:. for sphere K

SR
a

Angular acceleration - - = R 0.1 = 35 rad S4

3.5

3 # __ 2

Gain in K.E .... loss in P.E. in vertical descent h (-I sin 9)

.,2
1

=MgI sin 9 - 2 x 9.8 x 2 x 'h

19.6 J.

149

8
PROPERTIES OFSOuns

8.1. INTRODUCTION
In the previous lessons we have studied about force and energy. The effect of force applied to a body Is observed either by displacement produced in the body or by change in Its shape or size or both. It Is our common experience that when a force Is applied on a rubber cord or metal spring along its length, the change in length takes place. When we remove the force, the cord regains its ortglnallength. When a weight Is put on thick

foam sheet it Is depressed but after removing the weight It regains Its orlglnal shape. Further' you can easily see that in case of a ball of wet model clay. or molten wax it changes its shape or size or both even on application of a very small force and does not regain its orl.glnal condition after removing the force. Do you know why some bodies regain the1r.orlgln shape and size whereas others do not? In thls lesson we will be studying about the elasti propoerty of the material. ThIs PIoperty of the materials is of vital importanCe in our lives. In thls lesson we will also study that elastic property of material is for calculating the strength of cables (or strings) \lsed to suspend a body such as a cable car. crane. lift. etc. We will also learn its uses for finding the strength of beams for construction of buildings and bridges.

8.2 . OBJECTIVES
After studying thls lesson, you should be able to :
explain molecular theory of matter and distingtdsh between three states oj matter on its basIS; distinguish between elastic and plastic bodies; . dtdfne the terms. dejormtng force. s~s, strain and their types; distfngulslt between stress and presswe; draw and tnterprete stress-strain cwvefor an elastic solid; dejine Young's modulus. bulk modulus. mod'i1u s oJrigidJty and Poisson's

ratio;
. explain cllaracteristics oj a cantileVer. state the dependence qfthe depression oj a loaded cantIIeuer and girder on various parameters; and explain the peculiar shaRe oj girder having Cross-section in the jonn oj

letter I.

Physics

8.3 MOLECULAR THEORY OF MATTER

You are famlliar that every matter is made up of molecules. The molecules attract each other with a certain force. nus force is called intermolecular force. As the separation between molecules decreases. the net attraction force between them increases. But when the molecules come very close to each other. the' attraction force between them begins to decrease; and when the distance, becomes too small. the molecules begin to repel each 9ther. If molecules come still closer. the repulsive force increases more rapidly compared to attractive force.

Repulsio~

distance

Ftg. 8.1 : Graph between intermolecular force and tntemwlecular separation

The variation of intermolecular force with the variation of intermolecular distance is shown in Fig. 8.1. At separation ro net force between molecules is zero. This separation ro is called equilibrium separation. The magnitude of ro is of the order of 10-10 m. Thus. when the distance between two molecules is greater than ro' then they attract each other but when the distance between them is less than ro they repel each other.
In solids molecules are close to each other very nearly at the equilibrium separation. Due to high intermolecular forces they are almost fixed at their positions. You may understand why a solid has a fixed shape if no

external forces act to defQnn It. In Uquids the average separation between the molecules is somewhat larger. The attractive force is week and the molecules are more free to move inside the whole mass of the liquids. You may guess why liquids do not have fixed shape. It takes the shape of vessel tn willch It Is filled. In gases. the separation Is much larger and the moleCular force Is very
weak. Molecules of a gas are much more free to move tnside as well as

outside (if possible) the mass of the gas. not have fixed shape and size?

Now can you think why gases do

'

8.4 ELASTICITY
As you know that a rubber cord or metalic spring is tied at one end and a force is applied at the other end. by hanging weight there ;<; a change in
154 .

, Properties of Solids
. Bow Its length and a removing the weight U-comes in Its original condition. On pressing a rubb~ ball. its shape is changed. and on releasing it becomes in its original shape. Similarly when you apply a force on the string of a bow Fig 8.2. 'It Is stretched and produce deformation in the bow. On l'ig. 8.2: Force applied on string oj bow releasing the bow it comes back to Its original shape. From these examples we infer that :

(tJ Whenever an external joret;! is applied on a body its shape or size or both change. In other words the bOdy is defonned. The extent oj . deformation depends upon the material and shape oj the body and the manner in which the foret;! is applied.
(to on releasing external defonnlng foret;!. the body tries to regain its orfgfnal

state.

The property of matter to restore the natural shape and size or to oppcue the deformation is called elastfclty.

8.4.1 Elastic and Plastlc.Bodles

If you pull a spring. It is extended but on releasing It comes.back exa!=tly to its original state .Oength. etc.). The body which recovers completely its original state on the removal of the deforming force is called perfectly elastic. On the other hand If It completely retaIns its modified fonn even on removl,ng the deforming force. i.e . it shows no teiuiency to recover. it :is Sllid to be perfectly pJastlc. However. it is important to note that all .Qodies behave in between these two l1in1ts. Below a. certain limit of deforming forces quartz may be considered perfectly elastic and above this limit pJaaticlD is taken as perfectly plastic. Do not confuse the plastic used in da1l.Y Iffe with the plastic body. No. doubt elastic deformations are very important in science and technology but plastic deformations are also important in mechanical processes. You may see the processes such as stamping. bending and hammering metal work pieces. These are only possible due to presence of plastic deformations.

We arefamilfar:with the structure of matter. The phenomenon of elasticity can be explalD.ed in terms of intermolecular forces. .

8.4.2 Molecular Theory of Elasticity

As you are aware that a solid body is composed of a great many molecules or atoms arranged in a definite order. F;aCh mole.cule is acted upon by the

forces due to ne1ghbour1iJg molecules. pue to inter-molecular forces solid takes such a shape that eaCh molecule remainS iIl,a stable equilibrium; WJIen the body is deformed. the molecules are displaced from their 0rigjDaf. positions. The inter-molecular distances change. If in deformation. intermolecular I!'eparatlon increases from their equilibrium separation
155

Physics

(r > rol attraction forces are developed. Whereas if Intermoleculear separation decreases (r < r01. repulsion forces are developed. These forces called as resto~ folCeS drive molecules to their original positions so that body" takes its original shape and size.
Now you study the manners in which forces are applied to deform the

body.

8.4.3Stress
When an external force or system of forces is applied to a body. it undergoes change in shape or size according to nature offorces. We have explained that In the process of deformation. internal restoring force is developed due to molecular .displacements from their positions of equilibrium which opposes the defOrming force.'l7te internal ,a_fog .iorce acting per unit area oft i l 5S sectiOn of dAiforrnsd IJodu Is CGiJed

sbess.
In equilibrium the restoring force is equal in magnitude and opposite in

direction to the external deforming force. Hence stress is measured by the external force per unit area of cross-section when equilibrium is ajiained.

sue.... _restodngforee _ deformlng fareel1'l

area areaW
...(8.1)

F--i
Ft

L -_ _--L-_ _---II---+.F.

(8)

Longitudinal stress ; If the deforming forces are along. the length PIt. S.8: l.ontJftudInaIof the" body (fig.. 8.3) then we call the stress produced as longitudinal stress.
(1)

Eta

The unit of stress is N/m2. The stress may be longitudinal, normal or shearing.

(ill Normal stress ; If the deforming forces are applied uniformly over entire surface of the body normally so that change in volume of the body;ocmrs.wtthout change in shape (fig. 8.4).11len we the stress produced as nomial stress. You may produce nonna! stress by applying hydrostatic pressure untformally over the entire surface of body.

can

the

,
,
I
I

J- - -

- -

F
F
I

- - - - ... ,

F' F 4-4--i

:
I

F
---,

~
I
I

jF
:
I

I
,

IF

~-..:----------!. F /bl

..Il10..... ,')eO..,," .......

IC'--..'If
156

VQ/wQe UJII/lQut cIuInge oj shape)

PtopeI1ies.of Soli"
Here you can distinguish pressure and stress. Deforming force acting per Unit area normal to the surface is called pressure while Internal restoring force developed per unit area normal to the surface is known as sit<:ss.
(iii) Shearing Stress : If the deforming forces act tangentially or parallel to the surface (fig. 8.5) so tllat shape of the
In,.......--~~.1

, ,

body changes without change in ",-u~thoutchtmgeqfvolwne} volume, the stress is called sheaIing stress.

1IIC.8.5:

Shearing

stress chtmge In

8.4.4 Strain
Deforming forces produce changes in the dimensions of the body. Corresponding to three types of stresses, these changes are also of three

types.
In general the strain is dt:fined as the cIumge Ua.dimension per unit dimension

of the body. It is the ratio of two similar quantities hence is dimensionless.

As indicated above strains are of three types : (i) linear strain. (ii)volume (bulk) strain, and (iii) shearing strain.
(i)

l..)
"

~'"'._===-=--=:t::-::-=-:~-=-:-;t,d-_F.
--t-- -----.,.<lt~-n,.8.&: LInear strain

~-;'"

Linear strain :

If on application of longitudinal deforming force length lof the body changes by 41 (Fig. 8.6) then
linear straln = change Inlength original length

III
I
4P~

,-----..,
I I

r
x.

.'

(ii)

VOlume strain : If on application of

uniform pressure, the volume V of the body changes by 4 V (fig. 8.7) Without change of shape of the body, then
volume straln = change In volume = II V original volume V

,
'-

- ---,

V ....._-::-_...:i1:::"....

1IIC.8.7:

Tap
Volume s/rain

(iii) Shearing

strain : "Wn!!D the deforming

which
'y

forces are tangential (fig. 8.8) then the shearing strain is gWen by the angle

,,

a line per:pmclicldar to the fixed plane is tuM18d qtler defonnation.

(J

through

, , ,
A

I'-or small angle, () = -

6x

Fixed

y
1~7

1IIC.8.8: Shearing slroin

\l)

PhysIcs

8.4.5 Stre....strain curve for a metalBc wire

Fig. 8.9 shows a graph shQwing Variation of stress with the variation of strain when a metallic Wire of uniform cross-section is subjected to an increasedlolid.
Several regions imd points on this cwve are of great importa,nce.
(i) ....". of ProportbuaIU., CON : Portion OA of is a straight line which indicates that in. this region stress is proportional to strain and bOOy behaves like a'peneetty elastic body.

U'""*'t'I~-:" ~ ~PIaIIc-'" . a-. i ,t; "

EIIIIIIc
A
C
I
.~.

I:FF

JIOinI

olI

Pfopcio1IaowtJu JIOinI .19aUc _ _

curve

. I I I

........... ....

'"-tic Umu lB1 : If We increase the strain a little bit beyond A. the stress is not exactly proportional to strain. However. the Wire still rem8ins elastic i.e.. after I'elt\OVing the deforming force Uoad}. it regains its original state.27Ie madmwn value of .trafn for U1hfch CI body (U1IreJ . . . - . elude propel tal .. called elude ifmit. Body' beyond the elastic llmii behaves like a p1listic 'body.
(it)

(Uil 1"fe1d point Ie} : When the Wire is si:retched beyond the limit B, strain increaseS rapidly and body becomes plastic, thaf is, if the deforming load is removed. wire will contract but all the extension is not recoverable. The material follows. dotted line CD on the ~I>h. during contraction and the remaining strain OD is known as a peftaen_t Nt.

more

After point E on the curve none of the extension is IecoVerable.

(iv) .8reaJdng point IF} : Beyond point E strain increases much more rapidly and near point F the length of Wire increases contliluously even without increase of force or even reduCing the force little. The Wire breaks at point F . This is called as breaking ~t or fracture point. .

The stress corresponding to breaking pointF is called or tens strength.

1mtcakfnII."

II

If large deformation takes place between the elasticlimit.and the brealring point, the material is called ductile. If it breaks soon after the elastic limit .is crossed. it IS called brittle. .

8.4.8. Stress-.traIn curve for rubber

If you stretch a rubber cord to over several times its original length. even then after removing stretcl:Ung forces. it will come back to its original length. The stress-strain curve for rubber is distinctly different from that of a metallic Wire. There are two important things to note from fig. 8.10; r'lr.!tly you can observe that no ,part of this large deformation stress is ~:-;;ortional to strain. There is no region of proportionaUty. Secondly when
_ m_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

158

Properties of Solids

. the. deformtng force Is removed. the original curve is not retraced although the sample ftnally acq~ Its natural length. The work done by the material in returning to Its orlg1nal shape is less than the work done by the defonning force when It was deformed. Thus. a certain amount of energy is abSOIbed by the. material in cycle ~h1ch appe~ as heat. 1lds phenomenon is called elastic

hgsm'.,....

t
o
2

Elastic hysteresis has an Important application in shock absorbers: A part of energy transferred by deforming force is observed in: a shock absorber. only a Iimall part is transmitted to the body.

48

8_

slr!lin

.".S.I&' stressslraln curuefor rubber

Blmmple 8.l : A load of 4.0 kg is suspendedJrom a ceUIng through a steel wire of radius 2.0 mm. Find the tensU s~ss developed iii. the wire when equiUbrIum. is achleued. Given 9 = 3.1 7tm/S' SolUtIon : Tension in the wire

F = Mg = 4.0 x 3.1
A ..
It'" - It

It

Area of cross-aect1on of the wire

(2.0 x 1()-3J' m'

.. 4.0 x 1(t31t m' The Ums1l stress developed A . .

= 4. 0 xl 0-6 It

4.0x3.11t

N m2

=3.lxIO-6N /m2
Blmmple 8.2 : For steel the breaking s~ss is 7.9x lOS N/m' and density is 7.9 x 1(Jl kg/~. FInd the maxfmum length of a steel wire which can be suspended without breaking under Its oWn welg/1t{g = 9.B m/s"J.

SOlution .:. Let L.be tPe maximum, length ~f wire suspended without breaktng If p be ~d~lty and A the. area of crossseetlon of the wire. then weight of the wire is .
W-ALpg

Due to this weight the stress developed is This is the breaking stres. Thus
Lpg .. 7.9 x 10" N/m'

W A = Lpg

or

L=

7.9 X 10 3 x9.8

7.9~106

_10 2 m

Now it is the time to take a.break and check your progress, For this by to solve dfe following questions.

159

Physics

INTEXT QUES'l10NS 8 . 1 - - - - - - - - - 1.

if a

rod is clamped rigidly at one end. a force is applied normally to the cross-section at the other end so that there is an increase in length of the rod. what is the type of strain in this case?
.~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

2.

When a rope is used to puR a car it wUl be under oompression. or tensioo.

....................................................................................................................
3.

The ratio stress/strain i-ematns constant for snu:zll deformation qf a metal wire. When the deformatiDn is made larger. will this iutto increase or decrease ?
............................................u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,. .

4.

On applying a deforming force the inter-atomic separation in a body becomes lesser than that of inter-atomic seperatiDn in the normal state.

What must be the nature qf!he

inter-atoniJc forces in this case ?

5.

What type of change occurs in the body when shearing st:il?ss is developed in it ?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .u ..

6.

A wire is elongated by 8 mm by applying a force of 5 kg.Wt. if its radius is doubled (other things rernain.inD the same) the increase in its length will be
(a) 8 mm (b) 2mm (c) 32 mm (d) 1 mm
t .. ... .. ................................................................ ..

.8.S.HOOKE'S LAW
In 1678 Robert Hooke obtaJned the stress-strain curve experimentiilly for a number of solid substances and establlshed a .law of elasticity known

as Hooke's law after his name. According to this law: Under proportionality limit the st, IS is pruportfonal to the.COi I eapmr4fng strain. i.e.. or

Istress/strain = constant IE)

stress

oc

strain

... (8.2)

This constant E of proportionality i$ Ii measure of elastlcityof the substance and is called modu11111 of e1utlclty. As stram Is dlmensionless quantity. modulus of clasticlty has the same dlmenslons (or units) as that of the stress. Its value Is independent of the stress and strain but depends on the nature of the material.

8.5.1 Modulil of Elasticity

In previous sections you have learnt that there are three kinds of stram.
160

Properties of Soltds
It is therefore clear that there should. be ~ee modulli ~f elasUcity co eaponding to these strams. These are Young's - - " '..... JJuIk .,...",..... and mpch,Ws of rfgldity corresponding to linear stmin, vPlume stram and shearing stmin .especttveJy. Let us study them one' by one.

(I) Yoaag'S Iiodm-: The ratio of the lDngitudbwl sIress tD the longitud:inal stmln is called Young's modu'usjor the material of the body.

Let a ~ of length L and area of CI'OI;I8-sectlon A be stretched by a longitudinal force F. As a result Change in length of the wire is lit Then
Longltudinal stress

=FIA

LongItudinal strain = AI/I

Y""~"'s_modulus y= FIA =22... ~'"'"'6 AlII A Al

If the wire of radius r is suspended vertically With a dgid support and-a _
maSsM

hangs at its lower end, then A = 1tr2-and F = Mg

[Af;ll ~

(8.3)

til) Balk lIodabis:The ratio of normal stress to the ooIwne stmln is called bulk modulus qfthe mat.erla1 of the body.

If due to increase In pressure Ap.volume -v of the 00dy decreases by AV without cbange.in shape, thennormal stress = Ap

volume strain = AVIV

s B tp - .. V.6p Bulk mod.... ..... AVIV AV
(84) ....

The rec1procal of bulk modulus of a substance is ca1ledits _PI! nnlbD't7. Thus, compressibility, K

I=

11 B =

~~ I

.IR5)

(UQ lIoduhw of Rlgtdlty or Shear lIodul1lll:The ratio of the shearing stress tD shearing strain Is called moduhrs ofrlBfdlty of the mat.erla1 of "the body.

If a tangential force F acts on an area A and 8 is the shesI1ng strain, then, "

". shearing stress F I A F modulus of l1gJdity IJ = sh~..ng strain - 6 = A6

~ample 8.4 : A

... (8.6)

load of 4.0 kg Is suspended.from a ceiling through a steel wfre of lengh 20 m and radius 2.0 mm. It Is found that the length of the wire Increased by 0,031 mm as equfifbtium is achIeued. Ffnd Young's

mOOuhrsfor ~ :rake 9

=3.11r mls"
161

Physics

SOlution : Longitudinal streSs = F I A =Mg Iltr2

4.0X3.11t N 1m2 2 1t(2XlO-3) =3.1xl0 6 N/m2 Longitudinal strain T41 0.031 X10-3 2.0
6

0.0155 x 10-3

Thus,

vou~"'.s modulus
....

3.1X10 . IN/m2 =2.0xlO 11 N/m"'0.0155xl0-3 .

Ja:ample 8.5 : A..o1.0 meter long copper wire ofaoss-sectional area 1.2 r!m? is stretched bij:d.jorce of 4.8 x 10' N, UYoung's modulI'S of copper is Y = 1.2 X 10'J Nlm'; calculate (0 stress (II) strain and (iii) tncniase tit length. of the wire.

Solution :
(I)

Stress .. A

:=

4.8xlO I 40 10'NI 1.2 x 10"' N m '" '. x m

_ Stress _ 4.0xl0 =3.3xlO"" (U) !itl"ain Y 1.2xl011 Strain .. 4l/1 increase in length "'l" strain. x I . 3.3 x 10" x 4 m .. 1.32 xl()-3...,

(Ui)

Ja:ample 8.6: When a solid rubber ball is takenfrom the swface Il;> botlDm of a lake the ~ucttoil in its volwne is 0.001296. The depth of the lake is 360 In, density of lake water is 10' kglrril and acce/emtlon due to gravity is 10 mls'. Caculate bulk modulus of rubber:

Solution:

Increase of press~ on the ball

p'"

hp 9 - 360 x 10" x 10 N/rrr '" 3.6 x 1()8 N/m2

Volume Ittrain "': =O.OO12/l00=1.2xlO-5 . pV Bulk Modulus B = AV

3.6xlO = 1.2 x 10"

0 10" NI = 3. x. m

8.5.2 Steel is M~re Elastic tban Rubber

A bodrla SIdd to be more elastic If on applying a Isrge defountog force on It, the strain produced to the body Is Small. Ifwe take two Identical rubber and sieeI wJres and apply equal deformtng forceS On each of them. you

162

Properties of SoHds
",I

will see that the extension produced in the steel wire is s&aner than the ~ion produced in the rubber wire. Also for producing same strain in the two wires the stress is much higher in steel wire than in ruhber wire.
In defIning linear strain or YOWl!fs modulus we have considered so Iar only increase in length of the wire on applying a stretching force and have CQmpletely Ignored the resulting decrease in the diameter (th1clmess) of the Wire. It was firSt of all pointed out by Poisson.

8.5.3 Poisson's Ratio

You may see that when a wire is stretched along its length, it is elongeted along with a contraction in its diameter. Thus, the length of the wire increases in the direction of forces, whereas a contraction occurs in the perpendicular dlrection. This f<let is not oIlly true for wire but for all other bodies under strain. The" strain perpendlcuIai to the appIled force is Caned lateral strain. Poisson pointed out that within elastic llmlt lateral strain is directly proportional to longitudinal strain i.e. the ratio oj lateral strain to Iongftudinal strain is a constant far a riulterial body an4 is known as Poisson's ratio. It is denoted by a Greek letter (1 (sigma)
If ~ and a be the lateral and longitudinal strains respective1y, then the Poisson's ratio.

O'"=.!!. a
If a wire (rod or tube) of length 1 and diameter d is plongaled on applyjng a stretching force by an amount ~1 and its dJameter is decreased by amount lod, then longitudinal strain
=~lll

lateral strain

=lod I d
MId
~l /l ". d lol

I M

... Poisson's ratio(J

... (8.7)

Since, Poisson's ratio IS a ratio of two strains, it is dlmensionless quantity and is purely 'a number.
-The V"" lue of Poisson's ratio depends only upon the nature of the material and 'for most of the su~tances it Iles between 0.2 ~d 0.4."When a body unde!," tension suffers no change in volume, i.e., -the body is perffctlY inc:OmpI smble. the value of Poisson's ratio is greatest. i.e.. 0.5'(or 2)'
J!:IrQmpIe 8.7: A 10 kg mass is attached to one end of a copper w(re 3 m long and 10-3 m in QIamet.er. Ffnd the emmsion !fYOUllg's modubls of the wile ~ 12.5. x 10'0 ~/m2. Clanllate the lateral ~ produced If .AJisson's n:Ufo is 0,25 .

'SoIIItfMt : Here L .. 3 m. r 9.8 N. 0' = 0.25

=0.5 x

lo-"m. Y:= 12.5 x 10.0 IN/m". F:= 10 x

163

Extension produced in the wire

'Al- F.l
ltr2y

IOx9.8x3 ,m 1O 3.14X(0.5XI0-3t x12.5xl0

=0.2993xlO~m

Longitudinal strain a=Al/l= 0.2993xl0~ Poisson's ratio Lateral strain a lateral strain (~) longitudinal strain(a) = 0.25 x 0.2993 x 10-2 = 2.4978 x 10-4 But. lateral strain

~=axa

d ' Ad=2.4979xl0-4d

~=M=2.4978x104

='>..4987><10-4 xl0-3 Lateral compression = 2.49879 x 10-7 m

Now take another ,break and by to solve the following questions.

'INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.2 - - - - - - - - - 1. Is the unit oJYoung's modulus same as that oJlongitudlnal stress or

d!tferent? ................~ ..............................................................................

2. Water is I'J1OIIe elastic than air. why? ...................................................

3. The length oj a wire is cut to half. What will be the effect on the
increase In its length I.IIIder a gipen load? ................

4. 1\00 wires are madeoJthe same meta1. The lengthoJtheftrstwire Is half that oj the second wire and its diameter Is double that oj the second wW; if equaL loads are applied on both wtres.flnd the ratio oj increase In' their lengths .,.................................; ... :.......................

5. if the mension oj a string Is equal to its ortgtnal length. then the younq's ITUlOO"hIS oJthe materlaLoJstrlrig wUl be
'(a) =

2 x stress; (b) = stress; (c)

x stress; (d) = 3 x stress.

6 .. On applying a pressure oj 5 XlfY;N/rri' the oolume oj ajb.dd qf1ntlJol uolwne 1.5 x1~rri' cha1lges by 3 x10-'. Bulk modulus qfjfuid Is
(a) 7.5 xlCP N/rri'; (b) 2.5 x10'0 N/rri'; (c) (d)' 1.5 xl0'3 N/rri'. '

1.0 xlCP N/rri';

164

ProperUes of J;olids

8.6 CANTILEVER
Beams are important in architecture. industries and also in our daily life. Elastic properties of matter provide load bearing strength to the beams (girders). A uniform beam clamped at one end and 1000000d at the other end is clalled cantilever. You would have seen Laxman Jhula in Rishikesh. Haridwar and Howara Bridge at Calcutta. These are examples of cantilever. You will observe that when a long beam (rod or bar) is clamped horizontally at one end to a rigid support and a load is placed at the other end. it gets depressed. You may easily observe experimentally the variation of depression of cantilever with the variation of load and length of cantilever. For this a long beam of length 1 and of uniform rectangular cross-section having breadth D and depth (thickness) d is taken. One end of it is clamped at the edge of big table and a pOinter Is fixed to the free end which moves on a vertical scale (fig. 8.13) when it is loaded. At the free end weights may be suspended with the help of thread and han,ger.

In order to study the variation of depression with load keeping length of contilever constant. position of pointer on the scale for zero load is noted. Then a weight of 50 g is suspended at free end. Due to weigh( the beam bends and pointer moves downwards. Its position on scale is noted. The difference between two readings gives the depression. Then load is increased in steps of 50 g and several sets. of observations are taken. With the help of these observations depression-load graph is plotted (fig. 8.14). A straight

~~------.t ~-----.

------------1-

l
1I'ig. 8.13 : CWltile"er

I
Fit.

.~

i~-===~~~l~o;add-------

8.14 : Depressiowload gruphJQr" a ('Wltile,:rer_

line graph shows that the depression produced is directly proportional to load prot/idee! the length qf the cantUeuer is kept constant. In order to study the variation of depression with length of cantilever i!:eeping the load constant. the length of the cantilever is
165

PhysiCS

changed in steps of 5 cm. and the corresponding depressions are noted keeping ltte loadl,constant. In this case when the length of cantilever is altered the . ibitia1. reading for the zero load is taken each time separately. Graphy of depression-length becomes a straight line ; (fig. 8.131. .
The variation, of depression of cantilever may also be studied by drawing depression-breadth and depressiondepth graphs.

. ,
.

Cube of IengIh

..... "l.S: DepressIon - LerIf1Ih gmphfora _

Expn.lIlon for nep....on of C8DtJleyer

For a beam of length I, breadthb and depth d the depression of the free end when it is loaded by weight of.mass M is given by the expr<ssion.
4Mgl 3 y . Ybd 3

. (8.8)

where Y is the Young's modqlus for the material of beam.

It is clear from the expression for. depression of loaded end of a beam of rectangular crOsS-Section that:
(0

for a given beam the devression is directly proporttonalllJ load

(Mg.;

(iI) .for a given load the depression of the beam is

a) , directly proportional tD the cube of its length.

bJ inversely proporttonal tD its bn!odth. cJ Irwersel!i proportional tD the cube of its depth (thidmessJ and
d) irWerselyproportionnl tD YoUng's morbdlls of the rJUJter1Ql of

beam..

Thus, if you want smaIl depression in a given cantilever it should not be load~ heavily. On the other hand if you want that for a given load the depression should be smaIl, then the length of the cantilever should be !IIDa11, its breadth, depth and Young's modulus (of the material) should be large. .

8.6.1 .Beam Supported at the EDds amd. Loaded In the

lIIlddle
Let us consider a beam of rectangular cross-section having length I, ~ b and depth d {flg.8.14). It is. horlzonta1ly supported at knife edges k. and Ie,. and load by wf~ght W at the middle point. Reaction of eaCh of knife edges be W/2. It may be considered as double cantilever
166

. PropeItles of Solids each .of length l/2 and having load W/2; Thus. the depression of middle point below each of the k:njfe epges is given by

--'------ 1. .
Wl 3
4Ybd 3

_----w

...(8.9)

Load
FIg. 8.14: Beam In"der! in the middle as double cantUelier

Where M Is the mass suspended at the middle

8.6.2 Explanation of Bending of Beams

Let. us take a beam of rectangular cross-section. You may consider the beam as made up of a nilinber of thin plane layers parallel to each other (fig.. B.IS-a). Also each layer may be considered as made up of a number of parallellongitud1nal filaments or fibres (fig. 8.15 b)

~
1'". 8.1 5 ;la} Lay"rs In a
beam

"

~\

\.

"'

Fill. 8.15 :(b) FfIamerttS In a la!ier

Let the beam be clamped horizontally at end A 'and loaded by wetghtW at the other. end B. It undergoes bending. The filaments of outward side of beam are elongated .and becorri~ in tension while filameI).ts.of.innerside are compressed (fig. 8 .16). In between these two portions there Is. a layer .lit !!urface in which the filaments are neither elongated nor compressed . . Sti(!b Q'surface is called neutTul surface and is shown dotted m the figures;

"N----"-

FI&. 8.16 :Belldin!J 167

(~f CWltileuer

'Physics Consider the equilibrium of portion BC of the beam; weight Wat B and reaction force w at'section C of beam form external couple which rotates the beam clockwise. Filaments above neutral surface tncrease tn length and those below it deerease tn length. The increase or decrease ,tn length of a filament is directly proportional to its distance from the neutral' surface. Due to elastic reaetion intern.. 1 forces are developed. These are shown with increasing magnitudes tn fig. 8.16. A system of restoring couples is thus formed. Th,,' sum of moments of these couples about the neutral axis is called bending moment. In equilibriUl;n bending moment is equal and Opposlte t.o the external couple.

8.6.3 Peculiar shape of Girders

Girders are used in the construction of bUildings. bridges and factOries. You might have noticed that the upper and lower faces of the girders are made of much greater breadth than its middle part which is of smaller breadth. Have you ever tried to know the reason of this? \Vhen a girder is supported at its ends and is loaded. it is depressed tn the middle due to bending. The filaments above neutral surface (middle layer is Which there is neither contraction nor elongation of filaments on bending) are compressed and filaments below the neutral surface are elongated. Amount of compression of elongation tncreases as the distance from neutral surface increases.The compression and elongation are maximum for the upper most and lower most ftIaments respectively. Therefore outer layers suffer more strain and stress than inner layers. That is why. to make outer layers' stronger than inner layers. the girders are manufactured with their cross-section tn the form of letter I (fig. 8. 17). This cOllsiderably saves the material without sacrificing the strength of the girder. l'1li, 8.17: Shape of
eros.seetlt!!' of girder

Girders of Rectangular cross-Section: You must be' knOWing that in a girder of rectangular cross section the. longer side is kept as depth. The depression y of middle point of a girder of length 1 breadth b'and depth d with a certain load W distributed uniformly along the length of the girder is give~ by
5Wl 3 y-."..:::..:.:.:.""." - 32bd 3 y
... (8.10)

Where Y is the Young's modulus of material of the girder. It is clear that for the same load and length of the girder the depression y of middle point is inversely proportional to one power of breadth b and three powers of depth d.. 1hereJore. to' reduce the depression increase in depth d Is more effective than the increase in breadth b. That is why tn the girder of rectangular cross-section. the longer side is taken as depth. Now let us check how much you have understood. Solve the following' questions.
168

Properties of Solids

INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.3 - - - - - - - - - - 1. Are there certain.filaments in a beam wnich remain unstralned during bending? Where do they lie? ......................................... _ ........................ .

2. How dJ:Jes tfte extension or contraction of.fUament change with different layer? ............................................................................................... ; ...... .
3.

n.vo identical caitt1leuers are loaded by weights in the ratio 1:2. What is
the ratio of depressions? ..........................:..............................................

4. The length of a canttlever is halved. What will be the depression when 'Dad l-ernatninB'tbe SQme?, ...................................................................... 5. A 5 m long 10 em x 15 em is to be used as a cantileuer. Which side qf the beams crosssection .nust be kept horizontal in order to have lesser depression? ............................. .

~ ofrectonguku crosssection

8.7 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

A force whiCh causes deformalfon In a body Is called deforming foree.

On defonnalfon Internal restoring forces are produced In the .:xIy so that after removal of deforming forces body regatns Its original shape and size; ,

The property of matter to restore the natural shape and size after defonrialfon or to oppose the deformalfon Is ca1led elaslfclty. The body which recow:rs completely Its orlgtnal state on the removal of the deforming forces Is calledperfedly elasttc. If a body completely retains Its modified form. it is said to be perfectly plaslfc. The._ equals the Internal restoring force per unit area. Its units is N/m'. . The strain equals the
~e

In dimension per unit dimension. Strain has no unit.

In the normal state the net Inter atomic force on an atom 15 zero. If the separalfQn betwo:en the atmns.becomes more than the separalfon In. normal state. the Intc:r atomic forces be\:ome attracIfve. However, for smaller separalfon these forces become reJ>ulsive.

' . The maximum value of stress upto which a body shows elasttc property Is called Its elaslfc Ilmit. A body beyond the elaslfc limit behaves like a plastic body.

Hooke's' law states that within proporlfonallty limit the stress developed In a body Is proporlfonai to the strain. The breSIImg stress Is the stress for which a body breaks.
Young'S modulus Is the ralfo of longttudlnal stress to longttudln:u strain.

. Bulk modulus Is the ratio of norma! stress to volume strain.

Modulus of rigidity Is the milo of the shearing stress to shearing strain.

. P\)Isson's rallo Is the ratto of lateral btnlin to longttudlnal strain.

Steel Is moreeiast1c' than' rubber.

A canUleoer Is the beam supported at one end and loaded at the other end. A beam supported at ends and loaded In the middle may be regarded as double canUleoer, .

For a gIVen canUleverdepresston produced Is directly proporttonal to Ibe load.

For constant load depression of cantilever Is directly proportional to cube of Its length. Fm: less depreeslonln a canUlever of rectangular crosssectlon by a load the longer side of Its cross-section Is kept vertical.

Physics
To save material without sacrificing the strength of girder they are manufactured with their cross-scctlon In the form of letter I.

8.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

L

Define the term elasticity. When Is a body called elasUc and when Is It called pIasUc? What Is the unit of modulus of elasticity? Explain the terms stress. strain. elastic limit and Hooke's law. What Is the value of young's nlodulus for a perfectly elastic body? ExPlain the elastic properties of matter on the basis of Inter atomic forces. What is the value 9f bulk modulus for Incomplresslble liquid? Draw a stress-strain graph for a metallic wire under increasing load. Mark the elasUc limit on the graph. WhIch part of the graph Is related to the Young's Modulus of the material of the wire?
Which is more elastic iron or rubber?

2 3.
4. 5.

6.
7.

8.
9.

Define Young's modulus of elasticity. In order to produce a longltudlnal strain of 2><10-', a stress of 2.4 x 107 N/m' Is produced In a wire. Calculate the Young's modulus of the material of the wire.

10. Why polsson's ratio has no unit? 1L Define bulk modulus of elasticity. A solid cube of side 30 em Is subjected to a uniform pressure of5 xlO N/m'. Cl\leulate the change In lis volume. Given that B = 16.98 xl0 10 N/m'.
12. What are shearlng straIn. shearlng stress and modulus of rigidity? What Is the unit

of modulus of rigidity? 13. What are lateral strain, longltudlnal strain and Potsson's ratio? A cyllndrtcal wire of length I and radius r Is stretched by a longltudlnal force. lis length Is Increased by Al and radius Is decreased by Ar. FInd out expression for Poisson's ratio forthe-material of wire.
14. A metallic wIr.. 4 m In length and

1 mm In dlameter.!s stretched by a weight of 4 kg, Determine the elongation produced. Given that the Y for the material of the wire ,Is 13.78 x 10' N/m'.

15. A steel wire 2.8 m long and diameter 4xlo-'m stretched by a Weight of 1.6 kg. If the extension produced Is L66 x, 1O"m, calculate Y for steel. 16. ' The upp"face of the cube of side I Oem IS displaced 2mm parallel to Itself when a tengenttal force of 5 x lOS N Is applied on ,It keeping lowerface lIxed. FInd out straIn.

17. What Is a cantilever? lf the free end of the beam Is loaded, on what factors does the depression of the free end depend? 18. Girder. are manufactured with their cross-section In the form ofletter I. Give reason. What Is the harm If the cross-section Is made rectangular? 19. You ha"e two bars of same length and same material but one of cross-section 6<:m x 6cm and the other of cross-section 4 em x 9 em, Out of the two which one will you ' use as a cantilever? If you want to have mlntmum depression for it given load, what will you do? 20. A wire of length L and radius r Is clamped rigidly at one end, When the 'other end of wire Is pulled by a force F Its length Increases by x. Another wire of the same material of length 21 and radius 2r, when pulled by a force 2}O', what will be the Increase In Its length.

170

ProPt"1 Ul.-S of Su::d~

ANSWERS TO' THE INTEXT QUESTIONS

IIltezt g-.tt_ 8.1

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6.

Unear stram
Tension. Decrease.
Repulsive. Cbange of shape. (b)

2.

3.

latezt. gu...u_ 8.2

1. 2.

3.
4. 5.

Both have. same. unit. Bulk modulus Is reciprocal of compressibility. Air Is more compressible thao water. Therefore water Is more elastlc than air.. Half. 1:8
(h)
(b)

4. 5. 6.

They lie In the central layer of the cantilever. Extension or contraction of filaments Increased as their distance from the neutral- surface Increases. For a loaded cantllever extension Is II\IDdmum at upper most surface. Contraction Is maximum at lower most surface. '1:2 1/8 10 cm.

TermIIW gaeoU.....

6.

latezt QaenIou 8.3

I.

9. 11. 14. 15. 16. 19. 20

FIlaments In the neutral layer

remain unstramed during bending,

1.2 x 10" N/m' 7.95 X IO"'m' 14.49 x 1O"'m 2.105 x 10" N/m' 2 x 0" Bar of 4 em " 9 em cross-section. 9 em side vertical. Change In. length I. "

..,.

9
HYDROSTATICS AND SURFACE TENSION

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous lesson. you have learnt that the combination of intermolecular forces and thermal motion gives lise to three different states of matter. namely solid. liquid and gas. You would have seen that liquids can flow on the inclined surfaces (under the effect of earths gravity) and hence are also called fluids. They are_ incapable qf withstanding any shearing forces for any length of time if they deform easily and hence are said to have negligible elaSticity. To support a solid you require only a floor; while f('~ supporting a liquid you have to use a -container haVing side-walls. The Q,-eper the container. the stronger have to be the side-waIls of the container. Do you lmow why? Can you believe that you can lift an elephant by your own body ~eight by standing on one platform (like a pan of a ba1ance) of a hydraulic lift. the elephant standing on the ott ~r platform of the same lift? Can you walk on water? But the mosqUitoes can stand and walk on still water. Similarly. When mercuzy falls on the flat ground. it spreads in the form of sphertcal globules. Do you lmow. why? Will it not be surprtztng to see a steel needle floating on water surface? All these amazing observations can be explained if YOll learn the chractelistic propertles of the liqUids. like hydrostatic pressure. PascaI's law and surface tension. These topiCS form the subject matter of present study in this lesson. In the next lesson. you will learn about the flaw of liquids.

9.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson. you should be able to: calculate the hydrostatic-pressure at Q certain depth _ inside the liquid containers. describe PascqL's law to explain the .furu;tWning of hydraulic press; hydraulic l!ft and hydraulic brakes etc. explain the property of swface tension of liquids. explain the spherical shape of liquid c:lrqps. j/Dating of mosqu.t1Des on water swface. derive an expression and explain the rise-qf~ in the capilIruy tube. define swface tension and apply it to (;!Xplain the various daUy Ufe
- phenomenorL

Hydrostatics and

S~]

face Tension

9.3 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

Have you ever got a chance to see the construction of a dam? Figure (9.1) shows the walls of a high dam. They are made thicker at the base. and not like an ordinary wall of uniform thickness. Do you know why? The liquids do exert pressure at the base of the container due to their weight like solids. However, they do exert same pressure also on the side 'walls of the container. The greater is the
d~th below the free surface (level) of water. the greater Is the pressure.

Dams have to store water to great heights and hence tbepressure on the side walls of the dam at the bottom is very large. It is for this reason that to withstand such a large pressure. the'side walls of the dam are made very thtek. At low depths. the press~ being saH, lesser thickness of wall will be suflltient to withstand the side pressure. The pressure exerted by the .stationary liqIiid (filled In a container) at any point inside the liqUid is called 'lyJdrostatic pressure'. and the study oj liquids at rest is called 'hydrostatics'.

- FIg. 9.1! The strllt:ture oj slde-wu/[s oj a dam {length al ./1(> (lrtUws at d~(ferenl depths' are tndicatllJe oj the magnilude Qf the water-pressure on the side wall

Since presS1tre [P) is defined as. the force per unit area
p

= Force =. NewtCJ" Area metre'

... (9.1)

the pressure is measured In Nm-2 which is also called Pascal in honour of the French Scientist Blaise Pascal (l623 c1662) who did a lot of ~'!"rk on fluid pressure. In short. Pascal is .represented as Pa . . Let us now obtain an expression for the hydrostatic pressure.

9.3.1 Hydrostatic Pressure at a point within a liquid

Let us consider smallcbject (A) at a depth 'h' below the free surface (level) of the liqUid In the container. Thc liquid exerts compression of pressure on all of its sides as shown in the figure (9.2). The pressure P at the point A. which acts vertically downwards can be calculated as being due to the weight p ..r unit area of the liquid above the point A.
i-=-:,..,..,:-:Ii:3t_:":-.-c-.
I _ _ _ __
-----~----------C-_7_-:1_ F rae surface of the IIqUl(l .. _ .. __ .. LIQuid cylinder of base area 'a' and height 'h

:. . .:. . -';:-. =:-- -.--

:.-:. _.. '-- :--..-':' -------~---

--.---------_.. --- .---------~-------~

~----,

I ----

---------... ----

v-----

i ----

Liqutd of

densny 'd'

----_!P- - - ---

.. -----... - .. -------" .. .. .--";.

--------------_ ... Fig. 9.3:

Circular base area "a .-ound the polm A

at a dePth 'h'

PIC- 2:

Compressional Pressure due to liquid acting on aU sides oj rut iMmerSed body.

173

pnysics S,uppose the point A.18 at a depth 'It below the free surface of the liquid contained in the vessel. See F1gure (9.3) Imagine a liquid in a cylinder of circular base area are 'ct and height '11: (i.e. extending upto th" free surface) above the point 'i'1. The weight of the liquid cylinder
= mass x acceleralion due to gravity

=
W

(volume of the cylinder) x (density of the liquid) x (acc. due to gravity)

h) x (d)
X

= (a x

This weight acts vertically downwards on area ct at A.

:. Hydrostatic pressure

at A weight
area
... (9.2)

=> p= axhxdxg_hdg a => P = depth x density x acc. to gravity

It Is important to note that area 'd does not appear in the final expression for the hydrostatic pressure.
Example 9,1: A cemented wall ofth1ckness 1 metre can withstand aside pressure of 10" Nm4. Wha{ should be the thickness of the side wall at jJe bottom qf a water dam of depth' 1 00 metres? Take density of water = 1()' kgm'" and 9 9.5 ms-2

Solution: The pressure on the side wall of the dam at its bottom at a
depth 100 metres is given by P=hdg P = 100xl0' x9.B Nm-' '" 9.8xlO' Nm-' :. Thickness of the wall required =
9.8xl0' 10' m

=9.8m

9.3.2 Calculation of Atmospheric Pressure

'Torlsili made use of the formula for hytrostatic pressure to determine the vhlue of atmopherlc pressure as follow: He took a long narrow (not a capillary) tube of about 1 m long; filled it with mercury of density 13,600 kgm-3 and then after closing Its open mouth with the thumb, inverted It and placedverticalJy in a mercury trough as shown in the figure. Some mercury fell I..,tf\ the trough while a column of about 76 cm of mercury above the freesurlace of mercury in the mercury trough remained filled in the tube.
174

Hydrostatics and Surface Tension

Since the pressure at the point A = Atmospheric pressure P, the pressure at the point B In hOrizontal liDe With A is also = P

Vacuum
76cm=h

But hydrostatic pressure at B = Ii d g :. Atmospheric pressure = P = h d 9 = 0.76 x 13,600 x 9.8 Nm-2

P

~-=..._::

= 1.013 X

10 Nm5

--, - -----W. - -"'--_._---

A__

--

-- - --

9.S.S Pascal's Law

FIg. 9.4

Have you ever seen a hydraulic jack? Visit any motor-workshop where they clean the dirt of the car, trucks etc. There, the vehicle is lifted up to a height of about 5 feet or more With the help of a hydraulic jack and then a man cleans the lower side of the vehicle by pouring a strong stream of water With the help of a water pipe. You must have also seen the packing of cotton bales. That is also done With the help of hydraulic press. The hydraulic jack and hydraulic press both work on a principle known as Pascal's principle or law. Pascal's law, also-known as the law oftrtmsmissUmqfliquid pressure can be stated as follows:

When a pressure ~ applied anywhere on the surface of given mass of an enclosed liquid at rest, an equal un(for~ pressure is transmitted over the whole liquid. It gets transmitted through out the liquid and acts in a direction at right angles to the surface qf fhe liquid every where.
. On any surface imagined inside the fluid or on the boundary, the liqUid

molecules are constantly impinging and rebounctng. The momentum transferred per unit area per second is the Pressure due to the liquid on the boundary.

Pascal's law, in terms of the molecules means that the momentum transferred by them per unit time to a unit area is the same throughout the fluid.
Theliquid pressure depends only on its density and temperature provided there are no external forces such as gravity.

9.S.4 AppHcations of Pascal's law

A recent application ofPascal's law in medical treatment is the water mattress (bed) used to cut down be-sores by distributing the weight of the body uniformly. Some of the important applications of Pasacal's law are, (1) Hydraulic Press (or Hydraulic Lift), (Ii) Hydraulic Brakes: and (Iii) Hydraulic Jack.

17,5

Physics

(I) Hydraulic Press

This is a simple device IIi which a small force is magnified fnany t1IDes. Since pressure is transmitted equally. throughout the llquid, a small pressure can be made to act on a larger area and so pi"odUceE a Iarger (magnl.fi.ed) force on that area. Fig. (9.5) shoWs a principle diagram of such a devtce.
,1 Kg
100 Kg

,,, I

1m'
B

l:

T/
II

T T.
~

- Iquid

.c
PrIncIple diagram showing the I-*/ng of Hydrau/Ic ItJl;

FII B.5:

, J'IC. B.B: Hydmu/Ic_.

Suppose the cylinder A has a small cross-sectitmal area of O.Olm and cylinder B has larger area 1m". The two cylinders are connected by a narrow tube C. The whole apparatus is ft11ed With some liquid or oil. If a force FI 9.8 N(equal to the weight of I kg) is applied on the P!Btonof cylinder A. the corresponding pressure

= .Force
Area

= 9.8 Nm" 0.01 = 9.8xIO' Nm"

This pressure is transmitted to the cylinder B.and the force acting on the . piston of cylinder B is
FB

= PB KArea ofB = 9.8 x

102 xl

=9.8 x 102 N:

Thus,

a force of 9.8

N magnifies to 9.8 x 102 N

i.e (= 100 kg wt) Is 100 times which is equal to the ratio of area of B to the area of A In short since
Q

F. =p. xA. and F. =p. xA.

..

F'. F.

P,,A.

p. A. [Q p. =p.l

A A.

This Is called the mechanical adIICIntage of the hydraulic press.

This prlnctple is applied in the working I of the hydraulic press with which . bags of cotton or wood. oil seeds. newly printed books etc. are pressed very firmly together by applying a little force. FIg. (9.5)
.176

Hydrostatics and Surface Tension

(U) Hyu.uUc Bnakes

Another important use of the Pascal's law Is in the design of hydraulic brakes in motor cars, Here al!?O, when a little force is applied by the foot 1m the brake-plate, the pressure so applied gets transmitted through the brake on to act on longer area where pistons are made to mO'.'e the brake shoes aginnst the brake drums. Fig. (9.7)

""""
un Brake

Fluid

pipofm'~ 1ino~'&J

_ ..... --

PIg. 9.7: Hydraulic Bmloes

.12. 9.8: Hydroul/c Jack .

(m) HyclrauUc Jack

Have.you ever visited a service station for mo~or cars? You must have seen cars and large heavy trucks being raIsed to convenient heights so that the mechanic can work under them Fig. (9.8). Here also a slight pressure is transmitted through a liqUid to act on a large surface, thus producing sufficient force to lift up the vehicle. Such a machine is known as hydraulic jack, Now, stop and try to solve the follOWing questions to check your progress,

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9 . 1 - - - - - ' - - - - - - 1.

n.vo cyliru:lrical containers A

and B of base area O.2m2 and 0.3m" are

.fiUed with liquids ofdensities 1500 kg m-3 'and 2000 kg Ill"" respectively. if the container A is filled to a heigh 0.4 m and the container B to the height 0.31 m, which container is subjected to more pressure at its
bottom? What are these pressures? Given 9

= 9.8 ms-2

2.

A coffee cup of base area 12 x 1Q-4 m' and height 0.07 m can bear a weight of 0.25 kg of any liquid filled in it. if it is contain a liqutd. of density 3000 kgrrr", to what height it can be filled without being

to

turned?
~

................................................................................................................ .

. 3.

What is the mechaittcal advantage of a hyraulic press?

...............................................................................................................
'4.

A weight of 50 kg wt is put on .the smaller cylinder of area 0.1 m" of a big hydraulic lift. How much maximum u..-eight can be balanced. on the
177

Physics

bigger cylinder oj area 10m" oj this hydraulic lif/:?

...... , .. , .......................................................................................................
5. An elephant oj weight 5000 kg wt. Is standing on the bigger piston of area 10m2 of a hydraulic lift. Can a .boy oj weight 25 kg wt standing on the smaller piston oj area 0.05 m" balance or lift the elephant?

............................ .......................................................................,., ..
,

9.4 SURFACE TENSION

Take small amount of mer~ury. Drop it from about a foot on to a flat plate. You would fmd that the mercury gets sprayed into small spherical globules.Why? Have you seen dew drops (water-drops). on the leaves of some plant in the early morning during winter days? Here also small water drops appear spherical. Why do the liqUids in small amoUnts gather together into a spherical drop? Also in the rainy season. when rain drops fall in a pool of water. air bubbles are formed on the water surface.. You must have enjoyed soap-bubble-making game in your childhood.

AettuftJI (9.1):
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

1. Prepare a soap solution.

Add small amount of glycerine to It. Take a narrow hand plastic tube or glass tube or wooden tube. Dip'lts one end
In the soap-solution so that SOlile solution flIls In It.

Take It out and blow air Into the other end with your mouth.
Large' size soap bubble Will be formed.

GIVe a Jerk to the tube to detach the bubble which then floats In the air.

Do you know. why it is easier to form soap bubbles and not pure waterbubbles by the above technique? All the above life experiences i.e. spherical shapes of the liquid-drops and soap bubbles etc_ are due to the property of surface tension of the liquids, Before_. stUdying about this characteristic property of liquids. let us first 'revise our. knowledge of molecular forces.

Every substance Is made up of small particles called atoms. TIle .compounds are made up of molecules which are a chemically combined group of atoms.
When liquids are contained IIi any open vessel. they always have a horizontal surface. According to molecular theory. all molecules do attract each other. The fofYNl of attraction betJwen two afrnBar .molecuZe. i.e. qf the same substance (in a given sample} ,. called foree qf cohession.. the liqUid Is In contact with the molecules of the container at the boundary of the vessel. The force of attraction between two dissfmiiar molecules (i.e. a molecule qf the liquid and a molecule qf
178 .

Hydrostatics and Surface TeIlsiOJl

the solid vessell is calledforce of adhession. The di~tance upto which these forces of cohersion or adhession are effective to are called-range of molecular attraction. It is of the order of 10-" m i.e. of the order of the size of the molecules.

9.4.1 Surface Energy

A thin layer of the surface of the liquid of thickness equal to the molecular

range of attraction is called surJace layer. or surJace film. See. fig. (9.9). The molecule P lying well within the liquId is attracted in all directions by molecules lying within its sphare of influence (which is the imaginary sphere of radius equal to the range of moleculer attraction drawn with. molecule P at its centre;' Hence the resultant cohessive force acting on P's zero. However for the molecuies Q, R etc. which lie inside the surface-layer, the sphere of influence is partially outside the liquid surface where there are no liquid SpfJeres of mOlecular attracbon molecules. The molecules Q,R. therefore; experience ,~-,.. a resultant downward force of cohession, because A / " - - BJ - the number of molecules in the upper half of sphere c . . . ... 0 of influence attracting the molecule Q or R is less ~ li9~ ~<Q::' R than the number of molecules attracting Q or R in . s _ . . . the lower half of sphere of influences. ThuEo:; all molecules lying within the surface layer Fig. 9.9 : Tile molecule ABCD experience a resultant downward cohessive P&S do no! e.>cpenence any resultant force. but the force which increases in magnitude as the position molecules Q & R experience aresultant of the molecule shifts from the layer CD towards the uerticaUy downward force top surface AB. Therefore, if any liquid molecule is of cohessiDn. brought from within the liquid (below CD) to this surface ABCD, some work Is done against the downward cohessive force, which increases the potential energy of these molecules in the surface layer. Now, since any systeni in equilibrium always tries to have the lowest possible potential em:rgy, the number of molecules in the surface should .be as small as p0ssible i.e. The area of the surface must be the minimum or l~t. Thus liquid contained in a vessel has planer surf=e because a planer surface having a definite boundary depending upon the shape and size of the vessel has the minimum surface area. The sum oj the energy oj aU the liquid molecules present in the swface is called the Swface Energy. Obviously a surface with lower area will have lower surface energy. Surface energy is a sort of potential energy.

Surface film

(la_,

9.4.3 Surface Tension and Surface Energy

To keep the surface area minimum, the surface of the liquid becomes like a stretched membrane giving rise to surface tension which acts normally at all pOints in all directions, tangential to the surface.

179

Physics
The tangential fon:e per unit length acting perpendicular to GRII fmagimuy line supposed to be dnmm. on the Ifquidsurface is ~ as the Surface Tension of that liquid. Fig. (9.JOJ. It is measunxlin Nnrl and is denoted by T. Its dimensional formuls is [MT"2J.
At the boundaries, i.e. at the line where the liquid touches the vesse1walls, the direction of T is normal to the walI~ and tangential to the liquid surface.

nco 9.10: At !hi. boundary the' suQi:lre Tensfoo. Is rwrmallD the wall q/"the-.

'The value of surface tension for a certain liquid is a function ofihe resultant cohesstve force on the uquid molecules in the surface whose magnitude depends upon the intermolecular separation which is a function of temperature. Hence surface tension also varies with the temperature' of the liquid. It decreases with increase in temperature (due to increase 1n inter-molecular separation).

Force of surface tension tend to reduce the surface area .of the liquid. TIierefore, if the surface area of tht liqUid is to be increased, it can be done by doing work againSt the force of swface tension, whJch then gets steered in the form of extra or increased surface energy. When many tiny drops coalepse together to form a bigger drop. there Is no decrease in the surface area. The surface energy. therefore. reduces. The balance of energy appears in the form of heat and .the drop gets heated up. Similarly. if a bigger drop is sprayed into many tiny drops, there IS a net increase in the surface area. The surface energy, therefore. increases. . ThIs extra energy-Is derived from the thermal energy ofliqilid drops which. therefore cool-dawn. . Have you seen cooling of circulating water by spraYing it 10. the airconditioning plants of big buildings. Can you now explain why thl81s done?

", Epimple 9.2 : A water drop oj radius 2 mm is sprayed into 1000 tiny drops oj equal vOlume. Calculate the rise or fail in the temperature of each drop. Gtveri density oJ water JOOO 1cgrrr3. Swface tension 0.72 Nrrc': sjlecfJIc flea! oJ water S 4.2 x 10"J kg" "C"

SOlutloa : Volume of .the big drop of radius R is V = 3 lCR

Volume of one tiny drop of radius r is = 3 ttr = l()(\ ,3 I .....

.4

1 (4_0

3)

. ISO

Hydrostatics and Surface Tension

... radius oftlny drop Is given by

R' r'=--:)r=
1000

R
10

R' .. galnlnarea M = 41t (1000 r' - R') = 41t ( 1000 - 100

M ;. 41t9R'

... Extra surface energy gained =T LlA=T1 (41r .9R 2 )

1bis 1f! dertved from the thermal energy of the 1000 drops which therefore. cool down by temp AS. given by l000msA9=T41t9R'

or lOOO(! 1rr )SP..:18=T 41r9 xlOOr

11l8=2.7T prs

On substitution of the gJven values A9 = 2 3.1 X 10-6 C

If the boundary line of length 'I' is displaced by a distance 'b' against the forces of surface tension of magnitude T l, the work done for this ipcrease In the surface area 9f magnitude (bcb) is = Force x distance

or or

Increase In surface energy

E = Tx (I x b)

= (T x Q x b

= Surface Tension of the fiquid x Increase in area

... T=~= Increase In surface-energy (lxb) Increase In area ,

workdone increaselnarea

Hence. Surface tension may also be defined as the work done per unit increase in area qf the liquid surface. This is then measured in Joules per metre square i.e Jnr'. Ho~. the dimensional formula is still the same i.e.
If S= Total Surface Area of the liquid T .. Surface Tension Then. total surface energy = 7." xS Joules. Small drops of liquids acquire spherical shape because the surface area of a spherical surface for a given volume is minimum and hence gives minimum potential energy (surface energy) to the. drop.

~2T-2
L2

=[MT-.2 I

Example of Surface TeDsioD

The liquid surface is hOri20ntal. Dip your finger In the liquid. The Uquid gwes it the way; the surface gets cuxved near the line of contact of the

181

Physics finger. If now. you take out your .finger. the surface again becomes horizontal. This shows that the liquid surface is under tension like a stretched membrane. which gets changed to concave at the point of touch of the finger and becomes straight or planes. the moment the deforming force Is removed. The spherical shape of small liquid drops is due to the forces of surface tension.
ACTIVITY:

Take a circular thin wire with a handle; Dip It in a soap solution and 'lake Il out. A thin film of soap solution is enclosed inside the circular-wire. Now make a small circular loop of thin cotton thread; put It gently on the hOI1zontal soap film. It will rest on it without breaking the film. Now take an alpin. heat it in a fiame and touch the film in side the thread loop by this hot pin. What do you observe? Fig. (9.11).

The film part which was within the thread gets burst and the thread is pulled into a circular loop as if pulled by some radially outward forces acting all along its circumference. It. shows the presence of tangential force of surface tension. Initially. there was soap film on both sides i.e. the inside of closed thread loop and outside of closed thread loop. the forces of tension cancelling each others effect. On bursting the inner soap film. the. outside film pulled the length of the thread (closed loop) normal to the length of the thread and tengentiaIly to. the film surface. wWch sets the closed loop into a circular shape. [1henormal to the circumference of a circle is the radial direction).

(a)

(b)

FIa.S.ll: fa) A soapfllm with a closed loop oJtIuead on it. fbJ The shape oj the thread. qftH the fnner soap jllm Is brokm.

9.4.3 Application of Surface Tension

The water level in a glass capillary tube (fine bore tube) appears concave rather than planner-horizontal. Also the surface ofmercUIY in a fine glass capillary tube appears to have a convex meniscus. These are due the surface tension effects. The rise of water in capillary tube above the level of water in the container Is also due to surface tension forces~ Fig. (9.12)

Fla. 9.12:

fa) Plane MenisCUS (No rise or JalI) bJ Fall oJ/eoei in cap/Uary convex Meruscus (t') ConcaLIt:' Mentscus rice In. capilla1!

f82

Hydrost,aUcs and Sunace TenSiIll1

In addition to It, the surface tension has wide application in our dal.1y life. If few of them are described below:
(a) lIo8qultoes Slttlll. on watel"
~

Have you seen ~osqultoes sitting on water surfaces. 'fjley do not sink in water. Why? This Is due to the force of surface tension, which suPP9rts the weight of the mosqultoe. At the point where the::legs of the mosqultoe towards the liquid surface, the surface becomes concave due to the dip. The force of surface tension acting tengenuaIly to the surface, therefore acts at certain angie to the horizontal. Its vertical component acts upwards. The total force acttng vertically Upw8roS all along the line of contact of certain length Is able to balance the vertically downward acttng weight of the small mosquloes Which, therefore, tloats on water. FIg. (9.13).
T
T lin 0

cos"
ft~
I

~ of the inHc:t
II

~T _

lor oIlject)

~9
I

T
T lin 0

-;..------------ ------:..,,-----------==- --"':..-::-:.=.-:.= .-: ~=_=-_ =_=-_""-:'. "!i"".:::-... : -=_.:::

PIC.

-'-=:_:=-::::C.-=:In-l.~f:.''''-'''_'''-_-=_~-~-~.

, ,..

~Ieg of mosquito

-:::--....:--=-=-"\.., - - - - ""-

==~--=-:...-:..

--

---

----------- --S.18:The weight qfthe fnst Is IJaIaru:ed by thefarre of surface tension = 2 .... Tcos 9
(oJ DIp In the level to form = u e surface (bJ Magnlfled ImDge

(b) Ezc_ of Pressure Inslde a Spherical Suri"ace

Consider a small surface clement with a line PQ of unit length on it. Fig. (9.14). If the surface Is plant: i.e. 9 = 90, the. forces of PQ and due to surface tension acting on the two sides tangential to the surface are equal and opposite in magnitude and hence the resultant tangential force Is zero. FIg. 9.14.{a). If, however, the surface Is convex, tlg. 9.14 (b)., or concave FIg. 9.14 (c), the forces due to surface tension acttng across the sides of the line PQ will have a resultant force It towards the centre of cuvature of the surface.

T!. ".u_.~ T
: ..-_-.. -_:. :,.-_....t'

...... ----... ------_

-.: : ..---..:-=-:.::.."

------... --_ ...

--_ . _----:::?:~ R-:::;-:-~ T -_.'----_.--. _ .... - . -- -- .P. __ __ Q

---~-

R (Resultant forc~)

P:: -

--------

_._----.. ... _--- .. --------

::Q.

III. S.14:

(oJ Plane 1IUIjba. 0: (bJ Con_ surft>ce R CICio towcmls the ooncave side: (e) Concave IIUIjba a acts Wwan:Is the oonawe side.

Thus, whenever the surface Is curved (this happens near the boundary In contact with the walls of the container) the surface tension gives rise to a pressure directed towards the centre of curvature of the surface and this pressure IsbaIanced by an equal and opposite pressuJ;e acttng on the surface. Therefore (As the figure {9.14} shows), there Is always an era: q/JIi UN on the _ side of the curved liquid surf-,

,(1) .Spherlcal drop

A liquid drop has only one surface I.e. the outer surface ('The liqUid area III contact with air Is called the surface fo the liq1.lied)
183

PhysIC)S\

Let r ... radius of Ute small sphericall1quid drop and p '"' excess of pres8'ilre I.ns1de ihe drop (Which Is concave on the inner side. but convex on the outerside)
.. (P, -

pJ (say)

Where P, and Po are the inside and outside pressures of the drop respectively Fig 9. 15(a).
If we assume a small Increase In the radius of the drop by M due to this constant excess pressure p in the spherical drop of radIus r. then

. Increase in .surface area of the sphencal drop ...

41l'(r+..1r)2 -4nr 2
or

dA = BKr..1r+{.dr)2 ",B1tT .dr

.. Work done by per unit increase in area (by defintuon)

Let T'"' surface tensian of the liquid of the drop

then work done to Increase this area8Kr.dr Is given by

W=T(81tT.dr)
But the work done due to the excess pressure p

W'=px.dV
wh~

4 (r+.dr)3 --1tT 4 3 .4V .. Increalle In volume '"' -1l'

=:
. .. But ..
or

1l'[3r2 .dr+3r(.dr)2 +(.dr)3]

Since .4r is small. its higher powers are of still smaller value and hence can be neglected. therefore
.dV=: 1l'[3r ..1rl=4nr .dr W'=px41tT 2 .dr W'=W p41r r2 .dr = T 8nr.dr p=r
2 2

2T

Le. excess of pressure I.ns1de a spherical drop of radius .,. of Ilqu1d of surface tension T is given by

I;:2[ I
(Ii...-Alrl,!allble ill

water
~

This also has aslngle surface. which is the ~r surfilce. Fig.9.11) (h), -.
14.
t

Hydrostatics and Surface TerusIOn Hence the excess of press.ure 'p' inside an air bubble of radius r In water of surface tension T is also given by

I I
p=2:

(In) Soap Bubble JI'Ioatmc In AIr The soap bubble has two surfaces of eqUal surface areas
- I.e. the outer and the Inner Fig. (9.15) (c).

PII. 9.1111b1;
Atrbubble

- -' G tGJ
. -.

-.

iii'

-.

Therefore. its Increase In surface area when the radius Is increased by i!Jr will also be double
i.e,

dA = 2[ 41t'(r+ ..1r)2)_ 2 [41t'r2 J

=2, .81t'r . Ll.r =I6n r .Llr

Work done = W=T (61t'r Llr)
FIC.
9.15 Ie): Soap bubble

.ff p = Excess Inside pressure then; chang" In voluqte

remaining the same i.e. LI V = 41tr2 . Llr. we get work done

W' = pLi.V = p41t'r Llr
2

Therefore. equating W'to W. we get

p41t'r2 Ll.r= TI6nrLlr. where T

=Surface Tension of soap solution

. 4T which &".~ ....-s p=. r

hence the excess of pressure inside a soap bubble floating In air =

'-4fi; Which is twice that Inside a spherical drop of same raatus ~

or an air bubble In water ElauDple .9.3: What is the cIyference oJpressure between Inside and outside oj a (0 spherical soap bubble In (U) air bubble In water. and (IU) spherical drop oJ water; eadtoJradlus lmm? Given swface tension oJ water = 7.2 X 10.2 Nm-' and !;Ulfat:e tension oj soap solutton = 2.5 x 1(}-'l Nrrr'. 8ol1ltlon: W Excess of pressure inside a soap bubble of radius r is

au.

==4x2.5XlO- Nm-2 =100Nm4

lxlO-3
(11) Excess of pressure inside an air bubble In water
2

4T r

=r

2T'

=2 x 7.2 X 10-2 Nm C2 = I44Nm4

l~lO 3

1SS

Physics

(1l1) Excess of pressure inside spherical drop of water

2T' =--

r = 2 x7.2 x 1O~ Nm-2 =-144 Nm-2

Ix 10-3

Ezample 9.4: A rectangular thin disc ojedge length 20 em Is reslm vertically . Ort the swjace oj a liquid oj sw:face tension 2.5 x 10-' Nrrrl and then raised up. What Is the puU required. to llfl: the disc from the liquid swjace. Given weight oj the disc 1000 N.

Solution: Here a liquid film is fonned when the plate is raised and hence a downward force F due to surface tension acts on it :t==11 besides its weight Wacting downwards. r'"

lI'tg. 9.111 (d):

(c) Detergents and Surface Tension

Detergents can remove the stains of oil on clothes. Water is used as cleanlng agent. Soap and detergents have the effect of lowenng the surface tension of water. This is desirable for washing and cleaning since the high surface tension of pure water protects it from penetrating easily between the fibres of materials where dirt" particles or oil molecules are held up. You know the surface tens' n of soap solution is smaller than that of pure water. but the surface tension of detergent-solutions is st1ll smaller and hence the detergents are more effective than soap. Using Ii detergent dissolved in water makes the catch of dirt particles to the clothe fibres weak. which. therefore. get easily detached on squeezing the clothe .

.~ t.,
SMp

ri" ::~~~:~~:~~f.:';'7.:.:;. ~;.:.;:.:l:j ~~.~).';:(:.:'1.:',:').:',':'i;:~ f

moIecuIee with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

lnett .... .....,. . . .,., ......... . .

-can now be . . . . . . . ..., bf momg .....

186

Hydrostatics and Sutrace~ .

. 1
~

oU (say) on .the other. reduce drastically the surface tensfon of wateroiL It may even become (avourable to form such Interfaces i.e.. globes of dirt surrounded by detergent and then by water. Thuddndof proceSs using surface active detergents or .ur:raetants Is Important not only for cleaning the' clothes but also in recovering of 011. mfneral ores etc.
(d) WU-cluck Floatlq in Water
It C. fm.portant thclt the

en

.ur.!ace tension qf IfcJufU decreaaes due to dissoluecl impurities If you stick a

~: =p::r:=::~o:a::: Thus the surface tension '~~~~:;~~~j

of water "just below the duck becomes smhller . than the surrounding. The water. thus causes motion of the duck towards the pure water due to the net difference of force of surfaee tension.causing the duck to move.
",. 11.17: Motion qftWdr.

tablet of camphor to the bottom of a wax-duck and float It on still water surface. it starts moving this way

and'l

d,:.:.,

-=

Now. It Is time to work how much you have learnt. Solve the following questions then go ahead.

1N1'EXT QUESTIONS 9.2 - - - - - - - - - 1.

Whqt tS the differei1cebetweenjorce of coheSion andjorce qf adhesion?

. . . . . ' . " . , . . . . . . . . . . . 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

, 2. Wh4t 18 the thickness of a sUTjace /ayer?On what jadDrs does, the value of swjaJ:e energy depend?
..... .j. ................................................................................................
I ...... .

3. Do /he solids also show the property of swjaJ:e tension? Why?

..... ........................................................................................................ .
_

4.

Whll dDes the mercury collect Into globules when poured on plane
s~

.... ......................................................................................................... .
~

5.

Which has more

ela:eSS

pressure iilstde It -

(0 An air bubble In water qfradfus 2 ern. Swface tension ofwatsr 18 ! 727 )( 1()'J Nm-'; or
(a)

IA soap bubble In air qfradfus 4 em. Swface tension qfsoap solution

18 25 x 1()'J Nm-'

.............................................. ,.............................................................. .
i ,

9.S ANGLE OF CONTACT

It has',been observed that though the Uquld surfaces of all the Uqulds contaiiled In the wide mouth vessels appear to be plane and horizontal.
187

Physics their surfaces at the point of contact of the liquid and the contatner are mostly curved i.e.. concavecspherical or convex-spherical. For example. when water is filled in the gJass jar. the surface is concave spherical at the boundary. and when mercwy is filled In glass jar. the surface at the ooundary is convex spherical. If. however. the water is filled In a container of parrafflne wax. the surface of water appears convex spherical at the boundary. it is thus clear that the shape oftlve liquid sru:face at the boundary depends both; upon tIve material of tIve container, and tIve nature of the liquid, .
The angle which the tangent to the liquid sw:iace at the boundary makes with. the waH of the container into the liquid is called angle of contact O. RE;.(er Fig. 9.12(a}.

r ,

Obviously, for concave spherical meniscuses (surfaces of small area as In a capillary tube) the angle of contact is acute (i.e .. less than 90') and for convex spherical meniscuses, the angle of contact is obtuse (i.e., greater than 90'). For example for water In contact with glass angle of contact .. 8'. and for mercury In contact with glass 9 = 130' .
Fig. 9.12 shows the various forces acting on a molecule In the surface of a liquid near the boundary contatned In a vessel. Due to the liquid being present only In the lower quadrant. the resultant cohesive foree FQ acting on the molecule at P acts in a symmetrical direction as shown tn the fig.

9.18. Similarly due to symmetry. the resultant adhesive farce .Fa acts outwards at right angles to the walls of the contatner vessel. The foree F. can be resolved into two mutually perpendicular components Fe cos 9 acting vertically downwards and F. sin e and F. acting at right angled to the boundary depends upon the relative values of F. and Fa'
Case~ 1: If F. > Fe sin 9. the net horizontal force is acting outward and then the resultant of (Fa - F. sin 9) and F. cos e lies outside the wall. Since liquids cannot sustain constant shear. the liqUid surface and hence .' all the molecules in it near the boundary adjusts Itself at right angles to .~ . )1'. so that no component of Fit acts tangential to the liqUid surface. "Obviously such a surface at the boundary Is concave spherical [since radius of a circle is perpendicular to the circumference at every potnt.) 'Ibis Is true in the case of water filled In a glass tube.

case 2: If Fa < F. sin e, the resultant Fit of (F. sin e - 1'.1 acting horizOntally and F. cos e acting vertically downwards is In the lower quadrant acting Into the liqUid. The liquid surface at the boundary. therefore. adjusts itself at. right angles to this F. and hence becomes convex spherical. 1\1:rls is true for the case of mercury filled in the glass tube. \
Case 3: If. however Fa = F. sin 9. the resultant F. is .. Fe cos e $ctlng vertically downards and hence the liquid surface near the bouJPdary .. comes hOrizontal or plane. i
I

188

Hydrostatics and Surface Tension

F:, --+-_.-;.

....
,a'

nco 11.18: ~t.Rhapeo of the /ij1dd menlo"".".

9.6 CAPILLARY ACTION
You waul noticed that the walls of some old houses develnp moIsture to some height above the ground duling ralny season. The water from the' ground seeps in and rlses. up along the narrow lanes (CIlpUlaries) of air In the wall. Similarly you must be using blotting paper to absorb extra Ink which your Ink pen sometimes spns over your noteoook. The Ink rises Into the narrow alrgaps In the blotting paper and thus gets absorbed COIripletely.
Cnfu the capfIIarv tidies i.e., ~ tidies .. called ca,piUcuv action. A tube with line bore of diameter .. 1 mm is called a capUiary tube.

TIt,. 'phenomenon qf ,.,.,.". up qf liquid a,gainst gravt", "., i_If

Such an Important phenomenon of the elevatiOn of a Uquld in an open .tube of small cross-section i.e., capillary tube Is basically due to surface. tension, This happens In the case of concave liquid {Ileniscus only. However, in case of liquids having convex meniscus, the depression of liquid in capillary tube is observed. Thus the actiOn of rise or fall of liquid level In a capUlary tube above or . below the lcwel in t. .tqui1 container when .:he capillary is dipped in the can.taIner is called capWcuv aetion or phenomenon of capUlarity. Fig. 9.19.
Let us take a capillary tube dipped In.-any liquid and the meniscus of liquid InBlde It to be concave. Further suppose that the' level of liquid inside the c;apillary tube remains at the same level as1n the outer vessel. as is observed in case of wide bore tubes. We have to check whether. it Is the situation of stable eqUilibrium.

,89

.:'11::-.::v. -""- .:G:---

0 '-.,.

:: -:,:..: '.-.r : -_--_

(a)

-_. - - - ':-----. ': ':: = ":. = =

===

- -. =~I-"'--_-_
G _ _ '_'

All

f:-= =:."; 1 h-RI..

__ _

- - - --- -- -----(b)

Fall

----- -( c)
00I11II!X

------ -- - - --

FIf.

9.19: Rise and 1a1lln capfila1y tube due '" concave and meniscus respectively fnolde u... caplUaty

Consider the points A. B. C & D just near the liquid surface. TI1,~ pofnt D and A being exposed to air. The pressure at A and D .. atmospheric pressure =P

i.e..

PA + PD .. P (say)

Since the preS!lure at the concave side of the liquid meniscus hal to be 2T greater than that on the other side by we can write. preS!lure at C

r'

2T 2T .p =p - .. p -: C r r

or

where r radius of the concave surface. But preS!lure at A PA Preuure at B .. PB .. P. Thus, there exists a preS!lure difference between the points B, outside the capillary tube and the point C, Inside the capillary tube at the same horizontal level. Therefore. the liquid would rush from the region point B to the region of point C causing a rise of liquid in the caplilaly tube till the preS!lure at C becomes equal to the pressure at the point B. Fig. 9.20 (b). On the same arguments It can be proved that If the liquid meniscus In the capillary tube Is convex, there will be a fa11in the liquid level in the capillary Fig. 9.20 (c).

9.6.1 EzpreilioD for rile In capillary tube

Let h. the height to which the liquid rises In the capillary tube to achieve Pc p., O'he condition necessary to achieve stable equilibrium.) Now, let us consider two more points E &: F as shown in the figure (9.20) (b). The polntF Is exposed to atmoephere and Is on the concave side of the liquid sureace: therefore

and PI" .. P =atmospheric preS8ure

Pg =PI"--=P--

2T PI' -PE =r

2T
r

2T
r

190

Hydrostatics and Surface Tension

Also, PD = PE + hdg; where d density of the liquid

=(p_2;)+hdg
But

. PD. Pc (very close together)

- p. (In the same horizontal plane) PA (very close together

... (1)

or

PD = P the atmosphertc pressure

... (Ii)

Therefore, comparing expression (1) and (Ii)

p=p_ 2T +hdg
r

wh1ch gtves,

hdg= 2T
r

or

h= 2T
rdg

... (IIi)

Now from the geomoetry of the figure (9.21),

If R radius of the capillary tube and

9- Angle of contact of the liquid In contact with the matertal of the

capillary tube and r - radius of the concave sphertcai meniscus, T

r=cosB

... lUse In cap1l1aiy t\,he

=h= 2TcosB R . d. 9

... (lv)
Q

.......:11

However, since the liquid surface in the capillary tube is curved t.e., not plane and h. height to the lowest point of the curved surface, a connection ahould be applied for the excess of water pres.ent In the tube fonnl.ng the surface concave. 'lbe rigorous mathematical treatment suggests that h

should be replaced by

(h + ~): hence from (M

R 2TcosB h +"3-= Rdg

\9\

PhysiCS

which gives T

R(h+R)d'9
3
(v)

2cosB

Same expression can be obtained for fall of liquid in case of convex meniscus in the capillary. For water. slnce 9 is very very small ..s', which
gives

cos a =* cos 8'--+ 1 and R being very very small in comparison to h. the p.(}uatlons (iv). and (v) can be approximated to

-lfg Wld

9 d = Rh 2

..

(vI)

Ezample 9.3: Water rises to a height of B em in a certain capfllary tube. In the same tube, the level ofmercury is seen tofall by 3.45 em. Compare the swface tenslonof water and mercury. Give specffiJ: gravity qfmercury 13.6, and angles of contact of water and mercury as O' and 135' respectfuely.
Solution: The rise or fall in a capillary is given by

. 2TcosB h = R d 9 : where R = radius of cap1llary tube

For water rise

=(h ) =2Tl COsBI

1 Rd1g
2T.2COSB~

For mercury, fall =(h 2 ) =.::..::.!.,.;.":";-:.4..

R~g

which gives

or
1

We are given. !2=_8_: cosq, = 008135 ",,~ .. _..L h. -3.45 cosq. cosO 1 1.41
and

d dens1tyofmercw:y) d~ = 13.6; speciftcgravttyofmercwy=. dens1tyofwater .

T2

1(

Tl = (-3.45) 8 (1)(1.) x -1.41 x 13.6

Hydrostatlcs and Surface Tension

8 =0.12 66.15
..

or IT.=0.12T.1 Table (9.1) given at the end of thls lesson gives surface tensions of some common liquids at 20C. and also angles of contact of some liquids. The value of surface tension decreases with increase in tempearture and due to dissolved impurities.

INTEXT QUESTION 9.3,--_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.

Does the uaIue of angle of contact depend on the uaIue of swface tension of a liquid?
Water has concave meniscus in a glass capillary. because of which water rises to certain height in the capillary. Why then the water is not transferred from the ground. floor to the first floor by using a capt1la1'y of appropriate radius without using any water pump?
Why is It dif1icu1t to enter mercury in a capillary tube by simply dippL'1g it in a trough containing mercury while designing a thennometer?
We canform soap bubblesjloattng in air by blowing soap solution til the help of a glass tube. but not water bubbles. Why?

2.

3.

4.

air, with

..............................................................................................................
5. Ctulate the rqdius of a capillary to have a rise of 3 m when dipped in a vessel containing water of swface tension 7.2 x llr' Nm-1 Given den...tty of water = 1000 Jrgrrr; Angle of contact = zero; 9 = 10 ms-'.

.............................................. ...... .................. ........ .............................. .

9.7 WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

Uqulda are Incapable of withstanding any shearing forces for any length of lime.
Uqulds do exert pre8!IUl"<' on
lnI!Ide It la given by P - hdg

the !!Ide wal1a of the conlalner.

Hydrostatic pressure 'P at a depth 'h' below the free surface of a liquid of denl!lty d

Aeeordtng to Pascal's law of transmiSSion of liquid pressun:.

'when a pressure 18 applied anywhere on the surface of a given mass of an enclosed liquid at rest. an equal uniform pressure Is transmitted over the whole liquid. It gets tnmIImltted througllOut the whole liquid of the contalnlng.....set and acts In a dtn:ctton at right ang1es to the surface of liqUid there:

Hydraulic press. hydrauliC brakes and hydraulic .lack .work on the principle of the
Pascal's law.

A thin layer of the surface of the liquid of thickness equal to the molecular range of attraction 18 called surface layer or surface film. The liqUid molecules In the liquid surface have extra potential energy called surface

energy.

PhysIcs

11Ie liquid cpntalned In a >essel has planer surface because a planer surface having a definite boundary has th. mlnlmum surface area. Surface tension of any Uquld Is a property by virtue of which the Ilquld-surtacea behave like a stretched membrane. The surface tenSion T of a Ilquld may be deflned as force per unlt length acting em an Imaglnary line supposed to be drawn In the surface. It II measured In Nm-'. Angle of contact Is defined as the angle between the tangent to and the wall of the container Into the liquid.

the liquid aurface

"

Surface tension (T) may also be defined as the work done per unlt Increase In area of the Uquld surface and Is measured In Jm.... The liquid surfaces In capillary tube are observed to be conc,,", spheriCIU or convm< spherical. lhIs curvature Is due to surface tension effect. fIbe rIae In capillary h=rpg

2T'

There exjsts an excess pressure 'p' on the concave 'Side of radius r of the liquid surface given by :

for sphertcal water drop p = ~ ;whereT=swjacetenstonqf t h e _

r

for air bubble in water p = 2T

r

jorsoapbubbleinalr p = E
r

T' surface tension qf soap solution.

The surface tension finds Ita Important application In clearing of woven clothes. Detergents are considered better cleaner of ony clothes becauee they reduce the surface tenalon of water-oil.

9.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. What II peculiar about liqUid preeeure? Derive an expression for hydrostatic presaure due to a column of Ilquld. State Pascal's law. Explain the working of hydraulic
preiS.

Define surface tenllon. Find Its dlmenslonal formula. Deacrlbe an experiment to show that liquid surfaces behave like a atretched membrance. The hYdrostatic paressure due to a Ilquld filled In a _ I at a depth 0.8m Ie 3Nm". What WIll be the hydrostatic pressure at a hole In the side wall of the same _ I at a depth of 0.6 m? In a hydraulic press how much weight II needed to 11ft a heavy atone of _ _ 1000 kg? Given the ratio of the areas of crosa-aect:lona of the two platona Ia - 5. la the WIIriI: output greater than work Input? Explain. A liquid Rlled In caplUaJy tube hall ClOrIWK mcnIacua. If 1",- Foree of adhesion; 1",Force of cohesion and 8 - angle of contact. then which one of the f'olIowIJIjI relatlona should hold good?
(aJ 1", > 1", aln

7.

8.

e;

(h)

1", < 1", lin e; (c) 1", cose - 1",; (aJ 1", aID 8 > 1",

9.

1.00 dr'Opl of water of aome radlus coaIlIe to form a larger drop of water. What happena to the temperature ,of the water drop? Why?

10: What happens to the temperature of liqUid when a bigger drop Ia sprayed Into many drope? ,What Is Its Importance In dally uee?

194

HydrostatiCS and Surface Tension II ~ What Is capillary action? What are the factors upon which the value of rise or fall of a liquid In a capillary tube depends? 12. Calculate the approximate rise of liqUid level In the cap!l\ary tube of length 0.05 m and radius 0.2 x 1()-3 m. when dipped slightly In a liquid of density 1000 kg m-a. Given surface tension of that liquid for the m ..terlal of that capillary as 7.27 x 10-' Nm-'.
I 3. What Is the angle of contact for a plane liqUid surface at the boundanes 01 tne container Is

14. Why Is It dlfllcult to blow water bubbles In air whUe It Is easier to blow soap bubble In air? 15. Why the detergents have replaced soaps to clean otly clothes? 16. Show that the rise In temp (All) of a liqUid drop formed by the coaltslng of 1000 drops each of radius r. density P. spectflc heat s In Joules per kg per C and sur face tenSion T Is gtven by All = 2.7(..2:....) rps 17. 1\vo spherical balloons have been Inflated with air to different sizes. They are now connected together with a hollow leakproof tube. What do VOll exuect out of the following observations: (I) The air from smaller balloon will rush Into the bigger balloon till whole of Its air tlows Into the later. The air from the bigger balloon will rush into the smaller balloon till the sizes of the two become equal.

un

18. WhIch process Involves more pressure to blow a soap bubble of radius 3 em inside the sopa solution. or outside the soap solution In air? Why?

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

Intext Questions 9.1

1.
PA = 0.4xI5OOx9.8 = 5880 Nm-' Container B ; p. =0.3Ix2000x9.8=6076Nm"

2. 3.

5 -m 72
Consult the text.

. a1 d Output Force _P_x_A......",2 A2 MechaIllC a vantage = = P x Al = -Al Input Force

= Ratio of the area of the large cylinder to the area of small cyI1nder
4.

0.1

50 = W =>W=5000kgwt.

10

5.

Pascal or Nm-" In 51. INm-' .. IPa

6.

Pressure applied by the weight of the boy =~=500Nm" 0.05 Pressure due to the weight of the elephant = 10 =
. 5000 500N -,

. 195

Physics

Hence the boy can balance the weight of elephant.

Intext QUestions 9.2

I.
2.

Force between molecules of the same substance Is called force of cohesion and the force between molecules of different substances Is called fQrce of adheaton. For definition consult the text. Force MLT' [ Dimensional formula of surface tension = Length ~ - L - = Mr-

'1

3.

A layer of thickness equal to the range of molecular of attraction Is calJed surface layer.

The value of surface energy depends upon the area

4.
-So

01

tile

8~~.

No. they have lightly bound molecules.

Due to surface tenSion forces.
p for air bubble In water
2T

=-;- =
4T'

2x727xlO" 2x10" 4x25x10" 4 x \0-'

p for soap bubble In air

=-;- =

Obviously air bubble In water has more excess pressure inside It.
7.
(I).

S.

Outside the solution In air. Because two surface are to be produced for which excess 4T pressure Is ~ r (whl1e excess inside pressure for blowing a bubble In 8Olutton _

=-

2;)
Intext Questions 9.3
(I)

No.

(II) The radius of tile caplllaIy requlrcd for such a high rise Is ve.y ve.y

Ii1IIIIll slso the radius of the menlscus Increases after reaching the other end "" that water does not come out of the caplllaIy tube of Insuffident 1ength (Le., smaller length than the

rI8el.
(W)Mercwy has a convex meniscus and there Is a which makes It dlllIcult to enter.

ran In letrel of mercury In a

caplllazy

(Iv) The excess pressure inside air bubble being more due

to large surface tension - the

water 81m breaks down.

(v)

r=E.= 2x7.2xllf'
hpg

3xlOOOxlO

m=4.8xIO"m

_.--_...._---------------------_....
196

_-

Hydrostaucs and ::mrlace 1enslO!I

TABLB 9.1: SURPACB TENSION 011' SOIllt UQUIDS AT :;;OOC
8.J(a.

UAJaids ID coatact
with air

Surface _ _

wail af

AIqIle of contact

Nm'" 7.27 x let'

1) gIass II) silver Ul) paraffin

degree.
8' O' lOT
140'

1.

water

2. 3. 4.

Meremy"' Soap solution

43.5 x let' 2.5 x let' 3.2 x let' 2.89 x let' 6.4 x let' 2.73 x let' 2.68 x let' 2.27 x let'

soda Ume glass

Ollve 011
Bcmene

5.
6.

Glycer1ne

7.
8.
9.

';'wpentlne carbon teln! chIOIide

Ethanol
Melhyle Iodide

10.

1) Soda lime

29' 29' 30' 33'

glass
II) Pyrex glass IU) Lead glass tv) Fused Quartz

Decreases with age.

197

10
VISCOSITY AND BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
(

iO.l

INTRODUCTION

In the previous lesson you have studied about the hydrostatic pressure and surface tension of liquids, which deals with the stationaxy liqulds. Now you shall study about some of the chracterlstic properties of liquids in motion i.e hydrodynamics.

You would have noticed that when you tilt a bucket filled with any liquid on to a horizontal ground, the liquid spreads on the ground. It does not flow contim,lously, but comes to rest after spreading to small distance. In this lesson you willieam abOut such peculiar property of liqulds. You have also learned that the liquids are incompressible or they nearly zero compressibility. That is why, they do not show elastic behaviour. They can not be sqUee7..ed Into a smaller volume like elastic solids. However, you know that water flows through cylindrical tubes of different crosssections. The velocity of flow changes when it has to flow from a wider tube to a narrower tube. Many of you must have experienced that when you press. the mouth of a soft-plastic 01' rubber water-pIpe, while watering the dawn or phints, the stream of water falls at a larger distance away from the pipe held in your hand at a certain height above the ground. Do you know why? This can be expjatned on Bernoulli's principle. There are some other 1ri.teresting activities which You must have seen or' performed yourselves whOJ!e explanation can be undestood by the study of this lesson.

shF

10.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying iliis lesson, you should be able to:
d!fferentiate between streamline and turbulant rrwtton:
dejlne critical velocity oJjIow oJliquid and Reynol.d's number;

explain d!fferent daily life phenomena. based on viscosity t4fects oJUquids;

state Bernoulli's principle and explain d!fferent dat1y

life phenomena

based on Bemou!U's principles.

ViljcOSity and Bernoulli's nieorem

'\

10.3

VISCOSITY

All matter, when In liquid state develops one more characteristic property, (besides surface tension about whicll you have studied In the earlier lesson) called uiscosfty of liquids. If you drop a stone from the top of a high building, its velocity continuously increases till it reaches the ground due to the action of acceleratidn due to gravity; but if you drop the same stone. In deep water, the velocity of'the falling stone Initially Increases but after certain time, before reaching the ground or bottom of the container. attains a constant velocity showing that the effect of acceleration due to gravity has been made Ineffective. How it happnes? The liquid when in slow motion moves In layers but when In fast motion, ' flows turbulantIy. Why? Why does the glycerine flow slowly whlle water flows quickly down the same Inclined plane? All these are due to the viscous nature of liquids.

10.3.1 Stream-line motion

The path followed by an element of a moving liqUid is called a line of flow. If every element passing through agivenpointofthe pathfoUows the same line of flow as that of preceedmg elements. the flow ts said to be strwamline. A stream line is defined as the curve whose ~ B-':' tangent at any point gives the direction of the AO ~ =t)c liquid velocity at that point. In steady flow, the streamlines coincide with the line of flow. U--::"'-The two streamlines do not Intersect each other (In a stream line flow), because two tangents. can be drawn at the point of Intersection giving two directions of velocities which is not rItI. 10.1: StTeam-UnejlDw possible. When the velocity of flow II is less than the critical velocity lie for a given liquid flowing through tube of given diameter, the motIon Is streamlined. In such a case we can imagine the entire thickness of the stream of the liqUid made up of Iargenumber of plane layers (laminas) one sliding past the other i.e. one flowing over the other. Such a flow Is called laminar flow. Ifthe velocity of flow exceeds the critical velocity ve ' the mlxlng of streamlines /takes place and the--flow path becomes zig-zag, the streamlines cutting each other and the motion is said to be tur1ndant.

y'F

10.3.2 VisFosity as Uquid friction

The stream line motion resUltS tn a,lfIminar flow when the liquid is flowing over a horizontal surface. The top most layer is moving (sliding over the lower layers of the liquid) with maximum velocity; the layer just below the top most layer,is touching the upper layer as well as pressed by the weight of the upper layer. Hence moves with a slightly lower steady velocity. ThiS,is said to be due to the liquid friction between the two successive layers being operative all along the surfaces of contact.

199

Phy~lCS

"

Since the layers are in contact with!. other, the upper 1Ii.yer moving with higher velocity tends to accelerate the motion of theioweF- layer and thf' tower layer moving with smaller velocity tends to retard' the mn'.J<>I!'/1 '.he upper layer i.e, 111" layds, III lammar tlow. tend to de>;troy the r!'lative motion
bl.'i.wcen thti"ln.

This tendency of the liquid by virtue of which it tends to destroy the relative motion between its adjascent laminar layers is called viscosity. Due

Ground Fl,. 10.2 : Laminar }low QJ"a Liqurd

to this nature. a liquid friction force or tangential backward force acts between the two layers and is called the.viscousforce.
It IS thus clear that due to this viscous force the velocity of the upper layer gets decreased to the value of the lower layer in contact with it. Similarly. tho' velodt y oft he successive layers goes on decreasing due to this taQgential h ..:kwanl "''';{'''llS lim'c till all the layers keep moving with the velocity of the lowest layer, Hut the lowest layer is touching the ground and can be assumed to be "taionary due to large friction between solid ground and liqUid, It, therefore, results that the liqUid in larninarflow should stop flowing after covering some distance. '
T() maintain the "laminar flow. therefore. some exteqlal force should be applied to counter the effect of viscous force. nus is-usually done by creating

a pressure difference between the two points between which the Jarninar fow ie to be maintained. FIg (1 O.2) shows the lanIinar flow of a liquid ~n;a .horizontal surface. . j" Suppose. the velocIty of a layer of a height x. from the ground is u and. that orlhe next upper layer at a distance (x+.ix)is(U+AU). thenitls kn()wnas velOCity gradient and It is given as follows . . TIle rate qf increase of ueloctty with the height

(or distllnce from the growul.J

(u+<1\')-{u) Au =(x+<1x)-(x) <1x

If the limit <1x-. O. i\u will also be small and <1u du we can write <1x = dx = differential of'u' W.r.t. 'x'.
= velocity gradient.

AC{;Qrding to Poiseville. in a streamlined or lanIinar flow of viscous flUids. the magnitude of the tangential backward (opposing the flow) viscous fo~e 1; ,proportional to iiJ ifl(: (lre(l of contact (A) of the liquid swfaces; and

(III :I' "1 l'clocir y gradient

(~~ )of the region in which the layers are moving

VlacClOlity and Bemoulll'sTheorem

I.e.

and
l.t!.

or

FaA adu dx FaA!i2. dx du F=I1A-dx

... (10.1)

where 11 = constant of proportionality and is called the ~t qf viscosiqr, which is measure of the viscous nature of the flulds. It is measured in Poise in C.G.S. system where 1 Poise z 1 g em-' s". However in SI system, its practical unit is Nm-"s. Its dimensional formula is

1MI. T1

and hence its theroretical unit is

~O

Also INm-'s .. 1 kg m 1 Sl =
h

Poise.

Since,

A.(:J

IfA=lm2; dU=lsI, thenh=F <Ix

Hence, coe.flicWnt of I1Iscosfty of any jIuid is defined 'as equaJ. to tile tangential backward viscous force acti1lg on a Wlit area of a laminar layer moving in a region of W1it velocity gradient.

10.3.2 Critical Velocity and ReynoDd'. N........

As you haVe seen earlier; when the veloci1 of low is small i.e. less than a certain value, called critical velocity, the flow remaiM streamlined; when

the velocity of flow exceeds the critical velocity. the floW becOJaes turbulent i.e they do not remain well defmed streamlined paths. TIle value of critical velocity of any liqUid depends upon the

11 viscous nature of the liqUid (Tl)

ill the diameter of the tube (tl) through which the liquid is flowing and
iiiJ also on the density of the liquid (p)
If Tl = coefficient of viscosity of the liqUid, which Is measure of the viscous nature (or liquid friction) of the liquid, then it is found experimentally that

critical velocity (lI)

U
0.:

1 v a -' v a -1 a ...~.. p' d

".

0.:

u,a pd
Or
11,=

11

R...!!.. pd

... (10.2)

201

'f

Physics

Where, R =constant of propertionality and is called BeynoId'sNumber. It lias no dimensions. It has been obselVed that for alI liquids, the value of Reynold's number corresponding to Vc is nearly the same i.e. R = 2000.

Thus.fi water , , or

1)<

2000xO.Ol
lxl
T]

20

ems

-I

[using, p=lgm/em, d=lem,

= .0Ipoise}

Thus for water, the flow of velocity greater than 0.2ms- ' w1Il beCome turbulent while flowing through a tube of diameter O.Olm. i.e. if the water flows at a, s~ei:l of 0.25 ems-I. its motion through this tube w1Il be turbulant. If; however, another liqUid of density 1.2 gmt cc 'and coef1lcient of viscosity 0.02 poise flows through the same tube of diameter I em, the critical velocity
is

=vc

2000xO.02 33 3 -1 1.2xl . ems

Therefore, if this liquids also floWs with a speed of 25cms~'; its mOjion w1Il remain streamlined (because v = 25 ems-I < Uc = 33.3 ems-I). If u =average speed of flow of a liquid on any surface then Reynold number R. can be expresed as. from equatio~
R= udp
T]

.. ,

(1O.~:

Experiments show that flow Is la'minar if R has a value less than 2000 but is turbulant when Rexceeds this value. Ezample 10.1 :The average speed of blood in the artery, (d = 2.0 em) dnring the resting pari; of.j!earl;'s cycle i.s aixJui 30 cms-'. Is the.flow laminar or turbu1ant? Density of blood 1.05 gm i:rrr"; Tf= 4.0 X 10-2 poise. .

SoltittuJI; Let us caicU.Iate the Reynold's number to decide about this.

Since R

udp TJ R = 30x 2x 1.05 1575 .. 4.0x 10-2

Stnce.1575 2000; the flow is laminar, however, it IS'c1ose to turbulant flow.

10.3.3 Stoke's .. law

Sir George Stokes gave an expirlcal law for the magnitude of the tangential backward viscous force (F) acting on a freely falling smooth spherical body of radius (n In a highly viscous liquid of coefficient of viscosity (Tf) moving with velocity (v) which Is known as Stoke's law. According to Stoke's law
FaT]; Fa r; Fa I.e.

, id 1 viSCOUS IIqu I
I

1.-_ _ _ _ 1

or

FaT] ru F K' 'lrv; Where 1('

.,-

= contstant
202

of

ne 10.8

ViscoSity and Bernoulll's theorem

proportionality. Experimentally. it has been round that k'=61t. hence Stoke's law is given by F = 6;;-ro]

... (10.4)

Let us cons1d~r a smaIl spherical heavy ball of radius r to fall in the highly viscous liquid like glycerine. contained in a long jar as shown in fig. (10.3) to fall freely. The moment the sphere enters the liqUid. it starts experiencing a buoyant force

FB =(~ 1tr 3
~

)d 9
1

Where d, is the viscosity of the liqUid. where

= density of the viscous liquid

If u = velocity of the liquid at any instant of time. then it also experiences a tangential backward viscous force 1\.. given by

The weight = W

=( ~

It r3 .ds

)g acts downwards

mg.: where d. = de~sity

of solid ball-material.
Initially W> Fv + FB

and the spherical ball keeps on falling with acceleration

and hence continuously gain in velocity will result continuous increase tn the value of Fv also.
A situation may arise.' when Fv becomes so large that

W=Fv+FB

and then a =0; and the spherical ball then attains a constant velocity v,. called. the tenninal velocity. Thereafter. the ball falls with constant velocity v, due to tnertia of motion. In such a case.

4 3 .d.g= 6 1tTjr1)t +-ltr 4 3d19 -1tr

Thus. gives

... (10.5)

Table 10.1 gives the values of coefficient of viscosities of some common viscGus liquids:

TABU!: 10.1 :"

.for __ . . . .
Temperature "C

S.No.
1.

Uquid8
water

Coefficient ofvtscosity kgm-Is'

1. 792 x 1.005 x 0.636 x 0.469 x 0.357 x 0.284 x 2x 1.5 x 149 x 1.49 x 6.5 x 1.13 x 4.0 x 84 x 1.7l x

2. 3.

Honey Blood
Turpentine on Benzene Light machine 011 TIn 011 Olive oil .
Glycerine

4. 5.
6.
...

0 20 40 60 80 100 20 37 20

l<t" 1<t" 1<t" 1<t" l<t" 1<t" 10-' 10-<

10.2

20
20 16 20 20 0

10--' 10-<
lCt-2

9: i

10.

Air

1<t" 1<t" lO-S

&amp" 10.2: Determtne the radius ofths dropq{ram waterjailing tl1roug~ air. with terminal ueIoctty 0.12 ms-'. Given "for air. 1.8 x 1<t" kgrrr'tr i and density qf air. 1.21 1c:grrr3.

Solutloa:

...

Since.
,

'\),

_ =2_r2..::9:.:,{d~'L-_d;;;;!I.!.) -91) '91)'\), _

r-

29(d, -dl )

9x 1.8 X 10-11 xO.12 m 2x9.8x(lOOO-1.21)

I.e.. radlu8 of the drop r. lO-S m. 0.01 mm Now. let us check how much you have learnt. Try to solve the following quetltione.

1N1'DT Q1JB8TION 10.1

'.

':"1.

~ between s,treamUnejlow and turbulentjfows .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.

On what physical quantities does crfttcal ueIocity depend for a viscous

liquid?

s.
(I)

...............................................................................................................

Choose the COl led answers The value qf" qf any liqUid depends upon (a) r\Qture qfthe liquid: (bJ radius qfthe ball:

----------------------------~--(c) density of the liquid; (d) on all the above physical quantities (iI) Glycerine and water are pushed on the horizontal ground with I.he same inltfaljerk by tlIting their containers (a) 1lIe water will move through larger distance before coming to rest (b) Glycerine.wlll move through longer distance before coming to rest (c) Both wi1l move through the same distance before coming to rest. however; glycerine will take longer than water. 4. Which ofthefollowtng will be the better lubricant to be used ill the rotating .pen.ts of a machine. (a) water; (b) terpentine oil; (c) air 5. The terminal velocity ofcopper sphere of mdius 4.00 mm inJalling through a tank ofoU at 5O'C is 0.26 ms-'.Compule the lJiscosity oJ the oil at 50 C. Density qf oil = 1.5 x 10' kg m~'; density Q[ copper =B.9 xl ()' kg m " (111r1

Viscosity and Bernoulli's Th<,or<'m

time

g= 9.B

................. .......,.....................................................................................
;

ms-'

Pre..",e en ...,.
Earlier you have studied about the kinetic r.ner~ ancl pnh'nhnl r.nrr~v t,f'1 hlllh', but In case of liquids there t. a pressure enrrgy also. If Jiqlltrt clon,,"nt ot mau m. density. d Is mavinll under a pressure difference. p. t hen It ha. pr~ "n enCI'IIY preaaure difference )( volume

=p X ( ~ )
or preuure enertY per unit mass

Joule

p =d

Joule

10.4 BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE

Have you ever thought. how air circulates In a dogs burrow: why smoke comes out quickly out .of a chimney: or why car's convertible top bullles upw8rtl at high speed? You must have definitely expertenced the bull!1n~ upwards ofyour umbrella on a stonny-ratny day. All these can be undt"rstond . ~n a principle worked out by Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782). Bernoulli's principle states that 'wh'nt the uelocfty ofJluid whigh. the prwauN _low and wherw the.,.' city qfJluid glow. the preaure hwh '.

10.4.1 BerDOuW'. Equatlc D

Bernoulli developed an equation that expresses this principle quantitatively, p-.... ,~_ Three Important assumptions are to be . made to deVelop this equation, J. The fluid til Incompressible I,e_. ItsA,

.........

.from Q wfde bore-tube to Q natTOw-bore

2,

density does not change when It passes

tube or vice versa.' The jlu.fd is non-lJisCOUS or the tdfect oj

205

_....i..-------.. . .
Pli. 10.4

... __

-I....:;;:;;:...

Physics

viscosity is not to be taken into accoWll: in this derivation. The motion ~fthej/JJ1d isstretun-lined. We consider a tube of flow. Let AB be a stream1ln~. Suppose at point A The pressure =Pl' area of cross-section = A" velocity of flow = v,, height above the ground = h., and at B The pressure =P2' area of cross-section =.4", velocIty of (low = va' height above the ground = ~. When the liquid at A moves through a distance it forces the liquid at B to move through a distance At,. (which is dl(ferent from A~ due to different cross-sectional areas at A & BI. The fluid to the left of point A exerts a pressure P, on the fluid pushing it in the right d1rectlon. The amount of work done in displacing through a small distance A~ is = W, = (P, x A.) x (AI'). At point B, the liquid does work on the liqUid to the right of it by moving through a dista.nce At,. given by = W 2 = (p2 X A2 ) X ( Al2 ).
3.

.u.,

:. NetWQIkdone on the liquid

= W,-W2 = (P,A,Al,-P2 A 2 AI2 J

Since the liquid is not moVing horizontally, work is <;lone against gravity also which is stored as the extra potential energy of the liqUid at B NowGaiIi in extra potentlal. energy = (p,E. at B - P.E. at A) = my(~ - 11.1: where m = mass of the liquid transferred froJD.A to B. The total work done on the liquid = (W,-W2 J+mg(h. -h,)
According to the law of conservation of energy, the net work done on the liquid is equal to change in its total energy Le., sum of kinetic energy and

potential energy. Therefore,

(!mv~- ~mv;) +mg(h.,-h,J= W,-W2

= p,AIAl, P2 A 2 t1 1,

but A,Al,

m = A,Al2 = 'd= Volume of the liquid flown

..
or

1 2.1 m m 2 mv. + 2 mv, +mgh, -mgh, =P'"d- P. d

mp,. 1 2 +mgh ,= -+-mv mp. 1 2 +mgh 2 --+-mv, d 2 ,d 2 2

17Iis is Bemou/lt's equation. Since points A and B can be any two points along a tube of flow, Bernoull1's equation can be written as

mp +! mv' + mgh = constant d 2 . .

... (10.61 .

wb1ch can now be states as The sum of". _ _ enertIJI, kinetic enerw and Potential cmergy of a fluid remains ccmstGnt in a stream lfne.motCon. .

10.4.2 AppUcations of,BemoulU's Theorem

Bernoulli's theorem finds many applicatiOns in our day to day lifes. Some

Viscosity and Bernoulli's Theorem

I

COIi1monly observed phenomena can also be explained on the Bernoulli's Theorem,

Flow Meter or Vellturimeter

It is a device used to measure the rate of flow of liquids through pipes. The device is inserted in the flow pipe. Fig.
10.~

.......
pipe

It essentiaIly consists of manometer, with its two limbs connected to a tube having two different cross-sectional FIg. 10.5 Venturlmeter having three uertical manometric tubes is inserted in are'lS say A, and A, at its ends A and the main pipe line. B respectively. Suppose the main pipe of flow is kept horizontal at a height H above the ground. Then applying Bernoulli's theorem for the steady flow of liquid through the venturimeter at its two points A and B, we can write Total Energy at A =Total Energy at B (KE + PE + PrE)" = (KE + PE + PrE)B
i.e.,
2 + mgH + mpl !mv 2 I d

=!mv~ + mgH + mp2

2

which gives

(PI - P2) = !d( u~

-vn

..

(10.7)

Thus pOints of higher velocities are the points of lower pressure (because of th.,e sum of P,E and KE remain constant). This is called Venturi's Principle, For steady flow through the venturimeter liquid volulne entering per second at A = liqUid volume leaving per second at B ..
Le. A,v, =A,v. ...(10.8)

fThe liquid is assumed

incompressibh~1

i.e., Velocity is more at narrow ends and vice versa.

Using this relation (10.8) in relation (10.7), we conclude that pressure is lesser at the narrow ends, and get

Pi. -,P2

1 Al 2J 2 VI 2 =~ d [ --.--v i

=.!. du'I 2

[A; -IJ Ai
... (10.9)

A.

Thisgtves

\l1=1d(~_1)

2(PI - P2)

.If h = level difference between the two limbs of the venturtmeter then P, - p. = hdg

Physics

This gives or u, venturlmeter

oc

..Jh ; since all other parameters are constant for a given K..Jh ~ where K = constant

'\), =

:. Volume of liquid flowing per second

V = A,v, = A, x K..Jh V = K',fh; when K' '" KA,

The appmtus can be directly caliberated to give A. The venturi pJ;nciple lells that since A,l" = Al'z - thc velocity increases <.'t narrower throat of the pipe and at the narrower throat the pressure is lesser le.. the pressure L<; lower near a nCUTOW throat when the lfIluidJloWi; steadily. This prinCiple has many applications in the design of many useful appliances lil~e atomizer. spray B gun. Bunsen-buTner. "HrimreUor, ,kro\oll. etc. (1) Atomizer: Vvl1en the nl1Jber bulb A is squeezed. air blows through the tube B and comes ou.t of the narrow orifice with larger velocity creating a region of low pressure In its neighbourhood. The liqUid (scent or paint) from the vessel Is. therefore. sucked into the tube) to come out of the nozzle N. As the liqUid reaches FIC 10.'71 AtDmIUr the nozzle N. the air stream from the tube B blows it r into a fine-spray. Fig. 10.7. r ~ II "'0 t;->.: (U) Spray When the piston is moved In. it blows L1~ the air out of the narrow hole '0' with large velocity creating a region oflow pressure In Its neighbourhood. FfC.10: Sprawun TIle liquid (insecticide) Is sucked through the narrow tube attached to the vessel end having Its opening just below '0'. The liquid on reaching the end gets spraved by out blown air from the piston. FIg. 10.S. (W) BunIOn burner ; When the gas emerges out of the nozzle N. its velocity being high. the pressure becomes low In Its vlsclnlty. The air. therefore. TUshr-A In through the side hole A and gets mIXed with the gas. The mIxtUre then burns at the mouth when Ignited. to give a hot blue name FIg. 10.9. (tv) Carburettor: The carburettor shown In figure III1 10.10 II a device used In motorcars forsuppl:ylng a It proper mixture of air and petrol to the cyltnder of I the engine. The energy Is lIupplled by the explosion II I of this mixture Inside the cyllndem of the engine. 1I~+lIF=dJ Petrol is contained In the float chamber. There Is a IW IIICI peIIaIJ1lP.a"~lIiclin decrease In the pressure on the Iisie A due to motion Iml of the piston. This causes the air from outside to be L;I4-1k1.".""'" ( - I sucked In with large velOCity. This causes a low ... Tube I_In; 10 cyHndtr pressure near the nozzle B (due to constriction. J'lC.10.1G:CcIrburdDr

~t\l'"

aun :

I-t=:3t"==i

Ill.

208

Viscosity an(' Bernoullfs Theorem

velocity of air sucked is more near B) and. therefore. the petrol comes out of the nozzle B which gets miXed with the incoming air. The mixture of vapour!zed petrol and air fOrming the fuel then enters the cylinder through the tube A [Sometimes when the nozzle B gets choked due to deposition of carbon or some impurities. it checks the flow of petrol and the engine not getting fuel stops working. The nozzle has. therefore. tn be opened and cleaned.] (vI AerofoU : When a solid moves in air. streamlines are formed. The shape of the body of the aeroplane is designed specially as shown in the fig. 10.11. When the aeroplane runs on its runway. hig!'. velocity streamlines of air are formed. by the passil;lg air. Due to crowding of more streamlines cn the upper side that becomes a region of more velocity and hence of comparatively low pressure region then below it. This pr('ssure diefferent'e gives the lift to the aeroplane. Based on this very principle Le . the regions of high velocities due to crowding of steamlines. are the regions of low pressure. following ar~ interesting demonstrations. ne. 10.11: C",,,,ding Qr st~tne.s OI'J OW upper 5tde (- AUractecl cIllC paradoz: when air Is blown through a narrow tube handle into the space two cardboard sheets [FIg. 10.12 (a)] placed one above the other and the upper disc is lifted with the handle. the lo~r disc Is attracted to stick to the upper disc and Is Ufted with It. This Is called attracted disc paradox. Low_In (b) DIIlc1n. ot a pID, pon. bill Oft aJet otwater: IMIwHn lie If a llght hollow spherical ball (ping-pong ball or table tennis ball) is gently put on a vert1calstream of water coming out of a vertically upward directed .let end of a tube. it keeps on dancing this way and that way without falltng to the ground. Fig. 10.13. When the ball shifts to the left. then mos~ of the ne.IO.II: Arrracted Jet streams pass by its rI~t side thereby creating dIM ""md",. a region of high velocity and hence low pressllrl' on Its right side in comparison to that on the left side and the baIl Is again pushed back to the centre of the jet.stream. (0) Water vacuum pamp or AlpJrator or I'Ilter pamp:' FIg. 10.14 shows the fllter pump used for produdng moderately low pressures. The water from the tap Is allowed to come out of the narrow Jet end of the tube A Due to small aperture oethe nozzle, the velocity becomes high and hence a low pressure region is created around the nozzle N. The air Is. therefore. sucked from the vessel to be evacuated through the tube B: gets mixed with the steam of water and goes out through the outlet. After a few minutes. the pressure of air in the vessel l'!C.lo.la:DancinR
I'fnI/ ""'" baJI

-...........

PhysiCS sl decreased to about 1 cm of mercmy by such a pump. Example 10.3: waterJIows out oj a small lwle in the wall oj a large tank near its bottom What is the speed oj ejJlwc oj water when the height oj water leuel in the tank is 2.5 m? solution: Let B be the hole near the bottom. Imagine a tube of flow A to B for the water to flow from the surface point A to the hole B we can apply Bernoulli's theorem to the points A and B for the streamline flow of smaIl mass m Total energy at B = Total energy at A \)A = 0 - (nearly zero) PA = P = atmospheric pressure hA = height above the ground
\)B=\)=?

- ~tdJ
PIt.IO.I"': FfIIl!r Pump

f" ..
h.

P = atmospheric pressure ho = height of the hole above the ground Let hA-hy,~H =helght of the liquid level in the vessel d = density of the liquid water Applying Bernoulli's PrincIple PB
=

'

PItIO.1

IS

(1+ 2 mx (O
This gives

mp

)2

+mg

mp 1 2 h =(1+ 2nID +mg B

~mv2 =mg(hA -hBI

u = ~2g(hA - hB I [This formula Is the same as for a solid falling from a height ho to hAl

or

=..J2 x 9.8 x2.5

= 7ms1 Ans. Take a pause and solve the foUowing questions.

INTEXT QUESTIONS lO.2 _ _~_--_ _ _~_

1.

If the

velocity at each point in space in steady state jluidJlow is constant, how can a fluid parttcle accelerate without using any force i.e., gravitational or pressure dJlference? .
0

~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-~

............................

2.

When a car on a highway is passed by a lmyer tfuck. the COT is sometimes pulled towards the truck. What does Bemo!.Illt's theorem say about this?
ot:. .............................................,............................................ .

3.

What are the conditions necessaryJor the apPlimtian ofBernoulli.'s the0rem to the problems oJJIowing liuqids?

...................................................... ................................ .....,......................

~

210

ViscOSity and Bemoulll's Theorem

4.

When you press the mouth of a water pipe usedfor waterlng the plants in the kiJ.chen garden, thejet of water goes to longer distances. Why?

................................................................................................................
Calculate the velocity of wate of density 1000 kgm3 coming out of a pin 1wle made at a height of 0.5 m above the bottom of a container, which is .filled to a height of 0.9 m?
u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .

10.5 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

The property by virtue of which the different layers of a liquid In its laminar flow tend to destroy the relative motion between them is called viSCOSity. The flow of liquids becomes turbulant when the velocity is greater than a certain value called critical velocity (ve) which depends upon the nature of the liquid and the diameter of the tube Le. ('1. p and dl. The critical velocity
Vc

=R

p~

where R = Reynold's number. which Is nearly the

same for all liquids and Is ~2000. Coefficient of viscosity of any liquid may be defined as the magnitude of tangential backward viscous force actlng between two successive layers of unit area in contact With each other moving In a region of unit velocity gradient. Stoke's law states that tangential backward viscous force acting on a spherical mass of radius r falling with velocity" In a liqUid of coefficient of viscosity T] Is given by Fy = 6 ""m The terminal velocity Is achieved when weight Is counterbalanced by the tangontial backward viscous force and buoyant forces together i.e . W = F,. < 1-'" The terinInaI velocity is then given by
2r'g(d. -d,)
", =
9T]

The energy due to pressure (pi In a flowing liquid element of mass (m) and density (p) is given by.
PE=mp

BernoullI's theorem stat:" that the total energy of an element of mass (m) of an incompressible Hqul" .novlng steadfly remains constant thoughout the motion. Mathematlcally. Berr ,u1I1's theorem as applied to any two points A & B of a tube of flow Is

1 mu~ +mghs + mps =-2 2 P P Bernoulli's principle find many applications In our dally life like design of venturlmeier, to I!leasure the rate of flow of liquids In pipes, atomizer, spray gun. carburettor. ffiter pump. aerofll, etc.

.!.mu! +mghA + mpA

10.6 TERMINAL QUESTION

1.

Differentiate between Laminar flow and turbulant flow and hence define critical veloelty. Deline viscosity and coefficient of viscosity. Derive the units and dimensional formula of coefficient of visCOSity. WhIch Is more viscous - water or glycerine. Why? What is Reynold's number? What Is Its slgnlflcance? Define critical velocity on the basis of Reynold's number. State Bernoulli's prlnelple. Explain Its application In the design of the body' of an aeroplane.

2. 3. 4.

211

Physics
. 5. 6. What Is ')ress~ energy? DerIve Bcn1oulU's equation for flow of fluids. Expl:lln why :
(I) A

sp!I1nlng tennis ball curves during the fligh t7

. -

Iii) A ping pong ball keeps un dancing on a jet of waler without fall!I1g on to either
~1de'?

\iii) The velocity of flow Increases when the aperture of water pipe Is decreased by squeeztng. its open mouth? liv) A small spherical 0011 fall!I1g !I1 a vismus fluid attalns a conSlant velocity after some time? . (v) If mercury i. poured on a Ilat glass plate. It breaks Into small sphertcal dropleL~?
7.

Find out the terminal velocity of an air bubble with 0.8 mm in diameter which rises in a liquid of viscosity of 0.15 kgro"s" and density 0.9 grocm'. What will be the term!I1al velocity of the same bubble while rls!I1g in water? Forwatern = 10"' kgro's-'. IAns.0.0209
ems-I; 34.8 ems-I]

8.

A pipe-line 0.2 m in diameter, flov.rtng full ot~water has a cunstrktion of diameter 0.1 If the velocity In the 0.2 m pipel!I1e is 2 m. '. find: .
(I)

In.

the velocity !I1 the constriction. and

(ii) (he discharg(' rate in <'ubic meters per ,St'cond.

9.

Ii) With what \reludty in a steel baH I nlm is radius (~uJing in a tank of glY('erine t!t an insnmt whl"n its acceleration i~ one-half ihat ('.t a tre-ely falling body?
Iii) What is the terminal velocity of tlle ball? The density of steel and of glycerine ar-t. 8.5 gm cm-3 and 1.32 gm cm-3 respectively; viscosity of glycerine is 8.~ Poise.

10. Water at

20~C

nows with

speed of 50 em s

"1

through a pipe of diameter of:'1 mm.

II) What is the Reynold's NumbeI?

(11) What Is the nature of flow?

Given. viscosity ofwate at 20'C as

=1.005 x

10-2 Poise; and

Density of water at 20'C as = I gm em -3. 11. Modern aeroplane design calls for a lift of about 1000 Nm"" of wIIlg area. Assume that air flows past the wing of an aircraft with streamline flow. Ifth~ velocity of flow past the lower wing surface 1~ 100 ms- I what. is the required velocity ovt"r the upper surface to )\Ive a desired lift of 1000 Nm"? The density of air Is 1.3 kg m'.
i;t. Water flows horizontally through a pipe ofvarylIlg cross-section. If the pressure of water equals 5 em of mcrrury at a point where the velOcity of now Is 28 ems-I, tllen what is the pressure at another point, where the velocity of flow Is 70 ems-'? [Tube density of water 1 gut emJ ).

ANSWER TO THE TERMINAL QUESTIONS

7.

0.0209 cms'. 34.&m.' III 8 ms'. Iii) 0.0628m's-'

(I) 0.769

8.
9.

ems" (iiI 1.89 ems"

10. Ul 1500. (III Streamline flow

11.

107ms-'

12. 4.845 em-' of Hg

212

11
PROPERTIES OF GASES

11.1

INTRODUCTION

As you have studIed in the previoll lessons, all the matters art' f(ml1d in three states - solid, liquid and gas, TI,ey are composed or molecules. 111e molecules have certain inter-molecular for~t's and therm"l "Tlf'rt;,v. \\l1en the lnean lhernia! ener.!.:."Y is int'n".-!s~~d. a Si..'H...(~ l"tll1H'~. wh . . . n. nw nH)k-\ ilks i.Jecollw completely free irum each other Le. (he inle!llluit-nilar rorce bet1.'.'een them vanishes. However. they have enough chances to collide against each other. This state of matter is said to be gaseous stale. In the gaseous state the matters (substances) don't have definite shape and size. The ga8!!s occupy the shape and size of the container in which they are Iilled,

Under different conditions of temperature, pressure and volume, gases exhibit different properties, For example when the temperature of gas is increased at constant volume, its pressure insreases. Can you explain why? Though you may have feeling of such concepts. After studying tlur. lesso'1 you will find the exact explanation of such concepts. In this lesson yllu will study about the kinetic theory of gases which explain propel ties at' gases You will also study about the kinetic interpretation of temperature and the relationship between the kinetic energy of thc molecules and the temperature, Why the gases have two types of specific heats will also be answered tn this lesson.

11.2. OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

state the assumptions ofldnetic theory of gases; and

derfve

the expressionfor pressure P =

'3 pc 2

dlstinguis/.l between the RMS velocity and the average velocity of molecules and establish their relationship with temperature: derive gas laws such as (a) Boyle's law, (b) Charle's law. (e) Pressuretemperature law, (d) Avogadro's law, and Ie) Dalton's law, of partial pressure, on the basis of kinetic theory oj gases. give kinetic inerpretaiion of temperature and compute the mean kinetic energy of a gas; explian law of equipartition of energy; give reasonsfor the existan.ce of two specijic heats ofgas, define them; and -'-'_.uer UIC" the relation C(l - Cv = R/J.

Physics

n.3 KiNETlC THEORY OF GASI!:S

We arealreaily aware that matter is composed of very large number of atoms and molecules. Each of these molecules show the characteristic properties of the substance of which it is a part. John Dalton in 1803 wade use of this concept of matter that is. matter is composed of large number of molecules. Later it was found that the molecules of substance ~ in constant motion. This led to the development of kinetic theory of matter. Now let us see how a gas fills a container. In a gas the molecules are so far apart from each other that there is little intermolecular attraction. The coheSive force (which binds molecules together) between the particles of matter which constitutes a gas is thus extremdy small. It is due to this -reason that a gas fills a container completely in which it is kept. The kinetic theory has been developed in the case of gases. The mathematical basis of the kinetic theory of gases was established by Maxwell and Clausius. The kinetic theory'of gases attempts to relate the macroscopic properties such as pressure,solume and temperature of an ideal gas with its iDtcroscopic properties such as speed and mass of its molecules. At this potnt the terms macroscopic and microscopic need a little elaboration. Macroscopic simply means, pertaining to a whole assembly of a large number of molecules. Microscopic on the other hand is confined to quantItI~ concerning with individual molecule. According to the kinetic theory of gases, the molecules of velocities making collisions for a short ttme with each other and with the Wa1I.s of the container and rebounding from them. This motion of molecules is random. The klnetIc theory makes assumptions.

certain

11.3.1 Assumption of Kinetic Theory of Gases

Clark Maxwell in 1860 showed that the well known properties of a gas can be explained on the basis of certain assumptions which are called as the assumptions of kinetic theory of gases.
(1) a

gas consists of a very large number of small molecules which are

considered to be rigid, and identical in all respects and moving with all possible veloc1tIes in all possible directIons the intermolecular forces are negligible.
(Ii) the collisions between the molecules

and against the walls of con-

tainer are perfectly elastic

(tIi) the volume of the molecules themselves is negl1gl.ble as compared

to the volume occupied by the gas.

tv) 'between collisions the molecules move in a straight line with uni-

form velocity. v) the time taken in a colission is negligible as compared to the time interval by a molecule between two successive collisions.
214

Properties of Gases
vi) distribution of molecules is uniform throughout the container.

Let us first consider motion along the axis. ox. (Ftg. 11.11. Since the mass of the molecules Is m and it Is moving with a speed U. therefore, its momentum will be mu towards the wall X On striking the wall X. the molecules rebounds in reverse direction with the same speed u since the collision has been ll$Sumed to be perfectly elastic. The momentum of the molecule after it rebounds Is (-mu). Hence, the change in momentum of the molecules Is mu - (-mu) = 2rnu If the molecule travels with the veloclt3T u to the wall opposite ABeD and rebounds back to X agaln without strildng any other molecule on the

way, it covers a distance 2 lin time 21. u

:. The time interval between successive collisions of the molecules with the wallis 21.
u

By Newton's second law of motion the rate of change of momentum Is equal to the impressed force.

Rate

of change

of momentum

at

ABeD= Change in momentum TIme 2mu rnu 2 =2Vu=-I-

o
rIC- 11.1: - . qf a moIecut..

"',,""""""'"

This Is the rate of change of momentum due to one molecule. Since there are N molecules of the gas, therefore, ,e total rate of change of momentum or therefore the total force exerted on the wall ABeD due to impact of all the N molecules Is

ForceonABCD=!!!(U~ +L4i +u~ + - - - +u~)

I -'

Where, u" u,.. u,. - - - u,. are the veloclt3Tof first. second, third and ... : N" molecule respectlVely along the OX d1recl1on. We know that pressure

= Area

Force

:. the pressure P on the wall X of areas 12 is given by

P= P=

/2

I"

~(U2 +u~+u~+----+u~)

... (ll.ll

21S

Physics
If u2 represents-the mean value of the squares of all the speed components In the OX dlreetibn then

Substituting the value of (uf+~+u;+ ___ +u~)1n equation (11.1) we get

P
mNii2 13
. (11.2)

It can be shown by geomeby that C'= Ii'- + Ii" + uP Since U. v and w are the components of c.

lbis relation also holds for the mean square values i.e.
C2 =U2 +V2 +W 2

Since the molecules show no preference for moving parallel to anyone edge of the cube; it follows that the mean value of Ii'-, ri', ufl are equal. i.e.
U 2 =V2 =W 2

c2 =3u2
or
-2 C U =-

-2

Substitutlng this In eqn. (11.2) we get

~=N;21
But P= volume of the container = volume

"r .the gas,

V
.. (11.3)

:. PV=.!.Nmc2 3

1bis important relationship relates the macroscopic properties i.e. pressure and volume with the microscopic properties i.e. mass and mean square speed of the molecules.

Equation (11.3) can be re-written as,

p=.!.Nm c2 3 V If P Is the density 01 the gas, we can write

P=!pc'
3

(Q p=~)
.. 111.4)

or

c2 =3p
P

\lote: The following points about the above derivation should be noted:
216

Properties of Gases
(I) From equation (11.4) it is

dear that In thJs expression the shape oj the container does not play any role in kinetic theory. It is only the volume which is oj sign!Jlcance. So Instead oj a cube we could have taken any other container. A cube only simpljfies our calculations.

have qffected the result, because the average momentum oj the molecules on striking the waUs is WlChanged by their coUisiDn with each other: (flI,/ The mean square speed c2 is not the same as tile square oj the mean speed. This is Ulustrated by the JoUowlng e.mmples.

(Ii) We ignored the inermoIecular coUision but these would not

Suppose we have live mo~es and their speeds are I, 2. 3,4. 5 units respectively. Then their mean speed Is 1+2+3+4+5. -3untts 5 Its square Is 9. On the other hand the mean square speed Is +32 +42 +52 55 5 -5 11 Thus we see that mean square speed which Is II units In the above example Is not the same mean as speed which Is 3 .
12 +22

.II:qmpIe 11.1: Co/Ciliate the pressW'ee.mrted by 1Cf'2 molecules oJoxygen each oj mass 5 x 10-110 kg In a hoUow cube oj side 10 em where the average translattonal sveed oj molecule is 500 ms-', 8oIudon: Change In momentum = 2 mu =2 x 5 xIO-26 X 500 =5xlO-22 kgms- 1 Time taken to make successiVe impacts on same side - time to travel 2 xl0 em or 2 x 10'"2 m. i.e. Time _2xl0-2 4 X 10-4 s 500 5xl0-:13 -19 X 10-4 = 1..25xIO N

... Rate of change of momentum 4

The force on the side due to one third molecules =lx 1.25x 10-19 xI022 N =400N 3 Force 400N 4xl04N-2m and pressure =Area looxlO=<iII'2

-INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.1---------1. I) A gas flUs a container completely but not a llquJd. Why is thJs?
...... 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

217

Physics
ii)

Solids have nwre ordered structure than gases. Why?

2. What is an ideal gas ?

.................................................................................................................
3. How is pressw-e related to density of rrwlecules ?
0 .................... _ ..............................................................

11.4 DEDUCTIONS OF GAS LAWS FROM KINETIC

THEORY
I) Boyle's Law
We know that the pressure P exerted by a gas is given by
p

mN

c2
But mN = total mas M of gas ... (11.5)

or

PV=!mNC2
PV=.!.MC 2 3

When the temperature of a given mass of the is constant, the mean square speed Is constant. Thus both M and c on the r1ght hand side of eqn. (11.5) are constant. Thus we can write,
PV =Constant

fas

ThIs is Boyle's Law, which statros that At COJUItant t8mperatunr. the pressure of

a gas is frwersely proportional

(iI)

to the

volume qf the gas.

Charle's Law From eqn. (11.5) we know that

PV=.!.MC2 3
MC 2 varies as T varies. Therefore PV should also vary as T vary. This Is Charle's Law
i.e.
PVaT (U.6)

Charle's Law may be stated in two ways: The volume of a gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to the temperature OR The Pressure of a gas at constant volume is

directly proportional to the temperatunl!.

iii) Avogadro's Law
..-1

us

''J!\Sl(i<-r (WO

diftt-r<>nl

~ases

1 and 2. Then from kinetic lheory

218

Prnpprtie" of GaSf'''

PI VI =

~ mlNlcl' ~ m. N.c~

p.V.=

"f their pressure, volume and temperature are the same, then

., .(11. 7)

Since the temperature is constant therefore their kim'lic f'nl'!f/.!it's Will 11" the same i..e, 1
-2

-m1c l=-m c 2

1. 2-2

... (11.8)

DivldL.1g equations (11.'7) and by (11.8) we get NI = N. Hence. Equal I/Olume qf tdea.l grua &Wtfng unde .. the aame condi tIone qf temparaturw a.nd ,preaure contain equal numbe.. qf mol ecule.. Thfa atatement fa AWJgadro'a Law Iv)
DaltOD. Law of paztlill preure

Suppose we have a number oC gases or vapours havlng no chemical reactton With each other. Let their densities be PI' p., p" ...... and mean squal? speeds ~~,~:, c~ ......... respectively, We mix same volumes of these ltalll'lI. Then the resultant pressure P Is clearly gtven by l : z I 2 1 ,,2 P .. 3 Pl~ I + 3 P2~ 2 -I- 3 Ps" 3 -I- L
1
2 1 PI C1 '3 2 PgC g

Here.

1 ~g3 '3 P3 3............. are

the indlvlUual (or Impartial)

pressure of the dlffc:rent gases or vapours. If we cenote these by p" 1' p~,we get P.P1+p.+P,,+ ......... In other words: '.I'M total,pfWIUN enrtecI "" the fIaMIoUI mllrture fa the 8Wft qf the Cnc!fllfdual,pNall.... that would be exerted if eevera.l 11_ IICICIIIpW CJur . . . . in tum. alone. Thfa fa DaltOn 'a law qf part(c&lp........ v) Qnbam'. law of dlffultOD of ..... Graham lnve.tlgated the dlfCualon of gases throuJ(h poroll" "ubl'llanc!': and
219

found that; The rate qf d(t1Usfon qf a . . tIarough a porous partidon Is ~IJI propordonal to tile ....,.,. nJOf tV ie. "--'tu. Tfds .. known as Graham'. law of ~ On the basis of kinetic theory of gases. the rate of diffuSion through a fine hole will be proportional to the average or root mean square velocity c. From equation (I 1.48) we know that
-2

Em
Thus,
Rateofd1ffullionof onegaa .. EL= ~.!i Rate of cWrua1onof other . . ca PI

c =p or

3p

(11.9)

:. the root mean square ~loctty c1 and ~ of the molecules of two gus of densities PI and P. respectively at a pressure are

Thus,
Rate of diffuMon of one,.. c Rateof d1ffuslonother. . It thus foUawa that kinetic theory of gases provldes a theoretical buia for Qrabam'1f Jaw of dlft'ualon of gases.

Bample 11.2: What Is the root mean.square speed qfhydrogen mokcule

at3OOK?

Mas ofhydrogen molecule 3.347 )( Solution: . We know

1~

kg k. 1.38)( 1~ ..iX-I

=rkT . """ m

I 7 3X(1.38X 10.. JK- )(300K) 3.347 X 10"41 Kt1

=1927ma-1

Now. It Is time to check Your understanding

IN'I'aT QUESTIONS 11.2 - - - - - - - - 1. Flue gas riIolecules chosen at random t.nfound fD haw speed qf 500, 660, 700. 800 and 900 mr'. FInd the RMS speed. Is It the same as die

auerage speed?

...............................................................................................................
------------------~-------------------

Properties of Gases
2. lftile same volwnes of two gases 1 aru:!. 2 are I7IiA!!d wft1wut any chemical reaction. then what wou1d be tile resultant pressure of the miXture?

11.5 KiiutTIC IN'lERPRETATION OF TEMPERATURE

We know that the pressure of a gas is given by the relation

Multiplying by V, the volue of 1 gram molecule of the gas, we

Also'for n mole of a gas. we have

pv. n RT where R gas constant. 8.3 J mol-' K-'

nR7'= .!mNC~

Multiplying both sides by

2

3 "2 we have

3 ImNC 1 2 -RT==-mN"c 2 2 n 2
N where -=N" Auogadro'. nWllbtrr

or

3T=!me2
2N" 2

11;4.1 Mea KInetic Energy

But

! me2 is the mean kinetic energy of molecule. Therefore, mean kinetic

2

energy of a ulOlecule is

!me2 =31!...T
2 2 N"
Here

1!... Is a constant Ie. called Boltzman constant.

N"
221

R k=NA AIIIJIIGI'ro'. Number: The number of atoms or molecules In a mole of tl substance is called Avogadro number: its value is 6.023 x l()l' moI;-'. The value of k . 38 xlO-J molecuJe-1 k-I :. mean ldnet1c energy of a molecule of the gas kT Is giVen as
Le.

... (II . 1 0 ~ Obviously. therefore. the ldnet1c energy of a gram-molecule of the gas
=3 kNAT =3 fBlx NAT 3 KI' 2 2NA 2

!2 mc-2 = 3 2 kT

Kinetic energy of a gnun molecule of a gas

"3 = 2 KI'

Thls relationship tella us that the kinetic energy of a molecule depenoa upon the absolute temperature Tof the gas and It Is quite Independent of its mass. This fact'ls known as the Jd_cto Inc.rpNCcadon td
f.eInper'CItt&N,

Clearly, at T. 0 indicating that at the ablolute zero of temperature. the kinetic energy of the gas Ie reduced to zero. In other words, aD molecular motion ceaaea at thla temperature. the mo.\ecuIe beJng aD at rat.

From (1l.IO) we have he expreu.Ion tor the Iquare root oL e1cdedroot mean aquare velocity.

11.15.2. Preuure Temperature Re.at.ouhIp

From eqn. (l1.5) we know that

pV.!~2 3
From expertmental evidence we krIDW tllat tor one . . . .11IGIecuJe or au the relation between preuure. volume aDd temperature i8 atven by
where R

Combininl equation (11.5) and (11.8)

3

au conatant

W. RT

we.M

...(11.11)

!~.RT
or

~.!!T

,.. (11.12)

aut 1dnetlc entrRY

.! AmI .
2
222

Properties of Gases

So eqn (I 1.12) can be written as

2X!./I4C2 =RT 3 2
or

.!../I4C2=3 RT

... (11.13)

From this relation we see that dIe kinetic energy of one gram-molecule of the gas la equal to NT. From eqn. (11.12) we see that the mean-square velocity la directly proportional to the Kelvin Scale of temperature T. At T=O.c 2 ,.oorc=O. hence we can define KeMn zero as 'J'he &IM . . " , Oft the IIaIlDfn 8CaJe qfe.mperature fit that tInraperat1U'W at which the molecular trarlalatfonal wlodtfa qf tl (IG/J cue .....uced to ..",.
In actual system the molecule may have the same energy for one molecule the Kinetic energy from eqn (11.13) can be wrttten as

!./I4C2.3.1!..T 2 2NA where NA Avogadro'. Number

But

1hul. In a given mue of gas the mean kinetic energy per molecule la proport1Onal to the temperature of the gu .
. . . . . . U.S: At What ternperaturewUl the root mean square uelocUy qf ~ be ~ qf Its ualue at B.T.P.. preure betng constant (S7P Standard temprrature and pre.sure).
80111don: We know that.

!Ml!2. S RT
2 2
or or
~aT

li2a.Jf

Let the veloclty at N.T.P. t.e atT. Kbe lio If To I[ Ia the requtred temperature. the veloc1ty c at the temperature. 2 li, u 8lVen In the problem

223

Physics orT=4T. Since T. = 273K T=4x273= 1092K

T = 1092 - 273 = 8190
~ample

c.

11.4: Find the average kinetic energy qf a gas at tempea.ture oj 300 K Given k = 1.38 X 10"23JK:l.

Solution: We know that

.! MC2 =::J k:T

2 2
Since k = 1.38 x 10.... JK'"
T= 300 K

Average KE= ~ (1.38XIO-~ JK- 1 K3OOK) =6.2Ix1O-21 J

11.15.3. The law of equlparaUtlon of energy

There are 3dtrections of motion IX. Y and Z &Xes) which are equally probable for the gas molecules. This implies that average value of the components of velocity c (I.e. u, v and w) along the three directions should be equal or for a molecule all the three directlons are equivalent. I.e. u=ii=iIi or
-2 -2 -2 1-2 U =0 =W =-c

Since c2 =u 2 +V2 + w 2 c 2 =u2 +ii2 +iIi2 Multiplying throughout by 2 m. where m Is the mass of a molecule we' have
I .

1_21_21_2 -mu =-nw =-mw 2 2 2 1 2 ' But 2 mu =Ex =total mean kinetic energy of a molecule along X axis
Therefore E,. l\. E. But, the total mean kinetic energy of a molecule 18

3 E--kT 2
Where, k. Boltzmann conatant. and T. Absolute temperature and since. E. E. + Ey + E. .. E. l\. '" E.. 2 kT Since three velocity components u, vand w correspond to the three degree of freedom of the molecule, we can conclude that,
224 1

Properties of Gases

Totalldnet1c energy of a dynamical system is equally divided among all its degrees of freedom and it is equal or -KTper . 2 degree of freedom.
This is the law qf equfpartitfon of energy and was deduced by James Clark Maxwell. Let us apply this law for dlfferent types of gases. So far we have been considering only translational motion. Let us now consider rotation too. Of course. for a monoatomic molecule. we have only translational motion because they are not capable of rotation (although they can spin about anyone of the three mutually perpendicular axes If it Is llke a finite sphere). Hence for one molecule of a monoallomic gas total
1

energy.

3 E=-kT. 2

(11.14)

For a diatomic molecule we can suppose it to be two spheres Joined by a rigid rod. Such a molecule can rotate about any one of the three mutu!illy perpendicular axes. However. the rotational Inertia about an exIa along the rigid rod is negUglble compared to that about an axis perpendicular to the rod. 80 that rotational energy consists of two terms such as 1._1 _ .. 1 .':"1

i .... u a ..."i ....

Now the spedal deacrtption of the .centre of IlWIII of a diatomic gas modules will require three coordinates. Thus. for a diatomic gus molecule havUig both rotational and tranalational motion.

ar

Far ~ each molecule contains there spheres Joined together by rods (we can suppose) 80 that the molecule is capable of rotating ~ about each of three mutually perpendicular &Xes. Hence for .tnatomic gas molecule having both translational motion. energy E will be

"II.

...(11.15)

E=3(! kT)+~! KT )
ar

E- 3 kT

(11.16)

(Here three de~ of freedom for the translation of the centre of mass of the molecule and three far rotation along three mutually perpendicular axes).

11.8 SPBCII'IC IIBA.T8 01' GASES

We know that the temperature of 1l gas can be raised under dl1ferent

22S

Phy~Ir:S

conditions of volume and pressure. For example. the volume may be kept constant or the .pressure may be kept constant or both may be allowed to vary in some arbitrary manner. In each of these cases the amount of heat required to cause unit rise of temperature in unit mass IS different. Hence. a gas has different heat capacities. It we supply an amount of heat Q to a gas to raise Its temperature through T then heat capacity Is defined as (11.17) T The heat capacity of a body per unit mass of the body Is called as specific heat of the substance of which the body Is made and Is usually denoted by C ( or 5). Thus
z

Heat capacity

heat capacity Speccea ill h t C =

m

(11.181

Equations (11.17) & (11.18) give!'

C=--'L mLlT
It may be defined as follows.

(11.19)

Spec(ftc heat of a material ta the heat required to ratae the temperature of unit maa of that material for unit t!tmperaturw
cha~.

The unit of specific heat in MKS system Is kilo calories per kilogram per Kelvin (kcal kg"1 K1) It may also be expressed In joules per kg per K. For example specific heat of water Is 1 kilo cal kg"1 K"I 4.2 x loa Joule kg"1 K"I. The above definition of specific heat holds good for solids and liquids and not for gases because according to relation (11.19) sp8c1ftc heat of!l gas may vary from zero to Infinity. To e1aborate.ifwe compress a certain gas. there Is a rise In temperature without suplying any heat to the gas from out.lde. Thus. we see that for mass m of a gas we have.

c ..JL...

mAT mxAT

Again. if we supply heat to a gas and the gas Is allowed to expand such that there Is no rise In temperature. I.e. AT. 0 then.

c.

Q.

m )CAT mxAT

We observe that In order to Itudy the lpec1ftC heat of a guo either the prenure or the volume of the gu has to be kept constant. Consequently. gasel have two apeclftc beatll.e. 1) Specific heat at C'~mstant volume denoted as c"

Propertlt's of Gases
Ii) SpecJfic heat at constant pressure denoted as Cp

The two specJfic heats are defined as follows: '

(a) The speciflc

heat of a gas at constant volume (C,) is defrned as the amount oj heat required to raise the temperature oj unit mass Q[ a gas through 1 K when its vo!/H1Ie is kept constant.
i.e. ...(11.20)

(b)The speciftc heat at constant pressure (C.) is defined as the amount of heat required raise the temperature of unit mass of a gas through 1 K when its pr~ssure is kept cosntant.

...(11.21)
Note :When.l mole of a gas is considered then the amount of heat required to raise the temperature by one degree is called molar specific heat.

We know that when pressure is kept constant. the volume of the gas increases. Hence in the second case note that the heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass through 1 degree at constant pressure is made up of two parts: i) heat required to do external work to produce a change in volume of the gas and
11) heat required

to raise the temperature of the gas through one degree (C).

This means the specific heat of a gas at constant pressure Is greater than Its specific heat at constant volume by an amount which Is the thermal equivalent of the work done in ~ding the gas against external pressure. That Is ... (11.22) W+ p

IC =

cvj

11.6.1.

~elatloD

between Cp and C"

Let us consider one mole of an ideal gas enclosed in cylinder fitted With a frictionless movable piston (see Fig. 11.2) Since the gas has been assumed to be ideal (perfect). there Is no intermolecular force between Its molecules and when such a gas expands an internal work Is done in separathlg the gas molecules apart. This whole work is only external I.e .. against the internal pressure

rL....--~t======p [\...---V.---"",,--1====
V ,
FIg. 11.2: Gas heated at constant pressure;

Let P be the external pressure and A be the cross sectional area of the piston.
'127

The force acting on the piston = P. x A Now. suppose the gas is heated at constant pressure through 1 K and as a result the piston moves outward through a distance X as shown in the figure 11.2. Let VI be the inttJal volume of the gas and V. be the volume after heating. Therefore. the work W done by the gas in, pushing the piston through the . distance x. against external pressure P is given by
W =PxAxx

= P x (Increase in volume) = P (v;. - VI)

We know from (11.22) that Cp + Cy = Work done (W) against the external pressure in raising the temperature of 1 mole of a gas through 1 K i.e .
Cp
-

C. = P IV;' - VI)

.. (11.23)

Now applying perfect gas equatlonto these two stages of the gas i.e before and after heating we have
PVI = RT

.. (11.24)

pv. = R (T+ 1)
Substntcting (11.24) from (11.25) we get
P(V. - VI) = R

... (11.25) ...(11.26)

.. (11.27)

... From (11.20) and (11.23) we get

Cp -C .. R

where R is in Joules mole-I

K-I

Converting Joules into CalOries. we get

Cp-c,,= J

. (11.28

where. J - 4.18 J cal is the mecbanical equI.Valent of heat.

D:am,ple 11.5: FInd out the ualue qf C,. and CuJOr a rnonoatrmUc. diammfc and trIatOmiC gas molecules.
SoIatfDn: We knowthat the average KE for I mole
E= 3 Rl' 1

to a gas is glftn as

Now CD is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of I mole of a gas at constant volume by one degree i.e. if

E,. - Total energy of gas at 1K

E ;r. I = Total energy of gas at (T + 1)" K

Then C. = E,..I - E,. (at constant volume)

228

Properties of Gases

(I)

We kilow. for monoatomic gas. total

ene~ = 3 RT
2

for monoatomic gas Cv =

~ R( T + 1) - ~ RT
3 =-R. 2

(ii)

For diatomic gases. total energy = ~ RT

5 5 Cv = 2 R (T+l)-R= 2RT 5 7 C =C +R= -R+R=-R. p v 2 2

(Iii)

You may now find out Cv and Cp for triatomic gas.

INTEXT QUESTION 11.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. What is the total energy of nilrogen nwlecu1e?

....................................................................................................................
2. Calculate the value of Cp and Cv for nitrogen given. R = 8.3 J mol-' K-' .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

3. Why the gases have two types of specific heats?

..................................................................................................................
Some Important collltaDu

Universal gas cosntant. R

=8.3 J

mol-I K-I

1 atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) = 1.66 x lO'''kg

Avogadro's number N

=6.02 x 1()-23 molecules per mole

X

Boltzmann constant K = 1.38

10'" molecule-' K-'

1 standard' atmosphere = 0.76 m of Hg

= 1.01 x 10" Nm-' 1.01 xlO" pa

11.7 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

KInet1c theory llII8umes the existence of atom. and molecules of a gas and applies the law of mechanlcs to large number of them usIng averaging technIque. KInetic theory relat.es the macroscopic properUes.

229

KineUc theory makes cert.alJ;l .....umptlana about the nature of moJecules, their colllsions and dliItrlbuUon In a gas. The pressure of gas Is the average Impacts per second of the molecules per units _ or the walls of the contain<!%' KInetic energy of a molecule depends upon the absolute temperature T and fa Indep<:Sldent of Its mass. At absolute zero of temperature, the ktnet1c energy of a gas Is teducal to zero. The molecular motion thus ceaaes at aheolute zero of temperature.
Gas laws can be dertvcd on the basis of kinetic theory.

The keMn zero In the kelvin scalc fa that temperature at wblch the molecular translatlonal veIocIUes of a gas ...., reduced to zero.
DependIng on the volume and pressure, the amount of heat requited to ratse the unit temperature of unit mass of a gas Is different. Hence there are two speclllc heats of

gas.
I) Spectftc heat at constant volume IC,)
II) SpecIflc, heat at constant

pressure IC~

When pressure remains constant for unlt clJan&IO In ~ the...au- ~ Hence the heal required to raIae the unit temperature of unit inas8 of a gas at comtant

pieasure conststs of two p6rtS:

I) heat required to do external work. to produce a change In volume of the II) heat required to ratse the temperature of the gas through one degree

gas.

I.c. Cp

w+

C.

C, -C.'! J
The law of equSpart1tlon of energy stats that

the total klneUc etUIrII' of a dynamtcal 1 ayatem Is equally divided among aD Its deaz- of hedom lUI(! It Ia oqua1 to 2 ~per

degree of Ii'eedom.

Totaleneray tor a molecule of

(I) _tIIAmOatopUc

gu-

3 --leT 9

It!) a diatomic 1MB . (UtI

* triatomic gas 3 leT.

wm be the l'dOdty and Idndic _ _ of ~ DIIliecWea of a II"bRance at abeoIute ...

gleT

15

11.8'l'ERJ111NAL QUESTIONS
1. Can we use Boyle'. Ia.... to compare two dIlIerent tdeaI gases?

2. What

zero temperature?

3. If the absolute temperature of a gas be made tOur u-. what will happen to Its kIneUc eneray. root-mean square .veIocII and pmeaurel
4. What Is the ratio of averagc: veIocIUes of hydrogen molecules (molecular maSs 2) aDd oxygen rnoIecuIes (molecular maas 32) In a mtxture of two gasea to ha"" the same idnetIc energy .per molecule?

Properties of Gaaes
5. If three molecules have velocltles 0.5, I and 2 Ion/s respectively, calculate the ratio of th~ root mean sqUlll"e and avt:tage speeds. . 6. Explain what Is meant by the root-mean square velocity of the molecules of gas. Use the concepts of kinetic theory of gases to ~ an expression for the root-mean square velocity of the molecules In terms of pressure and density of the gas.
7. I)
CalClllate the averrge translational kinetic energy of a neon atom at 25 C.
(II) At what temperature does the avt:tage

energy ha"., half this Yaiue?

8. A oontalner of volume of 50 em' CCIIltaln8 hydrogen at ,pressure of t.O Pa and at a temperature of 27" C. Ca!eu/ate

aJ the number of molecules of the gas In the container and

b) their root-mean square speed.
(R - 8.3 J mot' K-', N= 6.0 x 10'" mol-' , mass of I mole of hydrogerunolecu/e = 20 x l(}"kg moI-').

9. A cloeed container cobtalns hydrogen which exerts a pressure of 20.0 mm Hg at a teInpI!rature of 50 OK.

aJ At what temperature will It exert pressun: of 180 mm Hg?

b) If the root mean square velOCIty of the bydrogen molccu/es at 10. OK Is 800 IJIS", what will be their root-mean square ".,locIty at this new temperature?

10. State the assumptions of ldnetlc theory of gases. 11. FInd an expression for pressure of a gas.
12. Deduce Boyle's Law and Charie's Law from KInetic theory of gases.

13. What Is the interpretation of temperature on the basis of ldnetlc theory of gasea?

14. What Is Avagadro's Law? How can It be deduced from kinetic theory of gases? 15. caIcualte the root-mean square of the molecules of hydrogen at O C at 100' C. (DensIty of hydrogen at 0' C and 760' mm of mer cmy pressure 0.09 kg m"'J.

16.

caIculate the Pressure In mm of mercury exerted by hydrogen gas tf the number of molecu/es per .... Is 6.80 x 10'" and the root mean square speed of the molecules Is 1.90 x 10 ms-'. Avogadro's no. 6.02 x 10'" and molecular weIght of hydrogen 2.02.

17. DelIne specillc heat of gases at constant pressure. Dertve the relationship betwen C, an Cy 18. DelIne specilIc heat of gases at constant volume. ProYe that for a tlratomlc gas C, 3R.
19. Calculate C and C, for argon, given R

=8.3 Jmol-'K-'

ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

JHi&X'l guu!1Ol11' 11.1 1. (0 Because In a gas the c:ohesM: force between the molecules are extremely small .. . compared to the molecules In a liquid.
(~

Bo:cuaae the molecules In a solld are closely packed. The bond. between the moIec:uIea are stronger giving a ordered structure.,

2. 3.

"nle gaa which foil.,... the ldnectic theory of molecules Is called as an Idea! gas.

P.!"cs
3

iHlliJtt Q1JB811Ol11' 11.2

I.

A""""e speed

c,= 5OO+600+7~+800+900
*=700ms-1
?'ll

PhysiCS

Average value of C'

SOO' +600' +700' +800' +OO' S =SlO.OOOm's" c_ =.ft' =,JSlO.OOO-1l4ms-1

c_ and
2.

c are not sam.e

The resultant pressure of the mtxture will be the sum of the pressure of gases 1 and 2 ,espectl\ I.e. P PI + P,.

INTEXT QUESTION 11.3

0) For each degrees of freedom. energy

=1kT

:. for 5 degrees of freedom for a molecule of nitrogen total energy = (2) C. for a
~tom1c

li kT.

molecule

5 = '2 R

5 or C.= gx8.3J mol-'K- ' = 20.75J mOl-I K-'

Cp = C. + R = 29.05 J moI-lC- l.

TEBMINAL EXERCISE
(7)
(I)

6.18

IO""J

(Ii)

-12C
1.9 x 103 ms-I

(al 1.2 x 1016 (9) (al 450 K

(8)

(bi (bi

2.40 x 103 ms-I

nO)

840 m""1. 2150 ms-I

232

12
THERMODYNAMICS

12.1 INTRODUCTION
You are famillar with the sensation of hot and cold tn your daily life. When you rub your hands together you get the feeling of warmth. Have you ever thought about the cause of heating in such cases? tn fact it occurs as a result of mechanical work done tn both the above mentioned examples. Here, it is obvious that there is a relationship between mechanical work and thermal effect. The subject of thermal effects deals with pehnomena involving energy transfer between bodies at different temperature. A quantitative description of thermal phenomena requires a definition of temperature, heat and tnternal energy. The laws of thermodynamics provide a relationship between heat flow, work and the Internal energy of a system. In this lesson you will study about the prtnctples of thermodynamics which provide a relationship between heat flow. work and the Internal energy of a system. In this lesson you will also study the prtnciples of thermodynamics In the form of three laws. These are the zeroth. first and second laws of thermodynamics. In this lesson you will also study about the Camot's engine and its efficiency, concept of entropy and Its physical significance.

12.2 OBJECTIVES
Afler studying this lesson. you should be able to:

dgferenttate between heat and temperature and describe c4fferent types of thermome'...mJs stating the three COIl11JlOll f:emperattue scales; explain the meaning of the thermodynamic terms and the indicator diagram and show thatarea WIder the indIca1Drdtagram represents work;
state t:hennodynamfp equl11brtum and&rothlav oftherrnodyru;unl and

discuss the prtncfpIe of caIorfmetry; explain the concept of fntemal eneJY!J of a system and statejlrst taW of
thermodynamics and its limttatfDns:

explain pressure-temperature phase diagram and evolue the concept of triple point; state second law oft:herrn0dynam4: In differentjorms: describe CamDt cycle for a per:fect gas and derive expresstonJor work done and f@cIency; and discuss the concept of entropy.

PhySics

12.3 CONCEPT OF HEAT AND TEMPERATURE 12.3.1 Heat

You are familiar With the sensation of hot and cold. Some bodies are foune! hotter and other colder as compared to a given body. Forexample. a piece "fhl Irning charcoal is very hot. while a chip of ice is very cold. This sensation of hOl dnd cold can be understood in terms of heat of the body. Now you may ask: What is heat? Heat is aform of energy which produces in us the sensation of warmth. Heat is a form of energy. It is due to the kinetic energy ofothe molecules constituting the body. Heat energy can change into mechanical energy. electrical energy etc. Flow of heat : You can understand this concept from the following example:. Take two containers having water up to different levels. Join these containers through a rubber tube. Water Will flow from the container having water up to the higher level to the container in which level of water is low. Stmllarly. when two bodies at different temperatures are placed in contact. heat also flows from a body.at higher temperature to the body at lower temperature. The energy which flows from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature. because of temperature difference is called heat-energy. The unit of heat is calorie. one calorie is defined as; The quantity of heat energy required to heat 1 gram of water from 14.5 "C to I5.5"C is called one calorie. It is denoted as: I Cal. Calorie is the smallest unit of heat energy. Kilocalorie (k Cal) Is the larger unit of heat energy. and 1 kCai = 10-3 Cal Also
11 Cal = 4.18J

12.3.2. Concept of temperature

When we talk of the temperature of a body we often think the degree of hotness or coldeness of the body. Thus. the degree ofhotness of a body is its temperature. When we touch a body our senses provide us With a qualitative idea of temperature. Our senses are usually un-reliable and misleading. For example: If We remove an ice tray and a package of frozen vegetables from the freezer. the Ice tray feels colder to the hand even though both are at the same temperature. Thus we need a reliable method to observe the relative hotness or coldness i.e. temperature of bodies. Scientists have developed various types of thermometers. A device used to measure temperature is a thermometer. You know that the property of substance d:anges with temperature. This property can be used for the measurement of temperature by various thermometers. On the basis of '"':"":the physical properties of a substance used . : - ; ' - ,::-in thermometers. we can divide them in the following ways: '" (i) Mercury Thermometer In such thermometers we use the volume of a fixed mass of mercury to indicate the temperature. A fine glass tube is attached JI'lg.12.1: Mercury TIlermometer to a larger tube. The bulb and a prlrt of the

234

Thermodynamics
tube are filled with mercury. The tube Is evacuated and sealed (Fig.I2.l). As the bulb is heated. the mercury expands and rises in the tube. Hence the height of the mercury in the tube can be used as, a measure of the temperature of the bulb. To fix up a temperature scale. we choose two reference temperature and divide the interval between them into some equal numbers. parts. The scale Is calibrated in termS of celsius or Kelvin. Considering the temperatures of melting ice and boiling water at normal atmospheric pressure as the lowest and highest points for a mercury thermometer. Celsius and Kelvin Scale temperatures were defmed. (a) Centigrade or Celsius Scale: In this thermometer zero is the lower fixed point and 100 Is the upper fixed point. The Interval between the two fixed points Is divided Into 100 equal paris. Each part Is equal to I C or IOCelsius. (b) Fahrenheit Scale: In this thermometer the lowest fixed point is marked as 32 and the upper fixed point is marked as 212. The interval is divided Into 180 equal parts. Each part is equal to 1F. (c) Kelvin Temperature Scale: In this scale the lowest fIXed point is marked as 273 K and the upper point is marked as 373 K. The Intprval is divided Into 100 equal parts. Each part Is equal to 1 K.

Relation between Kelvin and Celsius Scale: Following Is the relation between Kelvin and Celsius scale. T = fr. + 273) K ...... (12.1) where T. is the temperature In CelsIus and T In Kelvin. For scientific measurement the stand,ard temperature scale adopted is the Kelvin Scale. The Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature. Following Is the general relation between Celsius (C). Kelvin (K) and Fahranheit (F) Scales.
--= = 180 100 100 We will also mention about two more types of thermometers.
(iI) The Constant Volume Gu Thermometer:

C-o

F-32

K-273

..... (12.2)

It Is based on the principle that. when volume of a given mass of a gas Is kept constant. Its pressue increases or decreases by a constant amount for every C rise or fall in temperature.
(W)

The Electrical Realstance Thermometer:

It.

with Increase In temperature. The resistance of a conductor at ec Is given by R = R., (I + ae) ...... (12.3) Where R.,1s resistance of conductor at OCC and a Is a temperature coefficient of resistance for the material of given conductor. Before we discuss about thermodynamics. let us first define a few baSic terms.

is based on the principle that the resistance of a conductor increases

12.3.3 Thermodynamic Terms

(1) ThermodJDamic system: A thermodynamic system refers to a defmite quantity of matter bounded by some closed surface. This closed surface is
235 .

Physics

'cIescribed, are called tlIemwcfrInamlc variables or thermocIunamfc c:oorclfnates. (W) IDcUcator dbpuD: You have studied about clliJerent types of graphs in your mechanics lessons. Generally we use graphs to studytbe variation

called the boundaxy of the system. The boundaIY may enclose a solid. liquid orgas. Here we will discuss three types of systems as: (a) Open System: It Is a system which can exchange mass. heat and work With the surroundings. (b) Closed sJlftem: It Is a system which can exchange heat and work but not mass With the surroundings. (e) Isolated system: It is a system which has no eXchange With the surrounding; not even heat exchange. (U) ThermodynllDl1e Variables or Coordlilatu: In the first book. we ha,ve studied the metion of a body (or a system) in tenns of its mass, position and veloci~. To describe a thermodynamic system. we need its temperature pressure (P). volume (V). density (P) etc.These are called thermod.ynam1c variables or coordinates of a tltennodynamic system. '.I'hoBe IlCUiables in tenru qf which a thennoclynamlc SfI8teJn. can be

m.

of a physical quantity With respect to the another one. To study a thermodynamic system we use a pressure-volume graph. Th1a graph indicates how the pressure (P) of a system varies With Its volume M. during a process. This graph which indicates how the pressure (PJ of a system varies .with,its volume during a thermodynaml.c process. 18 knoWn as an indicator diagram. We can get the work done in any particular case using the indicator d1agram. Now we will show that the &,rea under the P - V diagram, 18 equal to the worlt done by the system. Fig. (12.2) shows an Indicator diagram ora thermodynamic system. Suppose the pressure P at the start of a verY smaU expansion AV hence work done by the system (AWl
AW. PAV ...... (12.4)

Approximately.
AW. Area of shaded strip ABeD No,w total work done by the system from VI to Va Area p:p. V, VIP1 The depends upon the shape of ' value of the the indicator diagram. The indicator diagram Is widely useful, In calculating the work' done In the process of

area

expansion or compression. Really. It 18 found mure useful in the procesa where relationship between P and V 18 not known. Indicator d1agram plays very Important role to explain the theory of heat engine

12.4 THERMAL EQUALIBRIUM

To understand the phenomenon of thermal V, :, c Yo ' equilibrium. let us consider two metal blocks .'1.. lUt htd1ctllO, DI.,,.,,,. ~.,r~e same material) A and B. Suppose A Is warmerihan B. Bring Aand B .hLO r.ontact and surround them by a thick layer glass wool, After sometime

-------------------------------------236

Thermodynamlcs

you will find both the blocks equally warm. This Is called as the thermal equilibrium of this system. It isa state of thermodynamic system in which temperature of the system Is uniform. And also there Is no temperature difference between the system and its surrounding.

12.4.1 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

In order to state Zeroth law of Thermodynamics. let us consider three metal blocks A,B and C. Suppose block A Is in thermal eqUilibrium with block B. It means the temperature of block A Is equal to the temperature of block B. Further, suppose that block A is also in thermal equilibrium with block C. It means that the temperature of block A is equal to the temperature of block C. It follows that the temperatures of blocks B and C are equal. We can summarize these results in a statements known as Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: qtwo bodies or systems A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third body C, then A and B are f1I thermal equUfbrium with

each other. This statement is known as the Zeroth law of thermodynamics.

12:4.2 Prlnclple of Calorimetery

You take some cold water In a glass and some hot water In another glass. Now mlx water of both the glasses. You wlll see now, the temperature of hot water Is less than.the hot water and more than the cold water. You may say that the temperature of the mixture of hot and cold water l1es between the teml!Ct:&tureofhot and cold water. Have you ever thought about the cause 'bf such..&.probtem'? You willleam this change of temperature with the help -of'caiorlmetery. To study the prindple of caIorlmetery let us first dlscU88 a few terms given as; caIodmeter. It Is a cyllndrlcal vessel made of copper and provided with a . stirrer and a l1d. lpeoUlc beat: The specific heat of a matertal (solid or liquid) 18 the amount ofheat. requlredto ratse the temperature of unIt mass of the matertaL through 1 K. It 18 denoted by C. Ifheat AQ Is required to raIse the temperature ofmass M of the sol1d through A'r, then.
C. M

~AT

..... (12.5)

51 umt of C Is J/kg K. In SI. the specjflc heat of a solid mass 18 equal to the amDUnt ofheat requ!A?d to raise the temperature of 1 kg of the solid through lK. Beat ('.apllolty: The heat c:apac!ty of a body 18 equal to the amount of heat. requIn!d. lD raise Its temperature through one' degree. 'It Is also called as thermal capacity of the body.

MathemaUcally we can expresa It as, AQ-MC Where AQ - heat capacity of the body. M - mass of the body. andC specl1lc heat of the body 'nle unit of AQ Is J /K In 5.1. system.

237

Water ....., ....t: The water equI.valent oj a body is de.Jfnesasthe mass oj water, w.hlchabsorbs or emits the same amount oJheat tiS Is '. dOne.by thegivenbodyforthe same rtseorJalltn temperature. , . .I\IatJ'Iemat(a U1eQ:Uleq:wess ttas: ......_:.:, .. "~,'c' A"'~""
W=MC .

where W = Water equivalent of the body. M = Mass of the body .<!lld C = Spectftc heat of the body Its SI unit is kg. Now you Will study about the PrIndpIe oj CaIorImetery. When bodies at dttJe,ellt temperatures are mixed together in the Ccdorlrneter, tIuIg exeluUlge heat with each other. Bodies at higher temperature lose heat. whlle those at lower temperature galn heat. The contenis of the calorimeter are stirred constantly so as to keep the temperature of the contents unlform. U no heat is ro.t to surroundinQs the heat lost by hot bodJl must IJe e1UJal to the JaeQt gained by cold bodJl. It in caHed the principle oj calrometery or principle of mixture. We can express this statement as:

IHeat lost Beat gain I

This principle can be used to ftne the speciflc heat of one content If specifiC heat of another is given. In case of mixture. Suppose a calorimeter whose water equivalent is W containing mass MI of water at ~perature T. A hot solid at temperature Ta and having mass ~ Is dropped Into the calorimeter. The contents are stfired constantly and the mixture acquires a final temperatureT. Suppose C Is the spec1ftc heat of solid to be determined and C' Is the specl1lc heat of water then
C= (M1+W)C(T-T1) M 2 (T2 -T)

.... (12.6)

Spectftc heat of solids can be calculated using above relation. Now it Is time to check you understanding. ~Ive the following questions.

INTEXT QUESTION 12.1-----"'"l .. - - - - 1. At ,what temperature do the Kelvtn and Fahreinhett scale coincide?

................................ _......................................
2. FlU in the blanks
(I)
P -_, ___ ......... _ ..'"

. bastsJortheconcept oj............................. v. ~.. v (ft) ifa sl/sternA is in thennaI equIlIbrfum with .....2.11: i1 system B whUe B is in thennal,equtUbrium with another system C then. system A wtU CJIso be in thermal. equIUbrtum with system

Zeroth law oj thermodynamics provides

..........................................................................................................
I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

(UI) The W11t qfl1ea:t fs' ,.

3.

State the prI1lcfpIe oJmlxture.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

238

Thermodynamics
4. In thejlgure12.3 is shown. how much work is done by the.system in the process (a) along the path ABCjrom A to C (b) lfthe system is returnedjrom C to A along the same path. how much work is done by the system.

~ 'lo

........................................................................... .

12.5 INTERNAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM

Have you ever thought about the energy which is released when water freezes into ice? Don't you think that there is some kind of energy stored in the water. This energy is released when water changes to ice. This stored energy is called the internal energy. We can discuss the concept of internal energy on the basis of kinetic theory of maUer. First we will discuss about the internal kinetic energy then internal potential energy. (8) Internal Kbaetic energy: As you have studied earlier according to kinetic theory of matter. matter is made up of large number of molecules. These . molecules are In a state of constant rapid motion and hence possess kinetic energy. The total kinetic .energy of the molecules is called the internal kinetic enBTflIJ. (b) Internal Potential eneqy: The energy arising due to the inter-molecular attraction is called the internal potential energy. The energy of the system may be Increased by causing its molecules to move faster (a gain in kinetic energy). It can also be increased by causing the molecules to move against inter-molecular force or both. The sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules of a body Is called Its Internal energy. Generally It Is denoted by the letter U Internal energy of a system = Kinetic energy ofrrwlecules + Potential energy of molecules of the system Let us consider an Isolated thermodynamic system subjected to external force. Suppose W amount of work Is done on the system In gOing from initial state ito final state J, adiabatically. Let U, and U, be internal energies of the system in its Initial ana final state respectively. Since work is done on the system. internal energy of final state will be higher than that of Initial state. According to the law of consesrvation of energy
U,-

Negative sign indicates that work Is done on the system.

u,=

-w

12.5.1 I"ir8t law of thermodynamics

We have discussed Zenoth law of thermodynamics. which tells us about the equilibrium among different systems in contact. It also introduces concept of temperature. However. Zeroth law does not tell us anything about the non-equilibriuin state. Let us consider two examples: (I) two systems at different temperature In contact with each other and (Ii) mechanical rubbing )letween two systems causing change in their temperatures. These facts cannot be explained merely with the help'of Zeroth law. However. physicists have been working for the explanation of these facts since very early ages. long before the evolution of Zeroth law. These facts were explained by the first law of thermodynamics.
239

Physics

Theflrst law ojthermodynamics is . injact. the law ojconservation ojenergy. and it states that the amount ojheat given to a system is equal to the sum oj change in internal energy oj the system and the external work done. Suppose IJ.Q = amount of heat given to the system. IJ.U = increase in internal energy of the system. and IJ.W = external work done by the system . then according to the statement of first law of thermodynamics. we can write:
IJ.Q = IJ.U + IJ. W .. (12.7)

This is the mathematical form of the first h.w of thermodynamics. Here IJ.Q. IJ.U and IJ. Wall are in the same units. The signs of IJ.Q. IJ.U and IJ. Ware known from the following sign conventions:
Sign conventions:
(i) (Ii)

(UI)

Work done (.1WJ by a system is taken as positive whereas work done on a system is taken as negative. Heat gained (added) by a system is taken as positive whereas heat lost (extracted) by a system is taken as negative. The increase in Internal energy (ilU) is taken as positive and the .decreas.e In internal energy is taken as negntive.

12.5.2 Limitations of Pinlt Law of Thermpdynamic8

First law of thermodynamics also asserts the equivalence between heat and work. This law tells us that how much work is obtained by transferring a certain amount of heat. However. it fails to explain the following points. (1) You know that heat always flows from a hot body to a cold body. But first law of thermodynamics fails to explain why heat cannot flow from a cold body to a hot body. It means that this law does not indicate the direction of heat flow. (11) This law does nof indicate as to what extent heat ca~ lJe converted into work. (111) You know that when a bUllet strikes on a target. the kinetic energy of the bullet is converted into heat. This law does not indicate as to why heat developed 1n the target cannot be changed into the kinetic energy of bullet to make 1t fly. It means that this law fails to provide the condition under wh1ch heat can be changed into work. Now take a pause and tIy to solve the following questions.

INTEXT QUESTION 12.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. FtU In the blanks
(I)

..........................................................................................................
Work done

The total ,ktnettc, energy oj the

molecule ts called

(tl) 2.

=-w, tt indicates that work is done'

...................................... the system.

~tatejirst

......................................... ........................, ..................................................

law ojthermodynami:s .

12.6 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS

If the thermodynam1c variables of a system change wh1le going from one

240

ThermodynamIcs equilibrium state to another. the system is said to execute a thermodynamic process. For example the expansion of a gas in a cylinder at lIonstant pressure due to heating in a thermodynamic process. Now we will define number of thermodynamic processes. (I) Revenlble process: A process which .:an be returned in the oppoSite diretion from its fmal state to its initial state Is called reversible process. For example (a) Take a piece of ice in a beaker and heat it. You will see that it changes to water. If you remove the same quantity of heat of.water by keeping it inside a refrigerator. it again changes to ice. It means you have returned back to the initial state (ice). (b) Consider a spring supported at one end. Put some mass at its free end. Spring will elongate (increase in length). Now remove the mass. you will see tbat spring retraces to its initial position. Hence it Is a rever3ible process. (Ii) Irreveralble process: A process which cannot be retraced along the same equilibrtum state from final to the initial state is called irreversible process. For example. !O Heat produced during friction. (11) Sugar dissolved in water. and (i!1) Rusting of iron in the environment. (i!1) Ilothermal procell: Any thermodynamic process that occurs at constant temperature is an isothermal process. For example. the expansion and compression of a perfect gas in a cylinder made of perfectly conducting walls. (Iv) AdJ.lbatic procell: Any thermodynamiC process tbatoccurs at constant heat is an adiabatic process. For, example the expansion and compression of a perfect lias in a cylinder made of perfectly insulating walls. (v) Isobaric procell: A thermodynamic process that occurs at constant pressure is an isobaric process. For example. heating of water under atmosphertc pressure Is an Isobaric process. (vi) 'lIochoric procell: A thermodynamic process that occurs at constant volume of the system is an Isochortc process. For example heating of a gas in a vessel of constant volume is an Isochortc process.

12.8.1 Phue Dlaaram

You have learnt that solid. liquid and gas are three states of matter. The dUJilrwnt .tata qf matter are called it. ph..... For example. ict! (soUd). water (liquid) and steam (gas) are three states of ~ water. We can discuss that three phases \ ." I.lsing a three d1mens1onai dlagraIr. drawn \ ~" in pressure (Pl. temperature ('l) and volume c\\ ' (V). To draw and discuss three dimensional , A ,~ and dlagriun may be dlfftcult for you. Thus. I we shall discuss the three phases of matter by drawing a pressure-temperature dlsgram. This Is called ph. . dfatlram.. l'reIIare-temperature phue dI. . . .: , FIg. 12.4 shows phase dlagram of water. In e T, FIg. 12. I you can see three curves: CD. PB p!c.lI.4 I'hasetflatlmmqfwatrr andEF.

0\

\\

,..

j# '"

..

/1

241

Physics Curve CD shows the vartation of melting point of ice with pres"ure. It is known as afusion CUnlt!. Curve PB. shows variation of boiling point of water with pressure. It is known as vaporization curve. Curve EF. shows change of ice directly to steam. It is known as a sublimation curve. This curve is also known as Hoarfrost Line. If you extend the curve AB. CD and EF (as shown In the Figure with dotted lines) they meet at point P. nus point is called triple point. Triple point: It is a point on the phase diagram which represents a particular temperature and pressure of matter. At this point solid. liquid and vapour states of matter can CO-exist.. Stop and try to solve the following questions.

INTEXT QUESTION 12.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1 . Fill in the blanks. (i) A reversible process is that which can be ................ in the opposite directionfrom its final state to its initial state. (Ii) A .................. is that which cannot retrace along the same equUlbriwn state fromftnal state to the initial state.

2. Distinguish between isothermal and adiabatic processes.

0.0
.~

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

n o o.o

3.

State one characteristic ofmple point

0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

12.7 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

According to the first law of thermodynamics you have learnt that heat can be converted Into work. Here one question may arise In your mind whether heat can be wholly converted Into work or not. Also you would be keen to know the conditions under which this conversion occurs. You will get the answers of these questions by a new principle known as Second law qf thermodynamics. There are number of ways to state second law of thermodynamics. However. you will study Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements of second 1IlW of thermodynamics.
(f)

Kelvin-Planck's statement is based upon his experience about the

performance of a heat engine (heat engine is discussed In next section). In a heat engine. the working susbstance extracts heat from the source (hot body). converts a part of It Into work then it rejects the rest of heat to the sink (cold body). There Is no c;nglne which converts whole heat Into work. without rejecting to the sink. These observations .led Kelvin-Planck state second law of thermodynamics as : It is not ~le to obtain a

continuous supply of work from a single 6OW'Ce of heat,

Infact Idea of second body (cold body or sink) Is the basis of Kevin-Planck's statement of second law of thermodynamics.
(if) Clausfsus

statement of second law of thermodynamics Is !lased upon the performance of a refrigerator. A refrigerator is a heat engine working In the opposite direction. It transfers heat from a colder body to a hotter body when external work Is done on it. Here concept of external work done on the system is Important. To do this external wor~ supply of energy from some external source is a must. These observations led Clausius. to state 242

Thermodynamics second hw of thermodynamics in the following form. Heat cannot./fow from a colder body to a hotter body without doing

_ternal work on the working substance.

Thus, second law of thermodynamics plays an unique role for practical deVices like, heat engine and refrigerator.

12.7.1 CUDl)t's Engine and carnot's Cycle

You must have hOtiCed that when water is boiled in vessel closed by a lid, the steam generated inside throws off the lid. This shows that high pressure steam can be made to do work. It shows that transfer of heat results in a situation where work can be done. A device which can continuously convert he!J.t into work is called heat engine. Modern engines which we use in our daily life are based on the principle of heat engine. These may be categorised in three types namely, steam engine, internal combunstion engine and gas turbines. Sadi Carnot in 1824 conceived a theoretical engine which is free from all the defects of practical engine. There are essential components of a heat engine as given below:' (i) Source: A hot body at very high temperature T, which supplies heat to the engine. After supplying any amount of heat its temperature remains constant. (ii) Sink: A cold body at very low temperature T2 to which any amount of heat can be rejected.After Working Substance receiVing any amount of heat its temperature remains constant. Fig. 12.5: (iii) Working substance: Perfect gas filled in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston (Fig. 12.5) The sides of the cylindei" are perfecting insulating.
Conducting
Conducting

SOURCE

SINK

A+T,
. " . 1".8: Carnot Engine

(tv) NOD-conducting stand: A perfectly non-

conducting platform used as a stand for the cylinder. The working substance is subjected to a cycle of four operations: (a) isothermal expansion (b) adiabat~c expansion (c) isothermal . compression and (d) adiabatic compression. Such a cycle is known as Carnot's cycle and is represented on the P-V diagram (Fig. 12 7). To describe four operations of Carnot's cycle. let us fill one gIn. mol of the working substance In the cylinder (Fig. 12.5 ). Original conditions of the substance is represented by point A on th~ indicator diagram. At point A.. substance
243

1
p

c(1',V,1

e
v---;,so-.
Fig. 12.7: IndicatQr Diagrwn

,
H

Physics has temperaturp. T I pressure PI and volume VI' (a) IsotheJ'lll81 expan-slon: Place the cylinder on the source. Decrease load slowly on the piston to P2 The volume of the working substance increase to V2 Thus working substance expands and does external work in raising the piston. In this way the temperature of the working substance tends to fall. As it is kept in thernial contact with the source. it will absorb a quantity of heat. HI from the soUrce at temperature T I 1his way we get point B. At B the values of pressure and VOlllme are P2 and v;. respectively. On the indicator diagram (Flg.12. 7). you see that going from A to B temperature of the system remains constant and working substance expands. We call it iBOthermal expansion process. HI is the amount of heat absorbed in the isothermal expanSion process. Then. in accordance with the first law of thermodynamics HI will be equal to the external work done by the gas during isothermal expansion from A to B at temperature T , . Suppose WI is the external work done by the gas during isothermal expansion AB. then it will be equal to the area ABGEA. Hence
WI

= Area ABGEA

(h) Adiabatic expansion: Now remove the cylinder from the source and

place it on the perfectly non-conducting stand. Further decrease the load on the piston to p . The expansion is completely adiabatic because no heat can enter or leave the working- substance. Therefore working substance performs external work In raising the piston at the expense of its internal energy. Hence its temperature falls. This gas is thus allowed to expand adiabatically until its temperature falls to T2 the temperature of the sink. It has been represented by the adiabatic curve BC on .the indicator diagram. We call it adiabatic expansion. If p V3 be the pressure arid volume of the substance at C. and W. be the work done by the substance from B to C then W2 =Area BCHGB. (c) IsotheJ'lll81 compression: Remove the cylinder from the non-conducting stand and place it on the sink at temperature T. In order to compress the gas slowly. increase the load (pressure) on the piston until its pressure and volume become p. and V. respectively. It is represented by the PQint D on the indicator diagram (Flg.12. 7). The heat developed (H"J due to co~pression will pass to the sink. Thus. there is no change in the temperture of the system. Therefore. it is called as an isothermal COJTqJression process. It is shown by the curve CD (Fig. 12.7). The quantity of heat rejected (H.Jto the sink during this process is equal to the work done (say W.l on the working substance. Hence W. = Area CHFDC (d) AdIabatic compression: Once again place the system on the nonconducting stand. Increase the load on the piston slowly. The substance will go under an adlabatlc compresstoTL This compression continues until the temperature rises to T, and the substance comes back to its original pressure PI and volume V" This is an adiabatic compression process and represented by the curve DA on the indicator diagram (Ftg.12.7). Suppose w. is the work done during this adiabatic compression from D to A then W. = Area DFEAD During the above cycle of operation. the working substance takes HI amount of heat from the source and rejects H" amount of heat to the sink.lfence the net amoulit of heat absorbed by the working substance.

244

ThermodynamIcs

=H,-H,

Ali!lb the net work done (say WI by the engine in one complete cycle
W

= Area ABGEA + Area BCHGB- Area CHFDC -

Area DFEAD

(As you have studied earUer in this lesson that work done by the system is positive and on the system Is negative) W =Area ABCHEA - Area CHEADC (see Fig. 12. 7) =AreaABCD Thus. the work done in one cycle Is represented on a P-V indicator dia!:lram by the area oj the cycle. -

You have studied that the Initial and the final states of the substancp are the same. It means its internal energy remains unchanged and I.ence according to the first law of thermodynamics. we know
W=H, - H2

Therefore. heat has been converted into work done by the system. And any amount of work can be obtained by merely repeating the cycle.

12.7.2 Efficiency of Carnot's Engine

It is defined as ratJp of heat converted into work in a cycle to heat taken from the source by working substance. It is denoted 11 as : tJ= Heat converted in . to worl< Heat taken from source

or

11 = H j -H2
H
j

H2

-r

... (l2.P'
j

It can be shown that fm

arnot's engine.

H2 Hj
Hence.

= T2
Tj

tJ

=1-

... (12.9)

If H2 = 0 (i.e . no heat is rejected to the sink) then 11 = 1 or 11 = 100% It means total heat is converted into work. But in practice there is no such engine. Hence efficiency of an engine is always below 100%. In practice the efficiency of a heat engine is about 12% to 16%.

12.7.3 Limitation of Carnot's Engine

You have studied about the Carnot's cycle in terms of isothermal and adiabatic processes. Here it is important to note that the Isothermal process will only take place when piston moves very slowly. It means there should be sufficient time for the heat transfer from working substance to source. On the other hand. during the adiabatic process the piston moves extremely fast to avoid heat transfer. In practice It Is not possible to fulfill these vital .conditions. Due to these very reasons all practical engines have an efficiency less than the Carnot's engine.

12.7.4 Entropy
Till now you have studied about the various thermodynamic variables namely. pressure (~. temperature In. volume (V] and internal energy (V). vou h<tve also seen that all these variables depend upon each other. Now. 245

, Physics

you will study about a new variable known as entropy. It is denoted by the letter 8 and defined as: entropy is a lIlBaSIU"e of the unavaUabiUt;v qf a system's energy to do work. Mathematically. we can express the change in entropy (AS) during a reversible process. as to or
AS
6.8

= Energy absorbed by the system (Dg) at temperature T

T

= IlQ
T

..... (12.10)

Thus, we can say that when heat is absorbed during a process entropy Increases. And when heat is rejected during a process, entropy decreases. Entropy increases during a reversible process and decreases during a irreversible process. Physical slgDiflcance of entropy - IIolecular dt.nler appi oadl: Till now we have studied entropy In terms of mathematical relation. But we have not analysed whm it physicalIy mean. In a wider sense entropy can be discussed as a measw-e of a system's disorder. If disorder is greater. entropy of the system will be higher. To understand this, let us discuss the fullowing example: Take some quantity of ice in a beaker. Convert it Into water by heating. Here you find that going from ice to water, disorder of the molecules Increases. It means entropy of water is more than the ice. Convert water Into steam by further heating. You will see that disorder of the molecules further Increases. It shows that the entropy of steam is more than water. Hence we can conclude that entropy is a measure of the disorder of the molecules of the system. After studing the earnot's engine and its effiCiency and the entropy take a break.

INTEXT QUESTION 12.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.

State whether the folloWing statements are true or Jalse. (I) In a Carnot engine. when heat is taken by a perfect gas, from a hot SOW"Ce. the temperature oj the sowre decreases .
(it) In a Carnat engine. if the temperture ojsink is decreased the ejJiclency oj engine also decreases .

............................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................
u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .": . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.

(I)

A Carnat engine has the same effic/el1c!l between lOOOK and 500K and beteween T K and lOOOK caln"ate T. .

(it) A Carnat engine working between an wtknown temperature T and ice point given an e.tflciency oJO.68. Deduce the ualue oJT.

.........................................................................................................

3.

Draw ci typical P-V diDgramJor a Canwt cycle and show on it the ann which would represent (i) heat taJcenjrom the sowre (it) heat ~ected to the sink (iii) heat converted into work.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u

4.

Compute the change iTt entropy when 5 kg oj water at 100'C is converted into steam at the same t,emperture.

.......................... .......... ............ ...............................................................

240

12.8 WHAT YOU HAVE LBARNT

Heat Is a form of energy which produces In US the sensation of warmth.

The energy which flows &am a body at higher temperature to a body at Iowa' tanpmdure. betause of temPf'[ature dlfference Is caned heat energt'.

The most commonly known urilt ofheat energy Is calorie. lCal a4.1&J and 1 kCal=IO'
CaL

The degree of hotness of a body Is Its temperature and the device used to l<:mperature Is a thermometer.

IDeII8UJ:e

The thn:e scales of tempeniture wIddy used are the Celsius. Kdvtn and Fahrenheit. A graph which indicates how the pressure !PI of a system varies with Its W>lume during a thermodynamic process,. Is known as an tnd1cator diagram. Work done during expansion or compression of a gas Is ~ P.IIV
R

l'I\S-- V)

Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that If two systems are In thermal equlIIbrtum with a third system. then they must he In tberma1 equtltbrlum with .each ~.
Heat lost a heat gain. In the prln,,!-ple of nlIxture. The total kinetic energy of the molecules of a body Is caned the Internal energy and the relation between Internal energy and work U, - u,.-w. The first law of thermodynamlcs states that the amount of heat given to a system .. equa1 to the sum of change In Internal energy of the system and the external work done. FIrst Law of thermodynamics teUs nothing about the dlrectIon of the ptouss A process which can he retraced In the opposite direction from Its Ilnal state to initial state Is caned reversstb1e process. . A process which can not he retraced along the same equtltbrtum state from ftnal to the initial state Is caned trreversslble process but the process that occuis at constant temperature Is an Isothermal process Any thermodynamlc process that occurs constant heat Is an adlabetlc process. The different states of matt... are called Its phase and the pressure and temperature dIagrsm showing thn:e phases of matt... Is caned a phase diagram.
TrIple PoInt on the phase dtagi'am which I epi esellts a particu1ar temperature and pressure

of matt.... At this point soUd. Uquld and vapour state of matter can co-extst.

According to Kdvtn-Pianck's statement of second law It Is not poastble to obtain .. .conttnuous supply of work from a single source of heat.
According to Clausius statement of second law: Heat can not from a colder body to a hotter body without doing external work on the working substance.

now

The thn:e essenUal requtrements ofimy heat engtne are:

(Q

source from which heat can he drawn

a sink Into which heat can he rejected

Ill!

(III) working substance which performs mecban!ca1 work after being suppbed with heat.

Carnot's engine Is an Ideal engine In which the working substljnce Is subjected to four operauons 1Ilisothermal expansion (II) adlabattc expansion (W) Isothermal compression and 1M adiabaUc compresaton. Such a cycle Is caned Caroot-cycle.

Net worl<-done by the Camot's engine In a cycle = area of the curve Indlcattng the cycle In J>.Vdtagram.
Ellldency of a carnot engine Is
1)
&

H 1- ~.

H," Amount of heat ahoorbed andH"

Amount of heat rejected

= 1-';:'.

T.

EIBcIency does not depend upon the nature 01 the working substance

"

T" Temperature of the soun:e. 8J;Id T. m Temperature of the sink

'

Phystcs
Entropy Is a m~asure of the unavallablUty of systems energy to do work and "mathematically AS =

AS = change In entropy and AQ = energy absorbed by the system at

temperature T.

12.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. 2.

3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10.
11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Distinguish between the terms Internal energy and heat energy. At what temperature do the Celsius and the Fahrenheit scales coincide? What do you mean by an indicator diagram. Derive an expression for the work done during expansion of an Ideal gas. Define temperature using the Zeroth law of thermodynamics. State the principle of mixture. State the IIrst law of thermodynamics and Its Ilmltations. What Is the difference between Isothermal, adlabettc. isobaric and Isochoric processes? State the Second law of thermodynamlcs. Discuss "reversible and Irreversible process with examples. ExplaIn Carnot's cycle Use the indicator diagram to lind out the efficiency o(Carnot Engtne. FInd the change In Intemal energy of the system when (a) a system absorbs 2000J of heat and produces 500J of work (hI a system absorbs 1100J of heat and 400J of work is done on It. A Carnot's engtne whose temperature of the source Is 400K takes 200 calories of heat at this temperature and r~ects 150 calories of heat to the sink. (II what Is the temperature of the smk. (111 Calculate the efficiency of the engtne. A Carn<>t's engtneworking as refrigerator between 260 Kand 300KreceIves 500 calories of heat from the reservoir at the lower temperature. Calculate (II the amount of heat r~ected to the reservoir at the higher temperature and (111 the amount of work done In eaeh cycle to operate the refrigerator. What do you meaIj by entropy of a system. Discuss Its physical Significance. Calculate the change In entropy when 10 grams of Ice at O'C Is converted tnto water at the same temperature.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS Intext Questions 12.1

1. 2. 3. 4. 574.25 (I) Temperature (tt) C (11t) Calorie

See section 12.4.2 (a) P (V,- VII; (h) -PI IV.- VI)

Intext Questions 12.2

1. 2.

(I) Internal energy (tt) on It states that the amount of heat gI\>en to a system Is equaI to the sum of change In Intemal energy of the system and the extemal energy. \.

Intext Questions 12.3

1.
(I) retrace (tt}lrreversIble

2. 3.

An Isothermal process occurs at constant temDCmture whereas an adiobatic process occurs at constant heat. At triple point aD three states of matter I.e. solld. Uqutd and ""pour co-cx\st.

Intext Questions 12.4

1.
(I) False (II) True

3. 4.

(I) 2(lOOK (U) 853.1K See ~ 12.6.2 7240 cal/K.

TERIONAL QUESTIONS
11. 12. 13.
15.
(a) 1500 Joules, IbI 700 Joules (I) 300

K. (U) 25'16

(I) 576.92 cal. Iu) 323.08 Joules

As = 2.93 cal/K.

249

13
TRANSFER OF HEAT

13.1 INTRODUCTION
, In the previous lesson, we have studied thennodynamics. From the first law of thennodynamics, we lmow that the heat energy flows from warmer bodies to cooler bodies. In the present lesson we will go on to learn about the processes or ways by which bodies heat or cool. We already have some idea regarding these processes of heat transfer. The radiant energy from the sun comes to us after passing through the vacuum space between the earth and sun. This energy is essential for life to survive on our planet earth. Do you lmow that each.one of us radiates energy at the rate of nearly 70 watts? Here we will study the radiation in details. We will also learn about the method of finding the temperatures of stars which you lmow, are very far away from us. The other processes of heat transfer require the presence of a material medium. When one end of a metal is heated, the other end also becomes hot. Heat energy falling on the walls of our homes enters the room through this process called conduction. Similarly when you heat water in a pot the water mlecules near the bottom get theheat first. They move from the bottom of the pot to the water surface by a process called convection. After turning off the heat you find that the hotter water is near the surface. The water near the base of the pot might be cooler. We will learn more about all the processes of heat transfer in this unit. We will also learn what role heat transfer plays in our liVes. In the unit we will learn about the measurement of quantity of heat.

13.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to : distinguish between the three modes of heat transfer I1Ll.Il1ely conductton, convection and radiation. define the coeffident of thermal conductivity and solve problems based on conduction. describe the principle and construction ofa perfectly black body and draw graph between intenSity and wavelength of radiant energy at different
remperatures.
state Wlen's Law andStefan - Boltzmann Law, and solve problems based

on these laws. explain phenomena based on heat transfer.

Transfer of Heat

13.3 PROCESSES OF HEAT TRANSFER

We have learnt the laws of thermodynamics in the previous lesson. According to the second law. heat by itself can flow only from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature. The transfer of heat continues until the temperatures equalize. We also know that temperature of a gas is related to its a'O'erage kinetic energy. In the kinetic theory' of gases. the average kinetic energy of g'dS molecules is related dtrectly to its temperature. Masses of the same gas at different temperatures have different average kinetic energy. When the two masses are mixed the gas molecules collide with each other many times. This results in a new average kinetic energy and a new final temperature. The transfer of heat. equivalently. takes place from a mass of the gas having higher average }<inetic energy to the mass having lesser average kinetic energy. There are three PJ;"ocesses by which heat transfers. They are conduction. convection and radiation. In conduction and convection -heat transfers through A..-=_____--::,..,B molecular motion. Let us understand how this I-=-' --I happens.
(aj The process of conduction is more common in

metals. The moelcules in such material are tightly bound. When heated they do not flyaway. They are constraint to vibrate about thetrequilibrium positions. Let us heat a metal rod at the end A (Fig.13.1). The .... 13.1:HeatCond<.ctfon molecules near the end A become hot first. Their kinetic in the melal radjrom A 10 B energy increases. They collide with their nearest neighbouring molecules and pass on to them some of thetr kinetic energy (K.E.). These molecules further collide with their own neighboures and transfer some K.E. to them. This process continues until the kinetic energy is transferred to molecules at the other end B of the rod. As average kinetic eneI"gy is proportional to the temperature; the end B gets hot. Thus. heat is transferred from molecule to molecule by conduction. In this process the molecules do not .... 13.2: Convection bodily move but simply uwrate. currents in water when (h) In convection the process is little different. The heated. molecules of fluids when heated move up bodily. Let us take some water in a flask. and put some grains of potassium pennangnate (KMnO.) at its bottom and heat. As the flq.id. near the bottom gets heated it expands. The buoyant force causes its upward movement (Fig.13.2) to the surface. Jts space is taken by the cooler and denser fluid which moves down. Thus a convection current of hotter fluid goirlg up and cooler fluid going down are set. The flUid gradually beats up. These conVl'.Ction currepts can be seen as KMnO4 colours them red. (c) In radiation heat energy moves in the form of waves. We will learn about the character of these waves later (Book 4). These waves can pass through vacuum and do not require the presence of any material medium for their propagation. The heal from the sun comes to us mostly by radiation. Let us study. these processl's in details .
.,CI

IS.S.1 Conduction
Consider a rectangular slab area A and thickness d. Its two faces are mamtaJned at temperatures '1;, and T. by two reservoirs ITh > d T) (Fig. 13.3). Let us consider all the factors on which the quantity of heat transferred, Q from one face to another depends. We can intuitively fed that the larger the area. A the A greater will be the heat transfer IQ a AI. Also T...... thegmlter the thiclmess, d the lesser will be L _____ the heat transfer IQ a II d). Heat transfer will be greater if the temperature difference between the face, (T - T) is greater. FlnaIIy h the longer the time, t allowed for heat transfer . the Q. .... 18.3: Heat - - """"'" a the gmlter _<!fll_ ..... d_auo:ji:oa< .."""'.

.,

Thus. or

Qo

A(T. -T)t
h

whenlhe.fi>cesarelcrptat~
T._T~

Q =KA(Th -Te)t .. 113.1} d Where K is a constant which depends on the nature of the material of
whichtheslabismade.ltiscalledthe~qf""'aud~

or simply, the thermal conduct1v1ty of the material. 'The value ofK for some matertals is gtven in Table 13.1. JI:anpIe 13.1 : A cublcal therrnacole box. .fUll qf ice, has side 80 em and thickness qf 5.0 an. if outside temperature is 45"C, estimate the amount qf ice meUal in 6 II. (KjOrthermacole is 0.01 J s-' ,n-'6"c-', latent heatqfjusfon oftce is 335 J fT'). SoIatIGa: The quantity of heat transferred into the box can be obtsinrd using Eq. 13.1.

KA(Th-Te)t

d '" 0.01 J s-J m-1 "C-' x 900 x Io-'ni' x 45C x 6 x 60 x 60s I 5 xlD-" m. = 104976J The mass of ice melted, m can be obtained by d1vIdIng Q by 1..

m=Q/L
104976J

-3235Jg
MateI1al Copper AIumintum.
Concrete

= 313g

2'aWe J3.1 : ~ CondueCfDfeu q f _ .........

400

240 .1.2

Glass Water Body Fat Air

~'*termaco1e

08
0.60 0.20 0.025 0.01 252

Transfer of Heat We can see from the Table 13.1 that metals such as copper have high thennal conductivity. This Implies that heat flows with more ease through copper. This is the reason why cooking vessels .and heating pots are made of copper. On the other hand air has very low thermal conductivity. Substances having low value of K are sometlmes called thermal Insulators. We wear woolen clothes during winter because wool prevents heat loss from our body. Wool Is a good thermal insulator because alr is trapped between its fibres. it reduces heat loss from our body. The trapped heat gives us a feeling of warmth. In the summer days when we have a slab of ice. we want to protect it from melting. We therefore put the ice in a ice box which is made of low thermal conductivity material such as thermacol. Sometimes we wrap the ice slab with jute bag which also has low thermal conductivity.

13.3.2 Convection
The process of convection is more common in fluids. When part of a fluid Is heated it expands. Its density lowers and It rises due to buoyance. nus results In a convection current which flows from hot region to cold region. As hot fluid leaves a region. pressure decreases. This causes colder fluid to move from surrounding to the low pressure region. This again results in convection current in the opposite direction. Suppose we are walking by the sIde of aIake or ocean On a hot day. We feel a cool breeze. why? Due to con!iDuous evaporation of water from its surface. tpe temperature of water falls. Warm air from the shore rises and . moves towards the ocean/lake (Fig. 13.4). This creates a low pressure area on the shore. This causes cooler air from water surface to move to the shore. We feel this breeze wbilewalking on the shore. The net effect of these convection ~ ;:\ currents is the transfer of heat from the shore. . which is hotter. to water. which is cooler. The c.,. .," ~.' rate of heat transfer. depends on many factors. ~~ ""There is no simple equation for convection as shore =- -:. -= ----~:::-:::;J there is for conduction. However. the rate of ;: ~ ~ ~~ heat traruifer by convection depends on the temperature difference between the .sc. 13.4 : Olrwedion cwnmts. Hot air .from the shore rises and surf- and also on their areas. moves towards cooler water. The Nowlet as cheek how much you ba_leanlt conuenctfon CIIJ"ref1t.from water ID the shores is eJtperienced as roo! about the methods of heat transfer. breeze.

INTEXT QUESTION 13.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1) Distinguish the dUference between conduction and convection.
u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2) VerifY that the Wlits of K are J s-' m-' "C"' .

........................ ........................ ...................................................................

~

3) EKpIain. why do humans wrap themselves with woolens In winter season?

.....................................................................................................................
4) A rectangular slab of swjace area 1 m' and thickness 1 m is made up of a material ofco-efficient ofth.ermt:d conductivity K Jm-' s-' "C"'. The opposite

253

faces of the slab are maintained at I"C ternperatz.Ire clgference. C'.ornpr.Ik the energy transferred across the swface in one second. and henre gfrJe a verbal dejinitfan ofK. .
............................................................. u ............................................................ .

5} During the summer the land mass of India gets very hot. But the air over the Indian oceondoes rwtget as hot. This results in the onset ofmansoons.

EKplain this phenomenon ofmonsoort scfent:!Ik:al1y.

13.4 RADIATION
The term radiationrefem to the continual emission ofeneJgV from the surfaces of an bpdies. 1bis energy is called the radlant energy and is in the fontl of' electxiMiagnetlc wavm. These waves travel with the velo!:1ty of light ( = 3 xlO" BUiI) and are transmitted through vacuum as well as through air. They can easily be retlected from poHshed surfaces and focussed using a lens. An bodies emit radiation with wavelengths that are chracteriStlc of the body's temJ:wature. The sun, at 6OOOK. emits eneJgV mainly in the visible spec... urn. The earth at an ideal radiation temperature of255K. radiates energymainly in thefar infrared (heat) .-eglon of electromagnetic spectunn. The human body radl"tes energy in the infrared region. Let us now.perform a sbnple experiment. Take a piece of blackened platinum wire in a dark room. Pass through it electrical CtII"Ient whi~ serves to heat the wire. Gradually inc.-ease the magnitude of the CtII"Ient. After sometime the wire becomes warm and emitS radiant energy. When you J.lIlS8 a sllghtfy stronger CU1Te11t the wire wlll begin to glow with duD .-ed Ught. 1bis shows that the wire is just emitting .-ed radia~n of sufficient intensity to affect the human eye. kcurate observation has shown that thia takes place at nearJy 525"C. With Increase in temperature. the colour of the emitted radiation will change from duD red to chenyred (at nearly 9OOO"C). to orange (at nearly .ll~ to yellow (at nearly 125O"C). Until at about 16OO"C. it becomes wbJte. What do you infer from this? FIrstly." the temperature "of a luminous body can be estimated from its Colour. Secondly. with the :Increase in tClDJelature. more waves of shorter wavelengths (!lince red light 18 oflonger ~ than orange. yellow etc.) are emitted by a heated body in sufflcle!!t \ntensity.Vlce-veraa. you may argue that when the tempetature of the wire is below 52S"C.ltemits waves longer than red. but these waves.can be detected oriIy by tl1eIr heafinl! effect

13.4.1 Spec;hum of the Radfant Enm:gy

At any t .....perature.the radiant energy emitted by Ii. body is a mixture of WIlVf:8. of different wavelengths. ." The most intense of these waves will have a particular . wavelength (~1J. At 4OO"C the 1..; will be about 5 x ..J, 10"' em or 5pIn{l mk:roIi 11 = 10'lm) for a copper block.1r . The intensity decreases for wavelengths either greater . L"..,fC,--'-.,L"'7'"~...,.-J or less than this value (FIg. 13.5). ,t , '-4,) 1 . . . . Evidently area between each curve and the horizontal ".. 1lI~ and -_"'tis represents the total rate of radiation at that

-.

254

Transfer of Heat

verItY the following two facts.

temperature.

temperature (How?). You may study the curves shown in FIg. 13.5 and

1) The rate of radiation at a particular temperature (Iepresented by the area between each curve ~d the horizontal axis) increases rapidly with

2) Each curve has a definite energy maximum and corresponding to that a wavelength i.., (i.e. wavelength of the most intense wave). The A,. shifts towards 1eft. or towards shorter wavelengths with increasing temperature. ThIs second fact can be expressed quantitatlvely bywhat Is known as Wien's displacement law.

13.4.2 Wien's Law

ThIs Iawwas actually deduced from thermodynamic considerations. It simply stcUes that 1. shifts towanIs shorter wavelenths as the temperature of a body is fncreasecl. This law is. strictly.vaid only for black bodies (about which we are gOing to discuss shortIV). Mathematically

.... (13.2) The constant in Eq. 13.2 is found to have a vlaue of 2884 micron-kelvin. ThIs furnishes us with a simple method of detenntntg the temper ..ture of an ra~ting bodies including those in the heavens. The radiation spectrum of the moon has a peak at A,. = 14 microns. Using Wien's Law (Eq. IS.2) we get
T= constant

A IX.l m T or. A.. T =constantl

1m

= 2884micronK = 206K
14 microns

Thus we deduce the temperature of the lunar surface to be 206K.

13.4.3 EmfMhe Powea 1IIUl.Ab8orpttve Powea

The curves in F1g.1S.5 clearly show that at a particular temperature and fOr a particularwavelength range 1 to dA. the rate of f'IIlis$ion (I.e. - . a t of ftIdiant -erw emitted per square metre area qf a $UTfru:e. per seeoruIJ. per unit wavelength range. is constant. Hence at a given temperat;ure and wavelength. the energ,Y. emitted by a surface can be best expressed in terms of We will. hereafter. refer to as tbe:~fssfDe power of the surface at a given temperature and wavelefutth. For convenience. let us put in the form of a derivative. . I' 'TLet, dE~ = Amount of energy emitted by A,a" area of a surface in one second Within the wavelerigth range 1 and 1 + dl (of course. at a given temperature). and. dl = Wavelength interval.

e..

e... e..

e..

then

e.. = dEl. dl.

...(I3.S)

When -radiation Is ii>cldent overa surface. a part of it gets reflected. a part oftt gets transmitted and rest are absorbed. Of course. for diffOOlt surfaces. degreesofIdlect1on. tnmsmisaionand absorption will be dlfIerent. We know from our experiences in everyday life that a bright polished surface reflects most of the radiation incident upon it, whereas a rough black surface ~ most of the radiation falling on it. We define absOIptwe power a" of

'ZSs

PhysiCs

a surface, as a,. (at a given temperature and wavelength) Total amount of radiation absorbed betweenl and l + d.t = Total amount of radiation Incident between land l+ d.t

........(13.4)

13.5 BLACK BODY RADIATION AND KlRCBOWS LAW

As we have already pointed out, when radiation falls on matter, It may be partly reflected, partly absorbed and partly transmitted. If for a particular wavelength ;t, and for a given surface r. = fraction of total Incident energy reflected. a,. = fraction of total Incident energy absorbed (absorptive power of the surface). t" = fraction of total Incident energy transmitted then obviously.
1

= r. + a,. + t"

.....(13.5)

For perfectly black body, r. = t" =0, and a,. = 1. Thus, radiations inCident over black bodies will be totally absorved. LalnP black is the nearest approach to such a body. Apparently, it neither reflects nor transmits the light which falls on it, absorbs all, and hence appears black. But the perfectly black body does not exist In nature, for even the lamp black is found to transmit light of long wavelength. It absorbs about 96% of visible light, p1atinumpblack absorbs about 98%. A perfectly white body. in contrast, is defined as a body with a,. = 0, t,. 0 and r. = 1. A piece of whIte chalk approximates to a perfectly white body.

,=

13.5.1 Kirchoff's Law

We now want to discuss about what is known as Kirchoff. law wbich Is true only for temperature radiation. The term temperature radiation needs a little elaboration. Material substances at all temperatures are found to radiate, at low temperatures radiation of long wavelengths and if raised to hIgher temperature radiation of smaller wavelengths. Such kind of radiation is temperature radiation. Other methods of making matter-to emft radiation such as by passing electric discharge through tts gilseous state, or by chemical actions as In flames, do not come under this categOlY. In order to deduce Kirchoffs law, we take an enclosed space and let its waIls be opaque to radiation of all wavelengths. The waIls are first Imparted a uniform temperature and then thermally InsuIated from the surrou,ndiDgs. Imagine the enclosure to be filled with radiation being emitted by the waIls haVing wavelength lying between l and l + dt Let a body A be placed inside it. It Is not difficult to prove that whatever the initial temperature of a body might have been, it will ultimately acquire the temperature of the waIls, i.e., A will come In thermal equilibrium with its Immediate surroundings. Now, since the temperature is constant, the rate of emission of A must be , equal to its rat~ of absorption of energy. For the given temperatu."e of the body if e,. is the! emisstve power of the surface then the energy emitted per square metre, per second, between A and l +d.t will be e,. "'- (Ref. Eq. 13.3). Let the energy falling on unit area per second within the same wavelength range and teinperature be dQ. If for the given temperature and wavelength, absorptive power is a,., then the total energy absorbed per uDlt area per second will be a dQ (Ref. Eq. (13.4)).
256

Transfer of Heat

SInce. the body Is in thermal equllibrtwn. energy emitted by the body can be equated. to the energy 8bsorbed and we have.
e~dl = a~dQ

. a.. ..

dQ .... (13.6) a~ eLl. We know that for any given temperature. dQ is a constant. So for a fixed range ofwa.velength dl. dQwill be constant. This Implies that e../a..1s a cosntant for any surface. in case of a perfectly black body. let. E,. be the emlssM: power and be the absorptive power, where of course, 1. Using Eq. (13.6) for such a perfectly black bexly. E,.dl=ldQ ...(13.7)

or

-=-

e~

a..

~=&,
tU.
Eq. (13.6) and Eq. (13.7) give
el

... (13.8)

=&,

a1

... (13.9)

Eq. (13.8) is known as Kircht.!trs law which can be stated as follows: At an:g temperature the ratio ofemfSsir1e power to the ahsorptille poiWtIr qf a substance is constant aruf equal to the enaissme power qf a peifectly black bodg. We have proved the law here for bodies Inside the enclosure. A Uttle oons!de:ratlonwill showthat, since the emtsslve and absorptive power depend only upon the physical nature of the body and not upon its surroundings. ~ law will hold for aD bodIes under aD conditions for pure temperature radiation. This law cleapy Implies that bodies with high e;mtss1ve powers /good emitters) will also have very high absorptive powers (good absorbers) since the ratio of these Is constant for a given temperature and wavalength range. But since each body must either absorb or reflect the radJant energy reaching it, a good absorber must be a poor reflector (or good emttter).

13.5.2 DesIgning A Black Body

Kkchoffs law also enables us to design a perfectly black bodyfQr experimental purposes. We go back to an en<;1osure at"constant tmperature containing radiations betweQJ. wavelength range 1 and 1 + cU. Now let us makI: a sman hole in the enclosure and examine the radiatlon escaping out of It.This radiation Is made up of single, double, triple. etc. refIectton from the waDs. Thus. If the reflecting power of the surface of the wallis r. while the emtestve powea ~ the total radiation escaping out Is

e...

'" el+e.1.r+e1r2 +el r3 + ...

} = el n+r+r 2 +r3+ ...

=1-r

el

.. .. (13.10)

But from Ktrchoft's Law -

e1 al

=E
157

Physics

e,. = Ea,. or. Where E is the emission from a black: body. opaque (i.e. t = 0) from Eq. (13.5.)
a1 = 1 - r
Substituting from in Eq. (13.11), we get
e.=E(l-rj

...(I3.11)
It now walls

are assumed to be

... (13.12)

or

i=E I-r

...(13.13)

Comparing Eq. (13.10) and Eq.(l3.15) It is clear that the radiation emerging out of the hole will be nearly identical with radiation from a perfectly black emissive surface. Smaller the hole, the more completely black the emitted radiation is. So we see that the uniformly heated enclosure With a small cavity behaves as a black body towards emission. Again such an enclosure behaves as a perfectly black: body towards incident radiation also. For any ray passing into the hole will be reIlected internally within the enclosure and will be unable to escape outside. TIlis may be further improved by blackening the inside. Hence the enclosre is a perfect absorber and behaves as a perfectly black body. In Fig. 13.5. such a black: body due to Fery has been shown. There is a cavity in the fonn of a hollow sphere With its Inside coated with black o material and has a small conical opening O. Note the conical projection P opposite the hole O. This is to avoid direct radiation from the surface opposite the hole which would otherwise make the body not perfectly black.

13.5.3 Stefan-Boltzmann Law

..... 18.6: Fery's bIocIc bod!J

On the basis of experimental measurement Stefan and Boltzmann concluded that the radiclnt energy emitted per second..fronl a surf- of ana A could be expressed by the relation

IE = Ae

(J

1"

...............(13.14)

where (J is a constant. called Suuan-Boltzmann constant and has the value 5.672 x 10-" J/m"sK". Tis the Kelvin temJ>erature of the surface and e is a quantity, sometimes called the emfsstrity or relative emittance. it depends upon the nature of the surface and temperature. The value of e lies between 0 and I being small for polished metals and I for perfectly black materials. One may tend to think from Eq. (13.14) that If the surfaces of all bodies are continually emitting radiant energy, wby don't they eventually radiate away all their internal energy and cool down to a temperature of absolute zero [where E = 0 from Eq. (13.1411. The answer is that they would do so if energy were not supplied to them in some way. In fact. all the objects are both radiattng and absorbing radiant energy Simultaneously. If a body is at the same temperature as its surroundings, the rate of emission is same as the rate of absorption. there is not net gain or loss of energy. and no change in temperature. However, if a body is at lower temperature than its surroundings, the rate of absorption will be greater than the rate of emission. Its temperature Will rise till Is equal to the room temperature. Similarly if a
258

Transfer of Heat body is at higher temperature, the rate of emission will be greater than rate of absorption. There will be a net energy loss. Hence for such a body at a temR!rature T, with surroundings at a temperature T2 , the amount of net energy loss (T,>T,.l per second is E"",= Aeu (T,'-T24), forT, > T2 ... (13.10)
Example 13.2 : Determine the swface area of the .fi1mnent of a 100 W incandescant lamp at 3000 K. Given 0' = 5.7 x 10"" Wnr' K-4, and emissivity

e ofthe.filament = 0.3.

Solution: According to Stefan-Boltzmann law E= eAO'T'

Where,
= Rate of energy emltted = 100 W A = Surface area T = Tempeature of the s11rface = 3000 K
E

E Hence, A = OOT4

________~10~7_----~m2
0.3x5. 7x10 -i! =7.25xlO-5 m 2
X (3000)4

Now it Is time to check your understanding. Solve the following questior. 3.

INTEXT QUESTION/ 13.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1) At what wavelength does a cavity radiator at 300K emit most radiatiDn?

2) Why do we wear light colour clothinp during swnmer?

0

3) State the importantfacts, which one can obtainftom the experimental study of the spectrwn of black body radiation.

.... ............................................................................................................
,

4)

A person of skin temperature 28C is present in a room of tempeature 22C.Asswning the emissivity of skin to be unity, and swjace area of the person 1.9 m 2 , compute the radiant power of this person.

.............. ..................................................................................................
~

13.6 APPLICATIONS OF LAWS OF RADIATION IN

DAILY LIFE
Laws of radiation have many applications in daIly life situations. let us discuss three of them.

13.6.1 Solar Constant

Stefan-Boltzmann law can be used to determine the solar constant at different planets of the solar system. Let the radius of the sun be r. then"
259

Physics

total amount of energy em1tted by the sun in one second (assuming sun to be a black body) using Eq. 13.14 is = (4 It rA) x (0"1") (13.16) Where. T =Temperature of the sun 0" z Stefan-Boltzmann constant ....... , Then the amount of energy Ereceived per unit surface , ... of the earth in one second is (using Eq. 13. 16)
",,"

= 41tR2 =(I-)2 R a T4

... (13. 17)

\\

,I
\

1- \
. \

---

Where, R =Distance between the sun and the earth. Eq. (13.17) gives the solar constant at the earth. If solart:onstant of any other plane is a, distant R'from the sun is E', then

...
...

EMno

--- "

'

"..13.7:

E'=
Hence E'
'E

(~r aT4

...(13.18)

= (.B..)2
~

...(I3.19)

From Eq. (13.19) it is clear that tf E and are knawn E' can be calculated. The solar constant for the earth is found to be 1.36 x lOS Jm4 9""1. The solar constant at mars whose distance from the sun is 1.52 times that of the earth,will be approxiI!lateIy 6 x 1()2 Jnr" 9""1 [Using Eq.{l3.19)J.
1~.6.2

Greenhouse Effect

.In a greenhouse, plants, flowers, grass etc. are enclosed in a glass structure. The glass allows short wavelength radiation light to enter. This radiation is absorbed by plant's matter. It is subsequently reradiated In the form of longer wavelength heat radiation, infrared. The longer wavelength radiations are not allowed to co.bIenk8t. escape from the greenhouse as glass is effectiVely opaque to heat. That heat radiation is thus trapped in the greenhouse keeping it W1i.rm. Slm1lar effect takes place in our atmosphere. The atmosphere whi<;h contains a carbon dioxide blanket. is transparent to visible light. Thus, the sun's light passes through the atmosphere and falls on the earth's surface: The earth absorbs, th1a light . and subsequently emits it as infrared radiation. The. carbon dioxide layer isopaque to ttifran:d nod\atlOn. .... la;Ik a-n_dIoct It is reflected, rather than transmitted, in the atmosphere, n-tafning tl,le heat. This effect again is the greenIiouse * t I : f e e t . ' .

13.6.3 Newton's Law of Cooling

I,.et us deduce Newton's law of cooling. Newton's law of cooling states duIt the rate ofloss ofh8at (cooUngl of a hot body Is cIfnIctfv po GjiGi doual

to the mean excess of temperature of the hot IJocfJr "..,. duIt qf its surrounding pr1XIided theclVference of teJnperatunr Is .,."wnaIL

Transfer of Heat

Let a body at temperatureTK be sutrounded by another body at TaK. The rate at which heat is lost per unit area per second by the hot body is
E '"

ecr( T4 - To 4 )

(13.20)

= ea(T-To )(T'+T2 To +TT02 +T.') !fIT-T) is very small, T- 7;, T' - To', T2'L'0 - TIo E=ea(T- To ) 4To 3 E=k(T-To ), where k =4ea To 3
2 -

. (13.21)

To

... (13.22)

Ibis is the Newston's law of cooling, Take a pause and try to solve the following questions

INTEXT QUESTION 13.3 - - - - - - - - - - 1. How many watts of power will be received by a regwn 40m wide and SOm long located on the swface of the earth?

.............................................................................................. .. ............... .
~

2.
3.

A planet which has rarer atrrwsphere is cooler. Explain.

................. ............................... ................................................................

~

Using the relation ci' -Ii' = (a+ b) (a- b) establish Eq.13.21 starting from Eq.13.20.

.................................................... ................ ................ ......

...

.................. .

3.~ WHAT YOUBAVE LEARNT

Heat by Itself flows from a body at hlgh temperatwc (0 a body at lower temperatute. There are three pr<}Cesses by which heat Is transferred. They ar~ conduction, convection gnd radiation. . In conduction heat Is transferred by collision of molecules which vibrate about their fixed posillons. . , In convection heat Is transferred by bodily motion of moleCUles. In-radiation heat Is transferred through electromagnetic waves. The quantlly of heat transferred by conduction Is given by

Q = K(T.-T.)At d
WelD's Law. The spectrum of radiant energy by a body at temperature 1lKl has a .maxlma at wavelength A., such that A.T =cons.tant ( =2880 ~IO Stefan-Boltzmann Law. The rate of energy radiated by a source at 1lKl1s given by E = <!OAT" .

The ab80rptlve power a Is deflned as Total amount of energy absorbed betwcm Aand A+ d). a= . Total amount of incident energy between Aand A+ d).
The _ power of a surface e" Is the amount of radiant energy emitted per square

.....

Physics
metre area per second per unit wavelength range at a given temperature. The solar constant for the earth Is 1.36 x 1()3 Jm- 2 s- Newton's Law of cooling. The rate of cooling of a body is p';'portionalto the excess temperature En IT - TJ.

13.8 TERMINAL QUESTION

1. A thermosfllll'k (FIg.I3.9) Is made of a douhle walled glass bottle enclosed In metal container.the bottle contains some IIquld whole Cork stopper temperature we want to maintain. Look at the diagram carefully and explain how the CUP construction of the flask helps In mlnlmtztng heat transfer due to conduction. convection and radiation. 2. The wavelength corresponding to emission of energy maxima of a star is 4000A. Compute the temperature of the star. (lA=lO" em).
VdC1/UITl

3. A blackened solid copper sphere of radius 2 em . Is placed In an evacuated enclosure whose walls Insulating are kept at IOOOC. At what rate must energy be material ~~~~~~~~ supplied to the sphere to keep Its tempera! ure constant at I27C. 4. Commont on the statement A good absorber must be a good emitter.
FIg. 13.9:

5. A copper pot whose bottom surface Is 0.5 em thick and 50 cm In dlamter ...,.ts on a llumer which maintains the bottom surface of the pot at 1 IOC. A steady heat flows through the bottom Into the pot. where water bolls at atmosphenc pressure. The actual temperatUre of the Inslde surface of the pot bottom Is I05C. How many kilograms of water bolls off In one hour. 6. 7. Deline the coeffiCient of thermal conductlvjty. Ust the factors on which It depends.
/

Distinguish between conduction and convection methods of heat transformer.

8. If two or more rods of equal area of cross~section are connected In series. show that their equlvalent thermai resistance Is equal to the sum of thermal resltance of each rod. (Note: Thermal resistance Is reciprocal of thermal condUCtivity] 9. Ratio of coefIIc1ent of thermai conductlvlties of the dlfferent materials Is 4:3. J'o.have the same thermal resistance of the two rods of these materials of equal thickness. what should be the ratio of their lengths? 10. Why do we feel warmer on a winter night when clouds cover the sky than when the sky Is dear? II. Why does a pelce of copper or Iron appear hotter to touch than a ",mllar piece of wood even when both are at the same temperature? 12. Why Is It more difficult to Sip hot tea from a metal cup than from a china-clay cup? 13. Why are the woollen clothes warmer than cotton clothes? 14. Why do who layers of cloth at equal thickness provide warmer coverfng than a single layer of cloth of double the thickness? 15. Can the water be"bolled by connection inside an earth satellite? 16. A 500 W bulb Is globtng. We keep our one hand 5 em above It and other 5 em below it Why more heat Is experienced at the upper hand? . 17. Two vessels of different material are Identical In size and In dimensions. They are lIlIed With equal quantity of Ice at OC. If Ice In bothvessles metls completely'ln 25 mfnUtes and In 20 minutes than compare thermal. conductlvltles of metals of both vessels. 18. Calculate the thermal resistivity ofa copper rod 20.0 em. length and 4.0cm. tn dlamter~

262

Transfer of Heat
Thermal conductivity of copper = 9.2 x 10-' acrosss the ends of rod be 50C. calculate the rate of heat flow.

ANSWERS TO THE INTEXT QUESTION

Intext question 13.1
The energy 1ransferred Is equal to K the coefficient of thermal conductivity Is the amount of heat energy transferred In one second across the faces of a rectangular slab of area 1m'. and thickness 1m. when they are kept at a temperature difference of IC. 2. The moisture laden air over the ocean 1s cooler than the air near the land. This causes convection currents. The hot dry air over the land rises up and creates a low pressure region. This causes the moist air from the ocean to move to the land. The water content of this air is so large that It appears as clouds and eventually we have monsoon showers over the land. I

Intext question 13.2

I.

A.

Wien's constant

Temperature
28801lK 300K

=9.6" 2. Hint: woolens trap air which has low thermal conductivity. 3. 66.4W.

Inten question 13.3

1.

Solar constant x area =2.7x I()5W

2. (T' -T:) = (T' -T.')(T' +T:) = (T-Toj(T+T.J(T' +T.') = (T-T.)IT' +T' T. +TT: +T:

263

14
ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

] 4.1 INTRODUCfION
In our day to day life. we are dr.pendent OIl eleetrieity. An electric power failure dtmons!ndes our dependence - lights in our homesIscbooIs go out. fans mdI~ coolers stop worting. radio. T.V. and computer cannot be opezatN, in village field cannot be inipted lIS pumps titils. electric trains and elevators stop. This list is DOt c:ompleIe and you am add liliiii)' more things. Our dependet1ce OIl electricity nms evea deepct !ban our niliImce on elcdric:al machinery and home appJiances/pdgeIry. As you all know, eIecIricity is inhemn in all the atoms - of whicb our own body aod cnvironmant is made of. Thus our immediate environment-bebaviour is dominaIed by the behaviour of eIectrU: ct.ps it oontains.. We

knowtbatmatterconsislsofelemeillllrycbargedparticles:eIceIronsandpiOlladand ____ In the following lesson,we will study about the &ictioaal elec:Iri4:ity.lIlIIUre of electric: cIIIage and then about !be electric field produced by them. We willlllso Jeam about electric forces and Ibeir effects. Broadly speaking all these~, under the beactina of electrostalics which is a bnmch of physics desling wilb cIwges at rat.

14.2 OBJECfIVES
After studying Ibis lesson. you sbould be able to : explain frictional electricity and give the QCCOIII'It ofil8 hi~toricoJ ....,opment; sllde basic properties of the electric t:hiuge'anti expIDiII the _ingofquantiMllion and ("lIIServotion ~fcharges; slale Coulomb's law and write it in lIf!elal'lIOloIion ; explain the princ:iple ~fsuperposition; define elpetric field at a point due to an electric charge; drllw electric field lines ofa charge Or two apposite eharges; {# define elect,.icdipole and ita _ n t andderiw ~for tlte electricfieidintemity dUt' ta tJiI eleclric dipole; Slull! Guuu-theorem and Us signijicant.'t! and use it for determining electric field ofa POint chu'1(f!, IOllg wire. spherical shell.,olid sphere. p/OIU! sheet ofcharge.

PhYSICS

14.3 FRICTIONAL ELECI'RlCITY

We know that when a glass rod is rubbed wilh a piece of silk cloth, !he rod develops a property of attracting small pieces of paper, leaves etc. towards it. This rod is said to be chargd Dr electrif-. Similarly a comb is cbalged on passing through dry bair. An electric charge is developed on a sheet of paper moviog through a .,nnting press and so on. The II charges at rest are produced due to friction between two insulating bodi~ which are rubbed against each olber. The knowledge offrictio_ehw:trlcIty~back to 600 B.C. We find, in writings of early Greek philosopher Thales that tlIIIber (!he gum that long ago, oozed from softwood trees
~1iIto~Sl'!li4.~iacolourfromye,llowtobrown)acquinls !he,
~.
,\

,,~!'>.!'ttract the ~I pi~ oflightDlll~' when it is rubbed against the furor wool. The Greek name of amber is "Electrum". which is origin of Ihe words electric charge, electricity. electron etc. In 1600 A.D .. William Gilbert after nearly 2000 years ofThales observation, published a book titled' De Magneta' which may be considered as lUst scientific account on the subject. According 10 him. in all experiments on frictiooal electricity, two kind of charges are produced ,An American scientiest Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), named Ihese charges as positive and negative. These names are followed till today.

14.3.1. Properties ofEleetric: Cbarges

In eleCtroStatics. !he process of cbarging a body has been traced to' the actual tnmsfer of electrons. You are aware ot!he fact that every atom consists of nucleus around which neiatiycly cbalged particles revoive in orbiis. When we rub two substances against each ,other, we provide energy to overCOme liiction between them. This energy is used in removing electrons from.Qne subst!!1!l'A: and 1IaDSlening them to !he o1her, This transfer takes place ,. from the material in which electrons are held less tightly to !he material in which 1hey are strongly attached. In this process. the material which losses electrons acquires a positive cJ:uuge and !he material which gains elecfrons acquires an equal amount oCnegative charge. "What is an electric charge"? It is a diftit;ult question of physics. This is because "~ ,is 6etIer IIAlIaSlDOtlIUlt by Sll,YiIIt o,{w"fIIlt Is 611t 6y w"l11 ittlon". We may. however, define it as followS - The e1ectrip charge is a basic and characteristics P'opel1y of !he elementary particles SIJch as electron. proton etc. We can idenlit)- electric chatge wilh some properties, which are mentioned in the following text.

(a) Charges are of two kinds: There are only two kinds of eharges, positive chougc;
and negative charge. There is 00 third kind ofcharge, The positive charge in ordinary matter

'RSCI r I

lel

268

l'le,:tri~ ('h:Jrge and H..,uic

Field

is carried by proton and negative charge by electron. To show that there are two kind. uf cbalJ!"S.. let us lake a glass iod. rub it with silk cloth and suspend it by a duead. If 8Ik1lbo:r glass rod rubbed by silk is brougltt near to it. Ill! sho",n in Fig14.1 (a), two glass rods will repel each other. Similarl) IWO ebonite rod o:ach rubbed with fur repel each other fig.:,,~ 14 I(b). But a glass rod rubbed with silk attracts an ebonite rod rubbed with fur as shown in Figl4. I{c). These observations show that the cbargesde\'elopedonglusrod are different from the charges deveped on abonite rod. Conventionally, the charge developed on glass rod is laken as positive and that on the ebonite rod as negative. These observations also show that like c/lfII'gG rqeI ~ ot/Ier wIUIe IUIlile duirge6 tItITtICIS each oilier. Electric charge istbougbl of as the source of electric forcejUst as IJIBSS is the source of gravitational force.

(b) Quaatizatioa ofeJectric charges : Any charge exists only in iategraI multiples of a certain minimum charge. i.e. the charge on an electron. The value oftbis minimum charge (e =1.6 xlQ-" coulomb) is so small that the grairiinessofcbaJge (or qnaatimiOll of charge) does not show up in Jarge scale eKperimenlS in real life. This property which envisage. the discrete _lire of charge. ruling'oul il.' cOli/iII/milS nature. is known as ~i=Qtioll of electric charge. According to quantization of charge. allY charged body can have opl) an integral multiple ofthe magnitude of charge on an elocunn (also kno",n as quanta ofcharge) i.e. q = ne. where n ia an integer i.e .. II = O. I. 2, 3...... The fractional value of charge
lying in between these "alues is nOt possible. All the kno~ fundamental particles have chaJBes that are some integaaJ multiples of fundamental charge i.e . charges are always O. e. :! le, Je .... etc. (c) CODservation of electric charge: According to tlUs property the oIgebraic SUIII ~f electric charges on all the bodie. in an isolated &,V3tem relllD;ns constant for 011 tinN8. Thus it is clear that charge can neither be created nor can be destroyed. It can only be transfered from one body to other. As you know. when a glass rod is rubbed with silk. the amount of positive charge acquired by gla...s rod is exactly equal.1o the amount of negati~.., chall!e produced on silk. 'The algebraic sum of charges on gla. .. , rod and silk. before and after rubbing. continues to be zero. The conservation of electric charge is one of the most fundamental properties of charge and no violation of this. has ever been observed till toda) ~ in any natural event or in the laboratory experiment. According to this property charges can be created only in equal and opposite pairs as in case of pair production i.e. production of electron and positron pair from X-rays. Properties of electric charge

I. Charge is a scahu quantity: 1. There are two and only two type ofcharges t/O/I1f!ly posiJilIe and Mgative; J. Charges ofsame type. always repel one another while charges of opposilL kind always attract OM another; 4. Charge is addiU,.,. in l/aIrIrt i.e .. 10101 charge ofa gillen sysfe", is oI.braic slim ofall the charges ",-e.,ent in if: 5. Charge;s qllumi=r!d: 6. Charge is t'OlIsened.

Physics

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. 2. 3. Can Q body have Q charge 0.8 x 10-" C ? Give reason. A glan rod is rubbed with lIi1k cluth and it giziJu QJ10IIitive charge 0/4.8 x 10 -''C. What type and how tmiCh charp will be gtlined by the sill cluth ? Give an exmnpIe illJI8troting the conservation 0/electriC charge.

14.3.2 Electrostatic lateradioD betweeD two Charges :.Coulo_b's Law

When an electric cJ.uuge is held in tile viscinity of 8D01her charge, it experiences a force. Accon:IiDg 10 Coulomb's law, this force ofinlaJlctionlletMcn two point electric c:Iuages is: i) directly popwtionallO tile poduCt of tile magnitudes of the charges; ii) inversely pvportioIIal to tile square of tile distanre between them; and iii) a:ts a100g tile stiaisJd line joining tile two cbaIges.

Ifq, andq. _two point c:1uugcs sepiliated in vacuum by a distance or'. Theoacc:ordius to Coulomb's law the force (F) bet"w_1bem is : .

ql q, or F= lq, q. r' r' When: 'It is eledJOSIaIic fon:e oousIant. As shown in Fig.14.2, force 'r acts a100g the straight line joining the two c:1uugcs and is directed a) tiJMrdsql (orq), ifthe charges_ ofopposite",,-.;t.,
Fa

...(14.1)

kind. b) away fimI ql (or q.) iftllecJ.ges _ o f _ kind.

Fa

q.

1-- r

' .. - I . F.. ' -----------... ..

~

If F"

=force OIl q, due to ql aod PI2 =llllit vector pointing fimlq I to q,1ben accordiug 10 Coulomb's . '" law.
Similarly, tile force on q, due to q, is

" A As we know r =-r., 12

.: F" =-FI2

...(14.2)

....

r ... , .

_ _

This slJows that forces exerted by the two charges on each other _ equallIIId opposite. The experimentally measured value of electrostatic force constant I is 9 x 10' Nm'C'.ln 81 unit we write I where &. (spoken as epsilon zero) is known as absolute electric: permittivity of tht free space IIIId its value is 8.85 x 10 12 C' N" m'.

=4':'

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

270

Electric Cbarge and Electric Field

a-_ strictly speaking Coulomb's law is valid 0ftIy fOl' point charges. It is

true fOl' vel)' large distances to very small distances such as atomic di _ _ (= 10"" iii or sriIall)

You can _ thot'M CotIIomb'& law of mectlWtatic ~ between two c'-gu is quile similar 10 Newton's law ofgravitaJionaJforet! belovet!n two mmses os

1l1e Sl Unit of electric charge is CoU/OIffII and it is defined as tM charge which wMn , placed oJ a distance ofJm from an identical charge, in vacrnun. will repel it wilh a force of
'

9 x JO'N.

14.3.3 Vector Form of Coulomb's Law

Let two point charges q, and q, be located at points A and B specified by position vectOl'S', and" respectively (see FigI4.2). We then write Coulomb's law in vector form as

I F,,=-4ltE

q, q, ,

I':u 1
= -41t&. ql %

21

-';1.:"!'_--==:C (', 13 'f'z

'.1

',)

:-q::..:...1~qz:.. (, _,)

ir,-',I'

'

',1 ('1 Here " r =--= 21 I'n I '.1 (r - r,)

- ',>

In case one oft,be clwges is situated at !he origin itsdf" = 0"1'" (say). 1 q, q, , Then, F --- ---

4 K&.

Irf

.... (14.3)

14.3.4 The "Dielectric CoDStaat" 'of the Medium

The fonxlletween twodlalJes 9 1 and 9, bpt ala given distanc:e "'lIpIIrt.decJ IISC wilen the ~ an: .,..:sent in a medium adler !ban vac,pnn In case the charges an: kept in a medium Coulomb's law is written as :

11

4 K E.Er

- - , . 'Il

q, 9"
r

.m

The factm e,. turns out to be _ dallractaiBlic I*opcrty of tile medium and is known as its rtUliNpa iWDi(Jiorits 1" ok _ _" Thedid tJ/c _ _.f(ornlalivepeawi!Mty)of_mecliummaybedefuwl as tile ratio of tile DI8pbxIe offon:c betuuIIIIl die two ~ placed at_ given ctisl!!r!Ce apart in vacuum, to die fon:c betheal tile same two cbargcs, wbal ~ are similarlyPJaced, 1bc same disl!!r!Ce1lpll1, in 1bc givenmeclium.
Thus, B

Jlvacuum> Jlmeclium)
- ~....".

We often write : Absolute pemlitivity E =6.6,

Note that 6, is _ ctimmsiOD1ess "',.,.,... aud it has DO uoiL
,

14.3.5 Forces amoag maar Cltarges and Superposition Principle

If _large mDDher of charges f,. f7 frhh .. f. are pa:aent in space, at positionr" r .....".' tile force OIl any charge 'f.' placed at positionrdlJc to 1bese charges (See Fig. 14.3) is given by:
p.=li'.. + li'..+ li'ol +................li'.

or
I F=--

.,'

f (r-r.) (14.5)

4.6. ;=1

Ir,-r.r

'I'1&< 14.1: 1'riItdpI. ofs",..,-pasiliOll -tiro ~fon:a _ sIIo'l'n

ACCOfding to tile _IfH!rJIDSilitm priIIdpk,1bcftwt.:e 6eIwMI two c1,tugG ;. not tIItered diu! 10"J I I - 11/111. :vtIIt1rdulrga. Coulomb's law is ..,pticable tocalcul&te 1he interaction of each pair, inespectivr: of tile I*f:SCIXe of 0Ibet ~ in 1he system. The total force expeaieoccd by any charge due to die 1* II M'" of the rat of ~ in 1he system can be obtaiDed by tile vector sum ofIII forces of~ on the chaise. Bllrkftlrra"..,..",tll/ftlNllldr 1 ..... " , _ fa C!' witj""'lI/wt:t:vr

erg,.

,oIS.

14.4 ELECfRlC FIELD AND LINES OF FORCE

To explain tile mec:banism ofiDtenM:tion betweal two charges placed at _ ctisl!!r!Ce the idea ofelectric field isc:oocieYed. WMachqcdbody ispllced in the hood of......... dwged body, it expeaieDces III dDellCiiiIaIic fCJn:e, _ D)' that tbIn is III elecIric field in the surmomding ofdle dwged body. The value of clecIric field lit any poiDI is cakuIated in tams of electric field inteosity. which is exp1'".a below.

new....

EIec:tric

a.rae -' EIec:tric Fidel ::

14.4.1 Elec:Jaie Field latellsity

The eIocIric ficId ~ lit -,y poiDt is tile ....__ of cI.cc:Iric field lit 1bIIt poiDL k is defiled .. tile filn:e per __ n h of cIIIap II:IiDa CJO a wr:y positMI.. cIIIap pI..t lit !hilt poiut.

-n

F i. e. I: ~-NC-'

II.

... (14.6)

Here, I: is electric field iDlaIsity (1Ilacth) and J' is tile filn:e actiDs CJO tile . . cIIIap 'II: II !hilt poiIIL 11 f.r a wctor and iI6 dIrectioII U _ , . tire dIrectioII ofJ'. The use of CClIICCpt of electric field is !hilt _ can cakuI.... radiJ:y tile .....;. . . and dira:tioo of tile force cxpc:riax;cd by lID)' cIIIap ldd lit !hilt point in tile elec:Iric field i.e. F = III:. The dira:tioo of fon:c 00 positive cIuap is tile direcIioD of elocIric ficId iDlaIsity.
Iotcosily ofeJcctric field .. a point r due k! a point ct.F. , II tile origin is givm by.

Ili'I 1 1 ,II. IEt=-=-x- - . q. q. 4 a. IrF

=----

..(14.7)

o O. . ------:....-....:~ . ... .---.;,

,,*1#.#: m-tejllU-.y_,o tlpoiItI

....- - - r ~---9'

Similarly. field due k! a mlDlber ofcharges in space can be calculated. The fon:e expaieaced by . . cIuap q.1It lID)' point usiaa principle of auperposition is givm as,

F=~

4. ;=1

II.II,~

, I

...(14.1)

-1 -

-'I, -2

r. + q.

4_

"

-'2 + -II." " +..... r. r

A

J
...(14.9)

1:=1:, +E,+E, +1:.+ ..........-

....

Heace. eJcctric field inteasily lit lID)' point is the veckJr IIIIIIl of the iDfcnsitics due k! each
iDdi"viduII cbIrge. lhprillclpkD/.NfI lip It'.. "",.,. -II/IIiM:IIkJWl--..

: Physics

14.4.1 EIec:trie Liaes of Force

Elec:lric field around a cIuage configIiraIion may be depicted in tmms of electic lines of force. An electric liM offorce, in an eleclrlc Jiskl. ", the imaginOry smooth CIIrW, the IDIIgent to any point ofwldch givu the dinctkm oltheJisltl at that point.

(a)

(c)

In Fig. 14.4, lines offorce of different systems arc: shown. Lines offorce due to an isolated positive charge go snight into infinity and on the other hand due to free negative charge, lines of force comes straight from infinity upto negative charge (Fig. 14.5 a and b). It is also clear from Fig. 14.5 (a> and (b) that for a charged sphere, the lines of forces are straight and radial aDd appear either emerging from or heading towards the centre of the sphere. In Fig. 14.5 (c),lines of force are drawn for a system of two equal and .opposite charges: The lines of force arc: drawn in the field produced by two equal and similar (positi;'e) charges . in Fig. 14.5 (d). At the mid-point N of the line joining the two charges, the resultant field is zero and this point is known as -"e.trlll poi"t'. No two lines of force can intersect each other, because if they do so, then at the point of intersection two tangents caD be drawn which would mean two directions of the force at that point, which is not possible. The poIitive clJ4rges are sourcell of /ines of force mul
negative charges are sinks.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.1"'--_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.
1. Why two electric lines offorr:tt can not intersect /lOCh ather? Distingl4i.>h between electricJisld and ekctric field intensiJ:y at a point.

3.

While dalecting the electric field why the tat cItarge q. 81roJlld be very smDll ?

274

Electric Charge and Electric Field :: 9

14.5 ELECfRIC DIPOLE AND DIPOLE MOMENT

An electric dipole consisIs ofa pair ofequal and opposite point charges separated by a p very small distance. Several molecules such as HCI. H,o, Ammonia etc., behave :It IE: as!fermanenl electric dipoles. because in these molecules.. the centres ofpositive and negative charge distributioos are separated by some small distance (although the net charge on the molecule remains zero). Fig. 14.6 shows an electric dipole consisting of Fig. 14.6: Elwrk dipole IJItd ofelectrk two equal and opposite point charges (:,:q) dipole m.",.", separated by small distance 2t'. The product of one of the charge of dipole and distance between the charges is called 'dipole-mo_nt' and it is usually denoted by p.

-----'>,..,

_Oft

IPI=q x 2t; p=2qt t"

...(14.10)

The electric dipole-moment is a 'vector' quantity, whose direction is along the axis of the dipole pointing from negative charge to the positive charge. Its unit is 'coulomb-meter'.

14.5.1 Electric field ofa dipolt!

There exists an electric field around an elecmc dipole. To calculate electric field intensity of a dipole at any point, we imagine a unit positive charge held at that point. We calr,J!ate force on this charge due to both the charges of dipole and take vector sum of the two forces. This gives us dipole field intensity at that point In dais coonection, two position are important (a) electricfield at /I point 0" the tDds ofdipole kIf_If 11$ end-oll poDtioIIlIIUI (b) electric fteld at /I point 0" the eqUJllDriaililte /If the dipole kM"''' lis brtHuk...." positio",

(a) Field intensity at a point on the axis of dipole (end-on-position)

Consider an electric dipole AB consisting of charge +q and -q separated by small distance '21'. We have to determine electric field intensity E at a point P on the axial line of the dipole and at a distance OP =r from the centre 0 of the dipole (See Fig. 14.7). Let E, and E. be the intensities of electric field at P due to the charge +q and ~ of the dipole respectively. Obviously,

...

' .... 2/ .... 1 ~'~~14

-~-

BOA

.....-----------r

L
P
~

~.---"

".. U.1: FJectrkJWd i",ensiiydw dipole at md ..... positim

'0

IE,I = __ 1_ ~
411E

(r- fi'

(In the direction AP)

IE; : - - - - (In the direction PAl 4 Ire (r +t )"

Thus, resultant electric field intensity E at the point P will be

lEI : IE,I-IE,I (in the direction AP since E, > E,)

j
=
41t&.

[2(~J (r'-i)"

I
41t &

[2
1PI 21pl;'
:

(r'-i}'

where Ipi = 2qt : dipole moment

If't' is very small as compared to r, then I term may be neglected in tbe above expression. Then, electric field intensity at P due to ctipoIe is given by

lEI:

--

- - - - N(,-'
4 It &.
r'

,21pl

...(14.11)

4 It & 0 ' "

The electric field is in the direction of dipole moment i.e. along the axis of dipole from the negative charge towards the positive change.Clearly
(b) Field iDteDlity at a poillt on the eq_torilllliDeofa dipoie(brolld....... on-position)

lEI a ~

COnsider an electric dipole consisting of two point charges -q and +q sepsrated by a small distance AB : 2t with ct':IIIre at 0 (Fig. 14.8). Suppose !hat tbe point P is situated on the right-bisector oftbe - q dipole AB at a distance r meter from its midpoint O. Again let E, and E, be !he intensities of electric field at P due to the charges +q and -q of the dipole (8) respectively. The dislance ofP ftom each FlIJ. 14.1: Eleclrh:./ield inI"",il)" d .... 10 dipole III ""-Icharge is'J r' + t'
side-OI' p(}..cili~' (<</uaJoriai Li"d

276

EI:llie Charge ..... "'"Cbi<: F,icld ::

We, thus, have

IE,I =-.-.1

41t&

q (In the direction AP) (r'+ l')

q (In the directioo PB) (r' +1') .

11:,1=411:&

On resolving E, and 1:,. parallel and pel pendicular to AB. the components perpendicular to AB (E, sin 9 and E, sin 9 ) cancel each other as they are equal and opposite. The compc ents parallel toAB (E, cose and E, cose t add up being in the same direction (see Fig. 14.9 b). Hence resultant electric field intensity at P is

A __-)~~_

Fill: U.9:

IEI--

I q cose+ - cose 4 ItEo (r' + I') 41t& (r'+1') .

lEI

I
=4 1t Eo

2q
(r' + I" )
cose
OA
I

From Fig. 14.9, we get cos 9 =

I

PA

Thus,

IEI=----41tEo

2q

(r'+I") (r'+1 )"2 2tq

=--

=-1

Ipl

wherf' I p

I = 2qt = dipole moment

p
:. E is effective in opposite direclion to P

E =-

4 1t Eo (r' + t' )'"

If 'f is very small as compared to 'r' then f can be negiected,in the above relation. Then electric intensity at a point P due to dipole is.

IEI =

_1_
4 It E.

I p..1 = _._1_.
(r')
31!

~ N/C
rJ

..(14.12)

41t Eu

FIOIl1 tbese calculations. we see that for a dipole. the intensity on an axial point is iwice the intensity at the same distance on the equitorialliile.

217

14.5.2 Behaviour of Electric Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field

Let an ele\:tric dipole be placed in a uniform extemalelectric fieldE at an angle 6 with the direction ofE (Fig. 14.10). In the field the fuR:cooeharge+qisF=qEalongthedirection - - - - - - . - - - - --~ - - - . _ - - -A--F---=t~ -. - .~~ =- -=-~ E ---,.-----7'

ofE and the force on change -q is F=qE in the - - ?'?'!) _ - L.. _ _ _ ? directionappositeloE.ThesefOrcesbeing ual, F" eQ- - - ..L - - - -~ , eq --8----C----~ unlike and parallel, form a couple which rotates - - - - - -...; - - - -_~ the dipole in clockwise direction and tends 10 align it along the direction of external electric field E. We know Torque(t) = Foree x ann of couple =FxAC =Fx AB sinO ( From Fig 14.9) =(q E)(21 sin 0)

Fit". 14.1':

Ir

pEsina

.. (14.13)

In vecter notations, we can rewrite the above relation as

I r-p x E I
lid force 011 dipoIf! is UTo.

(14.14)

R~ tlu!ftll'a 011 tAe two c6111J:f!8 oftlu! dipoIf! fII'f! t!fruU IIIUI ~. thD"f!fon

arid then

Case -I: We see, that in case the dipole is in the directioo of external electric field, 0 = 0 t ...= p E sin (0) = 0 (MiniollUJl Value)

Case -D : Torque will be maximlUJl when 9 =90' i.e. dipole is kept perpendicular 10 external electric field. T _ =p E sin (90) =p E (Maximum Value)

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.3._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. A comb Iffter """,iIIg through hopperu when Iroir i.r wet.
O1/I!'S dry

ltDir attracts smoIl bits ofpaper, why? What

2.

, ....................................................................... 3.' CQII two similarly charged balls attract each other?

Two -free protons tmd twofree eleclrolu QI'fI separaJed by the same .di.rtOlfCe. Compare Coulomb's force ofrepubiOll between a pair ofelectron attd a pair ofp#Jtons.

4. Give two basic differences between charge and ma:u.

2711

Electric Cbargc and Eleqric Field

S.

Answer whether the foIltlMliltg statemelltS Q1'f! irue orfalse? Electric chorge is additive. h} 10 Coulomb = /0 Ampere sec. c} Dipole moment is a scalar qutmtity. d} E/ectriJ: line offon:e can cui only at neutral poiIil. e) Intensity ofelectric field due to a dipole 011 till electric axial point u twke tire field at the some distance on irs equitorialline. j) When dipole u porallel to uniform externai'electricfield. netforce acting upon it u =ero hut torque will have small finite value.
a)

14.6 GAUSS THEOREM Total number oflines offorce passing through an area immersed in an electric field (E) U
lcntlMln osjlux. It is usually represented by 'PE . The electric tIux through a surface is defined as the product ofthe area (8)_ thecomponent of the electric field nonnal to the surface. (E.)

i.e .

'liE = Eo' 8

I
a
n

... (14.15)

"

r<;" )
. -Burr-

~a

~E 1

Fig. 14.11.:

Thus. electric tIux through a close surface will be positive or nagative depel;'tjoowbetber the field lines emerge from the surface or enter i!Ito the surtilce.

14.6.1 Gau'ls Theorem in Electrostatics

Gauss's law states that total electric flux linked with a closed surface (8) in vacuum is ~. times the algebraic sum of charges (i.e. total charge) GIIllosed by the surfaces

l:q
i.e.

'PE=
E.

=-.

E.

or

E.8 =

Q
11

...(14.16)

Remember location of Q inside close surface 8 does not alfect the value of tIux . There is no contribution to total electric tIux due to the charges present outside the closed surface. TIle cIosd lI.f"" ~ ;" tltis iIIw is IGIUIlIy cllllerJ tile GtuaSiIuI nuj.a. Note that dUring the ilpplicatioo of GIIUSS'S law. Gaussian surface is usally chosen in such a way so that the electric field intensity may have a single fixed value at eVery point on the surface. While selecting such a surface. we should avoid charges on S itself.

279

:: Physics

14.6.2 Important Applications of Gauss's Theorem

<a> Determination of electric field dne to a point cbarge
Consider an isolated positive point charge q at O. To determine field at point P distant' from 0 imagine a spherical Gaussian surfa<:e of radius 'r' with centre 0 [Fig. 14.11] Let E be the magnitude of electric field intensity on the Gaussian surface and it is directed radially outwards. Fw1her, the direction of vector dS representing a small area element dS on the spherical Gaussian surfa<:e is along E only, i. e,

+q

9=0
According to definition, flux from small area

rig. U./J:

'P E =E. S= E. 4lt"". cos 9 =4ltrE

According to Gauss's Law, total flux passing through clossed surface,

... (14.17)

q
~=Eo

...(14.18)

from (14.17) and (14.8)

47tr lEI = q
Eo

IEI=-

41t Eor q r or,E = - - . 4lt&ol r I]

...(14.19)

This is the electric field entensity at any point at a distance 'r' from an isolated point cbargeq.

(b) Electric field intensity due to a long line of charge

A line charge is in the fonn of a thin charged rod with unifonn linear charge density I.. (charge per unit length). We have to find an expression for elecll'ic field intensity at any point P at a perpendicular distance r from the rod.

let us consider a right circu1ar closed cylinder of radius r and length t, with the infinitely long line of charge as its axis. Fig. 14.13. The magnitude of electric field in!ensity E at every
Fig. 14./3

280

Electric C~and EIectrie Field ::

poiDl on !he curved surface of !he cylinder is the same, because all such points are at the same distance ftom !he line cluuge.
Also. E IIDd llllit vector ~ normal to curved surface 81!e in !he same directioo, so that 9 = 0"

. . 1'bere1br. CODIribulion of curved surface of cylinder toWards electric flux.

-

1: E. dS = 1: E . dS

= E

1: dS = E (2 x rt)

wbae (2 x rl) is area of!he curved surface of the cylinder.

00 the edges of!he cyIiDder. angle ,*-elecIric field iaIaJsity E _ IheIIe edges make DO CODIribution to electric flux of Ibe cyIiDder.

~ is 90". Thaebe.

'PE= E(2xrt)
Charge euclosed hi. the cy~ = IiDer cIuuge density x length

q=U
According to Gauss's theorem q

'P.= 1:.

E (271:rl)= -

A.t
I:

.
"..14..14:

JtriJIJoH."'-*/WtI-.
wiIII~.

r-4

=--(21t8.r)

..(14.20)

ctemy. Ea!
r
The Vllrialion of electric field intenty E with distance is shown in Fig. i4.14

(e) lIedrie fidel mteaaity dae to lIIlifoIwly dull.1 spberiCIII . . .

Cansi..... ali!in spbcncal sbell of radius R _ . call1eO. Letachllrge+qbedislribubid unifurmly ow:rlbesurface oflbe shell (see Fig. 14.15,. To caJcu!.... elecIric field iDIcosity at any point P. ' wbae OP ='. i..,..p... apbcrc S with cemre 0 I IIDd ndius ,. The surface of this sphere is ~ ('..egssjm surface at e\ICI)' point of~ch electric \ field iIIIaIsity E is the same. directed radially', ourw.ds (as is unit vector Ii, so that 9 = 0"). ,..
Acconling to Gauss's theorem

--I

-1- _./

/ S (Gee _ _ IUlfacw)

/ CMrged shell
F/tt.U.I5: U"ifumJ(,..:h"'1pl ~
dHtIl

211

Physics

ELdS = E

E.ndS~

or

:E

dS=

.!!....

q
E=

?tEo

...(14.21)

CIarly, der:lric jieItI inmuity lit My POW _ _ lire splruical shdl/8 SlICh as if the entire charge were concmlrtlted til lire CDIIre of tlte sheIL LeI_ CDIISider a few special cases. Cue - I: Ala Point on lire slII'fllCt! ofthe sheU
r =R

q
E=---

If a is surface denisty of chart!e on the shell, then

q=411R'u 411R'a E=

a
... (14.22)

=-4 11 to R' to

c_n: Iftlte point P lies inside tile spherical shdl, then Gaussian surface is surface of a sphere of radius r R), as cbargc inside a spherical shell is zero. Therefore the Gaussian surface in the case encloses no chart!e.
i.e. q =:0.

i
E

:, E=O

i.e. electric field inside a spherical shell is always zero. . The variation of electric field intensity E with dists- from the centre of a uniformly charged spherical shell is shown in Fig. 14.16
~from cenfnt(r) ".. 14.16: ~""-*'fi~/di"MSiIy with di6ItIItco iIr dw c-. oftJ. thmpl spherical .MIl

(d) Electric field intensity due to cbarged solid spbere

Suppose a solid sphere ofradius R and centre 0 has uniform volwne density of chart!e P. as sho",n in Fig. 14.17.

282

Eleclric CbIIBe aud EIccIric Field ..

We have to calculate electric field intensity E at any point P. where OP = r. With 0 as centre and r

as radius. imagine a sphere S. which acts as a Gaussian surface. At every point of S, magnitude of E is same. directed radialIy outwards. If q' is the charge enclosed by the sphere S, then
according to Gauss's law
E

tI t E.dS =t LadS = EIdS-s s

s where E. is electrical permittivity oftbe material oftbe spbme. if q'
E(4lt ,z)= or E = - -

%:14.17:

Now, charge inside sphere S. q' = volume ofS x volume density ofclwge 4 q'~ - l t r ' xp

4xr' p
E=

rp
=-

3 X 4x E.,.z
Clearly, E ac r.

3E.

r:3 i.et=5J

...(14.23)

C_ 1 :At tII~ 1IIn oftlut IIpIu!N, r - O.

=0

C_ 11: At tIut sruf(JJ:~ oftll~ splt_. r

.E =-- -+
. Rp . maxlDlum

=ll.
...(14.24)

3E.

We have already proved that outside the sphere.

ac

...( 14.2S)

All these results are shown in Fig. 14.18 which represents the variation of electric field intensity with distance (r) from die centIe oflllliform sphere
ofciwge.

E.-R
r-lt

Erna

DlllliiCetnlm centre (t)

"., 1#.1': rtrilli. q{U:IrIcjNld
illl..uy

283

(e) Eleetrie field iateDtity due to. dliD bafblite lIleet.f eh....e
Consider a thin, infinite p/oM ,hut ofcbarge. Let (J be the surfiK:e density of cb8Ip 011 the sheet (i.o. chargeI_). Webavotocalculatoolec1ric field iDtouity E atllllYpointp,diJIaDt

,. fiom the sheet (See .IIi&- 14.1')..

FI'\lIIISYI!IIDeby. _ fiud !bat E em oi1her side

oCthe sheet must be pcrpeIIdic:uIarto the ~ oC the sboet. having same mapitudc at all poiJIIs equiclistaat fiom tbe sbeet. To calcu1ato E. at a point diJIaDt ,. fiom the

shoot let us imagine a cy1inder of c:roassoc:tioDal area dB IIJId length 2,. piercing through the sbeeL At the two eyliDdrical. edp P and Q. I: and /tare para1Icl to each 0Ihcr. ~: J#.lf: FJectricjWddwt""lhillil!forl/nIrM

Fig. 14.19.

01......

:. Electric flux over these edges = 21:. ~ = 21: dB

On the curved surface oftbe eyJiDder.1: are.L to each other. Therefore to, ContributiOD to electric flux is made by the curved surface of tho eylioder.

and'
(J

:. Total oIcctric flux over tho oo.tire surface of tho cylinder =21: dS Total cbaqJe encIoaed by tho eyliDder dB

AccordiDg to Gausa'slaw in electrostatics, " dS 2I:dS-":" = -

...(14.26)

We obseIve that I: is iDdependeDt of r. the distance of the point fiom the plane cb8Ipd

sheet.

cIwJe (i.e., 11>0). E is directed away fiom both

sides of the Ibio plaDe sheet and vico--. lfthe iofiDite plane sboet bas lItfiform thlckMu. the IUI'fiM:e density of c:batJe G is uniform and same 011 both the sure.:es of the sbeet.
Tho electric field intensity at 1lIIY JIOint P due to each sutface Is I, - I, = I1l2s. Both I, and ": are perpendicular to the plaae of tho
.~

Furtber. it is clear !bat ifthe IIbeet carries poeitive

'-

Elec:lric Charge I11III CIccIric FieleI' ::

sheet and directed away, Fig. 14.20. Therefore, according to superposition principle, net electric field intensity at P due an i'lfi,lite plane sheet of lIniform thickness is.

[=E,+E,
(I (I

=-

..(14.27)

Note: That the sheet is supposed to be of iilifinite size so that tbc 'edge e&c:t' due to distortion of electric field at the edges (of a finite sheet) can be ignored.

(f)

Elec~rie

field intensity due to two thin parallel infinite sbeets of cbarge

Let A and B be two thin infinite plane charged sheets held parallel to each other as shown in Fig. 14.21. Suppose (I, is uniform surface density of charge on A and ", is uniform surface density of charge on B. We use the equation obtained above to write the field intensity for each sheet and then apply superposition principle to calculate the net field intensity in the three regions. As a matter of convention. a field pointing from left to right is taken as positive and the one pointing from right to left is taken as negative. We assume that a,>a,>O.

Ii,

40';:::::::' Eo"

Thereror in reglOD 1

I'Jr. IoI.JJ: Elet:ttW jWd"".,.,Uy dw 10 tWo ""."

E,= -E,- E, E =- - = - - x (" +- a) I 2Eo 2Eo ' , 2",
Similarly, iD reglOD II
--(S,
(I,

,..,.,....,<1. . . . .

...(14.28)

E-E-"=--

a,

...(14.29)

"

,'''

le

a,

and, iD recioD

m
= _1_
2.
(a; + a,)

..(14.30)

le.
Speeial_:

Suppose ", = - a,B 10',1-10',1,

=a

i.e. two thin infinite plane sheets with equal and opposite uniform surface densities of charge are held parallel to each other.

185

:: Pbysic:s

From (14.28); E, = 0 From (14.30). Em =0

2a
From (14.29). E. = 2.

=-

a
= Constant.

Eo

Thus, field intensity in between such sheets having equal and opposite lIIliform surface densities of charge become collSlant i.e. a uniform electric field is produced. Also E does DOt depend upon the distance between the thin sheets. This is bow uniform electric fields ani produced in practice.

INTEXT QUESTIONS: 14.4_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. Write the unU ofe1ectricjlllX. 2. AI a point 011 the &W.face ofthe sheD, what it the,.,,1ation between electric.M1d inteiuity due to a uniformal/y charge sphericalllhell ? 3. What is a Gauuian surface? 4. State whether the following statements are true or false.
i)

ii) iii)
iv)

v)

The normDI component of electric field it positive when the electric field is out wardfrom the surface. Locatio" ofcharge 'Q' inside the closed surface decides the value ofjllIX. Electric field ilrtemity due to a lo"g line charge it independent ofthe distance Or". F the UifinUe sheet the "edge eJfoct" can be ignored. Electricfield ilrten.sity imide a uniform solid spite,." ofcharge ts always zero.

14.7 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

~ to friction, glaas rod can be electrified and this was known to Greek philosopher. Thales as early as 600 B.C. Electric Charges are of two kinds. Charge is CODSel'Ved and quantized. It is additive in nature. Coulomb's law state that the force of electrostatic interaction between two cbatges is directly proportional to the product of two cbatges and inversely propostional to the sqll8rC of distance between them. Coulomb's law of electrostatic is quite similar to Newton's Law of gmvitation. 1be "dielectric constant" of the medium is defined as the ratio of megnitude offorce between the two charges placed at a givendistance apart in VIlCll1llll, to the force between the same two cbatges when !bey are similarly placed, same distance1IJIIIIt in given

medium.

Electric forces produced by different charges combiDcd by vector addition. Electric lines of forces and theit properties. The positive cIwge are sOurces of lines of force and negative clwges are sinks. To establish relation between lines offorce and electric field intensity. About aD electric dipole and related electric dipole moment. To derive the expression for the electric field inteniity due to dipole at 1liiy (a) axial point (b) equitillal point.
~.--

..

EIecIric Charge and EIcctrie Field ::

Net force on the two charges of dipole when placed in UDifonn electric field is zero but torque ~ = P x.K where p is dipole-momenL Flux (d'P.) of electric field E through sma1I an:a cIS is 'PE =.K.cIS where How to use Guass's law to obtain the value'of eIectric fieIcl due 10 a long line charge. (ii)Pointcbalse (iii)Cbarged sbelI (iv) SJ!ba"eofc:lmBe. (v) plane sheet of charge.
(E)

14.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I. If a brass sheet is placed between two charges placed at a certain cIistMra apart, what happens to the force between them ?
2. How many electrons should be 1rIIDSfen-ed fiom flannel to the eboDite rod 10 produce a

psitive charge of 3.2 x 10-7C on flannel ? 3. State Coulomb's law in electrostatics. Explain the vector form of Coulomb's law.
4. 5.

What are the limitations or" Coulomb's law?

What are dielectrics? What happens to the electrostatic force between two poinI charges if the medium between them is filled with a dielectric medium of dielectric constant?

6. Whut do you mean by electric lines of force? Give the characteristic properties of "',,"Iric lines of force.
7. Draw the lines of force of (i} a point positive charge. (ii) a positively charged sphere. liii) a clecllic dipole, (iv) a pair of positive charges. 8. \\'hal is an electric dipole? Find an expression for the dipole moment
9.

When are the electric lines of force parallel to each other?

10. Two point charges q, and q, are 3m apart and their combined charge is 20 "C. If one repels the other with a force ofO.01SN, what are the two charges?

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

IDtext QuestioDS 14.1
I. No. hausc this charge is equal to halfoflbe charge on 8Il electron. wbich according to quantization of charge. is not possible. 2. The silk cloth will gain a negative charge of 4.8 XlO-il C. 3. When a glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth, both get equal I11III opposite charge. Thus, the total charge before I11III after rubbiDg remains UDCbarged i.e. 2ICI"O. Ja other words charge remains, conserved.

Physics

IDten QuestioJis 14.2 I. (fthey do I/O. lite tengents at two points of intersection will show directions of electric field which is not possible.

2. Electric field is the regioIlllt"OUDll c:harge in 'which. test cluuge can be influenced. ' where as the electru: field iateDsity is the vslue of field at that point.
3. Otberwise, there may be an eloctric field due 10 test cluuge itself.

latext QuestiODS 14.3 1. This is because comb gets cIuuged by friction. If the hair is wet charge due 10 friction will not develop.

2.

The furces are same because each proton and electron carries same magnitude ofcbaIge.

3. Yes, when charge on one is mUch larger 1han the charge on ot;her.

4.

For maSs, law of C91JSC[Vation as weU as quantzation principle. not applicable.

5. 8) True (b) True (e) Fsise (d) False (e) True (f) False

laten QUestiODS 14.4

1. Nm'C-'

2.8=B.

0'

3. (a> True, (b} Fslse. (e) False, (d) True. (e) Fslse.

15
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITORS

IS.I INTRODUCfION
We have already learnt in the previous lesson that an electric field around a given charge can be represented by a vector quantity E. known as intensity of elec1roStatic field. It is also possible to describe the same electric field by a scaJar quantity called electric poteptiaJ Yas electric field is a conservative field. These two physical quantities E and Y are closely related to each other and any one of these can be used to describe the electric field. In this lesson we wilileam about electric potentiaJ and electric potential difference. We will calculate electric potential due to point charge and electric dipole. We will establish relation between E and Y. We will also learn about capacitor&- their worldng principle and grouping. Beside these we will talk about dielectric IIIIIterials and their role in capacitors.

IS.2 OBJECfIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
. describe the meaning 0/electric potential ti1uJ electric potential difference; der;w electric potMtiaI dw to point clrtrge tmd due to ./ectrlc dipole; explain etectrlc poIMIiaI.MI'fl)I pos8uud by a clrtrge in an e1mric field; u,uiMrlttmd eqIIlpot.ntialll/l'focu and their J1I'Olrtiu; ,ftita/IIDI.potelllioldtfe,..-from .lectrlcfi,ld tmd derive a ,..lt1Iion betwHII electric field inlelUUy tmd .Iectric potential "..itent; explain the IH!htlvloll1" 0/COfItIivcton in .lectro8totic field; define capacity and iLllII/it tmd delCrlIH! the principle 0/capacitor&; explain the capacitance 0/para11.1 plat. capacitor; find the ~ent capacitance ,n grouping 0/capacitorl and identiJY the advantage ofgrollfJing; calcuJote energy ltored in a capacitor tmd _lion 1M naIu1"e oftmergy; /ut tlie properties 0/diel.ctric materlah tmd uplatn the procell 0/polarisation 0/ dielectric material in an electric fi.ld; explain lhe role 0/dielectric In increaIing the capacitance 0/a capacitor.

Ph,.sks

15.3 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

When a charged particle is made 10 move in an electrostatic field. against the force of field, work is 10 be done by the exlernal agency. This work is stored up as potential energy oft4e. charge in accordance with the the law of conservation of energy. An electric charge plaCed al any poini in any electric field. thus. has a potential energy which is a function of its posilion. We can. therefore. visuali7Je a S(:8]ar function of position, specifYing the potential energy per coulomb of charge in the field, which we call as potentUU. Different points. in the electric field, may have different potentials and then if a positively charged particle is pll\ced in an electric field, it will tend to move from higher to lower potential.to minimize its potential energy. We will see in the next lesson how this conccpt of potential difference leads to current flow in electric circuits.

The electric potential at any poilll in' an electric field is eqllQl to the work done against the electric force in moving a unit positive charge from outside the electric field to the given point in electric field, Electric potential is a scalar qllQlltity as it is related to work done. The potential at a point is taken as positive when work is done against the field by the positi\'e'Charge but as negative, when work is done by the electric field in moving the unit positive charge from infinity to the point,in the field. 4 <to
Consider two points A and B in electric field (See Fig. 15.1). If a test charge q. is moved from the point A to the point B along any path by an extemal force, assuming that the charge q. does not disturb the pre-eJdsting field E, the amOWlt ofwark done inmoving the dwge from A to B by the extemal force is given by.
A~~----~

____~D

....(IS.l)

Flg.J5.J:Wori; done be,.._

po/It' A and B (W..I

Here, V. and V. are the potentials at points A and B respectively. Thus, potential difference between point A and B. will be
V..= VB-V. =~
W
....(15.2)

q.
An electric potential difference is said to exist between two points in an electric field. if work is done against the electric for-ce in moving the positive test charge from one point to the other. It must be remembered that this worl<done in moving the charge from one point to other point is independent of the path. Due to this reason, the electric field is called a conservative field. SI unit of potential and potential difference is WIlt. The C.G.S. unit of potential and potantial difference is st6t volt (or e.s.u.)

I stat volt (e.s.u.) ~ 300 volt. I volt = I joule/coulomb.

If one joule of work is done in taking a test charge of I coulomb from one point to the other in an electric field.tben the potential difference betweal these pOints will be 1 volt. If one joule of work is done in bringing a test c.harge of I coulomb from infinity to a point in the field. then potential at that point is I volt.

EIt!1.:lri,-" Ptl1t:n[lal and l'ap-.acitar:-.

15.3.1 Potential at a Point dut to a Point Charge

Due to the point charge. electric intensity at . r will be . I E =--x .. (15.3) p 41ffi r!

Fig. J 5.1: CalcNlation 0/ electric potential at P

Similarly. the electric field at point A will be

E=-~
47tE

r] .,

...(15.4)

Considering point P and A to be very close to each other the average field between these points P and A may be taken as

E =JE. x E

Ap..[p

= jr-:I--q----=---q x 41tEo 1 41tEo r

__

q
=

.... (15.5)

:. Force on a charge q. over this region will be F AI = q.E., :. Work done in moving charge q. from A to P

.....(15.6)

W.4,

=FAp xr =
o~p

--x

....(15.7)

Similarly, work done in moving this charge from B to A

w ... = ~ x (.2.. __ I
4
!tEo

.... (15.8)

rA

rB qq. =-X
41t0

and wode. done in morning the charge from C to B i.e.

ECD

(1 1)
- -

ra

r(O

and so on. The total work done in moving the charge from infinity to point P will be

291

= =

qq.

-.

4K!>o
qq.

, - -00
. ...(15.9)

411E' o In ac:c:ordance with the definition of potential, W I q y= _ = - - _volts /I q. 4uo r

...(IS.IO)

Note: If there aresevera1 chargesofmagnetudeq" ql' qJ'" .etc. then the electric poteotiaI at a point is the scalar sum of the potentials due to each charge i.e.

y= y,+y,+ y'+ .............. .

QQ

....(IS.II)

or

qj

y= 1:
i= 1 41tEo "

We see that YocIt is positive or negative depending upon whether q is positive 01' negative.

"". lSJ:},

IiiII til P dw 10 - - - pWIt cItaiga

15.3.2 Potential at a Point due to an Electric Dipole

Let us consider.an e1eclric depoIe consisting of two equal and opposite point charges -q at with centre at O. Suppose we have to A and +q at B. separated by smail distanCe calculate potential at any point P (whose polar coordinates are (,. 9) i.e. OP = r and L BOP = 9 as shown in Fig 15.4. Here AP and BP ='1"

2r

=,,

Potential at P due to the charge at A : I (-q) Y,=-- x _ _

411:&0 '1

Potential at P due to the charge at B: I q Y~=--. x __

4XEo

'1

Total poCential at P due to both the charges of dipole:

Y= Y. + y.

~8,

::J
=.' c:o..9

From A BOD, "'" get OD '" lCOS 9. SimiIIIrty from A O.(C "'" iet OC

From the Fit! IS.4. _ - . ....o.im"oly

r,=r+lcos9 r, =r-lcosO

qx21cos9

4116.
or y z

,,'<.<r

pcos8
..:...----.,.

411&0r
,... -qx71

....(1'.12)

~.p=cIipole""

.SpedaIC-

Cae-I: When !be poim P liesoo the uialline oldie dipoIeOllibe iide olpllllitive cbmJe. 1ben9=OBDdcos9= 1

y- =

f.;.-ri I
r

..

(1'.13)

0-- H: When die point lies 011 tbe uialline oftbedipole 011 tbe sideofueplive dIqe,
1ben 9 '" -1"_ cos 8 --I

""1' y.... 4_

.(1S.14) oltbeclipole, ""8-!IO' _

c--1II: wma .. ",-P"OII tile ....... _

_ 8-0

I
.. CftI)' ~0Il

.-<IS.IS}

i.e. eIa:IijL . . . .ieI due to. dipole is _

* eq;...... 1ine ofdipole.

Note : EqIliputionlial s!ll'/oc is that surface at every point of which electric potential is same. No work is done in moving a charge from one point of equipotential surface to the other. Electric field intensity is al_ys perpendicular to such surfaces. A plane surface normal to the dipole axis and passinglhrough its equitorial1ine is an example orequipotential surface as potential is zero at all the points on the surface.

15.3.3. Eleetric Potential Energy of a System of Point Charges

The det:tric potnrtiIJl energy is the energy po3Sessed by a system 0/point charges by virtue o/their position in the electric field. When charges are infinite distance apart, !hey do not interact as their fields do not extend upto each other. Under such situation, their pote..tial energy is zero because no work is done in II10ving a charge plac:ed at infinity. If we want to assemble a cllarge system i.e. bring clwges near to each other, then worl< will be done. This work is stored in the form of potential energy in the system of these charges. This is called the electric potential energy o/the chorgt! system. Hence, we can define potential eneJgy of a system of point charges as the total amoWlt of work done in bringing the various point charges of the system, to their respective positions from infinitely large mutual separations ...

Suppose, a point charge q, is held at a point P, with position vector r, in space. Another point charge q" is at infiuity. This is to be brought to the point P, with position vectorr, where P,P, =r 12 as shown in Fig. 15.5. We know that electric potential at P, due to a charge . q, at P, is,

1 =--

q,

4 lIE.

I r,,1

P,
FIg. J5.5: Potential e-xr oftwo charge.

From the definition of potential, workdonein bringing charge q,fromooto point P, is

W= (potential at P,) x value of ~harge 1 q, = - - x (q,) .

4 lIE.

Ir,J

This work done (i.e. eDer8Y spent in doing work) is stored in the system of two point charges q, and q, in the form of electric potential energy U. Thus,

q,xq,
...(15.16)

U= W=--

47tE.lr,J
10 case of two charges of same sign, work is done against repulsive tme to bring them closer and hence, electric potential energy of system increases. COnversely, in 1Afpei..n." them from each other, work is dooeby die field, IS a result potentiaJ. ener&Y of die sy1IIiD will decrease in this process. Ifcharges are ofopposite sign i.e. one is positive aod other is nepdve. 1bepotential energy ofdle sysJem decreaseS in bringiDg the charges ncar to CEb
other whileincreases in sepaniting them from each other.

-'1- .

Elearic,roa..tial and Capalln

Note (1): In case of a system consisting ofpointcbargesq,. q1, q, .................. q. at position

vectors r l , r 2' r 3' r .. respectively.

qll, I 'U=-- 1: - 4 ltEo all poi. IrIJ1 _,

)

...

...{lS.17)

when it makes an angle a. is

(2)

Potential energy of an electric dipole of moment p in Ibe UDifonn eIccIric field (I:)

IU.=-PEcosa I

{IS.18)

15.3.4. Relatioa betweeD Eleetric Field aad Poteatial GnUtieat

Consider any two points A and B in a UDiform electric field E, sep"uded by a small d.istaDce
~=~

By definatiOll, potential cIiffi!JeIK:e (dY) positive test chaJge from A to B.

'*_

A and B

= Wottdone in moving lIIIit

i.e. dY= (Force on UDit positive charge) x (AD) = E. (dr) =(E)(dr) cos 1110"

=-E.dr
or

IEI-

dY Idrj

or

E=~-

-dY
dr

...(15.19)

{Negative sign indicates that-work is done against Ibe electric field.} Hence, at any point in an electric field, intensity is equal to negative rate of chIDge of potential with distance (called}Hlfll 'WI,e#rl) at that point In Ibe direction of field. Remember electric potef!Ual is a scalar quantity but electric potentiaI sradi~ is. vector U it is numerically equaIto e\llc1ric field intensity. From the above relation, fix unibm electric field:

E=--d

Y.-Y6

...(15.20)

Here YA and Y6 are potenl:ials at point A &; B respectivly separated by a dlsbmce 'd' meter.
INTEXTQ~SroNS

15.1._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. How is force related to chpige and electric field intensity?

............. ......................................................... .
-

2.

Ifa pain! charge be rotated in a circle ofradius r around Q charge q. what will be the
work done ?

..................... .'.~; ... .' ~ ........................................ .

.3." The electric potential V is con.sltJlJl in a region. What Cart you say about the electric field E there ?
4.

Ifelectricfield intensity is zero at a point. ",!lithe electric potential be necessarily zero

(.It thaI point.

5.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ', .......... '.' Can two eqllipolential surfaces interseted?

............................... .

15.4 CAPACITANCE
On the basis of charge conduction, substances can be grouped into two classes namely
conductors and insulators.Jn solids the conduction of electricity usually takes place due to tree electrons where as in case of fluids it is due to ions. Substances that have free charge carriers through ~ich eleCtric currents can be established by the application of suitable eleCtrl~'i\etJ are 'callc!c! co';ductors. Metals are good examples of condll~tots.Substances that bave no free charge carriers are called insulators. The.j:ommon insulators are ebonite, glass, quartz, mica etc. Insulators me also called dielectric.. The substance ~ch bave electrical conductivity between conductors and insulators are called semiconductors. The ratio of electric I:011ductivity between good conductors and good insulators is of the order of 10'"

15.4.1 Behaviour of Conductors in an Electrostatic Field

As we have learnt, conductors contain free electrolls and these electrons move within the conductor, when an electric field is applied. When the conductor is placed in an electric field, there is lirift of electrons and this drift continues till the el~ctric field produced due to redistribution of charge (because of drift of electrons) is equal and opposite to the applied electric field. Thus, the field within the conductors will be zero irrespective oCthe shape of the conductor. In most of the metals equilibrium is reached in a very short time of thr order of 10-" second. After equilibrium is reached, the complete interior of conduCtor constitutes l1li equipotential volume as net electric field in the interior of conductor is zero. Net charge in the interior of conductor is zero and there is no net charge density within the conductor. The ~1e charge always resides on the outer surface of a conductor. Therefore, surface of the conductor is an equipotential surface and there is no electric field along the surl'al:e III any poinL oflhl: I;onducter. The electric field will be normal to the surface !It any point. T/lus. there is no electric field inside the conductor.. Field out side the conductor 4:8Il exist "lllis property of conductor is used in dectrosltllic shieJdin,r. E1trostatic MN/dinfIsctwing ;s the phenomenon ofprotecting a certain region Ofspace from electric f.e14. To protect del icatc inslnunents from external electric fields, we enclose them in hollow conducters. Such hollow conductors are called Faradlly Cages. These need not to be earthed. That is wh} in a thunder storm accompanied by lightning, it is safer to be inside a car or a bus than 10 be in open. The metallic body of the car or bus provides electrostatic shielding to you from the lightning.

P .............--.-,.....,,.... Q
(a)

L--_-,.-_--'Q
~)

Fig. 15.6 (II) &. (b):

El~

Potential and Capacitars

Further, an eatd1ed conducter PQ can also act asa screen against die e)e<'tric lieltf:lYbu can understand it from the following [Fig. 15.6 (a) & (b)]. When PQ is not earthed. field of charged body A due to electrostatic induction continues beyonds PQ [See Fig. '15.6 (a)). However. when PQ is grounded. the induced + charges flows to earth and the field in the region beyond PQ disappears [Fig. 15.6 (b)]. Usually high voltage generators Isources are enclosed in earthed cages. This would prevent the electrostatic field ofthe generater from spreading out of the cage.

15.4.2 Electrical Capacitance

:,;0,

Electrical Capacitance of a conductor is a measure of the ability oj me conduclor III slore cha~e on it. If the charge on a conductor is gradually increased, i~ potential also mecca",,' no .t any instant the charge (q) given to conductor, is directly proportional to ils p(,lential \ V) Le. q ex: V or q=CV or
C=...{l5.21) V Where Cis cOllStant of proportionality and is called capifciry 0;' capacitance dlthe co1Ulllctnr. Ibe value of C does not depend:upon the mate,.ial Of conductor I)/lt depends

upon ils shape andsi::e.lt also depend, upon Ihe nallUe ofmedillm in which 'he cOIid'ltlar is localed The capacitllnce of conductor is defined as the amounl of charge 1"<11 has Iv be gil'"n 10 it to raise its potential by unity. The S.l. unit ofC isfarad In the above rdation.lf q=1 coulomb and V=I volt, then C= I farad. Hence, capacitance ofaconductor is said to be one farad, when a.charge of one coulomb raises its potential through one volt.
Smaller unit of capacitance are :

I mlc:ro farad (j.IF) = 10 -0 farad.

1 micro micro farad (J.1J.1F) or picofarad (pF) = 10- 12 farad.

15.4.3 Capacitance of Spberi<:al Conductor

A sphere of radius r is given a charge q. Let the potential of sphere be V. Then I q V = _ ....... 4ltEo r We know capacitance;' . Charge Potential

or

c=--q 14 a.,.

<

,.

,
... (15.22)

=4a, = . o .9 x 10'

It gives th. C oc ,. Thus, we learn that the capacitance of a spheiica\ conducter in farads is numerically equal to its radius devidecl 9 x 10', where radius is _en in metre.

bY

297

: Physics

64 x 10
C=4I1r=
o

9xl(r = 0:1711 x IIt"F

or

farad = 711 ...F.

This shows that farad is too big a utait of capacitance as earth's capacitance is very large.

1~4.4

Capacitor

A capacitor consistS of two c:onduI:torS, one charged and the oIbcI" usu8I1y earthed. ne pritIdple ofa Ct1ptICiIII1r is IfJ u.erc'" I ill. of. CIIIMwcttw.,

To IIIIderstand tile principle of a capacitor, let us consider an insulated mctaI plate A. Some positive charge (q) is given to il. till its potential (II) becomes IJIIIXimIDll. No further charge can be given as it would leak out. The capacitance of this conducter is q/~.

Now consider. another insulated metal plate B held near the plate A. By induction. negative charge is produI:cd 011 the nearfiM:eofB andcqual positive charge develops on the farther fiM:e of B. The induced DCgIIive charge tends to decrease the potential of A and induced positive charge tends to increase the potential of A. When the plate B is earthed. the induced positive charge 011 B being free. flows to e8rth {Fig. 15.7). But negative charge will stay as it is bouDd to positive Charge on A. Due to ~ -+ dUs induced negative charge on B, ++ potential of A is greatly reduced
-+t- -1+ - +Hence, we wncludc that the capacitmce of an insulated Conductor is increased considerably by bringing near it an uncharged eanhtd conductor. This is die principle of the capacitor. Capacitors IIIf ".. 11.7 used for storinglugc amounts ofelectric: charge and hence electrical enagy in a small space. for a small interval of time. iDI:reasiDg its capacity.

15.4.$ Capacitaaee of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

This is tile type of capacitor wbich is used most cOlDlllllllly. h consists of two meIaI plates CKhoflraA andbeld parallel toeacb oIbcI", a small dilUDCe"' IpCt. pJateSare oqaated by an insulm". medium like air, p8p0", mica, glass cIe. Que ofthe plate is CoImccte to !lJ"OUDd mel 0Iber is imuletcd ~ Fig. IS.I). When a charge +Ii is given to the insulated plate, a charge -q is iDlhvwl on the iunCI: fiM:e of -.-by placed OIberpiate and. +q is induced 011 the outer fIIce of this plate. This plate is earthed. as explained previously. ...q cl:uqe being free, flows to earth. Due to +q charge on one plate mel -q cl:uqe 011 oIbcI" plate, an c\ec:tril: field intensity E will set up between the plates. When the ~OII 'd' is small, fringing or distortion of eleclric field at the boundaries of the capllCitor can be

nesIected. .

EleclnC: P"'''''1iaI1IId CIqIKita's .

We know. if a b; _IKe charge densi'Y on either plate. IMn the electric field iDfellSi'Y between the plates is. .
[=.-

E"

1'= Ed~ .a d (Where I'ispotentialdifference E between the plates)

+=----=) t ....

Here, cr
1'=

q
Ie -

Charge on plate
=

Area of plate

!.
A

~
E.

+;..-----

...... - ---+ ..

+ ... -E-

1- ~

- ---

--

As we know, C = capllCi'Y =iI'

Hence. the capacity 'C of parallel plate capacitor separated by d in \I1ICUIIID is aiven by.
(.,,::;- = I' qdfEnA

E.A

s ..4 C " dwhere E ...

...(15.23)

ul)( 10"1l Pm-I. It is clear from tbia relation that to obtain hish capacitallee.

(I) 'A' area of plate should be !up

(b) 'd'. sepAration ' * - plates should ,be small.

Note: When the plarea ofcapacitor lie separated by lOme dielectric material ofpermittivi'Y E,. other then air or vacCWD. then the ClplCitallee of parallel plate capacitor is :

c-d

.4

C,

",A
d

Here. B, ,. relative permitivi'Y

- sIr.

Hence. '(' .. II, 7- I, C.

or

I.A

...(15.24)

Where /C is known u " ' ttrk _tut of medilllD. The caplCitlllCe of dielectric fined parallel plate capacitor bec:omeII /C times die ClplCillDCe with air or VIICUUIII u dielectric.

Physics

15.4.6. RelativePerlllittivity or Dielectric CODstaDt

Accordina to Coulomb's law. 1M force of interaction between tWO ciwl!es q; aDd q: separ;.led by dishlnt:e r in vacuum is. " \
F. =
... (15.25)

Where E. is absolute permittivity of free sp;!ft4lr ,acuum. If same c;harges are held at the same distance in a material medium. then 1M force of interaction between them is.
F' = __ 4 'It:
I

q, tf,.

r '.

. .. ( 15.26)

0,

From these equations we get (on dividing)

F E -'=-=EorK
F
.f: '

where E, or dieleCtric Constanl of the medium ...\s w.: nllt;';.:. il is the ratio of absolute permittivity of the material medium 10 the absolute pennitti\i~ "ffree space. We can also define the dielectric constant of a medium as the r.lio l1f the declmstalic fon;c of interaction belween two givcu point charges held at certain distance apart in air vacuum to the force of interaction between the same two charges hela al the >rune dislance apan in the material medium.
It can also be expressed u Capacitance with diclt.etric belWeen the plates

. . or K is relative permittivity

... ((5.27)

KK S = - - - - - - - - - - - - - : - - , Capacitance with vacuum between the plates

C. K, sCThus.

... (15.181

C. - KC. a E, C. Note: For iqetal. K ao.and for mica K ::.. 6. paper K:: 3.6

INTEXT QUESTIONS H;.l,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I.

If the potential diJJiIYnc, QCrosl the plal'l of a parQllel plaIt capacilor Is doubled
what will be change In the capaclttlllci ? Writ' lhe di"u",.rlons of capacilQ1lt:' 'C'. Give Ih' value of capacilanc, of partill,1 plat, capaCitor In terms ofQl'fa ofplat" \4' and their mutual dilltlllC' of..,paralion 'tf. LlI platu . . I,paratld by a di,l,ctrlc oflY/aliv, permiIIM/)' e,.
~ ~:,

2.

J, C,.., lhe t:.flPIICi1Qlfl:l of,,,plwrU:tIJ CDIIducIor ofrQl/i~ 10 em.

.. .. ...

......................... , .............. , ....................................... , ............ .

, "" ,
~ ~."

.. ...

....

'.,

......... ,

~ "~.~

."

,-'",'-

...

15.5 GROUPING OF CAPMmlORS

To obIIIin die.de1lile4 valueoteapflCitabce ill mauy electric circuits, capacitors .., to be groupedsuitably: Two most eo.limon modes of grouping of parallel plate capatitOl's are (i) series grouping. and (ii) parallel grouping.

15.5.1' $eries Gro1ipiagof Capacitors

In the aeries combiDatioB of c&pIICiiors, the fint plate ofifint capacitor is joined to the electric soun:e: The second plate of this capacitor or is j~ to the first plate of the next capacitor. The second plate oflbis capacitor is again connected to fust plate ofnext capacitor of the combinatio.n and so on.. The second plate of last capacitor of the combmation is connected to the earthas shown ~ Fi&J 5.9. Let +q Unit of charge be given to the fust plate of capacitor C, fronl the soUrce. Due to electricel iDduction, as explaiDed in theJlrinciple of capacitor. -q charge appear on the inner side ofright plate of C, and +q charge develops on the outer side of the second plate or C" The +q unit of charge flow to the first plate of C, and so on as indicated in Fig. 15.9. Thus, each capacitor receives tIie same charge of magnitude q. As their capacitances are different, therefore. potential difference across the th!"ee capacitors are
~

= -

-C c v3

.,
f' = - andsoon , C
(

...(15.29)
V,

/ 1 '

)(
-+q

If c, is the total capacitance of the series grouping then,

q ~-
As,
~ - ~/

.' V,

If
tq

V,

,
,.........

-+q

.q

.q

.q

r-

C,

c,
+ ~, + ~, + ...... :.
...(IS.30)

c,

c,

q
"--

C,

*'

-:---

Ct.

+ -C
1

q
+,.~
.

C,

+ ....... .

or

Cs

-1

+C1

T-

n ........... I C ;=1 i C,

.,(IS.31)

Thus, tbe HdpI'ocaI ~f ",,1IlwIIMt CtIpIICiIIDt of"", ."., of C8pflCJton joilled ill _ _ II ""II1II til _ of til. rec/prfJctIII of illtIlvIdlltlJ ctIpIldttmt:a. From the above relation, iunuS! the clear to you that C, is less IlIaD the least ofC,. Cl' C, ....... C.

All the ClpllCitors in series grouping have the SIIIIlO amount ofcharge but the potential difl.'efm:e betweell their plates are inversely proJ'!'l1ionaI to their capacila\lccs. Series combination is used w1ien the high voltage i~ to be divided on several capacitors. Remember thst the lowest capacitor of the combination will have maximum potential dlffereiICe '*-n its plates.
. 301

15.5.2 Parallel Gro.pl.. ofCapact..,.

In. this type Of.1f01IPiaI, tin! plata of -.h i:epedaor of IJ.'QIIIIiaa _ Q IIDI ctld 110. _ poiDt A IIid all tbc IMICOIId plata 110 MMldwpoiDt , .. _ _ ill Fia 15.10. PaD B is
cOllMCled 110 the earth.

"I. _.
f.

Let f'be the poteIIIial dilfereDce appiied 110 tbc combiDlltion botw!jIID poiDt A.a B.1n tIrb I)p ojCOlllbinat/on, lInIiM COIIIbbrDtfoll,~"I"". - . . .ac1iCifKlCitot tbmefoze, dwp OIl tbIm wiD be di. . . . A)' f,. f .. f ...~..... f, -e,f' ...(1S.32) f. -e,f'

I.,..

liliii1i_

-e.f'

. /-1 Thus. we lee that equivalent capacitance of 1lIIY number of capacitors. joined in-pmllel is equal 110 the SIII,II of the individual capacitances. .
Remember in parallel combination all the cllpllCitors have same potenlial difference beNoeen their plates but charge is distributed in proportion to their capacitances. Such combination is used for charge accumulations.

or

Ie, - e, + e, + e. +.... 1- 1: e,
.

".. /S.IO: CtlpGCuDI".inpil/"QII.I.-bhHltl...

15.5.3 EDeI'IY Stored iD a Capacitor

The chlrJial of a capacitor can be visualized by imapnillll as if some eKlemai agent. II)' batler)'. pulla electrons from.the poaitive plate of a capacitor and transfer them to negative plate. Some work is done in IrInIferrina this charp. which i. stored in tile capacitor. in the form of eiectrottalic field or potential eMIlY. This eiIe~is obtained from thIi batter)' (stored chlmical ene!J)'). When this cllpllCitor is dischqed throuah a resistance. this enetIY is re1eaaed back (in the form of heat etc.). Net electrostatic potential eMIlY of chIrge capacitor II aiven as: 1fT' I I U - - - - Cr: -qV jowl ....(U.35) 2 C 2 2 Where all terms clllt)' tlleir usual meaning. This enet"i)' of the dIIIJId capacitormuaias in the dielectric medium between the plates. 302 ---------------------------~-------------------------

15.5.4 Dieleetrics aDd Dielectric Polarization

We know dielectrics are insulating materials which transmit electric effects without conducting. Dielectrics are of two types : non-polar and polar.
(a) NOR-polar dielectrics

In the molecules of such Iyj.c of dielectrics, the CCIIIre of positive c1uqe coincides with the centre of negative charge. Each molecule has zero dipole moment in its IIOIDI&I state. These molecules are mostly symmetrical such as nitrogen, oxygen, bcDzeDe, methane etC.
(b) Polar dlelectrla

These type of dielectrics have asymmetric shape orthe molecules such as water, CO" NH; ,HCl etc. In such molecules, the centres of positive and negative charges do not coincide and they have 80me permanent dipole moment. When the non-polar dielectric is held in an ext~ electric field E, the CCIIIre of positive charge in each molecule is pushed in the direction of E and centre of negative charge is displaced in the direction opposite to E. Because of external electric field, centres of positive and negative charges in the non-polar dielectric molecules'are separated. Dielectric is said to be polarized and a tiny dipole moment is induced in each molecule. In fact. the force due to external electric field pulling the charge centres apart balances with the foree of mutual attraction between the centres (i.e. equilibrium is set ) and lIIulecule is said to be polarised.lnduced Die' IIeb dipole moment p acquired by the molecule P may be witten as. p-ocB.E Where oc is a constant of proportionality and is called atomic/molecular polar#:ability. Let us now consider a nonpolar Ila. ABCD placed in an electric field E mai ntained between two plates of capaciter. As shown in Fig lS.l1 ,dielectric slab gets polarised. The nucleus of dielectric moleculos are displaced towards the negative plate and electrons towards positive plates. Because ofpolarisatirm, an electric field E, is produced within the ,.,. 1.11: DIII_ po/lI1'IItIIItJIt"""" lIN dielectric, which is opposite to E. Hence pI_ '"tNIptIIJllor due to the presence of the non-polar dielectric, the field between the plates i. reduced. i.e. effective electric field in a polarised dielectric Is,

.Thus, the potentW difference betw_ the capacitor plates is correspondinaly reduced (as

"., E'd,), increasing the value of caplCltsnce of capacitor (as, C - qIJ').

303

INTEXTQUESTIONS 15.3._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--"-_ _

I.

Ifair. paper and oil an us~d ur dir!rctriL., he""~~" 111"1'1,,10''< ala "apadlor in ...lIh:1I
("ure Ih~ o'u/1u";IOO",' ...illin higM.'1 :'

TIIr,, CIII'"dlor., 1I""inS ,ap"..ilu",c I,if: 5 ./iF ,,,,,I -}iF an' !trouped (u) in series and (hI i" (IIlnul/l.'I ('''pan lilt: "'1/11;\'(11.'", nlpddll.lnn in h"th -",.' t.'me.'; ?

.4 cal'"dltlr i.t t"lwlJr,eti. remo....Jfmm 1M "lIalJr,i"K ""ttery and u Ji"ltric" in.fl!rteti in ""tuten t"" pIOlf.,. Whut ...ill happr" t" lilt! ele,trostat;(" palfntial.~ ? Will il
inC'f'f!(l.ft. decrea.f( or remain th .., J"nJ~?

15.6 WHAT YOU HAV':

It-:A:;'~'T

Ek'CIl'oS1alic field is a ...nscJ"\ali\c field. The e1ecllic Pole~lial an an~ r"inl in al c1edri. lidd j. e<JU3II" ~ \\"rIo. dllne againsl !he elecllic fo",e in mewing a unil charlie Irom oUlsidc Ih. eleclric field 10 Ihe given pllinl in electric field. . Won. done in Ir--~t;'rinl! a charlie. (rom one pc,inllo anolher. in an dcclrU!;lalic rlCld is path indc""ndcnl. The capacilancc IIf ~ .. ">l1lI""1.... incn:a.., "'hen II/IOther canhed eonductor is brovahI in ils \icinity. If one joule "f",or~ i5 done in i"';"l!ing a lesl charge nf' one eoulumb from inrmily 10 a ""inl in Ihefield. then pc'lenlial allhal roinl is one \'<111. f.lcctric re'tcntial due In a dire,le i. lew al C\'ery poinlon the equiloriallinc of dipole. Equipc,tcnlial .urface i~ Ihe surlace at eve". pc,inl (If which cl.'Clric pc,tcnlial is IIUIIC. / The work done is auembling t\\'o charg(s infinilel), apan from eacil oOIIr, is aid 10 be the electrostatic polential energy o(the slslem. AI an)' poim in an eleclric field. intcnsil)' ;. equal to negalive rale ofchange of poIeI1tlll wilh di!llancc (caUed pnlcnlialll1adienl,. I'lcctn>slalic ~hieldinl! i. the phenomenon nrprolctling. cenain n:gion ofspace Iiom elc.:lric field. (. apae itan..: or a conduclor docs nol dcpcndupc,n the rnaterial "f c:emdUl:tor bul depends upc.n ils ile and nature o(medium. 1111: capacilanl;" ,.( dielectric filled panlled "Iale capaci"', be.:umcs K limes the caracitance "ith air or vacuum as di(lcclric. R(lalh c pcnnilli\ il) is the ralio of capacitance wilh dielectric belV._1he plalClto the capacitance \\ith \'Icuum bel\\een the plales. In series combinalion of capacilotS. lhe cqui"alent capacitance is _ .dlaDllllltut of any of the indi, idual capacitance. In parallel combination of capacilors. the equivalent capacitance is equal 10 cbt lUll of inc!i\'idual capacitances. Due ft) the presence ofa non-polardielectric.1he field between the plata ofa c:apadror is reduced.

.ha"".

15.1 TERMINAL Qt:ESTIONS

I.

Define electric potenlial. Is il a sc;alat or a veclor quantity?

2. V.bal is meanl b) potenlial srac!ienl"? WiU il have the same unit u poIeDtial ? 3. A metallic box is placed in the space ha"ina electric field. ""bat is the field iDIicIe h ?
Explain> our BIIS"cr.

304

!:Itric PQlCllliailDd C..,.atar

.t.

5.
6.
7.

8.

9.

10.

II.

12.

I"'rhe the \aluc ofpolcntial at any point on the equatorial line nfan de"ric dipole. deline the tenn ,""It. \\ bat i. the "'''rkdone in moving a charge of 10 C ""Iween Iwo pnints "'pc....t..! hy. dislance of6cm. on"'" equipolential surface of 100 IAV? What i. a capacitor" BrieRy. explain"'" principle of. capacitor. oefine the SI Unit of capacilance. \\bat is diellric ? When a dielectric: is inserted in between the plates of a c:apac:itor. how does the capacitance change and ~ Derin an expression for the equi\'alent capacitance of twu capacilOn (.', an4 C, connected (a, in series (b) ill ......1cI. Write two IIpplication of capacilon in electric circuits. The ~Iectric potenlial is + 80 V ala point distant 80 mm from a pow charge. What is the magnitude of charge? In a bydrogen atom. the electron and prolan are bound at a distance of about 0.S3 A. ESlimate"'" potential energy of the system in i: 1'. taking "'" zero of potential energy at inlinite separalion of electron from the protun. Two capacitors of ''<Iual capacitance when cOMccted in serieJ. have a net capacilanl:e C and when cOMected in parallel. have a net capacitance C, What is the value ufe A capacitor C, =2~ is cbaIged l'la potential qf200V. Another capacitor C,"",~ is charged 10 a potcDtiaJ of 4OOV. Fipd is charge and energy stored in cacb capuitor? The t"O cbargc;d c:apac:itors are nowjoined in parallel. What is their _on potallial dift'crcnce ? What is the final energy stored in the system ? Is IhIIre .1l1li of ? If yes. wh&1 Mppens 10 the encrg)' lost?

c,.?

-..r

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Inttll Queslions I S.I
I. Fon:o: - charge x electric field intensity l.ero. because is rollliina the c:Jwae in. circle. fon:e is alOIII the I'IIIIIus IUd direction of moti,)n is p4;~ndicular 10 il. 3. As E' and I' is consent. hence E .. 0 .t. :-':". electric pulo:nlial will nul necessarily be zero. but it c:an be COIIIIaDt in that reJion. 5. :-':0. a.~ cquipolenlisl surface is always normal to electric field iDtaIIiy E.

-f

Inlul Questions IS.2

I. Capacilance will remain same. :!. :\1 -:! T" A'. C _ teE, A 3. Il.l.pF d

IRanI Questio IS.3 I. oil 2. 61J; 35 3. PotcnIiaJ CReIIY dec:reaRa by. factor K, tile dielectric "MSI'IIt oftile cIieIectric.

.......1QtI.d... 10.0.71 pC II. 27.17eV 12. 114 13. Q,.4x lo-'C.Q,16ylO"'C;B,4lc 10"2J.B2 .32 x 10"21.
Tbe lost energy appears as beat producecl ill the wire. 30S

16
ELECl'RIC CURRENT

16.1 INTRODUCTION
In our daily life we read books with the light of electric bulb and tube ~ Iiste:n music on a tape recorder or radio receiver. see different programes on televiliOn, eqjoy cool breeZe from electric fan or coOler. Do you know. what makea theae app1IaDcea work. It is electric current EleCtricity is a unique gift of science to mankind Our every day. life is governed directly or indirectly by many applications of electricity. We cannot imagine to live without electricity in the modern world. At home you observe that by merely switching on an electric bulb starts glowbJs. Why does it so happen? WhIt Is the timction

of a 5witch?
In the previous lessons you have studied about static electric clwp 1114 their etfecta, Electric charge is stored in capaciton. In the p.-t lellSOll you villi study the electric charges in motion. You will also learn. .in this lellSOll, that the rate of flow of charp through a conductor depends upon the nature of material and potential differeDCe (Ohms law). You will study the distribution of current in cireuiU. laws necessar.Y to understand various electrical circuits and how to calculate current in circuit Mtworka

(Kirchhoff's laws).

16.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson. you should will be able to; vcplaln d71ft velocity ofel,ct/'oIU, charge tralUport and ,lectric CllmlIIt; stat, andprove ohm', and dl8tIngWlI bfrwun Ohmic andnon-ohm/c ,."IIttmcu; d.jiM and vcplaln ruuti)rlty and dl8cuu 1Mj'actrn 011 widell ruuti'llity t/epf1rdI; ~ lfllllval,1It rul8tanceforu"", and paI'QII" comb/nQtfOli ofruilltn; calculat, r"ut~ on tM lxuu ofcolour cotIa; stat. and apply KJrcIalaojJ',I_ ID clDlled electric circllb;. ID dedMce Wlleauton, /JrldgI eqtIIII/OIIlIIIlkr balfIItCM condltloll and III' find IOIknowII ruutanc,; and explain tile principiI ofpotentiorMler and apply It 10 cGlClllfll&tlw e.".".(lldllrMrItII resutQl/CI ofQ Clll.

'aw

t1w.,..,.,

El",,1ric Currem

16.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT

In the previous lessons you have studied that when a potential difference is applied across a conductor an electric field sets in the conductor and e~ in the direction opposite to the field. Due to electron drift charge flows through the conductor and we say that electric current is flowing through it. The direction of current it taken opposite to the directionofflowofelectronS (negative charge) and in the directionof flow of positive charge. Let a charge A Q be passing acroSs a conducting wire uuhort'time interval At. Then, we define electric current as 1=At

AQ

.....(16.1)

ne electrie clIITetlt throllglt any cmubu:tor is tlte rtIIe of trtIIISfer ofcIuute from o"e
side ofany cross sectio" ofco"dllClor to tlte otIter side. The SI unit of current ~ ampere
(symbol A). If one coulomb of charge passes through a cross-section of the conductor

per second then the current is one ampere.

Ampere (A)

=- - -

coulomb(C) second(s)

Commonly used sources of current are electric cells, electric generators etc.

16.3.1 Ollm's Law

In 1826 German Scientist George Simon Ohm studied the relation between current flowing in a conductor and potential difference applied across it. He expressed this relation in the form of a law known as Ohm's law. According to this law: the electric CIIITI!IIt tIrroIIglt II ctJIIdMctor is directly proptIrIiofuIl to tile potential difference across it pnwided tile p/lpictd. colUlitions :ruelt lIS temperatllN are IIIICltanged.

Let "be the potential difference applied across the conductot and lbe the current flowing through it. According to Ohm's law,
jI./

or

Y=R/

Y or -=R
/

.... (16.2)

where constaJU R is the electrical resistanc:c applied by the conductor in flowing the electric current. Resistanc:c is the property of the material of the conductot wbich opposes the flow of current throught it. The V-I graph for a metallic cooductot is a straight line (Fig 16.1).

U"it of nsi6tlUlce is Ohm. It is expressed by symbol n

(Omega)

.... Voltage (Y)

Fig.I6-I: V-Igraplr/ora _ollie

"t Ohm =1 voltllampere

""""""'or

307

No"". lei us study !he faclors which elleel lhe rL..islance of a conduclor. YOI'!bit. ),ou ma), . pcrll>nn IWO simple experimenls :
II) r,,4e JiO"r"nrlellgtlu u/" ,unt/",/ing ...ire ,ifs""'" IIIIlleriel """s""''' aua. Apply same voJl,,# lhose ai,emutel)' """ reod 1M "alllt! of"wrenr/or each CtHIdIICling wire. You ...111 ulnerw IhDt CinellI changes ilw(rsel), proporlion 101M length of1M condJIcIor. II shu...s IItIll,IN FaIsWMe of CHilMCItIr.1s .11)' prt1ptll'limu1llo '-lilt (II of lite CfIIIII_

"''''o.ss

,&

R~t

(2) Take ,-undueling wires ofsame_",ial unJ "f same length but 0/ diffonnl cross se"/i,,,,,,/ """- Apply same poIMliai difforence QII(/ nod 1M va/UI! 0/cvrrem/or ea&h 0/ Iht!m. ruu "'iII obserw lhat 1M voJue of ~"""'"1 is in proporlion 101M area ofcross s ..,lion. This sho..s lhal 1M resislQllce of 1M conduclor is invrrsely proportianallo 1M JUea ofcross sIion (A) i.e.
R~tIA

Ihus on I:OIDbiDill& lIbove two relatiOlll, R ~ -

t
A
....(16.3)

or

R-p-

wba'e P is CODSI.IDt for the matetW at CIJIIIIen! temperature and is calledspecifu: rnisIiura
tII'~

pooI

RA

If,.Im, .4-11RI,1hcn P-(RObm)(Im2)'IIR-R 0Ia )( m

Thus. lite WIIw tlfraistWlly of. R'

0/1.,."..",11..' _ 0 / -

rW .,II1II10 ralJtnece 0/ ."., ofllte -.iIIJ cd" . . . . r ailllfl"'l-A

ID-. ofraistivity is called CMDcIHIyOC 'fJ'CifIc ~ and is represenred by a. I

a-p

...(16.4)

U~iofCOlldIledrity is Obm1 metre -I (O-'m-')ormbometer-'.

but II i.r ~ 0/ its diIItIouions, ReIiIIivity dq.rttb 011 " . IUIIIIrr of'" wIIaas ... ,......... of .co,......... cItIpc "'" 011 its dimensioas .. -U .. 011 the IIIIIfCriaI ofwbida it is IIIIIde up of.

_.rlol

III ..... of he eIec:IroIa coo"",,1lIiOD (II) IDII nduaIicJII time ('r) ... cap RIIiIImty II,

'M fiJr

.(16.5)

308

Electric Curren!

where e and 'm are respectively charge and mass of an electron. The reslSl1v,ty at a temperature is inversely proportional to free electron concentration. Thus. for a ccinductor having large number of free electrons resistivity and hence resistance is small. Silver is rh" best conductor. copper and aluminium are also good conductors. Due to very low resistance copper and aluminium wires are used as connecting wires for joining various components is electrical circuits and house hold fittings.
Several resistance wires of high resistivity are made of materials obtained by alloying some metals., Some ofthe import;ant alloys are lIllIgI1anin (84%Cu, 4% Ni and 12% Mn). constanton (60% Cu.. 40% Zn) and mchrom (80% Ni. 20%Cr). Resistance wires for electric heater. electric iron etc. are made of these alloys. Due to extremely high resistivity ebonite. mica. china clay. fused quartz etc are used as insulators. In household wiring. oopper and alumiuium conductors are covered with a layer of some insulating materials like P.V.C. (polyvinyl chloride). rubber. cotton etc. We have materials like germanium (Zn) and silicon (Si) which have resistivity much smaller than that of insulators but much greater than that of metals. They are called semi-condllClors semiconductors are used to make electronic devices such as diode, transistor etc. In book-5 you will study semi-conductors in details.

16.3.2Temperatllre Dependence of Resistance

You have read in previous section, the following relation for resistivity and relaxation time.

P=--2ne r
according to which the resistivity is inversely proportional to relaxation time t. The resistance of a wire of length eand area of cross - section A is given by.

2m

2mt

R=PT= niTA
FOr a given wire ( A and n are constants, therefore resistance

R-Reloxation time is the average time between successive collisions of electrons with die lattice ions (positive ions of metal). If mean free path (the average distance between two successive Collisions) of electrons is A and root mean square speed is v_, then
r=-

A.

....(16.6)

R---,r ],

v_

....(16.7)

With increase 'lftemperature,rootmeansquare speecUncreases(v_ 1)andmeanfree path decreases (because ampJitnde fvibration ofIattice increases) so that colliSIOns of electrons with the lattice take place more frequently. As a result resistivity and hence,

309

Physics

r.isttmce Dftlle ",ire iIIcretIU$ with ~ DflUrpmfllllH., III DtIur WDl'bCIJNIWduity ofcotulMCtor tintIses willi illCIWI8I! Df "'I+a....
If R. and R, IIR tho values ofresistance of a wire at O"C IIIId t'C sespecUvely fJlm R, DJaY be obtained by relation

R, =R. (1+ at)

.(16.8)

Where IX is a constant, called IDIIperaIIIre coefTu:ieIIt of re!IisItuu:e (~resistivity). Then,

a=

R-R
'

..

(per '0C)

If Ro=IQ and t = 1C, then ;a = R, R. the increase in resistance. 11rus, IeIIipeItIIIJre coefTu:klll of nsisttmce is ~11111 tIJ cll""ges ill ~ Df. win ofre!lisltuu:e _ Oil", til lie ",hell IeIIrpet'iltIIn clltutgell by J'C

If the resisbmce of a wire at temperature t C is R, and at t C, is R , then RI =R (i+at)andR =R0 (I+at,) . I 2

"

R i+at . on dividing -'- = - - ' R i+at,

2

So that
a=

R, -R'(per.C)
R t-R t
I 2 2 I

.(16;9)

The resistivity of alloys also increases wilh ~ of temperature but increase is very small in comparison to that for metals. For ~oys such as mqpurin ~'"'MI andnicbrome temperature coefficient of resistivity is negIi!itD'y small and resistivity. is high, hence these 'lire used to l118ke resisbmce wires or standard ruistatrce3.

Here, you note that the resistivity of some materials like carbon, silicon, germani.im etI:. decreases with increase of temperature that is tempe.tature c:oeflicicat ofl'eliJtivity for
these iDateriais is negative.

'.3.3 Drift Velodty of Eleetroos You see that by switchins OIl eleCtricity of a power statiOll, .all tile electrical "PP'imees
COIUlCCted to the power atation at once start werking iflOlllll. switdIes are 011, even though power atationis faraway. Haveyouevertbroughtwbatisbappeningliere? OI!switI:bin& charge transport takes place in the form of electron drift in the supply line.
As we have I~ that a solid COI1Iiuctor CODSists ofionsplaced in a regwllummr_rt and free electrons IIR not bound to any particular atom. The free elec:bons CIIIl move about in the eutire volume oftile material. The ions which_ muchheiM.. dumlbe elec:lmlscm only vibrate about their fixed positiollll. poaitiOllS of Ii.; ious.fIlIJn a npbsr periodic pattern which is called a IIIi1ice:

The _

310'

Free eleo:tooa collide 01' interact witb the ions at the lattice positions. The speed and directiOti ""uJaeS randomly at each such event. As a result the electrons move in zigzag path (Fig. 16.2). In a \ metal. a 1arge number of free electrons l.,__\~ _ __... _-'. move in pmdom directions. The number 1.--7 ,J. , of electroils crossing an area Ii A from II ,,' y' / ' one side very nearly equals the number x crossing from other side in 'any given ~~-0.-1-'-.... ./+4 time interval. Therefore. 1\0 net transport of charge across any cross section takes place. When electric field is applied accross the conductor. a force acts on each electron in the direction opposite to the field. The electrons get drifted sfowlY in the direction of force. The drift is much lesser than the actual velocity of the electron. At each collision electron starts a fresh in random direction with a nmoom speed but gains a velocity component v' due to electric field. This component v' inc:reaaes with- time till next collision occurs. Again it starts aftesh with a random velocity and in the process the velocity component in the direction of field is lost. If the electron drifts a distance t in long lime t. then drift velocity. t

/'.

;'. ,

y=d ,

....:(16.10)

You may define the drift velocity as an avertlf:e velocity colfll1tlMni wltll wAieA eItrons drift opposite to the dinctIofI of electricfield.

Let T be the average time called as mean.free lime between successive collisions and iI be the acceleration due to electric field E. Then
force acting on an electron
iI=

mass of the electron

=-

eE m

...{16.11)

Where e and m are charge and mass ofelectrons. Therefore. the displacement ofelectron in

the direction offorce.

I!.l=

12 (eE)2 TQ r =2" -;;- 't

1

The drift velocity is.

y

= - = - ( eE
t

AI

)'t =.:

eE 2 m

't

....(16.12)

It shows that drifi velocity ofelectrons is directly propori:iorwI to electric field.

~tr

>"

--.--,..

16.3.4 Ato.1e Ex'.....a o{Ob.'. Law

I,. lIS comider a cylindriclllawbM1Ol' ofcross sectiODlllareaA. in which m electric field E exists. In lime IJI ~ drifts a disraoce v.lJI, wbC.:e v. is the drift velocity. cOnsider a lengthv.Atoftheoooductot"(Fig 16.3).

1bc volume of tbia J'!Il1ion is A v. l!J. '1,. there be n tree eleclnllJS per unit volume of cooductor. 1bc munber of eleclnllJS in tbia J'!Il1ion is 1IifvAt . All these electrons cross the m:a A in time l!J. Therefule, charge crossing this area in time l!J is,

FIg. 16.3: Crou-sIion ofD. cotfductor.

I!.Q or Current 1= At

=Ane

--=
2m

Ane 'tE

Ane T Y
21111
... (16.13)

.Thus.

I <r; Y

This is Ohm's law.

It is clear from this expression that the cmrant is directly proportional to the drift velocily of free electrons in a conductor.
Eu.plel6.1 : A total of6.0 x J(f' electrons pass through any cross - section of a conducting ....ire p4r second. Find the Clll7"enl.

501.&8: 1bc total charge crossing the cross section in one second is,

I!.Q - .. =6.0 x 10 x 1.6 x 10 C =9.6 x IO"C

16

-19

AQ 9.6 x 10" C -9.6 x IO A 1=Is IJI

ED.aple 16.2: Calculate the drlq sp4ed of electrons when 1 A of current flows in a copper wire ofc:rou - section 2_. The number offree electrons in 1 cm J ofCDpp4r is
8.S x

.,

IOU

501.00.: From the current and drift velocity relation

I=A"ev
So tbat,
ill

1 -6 21 -19 2 x 10 x8.5 x 10 )( 1.6)( 10

mfs

v =_1_=
AM

=3.6)( Hr'

312

Eicclric Cun-ent

SuperC.... _n: W. _ _ fur_material. below a_~""'st1vity suddL'Illy becomes ...... Thish:ll1pel'llt1lR is called CI'ItIetd ' - '.. _ .... filrlbisllallSidoa. TIle -.rial in this _ is caII... .,,~cbN .... 1be ......._ _ is coli... Sllpaalllduc1ivity. It was oblem:d fur """"my in 1911 by Kamerleigh Orm... Critical fur IDCUI)' is 4.2K.

tewPa-.

If .. eleclriecurrmti.... upin ....,........_. it .... peniIt filrJooatime_filrlDDlllhsmd years alia" mDO!Iingtbe II'PIi"'potaUiaielilf.n",,:e.~ducImty_ .. WllYlow ........_ which are djfficult to oblain. SciOllliSl$.arellyins to prepare COJDpOUDds mel alloys which wnuld be superconduaing at room temperatures (lOOK). Supen:onductivity .. aroWld 125K has already been achieved and elfurts are on to impmvC: upCJIl this. SupercondUC\On are used to construct very strong magnets. Possible applications of supeR:OIlducton are u1tra IlIst compute!" .witches mel poWer through superoonducting power lin... Iran.missi... of

-.C

Example 16.3: T....o wires A and B ofsame mass and material are talcen. Diameter of wire A is halftl101l that of wire B. !fresisJance af....ire A is 24f2jind the resistance ofwire B.

Solution: Let r A and rD be radii and 1 ,t be lengths of wire A and B respectiwh. As AB mass and density of the wires is the same, we have
"lr
A

'I d=7tr 'I d

A B B
_

'

..

~- iA
PtA = --,
'K

Resistances of wires A and B are

pt.
aodR. = - 'If, 7
2

R..

RA tA -=--x

RB
A

=-lL

.. ~=(2)

R
R

= 16
R=~=-

24

1.5 ohm

. 16

16

16.3.5 Ohmic and Non';'()hmic Resistances

You may easily see by drawing graph IK tween voltage and current across conductors that many conduclors obey Ohm's law. 1beir resistance is called Ohmic resistance or I ineac resistance. But Ohm's .law does not always hold good. If we replace the resistance wire by a torch bulb in an electrical circuit and note down values of current (I) for different voltages (I') then we see that the entire V-I graph drawn is not straight line (Fig 16.4-a). For low values of V. it remains straight lin~ and then becomes cun'ed. For high voltage

313

c\meDt through the fil_t of the. bulb bceomes large 10 tbat tile

filllMllt ofbulb becomes _ aDd_ u current increases in the filllMllt Ratio YR for low Yalue ofT ai- resi-..:e of the filam_ OIan'.low haIcI. in metallic wires, for 1ow'Ya\ues of curnmt 0DIy. Other examples of non-ohmic resistances arc vacuum diode, scmi.CODductor di~ transistor, liquid elcctro1ytes etc. In vacuum diode ohm'slawdoesDOtholdmm. for low values of curreut. Its Y-T curve Is shown in Fig 1(1.4-11.

ImI1pa'8tUre ofthe

.,e
(e)

Tcnhbulb II

1
~v

-v

(b)

16.3.6. Resistors
For different electrical aDd elccttonic cin:uits we require resistors of ~ VIlues. Resistors may be divided into two groups; wire WOUIId resistors aud carbon resistors
,., W"" rttnorlfit:lJro-JoftleJlIIiIe' /mrgtII tu:t:OI'tibtg III WIllie 01 " ....i...c b wollllll two fold OWl' bullllltbfg cyllluJa: III llUlke it Mil illdIIctiPe.
r.

Ina JIInwollJldr : ... ,

= JIlIn! (of 114

To make aubtm 1ubitot, emboli with a suitable bi1rdbtg agent is molded btto a cylinder. JY"U't! leadr an attached to thU cylinderlor _cling it loan electrical circllit. The value of resistance is indicated by four coloured b8IIds DIlUted onthe surfilceofthe cylinder(Fig 16.5) awIl11C1111ing of diffi:reJlt colours are given in table 16.1 the colours and tbcir
orders may be remembered by the statement given on the next page.

multiplier .Jad.....

( ( 1;.....

Teble 16..1 : Re8ist~ code.r (ruisfl1ltce giw1I ill ohIII)

Black Brown
Red 0raI!ge

0 1 2 3
4 S

Yellow Green

1 10 10' 10' 10' 10'

314

Blue VIOlet Gray

White

6 7

Gold SiM:t

10 10' 10' 10 0.1 0.01

S%

10%

Eleclric C_,

B
8IIu:k

B
B~

RO Y Great Red Oraage Yellow GreeD

Britain Blue

Very Violet

Good Wife Gray White

For example suppose the colours on the resistor shown in Fig. 16.S are brown, yellow.
green and gold as read from left to right. Using the table the resistance is

Yellow 4 SQ = 14 x 10 + 14 x 10 x _ 100
BI'OWIl I

GreeD x 10'

Gold S%

=(1.4 0.07) 10 Q =(1.4 0.07) M!l

Some times tolerance is missing from the code-and there are only three bands. Then the tolerance is 20%.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.1_ _ _ _ _ _ _~_ __

1. Electrons move continuously inside a conductor even then no current flows through it WI/ess a potential differences is applied across it. Explain

2. When a current is established In a wire. the free electrons drift in the direction opposite to the current. Does the nilmber offree electrons in the wire continuously decreQlJe ?
3. In a TV tube the electrons are accelerated from the rear to the front. What is the

direction ofcurrent?
4. A potential difference. V is applied across a copper wire of length I and diameter d WhoI will be the effect on drift velocity ofelectrons if

(i) V becomes twice (ii) I becomes twice. (iii) d becalMS twice

5.
6.

Why are resistance wires made ofmagamin. constanton and nichrome? Give two

....................... '., .......................................... .

WhoI will be the ratio ofcurmru flowing through two wires ofsame material if they have: a. Same area ofcross section but length in the ratio 2: J . b. Same length but area ofcross-Iections In the ratio 2: 1

reQIJOns.

................................................................

16.4 COMBINATIONS OF RESISTORS

When we WIlDt to increa!Jr; or decrease the c:urrent of a circuit we have to reduce or increase the resistance of the circuit. -For this resistors are combin$ld. Two types of combinations are frequently used. Here. we define equNalent ra/stimce of _ the comiJinaJion as a single resistance which draws same current as the given combination when same potential difJCrence _is applied across it. -

315

Physics

16.4.1 Series Combination

You may COIUlect more resistors in series by joining 1hcm cmd to ead IIUCb 1haJ _ CIIIIYlflfHlSJ/GtJuo,.gl"lIl* nsiskln. In fig 16.6t1ueeresisklrsofresist.iH esR,.R,and R, are shown connected in series. 'The combination can be COIIIICCted to a baUay or other circuit at ends A and D. Let a curren1 J flows tbrougb !be series ~ina1im wbe:n it is connected to a battery ofvoltage Y. Potential diffa~ V,. 1'2 and be developed across R,. R, and ll, respectively due to Ibis curreDl I. Then V = IR , V = IR and V = IR . . c;qual to V'I.e. . "2 2 , , B ut sum 0 f vI' V2 and y] 15

r.

1'= 1',+ 1',+ V, 1'= fR, + IR, + Ill,

If equivalent resistance of this series combination is R, then A
8

c
I

1'= IR = I (RI + R, + R) or R=RI+R,+R,

R,

+
v

This arrangement may be extended for any number of resistors

R = RI + R, + R, + R, + .........

...( 16.14)

Jilg. /6.6: &ries c_ _ of_aim

Thus, equhtaJellt rnisttmCl! of II series eombintllioll of ruiston is eqlllll to 811m of ruislllllen ofall resiston. Ifwe require to apply a voltage across a resistor (say electri<; bulb) less than the constant voltage supply source, we should connect another resistor in series ofil

16.4.2 Parallel Combination

You may connect the resistors in parallel by joining their ODe end at one point and other ends at another poinl In parallel Combination potentitIJ difference exists IICI'tIS6 all

reaiatoTS.
Fig 16.7 shows the parallel combination of three resistors ofresistancesR"R2 and R,. Let the combination be c:onnected to a battery of voltage V and draws a current I from the source.

8_

I,

AAAA'

10
J,
r

. "'. . ...Rz.
A AA

'The main current divides into tIuee parts. Let II' I? I, be the currents flowing through resistors Rt' R,. R, lespedively, then I, = YlRI , I, = VIR, and I, = VIR~

Rz
AA .... AAAA

'" y r

IV
1" I . -

'The main current is the sum of II' I, and I,

---------------.-.
316

i.t!.

/ =/.+-I +/
~

.(=

Y " ++ -Y -

R,

R,

RJ

Y=/R

or I=YIR
Y Y

.: /=-=-+-+R RI R,
Y R Y RI " R, " RJ

V"

RJ

OI-~-+-+-

'he process may be extended fuc lIlY IIII!J!bao of n:siston 10 .....

-= -+-+-+-+
R R
I

RRR-:
1
~

.(16.1S)
7 WI . " . " .

, eqllllllllS_Dflmoersa of"''';'''''''
for lWO resistors in p8IBllcl 1 1 1

From this weinferdud: _ _ ~~

. -

I.

Ibd'. '-

-=-+-or R R, R,

R,R, R=-:.....!.R, + R,

_.(16.16)

Note dud: tht: trqllillalmt ruis'- of~ tllOlllr",""", 9 , iIItlividwJI ruisllJnce. You may CIISily see this filet by uilllpluh CIrbl~"",. resistor of2 n rcsisIucec:anowm! across a J.tIayof~2 wit. It wiIIlkawa _ _ of I ampere. When IIIIOtbern:sistorof 2 ohm msi~ is 01**. :teI .,......... i l . alsodl'awacurrentofllllDjlCie. Thatistolld CDmIIl~~is2 i ........ rcsistanceoftht:circuitisbalved. ff_goOllm-ilrg"''''''' of' ........JIGI 7" the resistance ofcirCIIil goes 011 tkcrell/lilrg aItd". C.llwt""";- """.",. . . ,.. increll/ling.
In our homes all the clectrical appIi_ bulbs, fans, h:areas dI: . , _dell in
(Fi~ 16.8). J>ottntial clifli:aCD am.. eKhremaiasSll1lCSO that cumD~

_=1"'''' _'11

parallel IUId CIICh -1ICpII'Idc switda -~----'r----'----_

in any oflbem docs DOt ........... the. H othe. As we go 011 swiIIcIIiD& ....... ad fans, tht:rcS!id... :eof1bce'.....pI cin:uit . - - - I I - - -........---~_ _ _ _ _...l of the house goes on dec:rNsiII& ad ...... Fe ... current drawing from DWiDS goes on increasing.

317

Physb

16.4.3 Division of Current in Resistors Connected in ParaDel

Let the two resistors of resistanc:es R and R be connected in parallel between points A and B (Fig. 16.9). Themaincurrent/tie divided intotwoparta/,andl tlowingtbroughR and R respectively. The main current 1 is swn of I and I i.D. 2 ,
2 , 2

1+1= 1 , 1

...(16.11)

According to Ohm's law Y-Y"'1 R II B I I

and also
I,

Y-Y=/R If , 1
:. 1R.=IR
I I

,
I I
~

:/

I.
y'~

:;:

R,

2 1

From eq (16.17) I R = (l-f)f

n,. IIU: DfW.r/Off ofCfInYIfI in _ulon

1I (RJ +R') =IR'I

R 1- - L J, , R+R
I 1

...(16.18)

Similarly,
l=-'-J 1 R+R
I 1

... (16.19)

bampl.16.": For.p circuit lhown in FI, 16. 10. jind the value ofresiatance R1 and . . cJU'rent I. flo,""i", tw-ough Rj

SoIlI~ll: .l( equi~;Uent reJi~ of paralIel COmbil)APOO of R ~ R is 1l. then .'" ' I 2

. ... R,R,
'1

lOR' R= - - =---1. R +R 10+R

1

1= ilIA

According to Ohm's law,

50 R=-=5D 10
1

+ -'-

,
IOV

"

:.
,

IO::j:.,R
2

1~3

=5

R=IOQ.
I 2

,.". 16.lIJ :An Eloclrical Ctrctdl

2

The current is equally divided into R and R , hence 1 = 5A.

o .',

----,~------~------~~----~~----------------------------------318

E1ectricCmnat

Example 16.5: Find equivalent resistance of the network shown inj/g 16.11 between points Ii) A and Band (ii) A and C.
100

SolutioD: (i) The to 0 and 30 0 resistors arc COJJDeCted il) parallel between points A and B. The equivalept resistance between A and B
is

B
30a A,,./V\A

10 x 30 RI = - - - obm=7.50 10+30
(ii)

7.50

Fl,r.16.11

The resistance R is connected in series with resistor of7.S 0, hence the equivalent resistance betwe4!:n points A and C is, R, =(R I +7.5) obm =(7.5+7.5) olUII'=I5 0

Eumple 16.6: Find potential difference between points A and B of the network shown in Fig 16. J2 and distribuJion ofgiven main current through different resistors.

Solution: Between points A and B resistors of40,60 and BO resistances sre in series and these sre in parallel to 90 resistor. Equivalent resistance of series combination is R=(4 + 6+8)obm=IBO
I

If equivaJept resistance between A and B is R = 9><181 (9+18) ohm =60

40
1=2.7A..

'80

PoteptiaJ difference between A and B is Y=IR=2.7><6 Y =16.2.Y Current through 9 0 resistor = 16.2I9=1.8A CutreDt through 40, 60 and 80 resistors

, A

:; s

=2.7-1.8 = 0.9A

F/g.16.1Z

INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.2._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. Which ofthe following is stl1nefor each ofthe resistors cOIIMcted in series (a) potential difference (b) CU1'1'e1II (c) power (d) heat generated

2. Which ofthe jollowinlP is same for each ruistors connected in parallel (a) potential'differe- (b) cummt (c) power (d) heat generated
3. Three ruistOl"8luNing rufsta11ce8 In. IOOD and 10 ()()()D _ What will be the order ofeqIIivQJent ruUtance.

ctmneCted in parallel.

4. A rmi{orm wire of ruistance SOD I.r cut into S equal parts. Thue ports are now , connected in parallel. The equivalent ruistan.ce ofthe combination is (a) 2 D (b) IOD(c) 2S0D(d) 62SD

119

16~

KIRCHHOFF'S LAW

Ohm's JaW gives current - voltage relation in simple eIectrical circuits. But when the circuit is complicated, you will face difficulty in finding current distribution by Ohm's law. Kirchhaffin 1842 fonnulab:d the following two Jaws wbich enable us to find the distribution "f curredt in complicated e1ectticaI circuits or electrlcaI netwud<s.

(i) Kirc"ofl's Fint Law (.JuBetio. Law): It states that tile II-of IIiI
tile cIlTrell1ll directed tow.,.ds " jllllClioll (poillt) ill l1li electriclll IU!ItIfoI'j is qlllll to tile 11_ of IIiI tile clll7"t!lIIII dirt!dd tIWfZYfrom tile jlllldiolL

11
A
12

Thus, in Fig 16.13,

1+1=1+1 I 1 J ., orlI +11 -1-1 =0 J 4

Fig. 16.13: Dimib_ Ifft:rmY!IIlllI ajNN:liOft in

t.cin:flil

Ifwe take currents approaching point A in Fig 16.13 as positive and that leaving the point as negative, then the above relation may be written as

1+1 + (-1J ) + (-1) I! 4

=0

..{l6.20)

Hence the fust Jaw may also be stated in other words that tile ~ 11II1II ofclII7"eIIIII til "jfmditHt is UTO.
lGrc:bhoff's fust law tells \IS that there is no accwnulation of charge at auy point if sIeady
current flows in it The net charge coming towards the point should be equal to that going

away from it in the same time. (il) Kirc:Waofl's Seco.d Law (Loop Law): This law is generali::atiOil of Ohm s law. It te/Is that tile lllgebralc 11_ of tile prodtICIII of tile CIll7"elllllIIIId ,eSiStIUU:S ill 1119' closed loop (or mn/t) ill l1li electric", IIdWOI"t is eqlllll to tile IJ/gebralc s_ of electro-me forces IICtiIIg ill tile loop.
While using Ibis law we stan from a point on the loop IIIId go aIoog the loop eidIeI: dockwise or anti clock - wise toreach the same point again. The product ofcumut and lesiid ,~ is taken as positive when welJaverse in the cIirecIioa of CUIl1IIIlIIIId e.m.! is taken positive when we IJaverse from negative to positive eleebode Ihrough the ceIl. ~ yru can write the Jaw as

'EJR=f.E
Let \IS take an electrical net:wod sbown in fig 16.14. For closed mesh AOCBA

.(16.21)

320

IR -IZR =E-E If Z Z
For IIICIfb DHGCD
A
D

,.

E.

1Z R,+(1I +If lR ~E J Z

,.
" +t.

:;::r
R.

Ib
G

IR+(I+IIR=E
111

fJ

""1'-'4'
JHl'AdM tIiJI-lIIoIrg. d-.t IIIOp ill. c:frarit is _

AIr" ,P'iaJI_
of l1li tile

In IIIOI'egenml form Kirchhoff's scc:ood law is Slated lIS: 7h "'e6~ -

Ex-.pIe 16.7: Consider the nstworkar sitawtt ill Fig. 16. 15. C1In"eIII is ntppIietl to the network by two hotteri(!8 OIISirawn. Find the vaIries oft:IIITMIIll. I I. 17re tiiret:tioID of
the ClllTt!1IIs are as indicated by the arrows.
I

>

Solutio. : Applying KirI:bboff's 1st law to junction C, we get 1+/-1=0 I , J

Applying Kirchhoff's lind law to the closed meshes ACDA and BCDB, we

...(1)

get
51,+21, = IU 3I,+21,=6A

....(2)
.. , ....(3) .

'.
50
12V

c
I.

t.
3D

subtracting eq (3) limn eq (2) we get

51 -31 =6A

2IJ

, ,

...(4)

A~

8
fN

Multiplying eq.( I) by 2 and adding with eqn.(2) we get

0

71 +21

, , = IU

.(5)
,...16.1S

Multiplying eq.(1) by 2 and eq.(5) by 3 and adding them we get .

31/, = 4&
1 = l.54&
I

Putting value of I, in eq.(5) we get

1,=O.5&
and

from eq.1 we get 1= 1+1= 2.12BA

J ,

321

INTEXTQUESTIONS 16.3_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
I. Foracircuitshownin.Fig. 16.16j1ndthe~alue of current jlowing in the circuit and potential A difference between points A and B.
...................

L!::I3
2V 1U
1(2

1B

2. Apply Kirchhoff's law to jlnd the value of currentlJjlowing through R in the circuit of Fig 16.17 J

--to 2V

""'--'

Fig. 16.16

3. FOr/he cirCuit shown in Fig 16.18, evaluate the currentjlowing through resistance RJ'

16.5 WHEAT STONE BRIDGE

As you have learnt that a resistance can be measured by Obm's law using a voltmeter and an ammeter in an electrical circuit. But this measureznent is not accurate. To measure it more accurately Kristie devised and Wheat Stone popularized a special network desrgn called Wheat Stone Bridge. It is an arrangement of four resistances which can be used to measure one of them in terms of the
rest.

L--..! E

1-1- - ; (

Consider the circuit as shown in Fig 16.19 where:

K FI,. 16.19: Whe"'.Iw"e Ilridg.".,,, "rk

(i)

S is a unknown resistance to be measured. Arm CD of the bridge is called unknown

arm.
(ii) P and Qare two adjustable resistances connected in two ratio anns AB and Be of the bridge. (iii) R is adjustable known resistance. Ann AD is called known ann. (iv) A sensitive galvanometer G is connected in one of the cross ann BO orthe bridge. (v) A battery E along With a key Kisconnected in other cross ann AC. Ann AC and BO are called conjugate arms.

'322

Electric Cwrem

On closlngthe key, ingenaiU there will be some CUl'IeIlti flowing Ibroughthe galvauometer and you will get some deflection in the galvanometer It indicates that 1Iicn is some potential difference between points B & D.

We sbaII now consider the following three ~: (i) Point B is at higher potential than point D: Current will flow from B towards D and galvanometer will show deflection in one direction. (ii) PoiDt B Is at lower potential tlaan poiat D: Current will flow from point D towards B and galvanometer will sbow deflection in opposite direction: (iii)Both points B and D are at same potential: In this case no cummt flows through the galvanometer which will show no deflection i.e. the galvanometer is in oxmditioll. In this condition the Wheat stones bridge is said to be in the Idt* o/lHIJaat. The points B and D will be at the same potential only when the potential drop across P is equaI to that across R. Thus at the nnll State

I,P=IJl
Applying Kirchhoff's first law at junction B and D we get and /-1-1 =0 I ~ G

...(16.22)

/+1-1=0 3 G ,

M the null state JG = 0

:. 1= J1 ,

....(16.23) .... (16.24)

and I3 =1 Also potential drop across Q will be equal to that across S. So that

I'p=IS

.... (16.25)

Dividingeqn.(16.22) by eqn.(16.25)

I P _'_=

J R
_3_

If!

IS ,

Using eqns (16.23) and (16.24) we get

I~ I
= :

.....(16.26)

This is the condition for which a Wheat stone Bridge is balanced

From eq.( 16.26) W1known resistance S is

I I
S= QR

....(16.27)

r ....ysics

You can easily see that the measurement ofresistance by Wheat Stooc's Bridge meIhod has the fullowing merits.

(i) The balance condition given byeq (/6.26) at null pruition irindependentoftlre applied voltage E. In otlrer words if you change tire e.m.f. of tire cell, the balance wi/I 1101 change.
(ii) The meosurement ofnrutilllce does not depend (HJ tire ~ ofcalibratimJ oftire galvanometer. Galvanometer ir IISed only as a mdl indiCotor.
The main factor affecting the accw-acy of measurement by Wheat stone Bridge is its sensitivity with which the changes in the null c:oodition can be detecu:d. It has been foUnd that ihe bridge has the greatest sensitivity when the resistances are as nearly equal as possible.

EumpIe 16.8 : Find the value of R In Fig 16.20 so that there is no current in the 50 a resistor.
Solation: This is the Wheat Stone bridge with the galvanometer replaced by 50ilresistor. The bridge is balanced. because there is no current in 50a resistor, bence,

20/Hp401R 40x

R=

lOa

20=20

20a
Fig.16.11J

INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.4,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I. Consider tire circuit shawn in Fig. 16.21 wlren tire bridge is balanced tire resistances are given: P=20fJ, Q=50D and R = lOa What will be tire value of tire unknown resistance?

Fig. 16.11

Fig. 16.1J

In Q circuit given In Fig 16.22,find current through 2Dresirtor

': a ,

3 In Q Wheot Stone Bridge circuit P and Q. I1re ratio armr being~Iyplfll. I1re
bridge ir balancedwlren R=500a On interchanging P and QtIre vailll! ofRfOr tire balance ir 510fJ, find.the value oftire unbrow1I ruirtance s.
-

. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... ............................................... .
324

Elecuic CIIITeIIt

16.6 ELECfROMOTIVE FORCE (EM.F.) AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

EMF is the short name of electromotive force. EMF of a cell or battery equals the potential difference between its terminals when the terminals are not connected exlerna/Iy. You may easily understand the difference between e.m.f. and potential difference of a cell. For this CODD"!'t a cell in a circuit having a resistor R and key K. A voltmeter of very high resistance is connected in parallel to the cell as shown in Fig 16.23. When key is closed voltmeter reading "ill decrease. Do you explain the reason for this decrease in voltmeter reading? Actually when key K is opened no siguificant current flows through ihe loop having cell and \'oltmeter due to very high resistance of voltmeter. Hence, voltmeter reading is equal to e.m.f. E of the cell which is the potential difference between tenninaIs of the cell when no current is drawn from it. When key K is closed current flows outside and inside the cell. The cell introduces a resistance r, called internal resistance to the circuit. Let current I be flowing in the circuit. Potential drop Ir across internal resistance r due to current flow acts opposite to the e.m.r. of the cell. Hence, voltmeter reading will be E-/r and is equal to V. But V = IR

E, r

It

K R

, I
~~K

\ - r +
V
... A
T

.... _ /I

_ _ _R _ _ V ___ "

Fig. 16.13: ("inuil Jiugram canneL'led with }VAlmeler

Fig. 16.24: = i l diagram ,howing in/emal resistance

E-Ir = IR= V or V + Ir

.,

IE -

... (16.28)

Thus, e.m.f ofa cell is always greater than the potential difference across external resistance unless internal resistance is zero. E.m.f of a cell depends on: H) the liquid Used in the cell (ii) the material of the plates, and (iii) temperature of the liquid. Note that the e.m.f. of a cell does not depend at all on the size of the cell i.e. on the area of plates and distance between then. This means that if you have two cells of different size one big and one small, can the e.m.f.s be the same? Yes the e.m.f. will be the same if the cells are made up of same material and liquid. Then what is the difference? Ifthe cell is of large size it will be of less resistance to the passage of current through it.

125

Physics
E:umple 16. 9 : When a current drawnjrom a balU!ry is 0.5A. its tmninaI potential difference is 10V. And when current drawn from it i3 1. OA. the terminal voltage reducu to 16 V. Find OUI e.mf and internal ruistance ofbattery. Solutiou : Let E and r be the e.m.f. and internal resistance of battery. When a current I ampere is drawn from it. then potential drop across internal resistance or inside the cell is = lr. then Y =:...lr For /= 0.5A. Y=20 Volt. we have 20=E-0.57 For I = 2.0A. Y=16 volt we have. 16=E-27 From eqs (i) and (ii) 2E-7=40 E-2r= 16 solving we get E=21.3 Y,r=2.67

..... (i)

. .... (ii)

16.7 POTENTIOMETER
You have already studied how to measure. e.m.f. of a source or potential difference across a circuit element using voltmeter. An ideal voltmeter should have infinite resistance SO that it does not draw any current when connected across a source of e.m.f. Practically it is ""t possible to make a voltmeter which will not draw any current To overcome this difficulty a circuit devised by Pnggendorf and known as potentiometer is used for measming the e.m.f. of a . source or the potential difference across a circuit clement without drawing any current from it. It employs a null method. The potentiometer can also be used for the measurement of the internal resistance of a cell, the current flowing in a circuit and comparison of resi$tances.

16.7.1 Description of the Potentiometer

The potentiometer consists of a wooden board onwbich a number of resistance wires (usually ten) of uniform cross - sectional area are stretched parallel to each other. The wire is of maganin or nichrome. These wires are joined in series by thick copper slrips. In this way these wires together act as a single wire of length equal to the sum of the length of all the wires. The end terminals of the wires are provided with connecting screws.
A meter scale is fixed on the wooden board parallel towires. A joCkey ( a sliding contact iDaker) is provided with the arrangement. It makes a knire edge ~t at any desired point on the wife. Jockey has a pointer which moves over the scale. It determines the position of the knife edge contact. In Fig. 16.25 a ten wire potentiometer is shown. A and Bareendsof the wire. Kis a jockey and Sis a scale. Jockey slides over a rod CD.

-------------------------326----------------------------

ElectriC Currenl

o
~/"ZS:~

16.7.1 Theory o(M. .uremeDt by Poteatiemeter

Let us consider that a steady soun:e of e.m.f. E (say an lCCUDlulator) be ClOlIDeCted across the uniform resistance wire AD bfleug1h I. Positive terminal of aa:umulaIor is connected at end A(Fig 16.26). A steady cumntltlowsthroughthe wire. Potcntialdifferenceaeross AB is given by Y,a = Rl ...(16.29)

Ifr is the resistance per lIDit 1eug1h oftile wire, II1II lis the potential fall across unit length of the wire,
E K 4~-------':-I t------f.( ,......---.....

- -- - -I, - _______ ...

.. Y.. =kl=E

or

E 1=--.
I

. ,

...(16.30)

For a 1eug1h t ofebe wire, potential fall

1 .

F Y= II = - 1
I I

.....(16.31 )

Thus, poteoSiaI fillls linear,~ nth the .Jistaoce along the wire from A to B.

.. _' -----.-..-----------------~----.-..----.----------~
~1.,~

 Physics Let us measure an unknown voltage V lillY a cell of e.m.t:E. The positive terminal of the cell is CODDeCted to end A of die .wire and neptive terininaI through a galvanometer to jockey having variable contact Y. Note that V mUst be less than E. Let you start jockey moving from A towards B. Suppose at position Y potential fall across the length Ayl of the wire be less I:bJII! voltage V. Than current in the loop Ayl XA due to voltage V exceeds the current due to potembd diff=ce across AY". Hence galvanometer shows some deflection in one direction. Then jockey is moved away say at Y' suc:h that potential fall across AY' is greater than the voltage V, then galvanometer shows deflection in other direction. Now in be'- yo and Y the jockey is moved slowly. The stage is reached say point Y such that potential fall across A Y is equal to voltage V. Then point X and Y will be at same voltage _ bonce the galV11JlO11lC1er will nOt show any deflection i.e. null point is achieved. If'l is the length betWeen A and Y, then
V=At =_1
I ,

Et

Thus, the unknown voltage V is measured when no current is drawn from it. The potentiometer has certain advantage. They are as follows :

(i) When the potentiometer is balanced, no current is drawn from the circuit on which the measurement is being made. (ii) It produces no change in condition in any circuit to which it is connected. (iii) It makes use of null method for the measurement, the galvanometer used need not be calibrated.

16.7.3 Comparison of the E.M.fs of two Cells by Potentiometer

You have aJready studied how to measure the e.m.f. of a cell using a potentiometer. We shall now extend the same technique for comparison of C).m.fs oftwo cells. Let us take, for example, a Daniel cell and a Leclanche cell and let E and E be their e.m.f s.
~+-~

'

J"K .......,....,

y.

y,

E,

.1_
Eo

o~
2

0-"
G.

FIg. 16.17: C_ _OfO <I. oftwo Ml

Potentiometer connections are made as shown in Fig 16.27. One cell say of e.m.f E is connected in the ,circuit by connecting terminals of 1 and 3 ofkey K. The balance POin~ is obtained by moving the jockey on the potentiometer wire as expl~ earlier. Let the balance point on potentiometer be at point Y and let the lengtbAY, = ',. Then other cell of e.m.f. E, is connected in the circuit by conn~tiDg terminall: 2 and 3 ofthe key K, . Again baJanc~ is obtained at point Y and let length AY = t . 2 , 2

, ElecDic Current
Applying potentiometer principle,

E =/d and E =kJ

/ I .2

Where 1: is the potential gradient along the wire AD

-=,
I,

EI

(,

"

If e.m.f. of one cell is known, say E" the e.m.f. of other cell can be determined
E=-E
, I

.... (16.32)

'

16.7.4 Determination orInternal Resistance of the Cell

You have learnt that cells always offer resistance to the flow of current through them, which is often very small. This resistance is called the internal resistance of the cell and depends on the size ofthe cell i.e. the area ofthe plates immersed in the liquid, the distance of the plates and the strength of the electrolyte used in the cell. Let us now learn how to measure the internal resistance ofthe cell using a potentiometer. Connections are made as shown in Fig 16.28. There is a cell of emf E and internal resistance r. A resistance box R with a key K, is connected in parallel 'with the cell. Rest of the circuit +E

(~

At-______________ y_2_y~t~----------4
~--II

..._R_.,
R.B

E"r

~
,
G!'

H K,

F/g.16.1I: /Jet.",.ination ofi.,,,,,,,,, -ui8IQIIC, of"1I

is similar to that in preYious seeUOD.. First of all key X is closed and a current I flows thrOugh wire AB. The key X, is kept open and on moving jockey balance is obtained with
the cell at point say Y . Let A Y
I I

= I, then
...(16.33)

E =Jt
,

Now key X, is closed.This introduces a resistance across the cell. A currens say I, will flow in loop E RK E due to cell E . This current I is given by Ohm's law as,
I I

:
I

E
R+r
.... (16.34)

1=---'

n?

: PhySIc,

Where r is the intemal resistance of the cell. Now. terminal poteDliai difference V, oft"e cell will be less than E, by an amount I, r. The value of V, is V=IR= - - R
I
I

E,

R+r

....(16.35)

Then. potential difference V, is balanced on the potentiometer wire without change in current I. Let the balance point be at point Y, such that AY,= e, then

v, =kt,
From eqs (16.33) and (16.36)

..... (16.36)

-'=-' V, t,
From eq (16.35)

-'=-V R

R+r

R+r t _ _ =_1

t,
e,
.....(16.37)

or r=R( i.-I) Thus. by knowing R. e,. ande, the value ofr is calculated.

Example 16.10: Length o/apotentiometerwire i.r 5 m. It i.r eonnectedwith a battery 0/ fixed e.mj. Null point i.r obtalnldfor the Daniel cell at 100 em on it. Jfthe lell1!fh o/the wire is kept 7 m. then what will be the position o/null point?
Solntion: Let the e.m.f. of battery be E volt. the potential gradient for 5 m length is E k,=S-V/m When the length of potentiometer wire is 7 m potential gradient is

E k =-Vlm

Now. ifnull point is obtained at length E=kl=-I V

I

I,. then

:.2

E 7

Here same cell is balanced in two arrangements, hence

-=-t.
5

7'
1.4 m

e,= 7/S =

330

Elec:tric Current:

INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.5-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

2. Is it possible that potential difference between, p/atu ofa eell becomes zero ? 3. In the J6.i9 shown, ifr i.I the resi.ltance per lI1I;t length of the wire AB. The value of potential difference between A and B due to cell ofe.m.f.E is given by (a) rill (h) ril (c) rUt (d) Ur.t

Jm~~~~----u-.l

4. Potentiometer circuit is used to compare e.m.ft of Ji7r. 16.29 two cells EI and E7 The balance point on potelltiomete,. wire is obtained at a distance IJIII/fll'8 and 112 metflrs for EI and E, ,.flSpectively. VEl - 2 vo/ts./bId 1M value ofE1"

......................................................................

16.8 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

Drift velocity i. the lverliJe velocity componeat with which electroDI move opposite to the field when an elec1ric field mats in coaductor. Electric current throuah lIlY CI'OII-*tional_ ia.the rate oftralllfer ofcbarge from one side to other side of the area. Ullitof current ia IlllpenlI denoted by A. Ohm's law state. that the cummt flowlni tbrouah_ coaductor it proportional to the potential difference when physical conditioas, ~ etc remain uncb8 Df1ed. Resistivity (or specific resistance) of I material eql!lls the resistance of a wire of the material of 1m lenglh and 1m2 _ oferou lectioa;, Ullit of resistivity it ohm meter. Ratio Yllia called and ia deIIoted by R. Ullit OfresiSlanre is o.bm (denated by 0) ResillfUCe ofaconductor for which Wiratioianotctibstant but depends on the value of voltage applied, is called non-obmic resistance. For a serie. combination ofreslstors the equivalent tesistance ia sum of resistances of all reslltorI. . For paralIel combination ofresiaton inverse of equivalent resi8tlDce is sum of inverse of all the resistances. Kirchhoff's laws to study systematically the complicated electrical circuits are: Law I: The sum of all the currents directed toWll'ds a point in an electrical network is equaJ to the sum of all currents directed away from the point. Law II: The algebraic sum of all potential differences a10Df1 a closed loop in an electrical network is zero. The \\'heat Stone Bridge cin;uit is used to meaaure accurately an unknown resistance (S) by comparing it with known resistances (P.Q and R). In the balanced condition

_stance

PIQ = R'S

The e.m.f of a cell ia equa1 to potential difference It its termina1s when a circuit is not connected to it i.e. it is open. A poteatiometer_a voltages without drawins current. Therefore, it can be used to mouure e.mi. of source that has appreciable internal resistance.

331

16.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

I. What is drift velocity offree electrons in a 1II4ltalli~ condudor? For. c _ carrying conductor establish relation between current, drift velocity "" concentration of conduction electrons n and electronic charge e. 2. Define electric =ent and discuss Olun's law. 3. Define resistivity of a conductor. How does the resistance of a wire cIepcmd upoIl,the resistivity of its material. its length and area of cross-section? 4. Define electrieaI conductivity. Write it,. unit. How does elec1rieal conductivity depend, upon free electron concentration of the conductor ? 5. Explain the difference between olunic and non-olunic resistances. Oive some examples of lIOn-ohmic resistances. 6. What is the effect of temperature on the resistivity of the material? Why does the electrical conductivity of a conductor decrease with rcrease in temperature ? Red Orange Green 7. The colours on the resistor' shown in Fig., 16 ..30 are red ?range. gree~ and.gold as rea~!, from I~ft to rIght. What,1S resistance ofl~ accordmg to colour code? , Three resistors of resistances R ,. R,. and R, "---''-.lL........L--'I..._ _.....J are connected (i) in series (ii) in parallel. Find ' Gold out equivalent resistance of combination in F/k. lUO' ,J: each case. ' What is the diff=e in e.mJ. and potential difference between electrode of a cell Derive relation between the two. What are Kirchhoff's laws governing the cUlTCnts and electromotive forces in an electrical network? Give thcol)' of Wheat Stone's Bridge method for measuring resistances. Discuss the theO!)' of the potentfbmeter. How wUl you measure unknowdlpotential difference \\itb the help ofa potentiometer ? Describe potentiometer method of comparing thee.m.f of two celis.. ' How will you find the internal ~sistance ofa cell \\ith the help ofa potentiometer? What are the factors responsible'for the internal resistance of the cell? A wire oflength 1m and radius q.l mm has a resistance of 100 n. Find the resistidty of the material. . 2 Consider a wire oflength 4m and cross-sectional area I mm Carl)'ing a current of 2A. If each cubic meter of the material contains 10" free electrons find' the average time taken by an electron to cross the length of the wire. Suppose you have three resistors each of value 30n. List all the different resistances you can obtain. The potential difference between the terminals of a battery of e.m.f 6.0V and internal resistance I n drops to 5,8V when connected across an external resistor. Find the resistance of the ' I n .... externaI resistor. 5,2A A For the circuit shown in fig 16.31 calculate the value3~2A 40 of current / and resistance R. ~. + -

I '_

I.L-I

ili:;'

'/--.
.

8.

9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16, 17.

18. 19.

2:"'"
.e
FIg. 16.31

20.

. ---, -

-----------.:3~32~--------------

Electric ClUT~n\ 21. Four resistors P. Q. R and X whose values area 2. 2. 2 and 3 ohms respect;vely are joined to form a Wheat Slone Bridge. Calculate the value of resistance with which the reslSIance X must be shunted in order that the hridge ma~ be balanced. . 12. l11e potentiometer set-up has been used for measuring the e.l11.f of a cell X. When a standard cdl of e.m.f 1.02 volt is connected to the circuiL the null point is obtained at a distance of I.02m on the potentiometer wire. \\ihen the unkno\\ll cell X is connr;cted.., the null ;, "btatn~d at a distance 01'0.6111. Calculate the e~n.f "fthe cell X. 23. Potentiometer circuit is used tor c(}mparing c.m.f oft\\o cells I and ! .. Cell gil es null when the jockey is placed on the second wire opposite to O.Sm mark and cell . gil es null when the jockey is at U.:! m mark on the third wire. Compare the e.m.ts of cells E and E . .
I

2,). Keen ~ives n~ deflection in a galvanometer connected with potentiometer cireuit when jockey is at 1.20m. On <'onnecling Jl)0 resislance across the cell. the null point is al 1m. Calculate the internal resistance oflhe cell .
.

- - -..

~-.------

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

IllteAt questions 16.1
I. Vue 10 high resisti vii), wid low temperature coellicient of resistance S. (a) 1:2 ' (b) 2:1

Intext Questions 16.2

I.
(b) 2.(a) 3.

In.

4. (b)

Intext Questions 16.3

I. 2A. VD=V ;\
2. 0.4A 3.0.4A

. 2. Using/

lntcxt Questions J6.4 1.250

, R +R
I

= -!30

R /

= - x 1.4=IA

42 3. - 5050

Intext Questions 16.5

I. V= - fr. With increase of current. [r increase resulting decrease of V.

2. Yes. when cell is short circuited 3. (b). -I. I;

Temlinal Questions
7. (2.4 0.115) MO. IS. Ion. 200. 450. 900.
~

x 10" 0 m 19. 290, 20. 2A. 6.40

16.
lr

17.8.9 hours

21. 60.

22.0.6.

23. E,:E, =5:2

333'

17
THERMAL AND CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

17.1 INTRODUCfION
In the earlier lessons we have learnt about the various characteristics of electric charges when at rest. for example the electric field and electrostatic potential. We must remember that these features. refer 10 Ihe behavior of charges at macroscopic level. We have also learnl thaI when a charged body is connected 10 another uncharged body via a metal wire. the charge of the fonner h transferred to %be latler through the metal wire. The flow of charge i. said to constitute an electric current. However the electric resistances have an ability to oppose the flow of current througb them. The flow of current and resiltance In it. flow caule. variety of interesting phenomenons luch al chemical effect. thennal effect etc. In this lesson we shall learn aboul chemical and thermal effect. of currenl and some of their applications in our daily life.

17.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson. you should be able to : explain Joul, i law ofhealing: calculate electric paw.r comlmNd ;" Mating ~Sll: dlacrlb. process ofIII.r;troly!lls: explain lhe Faraday i law, (If ,I,r;tro/y!Ii!I: mention tilt practical applications of,l,r;tro/yll.r: underSland lilt tM,."",..e/,ctrlc ~r;t; slale Seebat:k, Palti,r and Thonuon ~r;II: molce distinr:tion b,tw"n 1M dljf.re", tMrmo-e!er;tric 1I1/fct!J.

--.'----------------------------------------------

Thennal and Chemical Effects , of Electric CUlTont

17.3 THE THERMAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Many modem household appliances such as electric heater, electric iron etc, utilize the

hearing effect of an electric current. Because of the resistance of the conductors the work must be done to maintlrin the flow ofelectrons (cunem) through them. Just like the mechanical energy us<:d in overcoming mechanical friction. the energy used in overcoming electrical resistanc:.: is transformed into heat energy. Thus, when an electric current is pllSsed through a resistor. work is done against the resistance resulting a heating effecting. We know that in metals electric-curtent is due to free electrons. These free electrons frequently collide with the atoms of the metals in lattice. At each collision they lose some of their kinetic energy and give it to the atoms which they strike. Thus, as the current flows through a wire or a conductor. it increases the kinetic energy of vibrations of the atoms and hence. it generates the heat in metal wire. The electric resistance of the metal is due 10 the aloms of lattice obstructing the drift of electrons. To calculate the heat produced due to flow of current. we consider a circuit consisting of a resistor ha\'ing resistance 'R' and a battery as shown in Fig. 17.1. Let a potel)tial difference' JI" exi~ls across the two ends 'a' and 'b' of the resistor and current I is flowing through il from ' .. to 'b', As ~ou are familiar that the flow of electrons is in opposite direction of current, So electrons are flowing in the circuit from 'b' to 'a' ,Electrons entering at'b' possess more energy than electrons leaving at 'a', Hence there isa 1058 in potential energy of the electron while passing from 'b' to 'a' and this loss of potential energy appears as the heat energy during the flow of current through resistor' R' ,

.-V-b
.
+ 1 ...-_ _ _ _--'
I
"., J7.J

You know that the potential energy of an electron at 'b'ooand the potential energy of electron at 'Q' =-eV" Where 'e' is the charge on the electron and V. and Yb are the potentials of ends 'a' and 'b' respectively, Loss of potential energy per electron =[-eV.- (-,v.)],

"y.

Further, the number of electrons crossing the section ofwire in time ',' is,
=

Id =-charge of each electron e

. total charge

Thus, the total loss in potential energy of electrons in time ',' is, It Woo -[-,V.-(-eVj],

=It(V.- VI

As you see from tfIe Fig, 17,IV= (Y. - Vb) Thus, W=I V,
or or
W=I(lR)
~ I(

,.. (17,1)

From Ohm's law V= IR)

IH::=~Rt I
335

-------====---- ------------------------Physic. As already said above. this work done is converted into heat, therefore the heat produced due to tlow of electrons (electric current) through the resistor in time 'f will be,

H= WIJ. whereJ=4.2J/cal; Jismechanical equivalent of heat H=F RrJoule= IRtcal........ ...(17.2) J . This relation is kno'Wn as Joule's law ofiJealing. It clearly expressed the following facts that the heat produced is proportional to;
i) ii) iii) the square of current strengtli ( the resistance (R). the time (t) for which the current tlows.

fl.

This heating effect of electric current has many applications. Electric iron. the incandescent lamp (electric hulb). electric fans. electric furnace/oven. electric arc. electric welding. safety fuse. are some of the examples.

17.3.1 Electrical Power

You know that power is the rate of doing work. thus energy liberated per second in an electric device is called electric pawer. The electric PO"''ef P.. using the Eq 11.1 can be written as,

p=
p= p=

= I V (Equation 17.1 W= IVt) i R (where V=IR. Ohm'slaw) V:!/R (where 1= VIR, Ohm'slaw)

H<lre power P is in watt when I is in ampere, R is in ohm and V is in volt: larger units of power are often found to be -more useful. 1000 watts = I Kilowatt 746 watts = 1 Horsepower

17.3.2 Calculation of Electrical Energy Consumed

You know that almost all housebold appliances are marked with their power-rating. The electrical bulbs (incandescent lamps). may be marked 15W, 25W, 60W or lOOW or even higher. An automatic transistor may be rated at 1250 W, an'clectronic iron at 2000 watts. a small radio receher at 25 Wand a television set at 350 W. When appliance is in use. you pay' for the account of power. it requires for the time you use it. If the power of one watt is provided for one hour. the consumer pays for 1 watt-bour of energy. Similarly. if one kilowatt ( 1000 watts) is used for one hour. then you have to pay for one kilowatt-hour (kwh) of energy. . Electric energy used in kwh = Power (kw) x time in hr_

1 kwh

1000 Wh

= 1000 W x 60 x 60 sec. = 3600 x 1000 W s -: _,6 x 100000 W s

It kwh

36 x 10' J

Thermal and Chemical Effects ofEleclric Current

Example. 17.1 : Find the cost oJoperalingan~/ectric'ironJor 2 hours. iJitdraws 4 A on 220 volts circuit. The electric energy costs one rupee per leilowatt hour.
Solution: /= 4 A.t = 2h.

V = 220 volts.

Because P = IV, P=4x220=880W =0.88 kW

Electric energy used in 2 brs = 0.88 x 2 = 1..16 kwh Nov.~ 1.76 kv.h cost = I x 1.76 = I. 76 rupees.

Thus. the cost of operating the iron = Rs. 1.76

INTEXT QUESTIONS
I.

17.1~

_ _-:--_ _ _ _ _ _ __

Which oJthe two bulbs 25Wand 100 W will hm'e more resistance whm both are operating at same voltage ?

..................................' ... ............................ .

,"

2. 3.

On whatJactors does the thermal effect ojelectric. current depend?

Li$t three appliances that works on the healing effect ojan electric current in your
haUSII.

4.

An;rwer whether the following statements are 'True' or 'False .. al Fuses work on the heating effect ojan electric current. b) Electrical energy is,measl/red in kilowatt. c) Electric power P={IR where I is current In Ampere and R i$ resistance in ohm. dl Electric appliances are IIsually marked in watt as per their power rating.

17.4 THERMO-ELECTRICITY
We know that electric energy can be converted into heat energy. From the principle of physical s}mmetry. it is natural to expect the existence of phenomenon in which heat energy can be converted into electrical energy. It turns out tbat such process is J;l0ssible. This effect. where electricity is produced by the direct conversion of heat energy into electrical energy, is known as thermo-electric effect. As you know 'thaI healing effect 0/ an electric current is an irreversible effect while thermoelectric effect, is reversible effect. If a circuit-contains conductors of different materials. and the junctions between those ~onductors are maintained at different temperatures. then electric current are found to flow in tbe circuit. Three related effects of this kind are found. They are:
a) Seebeck effect , .

h).Peltier effect. and c) Thomson effect

337

: Physics

17.4.1 Seebeck Effect

Seeback discovered in 1826 that an electric current could be produced by thermal meaDS alone. When two dissimilar metals are connected as in Fig. 17.2 and one of the junction is heated, there is a current in the circuit. This current is known as thermoelectric current. The emf developed in the circuit, which can be determined from the ClUTent and resistance, is called the therm0electric emf and is of the order of a few millivolts. This effect is ca1ledSbeck effect. ~ The pair or metals in Fig. 17.2 constitutes a thermocouple. "

MeWS

Seebeck studied the behavior ofmmy pairs of ",. 17.1: SHbocI:Effect metals and arranged them in a series in such iI way that when two metals from thtJ series were ,connected to form a thenno-couple. the CIII'mIt at the hot jllllCti01l WQ8 from the _tal OCCIII'rlIrg IIQ1'l/lIr ill the lerie! to the one occlII'1'ing later. Further its II1Ig1Iitude. depeDda upon the extent of separation of the metals in the series.

The Seebeck ,erles is :

am~M~~~~n_~_~_~~~4k~~~,

AI, Sb, Te.

This series indicate that Bismuth (Bi) and Tuapton (Tc) thermcM:ouple is the most _itive as it will produce Jarse thenno-emf. The C1DTCIIIt in this thermo-couple will flow from Bismuth to TlIIliston aeross the hot junction. If one of the themio-couple junction il kept at a fixed temperature and other ODe il heated, the Seebeck thermo emfinthecircuitwlll vary with temperature difference of the junctions. The' T NeutrII_PII.... variation of thermo emfwith this difluence of temperature is shown in FiB 17.3. The T,T~at~ioft temperature T. of the hotjunctinn It wbich then i is maximlllll cunent in the circuit, i. called ~ "lIlIIJ'al tetnpfll'fllllH. The temperature T, of the hot junction at which there is 2lml current at which reversal of cumnt is about to bezin, is called the IDtfIeI'atIlH o/illvenitm. For copperiron thermo-c:ouple. the neutral temperature ia o~----~~----~-'., 27S o C and the inversion temperature is 55()o C. when the cold junction i. It O C. If the " . 17.J: ~.,. . . . .wi""'" temperature of the cold junction is raised to 100 fa aM. J01j;sa. C, the neutral temperature will remain the lime

338

Thennal and Chemical Effects of Electric ClUlem

." \>"I"r. but the inversion temperature will become 540 C. Thus. neutral temraturefor " giwn thermo-couple is constant while the inversion temperature is as much above it as the cold junction temperature is below it. For majority ofthenno-<:ouple. the temperaturethem)" emf graph (as shown in Fig. 17.3) is very nearly a parabola. In general the Seebeck ~mf (E) can be expressed as.
~aT+br

....(17.3)

Where T ~s the temperature difference of two junctions in K and a and b are constants, and they show the characteristics~fthe given tbermo-couple.

rhe rale llfchange of thermo electric emf(E) with temperature difference Tis known as the. thermoel<!ctric power (Pl. Thus, dE
dT
dwT+bT-)

dT

P=a+ 1hT. rhus P varies with Tin 3 linear way.

It T. is the ttmper.lLlf. ',f the cold junction, T is the neutral temperature and T the temperatu." of invenil'n for a given thenno-<:ouple then, it is found that

1<7; - T,)'" 2 (T.

. 7;)

....(17.4)

11.4.2 Peltier Effect

Peltier in 1834 discovered that wbevever a cummt flows in a tbermo-couple, heat is absorbed al the hot j unction and liberated at the cold junction. Thi3 absorption or e)'Oiution of heat at u junction when a CIIITfmt is sent through a thermo-couple is known as the PeIIin e,fft!Ct. To study the Peltier effect, insert a battery in the circuit of Fig. 17.2 and pass a current as shown in 17.4. It is observed that heiIt is absorbed at MeIaIB junction I. while it is generated at junction 2. Head up 1 On campiring Fig. 17.3 and 17.4 you may note 2 MeIalA that particular junction is cooled which IIIWlt be heated in order to give a tbenno-couple cummt in the same direction as the battery current. Currant Battery The phenomena on of Peltier effect is the under Ffe. J 1.4: Peltier eJlet:t lying principle of thermo-electric refrigerators. The energy absorbed (or evolved) at a junction, when a unit charge passes through it is called the PeIIiu coeffu:ieIrl and is denoted by It the usual practice i. to measure c1wge in coulomb and heat injoule and hence 71 will be expressed

3J9

Phy';Cli

as joule/coulomb i.e. volt. This coefficient depends on the temperature and material of the junction. The rate at which Peltier heat i~ transferred is proportional to the power of the current or equal to tr It. The Peltier effect is reversible. When the direction of the current is reversed, the Peltier heat is same but in the opPosite direction. Important difference between Joule heating effect and Peltier thermo-electric effect are listed below:
a) Peltier effect takes place at a junction only but the Joule heating is distributed along the entire length of the conductor. b) Peltier effect is reversible while the Joule heating is irreversible. c) Heat generated is proportional to f1 in Joule heating effect while it is proportiol1al to I in Peltier effect. d) In Joule effect, heat is always generated while in Peltier effect heal; is absorbed at one junction and evolved at other.

17.4.3 Thomson Effect

Thomson discovered that when a temperature gradient exists along the conductor and a current is allowed to pass through the conductor, then the absorption or evolution of heat can take place in the conductor itself. This phenomenon is known as Tlromson effect. Consider a copper rod AB. Let a symmetrical temperature gradient be maiptained along the and keeping the length of the rod by heating it at the central pointe (0 a temperature ends A and B at the lower temperature T, (see Fig. 17.5). In this figure, the height of ordinates at each point is a measure of temperature of the rod at that point. Now if the current is passed along the copper rod in the direction ACB. it is observed that heat is absorbed when the current flows from A to C i.e. from cold to hot parts whereas heat is evolved when current flows from C to B i.e. t'romhotto cold Symmetrlcaltemp. dl8trlbutlon parts. Thus. there is a transfer AIymmetrIcaI temp. of heat due to current in the cfiltrtbutton flow direction. Metals like silver, zinc, antimony and I:8dminium etc. shows similar behavio.r as that shown by copper. All these metals are B B A,..A I said to posses a poJitillt! IThomson t!Jftct. Copper lOCI Healing _ PJIj Copper

I' Atmt~7/P1,...mA ..
m
(a)

(b)

Metals like iron, bismuth. cobalt, platinum and nickel FIg. 1-7.5 evolve heat, when current flows from cold to hot and heat is absorbed, when current flows from hot to cold parts. Obviously, for such metals, the tnuiSfer of heat due to passage of current take place in the direction opposite to the direction of current flow, These metal behave differently then copper and ef(ect shown by them is termed as negatille naomson effect.

340:

Thelma! and Chemical EffectS oflilectric CUrrent

II is worth wbile to note that in either of the two cases (i.e. positive or negative), Thomson's -eftect gets reversed when the current flows in reversedirection. Following important point had been established on the basis '1f extensive experimental studies. (i) The rate at which Thomson heat is transferred (H) into a small region of a "ire carrying current I and . having temperature difterence dT. is proportional to Id T i.e.
H=Cf/dT
..... (17.5)

Where

Cf

is Thomson coefficient. It is measured in joule and some time called the

specifIC heal of electricqy. It is regarded as positive when a current opposite to the

direction of temperature gradient causes an absorption of heat by the conductors. (ii) The Thomson effect is rever .~. It the direction ofcurrent is reversed. heat is absorbed in the region where it was pr,,\iously evolved or vice-versa. (iii) The Thomson coefficient is characteristic of a particular metal under consideration. h,r metals like copper it is positive and for metal like iron it is negative. The Thomson coeflicienl for lead is practically zero. (iv) Thomson coefficient is a function oftemperature and is not constant.

INTEXT QUESITONS 17.2_ _ _ _'--_~_ _ _ __

I
2.

Distinguish between seebak effect and Peltier effect.

........ A. .... ....... . ... ........... .

What.do you mean by the fact that the Pelter effect is reversible?

3.

If the

cold junction of a thermo-couple is OC and the temperature of inversion in 60C. what is the value ofneutral temperature ?

17.5 ELECTROLYSIS
Aqueous solutions of inorganic salt.~, acids and bases, conduct electricity and these are called electrolytes. The process of conduction of electricity through solutions and through molten salts is called electrolyis. The phenomenon of electrolysis i.e. the ~sage of current through a conducting liquid solutions, is different from the conduction of electIi city through metals in foilowingtwo important aspects. I) Flow of CWTent causes a chemical reactions. Chemical reactions at the anode are ditTerent from those at cathode. Conduction in electrolytes is due to ions which are produced by the dissociation of ele..1rolyte in the solvent. Unlike conduction in metal, here matter is actually transported through the solution.

".,'

2)

341

17.5.1 Laws of Electrolysis

The pbenOlilenon of electrolysis was first studied in detailed and systematic way by Faraday. whose observations led him to make two statements. These are known as Faraday's Laws of electrolysis. Battery The Fig. 17.6 shows a setup called voltameter consisting of the cathode in centre. surroUnded by two electrodes (connected together) which form the anode. The outer vassel, generally of glass, contains the electrolyte. The ch\>ice of the metal electrodes depends upon the nature of the electrolyte lind chemical change it is likely to undelgo. Using the copper voltameter as shown in Fig 17.6. Faraday observed that the mass of copper (m) deposited on the cathode is proportional both to current (1), and to the time (I) for which the

.,....----1-1 11111;-<
Rheostat

Key

--

-- --- ----

currenught(1) waslallowed to flow the ~~metertha Fig. 17.6: Copper Vollam"'er thro the vo tameter. From result, 11 ,0Uows t,

m oc II m =Zll =ZQ
where Z is the constant of proportionality.

......(17.6)

(since 1 x t =

Q where Qis the amount of charge flowing thro~ the electrolyte)

Thus. the moss ofan element or radical deposited or liberated at an electrode is proportional to the quantity ofelectricityflowing through the electrolyte. It is known as FIII'IIIIIlyIs Finlltlw ofelectrolysis.

The constant Z is known as the eJectrocllemiCld eqllMrlMt of the element or radical and may be defined af the maJS liberated by the po3sage ofa unit quantity ofelectricity through the electrolyte.
Faraday connected number of voltameter in series so that the same quantity of electricity could pass through all the electrolytes placed in different voltameter. When he measured the amounts of element liberated in such a situation, it was always found them to be in the same ratio as their chemical equivalent weights. He was thus led to frame his second Itlw in the COJDl as :

Whm the same quantity ofelectricity po3ses through the solutions ofdifferrmt electrolytes. the masses ofthe elements or. radicals liberated at the electrodes art! in the same ratio af their chemical equivalent weights

34?

lbmnal and Chemical Effects ofElecuic Curnml Thus. if masses mr mt inJ ............ ofthe-equivale.~tweights,. " E, .............. are liberated by the pas.qge of the same quantity of electricity. We have mol' m. .... m"~ :.~ .. - E,. E..,. - EI

From Faraday's second law of electrolysis it follows that the same quantity of electricity is needed to liberate I kg equivalent at any substance. Precise measurements have sbown that this quanti 1)'- is 96500 x 1()3 coulomb which is also known as one FtUOIIay i.e'

) Faraday ~ 96500 x 103 coulomb Form the I'.q. 17.6 we get Z = mlQ
Thus. Z. the eleccroc/temica/ equivalent is the omOUltt ofsubstance Iiberwed by passage of" 1 coulomb of cbarge. Hence.

E
Z=----96500 x loJ kg
where E is the chemical eqUWuJelft weight. I!sing this value of Z in Eq. 17.6 we can easily obtain: E m=Zlt= xlxt 3 96500 x 10 AI-llve relation may be considered as the expression incorporating both laws ofelectrolysis.

17.5.2 Expbination of the Process of Electrolysis

The theory of ionic dissociation can be used to explain Faraday's law of electrolysis. Considering the case of CuSO, we know that this molecule will split into Cu" and SO, ions. Now every time a SO, ions reaches the anode under the influenced of electric field. it dissolves one copper atom from the anode. At the same time. one copper atom is deposited at the cathode. Thus. the mass ofCuSO, in solution is unaltered and the loss in mass of the anode equals to the gain in mas.~ of cathode. FW1her. the mass of copper deposited in this case is proportional to the number of ions reaching it. Since all the ions carry the same charge. the mass deposited will be proportional to the quantity of electricity depositing lh~m as stated by Faraday's first !a\\,:

17.5.3 Applications of Electrolysis

Electrolysis is one of the very important chemical effect of electrical current and has many applications. Some of these are mentioned below: (i) Electroplating.' You all have seen sbinning handle ofyolU' bicycle made of iron. Do you know how it is made to shine? It is electroplated with cromium or Ilickel. Th~ process a/depositillg a thin layer of one metal over another metal by the method ofelectro~ysjs is known . electroplating_ The article of cheap metals are coated with precious metals III make their look more attractive. The article to be electroplated is made the cathode and the metal to be deposited is made anode. A soluble salt of the precious metal is taken as the c1ectwlyte. When current is passed. a thin layer of metal is deposited On Ihe article made cathode.

.143

}Jhysu.~

(ii) Ex"1l<.1ion oj metals from th .. ores : Certain metals like Na. At. Ca. Mg.ln. Cu etc. atl:

extracted from their ures by electrolysis. Ores solution acts as electrolyte /IIld metal ions are ooll"cted at dectrode,. Y,.u \\illieam more about it in yourchemis!I: lessons.
Hii)Purificatitlns oj metal.' : 'VIetals can be puritied 'b)' electrolysis. The impure metal sheet IS made the anode and a pure metal sheet as the cathode in a large electrolytic cell. The soluble salt to the pure metal is used as electrol)te. When current is passed. pure metal oW of anode dissoh es inll> dl!ctrol) te solutiom. and get deposited on the pure metal sheet acting as cathode. ('oppcr l~ puritied in thi!oo manner.

(iv) ELeL'trotypinK: fhe "xaclcnp":s offhe metallic t>pe used in the printing worl./IIld!'he "ngra,~d blocks un the metal can be prepared b) the proce.. of electrolysis. A sheet,ofwax is tirst pressed against the type sel or block. The impression optained on wax is made conducting by coating it wifh graphite powder. Then it is copper plated by the process of electrolysis. The sheet so obtained is a copy of the type of the block.
(v) Anodising: It is the process of coating aluminium with its oxide. electrochemically to

pmt"c! it against corrosion. In dilute sulphuric acid as electrolyte. the aluminium article is made the anude. Sometime. to give Ihe surlace of the article beautiful colours. dyes l\I'Il mixed in the electrolyte.
(vi) iI1ellical Apl'licatians : Electrolysis is finding applications in medical science too. It is L1scd nerve stimulation especially for polio. for removing unwanted hair on any part of the body etc.

t,,,

INTEXT QUESTIONS 17.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I.
, On whatjaclOrs does the mass l?/,radical deposited at electrode depends ? For an electrolysis process if we pial a graph hellVeen mass deposited and time. thell what will he Ihe shape ofcurve? One Farad,/)' is equal To how man)' coulomb? In ellso. m/Ulmeter. on which elecTrode willihe copper ions will deposit .
An~....er whelher thefollowing statement are True or False.

3. 4. 5.

a) b) c) d),

In an elecII'lJ~\'Ie soilltiol/. current is maintained hy the flow '?f electrol/. The malltr is oCllla/(v transported through the solation in electro~vsis. There are only two lllws ofelectrol)-..is. Electroplating is based all electrolysis.

17.6 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

o The electrk current through the conductor can produce heating. ollie electron on their way collide lrequently with atoms. In each c,)lIision. kinetic energy is 10'i1 and cc.mvt!ned into heat cnerc~y. Ileat generated in a simple electric circuit is proportional to 0) square of the current (ii) the resistance. and (iii) the time during which current flows. o The unit of po,ver is watt. o The difTerencc hetween conductio" of electricity through a metallic wire and lin
dcctrol~ te.

344

Thermal and Chemical Effects of Eleclric Cun-~m

The definitions of Faraday, electro-cbemical equivalent. The electrolysis has various pnu:tical application. Thermo-eiectricity-pbenOlpenon involves the conversion of heat energy iroo electrical energy. According to Seebeak effact if two junctions of a thermo-couple are kept at different temperalUrS an emf is generated in the circuit. If an electric current is passed through a tbenno-couple, heat is absorred at one junction and liberated at the other jUI!Ction, This is called Peltier effect. A~cording to thomson effect when temperalUre gradient exist along the conductor and current is allowed to pass through the conductor then the absorption or evolution of heat can take place across the conductor itself. The variations of Seebeck emf "ith temperaturP difference of the junctions is generally parabolic. The neutral temperature. is the maximwn temperature beyond which thermo emf starts decreasing. Peltier effect is reversible and different from Joule's effect. The Thomson coefficient can be positive or negative depending upon the nature of metal. It is practically zero lor lead. Thomson effect is again reversible effect. The Thomson coefficient is a function of temperature and not constant.

17:7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS_ _ _--:-_ _-:--_ __

I. 2. 3. 4. S. State and explain Joule's law for the rate ofproduction of heat for a coil ofwire carrying an electric clirrent. Define Electric power and state its units. Discuss the phenomenon of electrolysis. State and explain the Faraday's law of electrolysis. Explain some practical applications of electrolysis. Explain the tenos : Electrolysi,;, electrolyte, electrodes, voltmeter. How does tbe-conduction of electricity in a metallic conductor differ from that in electrolyte? Vi/hy is the conductivity of an electrolyte law as compared to a metal at room temperature? What is a Seebeck effect? Discuss the variation of Seebeak emf with temperalUre. What is meant by Peltier effect? How does it differ from Joule effect? What is Thomson effect? Explain it by giving proper diagram. Define Thomson coefficient of an metal. Give its unit. Is it a constant?

6. 7. 8. 9.

"345

18
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

18.1 INTRODUCTION
In everyday situations one hardly lhinks of the connection between electricity and magnetism.

In 1820. Oersted by a series of experiments established an important result that moving charges exert forces. which ~ different from eleclrostatic forces due to charges at rest. This principle is used in many modem day gadgets like electric meters. motors. and generators. In the previous lesson you have studied about the thermal and chemical effects of electric current. In the present lesson you will study about the magnetic effect of current and their applications in ollr day to day life. Youwill also study the principle of v,lorking of current measuring and detecting devices like galvanometer. ammeters and voltmeter. "

18.2

OBJECTIVES

AJkr Slud) :111' dlis iesson. you should be abletci: vi.w"l,=e magnetic effect of electric current; dif/ne 8iot Savart's law and understand its applications; explain Ampere's circui/,II law and its application to find the magnetic field due 10 current in solenoids and toroitls." difine ampere in terms ofmagnetic field: explain the motion of a chal'ged particle in a magnetic field and uMuTstand Lorent= force." describe the behuviour of a current loop in a magnetic field; and e.'plain the principle of working of current measuring and dettcling instruments slIch as galval/ometers. ammeters and voltmeters"

Magn~!ic

EtTec! of Electric Currenl :.

18.3 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM - CORE CONCEPTS

You have studied earller that1he IIow ofe1eclroPs in a c:oJIductor, due to a potential difference across it, is called dectrlc clll7'Mt. The CUI'I'CIIt flowing in 1he conductor exerts fo~e on a free magnetic needle in a region, this legion is known a magnetic: field. The maglU!tlcfleld is characterised. by the magnitude and direction of the field given by magnetic induction vector B or nuwnetIc lntensIiy. The fieJd is visualised by 1IIIIpetiefleId lbus which give the direction of the field at a point in the space. You will Jearn about ~ and more term, such as magnetic permieability, susceptibility etc. at the appropriate place in this lesson.

18.3.1 Magnetic Field Around an Electric Current

We will do a simple experimmt. FOI'Ibis, you will require a 1.5 volt battery, a win: about 1m long, a campusl!eedJe and a maIch box. Take 1he matd1 box base md wrap tho o1ec:trie 1We on it about l()'IS times. SeeFJ.a.18.1.
Place the campus needle at ita bile. 1\Im wt,. the match box so as to have the.wIroe IUIlI1ing alons the North South cIirectIon.Connect the free ends of the 1We to !be baUeIy. Watch what happens to the needle. The needle deflects. this IIINIIII there Is a magnetic fotce arouod 1he ooiIed up 1We. The 1.1IV' deflec:tionrevenes ifyou chanse!be direction ...... ILl, Dm"""l'tIllon qf.,ognel;c/l.ld dUIO of current by changing the temIinals of the 1M _ _ c,,",n/ bettary. When there is no current in the win: the campus needle points in 1he North South direc:tinn.Fig.18.2(a,b &; c). Fig. 18.2 (d) shows concentric circles around the wire.

--

In 1820 Hllns Ch,.i8tl"n Ocr., Professor of Physics at Copenhager in Denmark perfOimed similar experiments and established thatthere is a magnetic field around a current

. J}

~~

+~-=~~~~1
no dlllllOIIon

G)

I
.(e)

I....-_ _ _ _~ (II)

'. ""'I*!*ldlcullir . d III I"- wtre Fla.18.2(a,b,e, )

7
.

(d)

347

Physics

18.3.2 Biot Savart's Law

We noW present a law that gives a quantitative relationship between the currcot in any conductor and the resulting magnetic field at a point in the space II1'OUIId it. Each part of the conductor con1ributes towards a magnetic field. The net value of B at a point is the combined effect of all the individual parts of the conductor. Acconling to the experiment as shown in Fig. 18.3 we can say that the magnetic field due to any Z current carrying conductor is the vector sum ofthe contribution due to. the current in each minute element oflength LJI. The field IlB due to an element III depends upon
(a) I: current through the conductor; (b) Ill: length of the element: (c) .:!,. : r is the distance of point P

X~~--~~~~__~~_x

{.fiere the field is to be calculated from the element III (d) 9 : is the angle between the element and the line joiDa the element to the point p.

.Z' JIIf. JI.J:

I III sin 9
IlB
CIC

,2
II. J IlI.in 471

e
...{I8.1 )

r2

This is an imperical result and II. is the permeability orVllCUlllllll or air. Its value Is 471)( 10.7 WbA"' m" If the conductor is surrounded by medium then the value of the field is altered and it becomes B - 11 BrHere. 11 represents, the permeabilty ofthe medimn which is diffimml fulm maptic field al a point in vacuum, and B magnetic field at apoint with a mentioned medium of permeability j1.

JJ/1. -

DlrectioD or B : Magnetic field is a vector. Let us conaider the direction of the field produced in some simple cues. As shown in the Fig. 18.4. with your band grasp the wilre, so thai the thumb points (bl cullllllt Into the pImIe d

the~.

Ie)

FIg.II." I Di,...lion oj'magntl/eJl6ld

3411

Magneric EITect of Electric Curran:

in the dim:toin of the current, the curled fingers of the hand point in the dim:tion of the IIUIgIletic field. InFig.18.4(b) check ifthe direction ofmagnetic field matches Ibis description.

In Fig. 18.5, the thumb is along I i.e. the plane containing 01} B is perpendicular to it along the direction of the curl of the fingers of the right band. This is called the right hand grip rille.

18.3.3 Applications of Biot Savart's Law

As Biot Savart's la~ jives the lllllpitude of the masnetic field, it can be used to find the field around cIIff_nt shape. of cunductol'l. However, to find the net field clue to cIIft'ezent

scsmcnts of the weoftbem. acid up the <1 B contribution duecunductor to each 0IIe CalulUi lIlIkes it very 011)'. A few applicstiOlll ofBi.t Savart's law are jiven below. M.p.tlc /I,ld aJ til. C.IIIN of Q circlllar coil carrylllg CIlI"nllt. COIIIidet a wire stifF eI10IIih to form acimllll' loop Ilke 1ll1ee11l111&1e. This would look Ilke PJa. 18.6
To lind the field at 0 due to C1II'I'OIIt element d

''::X':'::2~::~~/~~:t--:-__.2
X

Z'

t of the circular coil. This element u well u

yo 1lIIY other are It a difta1:Ice ,. &om till centze O. ".,1&6: CImI/",.CQ/J CGr/)IIIIIThe . . . . by Iwilhria9 -90. . UIiDa Biot Savan',Iaw, the field It the centze 0 clue to t .. IS ,
J.l. I -sin 4J 9 48-411 ,...

"4K -1,...
The direction of 48 ia perpeadicular to the xy pllDe along Z-axis. Since the field due to every element ofthe cin:ularcoil ia in the IIIIDICI direction, the resultlnt is found by adding all tile 48 coatributions It the centre of the loop.

II.

4J

149

: Pbysica

Therefor,

B =~4B = III !AI . 4111"

m_

47t1"

or B at the centre oC coil oC radius r having a current I in it is ,

""
2r

2111'

In cue there are more then one loop of wire, say there are n turns B--II
2r

IB~ ~l I
""

...(18.2 )

..(18.3 )

B is measured in teala (T); IT - IN A-I m-I You can cleek the direction of the net field usinaFIg. 18.4. You can use reghtllaDdruie in

any sesment oCtile coil and obtain the 8IIIle result.

(Another simple quick rule to find the diJeetiOll ofllllpetic field due to. coil is as tho1lVllin FiS. 18.7 (a,b).

(a,
..". /&1:FIIIdbtf.tIf1wrttJ'''J/'''~jIo/d

When an observer looklDa at the clrcuIlI' coil, finds the cUrrent to be flowm, in the clock wile _ than face oCthe coil behaves like the SoUlh pole of the equiVlleat mapet, or B i. directed in wards., On the other band If the CIJmIIt is _ to flow in the anticlock wile sense the face of the coil behaves like the North pole of the equivalent mapt or the field i. directed towarda younelf.
EUlJlp... 11.1: A.t what diltance fro", a 10llg ,traight wi,. carylng a Clll'lWIII 0/12 A.mp will the IIIIIgMtic field be equal to J )( HI'S 1i,ia. Solution:

2nr B -3)(10-5 T

B-~

---'-------------------------3nS~O-----------------~----------

Magnetic Effect of Electric: CUmDI

1 = 12 Amp

1l.=4
r

10 TmK

-7

=?

r=--!...-

III

2lt B

= 2 It x 3 )( 10-'
=0.2Sm

4~ )( 10-7 )( 12

INTEXT QUESTIONS 18.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I.

WhaJ Is the 1ItIIIIrI of the field developed by ? (i) a 3tatlonary electron?

............................................ , ................. .
2. Elecl1'O/U In a conductor are In COII8tant motion due to tempfratv7t. wily do they not ,how th, propert)l of lfIlIp.t18m lUll." a pot.ntlal diJfertnc. to appll.d

(ii) a moving electron?

..... , ............. , ....... , .................................. .

3. A cll17Vnt is flowing In a long wi". It Is firlll IIhaplti. as a circular coil of on, tUl'll. Qlld then Into a coil of two tIIm.J of small.r raiJllI.'J. In which cas' Is th, 1fIlIp,t/c field at the centre stronger and by how much? On what factors do" the field around a Cur"lIt carrying cOllductor depend upon ? Us, Blot Savartf Law.

QCI'O&3

II ?

4.

18.4 AMPERE'S CIRCUITAL LAW

Ampere's circuital law is another property of magnetic field around a current carrying conductor. This can be used to find the field in some simple situations. Ampere's circuital law states that the line integral of the masnetic field B around any closed path or cin:ult is equal to 1'0 times the total current lthreading this closed circuit This i. independent of the size or shape of the closed path or cirult. ...(18.4)
In order to understand this conslder an infinitely lona Slraisht conductor carrying current I Fig. 18.8.

Consider acircular loops ofndius r. We have alresdy

351

seen that the lines ofB also form cmles around tile wire. Then magnetic field is parellel to de every where 00 the loop. Further the magnitude ofB is also same st all points ofthe loop.
= IB de cos 9 (9=0) =IBde Now IB.de along the circular loop will be =B-2 x r But B from Siot savart's iaw

1& de

z_O_

1-11

21t r

I B.dI = 1-1/ 2'op.

2xr

=1-11 o
Thus, Ampere's law is derived usina Biot Savart's law.

.. (18.5)

In case, the imasined loop in not circular, we CIID cansjder dot product ofB.dl1l every point, wbere I I!Id de lD&y DOt be aloua the same line.
But, de-r9

!be Fla. 18,9 shows any Imapwt Ibape of clOMd loop. The wire puaes 1brouah O. DlYidiq the clOMd loop into many IIIII1l dI.

e1emom.

I B.dI-I.dI COl e
I, 'CIl, + I.' dI, ++-- - 1,.cII,

Since I II pmllel to dill each amaIl

lDIDIeIIt, COl 9 - 1

But eIl the centre 0 - 2 1r, 10 to tnce the eadJe loop 1'bis law II valid for any "M'DhIy ofcurrent I!Id for any arbitlry closed loop

lB.dt

I'J

2K

2K

n.... tbillaw it valid for any ..-Illy of current I!Id for any arbiuuy c10Md loop.
352

18.4. 1 Applieatiou of Ampere'. CireaiDl Law

1be Ampcre'l law Cllllbies us to obtain die ~" field in two situatiolla in a v)' simple maJIII. Both the8e results .., of praetiea1 value and are odJerwiJe difficult to obIIIiD.
(a) Mapetic tleId dae to . . iDfbdtelyloq
Q

coadactor carr:JiB& e~t

Fig. 18.10 shows a CODductor POQ C8II')'ina a current I. Take a circular loop of radius ,. around it in the pl_ as sbown. l B.dl = B.2l11' = IIJ by die law :. B.211" 9IJ

I (e cIn:uII)

Itt 1&11:,ifIIII/IIIy"",._

or B - 2.JJ,,/. lU

"","'1'"''

as

This ai.vea 1be fie\d II:'OIDl a IIIIiabt CIJIIdI.....,.

II'-~rl

(b) Toroidal SoIeaold : 'like a lup IOleaokL

Brina toptber its euda A "B. This CID llso be piClUriJecl by tIkiDa a bqIe aDd wrappiDa I wire on it. all 110lIl its circumference. It wouIdlooltIlkeFij.18.1l.
M"".fIk FWiluib r-III: COIIIider I section or cut of die toroid in tbe PD of 1be JIIIIIII'. The current loops SO out ollbe 1"ofthe paper at 1be outeI rim, aDd into 1be 1"oftbe peper at die iDDer rim Fig. 18.12. PQR, aDd PQ'R' are two amperian loops one inside the toroid aDd tbe other outside it.

Ittl&II: ......

if I is the ClIITeIII tbrouah tbe toroid aDd if tbere are H IllIIIIber of tums. a totsl of HI current flows in tbe inlier riDI!. We have ,1.eIl -I' I B " cIIlJ'e 110118 die SIIIIO directioa. B.llll' - P NI

or

!'oN! llll'

353

If,. is the radius oftorokl ; - . N . _ wilen: n - . - or IU1I11her oftuml perllllit ___ 2111'
or
B"~l11

_(11.6)

17te 1IfIIgIIeIk.fW4 B depetu/811pt111

(a) -C\J!reIlt (J) (b) number oftumperuaitlqlh(n}

What about the field 0IdIidc the toroicl ? We can tID IIIDti.IIIIQICR'i.a con:uit PQ'R.' out side the toroid ; but wiIh centre '0.

The net curnm p"lIi"i wi1hin this cin:uIar diJc is ..,. SDtce NI pawaln IIId out It the imler IIld outer rima oftile toroicla. Thua, B is :rMO.
What will be the dbeetloa ofB ., 1bIt will be tanpnd.1 to tile circle.

(e) Map. tlekl dae to IOIIllOId

So1eDold ilallrliabt con bavh!a IIrp number ofloopI_ in allrllabt Uae wiIh. gommO/l
axis alllbown in FIg. 11.13.

Ifa current I flows tbrouab the wire a .,.IPo!iC field seta up around it. A and B ue two eDdJ of the solenoidof1ength/baviDaNnumberoftlll'lll.

To find IIIIIpOtic field insicki, a10118 the axis in Fia11.13. we can COIllIicler It te be a sectiO/l ora toJOidaI solenoid of a very 1arp Jadius.
B - ~.IN
The direction of the field is a10118 the lXis of tile solenoid. A atraisbt solenoid is finite. it II1II endI. Therefore,

BAldI

B-/JolN.
should be correct W\\ll inside the soJeooid, near ita ceal:ftIlIld at points close te the axis. It can be seen mathematically that fur soleooidl oflllll1l ftIdiuI, B It the aadI is IIpJlI'OXiJIIal

-- --'B

Il" IN
2

.....(18.7)

The solenoid behaves like a bar mapetllld themapedc field due tea solenoid isDlUChlike the bar magnet as shown in Fig. 11.14.
JS4

Magnetic Effect of Electric Current.

Soleooids and Toroids are widely used in motors. generators. toys. fan windings. transformers. elecb'Omagnets etc. They are used to provide uniform magnetic fields. Sometimes to increase S different materials may be placed within the ",Mings
Example 18.1:. A solenoid 5()cm long lUIS 3 layers of windings of 250 lUrns each. Thit" radius of the lowest layer is lcm. If the current through it is 4.0 A. Estimate the magnilUte of B, fa) near the centre of the solenoid on and about the axis. (b) near the ends on its axis. fc) outside the solenoid /lear the middle.

Fig. IlL14: .\'u!enoiJ field is nm('/-, like Ihe bar "'ll.f{1I1!1

Solution:
(al at the centre or near it B= Iln'
to find n

= 250

for 1 layer

50 ., for 3 layers it would be 3n

or tor 3 layer total nwubcr of turns. = ~~O x 3 = 15 em-I

'" 1500 m-I B=4ltx10 x 1500 x 4 = 16)( ISlt x (05 Tesln
7

Same about the a.xis also.

(b) at the ends Bends = , B ,",,,

ISlt x 105 Tesla (c) Outside the solenoid the field isnegtigible.

=8x

INTEXT QUESTIONS

!~.:

___________

I, A drawing of the lines afforce qf (J magnetic field provides illfol'malioll on (a) direction of./ield only (b) magnitude of field ani), (e) bath the direction and magllittlde of the .field (d) the force of tlU! field ........ ,........ ' " ..................... .....................
'.'

2. What is common between Biot Sovart s law and Ampere s circuital law ? ................ ............ , .. .................. ........... .
' ' '

35;

3. In the following drawing of line offorce of a non-lIIIi!orm magnetic field at which point is the field (0 uniform? (ii) weakest? (iiiJ alrollgest?

A
)

--

FIg. JUS

4. A solenoid /Ocm long is meant to have a magnetic field O.OO2T inside it, wlwlt a current of 3A flows through it. Flng the required turns . ..... . ................. . . ;. ..................................... .

18.5 INTERACfION BETWEEN A CONDUcrOR CARRYING CURRENT AND A MAGNETIC FIELD

We have understood that a current canying cinductor generates a magnetic field aroUlld it. we are now going to see what happens if a magnet is brought close to such a conductor. You can make your guesses. To support your imagination we can .pe! fonn a simple experiment. For this you need a pencil. 25cm of flexible connecting wire. a jhora pin U-clip ( or a .. piece of copper or awminium wire about IScm long). a battery. two glasses of equal size: See the set up as shown in Fig. 18.16.
-.--.~

Berid the stiff wire into a ~U"shape and slightly bend its ends. Now tie one end of one of the flexible wires to the ~U". Connect the other wini to the other end of the U. Loop the wire over the pencil, U is suspended from the JICI1cil like a swing. Pass current through the wire.

Magnetic Effect ofEIec:uic Cumm Next tjdce the magnet and bring it close to the U. The U- wire swings. What do you think is the reason for this? Stop the current and see if !he swing again takes place. The reason is tbat like tbe interaction between two magnets here also field due to the magnet and the one produceded by the eurrent in the U interact - creating an attraction or repulsion. It islikc; exerting a meclJaoica1 force on it.
F

If the U wire was fixed. the force would have been there but its effect unseen.
Righ, hlJlld ptdm rule : The direetion of force on a conductor canying cUlTCnt when placed in a magnetic field is given in a simple way by right hand rule (Fig.

18.17).
Stretcb the right hand palm sucb that the thumb is perpendicular to the fingers and points in the direetion of current I. the fingers point in the direetion of extemal magnetic field Bo Then the force F on the conductor will be perpendicularto the palm in the direetion of pushing by the palm.

Take a paper and fold it, tIUIrlt I along the fold; B aIong the edge of the w-r fold
then the direction of'Fis along the edge

n,. 1&1' : DlrtetlOII o[[orce 011 G curmrl-.yl1f/f

.......".,.

oftheupperfold(Fig.IS.ISY:

18.5.1 Foree on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field

When a cIwgod body is moved in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. experienced by a moving charge is called the l.ormIr./Drce.

Such a force

You might wonder that we have been talking about currents and now suddenly we are saying a 'moving charge'. Well. sinee the Lorentz force and its magnitude was determined for moving charges, we consider it and later extend the idea to the eurrmts.
According to this the Lorentz force on a particle with a charge +q moving with a velocity 'v in a magnetic field B is given by,

or

IFI

F=q(vxB) = q v BsinO

...(IS.S}
... (18.9)

357

:Pby~cs

where 9 is the angle between the diRction of v aud 8 the diRction of F is aivCD by riPt band palm rule.

Some important points

1. Fiu ",tcJronIcaIf_l'aIIltingiu]1lll1 Of'ap1Uh.

1. 11M diTw:IiOil off- is Biwn by,IM rlr/tt It<md role.

3. ill """ offlllgatlwt cIuup ..ovtng. ,IMtIiTw:ti"" ofib ",otIon to ...,.,.,1II......,u. to F.

4. Q'tMcIuup.,Dp8. tJr./tn .,ipilutlllllly. j. F""",to..,..,!/tMcIItirge",_al_tMjWd B.

6. F__ to ........... I/cIuup-JHI'P.wJkwJIII'totMjWd ~ by F -lIqll

18.5.2 Force on a Conductor Carrying Cnrrent in a Magnetic Field

The idea in the above section can be extended to current canying conductors for fon:e on a

chaIJe q moving with velocity 'v' perpendicular to '8' is,

IFI-qvB Suppose the charge 'q' travels a distlux:e AI' in time .!>t'
Ilt v=-Ilt

or

F=q - - 8
III

Ilt

=> =>

F=-q-AlB
III

{Ie~, rate oftlowofcharge}

III

IF-lIllal

If conductor makes 111 angle 9 with a the 11 F = IAI B sin 9

...(18.10)

.,.
) ) )

<b)

(c;)

358

n. ctinIcIicm of the fwee OIl a eumm carryIna c:coductor in a.lIIIIp8lic .Bel4 is fiuIB the resioa of stroDg field to the reQion ofweak field.
The. UDit of IJUl8lldic field '8' can be expressed. as the force experienced by a cum:nt carryIna ooocIuctor in the field. From equ. 18.10.
F 8=-

IAt

F is taken in newton, I in ampere and A I in metre, tben the unit of 8 will be NA" m".

If I m long cooductor, carryIna I ampere current is placed perpendicular to ~ maptic field, expericoces a force of lnewton tbeil the IJUl8lldic field is 1 tesIa.
I

tesia = 1 newton )( (amperer' )( (metref'

IT=lNK'm-'

18.5.3 Foree Between two ParaDel Wires Carrying Current

EIICl)' CUJrent carrying conducter is surrounded .., a magnetic field, and because of thl~ nearby exert forces upon nearby current carrying conducter. The fur\le is mutual, The forces are magnetic is origin ; a cummt carrying wire bas no net electric cbarge, and hence cannot intenct electriOlty with another such wire.
I,

Iz

r----I

If

I"

I
I
I I

(e,

-----

r"'"

FiB 18.20 IIbows two panillel wires separated by distaw:e r aad carrying cum:nt I, and I, rapectively. The magnetic fields due to e8cl! wire at distance r are Po I, f.lo I,
8~---;

2~

~=--2~

The tie&ds are perpeadil:1Ilar to the ICIIIJIh of the wiles and therefore !he fun:e OIl a iengbl L ofCUI'I'aJt is, . . ""II F=BlL=>-- I L 2lrr 2
",,1,1,

or
i.c.

Fon:cperunitlengtb= - - 21tr
..(IS.IlJ

The fon:es are IIItTaC1iw when !he currenIS are in the same direction and repulsive when !bey are in 0J1P081lf! diredions.

DeIhddoa fIIa.pen : We know that

F"
if

1'0 ,1, --=-1,1 2lU'

I, = 1,= IA, .... =4x x I - 1m, and .,. .. 1m

fl.411: x 10-7

IIr'

Wb A-' m-'

F=-= 2lt

2lt

=2xIO-7N

11k.. If two ptll"lll1eI wins canybrg tllJlIIII CIUI'eIU8 lITe p/l.rced 1m tIptIrt ill vaclUUfl or IIIr ~ce .1NIt1Mllforr% of 2 x [(J-7 N Ifrl, tlrm tire cwunt br each wire is one
IIIIIJ1t!re.

18.5.4 Motion of a Cllarged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field

We cin now lhinkofvarious situations in which a charged particle or current carrying coaductor. Wbeu placed in a magnetic field.. moves due to L01'r!nt= foice:

maaniJUde .

The force on die particle of charge 'q' moving with velocity 'v' in a magnetic field B bas the

1'-.. -."-qvB--sin-O--'1

obcius the angle I",tween 'v and 'B'. The direction of the force 'F' is given by die right
baodrulc. The work done b) a force on a body depends on the components of the force in the direction the body IIIOYCS. When the force on a charged particle in a 1fKlgnelic field is pe,.pendicular 10 its dlnction of motion, lhe/O,.ce does no work 011 il. Hence. the particle keeps the same speed v and energy it had when it entered the field. even .though it is deflected. On the other haDd. the speed and energy of charged particle in an electrical field are always affected by the interaction between the field and particle, when v is perpendicular to E. A c!1arged particle moving perpendicular to a magnetic field follows a circularl'ath as ~"own in Fig. 18.21.

Magnetic Effect of Electric Current To find die radius R of the circular path ofdle charged particle. we note that die magnetic force qvB provides the particle with the centripetal force mY' that keeps it moving in a R circle. Equating the magnetic and centripetal forces we have.
qvB~-

lIIrJ
R
2

Solving for R we have

IIIV R~-

qB

...{1.8.12)

The mdil4.f ofthe charged particle's orbit 1'1g. 18.21 : Path ofa cluugedpomcl. in a uniform magnetic field is directly propoI1ional to its momemum (ml) and inversely propoI1ionaI to its charge and to die magnetic field. R oc v. if III, D, q are constant The 8f'eIIler the momeDtum, the larger the circle, and the stronger the ~Id, the smaller die circle. The time period ofrotation ofdle particle in circular path is given by,
T= - I)

2!tR

--I)Bq

21t 1111)

21tm
Bq

I 2; I
T=

...(18.13)

We see that the time period is independent of velocity and radius which means once the particle is in die Jll88Detic field it would go round and round in a circle. If III, B. q, are same this T remains <:ODSt8nt even if 1/ and R are different.
Now . . . . wlultlaappeas te R aad Tlftbe foIIowIDge..."l"'Sft ..... !
<.)fioIdBisDlldo ........... (b)fioIdBisDlldo ........... (,,) fioI4 B _ 1 0 exist, (eI) dinoc:Iica of Bill .b....... <e) !be panicle in DIldo to OIItor Ihe IIIIgIlOIic field at. hiBb'" speed. (I) !be panIeIe - ' . . . lIIIIIe 10 B,

(c)!be ....... portic!e_itJcharge.

EUlllpH 18.4 : Using the figure gillen below ca/cuIQle the force acting over a length of j III of the wires. What if the natI/1'e of tlri.r force?

SoIudoD: When cumnts flow in two long parallel wires in die same directions, die wires exert a force of lIltraction OIl each other, P

-=-I 21tr

I'

Jlo I, I,

lOA

Fig. 18.22

361

.: I'hysics

=
=

2x 10",
10-1 Nm"

0,3

lor 5m length, F = 5x I 0-4)0,

Example 18.S: An electron with velocity 3 x /0 7 m Sol describes Q circular JX1th in magnetic Jield ~r ().2T. perpendicular to it. What is the radius of the path? Solution :
m, . = 9 x 10'" kg = 1.6 x IO"C
0

e
R=Bq
mv

9xlO'll x 3xlO7

=-0-,2-x-I.-6-x-I-O-',i9

INTEXT-QUESTION 18.3 -::-:--_ _--:-:-_ _-:---~---'-

I, A stream ofprotons is moving parallel to a stream of electrons what is the natwe of force between them ?

2, Both the electl beMeen them ?

and magneticfield can deflect an electron, What is the difference

3. A body in suspended from the lower end of 0 vertical spring.' What shall be the effect on the position of the body when a current is sent through the spring. Does it depe/Ili upon the direction of current in the spring?

4.

Two long. JX1rallel wires are hanging freely. If they are connected to a battery (a) in series, (b) in JX1rallel, what would be the effect on their positions ?

18.6 CURRENT LOOP AS A DIPOLE

In section 18.3.3, we had considered the field at the centre ofa coil. It was given by

1l.I B';-

2r

This also means that a cwrent canying coil behaves like a magnetic dipole having north and south poles. One face of the loop becomes as North pole while the other as South pole.

C8IIIIidrz. simple exmceisc lIllY bar mapet is suspeuded by Cbread ~ the horse shoe IIIIgIIde as shown in Fig. 18.23.

What do you tbink will happen IIDdwhy? There i!I' repulsi.on between like poles beDce the bar JIUI8IICt will rotate IIDd turn through 180" to alip.1ike in Fig. 18.23 (b). Siniilarly a cummt carrying coil will rotate to align its dipole in the extmIal field.

18.6.1 Magnetic Moment of a Dipole

This is defiDed as the moment of the o:mple which acts on tbe dipole when it I. kept perpendicular to uniform magnetic tieldofunitlltlellgth(Fig. 18.24). A couple is a pair of oqual IIDd opposite fcm:es for which the line of action is DOt the same. Moment of the couple - force )( pcrpeodiculardistance ~ the line of action oCtbe force.

'\ "'F. - I' Moment of tile couple - II' )( b This is also oJ.Ied torque (t).

:t

b ----~

(F,)" (F.) .. F

,., lU4 : EqIIII1 -."""./tltwI /ICIIIt, ... adJpde

18.6.2 Torque on a Current Loop

A loop of cummt in a uniform magnetic field (B) experi_ DO net force bllt instead a torque acts on it This tends to rotate the loop.coiI to briDg its plane pezpendicular to B. This is the principle that Ullderlines the operauon of all electric motors, meten etc.
Let us examine tbe force on each side of. rectaDguIar.current carryina loop where pIaae is parallel to a uaiform field B.Fig. 18.25 (a).

Jll8lllCtie

----------------------~~3-------------------------

98 :: Physics
Fe

----~a----~H------i

(hI
FIg. 18.15: (a) (1))

The sides A and C of the loop are parallel to B heru:e there is no force on them. Side B and D are perpendicular to B, however, and each tberefure experiences a force. We can find the directions of the force on B and D.

F. = FD - so there is no net force on the loop. But F. aud FD do ROt IIi:t aloog the _Iiue and hence they exert a torque on the loop that tends to turn it. This holds good for a cumut loop of any shape in a magnetic field.
In case the plane of the loop is perpendicular to the ~ field inNad ofparallel to it, there is neither a net force nor a net torque on it. See Fig.18.2S(b). A current carrying loop in a magnetic field always tends to turn so that its

_,becornes
a

perpendicular to the field.

Tarque = force x perpendicular distance -----4~------ID~ between the forces

B

e is the ansJe between the magnetic field B- - - - A+-+----.....

and the normal to the plane ofthe coil D. The torque is then,

r=NBILbsine N is the n.umber of\Unlii of the coil

r= NBI A sin e A is area of the coil = Lx b r= NB m sin e Where m = fA is known as the magnetic moment of1hD .....gnetic Iaop (coil).

...(1"'-14) .. .(IUS)

Thus. we see that the torque :-is directly proportional to B,

e, A, I. audN.

364

Magnetic Effe;:t ofElednc ClIfmlt

'18.6.3 Keepiag the Torque Constant

Ifa unifOJm rotation ofthe loop is desired in a magnetic field. we need to have a constant torque. The c:auple would be approximIItely coastant ifthe plane of the coil w.:re always parallel to the magnetic field. This is achieved by making the pole pieQesofthemagnetcurvodtogivearadiai field
If inside the loop or a coil a soft iron core in placed, this would l\IlIke the I118j!11Ctic field stronger. hence ~e the torque greater (Fig. 10.21).

Perhaps. a more simple way of understandjng the rotation of a coil in a rill 111.27 : C _ ' ..... 011 D <tJIl. m8gneuc field is to remember that as soon as the CUITCIlt flows through the coil. it becomes a magnet. If it is free to move it rotates Until the S pole of the coil is'opposite to the Npole of the JlUll!llet and vice versa.
i

18.6.4 GalVanometer
From what we have learnt so far. we can thiok of an instrument to detCct and _ current in any circuit. A divice doing precisely this is c:aJled a gUv_ter.

The principle of a galvanometer is that when a currient corrying coil I.r p{at;ed in a magnetic field it experiences a torque. CoJlStnletioll : k corisists ofa coil wound on 8 soft iron tame. A soft iroa eyIiDder il pbIcecl inside the coil. The assembly is supported on two pivots altaChed to spriDp with 8 pointer. This is placed betwmt the radial poles of a b.one shoe JBIIgI"IOt, _ YII- 11.28. Theory: When CUITCIlt is passed through the coil. it rotstes due to the torque acting on it. The spring sets up restoring force and bence. 8 restoring torque.

If a. is the angle of twiill and k in the reSlaring torque per uai.t twiCr ~ COIUtIIIIt. NBMsin& NBM =
INBA
or
=

Ku

(9

= 90" for radial field)

...(18.16)

Ka.

=a
a =Go.; Where. G =K

1,NBA

is cded

N&f

the'--__1IIIrI
....(1 11)

or i.e

.11 xl II ilpropartioaaItol

i>hysi~
i

Deflection produced in a galvanometer is proportiooa1lO theClln'Cllt fIowina tbrougbit provided N. B. A and K are cOlI$tant.
oc

is known as current sensitivity.'

It is defined as the diflection of the coil per unit current. The more the current.1CI'OI!8 die torque and the coil turns more. Galvanometers c~ be constructed to respond to very small current of the order ol~.1 microampere (10A). ' , , . . .

Fig. 1&28: ConstruC/ion '!Igalwmonrettl1'

Condition for a sensitive galvanometer: In order to have a more seasitive galVllDllllllller. I. N shollid be large, 2. B should be large and uniform, 3. face area A of the coild should be large,

4. K should be small.
The values of N and A cannot be increased beyond a certain limit. Large values of N and A will increase the electrical and inertial resistance and the size of the galvanometer. B can be increased using a strong horse shoe magnet and by mounting the coil on a soft iron core.
The value of K can be decreased by the material such as quartz or phospher bronze. Shunt: Shunt is a low resistance connected in parallel with the galvanometer. It is used to protect the galvanometer from strong
I

!..~ f' ,,

8
I,

Fig. 18.29 : Shunt resi.rtDl'l ~ 10 II

galvanOllleter

-----------------3~~--------------------------

Magnetic Effect ofEledric CurrcIIt

cummts. A strong current maydamage the g&tvanomcter by producing a IaJBe torque. To over come this. a low resistance (i.e. shUDt) is connected io parallel with the coil. The major portion ofthe current passes through' this low (i.e. shunt) ~ only a small portion passes through the instrumenL Due to this the coil remains safe.(See Fig. 18.29).

resistance

CurreBt tltrough the plvanometer circuit I.et I is the total current in the circuit. G, is resistance of the galvanometer. S is resistance "f the shunt. I. is current through galvanometer. and I, current through the shUllt From your knowledge in the lesson 16. we have.
1=1,+1,

I. G = (/-1.) S

or. I,
or~

=cs;S

(1-

I,lS
...(18.17) ....(18.18)

Is

I.G G --=l{-}
G+S

16.6.5 Ammenter and voltmeter

(a) Ammeter: An Ammeter is a low resistance galvanometer. Its stale is calibrated to give the value of current in the circuit. A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by shUllting it. For this a low resistance wire is connected in parallel with the plv8llOlDCler. The resistance of the shUllt depends on the range of the 8llIDIeW and can be calculated as
tollows,

I.et.

m = resistance of galvanometer.
N = number of scale divisions in the galvanometer. K = figure of merit or current for one scale deflection in the galvanometer.

Then, curreot \Wich produces full scale deflection in the galvanometer is. fa = /11K.

Let I be the maximum current to be measured by the galvanometer.

Refer to Fig. 18.29 and using eq: (18.17) we can get.

S -

111
(I-I.)

..(18.19)

Where S is the shunt resistance \Wich can be calculated using eq. (18.18).

As G endS are in parallel to each other. therefore the effective resistance R.. oftbe _

....

_.=-+RA

S + G =GS S+G R= GS
As the shunt resistance is small. the combined ruistance of the galvano_ter and the shunt is very low and, hence. ammeter resistance Is lower tlran the galvano_ter. An ideal _eter bas zero resistaance. It is always CODDeCted in series with the circuit SO that all the current passes through it without increasing the circuit resistance. (b) Voltmeter : A voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer. It is used to measure the potential difference between two points in a circuit

A gaivanometer can be converted into a vol1meter by connecting a suitsble high mJistance in series with the galvanometer as shown in Fig 18.30. The value ofthe resistance depends upon the range ofvol1meter ) and can be calculated as follows. ; ",

r - - -

- -'Va11mt18

....

~
I
'- -

8}--Wffl.~~-B
-

R
_ _ ol

A high resistance. say R is connected in series with the galvanomter coil. Ifthc potential difference across AD is Y volt,

Total resistance of the voltmeter =G + R From Ohm's law I. (G+R)=V

G+R=...E . . I.

=1 R = f.

-G

_.(18.21)

This means, if a resistance of R is connected in series with the coil ofthegalV8llOlDeter, it works as a vol1meter of raage 0-V volts.

Now, the same scale of the galvanometer wbich was ~ the -wum pokIIltia1/. G before conversion will record the potential yafter conversion into vol1meter. The scale can be calibnlted accordingly. The resistance of the voltmeter is bigber than the I,ilvanometer. Effec:tive resistance of the vol1meter,

I Rp.=G+R I
The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is inliDity, it is connected is pamIlel acrOss the points, wbOae potentia1 diffeRaI:e is to be found in .. ma:m. It istbal expa:lOd DOt to cIraw Illy CUIl'eIII and yet the galvanometer coil to detlect. Seems quite impossibleZ Think about it

361

Magnetic Effect of Electric CWl'CDI

Eumple 11.6; A eircular coil of J{) turns ond raditlS 8.0 em. carrymg a CIIn'SIIt of 6.0,"" is SlISpeUd vertically m Q /I1Iiform horicontal magnetic field of magnihlde 1.0 T. The field /ilJes moire an angle of 9(JD with lhe norma/to tire coil Calculate the magnitude of the counter torqu<' that must he applied to prew:nt the coil from hmling.
SolutioD : N = 30. I = 6.0 A. B = 1.0.T. 0= 9IJO r = 8.0 em = 8)< 10-2 m Area (Al of the coil =

1t r2

if x

:8x 10-2P

2.0\" 10'2 m!

Torque =
=

NIB A SIn fI
30 x 6 x 1.0 x (2.01 x 10-2 ) x sin 90" 30)( 6)( (2.01 x 10-2) 3.61 NIl'I

= =

Example tll.7: A galvanometer with a coil of resistance J2.0 n shows a full scale deflection for a CJlTN!nt of 2.5 mAo How will you convert the meter into (a) an _re, of range 0 - 2A? (b) voltmeter of range 0 - 10 volt?
l>olutiOD: (a) G= 12.0 n. I = 2 A, S=?

I. =2.5 rnA =2.5 x' 10-3 A.

I, S =( - ) G I-I.

2.5 x IO,J
=
3x 12 2-25x 10-

= 15 x

10-3 0

Thus. for converting a galvanometer. a shunt of! S x 10-3 n resistance shooId be cODDeCted in parallel to the coil
(b) For convemOIlmto voltmeter. leI R be the resistance to he COIIIIeCted 'in series. V
R=--G I 10

2.5 x 10']

12

4000 -120

39880
Thus, a resistance 00988 0 should be connected in series to convertinto voltmeter.

369

Physics

;<

INTEXT QUESTIONS 18.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

J.
2.

What is radial magnetic field?

What;s the main function of a soft iron core used in a moving coil galvanometer? ..................... ; . . ........ . . . .. ' " ..... . 3. Which olle has the lowest resistance - ammeter. voltmeter,and gal,va1Wmeter. explain.'
~

-/, A galvanometer havi/lg a coil of resistance 20 n neeils 10 rnA current for fidl scale deflectio", In order to pass a maximum of 3A througlJ the galvanometer, what resistance should be added and how?

18.7 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

o

Every current carrying conductor has a magnetic field ~und it. The value of magnetic field strength is given by Biot Savart's Law. 48 =.l!ol. AI sin fl 4lt r' The direction of magtle!ic field is given by right hand grip rule. Unit of magnetic field is tesla and IT = INA 'm". Field at the centre tor a flat coil is
B

Ampere's circuital law also gives the magnitude ofthe magnetic field ~und a conductor. tit B.dl = J.I I " using. this B due to a toroid and solenoid are calculated =)I.. nI n = number of turns per uni: lenght for a long II> r} solenoid Thefield at the edges is =.JJ,...nJ.
2

=...!:L r

o o o

Moving charges have a magnetic field around them. A mechanised force acts on a current carrrying conductor in a magnetic field. The Lorentz force on a moving charge q is F=q(v x B) and its direction is given by right hand palm rule. The mechanical force on a wire of Icnghl L and carrying a current of I in a magetic field B is F=BIL Mutual torce per unillength between parallel striaght conductors with currents I, I, is

givcnby
F
~.I, I,

2lt I'

A charged particle traces a circular path ifit enters a magnetic field at right angles

Radius of the path R =- qB

mv

370

M.aguetic Effect ofElec:lric CumDt .

A current loop behaves like a magnetic dipole. A current cmying coil placed in magnetic field exPrleru:es a torque given by

=NBIA sinO T=NBIA,ifO=90 Galvanometer is an instrument used to detect electric current in a circuit. An ammeter. is a sunted galvanometer and voltmeter is a galVIlDOllleter with a high resistance in series. Current is measured by an ammeter and potential difference by voltmeter.
T

18.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

l.
2. 3.

4.
5,
6.

7.

8.

9.
10. II.

12.

Howwill you show that a CUllent carrying conductor has a magnetic field arrourid it? How will you find its magnitude and direction at a particular place?' A fon:e acts upon a charged particle moving in a magnetic field, but this force does not change the speed of the particle. Why? At any instant a clwged particle is moving parallel 'to a long, straight current carrying wire. Does it experience any force? A current of 10 ampere is flowing througba wire, It iskeptpeqxmdicularto amagnetic field of ST. Find the force on its lito m length. A long straight wire carries a current of 12 amperes. Calculate the intensity of the magnetic field at a distance of 48 em from it. TwoparaIIel wires. each 3m long, are situated at a distance ofO.OSm from each other. A current of SA flows in each ofthe wires in the same direction. How mucll force will act on the wires? What will be its nature? The magnetic field at the centre ofa sOcm long solenoid is 4.0 x to2 NA-1 m-I when a current of8.0A flows through it, find the number of turDs in the solenoid. Of the two identical galvanometers one is to be converted into an ammeter and the other into a milli - ammter. Which ofthe shunts will be ofa larger resistance? The resistance of a galvanometer is 200 and gives a fiill scale deflction for O.OOSA. Find the value of shunt requited to change it into an ammeter to measure lA What is the resistance of the ammeter? . An electron is moving in a circu1arorbit of radius 5 xlO'II m attheratcof7.0 x lOIS revolutions per see. Calculate the magnetic field B at the centre of the orbit. Calculate the magnetic field at the centre ofa flat circular coil containing 200 turDs, of radius 0.16m and carrying a current of 4.8 ampere. See the following Fig. 18.31 and calculate the magnetic field at A, B and C.
A

1amp

> -

[1m

".".11.3J

371

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Inten q"UestiODS 18.1
I. 2.
(i)elcctrical (ii)magnelic Cooducters an: netlb"al and have.no net eleettical field. The IbermaI eleclroDs CIUlCel the magnetic effect prochx:ed by 1bem due to random moIion, heace no net magnetic ficld. . In fustcase length of wire t = 2 lrr, In second case 1eug1h ofwile e, = 2(2lrr,)

3.

Butt,=e, ::

r,= r,

:. Using B =

~:

B,

r,

-=-=--=B, " 2(u,) 4

"

Heuce. B, = 4B,
4.

=.J!..l
2lrr
/
"",0 -

B a
a

(material)

(curreot)

a 5.

1. (- distance from the wire) r

= 110 /
21fr
4. x 10 x 8
..
-7

Field at C due to straigbt wile B

= 211: X 10 x IIr'
= 16x 10 NA ..
~I-I

Field due to the coil B =

-'1.!
...r6

= 1611: x 10
Net field = BI =

NA m

-11

(If - 1)(16 x 10")

= 34.3)( 10
I.

Inte:lt questions 18.2

C
Both give B value due to current in-conductors. (i) A. (ii) (iii) B.

2.
3. 4.

N " B =~ /, TherefQre,pulIingtbegivenvalues\WsetN = 5.3 x

I

c.

IO-' T

372

Magnetic ErIect of Electric Current

loten questioos 18.3 I + p t ./.e- therefore repulsion

2. The force exerted by a magnetic field on a moving charge is perpendicular to the motion of the charge. hence the work done by the force on the charge is = O. So the KE ofthe charge does not change. In an electric field the deflection is in the direction of the field. hance; accelerates on a sttaight track. The direction of cmrent in each turn ofthe spring is the same. Since parrallel currents in the same direction exert force of artraction. the turns will come closer and the body shall be lifted upward. whatever be the direction of the current in the spring. In series.,the cmrent in them will be in opposite directions. hence they repel each other moving farther apart. In parrallel. the currents in them "ill be in the same direction. Hence they will artract each other and come closer.

3.

4.

Intext Question 18.4 Radial magpeti.c field is one in which B remains constant for the plane of the coil 1.

2.

always lies in the" direction ofthe magnetic field. (i) This makes the magnetic field radial. In mICh a magnetic field the plane of the coil is always parallel to the direction ofmagnetic field. (ii) This increases the strength of magnetic field due to the crowding of the magnetic lines offorce through the soft iron core. which in tum increases the sensitivity of the

gIavanometer.
3.
Ammeter has the lowest resistance where as voltmeter has the highest resistance. Using, II = - - I

4.

S+G S=O.3

373

19
MAGNETISM

19.1 INTRODUCfION
There are some materials (fouod in nature or artificially made) whida aaract iron pieces and they have some important uses in our day to day life like, Iarge IJIa8llCI5 are used to lift heavy loads, small magnets are used in instruments such as ammeter, .voItmeters. transformers, motors,loud speakers etc., Magnetic tapes are used in solll1!l recordin&. T.V. recordings, computers etc., very'bigh intensity magnetic fields are being employed in fusion

research.
The phenomenon ofmagnetism was known to Greeks as early as 600 B.C. They fouDd Ihat some stones called magnetite (Fe,O,) attract iron pieces. After the year 1819 wilen Ham
Oersted discovered the relation between magnetism and electric current we c!o not look at magnetism as a separate force. It is one of the effects of electric current.

In this lesson you willieam about the laws of magnetic forces, the bebaviOlD' of the earth like a huge magnet and the various classes of magnetic materials.

19.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to : explain current loop as a magnetic dipole; describe the magnetic field due to a dipole in two dimensions; define the magnetic field and magnatic field liRa; understand the magnetic effect ofelectric current; ~ classify the materials on the basis o/their behaviour in magneticfiekb; describe the behaviour .of a magnetic dipole in a uniform magneticfield.

, ,

19.3 CURRENT LOOP AS A MAGNETIC DJP()LE

YouJmultady llludied tile folIowingequations in 1he lesion IlIl elcctIOiIlatio:s. The electric fielct of a dipole at a far point 0l11he axis of tile dipole is

I;=!. ~
4u" r
If the dipole is placed in a uniform electric field E. It experiences a torquc 1;-=pxE -r=pE sin6

..(19.1)

or

...(19.2)

wbjIe studying the magnetic effects of electric current you have learnt about tile magnetic field B of a circular coil carying current at a point. Situated on the line passing through its centre and nmmaI to its plane is given by

11. 2NU 1\ 11. 2M B=- - - a = -41t xl 41t

....(19.3)

\WereM is the magnetic dipole mOment.

If tbia dipole is ~ in a unifol'l1l magtJetic field B it experiences a torque
't=MxB
.... (19.4)

or /'t I =

IMIID! sine

The symbols in these equations cany the usual meaning. Now you compare the equations (19.1) and (19.2) for electric dipole with theequatioos (\9.3) and (19.4) for current loop. You will observe the similarity between them with the difference that the COlllIUInt in the electric' field equation is _1- while that in magnetic field equation is (J!o) 4~. 41t

The compariSion leads us to the conc:lusions that :

(i)

a CUlTent loop behaves as a magnetic dipole with dipole moment M-NIA

...(19.5)

(ii)

The two poles of a magnetic dipole. being lhe two faces of a currenl loop are

u-pa1'I1bIe.
(iii) A magnetic dipole in a uniform magneticfield behaves Ihe same W<!Y as an electric dipole in a unifOl'lrJ electric field.

(1\1)

A magnetic dipole also has a magnetic field around it similar 10 the electricfield around an electric dipole.

Thus magnetic field due to a magnetic dipole at (a) an axial point is given by

11 2M B= _ . 411 x' and at (b) an equitorial point

...{19.6)

B=~
41t

;
&

...{19.7}

375

19.3.1 Magnets and their Pmperties

Naturalllllipels are wt;ak. but III8Ieriala iron, DiclreI, cobalt may be ~.alal mto stroDgpenilanent magnets. All JD88IIdS-natmal audartificWhave same pr...... 1ics. Some of the properties of magnets are :
(i) Dinetive property: A small bar magnet when suspended freely, OIl i1s CCIIIIe of mass, so as to rotate about a verlical axis always scays in approximately geoantphicaI NorthSouth direction. (li) AJtrtu:tive Property : A magnet attracts small pieces of ferromagnetic materials like iron, nicked, cobalt. The force of at1raction is maximum at two points _ the ends of the magnet. These points are_called as the poles of the magnet. Ina freely 81'Sp"t"1ed magnet. the pole which points towards the geographical north is called is north pole aud the one which points towards the south is called south pole. (iii) Unlike poles of two magnets attract each other aud like poles repel.

(iv) The two poles of a magnet are inseparable, i.e. magnetic poles axist in pairs. (v) The force between tWo magnetic poles obeys inverse squase law.
ml m, ,..(19.8) 4n r where m1 and m, are the SIIenIdw of the two poles aud ris the sepIrItion ben.DOD tbe two poles. II" .. 4n x 10-7 Wb A-I m-I

. I.e.

IFI-Il. -

(vi) Induc:tion preceeds attraction of a piece of iron by a magnet.

(vii) Repulsion is the surest test for disIinguDishina bmv~ a magnet aud a piece of iron.

19.3.2 Magnetic Field Lines

We have already defined the nwgnitlltk auddirectitm:;aO ' magnetic field. A very convenient method to visualize the direction and magnitude of a eld is to draw the field lincs.These

lines point in the direction of the magnetic field tell us about tbe field in tbe following way. I. The direction of magnetic field vector.8 at any point is tbe tangent to tbe fieltlline at that point. 2. The number of field lines that paslitbrough UDit area of a surface held FJIClIdicular to the lines is proportional to the stnmgth of magnetic field in that region. is larger where the field lines are close together and smaller where they are far apart.

S,
FIg. 1'.1: Magnetic Mid lilla ptWing through ...o ptRWI/<d -:fa-

3. The field lines are closed curves. They ~1art from the north pole aodend at north pole itself via south pole.
"376

Fi&.19.1 shows a certain IIUlDbcr of field lilies plssiog tIJrousjJ two parallel surtiIces SI and ~ . The III1"liK:c area of 8 is smaller than and the same IIUlDbcr oflilles pass through both 1 III1"liK:ca !bat of~. Hence, the number of lines per unit area passing through S 1 is greater than !bat through~. We can. therefore, say !bat the magnetic field in the region around A i. stronger than tbat around B.

19.3.3 Eqtiiv8lenee of a M,gnet to Current Carrying Solenoid

The field lines of a bar magnet are shown in Fig. 19.2 (a). along with the field lines of a cwrent loop Fi&. 19.2 (b). -rru; similarity between the two suggests !bat a bar magnet can be thought of as a combined effect of a Iarge number of loops placed side by side closely packed about the same common axis.

(bl
. This 6ilauganeut is equivaIeDt to a Iarge DUIIl\Ierof small magnets ammged along a stIaight line in allJlllllel' shown in Fig. 1!}.3.
1

3.

(a)

(b)

IL-S_ _ N...JI
1
2

N) "..1'-3: (. tr..o plll'rlllol I...,.......,...,"" _ __'. (b) &pdwIImt""" INr _ _ hi to 1M 1IiIW,...,..(t:) "lito ..... __ _deMY peclriIl1l"", 1M _ _ 1M
.
~
g/It ' - .
. ,.."Jt u " IiItgk "'" JIUIgMI.

.~fc)

Is

J77

The north and- sOuth poles of the magnets neutralize each o1ber's efl'ec:t fur aIlJII88IICIS except the two magnets at the two ends. The result is a single bar. magnet IIhown in Fig. 19.3( c). The anangement of close packed loops isequiNaient to'a solenoid, )'UIlhave aImIdy studied in the pervious lesson. We, thus. see that a magnet can also be visulised as alliagnetic dipole. The dipole moment of the magnet being given by .

M=m/
where m

...(19.9)

= pole strength and I = magnetic length of tile magnet.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 19.1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I. 1. You are given a bar magnet. How will youjind 0tII i13 N-jIole end? Three identical rectangular rods are given to you. Rod.A. i.r a bar magnet, rod B i.r of iron and rod C is a non-magnetic material like wood. How will you identi./Y each (lfIe? (Do not consider mosses)
.+ :.

3.

Two identical bar magne13 are given to you. A thread of SO em length i.r the mily additional item available for doing any experiment. How .will)lOll mark the S pole of each magnet? A current ofO.SAflows in a fectangular coil oflength 10cm andbreailth J~ W1rtit will be the pole strength ofa bar magnet oflength JOem which has the:fame inagnetic moment as the coil?

4.

19.4 MAGNETIC FIELD OF mE EARTH

Before we discuss the magnetic properties associated with the earth, we ~certain facts and definitions associated with the earth. We assume tbat the eu1hiS a spbere and it rotates about its own axis which is a diameter of the sphere. One end ofthis.diamCter ill. called the geographical north pole and the other end is called the geographical south pole. Let us assume a,plane normal to this north-south axis, passing thrOugh the center of tile earth. This plane cuts the surface of the spherical earth in a circle. This imaginaty circular line drawn on the sutface of the earth is called the equator. The equatorial plaDe divides the earth into two hemispheres. (i) The northern hemisphere and (ii) The southern hemisphere. Circular lines parallel to the equator are called latitudes measured in terms ofangles 6 ~ reference to equator at 0". The latitudes are north or south. A plaDe plissing through tI:ICl rotation axis of the earth at a given point P on the surface o(theearth is called tile geographical meridilUJ, at the point P. Similarly plaoe passing through the magnetic axis of the earth i.e., the plane which passes through the magni:W: poiesoftlleearthaada point P on the sutface of the earth is called the MLi & _ ' r IldlepoilllP,

eo

eo

178

The directive ptoperty ofmagnets could be possible only if there is another magnet inside the earth whose south pole is located near the geographical north pole. We therefore conclude that the huge earth behaves as if a big bar /llagMt were placed inside it. This symbolic pict\R is IhoWD in Fig. 19.4 below GeoppIW:aJ NG Sa axis of , - MIpetic uis

. ur,

.'

,
Nos..
F/tl.19.4 (.): Mtlg!td/t:fo!J"'- o/d,ulITtir

t ....-

roh.

The south pole of earth'smaganet is near the geIlgtlIpbical Dorth pole and the magnetic north pole is near the geographical soUih pole. RR' is the rotation axis of earth and MM' is the magnetic axis of the earth.

. g~lPds.

Let us perl'oliD a dIought eKperimeiIt (you can actually perform the expepment) with a . magnetic needle or a compass needle. The needle is freely suspended in such a lD8IUler that it can rotate in horizontal as 'Well as vertical plane. If the needle is near the equator on earth's surface it.resta in horizontal plane. Suppose this needle is taken to places in the northern IacmispIIerC. 1'be'1ieCdle rotates in the vertical plane and the north pole dips more aad IIIOI'I! ~ eIirth as we move mote aad JI1OR! towards geographical north pole. Finally at a point very near to Hudson bay inCaniW. the oorth pole of the needle points vertically downwat'd. This place, located in 1832, is consideted to be the south pole of the earth's . m8gnet. This place is abom 2100 kmaway from the earth's geographical north pole. If we take the same magnetiC naedle to plaCes in the southern hemisphete, the soU\h pole of the needle dips downward and points vertically doWnwards at a point 2100 km east of the . geogriIpbical soudL This point conld be considered as the N pole of the _ " Fro",tiJiS ... oorecliule tIuIt I/u! mGpeIk cis of I/u! etirdt doa ,,91 coincide witll the

,.,,,et.

Ibm is ani~ aspeet of earth's magnetic field and it is ~.the earth's tnagIletic field does not remain conStant. its magnitude and<llrection both chaDge with time. Reversal ofthe direction ofthe field has taken place many urnes in the history of earth. This evidence is provided by the stody.ofrocks "Wt!ich came out during volcanic activity. The latest reversaJ is believed to bave~l'faee aboull0,IIOOyears ago. The theory of the earth's magnetic .f1eldis not well understoodinrCD wday.
19.4.1Ele81eats oftbeEarth's Magnetic Field
In dJe last section _ have only qualitatively discussed some parameters of the earth's
magnetic field wbic:h change tiom p~ to place. We now wish, to describe all the parameters which determine the field CIlmpletely at any point pn the surface of the earth. These parameters are commonly known as Elements of the Earth's Magnetic Field. These are <a> inclination (b) declination (c) horizontal component of the earth 5 fiela

379

: Pbysial

(a) Inclination or Dip:

A magnetic needle when freely sll8JlCllded at a place does. not rest in the horizontal pillru:. It will point in the direction of the resultant intensity of the earths field. . Fig.: 19.5 shows the plane PCDE which is the magnetic meridian at the point P on the surface of the earth and PABC is the geographic meridion. PR represents the magnitude and direction of the earth's magnetic field at the point P. PR makes an angle II with the horizontal. direction. This angle II is known as lI.clbrtdlo" or Dip at a place P on the surface of the earth. In the northern hemisphere the N pole of the needle will dip down and in the southern hemisphere the S pole will dip down.
A ~---T~--------~~p

F R

B
,D "".19.5: EI."..",. of_Ir'sI1ltlglWl/l:/Wd
j ,

-:i

The angle which the earth's magnetic field makes with the horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian is called the l1li61# 0/dip or Inri'"?tf .....

(b) Declination : In Fig 19.5 we have shown two vertical planes (i) The plane PABC is the posraphlcaI meridian (ii) the plane PCDE is the magnetic meridian. It i. this pllllC which -ains the magnetic field vector (PR) oftbe earth. The angle between tbepllllCS PCDE IIId PABC it called the declination at the point P. It islhown u angle 9 in the Fig. 19.5.
The angle which the mllDetie maridian at a place makes witb tbe geographical meridian is called the li:IbttIlIIHIat that plaee.

(e) Horizontal Component: It it the horizontal component ofthe earth's IIIIpIIic field in the mallD"'i': mericlim. F1S.19.S shows that PR is tbe I'\lsultant magnetic field at the point P. PH Itpleseutl the borizoatal camponent and PF the vertical component oftbe earth's magnetic field in magnitude IIId direction. Let the magnetic field at the point P be B. The horizontal eomponem
BH - B cosll The vertical component

...(19.10)
.... (19.11)

By" B sin II
I1'H + Bv'

11'
....(19.12)

or

B - "11'H + BV B ___ BH_

cos II
and --Y:tanll
BH

...(19.13)

--

..~------------------------------~~------380

Euapte 19.1 : Tht! earth's magnetic field at a place is 45 pT. The angle of dip is 60". Calculate the WlriOUil parameters. SolrioD: B

= 45

J.I T = 45 x I!T" T

Ii = 60'. hence a '" 30' Bn =B cos Ii =45 x 10"' cos 60

= 45 x! x
2

I!T" T

=22.5 J.I T

Bv

= Bsinli = 45 x

10-6 sin 60

= 45 x

10-<

x.J3

=39J.1T

INTEXT QUESTIONS 19.2_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. 2,

q YO'" make a map ofmagneticfield lines at Melbourne in Awtraliea, wowd the lines

................................................... , ........, ........ .

A bar mop,t i.r held vertically on a drawing board and magneticfield lines are drawn. How many neIltral points will be obtained?
'0

sellm to go into the ground or come ow ofthe ground?

"0

3.

WIle,., wUl IhI va/.. ofangle ofdip be more

in

Delhi o3r in Btil:ing ?

4.

At a certainpl,," horlzanlal compo"'''' ofearth's ~tlcfield" 312 times the vertical compoMnt. What i.r the value ofangl, ofdip at thlplac,.
I

19.! MAGNETISM IN MATTER

You have already studied the ma8lletic effects of electric currents. You have also seen that a coil carryin& cwrent behaves like a masnetic dipole which when freely suspended. always rests In a particular direction. You are also aware that the movement of electrons in a wire constitute an electric current. All solids are made up of atoms and molecules and every atom haa a number of electrons revolving around the nucleus. All this knowledse put tosether suggests that this' misht be the orisin of weak or strong masnetism in certain materials. Based on strength of the masnetic field in matter. we divide material. ~rqadly into threecatesories (i) diamasnetic . (ii) p.,amagnetic.and (iii) the ferromasneticmaterials. We shall discuss some of these points in detail in the cominS part of the lesson.
19.!.~

MaID.tie MOJ]Jeat of Atom

Let IIII1t1rt wid! simple model of an atom. There ia a IJlIIIIive D\ICll_ and electI'OlllI move in cirCu1ar orbitnbout the nucleus. Let R be the radius of the orbit and v the orbital speed of an electron. The time period T of the election to complete one round in the orbit is.

T-~

....(19.14)

3RI

An electron, tblrefore, completes 2 ~ rounds per second. The effective CUII'CIlI: due to Ibis motion of electron is J.

ev J=-2TrR

..(19.'15)
1t R'

The area of the orbit or you can say the area of the current loop, A =
The magnetic moment,

J.l

= fA = e v 1tR' 2TrR

f. vR 2

(19.16)

....(19.17)

where m is the mass of the electron and L is its angular momentum (L = m v ~. The magnetic moment of the electron is (1:' ) times the angular momentum. If we take into account the nature of charge on the electron, then

11'=-(....L)L
2m

.....(l!!.l8)

the magnetic moment vector is always opposite to the angular momentum vector and both vectors are perpendicular to the plane of the orbit as shown in Fig 19;6.
In addition to the orbital motion the electron also has

a spin motion. The spin-motion of the electron also constitutes a magnetic moment which is of the same order of magnitude as orbital magnetic moment.
In an atom we have several electrons, and each electron

has a magnetic moment. The total magnetic moment

ofthe atom is the vector sum oftho: magnetic mommts of all o:lectrons. Lc:t us assume that there ale atoms where the magnetic moment of the electrons are so lI1g 11.6, MagMic M _ ifI1Ir oriented in space that the total sum of all the IWIgIlCtic' momentis zero. Such atoms do not have a IWIgIlCtic' oIllCIroII . moment of their own. However, there can bo: other atoms where the total magnetic moment of all the electrons is not zero. Sucn atoms will have their intrinsic magnetic mommts. We will use these results in later discussions.

19.5.2 Magnetic Properties of Materials

(a) Magnetization: If you take a magnet, youwiH find that it attracts an iron piece '. with some force. If you take another IIIlIgnet you may find that Ibis one attracts the same iron piece with a greater furce. The magnetic scate ofany substanc:o: is descn"bed by a quantity called Magnetization I. It is a vector quantity. Its 1IIIlgIfitude is deftned Q.f tire ~tic moment per unit volume.

IlJ =

Magnetic moment Volume of the substance

..(19.19)

382

Magnetism You havealready studied the magnetic field of solenoid. Let B. be the magnetic field produced by a. solenoid in the core region. This field is because of the current in the solenoid. NowfiU the core with a magnetic substance:. The total field. now. at the same point will be B.

....(19.20)
where B.isthe.field produced by the magnetic substance and can be expressed as
BM =fl I . B

=
B

B. + Il. J

=-+-' I flo Il.

(!.-1=;:=H
or
B-HandH - J.l.,

.... (19.21)

.... (19.22)
It is called the magnetic jieid3trenglh. H and I both are measured in Ampere per meter (AIm).

(b) Magnetic: SUseepdbility: For a large number ofmagnetic materials. the magnetization I is proportional to the magnetic field strength H.
fa H f= X H:

or

I '"/.=H

... (19.23)

Since J and Hba~e the samediinensionsthe quantity Xis dimensionless. It is called msgnetie S~ity" Tile tMgnnhtltioli per lI/Iltjleld stre"gtll is called tile SlISceptibility . Wehave

Il. (H+I)

= 11. (H+xH) =" 1'. (I + X) H

=KH

where K. = I'D (I + X) is called the permeability of the substance. Magnetic substance are .:ategcrizedinto different groups based on the values of X and Km' The various groups are iveD in ~ table 19:1.

.... (19.24)

383

!-'hysics

Table 19.1: Susceptibility and permeability o/magnetic substances.

CltuS

Susceptibility( r)

PennabiIJty (lCj
K", < ". K", > ).I. K", ).I.

Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

<0
>{l

>>0

But no linear relation

between I and H

19.5.3 Paramagnetism
Paramagnetic substances are those substances whose susceptibility is quite small but positive (O<X I). Let us cousider an atom with severaielectrons. Ifthe Vector sum oftbe magnetic moment of all the electrons does not cancel out, then the atom bas a peramanent dipole moment associated with it. The magnetic moment of each atom is randomly oriented in the solid. The solid piece as a whole has no resultant magnetic moment. When we put slich a material in an external field a torque acts on the dipoles and tries to orient them along the direction of the applied field. The temperature ofthe substaw:e prevents complete ordering of the dipoles. There is now a resultant magnetic mOmeDt in the dIrection of the applied 'ield. You can say that '[' hIS, now, a non zero value and the direction of I and Hare parallel. This gives a non zero value of magnetic susceptibility. Experimentally we find that the magnetization I of a paramagnetic substaw:e is directly proportional to the applied field B and inversely proportional to the absolute temperatureT.
/=CT

....(19.25)

This is known as Curi~'11 Law and C is called the ClU'le'. Cotrllllllft. It is understandable why the magnetization decreases with increase oftemperature.The dis,orcfer or random arrangement of dipoles increases with increase of temperature thus decreasing the value of/. The atomic dipole in paramagnetic materials do not interact with each other. One dipole is unaware of the presence ofanother dipole. They are all independent. They intenM:t with.the external field only. Chromium, Magnesium are examplu o/pa1"iIIIKlgMltc IIUbstIInce5. When placed in an external field the paramagnetic material moves towards the regions ofstronpr field. .

19.5.4 Diamagnetism
The atoms of diamagnetic materials do not have a permanent magnetic depole moment. The direction of the induced magnetism is always opposite to the applied field, (lis always opposite to the applied field H). The Susclptlbllity i.r therBj'tJH. alway.rlUlgtltlw. From a microscopic point of view you can appreciate this magnetism with the help orlbe following example. .

384

Let us cousider an orbital of an atom consisting of two electrOns. It consists of electrons With opposite spins. These electrons move with the same orbital speed' in an orbit but in opposite direction, because they have opposite spins The magnetic moment ofODe electron is equal and opposite to the magnetic moment ofthe other electron. HelICe. the total magnetic moment of the atom is zero. Now suppose we apply an external magnetic field B. The

electrons will experience a force (e V < B) in addition to the electrostatic centripetal force. This additional force due to magnetic field will increase the orbital speed of one electron and decrease the orbital speed of the other electron. The magnetic moment is proportional to the orbital speed ( Eqn. 19.16). The magnetic moment of one electrons will become larger than tltst of the other. giving rise to a net magnetic moment of the atom. This is 'induced magnetic moment and is always opposite in direCtion to inducing field. This is the diamagnetic character. You can easily appreciate that such an induced magnetism aUIli.versai property ofali materials. The effect h~ermay be extremely small compered to the permanent magnetic moment present in materials. Bismuth. copper and silver are the examples ofdiamagnetic substances. Diamagnetic mateli.a1s in non-uniform megnetic field move towards the regions of weaker intensity.

is

119.5.5 FerromagnetismFerromagnetic materials When placed even in a weak magnetizing field acquire some what
permanent magnetic dipole moment. The atomic dipoles tend to align parallel to each other

even in a weak extemaJ field. The dipoles are not independent of each other. Any dipole ~ngly feels the presence ofa neighbouring dipole. A correct explanation oflhis interaction can be given only on the basis of quantum meclwli.cs:
r-~r-~~--7r-'~----~

We can qualitatively understand the fetromagnetic

cIIIlacter alooa the followiDa lines.

A feaomapetic substInce contains snWl regions calJed DOMAINS. All magnetic depolet in a domain _ fully .ligned, The magnetization of domalna i. maximum. But the domains are randomly oriented. The total magnetic moment of the sample is zero. When we apply an external magnetic field, the domains slightly rotate and align themselves in the directionpfthe field giving rise to resultant magnetic moment. The procelS can be easily understood with the help of a simple diagram shown in Fig.l9.7.
four domaiDa are equal in si7.e and so directed that the total magnetization of the sample ia '

Fig.19.8 (a) shows four domains. For simplicity we take a two dimensional example. The

zero. F;g.t9.8 (b) shows the state after the application of an external magnetic field. The boJndaries of the domains (DOMAIN WALLS) have moved in such a way tltst the size of the domain having magnetic moment in the direction of the ,field hIS become larger at the cost of others. On increasing the strength of externat field not only the size of favourable domains increases, but the orientation ofthe domain also ch8nges slightly resulting in greater magnetization Fig. 19.8 (c). Under the action of very strong applied field almost the entire

'385

volume behaves like a single d\lmain giving rise to saturated masnetizatjoo. When Ibe external field is removed, the sample retains a net magnetization. The domain in ferromagnetic sampies can be easily _ with Ibe help ofbigh power 1IlierosccIpe. It is DOt a hypotbdicallllOdel. it is a reality. ,

It

(e)

So

- - - - ' - - , So

(II)

FIg. /9.1: FJfot:t o/cxumaI ~fiekJ m d _ ill aftlr_ulit:~

An experimental set up can be arranged to measure the magnerio: IieId B as a function of the applied field B. The field B is created by passing a current in a toroidal coil

The B-H curve is shown in Fig.19.9. At the point the applied field is zero. so is Ibe total field B in the spec.imen. The domains in the specimen are randomly arranged. By increasing B, the field B increases but not linearly as is obvious from the curve. The domains get IIlQ1'e and more aligned with the applied field. The point 'a' coliesponds to the state ofMturatioo when almost all domains are aligned with the field 8:!Ui no change in B takes phK:e even ifB is -increased. The magnetic field B is brought to zero by reducing B slowly IOd RVerSing . the directiOJi ofIbe applied field. You can see from the curve that B does not become zero when B "->mes zero (Point b). The direction of it bas to be r.versed to make' B _ . corresponding to point 'c'. The magnetic field 'ob' is known PIiTJI __' M~. The value oflbe applied field B in reverse B __..,.a direction (oc in the curve) which makes B zero, is kno.wn as coerc;vily of the specimen. A further increase in H in reverse direction takes the specimen to the point 'd' , a saturation point Reducing the value ofB slowly and Chen reversjng the direction again and then increasing B takes the ------I-'-14"-::...}-.-/----...,.H specimen to Ibe point 'a' again.
TIle B-H curve does not retrace its path except for very lmaII values ofB as sbowII (Fig. 19.9), There is always a finite area enclosed within the B-H curve. Such a d behaviour by a ferrotolIgnetic III8IeriaI is known as rrtIIpdlc "~_curve of a
"'" 1"':Jl..HC-.

386'

ferromagnetic SIJbstaoj:e. It can be sOOWn!hat tile area of tile hysteresis curve is the energy required to take tile materia1 through tbe hysteresis cycle (loss of CJIeIBY). The B-H curve of a ferromagnetic substance is vCI)' useful in choosing materia1s for specific purpose. B B

la)

FiK.: 19.1': B-HC16W!ojlwo/ypel ojmdpetif:

. ..

_erial,

(IJ)

A material whose B-H curve is ~ one shown in Fig. 19.10 (_) is suitable for making permanent magnets. Such materials are known as btli'd /erromapetic _itlIs . There lie devices where tbe cunent din:ction is reversed with a fiequencey. A vCI)' common example is trtuu/orme . The core of the tranSformer is of a soft/erro"""M1ic IItIlIDial wbosC B-H curve is VCI)' thin. as ohown in Fig: 19.IO(b). ~ hysteresis loop encloses a smaI1 area indicating smail enough energy loss per cycle.
When tbe temperature of a ferromagnetic substance becomes greater than a certain critical ,alue, tbe substance becomes paramagnetic. This critical temperature is known as CIIrie
~Tc'

Below tbe curie temprature T, tbe substance is fCl1'Olllllflliec and above it becomes paramagnetic. The thermal energy at higher temperatures is large enough to cause randomimtion of dipoles so that tbe substance becomes paramagnetic.
Iron, Nickel. and Cobalt are examples of ferromagnetic ma1erials. There lie some olber materia1s also known eanli-ferro magnetic and fenimagDetic. Their discussion is beyond tbe SCOpe ofthis book.

r;

Table 19.1: Ferromognetic sulMtances and their CIII'k temperotures

~

CIIrie Ullrpa rIIioIIT.,K)

Iron
Nickel

1043
631 1394 317 893

Cobalt Gadolinium , Fe,O,

387

Physics

Example19.2:..4 toroidal solenoid with a mean radius of 20cm and 630 turnI is filled with steel powder whose magnetic SUsCeptibility is 1OO.lfthe current in the winding is 311 Calculate B.
Solution: Ilo

= 4lt x 10-

H=nI=

630x3 =63x3xlOO 2ltx20x 10-' 4 xlt

= 63 x 75 A turns
It

m
J!0 (lx-v)H= 4ltx10- x10lx63x75 ..
It
7 X
7

= K m H=

= 10-

404 x 63 x 75. T

= 191 mT

Example19.3: 1'he smallest value ofmagnetic moment is called the Bohr Magneton 11., eh It is aftmdamental constant. Calculate this Va/lUI. 2n:m Solution: 1-1.

=J!L =
2ltm

1.6 x 10-" x 6.6 xlO'" 2xlt'x9.1 x 10-"

= 9.2

x 10->' Iff

INTEXT QUESTIONS 19.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _--,-_ __

I. Suppose a person proposes a theory that the eurth's magnetic fold is due to the permanent.magnetisation of its moltem iron core. Will you accept this theory? Give reason for your answer. '
,",

.......................... ,'............................ ", .......... .

2. 3.
4,

What type ofmaterial is usedfor making (0) an electromagnet (b) permanentl1lilg1let?

....................................................... f
Give one example each ofa dia, para. ferromagnetic materia~.
The electron in the hydrogen atom is moving with a speed of2.3 x J(I ms-1 in tin orbit ofradious 0.53..4', CalcUlate the magnetic moment ofhydrogen atom.

5.

Give one point ofdifference between dio, para, fema mag1retic sl,lbstance.r.

388,

Magnetism

19.6 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

Magnets may be natural or aruflcal as well as temporory or permanent. Every magnet has two poles. The two poles of a magnets are inseparable. The term magnetic dipole may imply (i) a magnet with dipole moment M = ml (ii) a current carrying coil with dipole moment M = NlA . 2M Magnetic field at the axis of a magnetic dipole is given by B = fl. and on . allin..... -11 M 41t x' the eqUlton e ~J B=-" --,- . 41t r A magnetic dipole behaves the same way in a uniform magnetic field as an electric dipole does in a uniform electric field i.e . it ekperiences no net force but a

torque -c=M xB.

, Earth has a magnetic field which can be completely discribed in terms of three basic quantities called elements of earth's magnetic field. They are : (i) angle of inclination (or angle of dip) (il) angle of declination. (iii) horizontal component of earth field.

On the basis of their behaviour in rruignetic fields. substances may be devided into three broad categeries .
(i) diamagnetic- which are fetbly repelled by magnets such as bismith. copper, silver. (il) jIIII'IIIlI8gIIc-which are feebly attracted by magnets such as charomiwn, magnesium. (iii) fi;rromagnetic -which are strpngIy attracted by magnets such as iron, nickel, cobalt.

Acwrding to Curie Law the intensity of magnetisation of a substance Where C = Curie Constant; T= temperature of
I =

fd!.
T

the substance at kelving scale; and B= net magnetic field in the substance.

Magnetic behaviour of substances may be explained in terms of magnetic moments developed in atoms due to motion of electrons.

The quantities used to describe magnetic behaviour of a substance are : susceptibility. permeability and magnetisation.

.19.7TERMINALQUESTIONS._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
I.
A small piece of the material is brought near a magnet. Complete the following by filling up the blanks by writing Yes or No.

Materilll
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic FCITOmagnetic 2.. You have
0

Reptdsion

Attraction
weak strong

keep two identical bar magnets packed together in a box. How will you

pack and why? ,--_ __,_--.., .1

OR

~I
38!1

Pbysic:s 3. The magnetic force between two poles is 80 units. The separatiOn between 1be poica is doubled. What is the force between them? The lUlJ!le of inclination is 40" at some place in northern hemisphere. Ifyan move to a ' place farther away from equator. How will the value of aogIe of inclination cl.nge. The length of a bat magnet is 10 cm and the area of ciOss-section is 1.0 em'. The magnetizatioo I = 10' Nm. Calculate the pole strength. Two identical bat magnets are placed 00 the same line end to end with north pole facing north pole. Draw the lines offorce. No otber field is present. The points, where the magnetic lieId.ofa magnet is equal and opposite to the horizantal component of magnetic field of the eartfi, are called neutral points (a) Locate the nellttal points when the bat magnet is placed in IIllIgnetic meridian with north pole pointing north. (b) Locate the neutral points when a bar magnet is placed in magnetic meridian with north pole pointing south. If a bar magnet oflength 10 cm is cut into two equal pieces eadl oflength 5 _ then what iS'the pole strength of the new bat magnet compare to that of the old one. A!O cm long bat magnet has pole strength 10 A.m. Find the magnetic field ata point on the axis at a distance ofJO em ftomthe center of the bar magnet.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Intext Questions 19.1
I.
Suspend the magnet with a thread, attaching the tbreadto its centre ofmass. Let is stay in equilibrium. The end of the magnet which points towards geographical north is its north - pole end.

2.

Bring the ends of any two bars closer together. If1here is auractiQII between 1hem one of the bar is a magnet the other a ferromeagnetic material. Now lay down one of these bars on the table and stroke along its length with the 0Iher ifuniform is c.Kpetienced then the bat in band is a magnet and that on the table is made offerromagnetic mateial. .

mree

If non-uniform force is experienced reverse is the case. In case there is no at1raction between two bars the third one is a magnet. The bar which is attracted by magnet is ferromagnetic, the one which is not atracted at all is non magnetic. 3. Suspendingbne ofthe batmagncts with thread we can lind its south pole. Then the end of the second magnet which is repeued by the first is the south pole ofi!.

4.

U=ml-+.5x.2x.l=mx.l

-+ m =0.10 Am.

390

Magnetisn.

lnrext Questions 19.2

I.

The field lines will come out of the ground as the magnetic northpole of earths field is close to that place and field lines emerge out of north pole. Only one central point wil(be obtained.

2. 3.

In Beijing. because, it is closure to the pole.

4.

B=B !, 2 ~

Bcos8=--Bsin8

. .. 8

= tan-I

k ..J3

Intext Questions 19.3

1.
No. Because. the curie poinl lor iron is 77('/C and the temperature al the core being much higher than this the molten iron there can not retain magnetism. (a) Soft iron or any other material having low retentivity and high penneability. (b) Carbon - Steel or any other material having high retentivity and high penneability. Example of diamagnetic material paramagnetic material ferromagnetic material - Silver

2.

3.

-Chromium -Iron

4.

M=I A =I1e.1t r- =--1t r- = - 21tr 2

to

ver

2.3 x 10 x \.6 x \0

--Iq

x.53 x 10

_ttl

391

20
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENTS

21U INTRODUCTION
Now-a-days you can illuminate a dark room instantly by merely turning on a switch. Have you wondered what makes this possible? To find an answer to this question we suggest that you follow the wires connected to the switches. Where do they lead? To transmission lines outside your homes. at the end of which you will find an electric generator situated in a Rydro or thermal power plant. At many places between your homes and these generators. there are several substations containing transformers. Both these devices. the electric generator and transformer are essential for large scale generation and distribution ofelectrical power today. Both these are based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic indllClion. It was discovered independently by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry: more than 250 years ago.

In this lesson we shall discuss electromagnetic induction and the laws governing it, namely. Faraday's law and Lem's law. This phenomenon may, in a sense, be called the electric effect of changing magnetic fields. We shall study some consequences of this phenomenon. In particular, the inductance of coils and a.c. circuits along with some of their applications. In the next lesson you will study about generators and transformers which form the cornerStone of electrical power generation and its transmission.

20.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to: state and explain Faraday's law ofelectromagnetic induction; apply Lenz's law and explain conservation of energy on the basis ofLen::'s law; explain the phenomena of self-inductance and mutual inductance and distinguish between them; discuss applications ofeiectromagnetic induction; define alternating current and voltage. their peak and rms values. and represent them graphically; derive the relationship between voltage and current in a.c. circuits containing resistallce: capacitance. inductance ani), and in an LCR circuit; derive expression for powf!rdissipated in a.c.circuits and define power factor alld discuss applications ofa.c. circuits.

Elec:tromagDetic Induction and Alternating CWTeIlIS .

20.3 ELECI'ROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Since a steady c:uiTent in a wire produces a steady magnetic field, Faraday initially (and mistakeoly) thought that a steady magnetic field could produce a current. Some of Faraday's investigations on .8 magnetically ipduced currents used an arrangement similar to that shown in Fig.20.1. A current in the coil on the left produces a magOetic field concentrated in the . iron ring. The coil on' the right is connected to a galvanometer G, which indicates the presence of any induced current in that circuit. There is no induced current for a steady magnetic field. But an induc~ FIg. :l1J.I: Two coil. are w,appe4 current does appear for a moment in the circuit on the armord an iron ring. 'I7re ga/vanOfMler right when switch S is closed in the circuit on the G deflects for a' moment when the left. When switch S is opened, an induced current with switch is openJ or clmed. the oppIlsite sense appears for a moment.; Thus. the induced current exists only when the magnetic field, due to the current in thC: circuit on the left, is cIt/lllflllg.
G
G

FIg.1I.]: (a).4 _

Is iNhlcllli in lire co/I ifllre m~ .._Iowanls tiro coil; (b) tiro iNhlcI1Ii_ has lire opposite . _ . iflM mOgMI ....... awayfrom Ihe coil.

The importance of a change is also demonstrated by the arrangement shown in Fig. 20.2. If the magnet is st rest relative to the coil. then no induced current exists. But if the magnet is moved toward the coil. then a current is induced with a sense as indicated in Fig. 20.2a. If the magnet is moved away from the coil, then a current is induced with the opposite sense, as shown in Fig. 20.2b. Notice that in either case the magnetic field is cbanging in the neigbbourhood of tile coil. An induced current also exists in the coil if it is moved relative to the magoet.

The presence of such currents in a circuit implies the existence of an indued electrorruJrlve /oroe(emj)
That is, energy must be supplied to the charge carriers' that make up the current. You know that an emf is the energy per unit charge given to a charge carrier that travels JIlQImd the ci';''lit. This iIuIuced emf is present wlren tire ItUllfnetic field is clrtmgillg, as described above.

193

Physics

This phenomenon of a changing magnetic field inducing an emf or an electric field is termed electromagnetic induction. It was a mark of Faraday's genius that he recognised the significance ofhis discovery and fullowed itop. He also gave the quantitative deScription of this phenomenon. We now know it as Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. Let us learn about it.

20.3.1 Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction

The relationship between the changing magnetic field and the induced enif is expressed in terms of the magnetic flux +B for a surface. You will now ask: What is magnetic flux? Let us first define the magnetic flux of the magnetic field for a surface. Imagine dividing a mathematical surface into infinitesimal area elements. The direction of an area element dS at a point on the surface is perpendicular to the surface at that point. A typical element for a surface is shown in Fig. 20.3a, along with the magnetic field B at a point. The magnetic nux 11+. for the area element dS is defined as

+.

(a)

(b)

Flg.ZO.3 (a)The magnetic flux for an infinitesimal area dS is

gWen by ci+. ~ B. dS: (b) The magnetic flu for a nuface is

propOl'flonai to the nllllther ';Iines interucting the nuface.

d+.=B.dS

.....(20.la)

The magnetic flux for a general surface is obtained by integrating (summing) the contributions 11+. as the area element dS ranges over the surface. Thus.

+. =

B.dS

..(20.lb)

The magnetic flUX over the surface for a surface is the surface integral of the magnetic field.
The SI unit of magnetic nux is the weber(Wb). with 1 Wb = 1 T.m'.

The magnetic nux fur a surface can be iDteipieted in tams ofthe ~ lines that leplesent the distribution of the magnetic field in space. In analogy with electric lines and as suggested in Fig. 20.3b, the number of magnetic lines intersecting a surface i$ proportioDa! to the
magnetic nux for the surface. Now for simplicity. let us consider a fine loop ofconducting wire and an open, I;IIIIIhematicaJ surface bounded by the loop such as the one shown in Fig. 20.4. The I11118Detic nux fur a surface bounded by the loop is given by the surface integral
~= SB.dS

Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating CumnlS :

where d+" = B .dS =B 118 cos 9 is the flux for the surface element 118. The magnetic flux is said to IiDk the loop.

+.

A changing magnetic flux linking a loop and the indw:edemfin the loop are related by Farodtzy's 14w:
An emf is intIuced in a loop of wire whe,. the magnetic fluxfor a swf~e bounded by the loop changes in time. The induced emfis given by,

Fig. 20.4: A cont!uctingl00p farms lhe boundary ofa surface

dt The emf "depends on the rate of change of the magnetic flux with time. From Faraday's law, we obtain the relation betweeB the weber (Wb), the unit ofmagnetic flux. and the volt (V).theunitofemf: IV=IWbls.
Notice the negative sign in Faraday's law. You willieam about its iD!portance in the next sub-sec:tion on Lenz's law. This psrti~ular mathematical form of the law (Eq.20.2a) was developed long after Faraday's work, but the law is named after him because he made the

dA, e=--

....(20.2a)

key discovery and I've the quantitative re1atioDabip.

Now consider the induced emf in a cloaely wound coil. Each tum in such a coil behaves approximately aa a single loop, ami we can apply Faraday's law to determine the emfinduced in each turD. Since the turns are. in aeries, the total induced emfBr in a coil is the swu of the emfi induced in each turD. We suppoae that the coil is so closely wound that the magnetic flux linking a tum of the coil at a givOll instant baa the aame value for each tum. Then the same emfs ia induced in each tum., 0Ild the total induced emffor a coil with N turns is given by Bra He - H ( d;a) __ N d;' ...(20.2b) dt dt
wbIre ;'1s the masnetic flux linking to a single tum (or loop) in the coil.

The maptic flux linking a loop or tum of a coil in Eq. (20.21) is the flux of the total maptic field for Ii surface bounded by the loop. There is a contribution to the magnetic flux for loop due to the loop's own current in addition to the contribution due to an external aource, such aa a I!IIIIIDCI. or the current in another circult. You will read about it in the next aec:tion. In dIis leetion, we shall always aaaume that loops or coils are part of a circuit with Wae reallIIMce SO that the induced current is sznall. Then the flux contribution due to the lilii8ii. Indllced current is aaawned to be nesliiJ.ble compared with the flux due to the other SOUI,'ICeII Thus, we sha1l neslect the effect oftho induced current in determining the magnitude of the indl",M em
Let us DOW apply Faraday's law \0 some concrete situations :

Eumple 20.1: 'I'M axis 0/ a 7jllUn circular coil of radius 35 mm is paraiielto a

IpatIaIly lmiform lffIIIPIeticft.ld. 'I'M lffIIIPIitude ofthe fteld chDnges at a constant ratefrom

19S

25 to 50 mT in 250 ma. Determine the magnitUde o/induced em/in the coil during tlda time interval.
Solution: Since the magnetic field is spatially uniform IDd parallel to the axis ofthe coil, the flux linking each tum is given by
+.=B1tR'

where R is the radius ofa turn. FromEq. (20.2b)!be induced emf in the coil is
a.=-N--=-N dt dt

ci+.

d(BnR')

=-NnJ(l--

dB

dt

The magnitude of the magnetic field changes at a CODStaDt rate given by

-

dB

dt

=,

0.050 T - 0.025 T 0.25 s

.. 0.10T/s

The magnitude of the emf induced inthe coil is then

"r" 7S n (0.035 mf (0..10 TIs)" 0.030 V" 30 mV

This example explains the concept of emf induced by time cMngiq mqaetic: field.

20.5a and 20.5b) . .4 ttme-dependent current in the wire wlridiRg mate8 a time-dependent magnetfcjield B(t} =B 8in 21rvt. Here B0 II con.rtant, and eqllQ/to 1.2 T. 'J7JetjrKmlityv II. . . , the./requ,ney o/the magneticjield. IJ'tth v - '0 Hz and the ring rulltance R - 1.0/2 Calculate the and the current (1) Induced in a ring o/radill8 r concentrlf lflth tM
o/the solenoid.

Example 20.2 :Conrider a long 80knold with a CI'088-&ectiOllQ/ ana of 8 t:ttt' (Figs.

e""

axil '

] ({
(e)

Ring

FIg. 11J.S: (a) A 1000g .o1."oiI/ IIIfIi II

(b) So/."oid fl!td cOlfCOlfll'ic rlIrg : (l ~ Yi....

c_
,

e..=O

riIIg 0III8IU tIttJ.oIMoid.

Solution : The JD8&Mtic flux is equal to

B.sin 21M . .4 d IlIB IDdso E = - =-2 1111.4 BcoS 21M dt
z

+.

.. - 2n. 50 s'.8 x 10'4 m~(1.2

=- 0.250 cos 21111tV

n .cos 21M

The current in the ring is 1= sill. Tbcrefon:,

--

~.------------------------------------------------------------

ElectromagDetic Induclion and A1taDllliag Cumms

- 0.25 cos 2,n,t V /=----

=- 0,25 cos 27tVt A

The induced current oscillates with frequency 50 Hz and bas an amplitude ofO.25m A. This example explains the conecpt of electromagnetic induction by a time dependent field. You may like to Po a few exercises before you study further.

1.0

INTEXT QUESTIONS 20.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _---.:_ __ 1. A. 1000 turn coil has a radius of 5 cm. What emf i3 developed acr03S the coil if the
magnetic field through the coil i3 reducedfrom lOT to 0 in (a) 1 s (b) 1 ~ ? 2.

The magnetic jIlJX linking each loop of a 250-tum coil is given by the expression =.'1.lhnJ:VbandD =15 ml'Ybls' are constants. (aj Show thoJ the mapihlde ofthe induced emfitt-the coil i3 giwn by G = (2ND)t. (b) Evaluate the flllX linking each turn attG= 0.0,1.0,2.0, and .'1.03. (c) EvalllQle the inducedellifin the coil at each ofthue iNtants.
'8(t) =A. +Dt', WhereA.

.. .... . .... . .. . . . . .. .. .. .. ......................................... .

.'1.

The perpe1Ullt:ular to the pllme of a condIIt:ting loop main a'./h.ed angle 9with a IpatkJ/1y lI1Iiform magneticfi,ld. /ftlN loop has area S and the mapihlde ofthe field changes at a rau dBIdl, show that the map/hide of tIN induced emf in tIN loop i3 . giNn by G-I (dBIdl) S COl 91. For what or/entation (8) ofthe loop i3 ~ amm:imum? and a ml1ltmum?

.................................................................
Leu's Law

20~3.2

Let us look again at Faraday's law. Why is die minus sign there ? What are its implications?

To answertlJese questi~ consider a bat magnet approaching a CODducting ring (Fig. 20.6a). To apply Faraday's law to this system we first chOOIC a positive direction around the ring. Let us take the direction from z to x as positive. (Either choice is fine, as long as we are consistent) For our choice the positive normal for the area of the ring is in the Y- direction and the magnetic flux is negative. As the distance between the conducting ring and the Npole ofthe bar magnet decreases, more and more field lines go through the ring, making the flux more and more negative. Thus d+"Jdt is negative. By Faraday's law Gis positive relative to our chosen direction. The current I is ditected as shown.

v ....... ~_z
(a)

(b)

, . .1IIt6: (4lA '-1IIqIIIII "'" ...J.... " NId'" (b) IN mngtIIIIiefiMd QjIN Induc.i....- qJfH1IIfIS the "'" iMMog ' - ma,pot

The cmrent induced in the ring creates an induced secolldary magnetic field that is opposite to the orijjnal field inSide the ring. This induced magnetic field is similar in form to the

397

: Physics

field of a second bar magnet, shown dotted in Fig. 20.6b. This induced magnetic field repels the incoming magnetic field. This opposition is a consequence of the minus sign in Faraday's law, and is formalized as Lenz's law. Wiell /I CIII7'ent is bubicedill /I C01UhIctDr, Me directioll ofMe clII7'ent wlll be "lICh tlrat tlJe clII7'ent'" ",..,.,nk eff- 0J1P06e tlJe eIItlIIg. tIuIt iIUbM:etIlt. The key word in this statement is opptJ:Je- it tells us that we are not going to get something for nothing. When the bar magnet is pushed toward the ring. the current induced in the ring creates a magnetic field that opposes the change in flux. The magnetic field produced by the induced current repels the incoming magnet Ifwe push the magnet toward the ring, we must do work on the magnet to move it inward. The work ~ do shows up as electrical energy in the ring. Lenz's law thus follows from the law of conservation of energy. Suppvse that Faraday's law did not have the minJJS siga. Then the current in the ring would be in the reverse direction. And the magnetic field produced by the induced current would

reinfOf'ce the originsl field Thus d+,.Idt would incrcQe, ~ the lnclt,ced emf and hence the induced current. The magnetic field of the induced current wuuld attract the incoming magnet. Thus, the magnet would do mechanical work and we would get electric current in the conducting ring. In effect we would have CIeated energy out of nothing violating the law of COIIArVItion ofeneraY. Hov.wver, the wnrld does no(work in this way. Lenz's law tells us tharifwe wint to set electrical energy out ofthia 1)'SIem, we will have to do work. FlI'IIday's law will have. minus siga.

As an application of Lem:'s law, consider the coil in EXlmp1e 20.l.Suppoee its axis is vertical and the magnetic field is directed vertically upward. T~ oblerVer located directly above the coil, what is the __ of the induced emf? It is clockwise becsuse ou1y then the maSnctic field due to It (directed downward by the ~haD(hule) will oppose the cbqina magnetic flux. You lIhouid set familiar with Lem:'. law before IItUdyiq further. 'fly the
following exercises.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.1_ _ _ _ _- - - - - 1.

TIre bar magnel ill FIg.20.7 movu to tIN right. What II 1M ,.",_ 0111. tndIIcMcrrrrmt /71 the ltatitJnary loop A? In loop B?
A crOllI.cl/on 011111 Id.al 801.nold '"

2.

,hown In F/g 20.8. The mapltllde olth. 8pat/ally II1Iljorm'jl,ld II iIIcrflQlIng /""Ide th, 801,nold and B 0 out8ld. the lol,no/d. /71 which oltM cONJ1ucting 1001" 18 ther. an Induc,d c"wr,nt? What '" the """, of'ilCh current?

.... , ............................ .

3.

~ -.-------~==---------398

A bar ",.,.,t, al/gMdwlth I", /ZIt1l along tM /ZIt'" 01 a eDPf1'/' ring. '" mowd along I", l.ngth toWanJ 1M ring. b there QIf ...brd current ill the ring ? /8 there QIf induced ,11CIrlc~ld In the ring? b "",.. mapnetic force on die bar JIIIIIIIl'l BxplIin.
0 0 0'0 0

0"

E1ec1rOmagnetic Induction and A1ten1111iD& CurraIIs One of the applications of Faraday's Law is to determine the behaviour of simple circuit elementS in circuits with currents that change. An induced emf can appear in a circuit element called an induetor which possesses an indlldlUU:e. An inductor can store magnetic energy. R,ecall that the concepts of resistance and capacitance help us to evaluate energy conversion and energy storage in electrical circuits. The concept of inductance helps u.< to evaluate the amown of magnetic energy sotred by a solenoid. Let us stody more about the phenomenon.

20.4 INDUCTANCE
When a current changes in a circuit, a changing magnetic field is produced around it. If a part of this field passes through the circuit itself then an emf is induced in it. Now suppose there is another circuit in the neighbourhood ofthis circuit. Then the magnetic field through that circuit changes. inducing an emf in it. Thtis, induced emfs can appear in circuits in two ways: i) by changing the magnetic field linked to a coil. an induced emf appears in that coilthis property is calied self-inductance of the coil. ii) for a pair of coils situated near so that the flux associated with one coil passes throllgb the other. a changing current in one coil induces an'emfin tI1e other. In this case we speak of IIJIIIlIIll-lnduclance of the coil.

20.4.1 Self-Inductance
Let us consider a loop of a conducting material. The loop contains an electric current. The current produces a magetic field. B. The magnetic field gives rise to a magnetic flux. The total magnetic flux linking the loop is

In the absence of any external source of magnetic flux (for example. an acljacent coil carrying a current). the Biot-Savart's law requires that the magetic field be proportional to the current in the loop. Therefore the flux threading the loop is also proportional to the current (I) in the loop ....(20.3) l

The proportionality constant between magnetic flux and current is called the self-btductance ofth!\loop. Self-inductance is given the symbol L. and is defined by

,+=Ll ,

.... (20.4)

Thus. the current in the loop and the magnetic flux threading the loop are related by the property of self-inductance of the loop. Now. the loop might be an intricate connection of components in an integrated electronic circuit or it might be a carefully engineered coil of wire. Self-inductance can exist in wires. electrical transmission lines. and arbitrarily shaped loops. For example. self-inductance is a very important characteristic of a coaxial transmission line. However, we are usually interested in circuit elements that are disigned to exploit inductive effects. Such circuit elements ire called Indllctors and generally are coils of wire of varied shapes and sizes. The symbol for an Inductor is . ..f"l)~OOO\o If the coil is around an iron core so as to enhance its magnetic effect. it is symbolized by

(al Faraday's Law in Terms of Self-Inductance: So far you have studied that if the current in a loop is changed, the magenetic flux threading the loop changes. This change in magnetic flux is accompained by an induced emf in the loop, called a self-induced emf. At any moment the current in the loop is detennined by both the self-induced emf and the potential difference created by the imposed ertlf(a baltety, for example) between the ends ofloop. In acCordance with Lenz's law, the'self-inducedemfin this case (closing the switch) opposes the change that produces it. For self-induced emfs in a drc6lt, let us now obtain a form of Faraday's law relating the induced emf to the rate of change of current. We begin by difIerentating Eq. (20.4) with respect to time to obtain
=dt
.... .(20.5)

Using Faraday's law ofinduetion, we can replace dcZlldt with the negative of the induced emf (-&) so that
..... (20.6)

According to this equation, the Induced emf is proportional to the time rate of change of current in the loop. This is the form ofFaraday' s law that is applicable to electrical circuits. Note that a constant current, no matter how large, produces zero induced emf, whereas a current r.banging rapidly produces a large induced emf. The units of self-inductance are
units of L

= -,....--:~.,.
volts

units of

units ofdIldt

=----amperes/second
= ohm-second
An ohm-second is called a henry, abbreviated H. For most applications, the henry is a rather large unit. and we often use the more convenient units millihenry, mH (10"' H). and microhenry ~ (l~H) instead.

This induced emf is also called the back emf. Eq. (20.6), tells us that the back e"lf ill an inductor depends on the rate of change of the inductor current and acts to oppose that change ill ClU'1'ellt. Since an infinite emfis impossible, so from Eq. (20.6). an instantaneous change in the inductor current cannot occur. Thus. we can say that. The current through an indlldor cannot change lnstantIIneollSly. You have just studied that the self-inductance of an inductor is a measure of the opposition to the change in current through it. How do we determine the magnitude ofthe self-inductance of an inductor'? . The inductance of an inductor depends on its geometry. In principle, we can calculate Ibe self-inductance of any circuit. but in practice it is difficult unless the geometry is pretiy simple. A solenoid is a device with a simple geometry andis widely .used in electric8I circuits. Let us. therefore. determine the self-inductance of a .solenoid.
~oo

(b) Self-iDduetallee of. Solenoid: Cmuider a long solenoid ofcrou-sectiono/ ana A and length L. which co1lSis13 ofN IIInIs ofwire. To find il3 Inductance we _ t relate the current in the solenoid to the magnetic jlux through it. In previollS 'Iullon you have 118M Ampere's law to determine the mag"etic field ofa long 1I01enoid, which is giwn as
B =J.1,n I
....(20.7a)

where 'I is the number of turns per unit length an I is the current through the solenoid. For our problem 'I =NIL, which gives

I B = Il/V L
The total flux through the N turns of the solenoid is IlJ'{'-A NBSdS=NBdS=NBAL

..(20.7b)

.=

.... (20.8)

Here, we have written R dS = BdS, since the magnetic field of the solenoid is unifurm 8IId perpendicular to the cross-section ofthe Individual turns. The self-inductance !lfthe solenoid is
'. L"

.,

J.1.,N'A
L ....(20.9)

Given tbis information you may like to determine the selfinductance and the baok emf for a typical solenoid to get an idea of their magnitudes.

INTEXTQUESTIONS10.3,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
I. A solenoid 1m long and 20 cm in diameter contains 10,000 turns ofwire. A current of 2.5 Ajlowing in Itia reduced steadily to zero in 1.0ms. What i.r the map/Illde of the back e""ofthe inductor while the CUlTent is being switched off? Take Po = 1.26 )( IfP6Hm ". A certain length (1) of wire folded into two parallel, adjacent strip.r of length I/2 is wound on to a cylindrical i1lSuiator toform a type ofwlre-woundnon-tnductive resistor (Fig. 20.9). Why can this configW'alion be callednonlnductive?
35m V?

2.

.....................................................................
. 3.

What rate of change of current in a 9. 7 mH solenoid produces a self-induced e"" of

As we have said earlier, the back emf in an inductot opposes the change in current and its magnitude depends on how rapidly the current ( changes. Ifwe try to stop current in a very short time, dlldt is very large and a very large back emf appears. This is why switching off inductive devices, such as solenoids, can result in the destruction of delicate electronic devices by induced currents. Having worked out lntext WI,. .WWlntl on Intullllor Question 20.3 (I) you would realise that you have to be extremely cautious in closing switches in FIg. Z(U: Fold! wire wowtd on loa cylindrical circuits containing large inductors. Even in your i""'~Q/or. (a) ",ire bflfonfoldlng; (bj wire.
foldIng. (cj wtnmd wi,.".

401

Physics

day-to-day experience. You may have seen that you often draw a spark when you unplUg an iron. Why does this happen? This is due to electromagnetic induction which tries to keep the current going. even if it has to jump the gap in the circuit. Now. you may wonder what happens when you plug in the iron and put on the switch? This bring us to the role of inductors in circuits. Let us consider the example of an LR circuit to understand this role.

20.4.2 LR Circuits
Suppose that a solenoid is connected to a battery through a switch (Fig. 20.10). Beginning at t = O. when the switch is closed. the battery causes 'charge to move in the circuit. A solenoid L c R has inductance (L) and resistance (R) and each of these influences the .current in the circuit. The inductive and resistive effects ofa solenoid A are shown schematically in Fig.20.1O. The B sYll\bol for inductance( .J 00000 ~ ) is shown '----I in series with the resistance symbol. For S to simplicity we assume that all of the resistance Fig.' 20.111: An jnJl".,",c~ f. /lnJ ......istDnC'C R in the circuit. including the internal resistance tire in seri~s witlr tI bullel')! qt'.mftl" .\\rilch S is of the battery. is represented by R. Similarly. dOled at I ,," L includes the self-inductance ofthe connecting wires. A circuit. such as that seen in Fig. 20: 10, containing resistance and inductance in series is called an LR circuit.
1 - 1- - - - - - /

The role of the inductance in detennining the current in the circuit can be understood qualitatively: As the current i (t) in the circuit increases (from i = 0 lind 1- 0). there is a selfinduced emf & = - L dildl in the' inductance whose sense is opposite to the sense of the increasing current. That is. since the current is increasing. the sense of the induced emf opposes that increase. This opposition to the increase in current prrevents the current from rising abruptly (prevents dildt tiom becoming very large). On the other hand. if the current is changed negligibly (that is. dildt is very small). thert would be little opposition to a change in the current. The net effect ufthe inductance is to moderate between Ihese extremes so that the current changes. but not too abruptly, The instantaneous value of the current depends on the values of L.R and the emf of the battery. E Let us now obtain these results quantitatively. Collsider once again the ciruit in Fig. 20.10 which has a battery (a source of constant emf E.) conne~ted to a risistance R and an inductance L. What current flows in the circuit when we close the switch? Let us analyse this current quantitatively. The total emf in the circuit is the sum of the emf provided by the battery and the back emf of the inductor. Therefore. Ohm's law gives.

e - L

dl
df

=IR

....(20.10)

On solving this equation we can obtain the e)(preSllion for I (I) as given below :

1(/) _ _

B. (l_r RIIl.) R

... .(20.11)

402

Electromagnetic Inductioo and Alternating Currents

Had there been no inductance in the circuit. the current would have jumped immediately to &jR. With an inductance in the circuit. the current rise~ gradually and reaches a stead) state value of&/R as t ~ O. The tiD;le it takes the current to reach about two-thirds of its steady state value is given by VR. which is called the inductive time constant of the circuit. Significant changes in current in an LR circuit cannot occur on time scales much shorter that VR. The plot of the current with time is shown in Fig. 20.11.

I
&jR
t Fig. 20.11 : Current in an LR
eireu;1

You can see that the greater the L is; the larger is the back emf. and the longer it takes the current to build up. Thus. the role of an inductance in electric circuits is somewhat similar to that ofmass in machanical systems. You know that the larger the mass of an object is. the harder it is to change its velocity. In the same way. t!le greater L is in a circuit. the harder it is to change the current in the understanding of these ideas.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.4._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-,-_ _

(1)

A light bulb connected to a ballery and a switch comes to full brightness nearly instantaneously when the switch is closed. However. ifa large inductance is in series with the bulb, several seconds may pass before the bulb achieves full brightness. Explain why. In an LR circuit how 101lg does it take the current to reach half of its steady state value? . In an I.R circuit. the current reaches 36 rnA ill 2.2 ms after the switch is closed. After sometime the current reaches it steady state value of72 rnA. If the resistance in the circuit is 68ll. What is the value of t/;le inductance?

(2)

(3)

lei us now consider the second situation in which the changing current ina circuit induces
a current in an adjacent circuit. This is the phenomenon of mutual induction which gives rise to the proerty of mutual inductance.

20.4.3 Mutual Inductance

When the,current changes in a coil in a circuit, there is a selfcinduced emf in the coil.
&L

=-

L dildt.

As we have seen. the magnetic flux linking each tuin of the coil is due to the magnetic field of the current in that circuit- hence the use of the term "self induced." The magnetic 'field also extends outside the coil and may influence another nearby circuit.

Fig. 10.12 : A changing currenl in each coil inJut:es an em/in Ihe other coil.

403

Physics
Fig. 20.12 shows stationary coils belonging to separate circuits. Each coil carries a current. and these currents and the magnetic field they produce can be changing. Thus the flux linking each tum of coil 2 changes because of the changing current in coil I. Similarly. the flux linking each tum of coil 1 changes because of the changing current in coil 2. These contributions to the flux changes and the corresponding induc~d emfs are in addition to the self-induced contributions. Since induced emfs appear in each coil because of a change in the other coil. the interaction is mutual between the coils. and the effect is called mutlUll

induction.
Consider the induced emf in one of the coils say. coil 2. due to a change in the current i, in' coil l.The flux linking each turn of coil 2 has a contribution due to the magnetic-field contribution B, of coil I. We let the symbol 11>" represent the contribution of the magnetic p,eld of coil 1 to the magnetic flux linking a turn in coil 2. It is this flux that changes when the current i, changes. We assume that the flux linking each of the N, turns is the same. The is called the nllmber offlUX linkages for the coil. If no magnetic material product N] such as iron is around. the /ield contribution B, is proportional to the current i, which produces it (from the Bio-Savar! law). Then both and N, are proportional to i,. We and i, by introducing a constant M". a coefficient of write the linear relation between N,

+"

+"

+"

+"

mutlUll inductance:
..... (20.12) We now apply Faraday's law to detennine the induced emf due to coil I in a turn of coil 2. The induced emf in each tum is E = - d (+,,) I dt, and the total emf &"induced in coil 2 is N ,&
&,

. ,

= -N , dt
di =-M21 - dt

d",

= - -

d d. (N,+,,)=- -(M, I) dt dt' ,

..... (10.13)

Thus. the induced emf &" in coil 2 is proportional to the rate of change of the current di,ldt in coil I. The coefficient M" depends on geometrical factors such as the shapes of the coils, the way they are wound, and their relative separation and orientation. The minus sign is used to determine the sense of the induced emf from Lenz' slaw.

By reversing the roles of the two coils. we can consider the emf 6,] induced iricoillby the changing current i, in coil2.The'humber of flux linkages for coil I is proportional to the currerlt N,'" =M,,i:. where M" is a coefficient determined by the geometry. The induced emf in coil I is given by di, E" =-M" ~ ....(20.14)

i,.

The coefficients M" and M" can be calculated easily for only a few simple arrangements. The values can be generally determined from mea~urements on the circuits. It turns out that the dependence on geometry of M" and M" is also mutual- that is. M" =M". Thus. we can drop the subscripts and let Mrepresent the mutual inductance of the pair. Then the emfs induced in each coil by the changing current in the other are given by
&/1 =,-M ~

di,

, &"

=.- M

dI

di,

....(20.15)

"'14

Electromagnetic Induction and Altemating CluTenIS

This result applies generally to any pair or circuit elements. A' changing current in each element induces an emf in the other element. The mutual inductance depends onl} on the geometry ifno magnetic materials are nearby. The SI unit of mutuBllnductance isthe henry ,(H). the same as the unit of self-inductance.

Example 20.3 : A coil in one circuit is close to another coil in a separate circuit. The
mUlUal inductance ofthe combination is 340 mH During a 15-ms lime interval. the clll'rent in coil 1 changes steadily from. 230 to 57 nul. and the current in coil 2 changes steadi/} from 36 to 16 mAo Determine the em/induced in each coil by the changing clll'rent in the other coil.

So/utipn: During the I5-ms time interval, the currents in the coils change at the constant
rates of

di l

dt

57 mA - 23mA
IS ms

= 2.3

Als

dil
dt

- - - - - =15 ms

16mA-36mA

1.3 Als

FromM. 20.15. the magnitudes of the induced emfs are

E" Ell

=(340 mH) (2.3A1s) =0.77 V =(340 mH) (1.3 A/s) =0.45 V

Remember that the minUs signs in Eq. (6.15) I\,fer to the sense of each induced emf.
YQy should now work out a few problems quickly.

20.5 SOME APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTANCE

One of the most important applications of the phenomenon of mutual inductance is the transformer about which you will study in lesson 21. Some other commonly used devices based on self-inductance are the choke coil and the ignition ~oil. We will discuss about these devices briefly. Inductors can be used in combination with capacitors to produce currents that change direction with time at regular intervals. Such currents are called alternating currents. Let us consider LC circuits which give rise to periodically varying currents.

20.5.1 LC Circuits
Letus examine that behaviour of a circuit containing only a capacitance C and an inductance

. L. jill LC 'cirCuit (Fig. 20.13 ). Ordinary circuits contain resistance. but for simplicity we begin:by discussing an idealized circuit with negligible resistance. Suppose the capacitor
in the circuit of Fig. 20.13 is charged l:!y an external battery and then the battery is taken away. . When the switch is closed.. the capacitor will .begin to discharge through the inductor I. so that at time there will be a current: iii the circuit and a charge q on the capacitor. The charge aod the current are related because the current gives the rate at which charge is transferred from one plate to' the other: i =:t: dq/dt. The choice of plus or minus depends on

,405

Physics

our sign convention for i and q. Suppose we !eli be positive when the current is clockwise and let q be positive when the charge on the upper 1'Iate is positive. With this choieoi. q increases when i is positive: i = dqldt. From Kirchhotrs loop rule, the sum oithe potential differences around the loop is zero:
(V.-V) + (P;,-V.) + (V;,-V) + (Va-V,) = 0

A. V, = V. and V, = V. the potential difference across the inductoris (V. =L(elildt), where the algebraic sign is

A,..'--~-"t-':l----:9 D
L

-P:>

determined by Lenz's law. The induced emf opposes the change that causes it. Therefore, when dildr > 0, V.>V. With our sign convention for q, the potential difference across the capacitor is V, -V, = qlC. Thus, have

+q -<i

we

B .....- - - - - -....
F/g.2O,lJ : .4.. LC circviJ

di q l=-+ =0 ....(20.16a) dr C dq eli . we bave Since i =-'- we have - = d'qMaki' dt' ng this sub" stitution and nHIITIIIlgIDg, dr' dt d'q I -=--q ....(20.i6b) dt' LC This equation bas the same mathematical fonn as the differenlial equation that describes a simple harmonic oscillator (see lesson 22 of book 4). An example of a simple bannonic oscillator is the one-dimensional spring-mass system where frictional forces'are negligible. From our experience with the motion of a simple harmonic osciIIator. we expect that,. the cbarge on the capacitor in the LC circuit varies sinusoidally with time :

q = q. cos (1)/ + ;)
with, (1)

.....(20.17a) ....(20.17b)

. JLC
dt
d

=--

Here, qm is he maximwn charge on the capacitor, (1). is the angular frequency ofthe oscillation, <l> is the phase constant, and (1)/+ +) is the phase. Then the current is given by

,dq
i= dr = or

[qmcos(1)/++)]=-{I).qmsin(1)/++) ....(20.18) .

;=-im sin(1)t+"') 0 'I'

where, i", :(J).qm is the maximwn current. You can veriI)- that Eq. (20.17) isa solutions ofEq. (20.l6b). Notice that ;'varies withtimo with a period 2n. Thus, it is an alternating current. Practicaily every day of oUf lives we use eleccal devices that operate with a1terna1ing current. The list of such devices is long. Fans, lights. radios, TVs, telephones, refrigCrators run on ac. So let us now learn more about alternating currents and voltages.

406

 EJec:IrolD&gnelic Induction aud AJtenuIIiog 0 -

"
i

.-<

1. Consider the Sense ofthe mUlual1y induced emfsAh Fig. 20. J1 according to an observer
rlDcated to the righl oflhe coils. (oj AI an insltintwhen lhe currenl i, is increasing. is the sense ofemf&" clockwise or conlerclockwise ? (b) At an instanl when i2 is decreasing. is the sense of &'J clockwise or counterclockwise?

..................... , ................................. - ............ .

2. Supp03e that one of the coil in Fig.20.12 is rotated so thOt the axes of the coils are perpendicular rather than parallel. Would the mutual inductance remain the some. ilfCrease or deerf!Q3e? Explain.
' ,- ' .
~

. . . . . ',"

.,! . . - - - " .

20.6 ALTERNATING CURRENTS .AND VOLTAGES

When a battery is connected to a resistor. charge flows through the resistor in only one direction. Ifwe want to reverse the directicin ofthe current, we must interchange the battery Connections. If-.WI: could systematically interchange the battery connections. we would
produce a current in the resistor that periodically changes direction. We call such a current an .tIlte? 'IIi", ntrrent

SOIlCC4

Sources of poteJltiaI difference whose polarity changes with time are called alternating The types of alternating potential differences are limited only by our imagination

and ingenuity. and modem electronics exploits a number of different ones. For example. the saw-tooth potential difference shown in Fig. 20.14a is used across the horizontal deflector
plates ofa 1V tube to sweep the electron beam back and forth across the screen. Among the

many mathematical fiutctions that describe alternating potential differences. A cos WI (or equivalendy. A sin WI). is parti.:uiady signifu:ant. Here. A i.!be amplitude. and 00 is the II!IlPIiu: fi:equeJ1cy. &4l A !IIId 00 are CODWlt.for a given physical situation. The angular 6eq1lCAq has the same inlelpnltatioo as in simple hannoluc motion. It is related to the 6equency. v. e~p.ressed ill hertz. tor example. by
00 =

2lt v

The function a sin WI is shown in Fig.20.14 b. In general. alternating voltages and currents

are J1Iathematic~lyexp~ssed ~
....(20.19a) ....(20.19b)
y

Saw tooth wave fi!nn

+Vm

Sine wave form

oH-t+lI+t+--Vm
(a)

o
-V

(b)
Ftg.1I.U (b) Sint~:roiJu' fiuu:tton which could rrpre."enl eilher
valtage or cu1lN!nl .

407

,L.~

 Physi,-=s .

". and 1m are known as the,.. wrt..ofthealtcmatiagwlrqe8llll!:lIIRDL Inllddition. we also define the root mean square values of V 8Dd I as

I' -

~ ~

J2

"

...,(20.20 a)

I. 1=-

""

I!"

.(20.2Ob)

The relation between I'.IIDII I. cIepeuda on the circuit el..... prllllll in the circ:uIt. Let lIS now study AC circuits cxmtainjng (i) a resistor (ii) a caplCitor. IIDII (iii) an iIIducfor ooly.

10.6.1 AC Sou. . Coueeted to. Resistor

Ifwe COl1llCCt a resistor to an ac gmerator as sbown in Fig. 20.1S we establish in the ciIcuit a current that
changes dUcction with time. The il'stantaneous value . of the current js given by the instanlaneous value of the potential difference across the resistor divided by the resistance. V
J=-

n..' XIS: A.nll",_t:tJIfMdfI/

10 II rwiItor.

V.COS fill

or

1=

....(20.21a)

R
The quantitY I'jR lias units of volts per ohm, or amperes. It rqIIc:seuIS the IlIIXimum vaJuc of the current in the circuit. The cUrrent changes direction with time.1IDII so we _ positive and negative values ofthe ClIImII to iepicscnt the t\WJIOSIIi'ble c:umIII diJectioos. Subotj'lJcjns I. the maximwn c~ in the ciIcuit. for YjR in Eq. (20.21a).we have

J = l .. cosmt
220
~

...,(20.21b)
22

.::

25
I(........}

I
..1t

220

22
FIg. :J8.16, A. jpvpIr <if" ami I i/h Ii"",;"" tin:w.

Fig 20.16 Shows the time variation ofthe potential difference between the ends ofa resistor and the current in the resistor. Note that the potential difference and current are in pbase-the peaks and valleys occur at the same time . In India. we have 1'. = 2201' and v =

so Hz. then for R =

10 olnns, we get

V =c 220 cos (2lt SOt) V

220 I""-cos (2K 50t) 10

=22 cos (2K 5Ot) A

11 cycles of J' and I are shown in Fia. 20.16.Boih yand 1Il1'0 proportiODal to cos (2K SOt). Therefore. their peaks and valleys OIlClII" at the _ e time. and we say that they Il1'O in phase. The avlll'llp CWTeIlt is zero over one, two, or any inteanal Dumber of cycles.
The - . . tIUtr-',.". developed in theteliaor i.DOt zero because the iJISII.....nOOIlS power P -PR}a alwaya positive (Fia. 20.17). BecauR P is periodic. we cao dete.rJiIine the IVCJI'IIIC power. P_. by considering a single cycle : '
p.. - (PR).. -R(P).., =RP. (cos'.),.,

....(20.22)

FCII' deIamiDiDg aVCJI'IIIC values, we have

01'

.....(20..23)

Note !bat Ibc same power would be produI:ed by a CODSIBIIl de curredI of 1../ ~ in Ibc resistor. h would also result if we were to COIIIIec:t Ibc ,resisIDr to a potential diffmlK:e
quamities1J'U-IDII J'/.Jl.e called Ibc lUIS

ha.na" ...... constant .. . _, value of

Y.I.J:J.. The

~ 3000I 2000!

II

1\

f\

values oftbc CIIITenI and potential diffaaw:e. ' The term JIIIS is sbDrt ir 1OOt-melllMllJII81'e, which IIIeIl\II "Ibc &qUIft root of Ibc _ value of~sqtaareoflbcqutllJlilyofiDlaest. Forao eIecIrie oudctinlll Indian home wbae ~. = 220\1.; Ibc OIlS value of die JI'*""iaI
M

1000
I

diffia...... 1S "

J' -J'/~-IS6V . . . . . . ill .....,.". .' This is Ibc value gencnlIy quoted ir the poIalIiaI diffiwute. Wouidn', you_ibID dO 80IIJecxadsesID wdaiilaldlbcle i4e1slletaar'l

,...
'

i20 60 40 30 t (sei:Oods) Mg.1I.1', nw _ _ _ q{. _ _ pmNr

INTEXTQUESTIONS10.6,_ _....;......._____ _ _ . - - - - - I. I" ofight bulb connecIed to ,/II QC source tire bultR ~ CIII7'fIIII U U1'O ill eC/Ch c:y,:k ofthe _Itt. Why Is IIOt the Indb oJ!during thue timu of::era CIII?VIt?

twO,..,

.... ...................................................................,

2. An electric iron having u resistance 25D is COIIIUIcted to Q 220 Y. 50 II:. lwnIsehold, outlet. INtermine tire overoge in8tontoItea/lS Cfll'MllIIfIIi tire ,.. cvrrtIIfI ill it. ................. - ............... - ...... - ................ - ............-

_nt.

',--

Let us ~ consillef IIlUc circuit with a capacitor only.

20.6.2 AC Source CODDected to a Capacitor

Fig. 20.18 shows a capacitor connected to an ac generator. We assume that the capacitor has been connected for a sufficiently long time to avoid any transient effect that might take place when the capacitor is first connected to the generator. The instantaneous charge on the capacitor equals the instantaneous potential difference across the capacitor niultiplied by the capacitance (q = Cr). This follows from the defioitipn of capacitance. Thus.

n.,1&I': An tIe _ _"

CdS.

,.r to iI CtIptJCItrlr

q = C I'm cos rot

Relating current and charge byl = dqldt, we have

...(20.24)

J=-roC V sinIDt
In order to compare V and J, let us again take the standard household values

..

.:(20.25)

V = 220V and v =SOHz.

Then,

ro

= 2 It (SO) r&d Is
= 314 radls

and assume that C= 1O-'F. Then

(J)

=314rad1s

V = 220 cos (2lt SOt) V J = - 220 (2 It SO) lit" sin (2ltSOt) =-0.691 sin(2ltSOt)A
Two cyc1esof V and J are'shown in Figure 20.19. '
I

Unlike the situation for a resistor, the cUrrent I and potential cIiflinnce V for a capacitor are lUll in piwe. The

first peak of the current plot occurs one quarter ofa cycle hem the first peak in the potcDtia,l difference plot Hence we say that the capacilll'
current leu capacilll' potential difference by one qllD11er ofa period. One quarrerOCa period WllespoillLs to a phase diff~ of1C/2, or 90". Accordint!IY, we abo say the potential difference 1ags the curreaI by 90"
.Rewriting Eq.(20.25) as

I"
I
I I

0.
0.5

,
,
I I
I

I.-I1IPNOCIi ltitijj 80"

.phase dl'l'etan....

%~

EIcc:uomagndic Induction and Alternating Cumnls

....(20.27) Capacitive l'eacta"..,lsa_ofhow1hc capacitor Iimi1s tbe IU: cumm in the cirouit. lO" It depeudson boIh 1he of1he capaci1ance and the frequency of the generator. The ~ 10' . CQaGi6vereaet.nce ~s if eilher c~ 10" ftequmcy or alpllCiUlnce increases. In \he ~ limit as !be frequency goes to zero, the capacitive reactaDc.e beccmes infinilil. Zero I ()2 frequency fix- the generator implies 1hattbae 101 is a de source, such as a baIteJy. Because no .~ charge 1IdUaIly flows between tbe plates of 'j 10" acapacitor,tbeinfinitecapacitivereactance ~ 1(t"1 for zero frequency in consistent with the I (t"2 '--...L..-.I...-L--l_l.-..I--..l. behaviow- of a capacitor connected to a de 10" 10 1 J()2 lOll 0" 10-' 10" 10' 10' source. Resignee and capacitive reactance Frequency (Hz) are similar in the sense dlat both measure Flf. 6.11: TIN ffllCItmt:. ola coptlCiior (C . I !r 1If'/ limitations to ae eur-rents, but unlike l1li afimcll"" oftire ftwqo.ncy .. ilf Ire":. Not. mlistance, capacitive reaitanCe depends on SCJJl.. fUO logarith",ic. 71,. coptlCitiw rructunCf: the frequency ofthe Be generator. (Fig. 20.20) d _ l1li11.- frequncy ill<"roo..... The concept of capacitive ~tance aII0\lliS us to introduce an equation aoaIogous to the equation 1= VIR involving resistance R.

IlO'

"'at ""

.os""""

1=-

...

VX
c

...(20.28)

The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is the product of the instantaneous capacitor CUITellt and the potential difference.

= VI
= - OlCpt sbl4.t~4.t ..(20.29) 1 =~ - Q) CY-' sin 2QJt

'2

The sign of P deIermiJles \he dim:tion of energy flow with lime. When P is positive, emrgy is beios IlIOn!d in 1he electric field of 1he capacitor. When P is negative, energy is being released by the capacitor. Graphical lepic:aedalioos of V. I. and P are shown in Fig. 20.21 . While both the current and the potential difference vary with angular F"f/r. 6.21 : 1lte ';m."uriuI;oo .~'he poIenlwl di/le'"nce. frequency (I)" the power varies with angular t:urrml, and f/OM'erfOl' a capacilor con"ected If) all ac frequency 2m. The average power is zero. The gmerator . electric energy stored in the capacitor during a charging cycle is complelilly recovered when the capacitor discharges. On the average, then.fIMn is no energy stoJed or lost in the capacitor in a cycle.

-------------------------'---40-------------------------

Ex .,.. U: "'I(J1)...pF a .. TIM'

amplitude 0/220 V. 1M,. in series with tM capacitor.

.111. if'" "" crill MI, _

'
1

"_iMC_

trUI$O-Ib at: SWiM. pirIk did by an ""., tIC _ t e l ' CfIIJIItJCItId

'lII0I',..,,..

Solutio. : At this fIeq\JeIII;y.1be capamtive _Iiiiiu of tile capecitcr is

X =_=
<

roC

' = 31.80 2. (SO) ~ lOOx 10""F s

U ..........

Assuming that tile 1IIDJIIeter .... 1IO effiictOlltbe'ewrent JIIO instantaneous cumnt in tbe capecitor.
-y
220

_have fir1le

'

1 = - COS t i N = - - costiN

Xc

31.8

- - 6.92 Cos tiN A

The rIDS current is.
1""5za~

1m

-?2
-4.91 A

6.92

Now II')! the following exen:iles

INTEXTQUESTIONS6.'_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
1. Use your knowldge

0/ how a copacilor /uItclloM to uplain wily tlw

_ f i t ill a

capacitOr-ac-pMl"fllor circuit incretuu III tlw CllfKlCltatu:. ~.

2.

Acapacitor is ClJfrMcttd to anllC gearator ItaviIIg ajbudJak Val,. (Y.) hilt _iobl,
freQIltlllC)1.

................................................................... .
In temu 0/tbe ~r III which a copocItor c/iargel and dlscltargu. wily expect"" CIIII .htto ~'" III tireftwqllillfCJl~?'

wouldyou
<

.......... t '.' .................. ;,

~

3. WIry would you cpect "" ... "Ie J1OWffI' delfNrwd to a ctlfJGCltor by_ tIC ,.",rrtIUr toM~'ro? '

~

'!

4. Wlrydo capacitative nact_ beco_,1NIl1 IIIIrJgIt-/Nqwr;cycimdl6.liICItlll. ilia TY"t?

Finally let 111 dilCUSS an Ie cll'l\uit c:omainins an illductor 0DIy.

,.--'

---------""':4~12:::--------------

20.6.3 AC Source, Coaaected to ladaetor

We consider next an ideal (zero-resistanl:e) inductur

connected to lUI ac generator. (Fig. 20.22). Calling J'the poteDIial dilfmencc &mISS the induc:tor. we can write :
dI dt

V~OL
".. 2&12 : An ilJdOClor C61fttled
10

on tIC SOIIr'Cf!.

J'-L-="

COSOlt

....(20.30)

Integration ofEq. (20.30) results in

I =~ sin UK + QOOSIant DJL

"

...(20.3la)

The WIIIIIItJt (ofintqp'alion) IeptCSClltS a circuit CUITCIIt not depcmdiDg on time. Because thin is oaIy 111 ac fIO\II\\e. there is no time-independe.nt CIll'mlt. Hence. the constant of inleption.is.., and we have
...(20.3Ib)

To COUIpIl'C Y IUd /let us tske If. 220V and OF 2l1('O)ndls. and assume that L -1 H.
K

I' - 220 cos (21t SOt) V

1- -

220 sin (111:,01) - 0.701 lin (2ltSOf) A lit. SO

Two cycla oCY111411l'01bown in Fi&- 20.23 1'be inductorCl11'mll and potential difference _ DOt in pbIIe. JnsIeiIcI, die peaks and valleys of cummt and potential difference occur at diffenat Ii-. The tint peak in 1he potential difference plot occurs one-quarter I:)'clc before the tint peak in the CI11'mlI plot. We say thal the inductor current lags the inductor potential cIiffermce by 7fI2 rad (or 90'). This is MIat we would expect &om Lenz's law. Another wtI)' of seem, this is to rewrite Eq. (20.31 b) as

DeclO.. Y~ I'.cos,... tbe- lrI2 pbasedifference for 1 _ thalllags I'by 7fI2. This is in eoa\rUt to the current in a capacitor. which leads the potential difference. For (lII inductor.
1M _ l i t I., 1M poUllttlll dJjforellC#.

'4J~

: PhysICS

The quantity flJl in Eq. (20.3 J.Ill~ Ul)its of resistance and is called the
ilfdllCtitle re4Cllllfct!, symbolized l!Y , 1 ' XL"

,I

"IO

"j

12
I
,

',Ji;

l!

...(20.32)

, !>' -2ZOC I
-+

As with capacitive reactance.xc inductive reactance. XL' has units of ohms. Indllctive re.ct.nce is a measure of how the inductor limits the ac current iii the circuit. It depends on both the size ofthe inductance and the frequency of the generator. Inductive reactance increases if either frequency or inductance increases. This is just the opposite ofcapacitive reactance. In the Iimi! as the frequency goes to zero. the in inductive reactance goes to the same limit. capacitive reactance becomes infinite (see Table 20.11). Because Inductive effects vanish for a dc source sud! as a battery. UTO Inductive reactance for zero frequency is consistent with the behaviour of an inductor connected to a de source.

II+-

I !
-~

0.7

4cycle. repn:senbng a 90" ~ 'difference

,f", (setonds) .

2s

'

I (secoods) 0 f-I-I-'I-_,';"_-..-'

-0.7

Ff6,111.11 : n.. Ii"", voriaIion of lhe polenliQ/ diff~ bOlW.."" III. emb qf an illduclor and, III. """"" in I/lf InftcJor. Nol. t1roJ lhe poIIItIiaI ..VjfeI.uiC4l1111i _ tIN

... "~hepMlri"IIN_I1Ccrii7_ ~..cp. a.fler lhe cOI.osponding piIIen/iQI ~ ~ , 10'

zero.

IIf.
10-1 10'"
Ht'
10....

10'" 10'" ~~~~~~~~~~~ H). 10' 10> '10' 10' 10' 10' 10' 10'

Frequency (Hz) "'1U! : n,. ~ oftii' 1IttIwt" (L - ]12. pH) tM a/lllH:liOif oftheftwqwricy ___.
m Iwtz.
N_ """ lIN 8Ct1I# 1ft /i;grtrllJwlr1t:. 7IN: i1rtIoc_
~bIc,..._.frwp

Table 10.1
Rt!tldJllfce

.. :y.t""
,

1'.

JAw-Frqwm:y
limit
R
~

Hip-~

limit

Resistor

X=R

"

Il
0

Capacitor

I X=-

cae

00

Inductor

XL =wL

co

.-

-----------------------------~~4f.74.'--

..~"~'~"".~;--__

J . . .N.~,~,.'

__~i."_a:~:~,,,_-.

] = YlR involving resistance R.

I
'!"

The ooncept ofindactiw~.lIlIows usto.iDtroduce aD induetoraaaloa tolbecqulllion

=-=X
L

..(20.33)

The instantaneous power delivered to the inductor is

p= Yl

=....!.. sin (Qf cos {IX = --rot

V'

Y'

2wL

sin 2 (Qf

.. .(20.34)

~~ oCr.] audP are _ _ .. Fia-lO.2S. AltbouPboch die cum:at aud the potentia1 difference vary with anpl. Aluwrey 6!. . the power vmu widl angular fi'equency 14'. The average power delivered is zero. Energy is IIltemately stonlClmd released as !he magnetic field alternately grows and dwindles.

-,;';

Enmple 20.6: A ceriailr &olerwid with Mtlling III /18 Interior ""' a length o/2Sc". and diQlMJerill.S em, and contains I()()() closelyspaced 1/Inf8. 17re r.lsllllrCe o/theeoilwQI -.red to be 1.00n. Compare tlte inductive 1WM:1tIIrI;e at /00 Hz with tlte ruisllllrCe 0/ tlttcoU.

:::-.Jtfr~tbat ~}I'd~e of a solenoid ~ IeDgth is large c:ompared to

II: Ji2" A1 L

L=_o---

41~

Physics

wheTe. N is lhIumber oftums. A.1s the ndios. ad L is the ...... a-:e

~--~--~--~~--~--

(4x x 10-,) HIm (1000)2" (0.012S)2m 2 0.2Sm

=2.47 x 10-'H

The inductive reactaqcc at a frequeucy of 100Hz is

XL = wL - 2"(100

~) (2.47 x 10-.1)H
(~)

=I.SS 0
The iJiduelive reII:tIIIce of1bU IOhIIoid lit 100Hz ......i. .able 10 .... flltlliuaie residw. In a cin:uit dia&nua it wou1ct 110 _ _ u

~
You may bOW like to test your wlealllliDll oflbeee idea Try tbe 1bIIowiuc eun:iIes.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 20.8_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

2. hr "ction 20.3. J 8'I/-~C' 'WGI cltt.rcicfRiRd1# QII.t.ctrlcaI fNrtIa. Ulbrg tIIiI a.r aguide, why lIIIJJlId)'OllGptCI ilreClll'tlllIn QIIIn i6 :M to QII ac,.. . . to Ikc;'.a.r. a.r 1M -I/-"""""'.~?

. . .. . . . ... .. . .. .. .. ... . ... . .. . ...... ... . ..

........ ................... .

QJIII_'"

....... ... ............... .... .. ..... .. .. .. ......... .................... .

20.6.4 LCR Cireaits

Let . 111 DOW conclude our di l e"-011 of imped_ by COI1Iideriua III line eJemeuts - a resistor. an iDductor, and a ClplCitor - "necled 10 an IC ....... (Pia- 20.26 ). Such circuits are vt:ty useful in electronics. AnI1ysiI of1bU cIrcut it ...JorwIO that for !be RC audRL circuits. We write

...,(20.3S} This equatioa is identical in fonD to 1IuIt of I forced bannoiIic OlK'j11ltor,

AII!!I!Ii"l that,

'-"siu(Qf+.)

with q and.1IIIde\enaiued JIlt........

Y. COl tilt

wefiudthat
q--siu(Qf+.) tZ

Y,

'416.

Here. we define the impedance Z as

1 Z = R'+CI1C - (QL [

JJ

ita
.... (20.368)

aad

tan.

= --

Xc-x,.
R

...(20.36b)

Fig. 20.27 shows the "useful" triangle for an RLe circuit. That X. &lid Xc tend to cancel in !he impedance eqlliltioJi is a consequence ofthe phase relations discussed earlier. Note that ifXL = O. meaning that there is no inductor in the cin:uit. Ibm we arrive at the solution for an RC cirellit. And ifXe =O. meaning that there is no capacitor in the circuit. then we arrive at Ihe solution we obtained for the RL cireuit. The C4iifiUions for current and potential d i f f _ . for this LCR cireuit are identicat in form to those for the RC and RL circuit. .
Y 1= ....: COS(II+.) Z V V.= ~Rcos(o.t+') Z y V,. = --)(Csin(o.t+')

R
' " .17: oil "rutI/rtI" ,,;.,pp .. RLe _ . "'" ' - II rf "'"",. .. R /1Ifd 1M
flliJJJlltJ.lI rf'"", X;.-X,: ","pilau tIIIg/. is " " " ' ' - by - "'" [(}Ct. -X,)IRJ.

...(20.37) ....(20.38) ....(20.39) ....(20.40)

z
y

VL

= ;)( L sin (o.t +.)

"Consequently. the relations for Ihe lIDS values for current and potential differences are
Ullaltered:

...{20.41)

~ 1_

R for the resistor. and

c

.(20.42)

J Y. - --X

..fiz

...(20.43)

417

J>hysics

v =

=J~ XL

for the inductor.

..... (20.44)

These relations involving all three components also include the RC and RL circuits and the singly connected elements as special cases. For example. removing the inductor and capacitor is equivalent to setting Xc =0 and XL =-0. ThenZ= Randtan+ =0. implyingthat+=O. and we tindthat

..:xadly as in Sc'Ction 20.4.1 when only a resistor was connected tot!te ac ge,nerator.
.:

'-.

"

Let us now calculate the power in an LCR circuit.

(a) Power in the LCR Cireuit

You know that a CBpal:itor connected to an ac pnerator reversibly stores and rele8sese1ectric energy. There is no net ener8Y delivered by the generator. Simi1arly, an i.ndIM:tor connected to an DC generator reversibly stores and releases )D88JIeti<;Jl!I.etgy. There is not net CDCraY delivered by the generator. However. an ac scneratQr deUvClfS anet amount of engy whOl connected to a resistor. The enCf8Y is transformed into thermal energy in the resistor. When a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor are connected in series with an ac generator, it is still only the resistor that causes a net energy transfer. We can confinn this by calculating the power delivered by the generator. The instantaneous power is the product of the generator output and the current that results.

= VI

~ v~cos CLI/[ ;-

COS((l/t++)]

....(20.45)

The phase angle. and angular frequency co play important roles in the power delivered. If the impedancde Z is large at a particular anguIar frequency. then the powa' will be small fot all values of the time. This is consistent with the idea that imped.~ measures how the combination of elements impedes (or limits) ac current. Average power =

2Z

_M_ [

'"

cos + sin (rot + q/2] .

=_M_COS+

V'

2Z

418

.~.id~;,'

, ;c-'

'J}..-~

,"'

An interesting aDd useful characterii&ic of~~ RLC c:in:uit dri.wD by C8C IOUI1:C it the pbmomenon of Resonanc:e is a comlllOll feature of systems duIt haw a ~ to oscillate at a particular natura1 froqucacy. If lIIJdI _ .yllealci. drivea by III energy source 'at a ftequenc:y that is near the DatUral frequcoc:y, then the amplitude of tbe Cl"Ci"tjno is 1!Il'&C' A fiunjljar ""amp!o: is a dWd OIl _ pIaygmuod ~ The c:biJd ~ on,&JMt~.JIas - natura1 frequcoc:y for swiqiDg ,**,1IDIl forth. If the pulls ontbe ~.at.~~ aDdtbe freq~ of the pulls iI~ die sapIC as the natura1 ~ ofswiDgjng, tilc.athe aJDplitude of the ~ will be Jarac,. .

_/I1ICe.

c:b

Suppose we haW _ ,series LCR cimlit driven by an ac: source whose fioequeIiI:y c:aa be Yllried. Consider- the c:mreut amplitude I .. as. we chimge tbe tiequeDcy wbilebepiDg OIlIer quantities (R. L. CandY'> fixed:Eq.20.37 shows duIt tbe c:umDt amplitude fslimited by the~oftbecircuit,l. = YjZ. vht:reZ =[It' + (XL -Xcf'Jf siDl:eXL =et;_X c . = JlaC. Thereisa'paI1icularfrequenc:yatwbichK,. =X sotbatthe imp' t .... eisminimum c at Z = [R' + (0) 1]"1 = R. This angular frequenc:y is represented by the symbol CD. and is eaIled the reso_4IIgl11tu~UIfcy.UsingK,. =Xcat w= w., we haw w.L =/Iw.car

'~ When CD =(l)o,!be current amplitude is maximlDll at I, = Y,IR. Notic:c that m. is given by the

,~

.,(20.46)

same expressi6D as the angular frequency of oscillation for the LC circuit with DO resistor or source '(Eq.2Q.l 7b) .It is often c:alle4 the cimlit's MllIItlIlIIfIlldIIr frefllDlCY.
Fig. 20.28 shows graphs of 1m versus ro for two cases; in the upper curve, (i)R = 1000, IIDIl in the lower curve, (ii) R = 2000. The other quantities arc the same for each curve : Y. = lOOV, L = 1.00 mH, C= 1.00 nF. Eac:hcurve exhibits a maximum cumul at_fC1O!UII!l frequency. Since the product LC is the same for each case, tbe ",SMent ~is also the same. " (I) = II ~= II" (1.00 mH)(l.00 nF) = 1.00 Mradls. At ~ce ,I = Y IR. Thus the cwrent amplitude at resonance is twice as . . fur tbe 0 c;ompared with tbe circuit with R =-200 OAt li'eq1"'Mies IIIIdlleas circuit with R =100 than (I)., a circuit is predominantly.itivc, aDd the c:urnut is limited IIIIinIy by ill capacitive reaclallU. At frequencies much greater thaD CD., cimIIt is JMecbninandy inductive, and the current is limited maiply by its inductive reactBDee. [ hare Mradls =Mega radls = 10' radls} 1.0 (i) ,
,"
,

The tuning ~ of _ radio or television set 13 an example of _ circll1t with - reso&IIIlJ O.S &equency. anten.. of a acCeptI signals from Il\lIIlY nearby statio!!s. The IllltenQ' is the soun:e in the tuDin& ci'rcuit,so

'i

lne

ramo

tbIt ciu:uitis.4riven at !DIlDY freclIIeIIi:iflS. . 0.11 However, tile ODIylarge component of the " C1ltI'!!Ilfis the~ dIat~De8t "..

101'"
O.S

tAW """'1 .
I

....
u
-for

.:z 0

thc'cimntll _ _nt bqu!rocy~,l1Je cirmit ".iI __ ; (Q R -lfIIID. (It) R-ltJtJQ. discriminates _piasa signals not near ita Y. -Ifill Y. L -1.oo.H. " "C-I.oo..F.

.ou-..--....
419

JI.',

MadIa ,C_.-pl~ 1. _
01,

tuaiDa cireuit. This VIIriea the ftIIIMWII fiequaacy of the cimJit so tim it matcbea the
III1d14iItiDa hqueacy ofthe IIIdiaa yua'Wilh'fO~.
(e) Power DiUYend lit ......... ."

monet fiequeacy. Wbm you tuDe ndio, you V8lY the CllpllCiIllllce of. 4NItIW;\ _in It.

YoabavejIJIIlllUdie4thatdlereaoa.... flequu:y equalsdlellllturll ~. ofOlCl)!et!on of lID LC circuit. Driviaa die c&cait It die IIIturIl hquIIIcy of OIClDIIdm produI:ft a m . .jmumin tbeamplftude ofdle cumat. TiiIs IitIaIioa iIJ~ ""1J8OUI todrMJla . a madwnj<:all)'lllmit ib IIIIInI ftequIa:y of OIClI!ldbt in to pIOcIuce a maiIDuIn wlocity. iDEq. (20.45),. die . . . . . ~ illiwayapoGtiw(ex: _). Tbe . . . . . JICMW i I _ wIIIIl die . . . . . f'requmcy 'III) i I - . aDdlllJlllOllllbea- u die . . . 7 ~ boI:oInaI WQ' IIq (..... 0), 1hus btet.. _ III" 0 aDd o-+a mailDlQ ~ Tbe D'IlI'P'Q ~ occun ben-en.. ~iI die _ ~iciI ... fw Qlaldmu~, IlUrl'IIIt. EveJuetbtcEq. (20,45) for die mui_ JICMW cooditiaa, we have

"'''wed
J"

craar

P - ~ R

..{20.47)

WCHIOWllbowbrietly that it iladVmtageousto have J(Z qL I. TIkiDsJ(Z ClL =10'"'. we obiain die avenae JICMW delivered by die a-:rator for differatt of die liIgular fIequeacy enlhown in Fig. 20.29.

vu-

The power falls off sharplya. ' frequencies .bove or below the n:scw..... fi:equeDcy CII Tbe IiIouII1IiJI. like appearauce of the power venus fIoequeaI:y plot iDIpires its name, die ~ peak. A 1IIIrOW~ peak _ _ tliat ~ is efficiently cIelivend to the cimJit for oa1y avery nmownmp ot~iea.

(d, 1'1nIiDIa Radio AI WI IIIid .-tier, a ndio is limed ia to a pII1icuIar IIIIIioa by die . ...m-t
of a capacitive reactance or an illductive reactance to achieve a . condition in a resonant ~ Fex:a )IIII'ticuIIIr LCR tImiag c:ircuit, let III detIrmIne theeurrcai; J1IO"!- It.... .'," what an rma potential diffeietic:e or. O.OS V i. prvrided by the 7 I. i.ctlll like R ... 1.SO Q , ""15 D7li, IIIId C -3,4S rE................. ftequaIcy en.for Ibis LCR c:ircuit iI

...-.nee

I 7
I
t

7
I

"":

'

. . . . . 11'1' . ,

I.N

420

=--------------( IS x 10 -, f-I x 3.4S

X

10-" F) 112

then
o

- 4.40 '" 1()6 J1Id is

v---!..
2x
= 7.00)( 10'Hz
ClI

This frequency lies in the amplitude modulated broIdellSl band. At _nee !be impecI_ 'equals the cimlit resistance Z '" R = I SO 0 . Hence !be nus c:urreat is,
I
=--

"R

= - =333

0.05 "
ISO

"A

To see how the current chanaes for a sJisbdy different tiwqueul:y let us oompute !be cumnt
in the same: cin:uit for an rms input of 0.05 V ata tiwqueul:y of7.2 x 10'Hz. First we dctermiiIe the impedance at this frequency.
x.~d.

'" 2x x 7.2 x 10' radls x IS )( IO-JH

=6.786 x 10'0

x -me c

------------1

21t x 7.2)( 10 ' radis )( 3.45)( 10 -IlF

-6.407 x 10'0
Z

=[R' + (Xc-X,)'] III =[ IS()2 + (6.407 x 10' -6.78S )( 10')2] 112

=37930

Then. the nus current for this IIOll-NSOIIIIII: frequcPcy is .. ,,_ O.OSV
1=--=-

3793W

= 13.2 "A
I

A 0.05 V signal at the resonant frequency of 7.0 )( IO'HZ produces a current of333 j!A. A 0.05 V signal at a frequency of7.2 x IO'HZ produces only 13.2 j!A when connected 10 the sam\! LCR circuil. There is a sharp response of the circuit at the resonant frequency.

20.7 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

An emf or a cum:nt is induced in a COIx!UCting surface if the IJI&8I1eIic flux linking the surface changes.. this is the phenomenon of eItrt1l1ff1gl1Cfic ""'wid8... The induced emf sin a single loop is given by FfII'IIIItIy'lIll1w:
E=---

d+.
dt

is Ihe IIIII/lIldic flux linIQng the 1oop. . According 10 ~'s~. the --.!lfthe induced emf(induced c:um:nt) is such as to ~ the chanae in flux which produces it. If the C1lI'mII ~ in a circuil element. such as a coil. a self-induced emf exists. For a long. tigbtlywound-solenoid oflength t. cross - section A baYing Nnmnber of turns it is given by

where+.

". JV1A L= - -

L.

The CUI1'eIII in an LR circuit with. soorce of ~ emfs., is giVeD by :

. & I (I) = ...-!.. (1- e .....-) R

Where UR is the inductive time co.nstant o.f the circuit. The changing currents in two near by Co.ils mutually induce an emt in each other. In an LC circuit. the charge on the capacitor and the cum:nt in the circuit o.scillate sinusoidally with the same anguIar frequency 0>-

I Q) -~ vLC

In a circuit with an a.c. source. the vo.ltage across the source is given by I' = 1'_ coSto/and I = I. (rot + +> In a purely resistive circuit = 0, the ai: voltage and c_ _ are in phase.

1be average power in such a ciieuit is p,.

-=;-12R

In a purelY:CIIpIlCitive circllit, = + 2 . Thus. the cuntnt leads the voltage by phase of 90'. 1be average power in such a circuil is zero . .
In a purely inductive circuit. =- ~ and the current lags the v~ltage by a phase of 90". 1be average power in such a Circuit is zero. --' . LCR In a senes CircUli connect.... 10. an ac source .% z. = + (XI' ~ X ) ') If!

l!

I!.: tR'

where Z is Ihe impedance of the circuil: Z= [R2 + (XL-X;.)')'"

"

I.

If the angular fre~uency ro of the source is the same as Ihe circuil'5 I'C5Oll8Ilt angular frequency (0. = II Le. then X. - X,. = 0 and the impedance has a minimw:q valUe Z= R with a maximum cUITCI\llm =1'JR.
In """
rwb

1be average poweris P = V . 1flM = (f

)R

Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current., :

28.8.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

I.

Each loop in 112S0-twn coil has face area S = 9.0 X Io-! m' . (a) What is the rat~ of
change of the flux linking each twn of the coil if the induced emf in the coil is 7.5 V'!

(b) Ifthe flux is due to a uniform magnetic field at 45 from the axis of the coiL what must be the rate of change of the field to induce that emf? 2.
a} In Fig. 20.30a what is the direction ofthe induced current in the loop when the area of the loop is decreased by pulling on it with the forces labelled F? B is directed into the page and perpendicular to it. b) What is the direction of the induced current in the smaller loop of Fig. 20.30 b when a clockwise current as seen from the left is suddenly established in the larger loop, by a battery not shown?

x:)x F-:C> F
i
x x x

(a)
I.

Fig. 20.30

(b)

a) If the number of turns in a solenoid is doubled, by what amount will its selfinductance change? b) Petrol in a vehicle's engine is ignited when a high voltage applied to a spark plug causes a spark to jump between two conductors of the plug. This high voltage is provided by an ignition coil, which is an arrangement of two coils wound tightly one on top of the other. Current from the vehicle's battery flows through the coil with fewer turns. This current is interrupted periodically by a switch. The sudden change in current induces a large emf in the coil with more turns. and this emf drives the spark. A typical ignition coil draws a current of 3.0 A and supplies an emf of 24 k V to the spark plugs. If the current in the coil is interrupted every 0.10 ms. what is the mutual inductance of the ignition coil?

a) Why is the rms value of an ac current always less than its peak value? b)1be current in a 2.5 J.IF capacitor connector to an ac ,,,"rrp ;< mven by

/= - 4.71 sin 377 t

JIA

Determine the maximum voltage across the capacitor. ;.a) Calculate the capacitive reactance (for C = 2 /IF) and the inductive reactance (for L = 2mH) at (i) 2S Hz and (ii) 50Hz. b) Calculate the maximum and rms currents in a 22/lH inductor connected to a 5V (rms) 100 MHz generator. 6. A series RLC circuit with R = 5800 L = 31 mHo and C = 47 nF is driven by an ac source. The amplitude and angular frequency of the source are 6S V and 33 kradls. Determine (a) the reactance of the capacitor. (b) the reactance of the inductor. (c) the impedance of the circuit, (d)' the phase difference between the voltage across the source and the current. and (e) the current amplitude. (0 does the current lead or lag the voltage across the source?
~:

423

7.
8.

What is electromagnetic induction? ExplaiJI. the Faraday's laws ofeIecttomagnetic induction. State Lenz' s law. Show that Lenz's law is a consequence of law of conservation of energy .. What is self - induction? Explain thephysic:al significance of self - inductance. Distinguish between the self-inductance and mutual-inductance. On what factors do they depend? What is the source of induced e.m.f. in electromagnetic induction? Explain. How much e.m.f. will be induced in a 10 H inductor in which the current charges from lOA to 7 A in 9" 10-" s.? Explain why the reactance of a capacitor decreases with increasing frequency. whereas the reactance of an inductor increases with increasing frequency? What is impedance of an LCR series circuit? Derive an expression for power dissipated in a.c. LCR circuit.

9. 10. II. 12. 13. 14.

424

21
ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION AND ITS TRANSMISSION

21.1 INfRODUcnON
. Electricity is by far the most popular fonn of energy.. It exists in nature but in nonusable fonn. You must have observed dwing rainy days the douds producing lightning thunderbolt that c;ontaiDs millions of volts, you know that this type of electricity cannot be used. How do you get the electricity at your bome? At once you will say that it is from electricity boards, power houses, like Delhi Vidyut Board, Bombay Electric Supply and Transport etc. Tbese are the supply undertaking. They only distribute the electricity received from generating stations which convert different foons ofenergy into electrical energy e.g. thermal, bydroelectric, nuclear power etc.

As you know that geocration of electricity may take place some bundereds of kilometer'.s a\''llY from your place, at sites, where the facilities are available' like dams, coal mines, natural ps and oil reserviors. eel. From generating station to power bouses (distributing agencies) and from !here to your bouse. transmission of power is done througb wires (transmission lines) and transformers whicb carry them from one place to the other. In this lesson you will learn on how the electricity is produced using different sources and bow the electric power is being carried from generating plants to your home?

21.2 OBJECfIVES
After studying this iesson,you will should be able to :

#xpIain principle. COIIStruction aJfd working ofA. C. genuators (alternators) aJfd D.C. . generators (dynamo); differentiate between the two types ofgenerators; differentioJebetween motor and generator; state the principle on which trtmsformerworks; explain'the COft3truction and working ofa tran.Jjormer; differentiate between a step-lip aJfd a step-down transformer; write the uses oj fran.Jjormer; aJfd understand the problem ojlow voltage and load sheding.

21.3 A.C. AND D.C. GENERATOR (ALTERNATORS AND DYNAMO)

One of the most important SOUl'Ce$ of electrical power is the electromagnetic soun:e called genel'lllOl'. A generator is a device that converts _chemical energy into electrlcal.energy with the help of magnetic field No other source of electric power can produce as 1arge amounts ofel~~wer as the generators. A conductor or a selofconducton isrotaredin a magneti~ field and voltage are lieveloped in the rotating conductor due to elemomagneti.c induction (about which you have studied in the previous lesson). The CIICIBY for the rotaIion of the conductors can be suppl~ by diesel. steam, water falls or even by nuclear _tots. Accordingly. we have diesel generators, hydrogenerators, thetmal generators and atomic generators. There are two types ofgenertlfOrs (iJ alternating current generator or A.c. generator also called alternators. (ii) direct current generator or D.C. generator or dynamo. Both these generators wor\.s on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

21.3.1 A.c. Generator or Alternators

Basic principle: A generator basically involves a loop ofwire rotating in a magnetic field. In Fig 21.1 we show a rectangular loop of wire H placed in a Wliform magnetic A field. As the loop is rotated along an horizantal axis. the o magnetic flux through the loop changes. To see this. recall that the magnetic flux through the loop as slown in the fignre in given by

(t) = B.

6A

Where B is the field. ~ is a Fig. 21.1 : Reclangvlar loop "1fIDIJ-jWd. unit vector normal to the plane of the loop and A is its area. If the angle between the field direction and the loop is denoted bye,

p1-"

q,(t)=ABcos6
1

When we rotate the loop with 8 constant angu1ar velocity CD, the angle 9 eiuonps as

6=6 +rot
Thus. the flux through the loop c'-8es in the following _

(t) =AB cos (8. + rot)

426

Now, using Faraday's law of el~c induction, we can csJcuIate the emfinduced in the loop to be, .

..

E(t) =-'d(=mABsin(9. +Cllt)

iI+

Thus, a sinusoidal emf is produced in the loop. In this 1D8IIl1eI", the mechanicsJ energy of rotation is converted into an emfwbich can be used to derive current in an external circuit. The emf induced through a coil with N IlUDlber oftums is given by, e(l) =N m.4B sin (9. + rot)
COlUtnlCtioa : When a loop of wire is rotated in a JIIII8IIdic field it develops a, voltage across its terminals as discussed above. The natun: ofout put voltage hss the form of a sine

wave.
An A.C. geacratorconsists offourparts as shown in Fig. 21.2, (i) Armature. (ii)Fieldmagnet, (iii)SIip-rings. (iv)Brushes.

(i) Arm '-or: AmIaIure is a coil oflaJge number of turns of insulated copper wire ,,'ound on a cy1indricsJ soft iron drum. It is capable ofrotating at right angles to magnetic field on a rotclI' abaft passing tIuoush it along the axis ofthe drum. This dnim of soft iron scn.es two purposes (I) support the coil. and (ii) increases the IIIIIgIIdic induction through the coil. Arllflltfln

I'I1II* ill " ",.1U!Ilc jNld

*IIdWIJy " coIItIDII 0/iIIdiIcItJn (coil) _1UIIaI 011 " ,"tift ""d IImIIfgor to wltlt "JII'Ol'I6-/OI' coII:tIttg "or Cllrrtlllt ;IIduad ;11 ,"or

iIIdtrdiOII coli. A Simple loop or tum

of wire connected to rings may be conSi~d as the simplest form of

armature

Annat1ire coil

.'ic!d II1lISDct

(li)Fltild MQlld : Field magnet provides a magnetic field. through R, (Slip rin&) which the COIIductin& loop IU'I'III8Cd on Load rcUar a central hub aad formilIa the armalure RoIatiq shall are carried, or the flux amed through them. so tbatthey are successively filled and emptied of mapetic lines. The HaIKII. m'aanotic field i. produced by a ,.,.. 11.J: C<Wlru<1;"" oj .4.C'. ge"""''''' pem!llleD.tmapet In case ofvCl)' ~ low power Le. pnmators and by olectromljplet in the case of big altcmators.
1M I'fQ/ dbtbri:titRr hetw11 Oil arrrttIIIftandj/.Idmagn.r II drat 1M _j/tlldmagnflt II pI'Ope,.1y I'- to tIrlIt pt which wMIM,.lItat101fQ1)' 01' _MlIg. IffIlIIttaIns its magntttilm 8tt1ady tIvrbtr opmlIion. tM _ ",.maturelll'- to tM part which. whettrer ",vo{vl", orfix __ 116 "."",.tt.rm changed ill Q ",pI",.1y ",pear_jallhioll Whell the IffIlChillfl is ill "rOtiOrI.
(Ill) . -. . . . : A device for c,!Jsjng a1ler11ating current .-ated in lImalure to flow in the cin:vit. 'IbeIe are two metal rings to which the two ends oCthe armatures L"e connected. Theac rings _ fixed to the abaft as shown in Fig (21.2), They are insulated from the shaft as well .. rr- each odIen.

..,..1IrUIh

427

(Iv) BrllSlta: These are two ftexiblemetal Ol"QI.'bon rods (B, audBz{Fia- 21.2), whichue fixed and coustantly in touch widt revolving rings.Jt is widt !be help of.... \IruaIIcs!hat the current is passed on from !be annature aud rings to !be main wires which supply !be

current to me outer cin:uit. Wol"Idag : The PIiDFiple of1lVOl'lduttof an AC. ~ will be made cleansing Fig.
21.1 and Fig. 21.3 (a), (b) & (c).

Suppose !be armature coil AHCD rotates in !be IIDIiclockwise dIn=eIim. As it rotates, !be magnetic flux linked widt it changes aod !be current is jnchvwf in !be eoiI, !be dim:Iion of which is given by Fleming's Right band rule. Cooaidaing!be IIfIIIIIIUIe to be in !be vertiele position and as it rotates 8IIIiclockwise, !be wire AH move cI!Jwa 'MIld liliiii DC .-es upwards, the diJection of Wduc:c4 emf is from H to A liliiii D to C i.e., in !be coil it flows along DCHA. In the external circuit !be current tlowa aloog B, L 0. VIS. 21.3 (a). This direction of current ~ the same durIns!be tint half tum ofthe 8I1IIIIIure. During the second balfrevolution, Fig. 21.3(b), the wireAH_ upward while the wires CD moves downwards. The current flows in the directionAHCD in the IInIIIlIft coil i.e~ !be diroction of induced cumnt in !be coil is Je'IIer8ed. In !be external cin:uit !be current flows along B2 L BJ Therefore, the 4irection of the induced emf IIId the current cbaDges in !be extemaI circuit also after every half a revolution. Hmee, the current thus producecl is altemating in nature Fig. 2 t.3 (c).

~-T--r--T--r--t

n.. 21.3 : WorIdIrg of"" A..c. ..-. _.

The arrangement of slip rings and brushes creates problems of insulation and sparking when large output powers are involved~ Tberefore, in most praetical geoerIitOrS the field is rotated and the lU'DIature (coil) is kept statiorwy. In such a genintor 8I'III8ture coils are fixed permanently aroll1ld!be inna- circumferaJI:e of!bellousius of!be geDellItOI while !be field coil pole pieces are rotstedon a abatl wi1hin !be statjorugy armatun:.

21.3.2 Dynamo (D.c. Generator)

A dynamo is a machine in which the mochanlcal energy i.r changed Into electrical e1lllrgy in theform ofdirect current. You m"usthave seen dynamo attached to the bic:yc1e fur lightening purpose. In CIlCIKY automobileedyuamo ba &dual fiIIICIioo fw ligbtnriD8_dwqjiag the batterey.
The essential parts of dynamo are : (1) field magnet, (2) armature II1I(I (3) ~!!1!""Ol"split rings. .

- --.-------.. . .---.":":428:-:-------------

A-"_JIf'I-"" -JlM...""'" 1It..-_ ....... _ ._. ""atBw _, .",/rik '" tII/ttJnJot",.

lIt<ItioIIdry

c..... ..- _ fI-IIrnMP.,- tJ/etatlw:ton tJ/_IoJl- '" pipG. Tfw,..,.. .... atIIJIi '" dttIa,-.. _ " , . _ q f l l i - , to 1_10" JriaIwr_ ..",. ........ _jiwldttlfIIa/-. Notlo.'_ _ iIIdttI _ _, _
~

obtained ie.. _ _ ill ~ (Rer; _

....,. ctlllflitlotl ill .....ny dttIjWJ....., (nJttw;_. A a,-.. . . orprot/wa ... 1IttbtcItI _ _ whicIr _ . _ tJ/:triciIy 10
ill.

fIr""~""jWJ"'-!I'

lIt.-- _-.,fone_-,,_ _fl-.,

Ib

iIIllte_.
;"'0

............... MMric",......wikllu ' ....... '''.r .W:osifiGnlOdwt:lll7Wlljlo-w

an""""',....;or qpirut"" Not _ _ dw to

Tfw_prtJduca_"-rWI_~for

_ _ _ N _101-_

...,.111.

Basic prindple: Basically all generators are A.C.geumators, but !be A.C. wave form or the sine wave produced by an A.C.ge:nerator cen be converted into D.C. fOnD by the commutator and brushes. A commutator consists of two semicylinderical pieces of conducting materials sperated by an~ 1JIIIterial. The brusbes are made up of soft conducting material tbat cen euiJy slid 011 1bc c:omm'JIafor surfate.. Each half of 1bc commutator is connortM pa,,_"11y to 0IIII cad of1bc loop and 1bc c:ommutator rotates with theloop. Each blush presses against one sep1eDIlJf 1bc commutator. The brushes remains statiCllllty while 1bc ~ lalor rotales. The brushes press against opposite segments of the. commulalor and every time the voltage reverses polarity. brushed also switch from one segment of commutatmto 1bc oCher. This means IInt8MI that one brush always developes positive polarity and the other. negativepo1arity with lWIIpOI:tlo eM:h ~_ _ _ ClOIMIIMta' 0 olher. Although the voltage . dWeloped 1ICRl!III1bc bnIsbes wiD be tluctuatiDg. It will a1ways have 1bc same polarity and a D.C.1'luctuatin8 voltage. The varialiaIs in 1bc volIage produced by a sin8l~ roIaIin& loop is ca1led a ripple which m8kea 1bc output ua'lUitalMror any practical applications. The ripples cen be reduced either by !be use of a filler neawdt (]I' by !be use of'- rotating loops 8I1'IIIIgecl at right angles to each other. The ' - ends of each loop are connected to two sepemIe segments on the commuIaIoI' wbich now bas four segDIe"ts SiDce 1bc '-loops are positioiled at right. angles to each otherwben 1bc voltage in one loop is dec!easing, 1bc voltage in the other loop is increuiDg, and vice __ This makea _output voltage 8CI03S 1bc two brusbes mare steady willi lea variation and less ripples than in 1bc case of a single loop. By using mare and _loops instead of one, 1bc ripple in 1bc generator 0UIpUt cen be further reduced .
CoIIIti iidIoa of D.C. paentor: Direct cumut Dynamo or a DC dyJuuno bas almost the same alIIIIrUCtion u tbat of an A.C. dynamo but it dift'ers from 1bc latter in one respect. In place of slip rings we have sot ' - split rings R,and It,'Which sre 1bc two half of the same ringu sbownln Fig.21.5 (a). Theendof1bc atmature coil are~ to these rings and the ring rotates wilb 1bc annatun: and chuIge 1bc contact with the brushes B, and B2 This part of the dyJuuno is known U CMIIIIJ fF' ".

m
t

429

Physics .

Workbag: The workiDgofaD.C. dyomnois similartotbat ofanAC ODD. Let1hccoil be rotated in tbe clockwiao dim:tica. .The c:umrIlI: procluI:ed in 1hc _ .... is AC. .... commutator changes it intoD.C. in 1hc out eimlit. fa 1hc first baJf cycle, Pia- 21.5 (a). cmrent flows along DeHA. The ClII"ftlIIt in tbe extemaI circuit flows aloag B] L B:Jo In 1hc second half, FiS. 21.5(b), cUt'reIit in 1hc armature is revened and flows aJona AIICD and aa the ring R, comes into Contad withfhe brush b, \IDd 1hc ringRz comes into ~ withB. the current flows from B, toB, aloagAHCD. Thec:ammtin1hcextlDrnalcin:uit . . . 1iCIID B, to B2 Thus, the current in 1hc extanal circuit always flows in __ dilec:tioo. The cmrent produced ir the outer cfrcuit is graphic:ally .cpt (IN in Fig. 21.5{c) aa 1hc coil is rotated from the vertical position. perpcmdicolarto the III8Jl1dic:Ws offon:e. The c:ammt generated by a such a simple D.C. dynaino is unidirec:tiODal but its value wries cmsidcrably and even falls to zero twice during each rot8tioD of1hc coil.

~j l i~ elat.! ~~, . \.. I .. ,

BnaIM

~15 ",,", ."

"'a

.E

1;

E.N.F.

/ - - ' of RubIIiot. ' or Coil

\ ,,' \.

(.,

'

o u.:
I

(E.N.F. In 2-CoII O.c.

~(b)

o,n.no,

ui

One step towards overcomi!lg this objec:tion would be to IJIIe two c:oils, at riJbt angles, and to divide the commutator riug into four sec:tioaB, tlOIIIIDCtecIlO the __ oftbo coils. In such a case both these coils produce emf oftbo __ type but they cilfer ia pbue by It 12. The resultant current or emfis oblaiaed by IIIIpeI'pOIitio oftbo two .. sIIowa(Fi&21.5 (c. In this way the fluctuations are much reduced. Similarly, in order to get allilldy current. we use a large numberofcoila eachconsistiDgofgooclmany turDs. The cmnmUlOr ring is divided into as many segwenl8lS tbo nomher of. . of ooiJa, SO tbat tbo CoII...wdt indepentlently and IeIICIs a eurrent into the 0\lIer clmdt. 1be l'tIIIltaat 0IImIDt obtaIaed is shown in Fig. 21.S (c) which is practically parallel to tbo time axel.

Fig. 21.5. : (a) &: (b) Working ofD.c. g,,,.raIOl', (c) Groph/cQl ~~~;~ :;D,t:~'C:!

INTEXT QUESTIONS 21.1,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. Dlsttnqui.rh betwUII fIIIA.C _ D.C.gMW1IIfW;
' ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.
,

WhaJ are the tIr1w .u.ntial ptII16. qfa p1WI'tItar ?

, , , , , '-0 ........ 0.0 ............

3.

Why do lH ",. Q conrmtdatOl' in Q D.C. pnllratOl' ?

0

4. 5.

In which type ofpnerator Ilip rhtg or Q Ipllt-ring C01IIIIfIItQIor.are II.bw IIHtI1

.............................................................. ,
Where do you the "', ofdy1Iamo in daily lifo? , find .
_ 0 .............................. ,

.... .

21.4 TRANSFORMER
TransfOrmer is a device that increases 01' decnasu the ~ 0/Q vol;' 01' t:IIt'mII through electromagtU!tic induction, A transfonru:r,bIS atleast two windiDgs IiDked by connnon magnetic flux but turns are electrically iDsttlatcd 1iom one'aootbcI'. The traosfurmer windJDg c:oonected across a supply source, which may be an Ie main power or. output of. generator, is called primJI1y witulUrgs. The transformer windingconneded across the load RL is called a st!comIiuy winding. In this winding emf is induced when A.C. is applied 10 the primary. The primary and secondmy windings are said 10 be elcctrically isolated &om each other but magnetically connected or coupled to one another with magnetic flux.
Rasically. a transfonneris a device which transfers electric energy (or power) from aprimary winding to a secondary Winding, There is no electrical connection between the primary winding and the secondaJy winding (s), The primary converts the changing electrical energy in to magnetic energy. The secondary converts the magnetic energy back inlO electric energy.

An ideal transformer is one in which

(i) the resistance of the primary coil is zero; (ii) there is no ftux leakage so that there is the same magnetic flux throughout eacb twn of

the primary and sec:ondary coils; (iii) the secondary coil is an open

circuit.
Construction : Figure (21.6) illustrates the configuration of a typical transformer. It consists of two coils called primary and secondary wound on the core (former) Here. coils of insulated wire are wound around a ring AC ofiron made of the isolated laminated current'il&) sheets instead of a solid core. The source .....>-.L-.-+-ff lamination minimize eddy currents in the iron. Energy loIS in a transformer call be reduced by using tbis laminations ofvery "soft" (low carbon) ,(a, iron and wire with langer cross-section or b&' winding tbe primary and secondary circuibl with conductors that ".. : 11.6: 1'rlIrcfpI. d/tJgrGM. G ~ have very low resilltallce.

(b,

Theory: The aecondaty coil of a transformer can have two cases, which are diacussed
(a) SecoDdary DO OpeD eirealt : Suppose the current chanae in the primary. cbanges the . flux through the core at the rate d IIdt. . Then the induced (back)emfin tbeprimarywithN. turns is giveaby.

below.

E,

=-N. ~ --N: (;,-;,) Pdt (t,-t,)

431

Pbysics

and the indnced emf in the secondaIy coil is

E =-N -'-=N -(-;'--...:;) , 'dt '(I, -I,)

Applying loop equation to the primary

E.

f. ~
,

)=IR=O. =N
~

(,'. R=Oopencirw:it)

:.E =-N

d;

(;,-;)

'dt

(I, '-'2)

From which,

E
...L

=-'
N,

-N

E,

The minus sign indicates that the twoemf"s are in opposit phase.
(b) &ctnu/Juy lUll 011 opm cintdt: Suppose a load resistance R,. is CODIIeCted across tIie secondary, so that the secondaiy current is I, and the primary cummt becomes 1f1ha-e' it no enetgy loss from the system. .

I..

Power input = power output

E.I=.E.I,
, ,

. I,E,N, So that, - = - = I, E, N,

.r-:-'--=-~"

In practice, a non-ideal transformer shows some pmwr losses. Euagy "-s results from the following causes,
(a) Resistive heating in the copper coils - eoope!' IOID. (b) Eddy current losses in the form of heat of iron core - Eddy CllJ7'enll08e

(c) MagnetisatiOD heating of the core ducing repeabed revenal of magnetization hysleresis loss. (d) Flux leakage from the core. Coefficiut of Coapliac : The portion of the flux that links one c:uiI to the other coil is referred to as the coefficient of coupling. The coefficient of coupling can range from 0 to I. When all the tux is coupled, the coefficient ofci>upliDg is 1. Souletimes it is expressed as a percentage. Thus, 100 percent coupling means coefficient of coupling of 1. Coupling in transformers with lamiMted' iron core is vee)' close to 100 pen:ent. This is because all 'the flux is CODI:entrated in the hi&h permeability core on wbiI:h the coils are wound. On the other band. air -core transformers can have vee)' low coefficient ofcoupling. Coefficient of coupling in an air-oore transformer can be CODIrolled by splICing between the coils.

'432

Electric I'm<... GeoeraIion aud irs Tnm!fllission ,

21.4.1 Efficiency of Trauformers

The iron core and the copper coils of a transformer both convert some electric energy into heat energy. ThiS. of course. is why a'transformer heats up when in operation. The purpose of a transformer is not to provide heat but to transfer enell!Y from the primary to secondary. Therefore, any heal proauced by the transformer represents inefficiency. Since, the energy is equal to power times time, the efficiency ofa transformer (expressed as a percentage) is calculated by the following formula: Percent efficiency
1'); - - x

P-

100

p ..

Eumple 21.1,: What is the efficiency of a transfonner that requW$ 1880 '" ofprimory power 10 provide 1730 Wof secondary power?

SoI.do. :
Given
P,=1880W P ..... 1730W

...

. p ..

Pm:cntage efficiency = - . x 100 , , l'pri

%afficiency

1730W

1880W

)( 100= 92

Thus. the transformer is 92 % efficient.

In the above example p .. - p .. = (1880 - 1730) W '" ISO W. the dift'aence bet",_dIe received power and deliVered power is loSt in the tnwsformer. The power Joss ina1lausbmer is caused by l. Hysteresis loss 2. Eddy mm:nt loss
3. Copper(PR)loss

The first two of these losses occur in the transformer core material. The last occurs in die windings. All three convert eleclric energy to heat energy.
As the eDCIIY cannot be created, if transformer works efficiently than as many WIIIts are dev~ in the .........ru..y as . . putidto the pimary; tberefoil:. we have

(E.. l,,) or .Y,I, = "/, (or E,I')

4Y. I, -=-=ll. ", I,

Where I, and I, are the currents Ihroush the primary and secondaJy coils NSpeaively.
... I, = N, =X ~E,I,N. , Thus when the induced e.m.f. becdines K li!nes the applied c.m. f., the current indw;ed .' . , is 11K the original current.

~ =~

_5

: 433

In 0\: ler words what is gained in voltage is lost in cmteDt.

, e efficiency of a transformer is very high. it being between 90 and 96~. It is one of the most efficient machine known. Maximum efficiency is obtained from a transformer when it is fully loaded. For small transformers (less than 10 W), maximwn efficiency may be less than 70 percent. With transformers larger than 1000 W, it is more than 95% efficient.
As the load in the secondary circuit is decreas~ the efficiencyoflhe tranformerde~l'r!ase.J. This is because current flow in a transfonner's primary does not decrease in direct proportion to decrease in the load. The primary current still causes substantial core losses and copper

losses even when the secondary is lightly loaded.

21.4.2 Types of Transformers

There are basically two types of transformers. step-up or step-cIown. Step lIP transformer increao;es the voltage (decreases the current) in the secondary windings. Where as a steptransformer decreases the voltage (increases the current) across the secondruy windings.

do..,,,

Here. you must keep one thing in mind that a transformer doesn't create more energy at the out put (secondary) of a step-up transfonner.. This is because, when voltage increases.. the current decreases in tbe same proportion to keep the power saine.

It should be recalled that mutual induction takes place only when the current/voltage in the primary is varying. If this current/voltage remains constaDt then the transformer can 110\ work. A transformer is a mutual inductor specially tHsignedfor the effiCient ID.change of energy between the two coils.

21.2 : A transformer has /00 turns in its primary winding and 500 turns in irs secondary, winding, If the primary voltage and Cll17'ent are respectively 120 V and J A. what are the secondary voItagtl and current ? Solution: Given N, - 100, N, - 500. V, = 120 V and 1/ .. 3 A
N, V, = - V,

~xample

N,

SOOtums lOOtums

x 120 V =

600 V

N, lOOturns 1,=-/, = x3A-O.6A. Nz 500 turns

Example 21.3: A trans/ormerrati at a maximum power 0/10 kW is wed to conMct SOOO V transmission /I". to a 240 V cl1'cuit.

(a) What is the ratio o/turns in t"- windings 0/1"- transformer ? (b) What is the maximum current in t"- 240 V cl1'cuit ? Solution: Given, VI = SOoov. Yl - 240V, .p .. 10 kW = 10,000 W,
(a) -

N,
Nz
I:

= -V
V,

V,

SOOOV
E - -

240V

20.8

(b)

Since,o;,-IV to,OOOW

240 V

434

41.7 A

Electric Power Generation and ilS Transmi....,

':x_pkllA : Mransjormer for .240:}''A.c. input has a primary coil whichwilh 120 rums ClUI laIt~ tiI_mof 1.5 A witlroutover1reoting.WIrat is the moximUifl ctIn'ent that lhis Ittll1sfQrmer clJll.suppf}... (A. ume Ihal you ccm chome any Icind ofsecondary coil tmd Iltot the outpulload has a Vt!"'low f't!llistonce.) Solution: Ma.ximul1l current can be supplied by Ii one-tum secondary. Tran..,lormer ratio 120 : I ; N, : N,
N,

N,

-=-. J,=120/,=180A
I,

I,

INTEXT QUESTIONS 21.2,,,,.,..,=-..,.--_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I.
2.

Can a /ransfonrierwork on D.C.? Why?

3.

Wio/d;';'; ~;ep-;q, i~~~si;;"~; ~ ~'ft i,;;1.; ;;;,;,;d~ 't;;';"',;;;, ;f~? /;in' ~ 'tr~jo;~~' 'h~';e~~' ',~ p,:;;,;;,j, '~u~;';~i~d;~ ~~;';e' ~ i;'; ~~~~~. i~
primary yo/tagera1;"? .' ................;. .................................................. How do Iheedd}' currellt effect the efficiency ofa transformer? ................................................................. -. Why are high voltage transformers used in pOlI'er lransmission? Why are the high YO/luges from power lines reduced to lower voltages in the city? Who, kind oftrQ1UJformers an used? '
'

i.

5. 6. 7.

.................................................................... ....................... ........................................... ..

Toy trans often use a transformer to supply powerfor the /rains tmd controls. Would this trculsformer be step-up "r a step-down? ........................... ' " .................................. ' "
The basic actiOIl of. tronsfonner bas been outlined but th.... are some lII)1Ieries. One straaae mystery is dtat of a door-bell trimsfonner oonnected. day-in. day-out. to mains willi !be primary current ftowing without. we hope. anydillipaDon ofen"'ll)'. Thinkofall th. millioos oflrlllSCannas connected to mains supply waitihg ready to be used ....... some switcb is closed in !be.........,.. En", when !be transformers a.., 'SIaIldin8 by' with the .......doJy cin:uit open curreat is ftowiDs in the primary. creaIing flux in the core. BUI, liII1un*Iy, PO OIICIJIY is being COIIIIIIIIed (if we ...ume tbelt1lllsfonner i. 'ideOJ') .......... in a ~primorycoil wbicb bashiab iDcIucuace but th. current is ",2 out ofphase willi the emf ond .... oItho..... curreat is ftowiD&, no power is conswned.

no...mance.

21.5 ELECfRlC POWER TRANSMISSION

The tirstcentral electric generatiug and distn'butiQg faCility in the world went irIro operation in 1882. It was built by Thomas Edison on Pearl street in New York. city and supplied direct CW'rent at 100 V. ~undeilPOUDd mains to anarearougbly 3.2 Ian (2 miles} in cIiamctIIr. For some years. D.C. eItctricity. was practically the ollly type in use. but today almost all elc4;tricity aeneratedisA.C. (alternating current). .when A.C. systems first appealed. then: were some definite opinions against alternating current. Advocates of D.C. bJ:aoded A.C. as dangerous because of 1he high voltage used.
The development of the transformer and of the induction motor led 10 a change over to A.C. electric poWer system. The transformer provided a convenient WIly to Vary voltages and made high voltage power transmission possi"'e. The A.C. induction molor is simple and

._,

435

_icaL InyclUl'bmnot.dleJllQ4DrSOIldle~"""fiImBnee.&o.lIIIhei . . are i-+rle-,.".".. In luclulIClWD, theC\llTC!llt in the ailbllwe Of rotClI" i8 inducc6 by Ibe "'-8in8l111181""ic field of .....tins CUl"NIlt in the Utionary (statie) field c:oib. .With II current in rotor on a magnetic field, die rofOrI ~ a bee_ rocama.

11.S.1 Transmission of Eleetric Power

You have lesmt about the process ofgeneration ofelectricitytbrougb device known &II AC. .or D.C. generater. You must have come across small unit ofae-aliDi" inabops, offices and cinema hall MIen power goes, the maioI is' swi1Ched 0Vet to ae-IIII:I. In commereial geoerators which produces power ofmillion ofwatts at about IS kV (kilo volt) is common. These geneniting plants are hundreds killIIII.IIIIIrlIlIWlI)' iam )'OIa' 1DWn or viJJages. Vet)' IaIge tnechanical power (kinetic energy) is, tbezefore, necessary to roIate the rotor which produces magnetic field inside enonnously IaIge coils. The rotors are roIated by wbat are ~. twbioes. These turbines are driven by varioua sources of aIeIKY.
In onIer to minimise C1IITCmt in the ttansmission 1ioes and stilllrlDSmit the desired ~ of electrical energy. power compm:aies use transformers.. As youhave studied in eadiet secIim 1bat with a transformer AC. potential differences can be raised or 10\WI"ed as ~ At a power plam, poten1ial dilferences are made huge (typically 330 kV) and etamIIs are made smaDforpowertrausmission; ThenattheCOllSUDJereudofthetmwnission.lioes,tbepotaJlial di1feraM:es can be lOwered still fuIther fur 1lIe operation of doorbells, nigbt lamp CIX:.

21.5.1 The Role of Transformers in Transmitting Eleetrie Power

Let us see how transfurmer help to minimize thennaI energy Iqsses in tmwnission.lines. In essence, an electric power system consists ofa transfmmerto "step-up" emfattbe aeneraUng site. a transfmmer to "stqHIown the emf at the consumer end, and a tnmsmissioo. Iioe connecting the two facilities (Fig. 21.7). Atthe generating site, the potentisl dlfl"eaax:e across

Supergrid

1"-

...

'ZISW

Superglnj or 400kV

2SlV

..... .w Ii"
Po

33kV

436

Elecuic Power Generation and its Tie, minion

me secondaly winding ofa powerttaofonner is practically 4,00,000 V and in some instauces it is close to 1,00,000 V. If for example, the power from !he generator is 100 MW (I o'W), and !hepotmtial dill:tcn:e across !he secondary windingis4,00,OOOV (=4 x 10'V) , lhena"""mIDg no energy loss, we have for.!he cummt in !he se<xJDdaty winding:
p W'W J=-=-

=250A

4xW'V

Ifthe resistance ofa transmission line in II n, then !he thermal power prodw:ed in'!he lines, I'R is (250 x 250 x II) =6875 W. This means that 0.69%of!he powerdelivenled by !he generator is lost as heat Bec:ause of the resistance of !he lines, a potential ditrorem:e is produced across !he ends of each line. This amounts to V = IR = 250 A x 110 = 2750 V. Thus, the potential difference across !he primary winding of !he slep-c;\own transformer is 40,000 - 2750 = 37, 250V. In practice. at the con!\l!Dler end potential difference reduced to 230 V (rms). If!he 100 MW had been produced al 230 V at the power plant then the current would be /"=P/V= HtW1230V=4.35 x 10'A. A wireofsufficienl size tocany this current would be proportionatly heavy and expensive. A diagram ofa typical A.c. power transmission system is shown in Fig. 2.1.7. Notice that til<' bigh voltages used in !he transmission lines. Line losses are due to I'R (Joule heat) losses of the power lines themselves. Although metal wires are used. there is still appreciable resistance, particularly over long distances. For example, heavy ahuniniwn wire has a resistance ofabont 0.3 n per kilometre. Aluminium has almost, ifnot completely, replaced copper in long distance transmission lines because of its lightness, streilgtb and cost. An important point to notice is that the (I'R) Joule heating losses depends on the square of me current and hence our aim would be to keep current minimum so as to keep joule heating losses to be minimum. Therefore, bigh voltages at low currents would be preferable for transmission of power over long distances. Long distaaee Traasmissioa of Elec:trical Power' [n Ihe largest modem power stations, electricity is generated al about 25 k V (50 Hz) and stepped up in !he transformer 10 275 kV or 400 kV for transmission over long.distances. The polential difference is subsequently reduced in sub-stations by o!her transformers for distribution 10 local users at suitable potential difference: 33 kV for heavy industries. 11 kV for light industry and 220 V1230 V lor homes, schools, shops, farms etc. (Fig. 21.7).

21.5.3 Problem of Low Voltage and Load Shading

(a) Low Voltagn: For normal operation ofany electrical device proper voltage is essential. If the voltage supplied by !he suppliers is less then !he desired Voltage, WIl say that the problem oflow voltage bas been developed. In tact low voltage is not hannful to the appliance a.the high voltages. However. due to low voltage almost me appliance will not work properly. .,,, overcome the low voltage problem one can use voltage stabilizers. If the low voltage is with in !he range ofthe stabilizer, you will get constanl voltage. You can use CVT (constant. voltage transformers) also to get COnstant voltage.
(b) LlJtld SlrtUling : As you know that !here is some supplier of electricity and you are the

consumer. In order to avoide the dangers of burining off'!he transformers the supply undertakings will try to keep !he load 011 the transformer to be within the specified rating. If
4~7

the transfomc:r Ihrough which you receive the voltage is heavily loaded than the speoified value, the supplier will either shade off the load by,"lJttins,the supply from the power source, or they will request the consumefli to decrease the load by switching off the unnecessaty equipments for lighling and decorati~ healing eqqipmeots ofhigberwattages. This process is known as load shading. In the case ofload shsding, you can use inverters. Inverters are low frequency circuits which convert direct currrent from battery to alternating current or to voltages of desired value and frequency (i.e. 230V and 50 Hz). Why high potential differences are used to transmit electrical.JlOwer over long distances? Let us take and examples. suppose electrical power P has a to be delivered at a potential difference I' by supply lines of total resistance R.The current I=PII'(since P = IY) more correctly (P =1_1'.... cosO) and the loss in the lines = I'R = (P"~R 'Clearly. the gi'cater 1'. the smaller is the loss, in fact doubling Y, qUlll1\m; the loss. V'" Eleclrical power is, thus, transmitted more economically at high potential difference. but on ,the other hand thiscreatesfusulation problem and raises instaJlationl:osl. IfI400 kV supc:rgrid, currents of2500 A are typical and the power loSs is about 200 k W per kilometer of cable, i.e. 0.02% (percent) loss per kilometer. The ease and efficiency with which alternating potential dilferences are stepped-up and stepped-down in a transfOtmer and the filet that alternators produces muchhigherpotential difference than D.C, generators (25 kV compared with several thousands volts), are the main considerations influencing the use Clf high alternating rather than direct potential difference in most' situations.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 21.3_'_ _ _ _--,-_ _ _ _ __

I,

Ifthe line losses in eip.c/ric pow"r /ransmission are reduced by stepping up the voltage, wi9> not /ransmit elec/ric power at even higher voltages than thqse normally used since
the steJrup depends only OIl the relative number ofwindings on the /ransformer core?

2. What is a major disadvantage oflong distance D.C. power lransmission?

J. Does the weather qffect power line losses? Explain?

4,

. .............. .....................,,, .. " ................... '.. . ....... .

W1ry is it economical to produce and /rOnsport power through /ransmisaion lines at high voltage rather than at low voltages?

21.6 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

Generator IS a device which converts mechanical energy into eJec1rlcal ellelKY. Genet;ltor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. D.C. genera!i>r (or dynamo) has two pairs ofhalfsplit rings orcommutalor instead of slip rings. Co-efficient of coupling between two coils is the fraction of total flux from one coil linking another coil. A transformer is a static elec1ric device used to \:oovert one alternating voltage to another alternating voliage or voltages at the same frequency by mutual ,induction.

438'

The transtimner has two windings connected by a common magnetic tlux but e1ectricall) insulated from each other. (i) Primaf)' winding connected across a supply source. (ii) Secondary winding connected across a load. Two types of transformers li) Step-up: used to increase the voltage (ii) Step-down: used to decrease the voltage. The secondary to primary voltage ratio is in the same proportion as the secondary to primaf)' turns ratio i.e.

.J..-

Vp

Np

In a step-up transformer N. > N" r; > and I, < I, In a step-down lransf'onner N>N.V>V,l<l P .J p P

Y.
:J

~.

Main sources of power losses in a transfonner are (i) Heating up of the windings which is avoided hy a cooling agcnt or hy using wires which are thick and heavy with less resistance such that iRis less. <ii) Eddy current i.e. current produced in the iron core by the indtlced voltage. This is greater at higher fr~-quencies when air core transformers are used instead. At low frequencies laminated core is used to reduce eddy current. F"r transmission of puwer from a power station to your house transformers and transmission Jines are used.

21.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1.

2. 3. 4.

5.

6. 7.
S.

9.

10. II.

Suppose the frequency of a generator is increased from 60 H to 120 H,. What effect would this have on out-put Voltage? A motor and a generdtor basically perform oPPOsite functions" Yet some oile makes a ~1atemenl that a molor really acls as a motor and a generator al the same time? Is this really true? Give three ways the voltage output of a genemtor could be increased?' If the line losses in electric power transmission are reduced by stepping up the voltage. why not transmit electric power at even higher voltages 1han these normally used since the step-up depends only on the relative number of windings on the transformer core? What is a major disadvantage oflong distance D.C. power transmission? Where are step-down transformers used in electric power transmission system? Doesthe.whetheraftectpowerlinelosses? Explain? Explain how electricity is distributed from the power plant to the user? A Iigbt bulb in series with an A.C. generator ~ the primary ",inding ofa transfonner, glows dimly when the secondary leads are connected to a load, such as a resistor. the bulb in the primary winding will brighten. why? If the terminals of a battery are connected to the primary winding of transfonner. why will a steady potential difference not appear across the secondary windings. The power supply for a picture tube in a colour televisiQII (lV) set typically requires \5,000 V A.C .. How can this potential. difference be provided if only 230 V are available at 3 household electric oUt-let?

43'1

Physics 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. I 7. Would two coils acts as transformer without an iron core? If so. why not omit the
core to save money?

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

What would be the effect( s) if the primary and the secondary of a transformer had the same number of windings? What kind of "step" transformer would this be? An ac source has a IO-volt out-put. A particular circuit requires only a 2 V A.C. input. How would you accomplish this? Explain? A person has a single transformer with 50 turns on one part of the core and 500 turns on the other. Is this a step-up or a step-down transformer? Explam. Does transformer operate on self induction or mutual induction? Does it have both? If so. what are the effects? Some transformers have various tenninals or "taps" on the secondary SO that connecting to different tap puts ditTerent fimctions of the total number of secondary windings into a circuit'? What is the advantage of this? A trans/omler in an electric welding machine draws 3 A from a 240-V A.C power line and delivers 400 A. What is the potential difference across the secondary of the transformer? A 240-V. 400 W electric mixer is connected to a 120-V power line through a transfoIDler. What is the ratio oftums in the transformer? and How much current .. drawn from the power line? A step-up transfoIDler has 150 turns in the primary coil and 25.000 III"'" '" 'he secondary coil. If the primary is connected to a 220 V A.C line. find flor " .. 11..1'" delivered at the secondary terminals. The primary ofa step-up transformer having 125 turns is connected to a hOlI"<' hghting circuit of 220 V A.C. If the secondary is to deliver 15,000 volts, how many turns must it have? The secondary of a step-down transformer has 25 turns of wire and the primary is connected to a 220 V A.C. line. If the secondary is to deliver 2.5 volt at the out-put teIDlinals, how many turns should the primary have? The primary of a step-down transformer has 600 turns and is connected to a 120 V A.C.line. If the secondary is to supply 5 volts at its terminal and electron current of 3.sA, find the number ofturns in the secondary and the electron current in the primary? A step-up transformer with 350 turns in the primary is cOl1WX'ted to a 220 V A.C. line. The secondary delivers 10,000 volts at its terminal and a current of40 milliampere. (a) How many turns are in the secondary? (b) What is the current in the primary? (c) What poweris drawn from the line?

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS Intext Questions 21.l

I.

2. 3. 4. S.

(i) The A.C. generator has slip rings whereas the D.C. generator has two split rings or a commutator. (ii) A.C. generator produces current/voltage in sinusoidal fonn but D.C. generator . produces direct currente Three essential parts of a generator are - armature, field magnet, and the slip rings. The commutator is converts A.C. wave form to D.C: wave form. Slip rings in an A.C. generators. and split rings in a D.C. generator. Attached to the bicycle for lightening purpose.

44U .

Inren Qu8tiou %102

I.

"1.
3.

induetiue wIJieh requires time YIIIyina curren.t. . Because, die ratio of the voltage in ~ aDd secondsI}' coils . . JII'OPOI'IionaI to the ratio of number of their 1UI'IIS. "
No.Itiey_~toeachOlhcr.

NQ; hausedleWorkingofluldIsfbu&rdepelldsCllldleprineipleofelecll'M' ..... tk

4. 5.
6. 7.

WU8F tif emqy through heating. SO as to miliimisedlelolls of~ due to "'US Because they . . dangerous to die liviDa beioss. Stcp-down frlIIIIformer is used. Step-down transformer.

Because. die eddy aII'ft!IIts _

Intest Queatto.a 11.3 I. 1'be cost of inataIIatlon is my high, IDII tbeIe are ch_' ofbrealW!g ofinmleMD, Special cables have to be iDsIaI1ed for -my high wItages. 2. D.C. can not be produced at very high voftases aad DO IraDsformer ell! be iIIIed in it. Heilce, the beat losses will be IIlOlC in D.C. IraDsmission. 3. Yes. beatdissipatiOll will be more and duriD& rUns sparking also cause power loss. 4. Line 10_ Will be tess because die curmlt will be low. Since Yii '"' YI,.

IEXTENDED LEARNINGI
STATUS OF POWER IN INDIA : In India the power proih.Jcing capacity at die time of independence was only 1,400 MW. By die _fbf 1994-95 it ....s inC:reased to 81,164.41 MW. out ofwbich20,829.04 MW is bydroe1ectric, 58,110.37 MW 'is thermal (lWich include, gas, diesel, etc) 1UH12,225 MW is atonrlc power (nuclear power). In 1995-96 target was 377.15 ( units)1lUt of"Nhich 297 uoit from 1hcrmaI power sJatioos, 72.3 uoit from bydroelec:lric: stations. sod 78.S units from atomic power plants. This target was 7.4% more than die targel of 1''14-'5.

Non-Convention. SoUReS in india

For the remaining period of eight five year plan the target for non-cunventional power is kept to 2000 MW against original S()().6()() MW.
(8 Wind eaellY : In India the potential for wind energy is 20;000 MW. In Asia the largest

150 MW, plant to produced electric power is in MupandaI (Tamilnadu). In India there are 179 ",ind IlllIppins, and 83 wind mooitoring centres at work. In Tamilnadu, Andbra Pradesh, Kamataka. KcraJa. M.P.. Mabarasbtra I:. Laksbyadeep, 80 places have been idallified and it is expected to give 3.000 MW wind enera,y power. The country bas a upacity of 870 MW. wind etJCl'IY power generation. , (b) Biom_ elleFlY: The electrical power programme based OIl biomass was initiated in Jan. 1994. During eight five year plan the rarget was 30P MW. To supply raw material for this purpose nearly 420 old IDII 90 new supr mills have been identified.

(r) Solar pboto voltak sy.... : There an: about 60,000 photo voltaic systems woddng whose lotal capacity is 4 MW. "SO% subsidy :185 been p'Vell to promote this alternate soun:e of ~k'Celric power. Solar cells (panel) COIlven di=t sun light into electricity. During eight the year plan 25 MW tolal upacity will be installed. Of 200 kW capacity partial grid

441

interactive solar pbotovoltaic electricity generating unit (scbcmes)bave been iDsIaIICldat KalylUlJlUl'in Al.igarll DiIIl, (U.P.) aod Samcdi in Mhow cIisIrict.- In Maitb.ia in Jodhpur Disu. of Rajasthan. Government is phmpina to set-up 3S MW capacity pIaot ~solar healer electric. power.
(d) Chemical eaerv 8 1 1 0 _ : There are two types oCc:bemH:U -.,y _ QIl be converted into electrical enetBY from either. fuel cell ClI" ~ Itolap bllltmies; 2.5 kW capacity phosphoric acid fuel cell have been cic'VeIoped aad _ _ _ experimental stage.

(e) Tidal eDeI'IY : udal waves carry CDIlnDOUS potaJIia1 to generase electricity. Government is considering to install a Unit of 900MW cap8eity costing 4000 crores rupees at Bay of Kurch. In India the estimefec!capacity oftidal powa-idOOO MW - 9O.oOoMW. GoVernment is exploring the possibilities to install 7000 MW plat at Khambat, Bay ofKutc:b 900 MW. Whether SQCh schemes _ economically viable or DOt. .
(I)

waves: Energy generating capacity in India is to be 40,000 MW. Based on W C 150 MW (Max.) capacity, ocean wave plate formto generate eleebic power bas beeu installed in V ghinjrun near TIllIIIIIlIIU puraoi, and another is UIIda' construction in Andaman&. Nicobar Islands of capactiy I MW.

aee..

442

22
HARMONIC MOTION

22.1 INTRODUCTION
In your first book of Physics you have studied about different.types of motion like motion In a straight line, projectile motion and circular motion which are mainly determined by the path followed. But there

are some motions which repeat after a certain interval of time. For
example the motion of the hands of a clock, to and fro motion of the swing and pendulum's bob.
In this lesson you will study about the periodic motions partlcularly . the osctllatory motions with examples from your dally Me. You will also study about the simple harmonic motion and related concepts. The next lesson on elastic waves will deal With different types of mechanical

waves, their chracteristics and uses.

22.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying thls lesson, you should be.able to,
e.xplain perfcidic motton, with examples; show that an oscillatory motion Is necessarily per1Ddic but a periodic motton mily not be necessarily osc!Ilatory; deftne simple harmonic motion and show simple harmtmtc motion as prqjection of uniform ctrcular motion on a diameter of a circle; explain the basic concepts of simple harmonic motfDn: derive expressions of time ]JE!rtods of harmonic osdllators; derive expressions for the potential and /cinetic energy of a simple harmonic oscUlator; '!xplain damped harmonic oscUlations.

Physk:8

22.S PERIODIC MOTION

You would have observed a pendulum dock and noticed. that the pointed end of its second hand and that of its minute hand move' around'in a circle each with a fixed period. The second hand completes its journey around the dial in one miriute but the minute hand takes one hour to complete one round trip. However, the pendulum's bob moves to and fro or back and forth 'lIld completes its motion from one end to the other and back to its first end in a fixed time. Such a motfDn or a phenomenon which repeats itself after a jixJed Interval of time is called periodic motil',lrt)'here are two classes of periodic motion ; (i) non-oscillatory (ii) oscillatory. The motions of the hands of the clock are circular and non-osciUatory but the to and fro motion of the pendulum's bOb is oscillatory. However, both the motions are periodic. It is imQOrtant to note that an oscil!ato'Y motion is necessarily periDd.ica/ but a periodic motion is not necessarily osci!lato'Y. However, we must hasten to add that a periodic motion can be shown as a combination of a number of oscillatory motions. Remember that a motion which repeats itSelf In equal intervals of time is periodic and if it is also to and fro over the srune path it is oscillatory. At this stage of learning you are aware of the fact that the Earth completes its rotation about its own axis in 24 hours. Thus, alternate days and nights are formed. It also revolves around the Sun and completes Its revolution in 365 days. This second motion of the Sun produces a sequence of seasons, Similary all the planets move around the Sun in elliptical orbits and each completes its revolution In a fixedinterval of time.

Harmonic Motion: However to and fro motion of a pendulum is oscillatory and also periodic. We shall see that the diSplacement from the equilibrium poSition of an oscillatory motion can be represented by expressions containing smt's and cosines of angles. Such expressions In mathematics are known as harmonic JUnctions. Therefore, a particle executing a motion of this type is known as harmonic oscillator and its to and fro motion is dilled harmonic motion or harmonic osciUation. We shall lirst consider simple harmoniC motion (abbreviated as SHM). But before discussing this type of motion, we shall perform an activity. Actir1Iq,: Suppose that the displacement y of a particle, executing simple harmonic motion, from its mean position can be represented by the equation :
y

= asln6
"

(22.11 122.2)

or

ncos6

From your book of mathematics find the values of sin 9 and cos 9 for Il .. D. 3()o. 60", 90", 12()o. 150', 160". 24()o, 27()o, 300. 330" and 36()o, Then assuming that a 2.5 em. determine the values of y corresponding to each angles using the relation y = a sin 6 choosing a suitable scale plot graph between !I and 6. Similarly )lslng the relation y a cos 9 plot another graph between yand 6. Notice carefully that each of the two graphs represents an oscUlation between +Q and -a. Conclusion 1s inescapable that a certain type of osc11latory motion can be represented by an expression containing sine or COSine of an angle or by a combination of such expressions.

---- --------------------------

_____ J

Hannontc Motion

Now take a break and check your progress by solving the fotlowing. questions.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 22.!,.--_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. What is difference between motion? a periodic motion and an oscillatory

2. Which of the following examples represent a periodic motion?

(I) A bullet.fired from a gun, (Ii) An electron revoluing around the nucleus in an atom, (ut) A vehicle moving wtth a wiiform velocity on a road. (iv) A comet moving around the Sun, (v) Motion of an oscillating mercury colwnn in au-tube.

3. Is an oscillatory motion periodic or non-periadic?

4. What is

a harmonic oscillator?
0 0.0 , 0

0 0 '

22.4 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

It has been stated that the oscillations of an harmonic oscillator can be represented by the terms containing sines and cosines of angles. If the displacement of an. oscillatOIY particle from its mean position can be represented by an equation !J = a sinO or !J = a cos 0 or y = A sin 8 + B cos 8, where a. A and B are constants. then the partlcle executes simple harmonic motion. We define simple hannonic motion (abbreviated as SHM) as under :
A particle fa said to execute Simple hannonic motion if it IJlOI7eS to and fro about a jixed point under the action qf a force (or

torqae) directly proportional to the dt.placement qf the particle.from the

,Ibced point and the direction qf fon:e fa opposite 'eo that of dt.plaeement.. We shall restrict our discussion to linear oscillations.

To derive the equation of simple hannonic Il\Otion. let us consider a point )( ~_ _~.1-_-t X M moving with a constant speed v In a CIrcle of radius a (FIg. 22.11. and centre O. At t O. let the point be at x and at t t the. point be at M. The position Vl'!Ctor OM spec1fles the position of the PIg. 22.1 : SImple harmonic tnovJng point at the tIIl\e t .. t. It Is motion of P along YOV' I obvtous that the position vector OM. i ca11fott the phaaBr rotates with a constant angular velocity w= vIa. fThis \ repreSentation Is also used In analysis of ac clrcuits). The acceleration . oflthe point M Is rf'la = cwO towards the centre 0, AI the time t = t.

4 PhysiCS

the component of this acceleration towards OY = CJIJY- sin rot. Let lUI draw MP perpendicular to YOY. Then P can be regarded as a particle of mass m moving with an acceleration CJIJY- sin rot. The force on the particle P is therefore. F = maw'-' sin rot, towards 0 But. sin Illt = Y I a. therefore. F= Therefore.
F =-mc02y

TIllll.r yla = mw'-'y

(22.3)

The displacement is measured from 0 towards. P (see the negative sign)

Since. this force is directed toward O. and proportional to the displacement 'y' of P from'O, hence, the particleP is executing simple harmonic motion. Let us put mw"

= k.

a constant. then from eq. (22.3) we get. (22.4)

F= -Icy

The constant k which is force per unit displacement is caUec,l tli.e force constant
As mail= k. therefore

(22.5)

ail = kim In one complete rotation, OM describes an angle 21t and it takes a time
T to complete one rotation. Hence
III

= 21tIT

(22.6)

But ro = .,Jk 1m. therefore.

T = 21t.,Jmlk
(22.7)

This is the time taken by P to move from 0 to Y. then through 0 to Y" and back to O.

22.4.1 Basic Concepts of a Simple Harmonic Motion

Let us now define the basic concepts of a simple harmonic motion. These are the folloWing:

Displacement: It is the distance,linear or anl1,ular at a gtven instant of the harmonic oscillator from its mean or equilibrium position. Amplitude: It is the maximum displacement of the oscillator from the mean position on either side of the mean position.
Time period: It is the time taken to complete one Vibration (oscillationl It is denoted by T.

Frequency: It is the number of Vibrations (oscillations)completed by the oscillator in one second. It is denoted by ~. Its SI unit is hertz

HarmOnic

Motton 5

liJiymbot 'Hz). Since '\) is the number of Vibrations per second. therefore, the time taken to complete one vibration Is 1 I y. Hence T = 1 I~; or v = 1 IT s-'. As harmonic oscUlations can be represented by expressions containing sin e and f or cos e , as such wt: nt:ed two more Important concepts. These are the folloWing :

a.- Angle

'" : It is the angle whose sine or cosine at a given Instant Indicates the. position and dIrection of motion of the oscillator. It is expressed In radians.

Angular ~ w: It is the rate of change of phase angie. It is expressed In radian per second. SInce In one complete Vibration the phase angle changes from 0 to 21t radians . therefore, the rate of change of phase angle is w = 2 It IT = 21t v or Cll = 2 It".
ExcuRpIe 22.1: A tray of mass 9 kg is supported bya spring of force constant k as shown in Fig. 22_2. On pressing the tray slightly downward and then releasing, it executes S.H.M. of periDd 1.0s. When a bIDck of mass M is placed on the tray the perIDd increases to 2_0 s. Calculate the mass of tile blDck.

801 ..tI_: The angular frequency of the system Is w=.Jklm, where

m is the mass of the osclllatoxy system.w=.Jklm

w = 21t IT, therefore, from eq. (22.7) we get
2

4r .IT"
When the

= kIm or m=-2
41t

kT

tray Is empty m
9 =
k.12 4r

=9

kg and T = Is
M

Therefore,

On pJaclng the block, m = 9 + M and T = 2 s.

Therefore, 9 + M = k x (2)'/4x"
From the above two equations we get

(9+M) 4
9
Therefore, M - 27 kg.

.". aa.a

hQrlzontal

'lpte 22.2: A spring offorce constant 1600 Nm-' is nwunted on table as shown (Ffg.. 22.S).A ~s m .. 4.0 kg attached to the./fiiB enc.t of the sprfng is pulled horfzontaIly toWdlds the rlIJht. through a dfstance of 4.0 em and then set free. Cab.late (0 the jrequency (Ii) IJldXfmum acceleratton and (f1fJmaxfmum speed of the mass.

8oblt1cm:

w = .Jk/m=.JI600j4-20rads-1 ;
V - 20/21C .. 3.18 Hz; f_ - aw" ...04 l=cnU7WH 16 ms", u_ - aw ... 04 x 20 = 0.8

~
x 400

ms-11.

22.4.2 Simple BanD.omc Motion .. Projection of U~ CIrcular Motion on. DIuneter of Ckde Let us proVe this fact using trigonometry. Let us consider a point M (Fig. 22.4) moving anti-clockwise With constant speed m In a circle of radius a. Let us suppose that at 1 t =0. the point P coincides x'I-~-t'-:';";;;'~ With x and at t = t. the point is at a poSition- shown In the figure. Then MOX =. mt. But OM is a vector which speclftes at the given time t ..t. X, I--....,~y the posltlon of the moving point M relative to the centre O. From M drop MP (I) 'I' perpendicular to YOY'. As the point M moves. the frot P of the perpendicular MP too moves to and fro along yOY'. .". lIS.4: SlfM as piqlectJD.l qj ..tr<:uIar moaan a At any given Instant of time III. bllland~jmrngraphafll). bllO the displacement y of P from 0 is the component of the vector OM. The rotating vector OM whose component represents the actuaI motion of P along YOY' is called the pha.or. fA quantity which varies sinusoidally With tfme may be represented as theprQjectiDn qf a rotating vector called phasor. This representation you w1ll also use In the analysis of a.c. ctrcults}. The circle around which the point moves is called the reference circle.
Let us refer to Fig. 22.4(a). In this position of the rotating vectDr. or the phasor. MOX.. mt and the displaceinent of P from 0 is. oP y. From POM. We find that
II = a sin mt In Fig. 22.4 (b). In time t the phasor OM too deecMbes

C22.8J

8n UlgIe
.
{22.91

CIIIt

but the displacement x of P 'from 0 is

x=acosu

Eq. (22.S) represents simple y harmoniC motion of P along V YOY' and equation (22.9) simple harmonic motion of P along XOX:. Fig. 22.4 a(il} and Fig. 22.4 b >f f-~i'=~~ 11--~~:JI.,j:rl (II) repIe8ent the conespond!ng graphs between the displacement y and x verus the time y t Now let us suppose that at y t - O. M is at Mo such that Ii - y..Then from Fig. 22.8 (a) we get .... aa: SHMatbe ......... al .......
II a sin (rot +

...

+J

(22.10)

drCUIIIr - - . .. the~.

Iiarmonlc Motlon and from Fig. 22.5

x
== u cos

lwt +

'0'\)

(221 II

From the loregoing dist'lISsioll we lind that simpl.. harmonic motion can be regarded as projection of a uniform circular motion on a diameter of circle. Such a eirele is called the n~ferellc<: Circle.

22.5 EXAMPLE OF 88M

In order to clarify the concept of SHM. some very given belpw.
~omon

f'xamples are

22.5.1

Horizontal OsciUatktns of a Mass Point Attached to a Spring'

Con:;otder a horizontal elastic spring of spring constant k attached to a small block P of mass m. The other end of the spring is attached to a .rigid wall. (Fig. 22.6a). The mass of the spring. is negligible in comparison with the mass of the block. The block can be made to move .;>n a smooth horizontal plane.
m

I
. Y

I TJ2

(i) (ii)

(iii)'

x' X 3TJ4 ~---Ir--'--fTJ4

(v)
(a)

(b)

4TJ4 y! 9

22.8 (~ : OscUlattons oj a point mass attached 10 a spring

....~ 22.8(b): osciUalions oj point mass Pas prqJection' of uniform circular motion on the dtameter Xox"

Let us suppose that the spring is massless and there occurs no loss of energy against air resistance and friction. Initially.. that Is, at t 0, the block is at rest (FIg. 22.6 a(l)) and then pulled horizontally through a small dlstapce a to the right (Hooke's Law) [FIg. 22.6 a(l1)I. The work done against the elastic force changes into the potential energy of the block-spring system. As the spring has undergone an extension a, It exerts on the block a force kx towards left tending to restore the block to Its equUibrtum position. As the block returns to Its initial poSition [FIg. 22.6 ali11l1 It acquires a velocity v and henc:;e kinetic energy K = (1/2) nuf'. equals to loss in potential energy. Owing. to Inertia of motion it continues moVing towards left till it arrives at the poSition shown in (FIg. 22.6 la) Ivl. In this position, the block agalnexpenences a force /ex which brings it back to the initial position [FIg. 22.6 (al vJ. And, thereafteJ;", the block continues oscillating to and fro. The time period of Oiitillation is 2Jt:,Jm /k, where k s the force

8 PhysIcs

per unit extension ill the spring. the spring.

It is called the

(flee constant of

22.5.2 Simple Pendulum

It consists of a point mass suspended by an inextensible, massless string from a .fixed point about which it can oscillate freely. Such an ideal pendulum is dlfIlcult to construct. However, a small Spherical bob suspended by a long cotton thread held between the two halves of a clamped split cork in an stand is approximately a simple pendulum
I " When the bob is dtsplaced through a smaH distance from its equilibrium position and then set free. the I \ pendulum executes angular oscillations in a vertical \ plane about its eqUilibrium position. Time for / II \ about 20. oscillations' is measured using a stop I \ watch reading upto one tenths of a second. Thus I the time period T. the time for one complete I oscillation is determ1r.d. The distance between the ~' point of suspension and the centre of gravity of the bob is measured. It is I, the length of. the '. pendulum. The forces acting on the bob of the ~ pendulum tn the displaced position shown In . m inO Fig.22.7 are : mgCll86"

(F1g. 22.7).

1
fiJ.
4 -

\
\

,
-

'.

r.-..

'CJ

(1) mg the weight of the bob vertically downwards

(it) T is the tension of the string upwards along the

J'I&. 22.7: Sfmple

Pendulum

string. Note that the weight mg and equal and opposition reaction by the cork in the equilibtrum poSition constitute a tension.' In the displaced poSition mgcos8 and equal and opposite reaction of the bob constitute a .tension. The weight mg is resolved into components : (a) mg cosS along the string and (hI mg sinS perpendicular to the string as shown. The component mg cosS balances the tenston, T and the comDonent mg sinS produces acceleration in the bob in the .direction of the arrow. For smaH displacement x of the bob, the restoring force is mg9 = mg x/I. The force per unit displacement is k = mg /1 and hence
0>=

..fk = ~mgll = /g or 21t =

m m

VI

:Ii I

Hence, T = .21t ~

. (22.12)

22.5.3

Vertical OsClDatlOD of a ..... 81Upeuded &om a SpriDg

(e)

Let us suspend a spring of force constant k from a rigid support [Fig. 22.8(al). Then let us attach a block of mass m to the free end

PII. 22.8: Vertical osdIIalIon of a block 5"'<pomc.Ied ftom the frw end ofa spring.

Hannonlc MotiOD of the spIing. As a result of this the spring undergoes an extension say , [Fig. 22.8 (all. Obviously the force constant of the spIing Is k = mg/L Let us now pull down the block through a small verti.cai distance Y (Fig. 22.8 (c)). . On the block. now acts a force kiJ vertically upwards. Therefore. on releasing- the block. the force ky pulls it upwards. As .thlf block returns to its initial position it continues moving upwards odaccount of the velocity It has ginned. It overshoots the equilibrium posltion almost by y. The gravity again pulls it downwards &..'ld again the block overshoots the equilibrium position by 'almost the same vertical distance y. Thus. the vertical oscillations of the block continue. The angular frequency of this vertical oscillation is
W

=~klm- =..[g7i

Hence

T=21t{f

(22.13)

We have assumed that the lliass of the spring is negligible In complU'1son with the mass of the block.

22.5.4 Vertical OscUlations of a Liquid Column in

aU-Tube
ConSider a liquid column in a U-tube (Fig. 22.9). The liqUid column in the left arm is pushed down through a small vertical A:: distance y by a piston. ,Since the liqUid is incompressible it rise up in the other arm through the same distance. Consequently. the .- .".' ::".' . difference of level of the liquid In the two arms of the U-tube is 2y. If a be the area of C!"Oss-section of the U-tube. and p be the FIg. 22.9: Vertical density of the liqUid. then the force on the oscUlatiOns oj a liquid column liqUid on the right is 2y pga verticallyin aU-tube. downwards. Now. if the piston is taken out from the left arm. the liqUid column begins to oscUlate. Let us find the period of oscillation of the liqUid column. If , be the length of the liquid column. and p the denSity of the liquid then the mass of the liqUid column is m = lap. Asoi' is the return force per unit mass per unit displacement. therefore.
.~

",' -

2,!J9OP,

y.

or .W=

~29 I and hence the

time . period of oscillation is

(22.14)

T=2~

Ezamp1e 22.3: The.figw'e 22.10. shows an'oScaztltory system comPrfsi1Jg. oj two blocks oj mqsses m, and m" joined by a massless spring qf spring constant k. The blocks are pulled -apart each with a Jorce F and then released. What is the angular .frequency oj each mass. Th" block are on a smooth horizontal pIane. -

Solution: Let x, .and

be the displacement of .each block when pulled

Physics

apart. The extension produced in the spring in x, + .x;.. Thus the acceleration of m, is k (-'] + xJlm; and the acceleration of m, is ktx, "', m> + xJlm,. Since the same spring provides the C}=lI .. ,nntni:1::" F restoring force to each mass, hence the net F acceleration of the system comprising of the two masses and the massless spring equals PIC- 22.10: QsctIJatmy to the sum of the accelerations produced in system ofTTIJJSSes attached to , the two masses. Thus the acceleration of the ' a spring. system is' ktx, + .x;.1 [11m, + l/m,J = kxlll where x=x,+.x;. is the extension of the sPring and Il is the reduced mass of the system gtven by 11m = 11m, ,+ 11m,. The angular frequency of each mass of the system is therefore .
CIl

kill

... (22.15)

Now, take a pause and check your progress

INTEXT QUESTIONS 22.2,,--_ _ _ _ _ _~_ _

1. A small spherical ball of mass m is placed on a smooth spherical bowl of radius r a little away from the bottom point. Find the time . period of oscillation of the ball. (Fig. 22.111

......... , ,-."\ C

I ,

"

'-~~ o
PIC 22.11:

r~

~ r'

~-=~--<~~=-:~:~~
PIC. 22.12:

--1- --' ---. .-0 ---- ---- --~

:::::

--

::-:::

--

mg \ ,

PIC.22.1S:

2. A cylinder of mass m floats vertically in a'liquid of density p. The length of the cylinder inside the liquid is L Find its time period of osclllation. (FIg. 22.12)

............................................... ,....,............ ........................................

;

3.

Find the frequency of oscillatioJ;l of the mass m connected to two robbe!.' bands as shown In the figure. The force constant of ~c/;l of the two bands is k. (Fig. 22. 131
, ., , " , , 0 0 00' .0. '0 0. ' 0 ' 0

22.6 ENERGY OF SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

As you have seen, one form of the equation of
is
sinlpl~

harmonic motion
122.-16)-

. y = a sin' rot when t changes to t + At /J.y changes to

+ tl.y. Therefore

______~--------------------~----------------------~Hunw~=~--M~.
y
As M
~

11

+ Ay = a sinm It + At}
=

=a

sin (rot + mAt I

a{slnrot cos mAt + cosmt sin roAt I

(22.17)

O. cos mAt ~ 1 and sin wi: At ~ ro At. Then

y + Ay = a sin rot + a cos rot.mAt

Subtracting eq. 22.16 from

eq.

22.17 we get

Ay '" At roa cos rot or

or

Ay/M

macosrot
rot

= roa cost

(22.18)

where v = AU/Mis the velocity of the oscillator at time t = tHence .. the kfnetic energy of the oscillator at th;lt instant of time is.
K

= 1/2 rnv2 =(I/2}oo2a2 cos2 ,-t

(22.19)

Let us now calculate the potential energy of the oscillator at tlJat time. When the displacement is y. the restoring force is kyo where k is the force constant. For this purpose we shall plot a c graph of restoring force ky versus the displacement y . . We get a stralght line graph shown in Fig. 1 22.14. On the straight line graph OC. let us take .e IL ky two points P and 9 and drop PM and gN perpendicular to Oy. As the points P and 9 are 0 "'---.,..a----'L.--clcse to each other. therefore. PgNM can be MN B Y regarded as a rectangle. The area of this Yrectangular strip is kyo Ay. This area equals to the FIg. 22.14: Graph work done against the restoring force ky when the between the displacement changes by a small amount Ay. The dlspku:ement y anti the area of the traIngle OBC is. therefore. equal to the restoring force ky work done in the time the displacement changes

from 0 to OB (=y) =

4kif.

This work done against the conservative

force is the potential energy U of the oscillator. Thus. the potential energy of the oscillator when the displacement is Yis.
I U = 2 kif

(22.201

But co2

= kIm.

therefore. substituting k
1 , 2 U = 2 mro-v .

= I11!Ji2

in the eq.(22.201 we get

Further as y = a sin lOt. therefore

U" ..!. 2 l11I1l"a"sln'mt . As the kinetic energy when the displacement is y from eq. 22.19 is
cos' wt 2 Therefore. the total energy of the oscillator at any instant Is 1 1 E = U + K = - nw" a" (sin'rot + cos'cotl = mci'CJ:il 2 2
K =

..!.1l'lWci'

(22.21)

12

Pbyak:a

The graph ofldnetic energy K.. potential . energyU and the total energy E versus the displacement y is shown in' Fig. 22.15. From the graph It is evident that. for y ;. 0, K " E and U " O. As the displacement y fro~ the mean position increases the kinetic energy decreases but pOtential energy increases. At the mean position the potential energy Is zero but the kinetic energy Is maximum. At the extreme positions, the energy Is wholly Potential. However the sum K + U .. E is constant.

,.j;K

, ,

\1

a y 1'11.22.16: The uaritJtIon oj

potenfiDl energy U and kI1:retJc energy K wlth disp/Dcement from !!qU1l1brlwn position

\' a

INTEXT QUESTIONS 22.3

1.

When is the kinetic energy of a harmonic oscUlator maxImUm: tn its equilibrium positfDn or when the displacement Is maxfmwn? When Is the acceleration maximum?
II .................................................................................................. .

2.

Why does the amp/1tI,Ide of a sfmp/e pendulum decrease. with tfme? What happens to the energv of the pendulum when its ampUtude decreases? .

.................. ........ ....................................... ..... ...................... .....................

~

22.7 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS

Take a simple harmonic oscillator comprising of a metal s block B suspended from a fixed . support S by a spring G. [Fig. 22.16(al). Place below the block a tall glass cylinder filled two thirds With water so that the --~ HfWl~ block Is about 6 cm below the -----:'-:'-'::': surface of water and about the (a) (b) same distance above the bottom of the beaker. Paste a millimeter scale on the side of the cylinder just opposite to the pointer 1'11.22.18: Damped. vlbmtfons attached to 1)1e block. Push the (0) experimental setup block a few cel;ltimetres down(hI damped oscIIIiltfDns wards and then release It. After each oscillation note down the uppermost position of the pointer on the millimetre scale and the time. Then plot a graph between time 'f and the amplitude a of oscillation. The graph [Fig. 22.16(b1J showS that the amplitude decreases with tiIne. Such oscillations are called damped

:~t(u

oscillations.

--

.... ,

..

~----

Hnrrnonic Motion

22.7.1 Free, Forced Vibrations and Resonance

To understand the difference between these phenomena. let us perform the ~olloWing actMty. From a flexible support (Fig. 22.17) suspend four pendulums A. B. C and D. The pendulums A and B are of equal lengths. C has a shorter and D has a longer length. The pendulum B has a heavy bob. Set pendulum B Into oscillations. You will observe that after a few minutes the other three pendulums too begin to oscillate. However. the amplitude of A Is the largest. Why? Each pendulum is anoscillatoty system with natural frequency of its own. The pendulum B which has a large mass transmits Its vibrations on each of the pendulum A, C. and D. As a consequence of this. the pendulums C and D are forced to oscillate not with their c respective naiural frequency but 9 with the freque.ncy of the A penduZwn B. The phenomenon is called forced. 05cillation. o By holding the bob of anyone of these pendulum you can I'll. 22.17: El<per1mental arrangem.entjor fotce it to oscillate with any forced vibrations and resonance. frequency you desire. This too is a case of forced oscillations. The frequency of the force impressed by the pendulum B on the pendulums C and D Is different from the respective natural frequency of C or of D. Both C and D are forced to oscillate with the frequency of B. However. the pendulum A on which too the oscillati9ns of the pendulums B ~e Impressed. oscillates with a relatively large amplltude with its natural frequency. This phenomenon Is known as reSOD8DCe .To swn up when the molJlng part of an oscalatory system is displaced .from Its equUibrtum position and then set.free. it oscUlates to and from about Its equUibriiun position with a.frequency .that depends upon certain parameters of the system only and not upon any external oscillating foree. Such. oscUlations are known as.free vibrations. The .frequency with which the system oscUlates.is known as natural frequency of the system. The oscillatory system on which the oscillations are impressed is caUed driven and the system which applies the oscillating foree is known as the drtlJer. The particular case in which the natural .frequenCy of the driller. equals the natural .frequency of the driuen. is known as resonance.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 22.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. Distfhgutsh between resonance and forr:ed lJibratton .
.......................... u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. When the stem qf a lJibrating tuning fork is pressed against the top of a table a loud sound is heard. Does this obseroatlon demonstrate

11 ~_P_hrs_IC_S~_ _
the pherwmenon oj resonance or Jorced vibrations? Give reasons Jor your answer. What is thE cause oj the loud soWld produced?
3. Why are certain musical instruments provided with sound boards or sound boxes?
................. 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

22.8 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

"eriodic motion is a motion which repeats after equal intervals of time. Oscillatory motion is to and fro motion on the same patzh. An oscillatory motion is essentially periodic but a periodic motion is not necessarily oscillatory. HarmOnic motion is an oscillatory motion in which the displacement of the oscillator from its mean position can be represented by expressions containing sines and cosine of angles. Simple harmonic motion is to and fro motion under the action of a restoring force or torque proportional to the displacement" of the particle from its' equilibrium position and directed towards the mean position. Time period is the time taken by the given particle to complete one oscillation. Frequency is the number of vibrations completed by the oscillator in Is.
P~e angle is the angle whose 'sine or' cosine at the given instant indicates the position and direction of motion of the particle.

Angular frequency is the rate of change of phase angle. Note 'that ro , =_ 21t/T = 2:", where m is the angvlar frequency in rads-!, U is the cyclic frequency in hertz (symbol : Hz) and T is the time period in seconds. Simple harmonic motion can be regarded as projection of uniform circular motion on a diameter of the circle. Equation of simple harmonic motion is
y

=a

sin (rot + t;.)or y

=a

cos (mt + 41.)

Where y is the, displacement from the mean position at a timet, ((I. is the intilai phase angle (at t = 0). A simple hlumonic motion has only a single frequency of vibration and constant amplitude.. , In general, the vibrations produced may consist of a mode of lowest frequency 'v .called the fundamental, or first harmonic plus higher harmonicS 'of frequencies 2))' 3i)) 4'\1 .... When an oscillatory system vibrates of its own, without the influence of an external oscillatory system. its vibration, are said to be free. If, however, an oscillatory system A is driven by an outside system B' called the driver and the system A is forced to

_.Harmonlc MotiOn:

fs

vibrate with the, frequency of B. the vibra,tions of A are said to be forced vibrations. However. if the frequency of the drtver equals to the natural frequency of the driven. the phenomenon is known as resonance.
An O\l,clllator. such as a pendulum. while osCillating' has to overcome the viscous resistance of air. As a consequence of this.

energy is lost as heat., Hence the amplitude of vibration decrease with time. Such vibratiofi\l whose amplitude decreases owing to loss of energy' as heat in overcoming fnctional and viscous forces are called damped vibrations.

22.9 TERMlNJ)!. QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between a periodic and oscillatory motion.
2. What is a simple harmonic motion?

3. Which, of the following functions represent (i) simple harmonic motion (ii) periodic but not simple harmonic liii) non periodic motion? Give the period of each penodlc motion.
(l) sin Cilt + cos. Cilt

(2) 1

+w

+ CI!'t

(3) 3 cos lCilt - 41

11:

4. The time period, of oscillation of mass 0.1 kg suspended from a Hooke's law Spring is Is what would be time period of oscillation of mass 0.9 kg when suspended from the same spring?

,, 5. What is phase angle? How is it related to angular frequency?

6. Why is the time period of a simple penqulum independent of the

mass of the 'bob, when the period. of a simple harmoniC oscillator is T;= 21r .Jm/k? 7. When is the magnitude of acceleration of a particle executing simple ,harmonic motion maximum? When is the restoring force maximum? 8. Show that simple harmonic motion is the projection of a uniform circull;ll' motion on a diameter of the circle. Obtain an expression for the mne per:iod of a simple harmonic oscillator in terms of mass and force constant. '9. Obtain expressions for the instantaneous kinetic energy potential energy and the total energy ?f a simple harmonic oscillator.
1:0. Show graphically how the'potential energy U, the kinetic energy K and the energy E of a Simple harmonic' oscillator vary with the' displacement from equilibrium position.

11. The displacement of a moving particle from' Instant is gtven by x = a cos Cilt + b sin particle simple harmoni(!? If your answer is your answer is yes, calculate the, amplitude phase, angie

rot

a fixed point at any Is the motion of the no, explain why? If of vibration and the

12. In an oscillating simple pendulum. the amplitude is 0.04 m and

16 . Physics

the time period Is 10 s. Calculate the maximum velocity. 13.Imaglne a ball dropped In a frictionless tunnel cut across the Earth through its centre. Obtain an expression for its time period In terms of radius r of the Earth and the acceleration due to gravity 'g on the surface of the Earth, 14. A ball of mass m can move freely in the neck of area of crosssection a of an air chamber cif volume V. When pressed down a little and then released the ball executes simple harmonic motion. Assuming that changes In pressure and volume are isothermal, calculate the period of oscillation of the ball. 15. In the figure 22.18 is shown a block of mass m = 2 kg connected to two springs each of force constant k = 400 Nm-I. The block. Is displaced by 0.05 m from equilibrium position'D6IS'~ and then released. CalcUlate (a) The angular _lks frequency (l) of the blOck, Ib) its maximum . PiC 22.18 speed; (c) its maximum acceleration; and total energy dissipated against damping when it comes to rest.

16. In Fig. (22.19) (a) andlb) are shown two different arrangements ot two springs joined . to a block of mass m. If the block in each ".,..,~'" arrangement is displaced a little downwards (II) and then released, what would be the angular (0.1 frequency of osclllation In each case? n,..82,18

CHECK. YOUR ANSWERS

INTEXT QUESTION. 22.1
1. A motion which repeats after fixed Interval of time Is a periodic motion. 'A to and fro motion on the same path is an oscillatory motion. 2. (ii), (iv) (v); 3. Periodic ; 4. A particle whose motion can be represented by expressions containing sines 8I1d ~ cesines of angles.
1M lEU QUBSTlOlif.

aa.a

1. Return force on the ball when displaced a distance x from tbe equilibrium J?Osltion is mg sin e - mg e mg x/r. . 2. On being pushed down through. a distance II, the cylinder experiences an upthrust J,oapg. TherefOp. aP yarglJPTL From the law of flotation m air, Hence, aP gIl or T ~ 2Ir~11 g.

3. aP .. kIm and hence..;.l/2"'.Jklmdisplaced, only one of the banda

emu the rertorlng force);

!!lote that when the

maR ..

Harmonic Motion

17

l1n'J.tXT QUESTIONS 22.3

,. K.E is maximum at mean position or equilibrium position;, acceleration is maximum when displacement, is maximum. 2. As the pendulum oscillates it does work against the viscous resistance of air and friction at the support from which it is suspended. This work done is disSipated as heat. As a consequence of this the amplitude decreases.
INTEXT' QUESTIONS 22.4

1. When an oscillatory system called the driver applies its oscillations of force on another oscillaltory system called tlie driven and the second system is forced to oscillate with the frequency of the first system. the phenomenon is known as forced vibrations. In the particular case of the forced vibration:; in which the frequency of the driver equals to the frequency of the driven system. the phenomenon is, known as resonance. 2. The, table top is forced to vibrate not with its natural frequency but with the frequency of the tuning fork. Therefore. this observation demonstrates forced vibrations. Since a large area is set into vibrations. hence the intenSity of the sound increases. 3. The sound board or box is forced to vihrate with the frequency of the note produced by the instrument. Since a large !iI'ea is set into vibrations, the intensity of ~e note produced increases an4 its duration decreases.

TERlIONAL QUESTIONS
3. (1) periodic and SHM, - ; Iii) noli periodic ; (iii) periodic and SHM.
Q)

2n

2lf T=OJ

4. 3.0 s
11. Put a = A sin
... "0

+0

and b

= A cos
"'\I

= tan-I ~ b' and A =

'a +b
2

'0 .

Ther x

=A

sin (rot +

+l

and

12. "_ .. aro .. 0.025 ms- I 13. [Hints At a depth d below the Earth's surface 9d = gil-dIn = 9 (r - d) = 91 r x
r

where x is the distance from the centre of the

Earth. Hence oi'

= 91rand T = 21t-Jr I 9

18_~_~kS .__________________________~--------------------------------

14. For a displacement y, change In volume is AV = ya. The restorng

.I1V a2 F Ea 2 force Is then F=i\o.a = E-a=EJ..:. 11J2=_= __ and hence,
IT

my

mV

T" 21t~::
15. (a)
(J)

= 20

rads-',

(hI 1.Oms-' ,

leI 20.0 ms-' (d) 1.0 J.

23
.

ELASTIC WAVES '.

.

23.1 INTRODUCTION
In our dally life we .observe that material particles and objects are In motion. When a stone is dropped lnto the calm water In a pond, we

observe concentric rings of alternate elevations and depressions emerging out from the point of impact and spreading on the surface of water. Consider a straw piece floating on the surface of water. You will observe that the straw piece moves up and down. It also moves back and forth. Here is something other than a particle which moves. We call it a wave.
In this age we are well aware of the fact that radio waves cany sound

from one place to another with the speed of light. These waves like light waves do not need a material. medium for propagation. However, we shall restrict our discussion In j:hl.s les.son about the mechanical waves prop~ating In elastic media. , .

23.2 OBJECTIVE
After studying this lesson, you should be able to,

explain propagation of transverse and lOngitudinal LIlaues and establish the relation v = \l A; derive the relation for the velocity of a longitudinal LIX.lIJe5 in a gas and to explain. Laplace's CO/,~ a to discuss the jactors on which this velocity depends; . derive an expressWn for the velocity of a transverse sound waVe on a stretched strtng; derive the equation oia simple harmonic wave; explain the PrinciPle of superposttion of the waves,. explain the phenomena of beats, interference, phcise change of a u.rat,re on nd/ectfon.from a denser medium; . explain formatiDn of st(ttionary waves or standing waves and e>;pIGtn .the terms node and anI:inodes;

20

PhysJ.cs

discuss harmDnics of organ pipes and stretched strings; discuss Doppler effect and its applicatiDns; explain characteristics of musical soWld. intensity oj- Sowtd wi:wes.

its unit and threslwld intensity; and discuss rwise poUutiDn and shock waves.

23.3 WAVE PROPAGATION

Let us take a long coil spring called slinky or a long thick rubber tube. Tie its one end to the stem of a tree or handle of a diX>r. Hold its 'free end In your hand. give it Ii. Jerk downward. (Ftg. 23. (a) You will observe that a 'kink' is produced which travels towards the fixed end with definite speed. This kink is a waVe of short duration, Go. on moving the free end (b) continuously up and down you will observe a wave train Fig. 23.1:(11) Wave pulse on a rubber tube or a sllnky. (hI a contlnuous wave traln on a rubber travelling towards the fixed tube or a sliIlky erid.

--------~~~---i

23.3.1 Propagation of Transverse Waves

Let us consider (Ftg.23.2 ) a row of sphertcal ballS of equal masses. ev~ spaced and connect~ together by strfng pieces. Let us imagine that by means of a suitable device. ball 1. from left, is made to execute S.H.M. in a direction perpendicular to, the row of balls with a period T. All the (i)t=O 0 0 00 a ()-Q balls, owing to Inertia of rest (~)t=Tt4j~ will not begin to oscillate at the same time. The motion will be (11i)t=T~~ handed over from one ball to (iv)t=3T/4s~ the next after a certain time. . 11./2 Let us suppose that the time taken by the disturbance to travel from one ball to the next 2x 311./2 Is T/4s. Initially. that is, at t = .............}"............. .. (l, all the balls are at rest ann occupy theposttions a,hoWn In #t&. 23,2: Propagat/D/l' qf a FIg: 23.2. After t = T/4s ball 1 transuerse will have ma,xlmum displacement In the positive dtrectlon and the disturbance will Just arrive at ball 2 (FIg. 23.2 HI. After t = T/2s, ball 1 will be at its mean position. ball 2 will have maximum displacement in. the. positive direction and ball 3 will just start moving up (FIg. 23..2 tuJ. After t. 3T/4 s, ball 3 has maximum displacement in the negative direction, ball 2 is In its mean pqsitlon, ball 3 has maximum displacement in the positi~. dlrectl.on and' the disturbance just arrives

(V)t=4Tl4s~

ElaRtlCWaves 21

at ball 4.

After t = 4TI4 s the positIOns of the ballS is as shown 'in In this mimner the disturbance moves ahead. Let us note the phase angles of' the five balls at t = 'IS. The phase angle of _ball no . is 2n that of ball 2 is 3n 12, that of ball 3 is n and ball No.4, 5. have .phase angles of n/2 and zero respeCtively.' Note cm:efully thal ball 1 and 5 at this time are in the mean position ,and at the point of moving upwards. We say that ball 1 and 5 are vibrating in the same phase.
Fig. 23.2 (iv).

In a wave motion thB dfstcmce between the two ~ particles vibrating in thB same phase is called a wavelength, denoted by A..
It is evident that time taken by the wave to travel a distance A = T. (See fig. 23.2). Therefore the velocity of the wave is

Distance TIme But

= \I =

A
T

(23.1)

lIT =.)1. the cyclic frequency. Therefore.

'\)=\lA
(23.2)

Further. as the phase difference between the two vibrating particles in the same phase is A. therefore. the phase change per unit distance.
k

= 2n
A
(23.3)

We call '/C the propagation constant. You remember that Q) is the phase change per unit time. But the phase change in time T. is 2n hence
Cd

=-=2Ir\l T .

21t'

(23.4)

Dividing eq. (23.3) by eq. (23.4) we get

Cd

21t')I

21t'1 A.
=V

or

Cd

= v>.

the velocity of the wave. Thus,

V=-= k
Cd

vI),

(23.5) Again we

Let us now explain how the logitudlnal waves propagate. have to think of mechanical model.

.U

______________________~_______________

1Y
I
(i)t=o
(ii) t=T/4 S :
...

3
,

4
:

5
I.

6
I

t::-O
"X
:=

...

(III) t=TQ S,
,

(iV)t=3T14S~~
. '-: I

"''W"7' .II'~ +~.~ += ,. )(

I I I. I I RI . I

'. '. C I I .W9~1it. 'W> I,' I CI

.'i'" 'Br' ,1 t
I I
I .

T/4

' . x

t =TI2

~+~.1'R'~
I

3T 1'+

(v)t=4T14's

'tffl"n~ .12'~.
FIt. 23.3: Propagatjon of Iongttudina[ waves

R f

C.

I'

t=T

.x

)
x

23.3.2 Propagation .of Longitudinal Waves

Let us consider a row of balls (Fig. 23.3 (i) of equal niasses. equally spaced and connected by means of spring pieces of equal force constant. By a suitable device ball No.1 In the row from left is made to execute simple harmonic vibration parallel to the row of baIls. Let us suppose that T is the time period of vibration of each ball. After a time t =T/4 ball NO:t-will have maximum displacement in the 'positive direction and the disturbance will just arrive at ball 2 [Fig. 23.3 (iill. Now thl spring piece between ball 1 and 2 expands. As a result. ball . 1 mov(:s toward left and ball a moves towards rigpt. After t- = T/2. ball 1 returns to its original position and 2 has a maximum displacement towards right [FIg. 23.3 (iii)) and the others are unaffected so far. As ball 1 returns to its Initial position: o:W1ng to inertia of motiQn. it overshoots and has a maximum displacement on the negative direetion [FIg. 23.3(iv)). After 4T/4. the positions of the baIls ts as shown in Fig. a3.3(v). In this position'ball 1 and 5 are in the opposite phases of vibration but ball 1 and 3 are In the same phase of vibration. The distance between 1 and 3 is A. the wavelength. We define. wcwelength as the distance between the two nearest particles ufbratfng in the same phase. Note that ball 1 ana 3 arc passing through their mean positions and moving In the opposite directions. Hence. the phase difference between them Is A .
As the phase difference between ball 1 and 3 is 21r

and the. distance between them is A. hence the phase. change per unit distance Is k = a '/C/A. where k Is lmown as propagation constant. We get all oth~ relations same as obtained in the previous sub-section for transverse waves.

Elastic Waves
+ ___ :11. ____ ,..
+--"'-.~

23

IIi111i11111i i111I<

.---+i
C

t /f"\
..... 23.4: (iJ

~\J7
T T
~-- ;.-----~

/T\

/f'\ _

LorlJlllUdinal

wave deptcting

A.

(U) transverse wave deplcting.:t.

The wavelength is shown in Fig. 23.4' for Doth longitudinal and transverse waves. Let us now derive the equation of a simple harmonic. wave.

23.3.3

Equation of a Simple Harmonic Wave in One Dimension

When we speak. sound waves are produced in three dimensions .. the light waves emanating from a point source too travel in all directions. the waves produced on the surface of water are ,waves, In two dimension. But the waves produced on a coll spring or on a stiing are waves in one dimension. We shall 'restrict our discussion to the waves in one dimension only.
y _- - - - - - - -

,l. - -

_ - ____ I

o~

p ____ (f' ____ ____________

~ ~

~~~.

PIa.

23.5: SImple harmon",

UJ(1ve

IraveUlng along x-dlrection

Let us consider a simple harmonic wave propagating along OX (Fig. (23.51. We ,shall a,ssume that the wave Is transverse and the vibrations of the' particle are along YOY. Let
!I = a sin rot.

(23.61 represent the vibrations at a given instant. t = 0 at the point O. Then the vibrations at OIat at the POint p'lags behind by a phase angle

time

24

Physics

say

+.

Thus,. the vibrations at that time at the point P 15 gtveD by

Y = a sin (rot - +)
(23.7)

+'" kx

Let us put OP I Hence.

=x. Since phase change per unit distance Is Ie. therefore

y = a sin (rot -

/aI
(23.8)

Further as ro = 21t IT and k = 21t/).. therefore.

asin (~ 2; x)
t(23.9)

or or

Y .. a sin 2n (.!.-~) T ).. .

Y

asID 2; (;t - x)
211' T (vt - x)
(23.10)

or

Y = a sin

Phue cUffenace between two wave_ :

In deriving eq. (23.8) we have assumed Initial phase of the wave, at 0 Is zero. However. if the in1tial phase angle at 0 Is then the equation

+.

of the wave would be y'" a sin ((rot - kx) +

+.1

(23.11)

Thus, if two simple hannonic waves travelling along OX are represented by the equations y '" a sin (rot - /aI and
(23.8)
~)

y'" a.sln [rot - k (x+

(23.12)

then the phase difference between them Is 21t = k.1x = T'&:

(23.13)

where Ax Is called the path difference

RrmmJber 1hat phase angle of a wave is the angle whose sine or cosine times the amplitude gives the djsplacemem Y at a giwn 1ocation lit a giwn time 8Ild the phase difference between the .two waves. at a given point equals to 2K/A times the path difference at that point.

23.3.4 Tran....erse Versus Lcmgitudinal Waves

Now we shall be s~mmar1s1ng the' pOints of dlfferenc.e between transverse and longitudinal waves.

Elastic Waves: 25

TraDwene
(I).

Lcmg1tudblal waves
(i)

Displacements of the particles are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. Transverse waves look as crests and troughs propagating in the medium. Transverse waves can only be transmitted in solids or on the surface of the liquids. In case of a transverse Waves. the displacement distance graph is the actual picture of the wave itself.

Displacements of the particles are parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave. Longitudinal waves giVe the appearance of alternate compressions and rarefaction moving forward.

(11)

(11)

(111)

(111) Longitudinal waves can travel in solids. liquids and gases. (iv) In case of longitudinal waves. the graph only represents the displace ment of the particles at different points at a gtven
time.

(tv)

(II) Eueatlal properties of the mecllum for propagatlonof longitudi-

nal and transverse mechanical waves are given below:

These are (i) the particles of the medium must possess mass. (11) the

medium must possess elasticity. Longitudinal waves for propagation in a medium require volume elasticity. but transverse waves need shape modulus or modulus of rIgtdity. However. light waves and other electromagnetic waves which are essentially transverse do not need any materlal medi\lm for their propagation.

Ener!IY transmfssfon by tnwe.llfng _ : Let p be the density of the medium. a. the amplitude of the particles. and 01 be the angu(bJ

lar frequency of the particles of the medium. The maximum velocity of an oscillating particle Is Vo = am. Thei:efore. mru:imum kinetic energy of a particle of the medium is 1/2 m vo'= 1/2 rrw?-ai'. where m is. the mass of the particle. If v be the wave velocity then the volume of the medium that the wave sweeps in 1 s when it moves normally across a unit area is V. The intenSity 1 of the wave is the energy that flows per second across a unit area. therefore.
(2314) .

Thus. the intensity of the wave is proportional to the square of the frequency of the wave and the square of the ampUtude of the wave.

INTBXT QUESTIONS 23.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.

State the cijfference

between longitudinal and transverse waues?

.................................................................................................................

2. State the relation between phase difference and path difference.

3.

=a

nvo simple

harmonic waves are represented by theequatfDns y sin ((0/: - kx) and y = a sin [(rot - kx) + , J. what is the phase difference between the two waves?

................................................................................................................. 4. What is meant by the intensity of Ethe wave. State the factors on
which the intensity of a wave depends.

23.4 VELOCITY OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM

Newton's fonnula for the velocity of a longttudlnal wave in an elastic medium of infln1te extent is v

= ~

(23.15)

Where, E = elasticity of the medium.

23.4.1 Newton'. Formula for Velocity of Sound

ma

Gu

Newton assumed that compression and rarefaction caused by the sound waves during their passage through a gas take place under isothermal condition. This means that the changes in volume and pressure take place at constant temperature. Under such conditions the velocity of sound wave in a gas was given- by Newton as, (23.16) For air, at S.T.P, that is at standard pressure and temperature, P

= 1.01

x lOS Nm-2 and p

= 1.29 kg
~

m-3

On substituting these values in

eq. 123.16} we get

280 ms-'

v= 1 1:01 x 10"/1.29

-1

--------

---------------------------

When a gun is fired at the top of a c\1stant mountain. We first see the smoke and a few seconds thereafter hear the sound. The reason .s that the veloctty of light is very much greater than the velocity of sound in air. By measuring the time interval between observing the smoke and hearing the sound, the velocity of sound in air <:an be determined. Using an improved technique, the velocity of $Ound in air has been detennined as 333 m s, at O"C. The difference in the value predicted by Newton's fonnula and that determined experimentally is 1333-280}/ 333 x 100 = 16%. This error is too high to be regarded as an experimental error. Obviously there is something wrong With Newton's assumption that during the passage of sound, the compression and the rarefaction of air take place isotherma1ly.

Elastic Waves

23.4.2 Laplace's Correction

Laplace pointed out that the changes in pressure of air layers caused by passage of sound take place under adiabatic condition owing to the following reasons. (i) Air is bad conductor of heat; (ll) Compression and rarefactions caused by the sound are too rapid to permit heat to flow out during compression and allow heat to flow in during rarefaction. Under adiabatic conditions
E = yP

Hence,

ff
1.01 x 10"/1.29 = 333 ms l

(23.17)

For air 'Y

= 1.4.

therefore. at STP

"'N 1.4 x

INTEXT QUES'HONS 2 3 . 2 - - - - - - - - - - 1. What was the assumption made by Newton in deriving his formula?

......................................................................................... .................. ,- .. .
~

2. What was wrong with Newton's fonnu1a?

3. Show t1wt for every 1C rise in temperature. the velocity of sowui in air increases by 0.61 ms".

4. Find the tempemture' at which the lJelocity in air is velocity of sound at 7"C?

3 times the. 2

23.5 VELOCITY OF TRANSVERSE WAVES ALONG A STRETCHED STRING

We shall now derive an expression for the velocity of a transverse wave along a stretched ltaut) strtng. Consider a wave pulse (Fig. 23.6 lal travelling along a stretched string with a velocity v in a direction from left to right. The string along with .the wave pulse ts moved with a velocity v in a direction from right to left so that the wave pulse remains stationary relatiVe to an observer on the Earth. We shall focus our attention on the part pq of the wave pulse. The part pq can be

------------------------------------------regarded as an arc of a circle. A magnified form of the arc pq shown in FIg. 23.6 (h): The point 0 is the centre of the circular are pq and 9 Is the angle subtend by the half arc at O. The forces acting on the arc pq are T. -T. The tension of the string _in the direction of arrows. Each of the two forces T. T is resolved into two components Thin9 towards PO and T cos9 perpendicular to PO.

28

Physics

p q

IS)

..
-------::,:Tc0s9
~-

1:::------.

ToosII

The point P Is the mid,;ie point of the '. , T arc. The - forces T cos9 and T cos9 , perpendil:ular to OP cancel out; but the forces Tsin9 and Tsln9 having a (b resultant equal to 2Tsin9 provide the necessary centripetal force for the element of the wire in the arc pq to move in a circular path of radius r = OP. Fig. 23.6ia): TransueTse wade If IT be the mass per unit length of the pulse travel/ing from left to right on a string (bJ Forces acting on the wire and Iil be the length of the arc pq. element pq then
2T sin9

mOl V'/r:

As 9 is small, therefore sin 9

=9. Further 51 = 29. therefore.

(23.18)

2W =mV'29

or

I = -ffjffi
v

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2 3 . 3 - - - ' - - - - - - - 1. What is the formula for the velocity of a wave on stretched string? 2.

If A.
m?

be the wavelength of the wave and n be the frequency of the wave then what would be the - relatton between n. A.. T and m? Further if A = 21. what would be the relation betWeen n. I. T and

' 0 0 0 0 0_ 0 ' "

0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "-:."

., 0

23.6 SUPERPOSmON OF WAVES

Suppose two wave pulses travel in the opposite directions on a rubber tube or a sliky. What happens when they meet and thereafteI'? Do they knock each other out? To answer these questions. let us consider an experiment. Produce two wave crests on a stretched thick rubber tUbe. or slinky. as shown In' Fig. 23.7 and watch carefully what happens. The two

crests are moving in the opposite directions. TIley meet and overlap at the point midWay between 1bI:m (Fig. 23;7(b) and then separate out. Thereafte~.,each one moves in the same direction in which it was moVing before crossing and each one is having the same shape as it was having before crossing (Fig. 23.7 (e)):

(b)~_ _
(e)

.-J~,-~\..-

Now produce one crest and one trough on the rubber tube or sitnky as shown (8) _ _--->:1,,.,.-..,,. .... 1___ in Fig. 23.7, (d). The two are moVing \~ ,/ in the opposite directions. They meet , (Fig. 23.7 (e), overlap and then SC{larate \ (I) \ 'I out. Each one 'moves in the same \. ." direction in which it was moVing before ,,;;;;: crossing and each one has the same PIC- 23.7: JUusInltlng prfndpiII oJ shape as it was haVing before crossing. supi,rposftJon qf JJJCWeS. Now let us lind out what happens wh~ _ , the twopu1sesoverlap \ [ (Fig. 23.7 (e) 8I).d (f) ].
~

At the points where the' two pulses overlap, the resultant d1spIacement is the vector sum of the displacements due to each of the two wave pulses. This is Called the princfple of superposftfmt.

The above experiment not only' demonstrates the principle of superposition but also shows that two or more waves can travers the same space Independent of each other. Each one travels as if the other waves' were not present. This Important property of the waves enable us to tune to a particular radio station as if the programme at other frequencies of the other stations was not being broadcast. Hereinafter we shall make use of this principle to explain the phenomena of interference of waves, formation of beats and stationary or standing waves.

IIn'EXTgUESTlONS 23.4 - - - - - - - - - 1. When two waves traveUing in the opposltei:lirection meet. what happens then and thereqfter?

................................................................................................................
,2. What happens when two marbles each of the same mass tnweIl!ng with the same ve/ocUy aJong the ,same line' meet?

............................................................................................................
3. 1\110 $ImIIaT wave pulses traveIUng in the opposite dfrectbls on a string meet. What happens (I) when the ,waves are in ,the-same phase? .Ill) the waves are in the opposfte,phQses?

................................................................................................................

23.6.1 Reflection

~d

Transmission of Waves

We shall confine our discussion in respect of mechanical waves produced on strings and springs. What happens and why does it happen when a transverse wave crest propagates towards the fixed end of a string? Only the experiment will provide the answer. Let U!$. therefore. perform the following activity. Activity 23.1 : Fasten one end of a thick rubber tube to a fixed support (Fig. 23.8 (a)" keeping the rubber tube horizontal. give a jerk to its free end so as to produce a transverse wave pulse travelling towards the fIXed end of the tube (Fig. 23.8 (all. You will observe that the pulse bounces back from the fixed end. As it bounces back. the crest becomes a trough whlch traveIs bak c ~ ~ ~. In the opposite direction. Why? As the pulse meets the fixed end. it exerts a force on the F'==~'% support. The equal and opposite reaction not (b)' :;! V only reverses the direction of propagation of the wave pulse but also reverses the direction ..... 23.8 (Q: RejlediDn..from of the displacement of the wave pulse (Fig~ a denser medium (b) waue . 23.~ Ibll. The support being much heavier than stdfers a phDse nruersal the tube. can be regarded as. a denser medium. The wave pulse moving in the opposite direction is called the reflected wave pulse. So whenrejlection takes place from a denser .itedium. the wave undergoes a phase change of 1r: that is. it suffers a

=======;,

phase reversal.
Let us now see what happens on reflection from a rarer medium. Only experim(!nt can provide the reason and as such le.t us perform . another activity.
Activity 2:

Suspend a fIXed rubber tube from a fixed support (Fig. 23.9 al. Then send a wave-pulse travelling down the tube. On reflection from the free end. the wave pulse travels upward but without any change in the directlon of its displacements. Why? As the wave pulse reaches the free end of the tube. it causes the free end to overshoot. Hence there is no change in the direction of displacement of the wave pulse. Note that air Is rarer than the rubber tube. Thus on ~tkm:from a rarer medium. no phase cIumtJe takes place.

J'Ig. 23.10: Long{tudInal

waues are rejlectedJrom a denser medium without change of type but with cht.utge qf sign

NOW the. queStion ariSes : Do the logitudtnal waves too behave sifflllarly'? Watch a row of bogies arranged as shown in Fi~. 23.10(aJ. Now suppose that the engine E moves a bit towards the right. The buffer spring between the engine E and the first bogie in the row ~f"ts

ElastICWaves 31'
compressed. Iv. this compressed spring .expands. the spring between the 1st and the 2nd bogie gets compressed. Iv. the second compressed spring expands. it moves a hit towards the 3rd bogie. In this manner the compression arrives at the last buffer spring in contact with the fixed stand D. Iv. the spring between the fixed stand and the last bogie expands. only the last bogie moves towards the left. As a result of this. the buffer spring between the next two bogies on left is compressed. This process continues. till the compression reaches between the engine and the first bogie on its right. Thus. a compression returns asa compression. But the bogies then move towards the left.. The buffer. spring and the bogies form a medium. The bogies are the particles of the medium and the spring between them shows the forces of elasticity.

Thus, when reflection takes place from a denser medium, the longitudinal waves are relfected without change of type but with change. in sign. And on reflection from a rare medium a logitudinal wave is nifIected back without change of sign but with change of type. By 'change of type' we mean that rarefaction is
reflected back as compression and a compression is reflected back as rarefaction.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2 3 . 5 - - - - - - - - ' - - 1. What happens when a transverse wave pulse travelling along a string meets the fixed. end of the string?

2. What happens when a wave pulse travelling along a string meets the.free end of the string?

3. What happens when a wave of compressiDn is reflected..from (i) a rarer medium (ii) a denser medium?

23.6.2 Interference of waves

Let us compute the ratio of maximum and minimum intensities in an interference pattern obtained due to superposition of waves. Consider two. simple harmonic waves of amplitudes a, and a, each of angular frequency ro. both propagating along ox. With the same velocity. v = oo/k but differing in phase by a constant phase angle cI>. If

Y,

= a,
a,

sin (rot - lex) sin [(rot - lex) + $ I

l'S

(23.19) (23.20)
the phase
ULl1'

be the equation of one wave. then the equation of the other wave is
!J2 =

where

211" and.' ()) = 2ft/T and k = ).. betWeen the two waves.

"""erence

32 ; PhysIca.
Since. the two waves are travelling In the same dJrect10n with the ~ velocity along the same line they overlap. According to the prindple of ,superposition the resultant displacement at the given location at the gtven times
Y =Y, + Y. = a, sin (rot - /Ix) + a" sin [(rot - /Ix) + e\!1
Jf we put (wt - /Ix) = 0 ,then

Y =

a.

sinO + a" sin (0 + til)

or

Y =a, sinO + a" sinO cos+ +

a" cosO sine\!

or
Y=

....Sinq>= A Sin u.

(a.

+ a".

c~)

sinO +

a" sln+

rose

...
8,

+ II:> cos ., = A coa.a.

Let us put a" sine\! = A slna and

a, + a" cos+ = A cos a

Then y = A cosa sin 0 + A sin a cos 0 =Asin(O+a) Substituting for 0 we get or
y = A sin ((rot - hi + al

Pig. 23.11: Ca/cuIatIng resultant amplitude A.

Thus. the resultant wave is of angular frequency ro and has an amplitude A given by N = (a, + a" COS+)2 + (u" sinO)' =
2a, a"

a. 2 + ai

cos" +: 2a1~ cos+ .\li: cose\! + a,,' sln<, (23.21)

or

N = a,' + a,,' + 2a,a" cos e\!

In eq.(23.21) e\! is the phase differen.~ between the two supperposed waves. If p is the path difference b~tween the two waves. then the phase difference between them is
2np T'

where

2n T

is the phase change per unit distance.

When the path difference p = 2m )./2. that is an even multiple of

then e\! = 2n /').. x 2m.}., /2 = 2m". Since cos2n = +1. therefore. from eq. (23.2) we get

A' = a,' + a,,' + 2a,a" = la, + a"l'

(23.22) Hence. the amplitude and the intensl,y of the resultant wave is maximum.

'Elastic Waves 33 From eq. (23.22) we have

I = Imax =

(a, +

a,,)2
~

When p = (2m + 1)A./2. then from eq.

= (2m +1)

It

and

cos~

= -1. Then

(23.21)

N = a, 2 + a,,2 - 2a,a" = (a, - a"l Hence, then I = I .... = (a, - a,,)2.

Thus

k_ (a, +a2)2
Imax
-

(a,-a 2 )

23.6.3 Beats
We have seen that superposition of waves of the same frequency propagating in the saine direction produces interference. Let us now fuvestigate what would be the outcome of superposition of waves of nearly the same frequency. First let us perform an activity.
ACuvlty: Take two tunlng forks of saIQe frequency 512 Hz. Let us name them as A and B. Load the prong of the tuning fork B with a little wax. Now sound them together by a rubber hammer.' Press their stems agalnst a table top and note what you observe. You will observe that the intensity of sound alternately becomes maximum and minlmum. These alternations of maxima and mlnlma of intensity are called beats. One alternation' df a maximum and a mInlmum Is one beat. On loading the prong of B with a little more wax, you will find that beats become more rapid. On further loading the prongs of B no beats will be heard. The reason Is that our ear Is unable to hear two sounds as separate prodUCed in an tnterval less than one tenths of a second. Let us now explain how beats are produced.

(a) PJ:oductioo of beats : Let us suppose we have two tUning forks A and B of frequencies Nand N + n respectively: n is smaller than 10. In one second, A completes N vibrations but B completes N' + n vibrations. Thus, in 1s B completes n more vibrations than the tuning fork A does. In other words, B gains n, vibrations over A in Is and hence it gainsI vib. in (lin) s. and half vibration over A in ; (112n) s. Suppose at t = 0 s, i.e. lriftially, both the. tuning forks were vibrating in the same phase. Then after (1I2n)s,'B will' gain half vibration over 'A Thus, after Is the tuning forks A arid B will vibrate in the opposite phase. If A sends a wave of compression then B sends a wave of rarefaction to the observer. Hence, ,the resultant jntensity as received by the' ear would be zero. After (lIn) s, B would gain one complete vibration over A and hence the two forks will be again in the same ' phase of vibration. If now A sends a wave of compression. B too would send a wave of compression to the obserVer. The intensity observed would become maxlmum. Aft~'(312n)s. the two forks again vibrate in the', opposite phase and hence the intensity would' again, become Illiniffium. This process would continue. The observer woUld hear 1 beat in (lin) s, and hence n beats in Is. Thus, thenumber' of beats heard tn 1s equals to the difference tn the .frequencies oj the two tuning forks. If more that 10 beats are produced in Is, the beats would not be heard as separate. The beat frequency 1s n and beat period is lIn.

34 Physlrs

(b)

- -

v,=10 Hz

, ,

-I--h_,,",-- Beals

Fig. 23.12:

ra') Displocement time graph ojfrequency 12 Hz. (bl tHsp1cement time graph ojJrequency 10 Hz, SuperpositWn oj the two waves produces 2 beats per second.

(b) Graphic method : Draw a 12 cm long line. Divide it into 12 equal parts of 1 cm. On 'this line draw 12 wavelengths each 1 cm long and height 0.5 cm. This represents a wave of frequency 12 Hz: On the line (h) draw 10 wavelengths each of length. 1.2 cm ,and ,height 0.5 em. This represents a wave of frequency 10 Hz. Ic) rep'resents the resultant 'wave. Fig. 23.12 is not the actual waves but the displacement time graphs. Thus, the resultant intensity a1tef!late1y becomes maximum and minimum. The number of beats produced in 1 'second is L1y. Hence the beat frequency equal to the difference between the frequencies of the waves superposed.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2 3 . 6 - - - - - - - - - - 1.

If {he intensity

ratio oj two waves is 1: 16, and they produce interference, what will be the ratio Imnx /I,? min
................................................................................................................ .
-

2. What happens when waves emanating jium two sources oj sowtd are superposed when their .frequencies are..J and !V + 4? 3. Two Waves of .frequencies v and v,+ L1V are supperposed. what would be the .frequency of beats? 4. Two tuning forks A and B produce 5 beats per second. On loading one prong of A with a small ring. again 5 beats per second are produced. What was the .frequency of A before loading if that of B is 512 Hz. Give reason for your answer.

23.7 SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES OF SAME FREQUENCY TRAVELLING IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS

So far we have discussed travelling waves. In such waves, under particular conditions of the medium. crest and troughs are formed or rarefactions and of the compressions medium travel forward w1th'a
",

Elastic Waves 35

velocity depending upon certain properties of the medium. You will now study statloruuy or standing waves. In these waves crest and troughs

or compressions and. rarefactlon remain stationary relative to the observer.

23.7.1 Formation of

Stationary

Or
NA o 11 , N2A:.N.,.. --r

Standing Waves

Let us ~ the formation of ~_I ~ .... __ _ stationary/standing waves. By :_.1" 1__ ' - now it sbould be clear to you ~J..p- -' I" -'10' / 'p' that these waves are fonned due" . f--'--:';:'" to superposition of two waves of ;::. , - . - - --:. - , the same wavelength. same :'(:: ::::/ .~ =- d ampUtude travelling with the ~ p p' same speed along the same line :=. -, ,,-- _ -', __ _ in the same medium but in the e __, . , ' . oppoJlte directions. TO", ---'~ --'1;:- ' .. understand their formation referI-' ' I to Fig. 23.13 where we have ~\;.:'---~i \ I k==i:--~ shown the positions of the -..-...-..-::r-_-_-....-'T! inCident. reflected and resultant ; '- - /' waves. each after T/4 s that is. :!!: ! after quarter of a period of! --" >--i-'" '._---"i-" :... -., vibration. ",--~", >, __ 1.-" .. ,--p' P Initially. at t = O. [Fig. 23.13 - "-- -..)<"----~ __ ..J4-_--.* ___ .".. . __ ~ (ill the incident wave. shown N, IJ4 A, IJ4 N2 IJ4 A:. l.I4 N3 "" Aa lI4- N. by dotted curve. and the reflected wave. shown by PIg. 23.13: Showing formation of statlDruuy waves due LO superPosition of two waves of same dashed curve. are in the wave length. same ampIi1ude travelling in opposfle direction along the same line opposite phases. Hence the resultant displacement at Cl'ch ooint is zero. All the TlIIrticles are in their respective mean positions. (H) At t =T /4s [Fig. 23.13 (H)). the incident wave has advanced to the right by 'A./4. as shown by the shift of the point P and the reflected wave has advanced to the left by A/4 as shown by the shift of the. point P. The resultant wave form has been shown by the thick continuous curve. lt can be seen that the resultant displacement at each point is maximum. Hence the particle velocity at each point is zero and the strain is maximum.

'------, _ _ ___ _ l _.. r-=.:- -' . ,

",I......

l'O-l

1""!
!,

t-_

(ill) At t = T /2s [Fig. 23.13(ill)). The incident wave has advanced a distance 'A./2 to the right as shown by tlie shift of the point P and the reflected wave has advanced a distance 'A./2 to the left as shown by the shift of the point PO. At each point the displacements being in the opposite dtrections. have a zero resultant shown by a thick line.
(tv) At t = 3T /4 s [Fig. 23.13livJl. The two waves are again in the

36

Physics

same phase. The resultant displacement at each point is maximum. The particle velocity is zero but the strain is maximum possible. (v) At t = 4T /4 s [F1g. 23.13(vll the incident and reflected waves at each point are in the opposite phases. The resultant" wave form is a straight line (shown by an unbroken thick line). The strain Ayl tu at each point is zero.
It is to be noted :
(1)
(ii)

That at pOints N,. N2 N3 and N the. amplitude is zero but the strain is maximum. Such points are called nodes. that at points A,. A, and A,. the amplitude is maximum but the strain is minimum. These points are called IlDt'node=.

(III) That the distance between two successive nodes or between two. successive antinode is 'A/2. (iv) That the distance between a node and next antinode is

AI 4.

(v) the time period of oscillation of a stationary wave equals the time period of the two travelling waves whose superposition bas resulted. in fonnation of the stationary wave. (vi) the energy alternately surges back and forth about a point but on the average the energy flow past a point is 7~ro.
The two similar waves travelling with the same speed in the

opposite directions on the same line overlap. Due to their superposition stationary waves are produced. They are called stationary waves, because the wave form does not move forward. but alternately shrinks and dialates. The energy merely surges back and forth and on the average the.flow of energy past a point is zero.

23.7.2 Equation of Stationary Waves

The equation of a Simple harmonic wave travp!ling with a velocity v = (J}/k in a medium y\ = - a sin (00/- kx)
On reflection from a den~r medium' let the wave travel along the same line that is ox in the opposite direction with phase change of It. The' equation of the reflected wave is therefore.

!/2 = a sin (cot + lex)

Thus. owing to the superposltion of the two waves the result'ant displacement at a given point and time is
Y = !/, + !/.

Therefore. y = a stn (cot - lex) - a stn (cot + lex) Let us use the trigonometrtc identity.

Elastic Waves 37
sin A - sin B= 2 sin (A - BJ/2. cos (A + 8)/2

which gives

y = -2a sin lex cos

{JJ/:

(23.23)

Let us put -2a sin lex = A. then y = A cos

{JJ/: . (23.24)

Eq. (23.23) represents the resultant wave of angular frequency III but of amplitude A = -2a sin lex at a location x = x. nus is the equation of stationary simple harmonic wave. The amplituae of the resultant wave. which is A. oscUlates In space with an angular frequency k = 2n/,t which is the phase change per metre. At .such points where
lex

= m n or x =

m n/k

mtr:/- = m ')../2 ,t

2n

(23.25)

sin lex = sin m n = O. Hence A

=0

These points where the amplitude Is zero are known as Dodes. At these poJnts Ay / Ax = maximum. that is strain is maximum. Obviously the spacing between two nearest points is 'J.../2.
At those points where lex = (2 m + 1) 1r./2

or x = (2m + 1) ')../2 x ')../2n

(2m + 1) 'J.../4

sin lex = sin (2m +1) 1r./2 = I. Hence A is maximum. At these points the strain Ay / Ax is zero. ObViously the spacing between two such

neighbouring pOints Is ')../2. These points where the amplitude is maximum but strain is zero are called antinDdes. It may be pointed out. that. at nodes where the strain is maximum the particle velocity is zero and at antinodes where the strain is zero the particle velocity Ay/ At = max. Therefore. It follows that the average flow of energy across any point is zero. The energy merely surges back and forth. Hence. these waves have been named stationary or standing waves.

23.7.3 Distinction between TraveUing and Standing Waves

Let us swnma:rise the main points of difference between travelUng and

standing waves.

. 38

Pbysics.

TraveDlDg Waves

StandiDg waves

. 1. Particular conditions of the medium namely crests and troughs or compressions and rarefactions appear to travel with a definite speed. depending on density and elasticity (or tenSion) of the medium. 2. The amplitude of vibration of all the particles is the. same. 3. All the particles pass through their mean positions with maximum velocity one after the other

Segments of the medium between two points called nodes appear to contract and dialate. Each partic1e or element of the medium vibrates to and fro like a pendulum. At nodes the amplitude is zero but at antinodes the amplitude is maximum. At nodes the particle velocity is zero and at antlnodes it Is maximum. The energy surges back and forth in a segment but does not move past a point.. In a stationary wave the mi:rximum velocity isdifferent at different points It is zero at nodes but maximum at antlnodes_ But all the particles atta,in their respective maximum velocity simultaneously. In case of standing waves strain is maximum at nodes and zero at antinodes. Antinodes are points of no change of density but at nodes there is maxlmum change of denSity.

il. Energy is transferred from

par-

. ticle to particle with a definite speed. 5. In a travelling wave the particles attain their maxbnum velOCity. one after the other.

6. In a travelling wave each region Is subjected to equal s~ one after the other: 7. There is no point where there is no change of denSity.
.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 23.7_ _ _ _ _ _"'--_ __

I.
Dries energy j/Dw across a point In case of statiortcuy ~? Give a reason for your answer?

.......................................................... ......................... ~ ...

2.

.......................

What is the distance between two successive nodes. and what Is the distance between a node and next antlnode?

................................................................................................................
3. What is meant by;the statement that pressure nodes are displacement antlnodes and pressure antinodes are displacement nodes .

...............................................................................................................

Elastic Wa~ .39 4. Stationary wares of jrequency 170 Hz are formed In air. if the velocity of the waves is 340 ms", what is the shortest distance between (0 two nodes (iQ two antinode (iiO node and an antinode?

..................................................................................................................

23.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSICAL SOUND

The following are the characteristics of musical sounds by mean of which we can distihguish one musical sound from another.
(1) Pitch and frequency. (ii) Loudness and Intensity (iii) Quality or

TImbre.

23.8.1 Pitch and Frequency

The term pitch is the characteristic of mUSical notes that enables us to classify a note as 'high' or 'low'. It Is a subjective quantity which cannot be measured by an instrunient. It depends upon an objective quantity the frequency, However, there exists no one to-one correspondence between the two. A shr1ll, sharp or acute sound is said to be of hlgh pitch. But a dull, grave and flat note is said to be of low pitch. Roaring of lion though of high intensity is of low pitch. On the other hand the buzzing of mosqUito though of low intensity is of high pitch.

23.8.2 Intensity and Loudness

The Intenstty of waves is the average amount of energy transported by the wave per unit area per second normally across a SIJIj'ai:e at the given point. There is a large range of intensities over which the ear Is sensitive. As such logarithmic scale rather than arttlupatic;Jntensity scale is more convenient. Hence; the intensity' level p of a sound wave is deflned by the equation.

p=

10 log I

II,.

(23.26)

Where 10 Is arbitrarily chosen reference intenalty taken as 10-12 Wm'". This value corresponds to faintest s(lund that can be heaid. IntenSity I~ is eXpressed in decibels, abbreviated db. If th... intenSity of a sound wave equals to 10 or 10-'2 Wm", its intensity level is then I" = 0 db. Within the range of audibility, sensitiVIty of ear varies with the frequency. The thre.hold audibility at any .J'r8quency Is the minimum intensity of sound at that.fre4uency which can be detected. The loudness Is subjective measure of intensIty for It. depends u~n the response of the ear of the listener. Th~ standard of perceiVed loudness Is the SORe. A sone is the loudness experienced by a listener with normal hearing when lkllo hertz tor.e of intenSity 4Mb is presented to both ears. The range of frequencies and intensities to which ear is sensitive have been represented in a diagram in Fig. 23.14 which is in fact a graph between frequency in henz versus intensity level I in decibels. This is

4O.PhysIt:s

a graph of auditmy area of good heartng. Thlj fon0win8 points may be noted:
1.

2.

The lower part of the CUIVe. shows that the ear is most sensitive for frequencies between 2000' to 3000 Hz. Where the threshold of hearJrig 'is about 5 db. Threshold of hearing in geI;leral ts zero decibel. At intensities above those corresponding to the upper part of the curve. the sensation changes from one of hearing to discomfort and even pain. This curve represents the threshold of feeling. Loudness Increases with intensity. but there Is no definite relation between the two.

,
120. Tl'Ifeshokl 01 {eehng
.a 100 ..,

--I
,

~ 80

" \ ..-

~ 60 E 40

20 Threstdd" / 0 of I)eanng "----./

20 100 10.000 20.000

betwee1t threshold oj hearing and . threshold ojJeeUng
in hettz nc. Frequency 23.14: Audttory area

3.

4.

Pure tones of same intensity but necessarily produce equal loudness_

d~ferent

frequencies do not

5.

The height of the upper Curve is constant at a level of 120 db for all frequencies.

The fonowlng are the factors on Which the intensity of sound. waves depends

1.
2.

Amplitude of IPu,ratfon :. I IX cr where a is amplitude of vibration of the wave. .

DUtance' ~ the' observer and the Source: Ial/T" where r Is the distance of the observer from the source (prOvided It is a point source). .)

3,
4.

tntensitJl' b
.frequency

inlPerselJl proportional to the square of

wave'll

of the

(I IX v?)

Intensity b directly plopol"tlDnal to the density' of the mediuin (I IX pl.

23.8.3 Quality
It is the ,characteristfc of sound waves wfUch enables us to distingUish. between two notes of the same pitch and intensity but sounded by two dftferent instruments. No instrument except a tuning fork can emit a.Pure note, that is a note of one particular frequency. in geneniI. when a. note. of frequency n Is sounded, in addition to It. notes of hlhger rreQuences 211, 311, 411, .... may be produced. These notes, in general, may haVe different amplitudes and phase relation. The resultant wsve form of the waves emitted determine the quality of the note emitted. Quality. like loudness and pitch is a subjeCtive quantity. It depend upOn the resultant wave form which Is a subjective quantity.

____~____________________~--------------------__________~E=Ju=~~~~4L_

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2 3 . S - - - - - - - - -_ _ __
1. How is the intensity level, qf sound dejlned?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '0 . . . . " '0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. What is meant by threshold audibiUty at a gIven.frequency?

...................................................................................................................
3. How pitch is related to.frequency?

.....................................................................................................................
,

4. What is the wtit In which intensity level isusuaJ1y expressed? How is it related to watt m'?

..................................................................................................................
5. What is that characteristic oj musical sOwtdswhtch enables you distinguish between two notes oj tfui same .frequency, and same intensity but sounded by two df1ferent Instruments?

6. How Is that you are able to recognise the voice oj a near and d.eru'?

... ............................................ .....................................................................

'
~

23.9 ORGAN PIPES

It is the simplest form of a Wind Instrument. A, wooden or metal pipe producing musical sound is known as organ pipe, Flute is an example of organ pipe. If both the ends of the pipe are open we call It an open' pipe. However, if the lower end is closed, we call It a clDNd pipe. When we blow in gently, almost a pure tone is heard. This pure tone is called a ~taI note. But. when we blow harder. we also hear notes of frequencies which. are integral multiple of the frequency of the fundamental note. These frequencies are called

overtoae..

23.9.1
(ollowing:

Overtones of oqan Pipes

Before discuSSing the overtones of organ pipes let us bear in mind the (i)
(Ii)

At the closed end of a pipe there can be no motion of the air particles. Hence the closed end must be node.
At the open end of the pipe" the change in density must be zero since this end is in communication with atmosphere. Further, since the strain is zero, hence this end must be an antinode.

(lit) Between two antinodes there must be a node and between two

nodes there must be an antinode.

(Iv) The distance between two successive nodes or successive antinodes is ').,/2 and that betweel?- a node an next antinode, the distance A/4.

42

PhyS1C8 (a) Open pipe: The slmplest mode of vibrations of the air column Is shown in Fif(.23,15 (a). At each of the two ends there is an antlnode and between the two antlnodes there is a node. Since the distance between a node and n.ext antlnode is A/4. therefore. the length 1 of the pipe is 1 = A/4 + 'A./4 = A/2 or . 'J,. = 21 The frequency of the note produced Is
n, ..

r, ,
L

'",.
}J4
"

,
I

"!'
}J4

T ,
}J2

t
iJ4

l.
:t

1.
A
(a)

r ...

viA. .. v/21
mode of vibratlon of the air shown in Ftg.23.15. One more one more antlnode has been In this case
/

A
(e)

The next column Is node and produced.

(1))

FIg. 23.15: HarmonJscs oj an open oryan pipe. The curves represent the wave oj the IongiludInal standlng waves

I = f.../4 + 1./4 + 'A./4+A./4 .. A.

The frequency of the note is
'" = vI). = v

If = 2v 121
A
A

That is

n, =' 2n.

The note produced is called second harmonic or 1st To get the second harmonic you' have to blow harder. But if you blow still harJer one more node and one more. .antlnode is produced IF;lg. 23.15 (bll. Thus. 'in this case

overtone.

'r.

, ,
L

, ,

:r'.-~

(a) ~ (b) ij; (e) -: ';

_'N"

~N"

Therefore. the frequency of the note emitted Is

n, _
V

1 = - + - + - + - or). = - Fim Harmonic MarmoDic Mmnanic 2 4 2 4 3 n,. 21t.18: HlJI'II'lDI'Iks oj Q

closed oryan pipe. The cwves .

).

).

)..).

2i PUadamcntaJ or

Third

Fifth

represent wave form oj the

longUudtnal standing waves.

= 3v =3ti'
21

')..

The note produced Is caned the 3rd harmonic or 2nd overtone.

(b) Closed pipe : The simplest manner in which the air column .can vibrate in a closed pipe is shown In Fig. 23.16 (aJ. There is an antinode at the open end and a node at the closed end. The wave length of the wave prodm.-ed is given by

f.../4 or'J,.

= 41

Therefore. the frequency of the note emitted is

II,

= vI). = v 141

111l'

110(('

prolhln'" is t'allt-d jimciaml'lIIul or first harmonic.

On blowing

Elastic Waves: 43

harder one more node and more antiRode will be produced (Flg. 23.1Sb). The wave length of the note produced Is given by
1= A. + A. = 3A. or A.= ~ 2 4 4 3

The frequency of the note emitted will be

n.J~

I =

41

= 3 n,

The note produced Is called the first overtone or the 3rd harmonic. On blowing still harder one more node and one more antinode will be produced lFig.23.16). The wavelength of the note produced is then given
by
1= - + - + - = - orA. = 2 2 4 4 5

A.

A.

A.

SA.

41

The frequency of the note emitted then will be

rt.;t=":"=-=5nl A. 41

f.

:;. ,.

The note produced Is called the second overtOne or .the 5th harmonic. On comparison With the notes emitted by the open and closed pipe. you will find that the open pipe 18 richer lu overtones. In closed pipe. the even order harmonics are missing.

lNTEXT QUESTIONS 2 3 . 1 1 - 9 - - - - - - - - 1.
2.

Out oj open and. closed aryan pipes which one Is richer in overtone?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

What Is the ratio qfthe .frequencfes Qf the notes emitted (l) by ian open pipe and (W by a dosed pipe
t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.

What wtll be the f!jJfect qf temperature. the jUndamentaI note qf an open pipe?

if any. on the frequency

qf

.................................................................................................................
4. Show that the.freqwm.cy qf the ji.ll'ldcunentaI note oJ open end pipe Is two tfmes the.frequency qf the)i.u14amentaI note qf a. closed end pipe qf the same length.
.............................................................................u ................................ ..

23.10 NOISE POU.tJTION

When the sensation of sound ch~es from one of hearing to discomfort or even pain such a sound Is Il noise and If It perslts for a lonft time. It hall harmful effects on certain organ of human beln~. NOise 18. also

44 ; PhyaIca ,,

one of the by-products of industrialisation and misuse of modern amenities provided by sctence to human beings. We have already defined dectble. the unit of measuring intensity level. We summarise here under the sources or description ofnotses and .their effectll as perceived by the human beings.
Table 23 1 Soun:es qf Not.e and their lfilfectll
Scnuce

. .

IDtenldty Level ID clecIbela

Perceived Etlect by human beblI

Threshold of hearing Rustle of leaves Average whisper RadIo at low volume Qu1etautomoblle OrdinaJ:y conversation Busy street trafDc Motor bike and heavy vehicles , Jet engine about SIS m away
Ltghten1ng

o (=10- 12 Wm"")
10 20
40

Just audible Quiet Quiet Quiet moderately loud do loud.

very loud

50 65 70 to 80 90

lOIS
120 (al Wm4j

Uncomfortable do Pamful sound

Jet plane at take off

(~

150

Meet of Noise PoUatloa

1.

Or more than 85 db causes severe damage to the

2.

It causes Impairment of hearing. Prolong exposure of noise at 81S Inner part of the ear. . It Increases the rate of heart beat and causes 'dIlation of the pupJ1 of eye.
It causes emotional disturbance. IIl'IXlety .artd nervousness.

S.
4.
(b)

It causes severe headache leading to vomiting.

IlethaM of RedaolD& N..... PoUatloa

1.
2.

Shlftlng of old Indultr1es and setting new ones away from the dv. '!lIngs. .
Better maintenance of machinery. regular oiling and lubrication of
moving

parts.

3.
4.

Better de~ of engines and machines. Restriction on use of loudspe8kers and ampllfiers.
,
RestrIctIng the use of fire crackers. bands and loud speakere during

IS.

rel1glous. political and marriage processions. 6.

7. 8.

Plantlng trees on roads for interceptlng the path of sound. intercepting the path of sound by sound absorbing materials. Using muffs and cotton plugs.

(el Shock wave. When a source ot waves is travelJJnI! tasrer man the sound waves, sbock waves are produced. The familiar example is the explosive sound heared by an observer when a supersonic plane rues past over the head of the observer. It may be pointed out that the object which moves with a speed greater than the speed of sound is itself a soUrce of sound.

INTEXl' QUESTIONS 23.10_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1.

What Is the

tdfect oj Noise PoUutfon?

.................................................................................................................
Z. State brlejly the chllif SOUl'alS oj not.se
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! .................... .

3.
4.

What could be the various methods oj reducfng noise?

................................................................................................................
Describe brlldly how a bow shock wave is produced.

.................................................................................................................
23.11 TIlE DOPPLER EFFECT
WhiIe waiting on a railway platform for the arrival of a triUn yOu would have observed that the pitch of the whistle when the en$!.e approaches you and when the engine moves away from you cbanges . You will note that the pitch is higher when the engine approaches but is lower when ' the engine moves away from you.

Apparent change of jrequ81IC1/ 'oherved owinll to the 'relative motion of the obIreruer cuuI the aource .. known as DoppI8r ~t and the prinolple which uplal,.. It U ,called the, Doppler.
.Principle.

Let

I)

velocity of the sound waves relative to the medium. that is' air;

v .. velocity of the source; and

Vo

velocity of the observer.

It is Important to note that the wave originated at a moving source does not affect the speed. of the sound. The speed v is the property of the , medium. The wave forgets the source as it leaves the source. Let us suppose that the source. the observer and the' sound waves travel from left to right. Let us first consider the 'llfect of motion of the aource. A particular note which leaves the source at a given time after one

46

Physics

second arrives at the point A such that SA = v. In thls time, the source moves a distance v.' Hence alllh:e n waves that the source has emitted In 1 second' are contained In the space s'x = v vo' Thus length of each wave has decreased to

A.' =

U -

Us

Now let us consider the

;.,. D i _ bot-. t.." a particular time after one second will be at B SUCC<ssi.., ........tIiiIioot.C. such that OB = v. But.1n the mean time. the PI&- 28.17: The ~ect of observer moves from 0 to 0'. Hence only the _",lite _ _ fa III n!dooe the number of waves contained In 'the space O'B have passed waves passing across lite across the observer In Is. The "number of the observe< waves passing across the observer in Is is therefore,

0111

Vfect of mDtiDn of tile wr.A particular wave which arrives at 0 at

n' =

(v - v.)f).:

(23.281

Substituting for A.' from eq. (23.27) we get

n'

v - V ""---..;,,,-9

v-v.

{23.291

Wheren'ls the observed frequency when both observer and source are
moving In the d1rectioil from the source to the observer.

In using the above equation that Is eq. (23.29) tab II tIw iJelDctCil qf .ound In tIw dhctfon.from tIw NIUW QJ tIw . . . NY - IN*tfv8; and Vo and v. as positive if theae are.1n the dfrect10n of v aacl negative if In the dJrection opposite to the dJrection of v.
The foll.owtng examples will help to understand the application cf Doppler's principle In better way.

Bl.Cam'pr. 28.J : The

light from a given star on spectroscopic analysis shows a sh!fl: ~ards.the red end of the spectrum of a spectlwlfne qf an element. if this sh{lt. called the red shift. Is 0.03296, jInd the velodty qf recession of the star.

cUe the source Is soUrcf; of light waves situated In the star. The observer ..s at rest on the Earth. We have mown that In such .a case
SoIatiOD : In this

.t' v - v,
n

But Therefore, or

v- nA. orn-v/A.
.t' _ v-v. A. (v- v.)

vl.t
,t' .t

(i - ~)

E1asticW_. 47

,
or
,or,

A-' - A= l A-

- ~ v
~

.u

== -3

Ih the present case

AA T= 0.032/100;

and v.= c= 3 xlO" m s'

Therefore v

= -v

x 10" x 0.032/100 = -9.6 x 10' m s'

"''PJlmple 23.2; A radar sends waves oj .frequency 8.1 x 10" Hz towards an aeroplane. The nifIected wave from the aeroplane slwws a frequency sh!/t oj 2.7 x 10' Hz on the higher side on the radar screen. FInd. the velocity oj the aeroplane in the line oj sight.

Solution; the present case the aeroplane acts as a mlrror for radio-waves. The lInage of the source of radio-waves owing to reflection from the surface of the aeroplane. Is formed as far l>ehind the reflecting surface as the source in front of the reflecting surface. In, the present case this image acts as the source and the radar screen as the obseiver. The velocity of the image ,is two times the velocity of the plane.

In

If x be the velocity of the, plane then

v 2x; vo. O. v. c. 3 x 10" ms"; n. 8.1 x 10"Hz. .1n. n'- n. 2.7 x 104Hz
Since. ~
v~

O. therefore. from eq. (23.29) n'. (v - vJ I (v - vJ n, we

, u- 0 n'. - n

v-vs

or

n'

[l-:'IV}

or n~{l-~]Il or

n'-.n

~II

1Jil-<~S/~}n

- ~~(" + 411)

... ~_ ~n ..... ~ 7
..
~

.1!.n ~

. l2 !JD~ n
_ ~ x 2.7xllt :Ie 3x1a' 2" UxlO' -,0.5 x 10_'

48~.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 23.12-'-_ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. A SONAR systemjixed in a submarine o~ at.frequency 40.0

a speed oj 100 m s'. What is the.frequency oJ the sowui rt1lected by the sonar. Take the speed oJ sowui in water to be 1450 171S".

kHz. An enemy submarine moves towards the SONAR system with

/Hints : the Image formed by the submarine acts as a sourre movtng with a v. = 200 171S" towards the SONAR. 'The SONAR acts as an observer at rest that is v. = 0 use the relat1Dn n' = (v - v,)
nllv - v) you will get n'= 1450 x 40/(1450 - 2oo}, wh1ch gives n' 46.4 kHz.

...............................................................................................................

2.

An engf1le, blowing a whistle oJ.frequeru:y 200 Hz moves with a vel.octty 16 171S" toWards a hill from wh1ch a weU d.fdlned. echo is heanL Calculate the.frequency oj the echo as heard by the driver. Vel.octty oj sowui in air is 340 171S'1. .

(Hints : relation to be used n' (I) - I),} approQchJng the hill n'. I) x n/(I) I)),
0 " . " . " ' 11 . . . . . . . . . . . 11 . . . . . . . H

n/(I) - I)), when

.~

......... , .... 0 .............. 1 ................................ .

23.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. 2.

How will you define a wave In the most general fonn? Explain using a suitable mechanical model, the propagation of (1) transverse waves (11) longitudinal wave. Define the term wavelength and frequency.

Deftne angu1ar frequency Ol and propagation constant k and hence show that the velocity of the wave propagation is v - Ol/k -nA 4. - Derlve the equation of a simple harmonic wave of anguJar frequency Ol and propagation constant k ,propagatJ,ng along ox. .
3.

5.
6.

What are the essent1al properties of the medium for propagation of (1) transverse waves (H) longitudinal waves , Develop an expression for the Intensity of the .wave In tenns of density of the medium. velocity of the wave, the amplltude of the wave and the frequency of the wave Write Newton's fonnula for the VelOcity of sound In a gas and explain Laplace's correction, When do two waves Interfere (I) constructively (11) destructively? Show using trtgonometry that when two simple harmonic waves of the same angular frequency Qj and same wavelength A. but of amplitudes a, and ~ are superposed. the resultant amplltude Is A a,~ + 2 + 2a, cos where Is the phase dlfIerence between them. What would be. the value of A, for - 0 (H) for 211: for - (2 -m ... l-~ If}

7.
S.

9.

a..

a..

(11:I).J

EIastlc waveS 49

10. What are beats? How are they formed? Explain graphically.
11. Discuss graphically the formation of stationary waves. Why are these wave called. stationary waves? Define nodes and anttnodes. 12. State the points of difference between waves.
statio~

and .travelllng

13. Derive the equation .of a stationary W.lve and show that displacement nodes are pressure antinodes and displacement antinodes are 'pressure nodes?
14. What ate the characteristics of musical sounds. Explain.

15. What is a decibel (symbol db)? What is meant by 'thieshold of bearing' and threshold of feellng'?

16. What is meant by quality of sound? Explain with examples? 17. Discuss the harmonlcs of organ pipes. Show that an open pipe is richer in harrBontcs. .
18. Show that' (I)' the frequency of the fundamental note of an open pipe is two times the frequency of the fundamental note of a: closed pipe of same length (II) to prQduce a fundamental note of same frequency, the length of the open pipe must be two times the length of the closed pipe.

. 19. DescrIbe an experiment to demonatrate existence of nodes and antlnodes in an orpn pipes?
20. Briefly state the causes of noise pollUtion, ita harmful effecta and method. of minlm1s1ng it..

21. Explain the Doppler's effect and derive the Doppler's equation. How does this equation get mod1fted if the mec:lium in which the sound travels is also moving. 22. Discuss the application of Doppler'!, effect li!. (l)measurtng the velocity of recession of stars. (ll) velocity of enemy plane by RADAR and (W) velocity of enemy .boat by SONAR? 23. For a plane wave in air of frequency 1000 Hz and amplitude 2 x lQ-1 m, calculate the intensity. T8ke = 1.3 kg m" and wave velocity 340 me l 24. Calculate the velocity of IIOWld in a gas in which two waves of wave lengths 1.00 m and 1.01 m produce 10 beats in 3 seconds \Hinta : v/l.OO - v/1.0l. 10/3. Therefore v. 336.67 me I ) .. 5. What w1l1 be the length of a closed pipe if the lowest note has a frequency 256 Hz at 2O"C. Velocity of sound at O"C 332 D1S'~. 26. The frequency of the sound waves emitted by .a source is 1 kHz calculate the wavelength of the wave. as pereeived by the observer when (a) the source is stationary (b) the source is moving With a velocity of 50 .m . 1 towards the observer. Ie) the source is moving with a velocity of 50 ms 1 away from the observer. Velocity of sound in air is 350 me l

SQ Pbys1c:s
23~14

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

When a particular condition observed at a point in space at a particular time reapPear at a cerl:llin' other point in space after a lapse of certain time without the transfer of particles of the medium. we say that a wave is travelling.
The distance between two nearest points in a in the same phase is called wavelength.
wav~

motion vibrating

The equation of a simp1e harmonic wave propagating along ox is Y = a sin (M - kx I The energy transmitted per second across a unit area normal to the area is called intensity of sound.
If the vibrations are perpendicular to the direction of propagation it is said to be transverse wave and when the vibrations are parallel

to the direction of propagation then it is said to be longitudinal wave. Velocity of transverse wave pulse is v = .JT 1m and that of longitudinal wave is 'v

= .JE If!

.
But

On reflection from a denser medium .phase is reversed by It.

there is no phase reversal on reflectfon from a rarer medium. When two waves are superposed. the resultant displacement at each point is equal to the sum or difference in the displacements ! of the two waves at that pOint. It ,Is known as superposition princ1ple. Superposition of two waves of .the same wavelength saDie frequency and same amplitude travelling in the opposite directl.ons With the' same speed results in a wave Whose wave form does not move. Such a wave if" called a standtne UM;"'': Jr a ststionazy wave .. In a I!tationary wave at certai1'I. points the displacement amplitude is zero but strain is maximum, such points are called nodes. But at certain "Lher points the displacement amplitude is max\mum but strain is zero, these points are called antlnodes. The distance between a node and next antinode is '}../4 the distance between two successive nodes or successive Bntlnode is '}../2. It is, therefore. obvious that between two nodes. there is an antlnode and between two antlnodes there is a node. Intensity level is defined by the equation Ii. 10 log I 110 where 10 is an arbitrarily chosen reference intensity taken 10. ,2 W m-2. Intensity level is expres8ed in decibf!ls (Symbol. db) Threshold of hearing is the minimum intensity of sound of a gtven: frequency which can be Just detected. Quality of a note is the Characteristic 01 musical BOuilde which enable us to dist1nguish two notes of the same pitch and same loudness but sounded by two different Instruments.

Th~

are notes of higher frequency each being an integJal mUlttple of the lowest frequency. They are called overtones.

CHECK 'tOUR ANSWERS

Int~

Questions 23.1

1.

See section 23.3.4

2.
3. 4.

. 211: If P be the path cfuTerence. then the phase dlffereqce is ; ~ T p

~ intensity is the energy that flows per second.. normally across a unit area. At a given point. depends upon square of amplitude. square of frequency.

Intext Questions 23.2

1. 3.
4.

Newton assumed that compression and rarefaction caused by sound waves ~es place under isothermal condition. Newton assumed that Isothemal conditions instead of adiabatic conditions for sound propagation. 357C

Intext Questions 23 .. 3
1.

V=

~m

IT

2.

Therefore. n' = 1 A.

Further. for the simplest mode of vibration. at the two ends of the string. there are nodes and in between the two nodes is an antinode. Therefore. I. 'i./2 or A = 2.1. hence. n = 1/21 ..jT 1 m . If the string vibrates in p segments. then I = p 'i./2 or A = 21 Ip. Then n = p/21

.JTlm
Intext Questions 23.4
For answers to all questions see text.

Intext Questions 23.5

For answers refer to text.

Intext Questions 23.6

1.

25/9; 2. Beats With frequency 4Hz are produced

Frequency of beats is

3. 4

lJ.r

517. on loading the frequency of A decreases from 517 to 507.

52 Pb.Y*a

Jatat QaeRloDa 23.7

1.

No. energy swlngs back and forth In a segment..

DIstance between twO successlve nodI;$ is lI2.and between a DOde and antlnode is A/4
(j) 1 m.

2.

4.
5. 6.

lUi 1m. 11111 1/4 m. See text.

Wave fonn which is the resultant of a number of harmonic determines the quality and hence enables to recognise the voice of known persons. For a closed pipe in case of fundamental note I = A/4 or A:= 41. therefore n = vI'}. =v/41 (1)
(11)

Intezt Qa.estloDs 23.8

4.

For an open pipe I' = '}./2. Therefore n' = v/2l

Compartng (il and (ii) weftnd that n' = 2n when l= I '.

For other questtons see text.

24
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

24.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous . lesson you have studied about the various properties of longitudinal and transverse waves. The light is assumed to propagate in the from of transverse waves. which is different from the nature of sound waves that one assumed to be longitudinal As you mo\\, sound can not travel m vacuum but the light waves ClIIl travel in vacuum also. The question arises what is there' in the structure of light waves which enables them to travel In vacuum and that too with very high speed or rather highest known speed? It is the electromagnetic nature (constitution) of light waves.

Nowadays. you can hear the commentary of a hockey match or cricket match or the speech of president in your radios and transistors . at. the same time when they are being delivered. You can also watch the direct live. telecast of these events In your T.V. sets at the satpe time even though they might be occurrtng In other countries at very far distances from your place. How this Instantaneous "Iansfer of Information has been made possible? This all has been IJOssible due to electromBWletic waves. You shall be studying regarding the nature of these waves In the present lesso!: and their Important .uses In various fields of science and techn910gy.

24.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson. you should be able to : trate the history qf discovery oJ. electromagnetic waves ; laww the Hertzs method oj productton oj e.m waves; explain qualitatively the MaxweU's theory oj e.mwaves; state the varIOus properties oj e.m. waves; make a chart oj electro-magnetic waves spectrum;. describe the Uses of e.m Waves; and explain the use oj e.m. waves In long distance communication instantaneous trans~sion oj information Wee speech. picture with the use of transmitters and receivers.

54.

Physics

24.3. mSTORY OF E.M. WAVES

In the early nineteenth centwy two different units of electric charges were used one for electrostatics called e.s.u.(electro static unit) and the other for magnetic phenomena Involving currents called e.m.u.(electro magnetic unit). These two units of charge had different physical dimensions. Their ratio (le;m.U.: le.s.u.) turned out to have the units of yeloclty. ExperiJnental measurement revealef;I that the ratio had a nummCA' value precisely equal to 3 x 10" ms-I which is the speed of light In tree space. It was the search for an explanation of this extra ordlnaIy coincidence that led Maxwell, In 1864 to prove by theoretical reasoning that an electrical disturbance should propagate in free space with a speed equal to ilJai: of light and hence to postulate that light waves were electromagnetic waves. The series of events and discoveries which led to the Introduction of the con..."p~ v: .:..x. ~~'3.ves by Maxwell can be summarized as follows:

In 1820. H.C. Oersted. showed that the magnetic compaSs needle was deflected by the wire carrying electric current. Andre Ampere attended Oersted's demonstration lecture. He was inspired to continue experimentsin the same direction. Soon Andre Ampere discovered that the . direct current in one wire exerts a force on another parallele wire carrying direct current. These discoveries of Oersted and Ampere established -that a changing electric field gtves rise to a magnetic field and a chcmgtng magnetic field gives rise to an electric field. Later Michael Faraday discovered laws of electromagnetic induction for such changes. Thus, when either field (electric field or magnetic field) Is changing with ttnie a field of other kind is induced in adjacent regions of space. These induced fields are not confined but ordinarily extend outward into space. James Ciark Maxwell (1864) In his famous treatise 'E1ectricity and Magnetism' (published in the Proceedings of Edinburg Royal society') Introduced the concept of 'dlsplacement-current'. This was used as the UnIt between the concept of electromagnetic waves and propoUnded the famous 'II'cu:weU's TheorJI qf Elect.omagnetfc W_'. The theory was purely empirical and Invited many Criticisms and doubts. It had to wait for about twenty three years until Henry Hertz of Germariy In 1887 conclusively demonstrated the generation of electromagnetic waves by oscillating electric dipole In the laboratory and succeeded In transmitting and receiving electromagnetic waves. He also produced stationaI)' e.m waves and determined the wavelength (i..) by measuring the distance between two alternate nodes. KnOwing the fre,. quencyv of oscillating dipoles, he calculated the speed (v) of these e.m. waves using the relation u = y which came out to be the same as that proposed by Maxwell i.e. equal to speed of light. This was a great triumph for Maxwell's theory of e.m. waves.

24.3.1 Hertz Ezperlment to Produce e.m. Waves

FIgure 24.1 shows the schematic representation of Hertz's set up. A and B are two metal sheets connected to a source of high voltage. which can ionise the air in the small gap bt!tween them to provide a path for discharge_ The charge builds up on the two plates. reaches a

ElectromagneUc Wave 55,

maximum sufficient val ~ to cause a spark (electrical discharge) in' the air gap. The metal plates get discharged. The change again builds up and again there is a spark. The process Is repeated again and again at a velY high frequency Iv} which depends upon the A capacitance (e) of the capadtor so Narrow formed by the two metal plates and the 1:0 induCtion COil C inductance (Ll of the assembly by the \, relation, o 'Airgap 1

8---0eIact0r COil

21C.../LC

Because of velY low value of inductance v is vexy high and Hertz was able to produce e.m.waves (the energy radiations emitted due to the spark between F1g.24.1: "'""<""'u,~,_ ,",---'__ MJ set up <!J .r the air gap) of wavelength around 8m. Hertz experimenL The detector is a coil with its plane perpendicular to the magnetic field produced by the oscilJattng current discharge between the air gap. The resultant electric field induced by the oscillating magnetic field causes sparks to appear at the narrow gap of the detector coil. 'Ibis showed the production of e.m. waves at the air gap which travelled to the detector coil and got recorded in the form of spark at the narrow gap. Hertz's experiment, thus, established the formation of e.m. waves by oscillattng electric dipoles.

L.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 24..... 1 _ _ _...c-_ _ _ _ __

1) Which is a bigger-unitjor the measurement of electric charge
e.S.lL

or e.mlL?
2) How dtd Hertz's experiment contributed to the MaxweU's theory of
e.m waves?

..................................................................................................................
3) How MaxweU was able to correlate the laws of electrtcity and magnetism? Ment1Dn the physfcal quantUy, he assumed to exist

..................................................................................................................
4) Does the.frequency of e.m. waves depend upon the potential difference applied at the air gap In the Hertz experiment?

................................................................................................................'"
/

24.4 MAXWELL'S THEORY OFE.II. WAVES

Ma:v.well's great contribution was to point out that Ampere's circuital law needed an Important modification. Faraday's law tells that a changIng magnetic field can produce an electric field and there by an induc~ e.m.f. Maxwell suggested that a changing electric field should

56

Physics

~~--------------------------------------------------

be able to produce a magnetic field. It was thls addition that brought the whole package together into a unified theory of electricity and magnetism.

24.4.1 Displacement Current

kI= I. Consider a parallel plate capacitor conA nected to an a.C. s'ource, Fig (24.2). A capacitor consists of two I. parallel metal plates separated apart by some distance having insulating medium like air or any other dielectric medium. The a.c. ammeter shows a current flowA ing through the circuit seems to be broken in between the plates of' the capacitor. The question arises, how can any current flow through a broken circuit? To understand this, Maxwell introduced 'the !I., C, source. concept of displacement current I", to flow between the two plates through the FIg.24.2: Dtspacement cwrent I. air. Such "'a' !'\lITent is produced due to between the plates of the capacitor ~hangmg eil!otric field In between the plates of the capacitor due ta the applied a.c. source. He suggested that

I
d

=
0

~,
dt

(24.1)

where <I>,is electrtc flux

~ is the rate of change of electric flux. Qutdt

side the plates, conduction current leiS flnlte Qut the displacement current Id is zero But between the plates displacement current is finite and the conduction current is zero. Thus though individually I. and I, are discontinuous, a constant current. flows through the whole circUlt. Here
Id = Ie

That is conduction current gets convertea into displacement current In between the plates.

Thus, displacement cun-entis actually the real fltJirctlve clll'nlllt in between the plate. cif the capacitor in an a.c. cfrnuit andsets up due to changing electric.field between the plates. This concept
of displacement current Introduced by Maxwell provided the necessary baSis for understanding the e.m. 'waves.

24.4.2 Maxwell's Equations

During the course of analysis, Maxwell discovered that all the baSic principles of electromagnetism can be forIllulated in terms of four fundamental equations. now called lIIlaxweU's Equations. You must have studied till now all these four principles, they are:
i)

Gauss's law in electrostatics: It states that the tatal nonnal el('('trlcal flux linked with a closed surface is equal to the net.charge

I
enclosed by that surface divided of the free space). Mathematically. it is stated as

Electromagnetic Wave-

bY

E.

(where t. Is the permittivity

fE.cIs = !L

(24.2)

Ii) Gall88's law

in magnetostatlcs: Since a magnetic N-pole always occurs together With a Scpole. the. total nonnal ma~etlc flux linked with any closed surface is always zero,. because as many lines come out of any surface enclosing any magnet, will enter into it. Mathematically, itisstateda~

tB .ds = 0

(24.3)

This means that isolated monopoles do not exist. Therefore, It Is known as law of absence. of isolated magnetic poles also.
Iii} Ampere-MaxweU's law: Ampere's law is a useful relation that Is closely analogous to Gauss's law. While Gaus- s law is a relation between the nonnal component of electric field at points on a closed surface and the net charge enclosed bY the surface: Ampere's law Is a relation between the tangential component of magnetic field at points on a closed curoe and the net current through the area bounded by the curve

It states that line integral of magnetic field B around any closed circuit (loop) Is equal to ". times the total current threading or passing through the enclosed area. Mathematically, It is stated as
(24.4)

where.

I = e d, d dt

Iv} Faraday's law:Wheneuer, the magnetic flUX linked with any closed circuit changes, an errif is induced in the circuit. The in duced emf is equal to the rate Of decrease of flux with time. Mathematically, It Is stated as.

e=tE.dl=-~
dt

(24.5)

In the above fonDS, Maxwell's Equations apply to electric and magnetic fields (E and B) in vacuum. However. by

I changing

". to ,,( = ". '",)

and e. to e (= E . E,). where 1-1, and ", are the relative permeability and the relative permittivity of the medium, the above equations become generalised to Include fields in all medium (material mediums). An important consequence of Maxwell's equations is the fact that they can be used to derive the law of conservation of charge. Any electromagnetic field must satisfy all the Maxwell's equations.

'8,

Physics

--------------------------------~-----------------------------

24.4.3 Physical Significance of Maxwell's Equations

1)

The equations (24.2) and (24.4) show the presence of sources (I.e q and 1) In source free regions. these reduce to fE.ds=O and fB.d1=JloEo

~~e

respecively.

ii) The equation (24.3) tells that magnetic field lines' can not start from

a point nor end at a point In space i.e. they fonn closed loops startIng from N-pole and ending at S-pole. Only. Within the magnet they trdvel from S-pole to N-pole;
iii)

The equation (24.5) tells that electrostatic field lines do not fonn a closed loop.

iv) Maxwell's equations being the basic laws of classical electromagnetism, are true in all media and for any value of E, B or q or I. etc. within the domain of validity of classical electromagnetism. vJ Maxwell's equations provide the equation of motion of electromagnetic waves and establish that light waves are electromagnetic in nature.

24.4.4 Properties of e.m. waves

Rigorous mathematics With Maxwell's four equations have revealed folloWing properties of e,m. waves:
1)

e.m. waves are transverse In nature at right angles to each other and perpendicular to the direction of propagation (k). Also E = cD. (so:e figures 24.4 and 24.5]

il) They consist of oscillating electric field (E) and magnetic fields (Bl

iii) They propagate through free space in vacuum With a unifonn ve-

locity =--r:-:::-=3xI08 ms- l =c(velocityoflight) for a medium of per--;t1oEo ' mea):Jility Il(= Ilo 'Ilr) and permittivityE (=E.' Er)the velocity becomes

Iv) The nature and action of these waves depends upon their frequency (or wavelength). Maxwell's theory placed no restriction' on possible wavelengths for e.m. waves and hence e.m waves of wavelengths ranging from 6xlD"m to 6x IO-I"m have been successfully produced. There is no limit to rery long wavelengths which correspond to radio broadcast waves. The whole range of e.m. waves from very long to very short wavelengths is called the electromagnetic
spectrum.

Electromagnetic Wave: I ~

INTEXT QUESTION 24.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1) Give the name oj the law associated

With the following equations:

Q
ii) 2} .

tB.ds=O

fBI dl = p.. (1 + I d)

Which law tells the.non'existence ojisolo.ted magnetic poles?

3} Which law tells that electric field. lines 00 not fann a closed curoe?

4}

What h,appens to the speed oj the c.m. waves when they pass through a materlcl mediwn? the nature oj e.m. waves?

5} What is

.................................................................................................................
24.6 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Maxwell gave the Idea of e,m. waves. whlle Hertz. J.e.Bose. Marconi md others successfully producec such wavell of different wavelen~hs ~ertmentally. Howc-ver. In the methods. the source of e.m:

an

wuues

IS the

accelerated c1uzrae.

t:lectro' 'agnetlc waves are classlfled according to the method of their generauon and are named accordingly. Overlapping In certaIn parts ot the spectrum by different classes of e.m. waves Is also observed. This tells that the e.m. waves of wavelengths In the overlapping region' can be produced by two different methods. It Is important to remember that the physical properties of e.m. waves are detennined by the frequencf.es or wavelengths and not by the method qf their generation. A sUitable classiflcatlon of e.m waves Is called the electro magnetic spectrum. There Is no sharp dI.v1ding point between one class of e.m. the next. The different parts are as 'follows:
I)
wa~s

and

The low frequency .{" =60Hzto 50Hz 6 }: generatec fr:Jm a.c, " radiatiou A.=5x106 m t06)(10 m cIrCuits are classlfted as power frequencies or power wav"s or electric power utillty e.m. waves. These are the e.m. weaoe~ oj lowest frequencies

iI)

Rlidto wavea {., A. = 0;3m to 310 m . } : Radio waves are the result of . "=10 H.to OOH. charges accelerating through conducting wires. They are generated In such electronic devices as L.C. oscillators and are used exten-

60

PhySics

sively radio and television communications.

Iii} MI
CiOW.ves

' { A.=IO-3mtoo.3m} Th ted by scIllatlng ~ = lOll Hz to 109 Hz: ese are genera 0,

currents in special vacuum tubes. Because of their short wa\'elengths. they are well suited for the radiu- system used in aircraft navigation. T.V. communication and for studylng the atomic and molecular properties of matter. Microwave ovens use these radiations as heat waves. It .is suggested that solar energy could be harnessed by beaming microwaves down to Earth from a solar collector iIi space.
iv)

A. = 7 X 10-7m to 10-3m } Infra red waves, { \I =4.3x 1014 Hz t 0 3 xlO11 H z : Infra red waves sometimes called as heat waves. are produced by hot bodies and molecules. These are readily absorbed by most matertals. The temperature of the body. which absorbs these radiations. rises. Infra red radiations have many practical and scientific applications including physical therapy infrared photography etc. These are detected by a thermopile. A. = 4 x 10-7 mto7 x 1(j7 m } 5 0" H 3. 1 14 H "" 7. x l ' zt04. x 0 z : These are the e.m. waves that human eye can detect or to which the human retina is sensitive. It forms a very small portion of the whole electromagnetic ..spectrum. These waves are produced by the rearrangment of electrons in atoms and molecules. When an electron_ jumps from outer orbit to inner orbit of lower energy. the balance of energy i$ radiated in the form of visible radiation. Thevartous wavelengths of visible lights are claSSified With colours.' ranging from violet (A~4XIO~7 m)to red (A~7XlO~7). Human eye is maximum sensitive
to ydlow~green Ught (A~5xlO-7m). Ught is the basis of
optical instruments.

vI . Visible Ught.. {' y

~ptics and

vi) Ultraviolet

7 m }. J A. = 3 x 17 10'9 m to. 4 x 104'=1O' Hzto 7.5xlO14 Hz .

Sun is the important

source of ultraviolet radiations. which is the main cause of sun tans. Most of the ultraviolet light from Sun is absorbed by atoms in the upper atmosphere i.e. stratosphere. which contains ozone gas. This ozone layer then radiates out the absorbed energy as heat radiations. Thus. the lethal (harmful to living beings) radiations get converted into useful heat radiations by the ozone gas. which warms the stratosphere. These ultraviolet rays are used in killing the bacterta in drinking water. in sterilisation of operation theatres and also in checking the forgery of documents.

x
vii)
-"')"11

{A. = 4 x 1013 m to 4 x 10~8 } \I = 7.5 X 1020 Hz to 7.5 X 1015 Hz

These are pro<

Eiectroma~.l1et1c Wave 61

luced by acceleration of high energy declrons homlmrding a metal larget (with high melting point) such as tungstcn. X-rays IIncI th~ir important applications as a diagm;stiL~X-rays in medical and as a treatment for certain forms of canc('r. 1001 dest roy living tissues and care must be taken to avoid ove.--exposur(' of hody parts. X- rays are also used in study of crystal-stmclllr('. TIwy ar(' dctected by photographic plates.
VI'U") Gamma. ra.... { lO A = 6 x ".2, IO-17 m to IO- m } . I H : These are emltv = 5 x Iv Hzto 3 x 10 Hz ted by radioactive nuclei such as cobalt (60) and ceasium (137) and also during certain nuclear reactions in nuclear reactors. These are highly penetrating and cause serious damage when absorbed by living tissues. Thick sheets of lead are' used to shield the objects from the lethal effects of gamma rays.

.,-

The energy (E) of e.m. waves is directly proportional to their frequencyv ( E = h V =

';=) and inversely proponional to their wave-

length (1..). Thus gamma rays are the most energetic and penetrating e.m. waves. while the power frequencies. and the A.M. radio waves are the weakest radiations. Gamma rays are used to detect metal flaws in metal castings. They are detected' by Geiger tube or scintillation counter. Depending upon the medium. various types of radiations in the spectrum will show different characteristic behaviours. For example, while whole of the human body Is. opaque to visible light, human tissues are transparent to X-rays but the bones are relatively opaque. Similarly Earth's atmosphere behaves differently for different types of radiations.

Visible

X-rays

H I I

! f-ravs
1..'

I======lj:

Iuv

i=1

===tl

Infrared

RadiO waves .

MicrcwtaVeS

-::-_-l,.,.,-_ _--',L,-_ _ _..L.._ _ _-'-_ _ _ _......_ _ _-'-_ _ _ _.L.._ _ _...... , _,log scale
17

10.

10.15

1(1"12

10""

10""

10.3

10

10 (wavelengths In
2

3.10'"

3x10"

3x10"

3xl0"

3xl0'

3x10'

meters)

3.10 (frequencies in H

I'll.

24.3: E/ecromaglletK: spectrwn

'62 PhysiCS

24.6.1 W.M. wave :t:'rQpagatioD

Figure (24.4) shows the relation between E and D- a linearly plane po1arised electromagnetic waves propagating along Z-axis. Figure ( 24.5) represents the. relative orientations of electric field E and magnetic field B with time in space In an e.m. wave whose frequency 'oJ lIT !qld wavelength A. x

of

E=E;

------~-"----

----.;....-

-- - ---

--."..-,

B,-/;j;..I"~

......

x-z plane

------ /

8yO
... By

'-Exo+- - - : I

~ --E"" - - _.I!.

------

-' __ _

--z-:
~

/
Y

FIll

24.4: Uneariy plane polarised e.m wave. propagating a1ang Z.axIs. i.(wavelength) , - --,

~---------X

,I
I

Ex'

By"

~--+.r--------Y--------~~------~~----~i-------Z I J I Direction of By" , By" 8y

f
I
I

I
I

,Ex"

,,

,~ :

,;
I
I

PfOIl89a11on

1=0
I

,I

I
I

I
I I

r
I

1
1=3114
I

1=2T/4

I=T

yll-

I=T/4
I

Ftc 24,.5:

Re1atWe ortentatlons qf ll. and EO. over one wavelength dlstance at 5 djlferent times In an 6.m waves.

According to Maxwell's concept of the propagation of e.m. waves 'In space, the mutually perpendicular electric field (EI and magnetic field (81 vectors rotate about the direction of propagation (k) as axis, as the e.m. wave advances in space with constant angular velocity (as shown In figure 24.51.The phenomenon Is s1ml.lar to the rotational motion of a nut on a bolt (Figure 24.5(all.

The.frequency qf rotation qf E and B around ads qf 'propagation gfva the.frequency qf the e,m. waue,

-,-- .. _-------------------------------------------

ElectroJtll!lD.etlc Wave: 63 The distance moved ahead In one rotation (i.e. the pitch of the ~ . is a measure of the wavelength of the e.m. wave.The distance travelled In one second is equal to the velocity of the e.m. wave. The veloelty of the e.m. wave changes as it passes from one medium to another. This is due to the change caused In the wavelength of the e.m. wave. The fteqUBrWy of the e.m. wave does not change wl.th the change fit the medium of the path of the e.m. wave. The most Important characteristic of e.m. wave is that it can transport energy and linear momentum from one point to another point In space with the velocity of light

INTEXT QUESTIONS 24.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1) Fill In the blanks:
i) ii) ............._.......... are generated by oscillating concerts In specfa1

vacuwn tubes.

Human eye

IS

most sensitive to ................................color light.

iii) ......., ................ is the important source of ultraviDlet mel/aHon

are used as the d,fagnostic tool In medical. v) lrifrared radtatfons can be detected by a ....................... ..
tv) ...... ..................

2)

Which of the e.m. waves are more energetic?

f)
it)

UI.t:ra.violet or
~rays

irifrared

or y-rays

3) 4)

Which of the e.m. waves are used In a1Tcrajt navigation by radar?

n ...................................................................................................... .

Which gas In the atmosphere absorbs ultraviDlet meliatfons.from the SWl re reaching the earth's swface?

5)

How are the electric field and magnetic j/eld oriented with respect

to

eacr ot11er In an e.m.

wave?

................................................................................................................
24.7 USES OF R.M. WAVES
The hlgh frequency e.m. waves are used as carrier waves to transport sound waves and light waves to long distances without dissipation of energy. As carrier waves, e.m. waves, have been used for various purposes.

24.7.1

Wireless Radio Communication

The wireless-radio communication has been made possible only because of e.m. waves. The simplest scheme would be to convert the speech or music to be tranSmitted, to electric slgnals using a microphone,

64 PhYSiCS
boost up the power of the signal using amplifiers and radiate the signal in space with the aid of an antenna. This constitutes the transmitter. At the receiving end. one could have a signal-plck-upe antenna feec:!ing the speech or music signal to an amplifier and then a loudspeaker reproduces the speaker musIc.
Transmitting antenna Receiving

antenna

Signal from
microphone Amplifier Transmitter Amplifier

Receiver

loudspeaker

FIg 24.6: Block diagram of wireless communication

However. folloWing difficulties arise: i) Waves in the audio frequency range i.e. audible to human ea."S. (20 Hz to 20 kHz) can not be effiCiently radiated and do not propagate well in space. ii) Simultaneous transmission of different signals by different transmitters would lead to confusion at the receiver. due to overlapping. Both the difficulties could be overcome If the transmission is done at high frequencies. Hence methods are devised to translate the audio sighals to the radio-frequency range before transmission and recover the audio frequency signals back at the receiver. The process of .frequency trWlSlation at the transmitter is caRed modulation. The process of recovering the audio signal at the receiver end is called demodulation. The modulation is done by mounting the audio-message onlugh frequency e.m. waves in the vartous wave bands. depending on the distance of destination. Then radio waves are thus used as carrier waves. When the amplitude of the carrier waves gets modulated by mlxing the audio message. we get amplitude modulated (A.M.) wave. If. however. the frequency of the carrier wave gets modulated. we have frequency modulated ( F.M) waves.

1\

I V II
(a)

1\

1\

Carrier WfNfI (e) AmplHude modulation

(d) FrequencV modulation

.".24.7: (a) Carner waves. fb} Signal" waves Ie} Amplitude moc.lul<ltion of carrier ware by stgnal. (d) Frequency modulatiOn of carrier waves

Electromagnetic Wave:. 65

The radio waves i.e. the carrier e.m. waves vary in wavelength frpm a few mm to several kms.
If we consider the e.m. waves of wavelength in the range from 10 m to .600 m (frequency in the range 30 MHz to 0.5 MHz) we find that the lower atmosphere is more or less transparent to such waves, the upper atmosphere (ionosphere) reflects .them back i.e. ionosphere is non-transparent to these range

(a) ADJ.pUtude Modulated Waves When AM signal in the above range is transmitted by an antenna at a certain place on the Earth, it can reach at another distaiit place on the surface of the Earth in following two ways., (1) By ground wave propagaUon:- The radio waves which travel direcUy from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna near the surface of the Earth are called ground waves and the propagation is termed as ground wave propagation or swjace wave propagation.
The ground waves can not bend round the curvature of Earth, Also ground wa~e transmission is found to become weaker for higher frequencies (i.e. lav.'er wavelengths) of radio waves. Therefore, the ground wave transmission is useful with radio waves of wavelength 200 m or above. This ""gt of the radio waves is called Medium wave band.
Ii) By sky' wave propagaUon:- the radio waves travel from the trans-

mitting antenna to the ionosphere and then the reflected e.m. Wave

reaches the receiVing antenna. Since the receiving antenna catches the
waves coming from sky, this is called sky waves propagation and the e.m. waves reflected downwards towards Earth from the ionosphere are called sky waves. This mode of transmission is used for e,m, waves of wavelengthS. 200 m or less. This region In radio waves is called E'lOrl wave band. The sky waves can reach the pOints on Earth where

ground waves can not reach due to curvature in Earth's surface. (Fig 24.8).

(b) Frequency Modulated Waves. (F.M band)

Beyond a certain frequency (above 40 MHz) i.e. below a certain wavelength (below 7.5m) of radio waves, the ionosphere bends any incident e.m wave but does not reflect,it back towards the earth For example T.V signals usually have frequencies in the range 100 MHz to 200 MHz i.e. wavelengths in the range (3 m to 1.5 m ). They are not reflected by the. ionosphere and hence T.V tranSmission through sky waves is 'not possible. Hence reception is possible only if the receiving antenna diTectly intercepts the transmitted signal. The.frequency band 30 lIfB'z to 300 lIfB'z is reserved for F'M broadcasting. Have you seen high T.V towers fitted with dish type antenna receivers in your town somewhere? What is their function? For long distance iransmtsslons ot F.M band signals, receiving ant.enna stations are made in the form of such high towers, all along' the route to the destination at vartous places within the reach of the direct ground waves. The more is the height. of a T.V tower, the longer is the distance

66 Physics

----------------------------travelled by ground waves. These stations collect the signals and then retransmit in different directions to the nearby intermediate receiving "lIltenna stations _ or T.V towers. By this technique, now T. V programs C<1n be seen by the people living at far off places from the main T.V tra'1.smitting stations. Do you know, when these high TN towers were not there. the 1V programs could be seen in T.Vs, within small radial distance of about 60 kIn only. Higher frequency waves above
- 40 MHz penetrate through the

-.......
;'

......

ionOSphere

,onOSPhere

Skywave

\'

Earth

11'1( 24.8: AM waues Jet rejlected from the ionDsphere: FM W<WeS bend but penetn:J.t;:. through the atmosphere. Mlcrowaues penetrate the atmosphere without bending.

24.7.2 Use of Microwaves in Radar and Satellite Communication

Radio waves of wavelengths smaller than T,V signals are the microwaves. They have the property of being transmitted in atmosphere without much spread (or attenuation) or deflection. These are used in radar to locate the inst3lltaneous position of the aeroplanes in space and also to know their distance from the radio station. The microwaves pulses are beamed in different directions at small intervals of time. They get reflected back from any solid obstacle which comes in their path. The time lapse between the instant of transmission and the Instant of rereception of the reflected microwave pulse gives the <iistance of tbe obstacle
If
d .. distance of an obstacle say an aeroplane

2d .. distance for the forward and backward journey of the pulse

t .. time interval recorded

and,

c = velocity of microwaves _ .. velocity of light

Then,
2d = ct.

=> d .. -ct

1 2

In more recent times microwaves have revolutionised tele-communtcatlon. Using artificial satellites. It has become possible to transmit signals from one point on the Earth to practically any other point on the Earth Fig (24.9).

Elecbuwagnetic \Vave: 67 The signals from the broadcasting stations are beamed towards an artificial Earth satellite. which in turn broadcasts it back (by reflection) to different points on the earth. Since the satellite is high above It can send back the signals to a large part of the Earth's surface. continuously use an artificial satellite to transmit messages over a par ticular portion of Earth's surface, the orbiting satellite should appe&r stationary with respect to the transmitting station on the spinning Earth. This is achieved by settin~ the hel~t and velocity of the satellite so that its time period. of revolution around the Earth becJmes exactly equal to the spinning period (24 hrs) of Earth about its axis. This enables the satellite to appear stationary' with. respect to Earth it always appears in the same direction above the transmitting antenna. Such an artificial satellite is called a gecrstatjDnary satellite and is used for long distance transmission of micro waves.

"0

Do you know, that you are able to see the direct live telecast of cricket matches being played in other countries via such satellite communication technique only. Now-B_days, such satellites have been launched In space by somedeyeloping and developed countIies. Some times one country has to hire these satellites for telecasting of some tmportant events occurtng in other COWltnes or different paris of the same country. Fig. (24.9)

Transmitting antenna

':>C~t;eo.lationaoy

SBleUde

Place jUll-ontha other

Direction of rotational of
sllletlile

PI&- 24.9: Signal uWlSmlssion via satei4te

Because the geo-stationary satellites are at a particular height above the Earth, three such satellites are requtred to cover the whole globe, each being able to cover only one third surface of the spherical globe. For long distance transmission of video signals, you have known about the use of repeaters installed In the form of high toWers fitted with collector and transmitter antennas (disk antenna). A communication satellite is essentlaJly a microwave link repeater. It receives beamed up' microwaves at It from Earth station, ampllfies them and returns it to Earth at a frequency of about 2 gigahertz. This prevents interference between the uplink and the downlink.

68

Pllysics

The device which converts frequency of the received signals to gigahertz is called.frequency converter or transponder. The Earth 3tations are fitted with dish antennas which are very large size paraboloidal antennas.
An Earth statio:!. is related to a satellite in much the same way

as a

terminal is related to microwave repeater. However. there is one significant difference: where a . link terminal may be connected to several links and a repeater works in just one chain. So here' it is the earth station that works just as the satellite and the satellite repeate works with any number oCEarth terminal stations. That is to say. any Earth station facing a particular satellite may communicate with every Earth station in the same satellite region. nus multiple access ability is a distinct advantage of satellites over cables. The Earth station receivers are low noise amplifiers (LNAs) located close to the wave-guide in the centre of the antenna and is a multistage travelling wave amplifier.

High reliability of Satellite is marred sometimes by causes such as cyclones and maintenance or fallure of terrestrial links.

INTEXT QUESTIONS
1)

24.4-----~----

Which type oj waves reach longer distances on Earth when emitted from a transmitting antenna ground waves or sky waves. What is the relation between the .frequencies oj sky waves and the ground waves? Are they same or different?

2)

....................... , ........................................................................................
3}

Which type oj waves are used in sateUite communication and why?

State True or False:

4)

................................................................................................................
I)

the medium wave band is used Jar long distance communication while short wave band is used Jar short distance communication.
'The e.m. waves qf.frequencies above 40 MHz are not rejlected back to earth by the ionosphere.

fl)
fil)
tv}

T.V transmission takes p/'at:e through'sky waves in the absence oj

sateUite. Microwaves get easUy rejlected. by the solid obstacle Ln their path but not by the Ionospheric layer oj the atmosphere.
T.V towers are installed to recetve and retransmit the sky waves.

v)

vI) Radar uses microwaves Jor navigalion. vii) Geostationary sateUite is.fitted with a transmitter antenna.for long distance communication oj audio and Video signals.

Electromagnetic Wave: 69

24.8 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

Electromagnetic waves are electrical disturbances propagatlngs in free space With a speed equal to that of llght. Hertz experimentally established the fonnation of e.m. waves by oscillating electric dipole. Displacement current is the real effective current In between the plates of a capacitor due to the changing electric field between them. Gauss's law in electrostatics, Gauss's law in magnetostatlcs, Ampere-Maxwell's law and faraday's law are four Maxvwell's equation. Elec.tromagnetlc waves are transverse in nature. Depending upon the medium, various type of e.m. radiatiOns in e.m. spectrum show different characteristic behaviour. The frequency of e.m. waves does not change With the change in the medium of path of e.m. waves. e.m. waves are used for Wireless radio communication, 1V transmiSSion, satellite communication etc.

24.9

TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) Who and when, first of all, showed that a magnetic field is created in the neighbourhood of a direct current carrying wire?

2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

Who discovered that the direct current in Wire exerts a force on another nearby placed parallel Wire carrying direct current? When and who first of ail thought of the existence of e.m. waves? When and who first of all produced e.m. waves in the laboratory? What is the displacement .current? Gi:ve its rnatbematical "pi

moo.

A capacitor is connected to an a.c. source. The conduction current through the circuit is 2 ampere, what is the value of displacement current? . WrIte all the four Maxwell's equations. WrIte the names of the laws associated With each of them. State Ampere's law. How was it modified by Maxwell? Write the charactertstic properties of e.m; waves which make them dlfferent from sound Waves. ity 11 and permitttvtty
E

7)

8) 91

10) How does the velocity of e.m. waves depend upon tbepermeabU-

of the medium throUgh which they pass?

11) Give the range of wavelengths of the following e.m: waves:

i) Radio Waves, ii) Microwaves; iii) Ultraviolet: tv) x-rays.

12l How are x-rays produced?

13) Can e.m. waves of all frequencies propagate through vacuum?

70

f'hy!!dc8

14) What Is the range of wavelengths of AM. waves used as sky,_. 15) What Is the difference
betw~n

AM e.m wave & F.M e.m wave?

16) What are geo-stationaty satellites? What are their uses in telecommunication? 17) What Is a transponder? 18) What Is the principle of working of a, dish antenna? Is It used as a transmitting antenna or as a reCeiving antenna or for both purposes? 19) Make a ch<Ut of the electromagnetic spectrum. 20) Fill in the blanks. i) 11)
iii)

A charging electric field produces a _ _ _ _ _ _ in the

adjacent region. _ _ _ _ _ are more hannful to our eyes than x-rayS. ._ _ _ are emitted from radio active nuclei of cobalt.

Iv) Infra red rays are less energetic than ~,_ _ _ __ v) In an e.m. wave propagating along z-direction. if the E field oscillates in the XZ place then the B field will oscillate in the _ _ _ plane.
Vi)

The ratio E in free space of e.m. wave Is called _ _ _ __

H of the free space and is measured in _ _ _ __

Vii) The frequency range of F.M band is --'_ _ _ __ viii)

stgnalls frequency modulated in T.V broadcasting.

CIDtCK YOUR A.NSWER.S

Intezt QaeatioDS 24.1
I}

e.m.u;1-Le.m.u. = 3xlO" . e.s.u.

It

2) 3)

showed that e.m. waves do exist and can be produced by oscillating electric dipoles. He introduced the concept of displaced current. (Just like a Changing magnetic fielcl produces an electric field. the changing electr1c

field should also produce a magnetic field). He was thus able to correlate, the laws of electricity and magnetism With the introduction of the concept of displacement current.
4) No.

IDtezt Qae.UOIUI 24.2

1)

i) Gauss's law in electrostatics 11) Ampere Maxwell's law

....

1!:tectromagr..eUC Waft 71
2)
3)

Gauss's law In magnetostatlcs. Faraday's law

4)

It decreases by a factor of
. . .

~I'r 1.. Er

5) . They are transverse

In

waves consisting of rota~ E aDd B fields a plarit perpendk:ular to the dlrecUon of propagation.

. Intext.QuelltloU24.3 . . 1) 1) mtcrowaVes (11) yeUOw-greeri. (ill) Swt (M x-rTIys (v) thermopile

2) Watt per metre square 1) Ultraviolet
Ii)

3)
4) 5)

r rays

Microwaves Ozone Eand B are at right angles to each other In a plane perpendIcular to .the direction of propagation of an e.IIi. wave.

6)

Intext QuUt!oDa 24.4

1) . Sky

'waves

2) 3)

Sky waves propagation is used with higher frequency e.m. waves. Microwaves; because they move without spreading or deviations dIrectly to the satellite because of their high penetration power .and hence can tJe easily aImed towards the satellite for being refleeted to teach the other parts of the earth. not approachable by ground waves.

4)' 1) False (Ii) True (ill) False (iv) True (v) True (vi) True (vii) True

25
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

25.1 INTRODUCTION
Optics is the branch of Physics that 'deals with laws associated With production and propagation oflight. There Is ample evidence thai light travels in straight lines. There would have been no shadows If this was not the case. Besic'es. you have already studied a btt about reflection and refraction. In this lesson we will consider only geometrical optiCs. so called because we consIder only the paths followed by light (rays and beams). It is interesting to study the path and Its change when light meets a boundary of a surface opaqu~ or transparent. In this lesson .you will also study about the image formatlon in lenses and their uses in daily life situations.

25.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson. you should be able to:

explain reflection at curued sUrfaces and estaJilish relationship between focal length and radius of curvatw"e; state sign convention for spherical surfaces; give a relationship between object distance. image distance and focal length mathematically and with the help of ray diagmrns; !l11derstand refraction in life situations and state laws of refraction; explain the phenomenon of total internal rejlection and Its applfcatlon in everyday life; establish a relationship between object distance. image distance radiUS of curvature, mathematically and with the help of ray diagrams for a curued refracting sw:fcu;e; draw ray diagrams for image formation in lenses and mathematically establish a relationship between object. i.rrUJge distance and focal length; and explain the term power of a lens.

Reflectlol) and ~fractlol'l..}f Ijght 73

25.3 REFLECTION - CORE CONCEPT

Comb!nJng our previous knowledge we can say that the reflection of light from any surface takes place according to the foUowing two laws :
Law 1 -

The incident roy. the reflected roy and the nonnal at the point oj incidlince all Ue in the same plane.

Law 2 - The angle oJ I'f!JIection is equal to angle oj incidence. .

Lr = Li
normal
I

(Ihough Li = Lr. it is the reflected ray that follows the rule: hence Lr = Li is more accurate statement). Earlier you have studied that the nature of surfaces govern whether the reflection is regtdar or d!tJUsed.You have. also learnt that the images ate formed by actual or apparent intersection of reflected Ilght (real and virtual images).

o
FIg. 5.1

25.3.1 ReflectloDof Light from Spherical Surfaces

As you know spherical mirror is a part of a sphere with its inner or

outer surface polished. The laws of reflection that hold good for a plane mirror are also true for spherical ones. The reason is that a spherical mirror can be regarded as an arrangement of a large number of extremely small .plane mirrors.

a:

--.----"--l';....-.....::::!10..~..:.I'..:~:.:~'--ffi PRINC.IPAl AXIS

F C

w :.>

_-+-___--::~B
."

~.

FIg. 25.2: Corwe>c rn/mlr

. f.

:f '

F =PlinclpaI Focus 25.3 : <.:oncaue ntUTOr

FOCAl LENGTH

Rear view mirror for seeing traftlc behind the .rider.

fun or trick

mir-

rora at melas and fairs, at par.walas

in polished utenslls, spoons, the in a plane inirror. the type. size and position of image de-' pends upon the type of curved mirror;

mage

~. or you may. have seen yourself cars etc.~ some such mirrors. Unlike

Let us define a few important terms. Look at Fig 25.2 and Fig. 25.3. The centre C of the sphere from which the mirror is made is called eentre qf curvature. The mid point 0 of the surface is called Pole. The distance frQm C to 0 is the radius of curvature. The line pass-Ing through the C and 0 is called the principal axis; it shows sym-

74 Physics
m~try about itself for the surface. Aperture shows the size of the mirror. In Fig. 25.2 the reflecting surface bulges outwards and is called convex mirror. whlle In Fig. 25.3 the reflecting surface caves In and forms a concave mirror. Principal focus. and focal length.

Note :Lines with double WTOW indicate rejlected rays. We can say a beam of light parallel to the principal axis incident. on points c1Dse to the pole (0) always conuerges to or seems todiveJye from a .poInt on it. This point is called the principal focus that means there are other f0cuses: We will only consider small aperture mirrors and paraxial rays.

The distance from the pole to the principal fucus is caIIed.focal. leJigth. A plane passing through the focus perpendicular to the principal axis Is called focal plane.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 25.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--.;.._

. 1.

Answer the following questions :

(a)
(b)

Which mirror has the highest radius of curoature? Which mirror has the least focal length? What is the relation between mirror radius and its .foca11ength?
'" , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n ..............

(c) 2.

Draw concentric circles of radii Ei em, 7 em and 10 em. FInd the focal length for each surface. Draw a ray parallel to the common principal axis and draw reflections for each swjace.

.......... ...... ..... ........ ..... ......... ... ......... ........................................................ .

-

3.

The radius of curoature of a sphere is 30 em, What wUl be 1is.foca1 length if the inside sw:face is silvered? Outside swface is silvered?
.
~

"- ! ......... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.

Why are dish antenna's shaped hemispherical?

25.3.2 Ray Diagrams for Image Formation in Spherical Mirrors

You can use the laws of reflection and trace all the rays. remember BC is a normal to the mlrror at B. So we sum up.
In the diagrams Fig. 25.2. and 25.3. given on previous page.

I.

the ray of light through C retraces its pa1h. the . ray of. light parallel to the principal axis is reflected passing through the focus. the ray of light through F is reflected parallel to the principal axIs.-

2. 3.

To locate an image any two of the above three can be selected. The

Rf,flection and RetiactiO:l or

1..,,,,.: 75.

illlages are of
~

two types-real and virtual.

We define real and virtual images as follows.

by actual intersection ra,ys is ciilled a real Image. These can be obtained on a . sc.tW;en. The Image is inverted. It is formed on the same side as the ob~ in front of the mtrror. (Fig. 25.4 (a)). .

.c:ii reflected
.~

Im.,e : A replica of the object formed

1mIIp: A replica of the. object formed by reflected rays that appear to .come from it. These carulOtbe obtair).ed on a screen. They are always erect an(J formed behind 'the rinrror (Fig. 25.4 (bll.

(We have not said anything about Fig..25.4 (c). The ray go parallel after reiJection. They may meet at Infinfte. Think about it.)

PIlI. 25.4

(a)(b)(c)

25.3.4 Sign Convention

Different writers, use dlfferent sign convention to II:\easure distances in .mIrrors but each one serves the same. purpose, We consider the rule In accordance to Cartisian coordinate geometry. We therefore have .

'1. .. distances are measured from the pole (0) !If the mirror. The object is always placed on the left; that means the incident ray is always travellIng left to right.

Object
+veheight

2.

jistances on the left of 0 are negative x' and those on the right of 0 are positive: height measured upwards of principal axis are positive and those below are negative.

o
-ve distance

+ve distance

3.

unage

y
Fig. 25.5

-veheight

We therefore have ral;lius of curvature and focal length for concave ~ras negative and these for convex mirror positive.

76 'physks

25.3.4 Derivation and Application of Milror Formula

We now. look for a relationship between object distance (u ); trnage distance (v) and focciJ. length J '. We make use of simple geometry' to arrive at a relationship, which sl,trprisingIy is applicable in all Situations. In Fig. 25.6 object AB produces antrnage A'S'. .

AX and AY are two rays from point A on object AB, M is the concave mirror XX and VA' are reflected rays. A' is thus the trnage of A.
The distances OB OF=-1 OB' OC = -21 = =

-u
-v

The negative signs are.in accordance wiIh the sign convention. Consider L\ ABF and 4FOY and L\XOF and L\B'A'F. These are similar triangles.

~B~c~o
(

Ar:s=:::------+__--4 X

f___u.---------t
Fig. 25.6 : DeterminatttJn offocal lenght

..

AB
OY XO A'B'

FB OF OF

(25.1)

(25.2)

Fa'

But AB = XO, as AX is.parallel to the princ1pala:x:ls also A'S; = OY From (25.1) and (25.2) FB
OF

OF
FB'

(25.3)

Putting values in tenns of

u. v
-1

and 1 In eq. (25.3) .

-u -

(-JJ

:-1 -u +1 or -1

-v - (-J)

-J
'" .

-v +1

Reflection and Refraction of Ught 7~

uv- vf- uf+f' =f'

dividing throughout by uvf, we have the relation between the focal length." object and image distances in mirrors as follows.
-=~+-

(25.4)

We descrtbe another important term magnification.

ratio of size of image to that of the object
m=
size of image

This indicates the

size of object

A'B'

AB
m

-v =-u
-h

=' = hJ
"-V

v
u

(25.5)

or

m =

/u. for real image

You caq obtain the mtrror formula using a convex mirror also. The mathematical expression can be used for any calculation. To solve problems remember:
, For

any of mirror use the mirror formula.

I 1 1 -=-+f v u

2. Substitute the numerical values of the given quantities with proper negative or positive signs.

3. Do not give any sign trJ the quantity trJ be determined, it will be obtabled with the reIevent sign.

4_ Remember linear magntftcation is negative for a real image and positive for a virtual tmage_
5. It. is always better trJ just draw a.figure and guess before starting "work.

INtEXT QUESTIONS 25... 2---------1. A tric1c mtrror is such that a man standing near it.finds his head looks small and his hips large. How is this mirror made?
Why are shaving mtrrors concave while rear view mirrors convex? Draw ray diagrams to support your answer.
.....................................................................u . . . .

2.

3.

As the position of an object in front of a concave mirror of focal 25 em is varied. the position of the imaae also chanaes. PInt

18 ril)'Sics

------------------the image distance tis a ji.mction -rff the otyect distance letting - the latter change from -x to +x where is the image real? \\(here is it virl:ual.? (Draw only a rough sketch).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.

fied

Give two situations, in which a concave mim:lr -can farin a magniimage of an object placed in front _ of it. Illustrate your answer by a ray diagram. Try some problems but remember the rules.

...... .......................... .......... .................................. ....... ................... .........

~

5.

An oQject 2.6 em high is 24 emfrom a concave mirror whose radius of cwuature is 16 em. Find tJte location of tts fn)age, give tts nature and size. A concave mirror forms a real image four times as tall as the oQject placed 15 emfrom it. Find the position of the image and tts radius of curvature?
0 ......................................................................

6.

7.

A convex mirror of radius of curvature 20 emforms an image which is hDlf the size of the object. Locate the pOsition of the object and tts image.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '0' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.

A monkey gazes in a polished spherical ball of 10 em radius. U his eye is 20 em from the swfOCe, where is the unage qf his eye formed?

.................................................................................................................
25.4 REFRACTXON CORE CONCEPTS
When light passes obliquely from one medium to another. there is a change In its direction of propagation. By medium we mean any transparent matertaI. This bending of light rags on chahge in media is called J'1I!Ii"actfon. We wllldeal with the reasons and repurcurs10nS of this phenomena. In vacuum light travels at a spt:ed of 3 x 10" ms- I , but In any other_ transparent medium Its speed decreases. TIle ratio of these speeds- indicates how much bendiDg will take place or In otherword.!, 1ndic8.~ how much refraction takes place.

sPeed in VC2cuum c Jl = speed in the medtwn . -;;

,Since this is a ratio 'Il',the refractive Another important fact is that velocity can can never be less than one. In complirlng two media the one with opttcaUydenSer. This also that medium.
index does not have any unit. never be greater thaD and therct"le

means

larger refractive Index Is called light travels more, slowly In that

You must have re8Jised by now that no :matter what ever be the angle of incidence refraction always takes place whenever rays of light change medium. When a ray of light Is refracted at an Interface two laws are-obeyed.
aID I : The tnctdent ray, the refracted ray and the normaltD the sw:face lfein the same . IJIane at the POint oj iru:idence. aID II : The ratio oj the sine of the angle
Incident rtIY

i of iru:idence tD the sine o/the angle of re.frac- - - - - - - ' \ - - - - - . tIon is a constant for a gWen pair of media. medium such This is the same as p. It Is Independent of -Wlllaror the angle of Ini:ii1ence .and depends ImlY on IlIass
the pair of media.

~r

apeed =c

, This wa~ proposed by a Dutch Scientist , Wlllebroad Snell' and Is often referred as Snell'. Imu.
At this level only. two media will be encountered one of which will be air. .
, I i"tg.25. 7 shows

water at O. OR Is the', refracted ray.

L i = angle of incidence L r ~ angle of ~fract1on

a ray PO incident 0Ilg)ass1

x=?

Air

As glass lsopticanY denser

than-au(b)

Lr,< ,

L I ILr Is less than Ll)

Accomlng.to Snell'slaw
Jl

sin I slnr
, .

c v

.... 211.7: tal JitditcJb. at an flr/e>jJtE and /fJI n!IJI!ISIbIIu qf~

Therefore Jl Is a number which Indicates how much the ray will bend, and how much Its speed will change when a ray of Ughtchanges medium.

25.4.1 Relative Indices of Refraction

In defining refractlvelndex, we talk of two medJa and' the Index Is always of the second medium with respect to the ftrBt. (i.e. ftrst that 'has the Incident ray and second which has the refracted rayI. . Abaolute refractive Index: f.s
ah"AIP'

willi rejuelrcefD _

or cdr.

lYotatUm .Jl.rwab ~ fm.Ielr qf ....... 1IDItIl'"fOJ"Ct eo nfr.la 'Ii.:, Ii - glaul. In general. 11'2 reatb nifrac.... index of 1Md~ I2J wlth 'wpect eo rnedlulll (1J
lteYeiidbUlty of

U&ht

fig. 25.7(b) illustrates principal of reversibility. that the ray of light Is retracing its path.

the

Notice it appears

aJlC&

sin i sin r sin r sin x sinr

..: mila = sin i .

rolla =

But. i = r or

andx= i
1

a/.t.v

uJ1a

:It noHis a1wavs 'necessary that light travels from air to a medium and vice versa, there can be any combination of transparent lJledia.
Using Snelfs law in both cases

(25.6)

This relationship finds use in cases where the transllartnt media are other than air.

Table ~5.1: RIifroctive indICes qf common mGterial8

Medium
Vacuum Water Glass(tlint)
Glass (Crown)

Il

l
1.33 1.52 1.65

Diamom:l
.

2.64

Ba:ample 215.1: A my. of light is incident at .an ang~ of 3C1' at a WiIItP.r glass Interface FIIId the angle of refraction. Jlg = 1.S, .,.., = 1.8.

8olatIoa: Using equation (25.61

.11, sin

~ ..

.11. sin\,
sin 1, =

1.5 SJil~ - 1.3 sin 30

(1.3) x !
1.5

... 0;4446
... ----'----------~---~-'----------

..-

~=

iiNl'

okample 25.2 : Ffndthe speed oj Ught In ; oj Ugh! In vacuum = 3 x 1(Y' ntS"';

I

water if its II

= 4/3. Speed

SolutloD : We know that

II = c

v
-

vwater

II

108

4/3
3x 108 x 3 4

INTEXT QUESTIONS 25.3 _____---'-------.....1.

What is the lateral displacement if the light beorp. is incident normally on a glass slab? ................................................................................................................
~

2.

Truce the path-oj light

if it is incident on

a slm1lcirculQt glass slab.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .& . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3. - How and why does the Earth's atmosphere alter the apparnntshape oj t~ Sun and Moori when they are near the Iwrizon?

.......................................................... ,. .....................................................
4.

Why do stars. tWinkle?

. ............................................................................................................ ,... .
,

-5.

Why does a oessel.filled with water appear ~ be shallower (less deep) _ than when witlwut water'? Draw a neat ray cUagmm Jor it.

6.

Find the angle oj refraction of light incident on a water swjace at an angle oJ.5Z>. II = 4/3.

....... .............. ; ........................................... ........................................................

\.

, 7.

A ray oj light Jalls on a transparent glass II = 1.62. if the reflected ray and refracted ray are mutually perpendicular. what is the angle oj incidence? -

25.5 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Activity: Take a stick cover it with cycle grease; dip it in water or take a narrow glass bottle. like! you get for Homeopathic medicine, dip this in water. You will observe the stick or the bottle appear very shiny almost like silver. This strange effect is due to a special case of refractlon.t.vhen a ray of light travels at small angles of incidence from an optically denser to an optically rarer medium say from glass to air or water to air, the refracted ray bends away from the nonna!. ThIs

82 .l'bjIiIeII
means angle of :refractiOn.is greater than the angle of incidence. What happens to the ray If the angle of inCidence is further in~'lbIs is obVious that the maximum values of angle refractton can be 90". The angle qf fnddence in the ~ medium for wftfch the.,.",. qf nifraction in the air is 90" is called the critical angle f._
R
Air

glass

p
FIg. 25.8: (a),(b).(c)

CoDditiODII
1.

for total mtemal :reflectloa :

Light must travel from denser to a rarer medium.

The angle of incidertfe in the denser medium should be greater .than the critical tmgle for the two media. The g1ass tube In water appeaIed silvery as. there was total internal reflection from its surface. Relation between critical angle and refractive Index

2.

,Il! = sin t ga sinr = l/au.g

In the condition for t

= t.
sin

r = 90"

_
gila -

sin 90"

t.

1 =-

JI, = Ilsln \,
The crltical- angles for a few substances are glven in table 25.2
Table 25.2: Some typical critical augtes Substance
Water Crown glass Diamond

11
1.33

Crlttca1 angle

4808'"
42-

1.52 2.42

24.4

J!::caInple 21U: Refrat;tJvei11dex of g/Bss is 1.52.C(Jlculate the crttfcal

angle. SOIUttOll
We have. 11 = Ilsln \,
1 1.52

sin \, =1/1'

=~

----------------~====~~

Reflection and Refraction of ugtrt 83

ic '" 42 Much of the shine In transparent sub!Jtances is due to total Internal reflection. You must have seen dirunonds they shine so much as the critical angle is so small. Most of the light entering the crystal undergoes multip!-:: reflections before it eme1l'ic8 ""+ of it. In ordinary reflel.tion .. the reflec.ted beam is alw3.ys weaker than the ,ncident beam. ,-"Ven if the reflectine; sur[a(;~ is highly polisht:d. as some light is always . transmitted or absorbed. This is not the situation incase of total internal reflection and 100% of the light is reflected at the trnnsparent boundary.

25.5.1

Effects and Applications of Refraction and TotaJ, Internal Reflection

We

There are many manifestaUo,!s of these phenomena in real liie. will consider only some of them.
(a) Mirage; Mirage

is an optical illusion and is associated with desert arhat -s.ummer days and tar roads. This you may have seen as it appears to create an illusion of cold air water on the road from a distlmce which is really not there.

Due to excessive heat. ,the road n::====~,::,:::;::::::::====::- Ilot.air gets very hot and. the. air in Road contact also gets heated up. The denSities ahd refractive Indicies of layers immediately Fig.lS.9: Fonnlllion of mirage above the road say upto 2 m or so are lower than those of the c,?<>ler-hlgher layers, There is no abrupt, change fwn1. 'one medium to another see Fig. 25.~. Thus a ray of ligI1t from a distant object such as a tree bend more ah.d more they pass through these layers. until they fall on aJayer at an angle greater than the critical angle for the two consecutiVe. layers. Thi,s results In total interval reflection. This prOduces the image and Indicates a reflection from the ground (giving an Illusion of water). '

as

TotallY'

n1J.ectin, priSDUI : A glass. or iperspex) prism with angles of' 90". 450 and 450 is a very. useful device for reflect-

incident ray

N -'-'-.':':':':':+=---'-f--"""-,,K'
p 45'

45"
p

'Ing light.

Consider the FIg. 25.10 (al. The sYmIDetry of the prism allows light to be Inctdent on o at an angle of 45 which is 'greater than the critical angle for glass teo 42. the ray is deviated by 90". Choosing another face for the

la)

Ib)

FIC.

215.10 la),(b) : TotaRy rej/ectlng pr1$ms.

114

,PhYSiC"

ihcjdent tays. it could be seen as ih Fig. 25.10 (b). tile my deviated through 180" by two successive total internal reflections. taking place at 0 arid 0'. What do you think happens at P?

J1C.

25.211: MutUp/e rej!ection In optical jibre.

A right angled prism is used in binoculars. telescopes and microscopes.

(c) Optic Fibres : An optic fibre consists of a long high quality glass fibre. A fibre is a very thin thread. Each is coated with a thin layer of a material of lower refractive index. For example a strand can be 0.0001 cm in diameter. with a refractive index of the main fibre being 1. 7 and that of the coating about 1.5. Why do you think this is done? You would understand it tf you recall the conditions for total iht~1 reflection. (See Fig. 25.11).
When light is inCident on one end it undergoes multiple total intern .. ) reflections and can emerge with undiminished intensity at the' other end roday fibre optics is being uSed in a big way. Medical applications ihI VOM instruments used in minary bladder examination, study of bronchi ill tUbe and neurosurgery With the help of Utproscopes. These use high ihtensity'laser light to pass'through a' fibre. In the field of communication today one glass fibre can carry as many as 10,000 telephone conversations at one time compared to only 48 by a copper Wire.

INTEJ(T QUESTIONS 2 5 . 4 - - - - - - - - - - 1.

.from a
2.

Why ,can't totallntemal rejlectton take place rarer to a denser media?

if the ray

Is travelling

....................................................................................................!

Crtttcal angle Jor glass Is 42". Would this value change ifa piece oj glass Is Immersed In water? Give a reason Jor yOUT answer.
................. u - t . . . .

3.

Show by", a ray diagmm how a ray oj light may he made to tum through 9( using (1) plane mirror (2) a right angled prism. Why Is

Reflecti~n

and Refraction of Light 85,

theintensiiY oIlight greater in the second case?

4. A liquid in a container Is 25 em deep. What Is its apparant depth when vtewedjrom above if the refractive index of the liquid Is 1.25? What Is the Critical angle for the liquid?

....................... ............ ' ............................ ................................................

~.>

25.6 REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES

We can study the tormation of Image of objects placed around spherical surfaces such as Kancru.<!I (gotO. water drops. glass bottle etc. To

25.12: Refraction at a spherical'suiface

have a clear picture of distances from the sace Sign convention as that for spherical mirrors is required. 1bis is the same in the case of 'spherical 'I refraCting surfaces also. Let us consider FIg. 25.12 .

. ,SPS' is a convex refracting surface separating two medis air and glass. C is the centre of-curvature. P is a point on SPS'almost symmetrilcally placed. You can call it the pole. CP is then the principal axis. o is a point object. OA is an incident ray. AB is the refracted ray. Another ray OP falls on the surface normally and hence goes undevlated after refraction. PC and AB appear to come from I hence I. is the Image of O. (virtual Image).

Let OAN

= t angle of incidence

CAB .. r angle of refraction

PO

=-u; PI =-11; PC .. + R
.

elM! axis: ",

a. Il.. y are' angles made by DA. IA arid CA respectlvely With the prinh .. hetght of the normal dropped, from A on the principal axis. Consider DCA and lCA.
t ..

a+ y
y

(25.8)

=fJ +

(25.9)

sin f

.'

2119 = - - (Snell's law) sin r

If A fs close to P angles t and r will- be quite small {sin f = f I

Therefore i / r '" 11
or i = I1r (25.lO)

Substituting values of i and r from (25.8) and (25.91 In (25.tO)

a+y=.p(P+y)

or

a-pp=y(p-l)

(25.ll

Taking tans of a,

p & y. 1b1s fs done to take ail. approximate in terms! of distances on the prtnctpal axis; also angles will be quite small if ~ fs close to P. . i
[

Hencea = tana = AM = AP
MO

PO

= -u

l3=tanP=:=~=:
y= tany= Me = PC'= R Substltuting a, p & yin eqn (25.11). We can write,
-l1h h h' + = (11- 1)-u -u R
, ,

AM

AM

. 1

1bts aIgn1flcant relatlonship correlates . object, Image distances to two. main factors: .
1. refcactlve Index j1,

2. radius of curvature R.

25.6.1 Lens
A lens Is a homogeneous transparentmedtum (such as g~s) bounded by two curued swfaces.
Yo,u hav.: read In your earlier classes ijJat lenses are of two main types.

'convex lens' and 'concave lens'. Some other types of lenses are. alSO! shown In fig, 25.13. . 1be line joining the centres of curvature 'of the two surfaceS of tbl' lens fs called the prlnctpal axis of the lens. .

Reflection and RefractIOn of Ught 87

Some Defluitiona Related to LeDses Tkfn lens : If the thickness of the lens Is negligible In compartson to the radH of curvature of the curved surfaces. then the lens is called thin lens. We will mostly be dealing with only thin

(ii) Plano- conwx

lenses.

Principal FocWl .: Paraxial rays parallel

and close to the principal axis con(b) (iv) BiConcave (v) plano- concave (vi) Convex concave verge to or seem to n,. 25.13: Various types oj lenses diverge &Om a point on it. This point F (FIg. 25.) Is called the pdDelpai focus. Rays of l1ght can pass through a lens in either direction. so eveIY lens has two principal fOCi. one on each side of it.
0ptfcGl c.ntre : A point within the lens lying on the principal axis through which rays refract and go undevtated.
1Ibcal IencIth : The distance from the optic centre to the focus Is called focal length. OF Is the focal length. (f). As ~ the sign convention OF Is positive for convex lens and negative for concave lens.
~

X[[

plane : The plane passing through the focus of a ,lens and perpendicular to the prlnclpal axis Is called' a focal plane.

(.)

1bfa will give you an idea of focus and focal plane.

25.8.2 Formula for Refractlon Through thin Lena

Surely you can guess that focal length must be related to radiUS of

.,
I

88 I-hysks
cUlvature and defi~ nitely to the refrac~ tive index.
p

B
2

--

--

Suppose a thin con,.' 'ri---vex lens L is placed In air (Fig. 25.15). ~-u. ,. The refractive Index of the material of the lens With reF1I. 25.15: Re.fractJon through c:orwex lens "~ spect to air is 11 and the radII of curvatures of its two surfaces be R, and R,. Let a point object be P. P, and Po are the poles of the two surfaces. Surface (I) forms an image of p at I' (rays PA and ppJ~ _

Therefore.

--- 1 v' 11

(25.13)

r acts as a virtual object for the surface (2) (ray AS is incident at-S) WhiCh. forms the. fmal Image I at a distanceV from. Po' It a virtual, object as it really does not ex.ist. The refracted rays from ~ (l) fall on surface (2) from glass to air. '. .
1/ # _
tJ

Therefore.

1
tJ'

= 1/#-1

1/11 is taken as light is going from glass to air .

or

I v

.!!:..
v' =

1- #
~

p-I
=~

l25.14)

Adding equation (25.13) and (25.14) we have

v
If u

1 _

.!.. = (#
u

_ 1)

(..!. _2....'J R R.
J

(25.15)

= DO that Is the object is at Infinlty the rays are parallel' and converge to focus or v = f.
f

wm

or'.!. = (p-I)

(_1 _..!..) R/ ~
we can OOdclude

f25.16}

Also I/f = I/v - I/u

From eqn (25.15) and (25.16)
(a)

The focal. length of a lens depends upon radU qf cwvature of ttW.. spherical sUlfaces. Focal. length of a lens of large radU of cwva-

Reflection and Refraction of LIght 89. ture is large.

(h)

Focal length is smaller

if the refractive index is high

In case a lens is dipped in water or any other transparent medium the value of p will change and you can find that the focal length will be larger. However if the density of the media say (carbon disulphidel outside the lens is more than the lens material the rays may even diverge and instead of a convex lens you may have it working as a concave one.

25.&.3

~ormatiOD

of Image by Lenses

Folloynug. properties of rays are used in the formation of images by lenses. (a) A ray of light through the optical centre of the lens passes undeviated.
,

(hI '.Paralle! ray after refraction passes through the principal focus.

(c)

A ray of light through F or F' is rendered parallel to the principal mds after refraction. ,

Any two of Jlese rays can be selected to draw ray-diagrams. I The lens formula -

1 1 =--

suggests the dependenc~ of image distance (v) on object distance (ll) and focal length (f I of the lens.

Lbl:eu m"CllfRcaUon :

Th~"f'lt(o ofJurightofinuJge formed "., the lens to the height Of the object is called mang(tication and is denoted by m

m= v/u
I

o
= height of the
object.

= height

of the image, 0

Ezample 25.4 : The radii oj curoature oj a double convex lens are 15 em and 30 em respectively. Calculate its Jocal length. Also.find the focal length when it is immersed in a liqUid oj refracture index 1.65, p oj glass = 1.5. Solution : We have

1 =(11 _ 1) (...!... __ 1) f R, R2 R, .. +15 cm

R,
Substituting

= -30

em

}. = (1.5-i)

ltk - ~)

To find the refracture index from liquid to glass

,Ilg

= ,11.

.11,

Therefore

= 1/1.65 x 1.5 = 10/11 1/1. = W, - 1) (l!R. ~ I/RJ

= (l0/11 - I)" (l/15 - 1/-30)

= -1/110
J=-llOcm

J Is now negative 'apd the lens is now

behaving like a toncave lens.

25.6.4

Power of a Lens and its Relation to Focill Length

A practical application of lc::nses is in the correction of the d~. of vision. So many people use spectacles. But you never find people talking about eye defect in terms of focal-length thc::y simply say the power Is +2.5 or -2.5 dioptre.

An optician measures the power (strength) of lenses in Dloptre d Is determtned from

dloptr'~.a.

d = 100/J, where J = focal length of a lens Is in centimeters

or from
d = J {If J Is in metres}
'J'fIe JICIUNII' qf a 1_ .. d4(tIned _
~

lin ritatreJ.

the recIprocCII qf b

"

.foCoJ

A lens of +2 dioptres Is a converging lens 9f 50 em (0.5 m)

fucaI JengtlL

Dtoptre Is a commercial unit and not a ere formula

SI unit.

From the lens mak~

= (11- 1)

P = (11 -1)

(2- _1-) (2- __

Rl
R:z

R,

1) R2

Bample 215.15 : Find the radius oj curuatw"e oj a bfronvex lens 'fIj be 1'TItlde.from glass (Jl = 1.54) in order to get a power oj +2.75 cUoptre. .

1 ) R, R2 P = +2.75 diopter
11=1.54

= (11- 1)

(2- __

R.=R,=R

ReftecUon,and ~ "'~

91

Substituting in the .formula. we get

2.75 '" 0.54) (2/R) R '" 0.54x2 2.75 '" O.39m or

39 em

Could the OpHclBft ehoose to make the mdiusof curvature 40, em instead of 39 em? Why not?

:urr&XT QUESTIONS 2 5 . 5 , - - - - - - - - - 1.
~.

On what factors does the focal length of a lens depend

y ~~, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A lens, whose radii of curvature are different is fanning the image of anoqject placed on Its axis. if the lens is reversed, will the positton of the image change?

.................................................................................................................
3.
The rejractlve ~ of the mnterlal of an equi - double convex lens is 1.5. Prove that the focal length is equal to the radius of cwva-

ture.
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.

What type qf a lens is formed. by an air bubbleinsfde water?

............ ,................................................................................................... .
5. A lens when Immersed in a transparent liquid becomes invisible i.uu.Ier what condlttDn does this happen?

...............................................................................................................
6. Calculate the focal length and power of a lens if its radii of cwvatures are +20 em and - 25 em for the two swfaces. (J.I '" 1.5)

..................................................................................................................
2&.6 WlJAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

Reflectlon Is bouncing back of light from surfaces.

Laws of reflection never change whatever be the shape or texture

of the; surface.
Real and virtual images are formed due to reflected rays actually

Intersetlng or appear to do so after reflection. The relationships between focal length, object distance. image dis~ce magnification and mdlus of curvature are: R

= 0.54x2
2.75

'" -108 275

92 PhysIcs

1=

RI2

II

m =

vlu

Sign convention is a convenient way of talking about dlstances with . respect to. the mirrorlIens. Refraction of light means change of speed of light when it travels from one medium to another. This causes rays of light to bend towards or away from the normal.
Refractive index Il indicates the extent of refra:ctton between a pair

of media. Snell's law states

1L
It,'

. oj

1,

sin i . where i is the angle of m:cidence in sinr 1L

media I and r is the angle of refraction in media g. - for light travelling from medium I to 2. .~ The incident ray. normal and refracted ray always plane.
li~ In
~

the same

Total internal reflection is a special case of refractiOl'l for this the rays should travel from denser to rarer media anc!t the angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle.
11 = l/sin Ie Any transparent media bounded by spherical surfaces- forms a lens.

Images by lenses depend on focal length and the Uistance of the object from it. Convex lenses are converging while concave iensefu.are diverging:

1- 1) -I1 = (Il -1) (R\ R"

m =

v lu

III = Ilv - I/u are slmpluelationships betw~n focal length lIJ refractive index. radii of curvatures (RI R) ob~t distance (ll) image distance (v).

Power of a lens indicates its strength in terms of how diverging e or converglOg the lens is d=-(fisinm)
1

>l:
}

d is dioptre.

25.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1.

Distinguish between the uses of concave

an~

convex mirrors.

2.

What is the nature and position of Image folnred when the object

Reflection and Rcfract10n of LIght 93

Is at (i) infinity (ii) 2 mirror.

J (ill) J in case of .concave mirror and convex

3.

Ust the factors on which lateral displacement of an incident ray depends as it suffers refraction through a parallel Sided glass slab? Why is the lateral displacement larger if angle of incidence is greater,show by a ray diagram?
Give the condition for total internal rellection.

4.

5.

How is + 1.5 dioptre different from -1.5 dioptre? Defiue d'.olJtre. Why would the intensity of -light become less due to refraction?
A lamp Is 4 m from a wall. Find the focal length of a concave mirror which will form a five times magnified image of the lamp on the wall. How far from the wall must the mirror be placed.
A dentist"s concave mirror has a radius of cUrvP_~ure of 30 cm How far must it be placed from a cavity in order to give a ~irtual image magnified five times?

6.
7.

8.

9.

A needle placed 45 em from a lens form,; an image 011 a screen placed 90 cm on the other side of the lens. Identify the type of the lens and determine its focal length. What is the Si7" of the image. if the size of the neeJ1e is 5.0 cm'?

10. An object of size 3.0 em is . placed 14 cm in frore of a concave lens of focal length 21 cm. Describe the image prodllced by a lens. What "happens if the object is moved farther from thp lens? 11. An object is placed at a distance of 100 cm from a double 'O(lVeJC lens which forms a rta1 image at a distance of 20 em. Th', n(ill of cwvatures of the lens surfaces an; ;00 cm and 12.5 cm rec;r.eclively. Calculate the refractive index of the material of the lens.

12. A ray of light Is travelling from the diamond to glass. Calculat(. the value of the critlcal angle for l.1e my. if th" refract;'le index of g\aRs is 1.51 and that of diaJl);)ml i~ 2.47.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

IDtezt
1 2.

gue.tto_ 25.1
b (i)

a (iv)

Focal lengths 2.5 em. 3.5 cm. 5 cm.

3.
4.

J=

-15 cm:

J=

+15 cm.

They receive pareDel rays and focus them on h:(' recei:er.

IDtezt
1.
2.

gue.tt_ 25.3

The upper part of the mirror must be cunvex "nil the lower should be concave. Objects placed close to concave mirrors S give a.., enlarged image. convex mirrors give a diminished erect image and have a large field ofvtew.

3.

l.

lui> f. reallimage
f.I. < f. virtual image

2.

3.
4.
4.

for u

-2f real image

v = -2f
U=+ has no meaning.

When (1) u <J, f < u2f

(1) 12 cm in front of mirror. real & inverted
(Ii)

5.
6.

0.8 em

= -60 em.

= -24 em

7. 8.

u = -10 cm. v = +5 cm v=0+4cm

Intext Questions 25.3 _ _ _ _--'-_ _ _ _ _- 1. 3. No lateral displacement The density of air and consequently its refractive index goes OIl decreasing as one goes higher in altitude. As a result. the llght rays from the Sun. when it is below the horizon. pass from rarer to denser medium and bend towards the normal. till they are I,"eceiVed by the eye of the observer. This overlap causes the shape to appear elongated. Due to the change in densIty of the different layers of air in the atmosphere J.l changes continuously. Therefore. the refractive index of air varies at different levels of the atmosphere. This along With air currents causes the twinkling of stars. Due to refractlon
36.20

4.

5. 6.
7.

58.80

Intext Questions 25.4

1. Total Internal reflection cannot take place if the ray travels from rarer to denser medium as the angle of refraction willaIways be less than angle of incidence. Yes the crttical angle will change as

2.

Jl.
3.

= Ilsin Ie

.11,"

JliJl..

The Intensity in the 2nd case Is more due to total Internal reflection.
2Ocm. Ie = sin-I 0.8

4.

Reflection and RefractiOn of Ugbt 9S

. Intext Questions 25.5

1.
~.

Refer text No,Changlng the position of R, & R, in lens makers fonnula does not affect the value of f, so image is fonned at the same place
In

3.

~ J

= (It

-1) (~-..!..)
R,.~

Substitute Rl = R: and It = 1.5

we getJ= R.

R, =

-R

. 4.

Concave lens though shaped like a convex lens.

This happens when the refractive index of the material of the lens

5.
6.

is same as that of the liquid.

J= 22.2 cm p = 4.5 dioptres

Terminal Questiona
7.

to 7

see text.

8.
9.

12 cm

J = 30 cm, size of tmage = 10 cm, converging lens.

10. Image is erect, virtual and located at 8.4 cm from the lens on the same side as the ol:!lect. It Is dimtnlshed size = 1.8 em. As the object is moved away from the lens, the virtual image moves towards the focus of the lens but never beyond and progressively dimin1shes In stge.
11. II = 1.5

12. 37.7"

26
=-==========================~

DISPERSION AND SCATTERING OFLIGBT

.1

a;.lINTRODUCTION.
In the previous lesson you have learnt about soine properties of light llke reflectlonand refraction. You have also learnt about the total Internal reflection. mirrors and lenses.When a narrow beam of sunlight or light from an electric bulb is seen through a prism we find colour bands. This phenomenon Is different from reflection and refraction. The splitting oj white light or polychromatic light into its constituent colours IiIr wcwelengths by a medium Wee prism is called dispel sion. In this lesson we will study about it. A fine example of this In nature Is rainbow. Qispersion produces colour bands on the screen. This Is called spectrum. The spectrum can be studied by an instrument called spectrometer. Some of the spectra are extremely useful iIi the study of the nature and Internal constitutions of the source of light. We will also learn about the blue colour of fIky through another pheqQmenon called SCGttering in this very lesson. This lesson also contaIns a-_ brief description of two major defects In the image formation by IIlirrors and lenses. .

I
.

26.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson. you ShOl.'\d be able to.

explain the dispersion ojlight; I derive re~ between angle oj deviation (0). angle oj prism (A) and the refractive index ojthemateliD1 oj the prism (p); relate refractive tndexand coloUr ojlight and explain dispersion through the prism; describe spectrum and clas'sify spectra. into various types; explain the spectra produced by matter in d!fferent states; explain FrcwnJwjer lines; describe the spectrometer pnd its uses; e recognise the dejects in images jormed by mirrors and lenses and suggest I1II'!thods to minimise them; explain scattering oj light and its applications; e. explain thejormatWn ojprimary and secondary rainbows; and eliminate the dejects in imagejorrrwtiDn by the lenses and mirrors.
I'

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-=Di~s::.!pe=rs=lo=n::...:and Scatterlng ofUghts" 97

26.3 DISPERSION OF LlG3T

Natural phenomena like rings around planets: HALO, and rainbow formation cannot be explatned by straight line propagation of light which you have read in earlier lesson. To understand such phenomena and many other events. light is considered to be having wave nature. Huygen dealt with the wave nature of light about which you will read In next lesson. As you know the ilght waves are electromagnetic transverse waves Whose speed'is same for all colours i.e 3 xl08 ms- 1 in vacuum. Out of the long range of e1ectromagnetlc waves. visible light forms a smaIl part. Even a small object will cast shadows and light appears travelling in straight lines. White sun light consists of seven prominent wave lengths corresponding to each colour. Thus. colours may be identified with their wave lengths. You have already learnt thn1 the speed and wavelength oj waves changes when they go from one mediwn inID another. The speed of light waves and also their wavelengths change with the change in the medium. The speed of a wave having certatn wavelength becomes less than its speed in free space when it enters optically denser medium.

an

Refractive index Illla(l been defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the medium. It is but natural that the refractive index of a given medium will be different for waves having wavelengths 3.8 xlo- 7 m and 5.8xlO- 7 m because these waves travel with different speeds in the same medium. This variation in the refractive index of a material with wavelength is known as dispersion. This ohenomenon is different from refraction: In free space and even in air. the speeds of all waves of the visible light are the same so, they are not separated. Such a medium is called non dispersive medium. But in an optically denser medium the component wavel~ngths (colours) travel with different speeds and are thus separated. The medium is called dispersive medium.

26.3.1 Dispersion Through a Prism

The separation of colours by medium is not a sufficient condition to see dispersion of light. unless these are widely separated and are not allowed to mix up again after emerging from the dispersing medium_ A glass slab (Fig 26.1) is unsuitable to show dispersion. The emergent waves are very close and parallel to the incident beam. Newton used a prism to show dispersion of light. When a narrow beam of white light . from a slit falls on the face AB of the Incidea' beam prism, the emergent light from face AC is -', i split into coloured beams. Coloured patches seen on the screen (Fig. 26.2) Glass slab shows dispersion of light. Face AC increases the separation between the rays refracted. at face AB. The incident white light PQ is split into its component seven colours. Each wavelength travelling with different speeds, is refracted through Emergent beam different angles. and are thus separated. This splitting of white light is known as Fill. 2" ;; Pu-ssage oJlighllhrollflh " dispersion. The bending of ra:;3 is glass sial>

98 PbysIcss
Increased. MR and LV show the eJt1mne coloured raYB of red IUld v10Iet Ught respecttvely. Violet. Indigo. blue. !;lccO. yellow. orange and red colours are seen on the screen In thjs order. These colours on the screen inake

the spectnm\.,

The bending of original common beam PQN along MR. LV etc. Is known as delJfatfon. The angle between the emergent ray and the incident ray is ...! known as angle of deViation. Thus Oy ~ represent the angle of deviation for violet whIIelighl Ught and or for red Ught. The prism helps us In viewing the dispersion of Ught.
The fonowing example shows variations of

qfllght by a refractive Index with the Wavelength of PIa- 18.2: DIspersIon . prism. Ught.

Ezample 28.1: A beam o/Ught oj averagewrwe/engl:h 600 run on~ a glass prism is divided into three coloured beams oj wavelengths 384 run. 589 run and 760 run respecttvel:y. Determine the re..fmcttve frldicesoJ the . material oj the prismfor these wavelengths.

Solution:

The refractive Index of the material of the prism Is given by 11= u where c
c

=speed of Ught in vacuum. and

u = speed of Ught In the medium (priSm) Now velocity of wave = frequency x wavelength Hence.c =i!.'la and u =IY.A..,. where Aa and A.,.. are wavelengths In air and medium respectively and v is the frequency of the light wave.

For wavelength 384 run. the refractive.lndex Is

For wave length 589 run

and for wavelength 760 run 11 _ 6OOxlO-9 m =O.S

3

760xlO::grn

Dispersion and Scattering of Ugbta 99 Note: The wavelength of light is measureq In the following units
Ia)
(h)

In metres In powers of 10(eg. 3.8 x

1O-7m )

In angstrom units (A), 1 A = lO-IQ m

1 run = 10-9 m

(c) In nanometers (run) ego 600 run = 6000 A We have seen that the refractive Index of a material depends on
(1)

the nature of the material. and the wavelength of the light.

(11)

An interesting outcome of the above example is that the variation In

wavelength 1M

= ~-I..I)

causes variation In the refractive Index IAI!

1'2-111)' The ra~o :

Is known as the dispersive power of the prtsm material.

(a) ADgIe of DevIation' and ADgle of Incidence

We would like to find a relation between angle of Incidence i, angle of deviatiOns Ii and the angle of prlsm A Let a monochromatic beam of lig1It PQ be Incident on face AB of the principal section of the prism ABC . .on refraction it goes along QR Inside the prism and emerges along RS from face AC. Let LA .. LBAC ,be the refracting angle of the prism, LNQP = LI, LN'RS = Le, LRQO .. Lrl and LQRO .. Lr2 be the angle of Inddence, angie of emergence and angles of refraction at faces AS and AC respectively (See Fig 26.S}. The angIe between emergent ray RS and the Incident ray PQ at D is known as the angle of deviation (iiI. NQ and M'R extended meet atO. Angle MDR .. Lli Is the external angle of triangle QDR so that
LIi=LDQR+LDRQ=(Li-Lr, )+(Le-Lrz)
A

or

LIi=(Li+Le)-(Lr( +Lrz )
...... (26.1)

The sum of the tnternal angles of a quadrtlateral Is four right angles and In quadrilateral A{,)OR. LAQO ..
LARO -

s
"---------"c
..... aa.a: Re.fracllon through a
prism

goo, 80
LQAR + LQOR .. lSOO
...... (26.2)

But In !J. QOR

LQOR + LOQR + LQRO= 1800

or

Lr, + Lr2 +LQOR = 1800

..... 126.3)

, Comparing equations (26.2) and (26.3) we have

Substituting for r 1 and r 2 from eq.(26.41 In eq.{26.l) we have

Lo = (Li + Le) - LA

Lrl + Lr2 =LA

'

.... {26.4)

or

Li+ Le= LA+ Lo

....{26.51

"0

1:
40'
0",

~t
I

I
I I I

35"

I
1,8
70<>

le=i
I

3d'
(al

30

n,. :I8.4(-l: In
Lrl

-= Lr2 =Lrand Li = Le = Li

mIntnwm_

(b)

40

SO 60

i ---'"'

.".:18.4(11): CUrve behveen angle of Incidence I and ang1e of deviation 0.

(b)

AaaJe

Qf Mtntmum Deviation

Let us vary the angle of mcident

,ray from 300, .As i is' Increased. the angle of deviation Ii decreases. bec:>mes minimum for a certain value of i and again starts Increasing as i is Increased (FI~. 26.4{b)). The minimum value of angle of deviation is called angle of mininnm "deviation {Sml . It depends on the material of the prism and the wavelength of 1tght used: In fact corresponding to an angle of deviation there are two values of angles of Incidence. Using the principle of reversibility of light we find the second angle of Incident corresponds to the angle of emergence (e I. In the minimum deviation position there is only one value of angle of Incidence so that
Le=Li
using this fact In eq.{26.51 and replacing 0 by Sm we hav~

L!=LA+LOm
2

...... (26.61

The same fact aIeo gives

Lrl = Lrz = Lr

which on substitution In eq. (24.41 yields

Lr=LA 2

...... {26.7)

The 1tght beam Inside the prism becomes p~el to the Q.ase (FIg 26.4(a)) The refractive Index of the material of the prism is now given by

Dispersion and Scattering of Ught:. 101

sini sinr

(26.8)

11 can be found by eq(26.8) using a monochromatic or a polychromatic beam of light.The value of om is different for different colours. It gives a unique value of the angle of incidence and the emergent beam is brightest for thls incidence.
For a small angled prism keeping i and r small, we can write
SlI1[=~smr=r.andslne

=eetc.

consequently. slni i JI.=--=-or slnrl rl .

Also

sine sinr2

r.

or

Therefore.
Li + Le = 11 (Lr\ + Lr2 )

using eqs (26.4) and (26.5) we have

J1A=A+o or

(26.9)

We have seen that JI. depends on the wavelength or colour of light so does " as is evident from eq(26.9). That is why". is different from Since velocity of red ray is more than the velocity of violet ray in glass. red is deviated less than violet.

"r'

Therefore.

"v > or'

From eq.(26.9) we find JI.v > Pr. The change in refractive index of the material with wavelength of light. thus. explains the dispersion.

26.4.2

.,war DispendQJl

and Dispersive Power

The difference between the angles of deviation for any pair of wavelengths (Colours) is known as angular dispersion i.e. angular dispersion for violet:red pair = Oy - "r IThe angular dispersion for blue- red pair of rays Is

(<\-o,.).
In the visible part of the spectrum:. the wavelength of yellow colour is nearly the average wavelength of the spectrum. The deviation for this colour Is
sa~

<\.

Now the ratio of Ute angular dispersion to the mean. deviation is' known as the dispersive power (co) of the material of the prism. Therefore.

102~

By using eq. (26.9) we ftnd

1I) ..

(p,,-I)A- (p,.-I)A

(Pu -1)A
or

. \

II)-P,,-&

&-1.

I=~
It-I

(26.10)

Bmunple 2 : 'll1e nifractjng angle oJ. a prism Is 30' and the rejTacttve index 1.B. Estimate the deviation O'JI'sed by the prism.

8ulattoa:

Since, 6 ..

11'-1) A
2 2

6=(1.6-1)X.!:.0 = 0.6 =0.30=18' Jbarnph 3: 'll1e 'fditk."ifve index ofi.OOter for colour A.1s 1.40 qndfor another o%ur B It Is 1.32. Find the !1fsperstve power of water.

IIoIatlGa:
.

itA. 1.40,

Its .. 1.32
2

So the. average refractive Index. It .. P,6 + Its

or

_1.40+1.32 138 It2 .

11)=

Now
So

1t6 - Itl _1.40-1.32;. 0.08 It-I 1.36-1 0.36

11)"

0.22

Iftl'it&T QUES'DONS 28.1,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. HOlD can dispersion be shown in gmphIt.e or carbon?

............................................................................................................. ....................... ........................... .........................................................

"
~
-

3. WIth your lawwledge about the refatfve ualues of It for the romponent, c%uTsof whU:e light, state which out of red or violet Is deI1fated. more '

~.~.~.~~

................................................................. 1

4. Does dispersion depend on theta) size and (b) angle of the prism?

..................................................................................................................
......................................... ................................................................
;..

p. FInd the angular dispersion produced by a thin prism of angle"; itS :elia:ti'le inctires fur rc:d 8IId viok:l ~. _ 1.S6 and 1.6IS n:spu:ti~ Also calculate the disperstve power of the /I1Ilteridl of the prism.

DIspersion and. Scattertng of Ugbta 103 6. Name the media whose dispersive powers are tal (c) III > O. Can III hllIJe a negative value?
III

= O. (b)

III ..

0 and

ou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7 .. A prism produces both dispersion and deviation. Can you suggest some means so that one can get (a) dispersion but no deviation and (b) deviation without dispersion?

26.5 SPECTROMETER AND ITS USES

Spectrometer is a versatile Instrument used in the study of dispersion of light and spectra. It has helped in knowing not only the structure of molecules and atoms but also the atmosphere ami tempreature of the planets and stars. It is used to obtain pure spectrum in the laboratory. You have read in Bohr's theory that excited atoms emit light containing several wavelengths. Similarly when light l'l incident on a substance the atoms may absorb it and the electrons may change their orbits. The spectrometer is a device to find the absorption or emission of the light waves which are characteristic of the atom. So. it is a device used to analyse the spectrum.

26.5.1

Impure aDd Pare Spectra

Spectrum. in simple words may be defioed as follows:

A ray of white light enterfng a glass prism Is split up or dispersed into Its component wauelengths red. orange. yellow. green. blue. indIgO and u/oIet. The colours are collecttvefy. taken on screen. called the speeD'Um of white light. Any polychromatic beam has its own spectrum.
If the boundaries of the colours overlap and are not clear the spectrum is called an impure spectrum as shown in Fig. (26.5(a)). On the other hand If the colours are distinctly separate on the screen the spectrum is known as pure spectrum (Fig. 26.5(b). A pure spectrum cannot be modilled by a second prism.

A A
White light

I
ISlit
B
(8)

White tight

Screen

SI~

(b)

Screen

//
FIg. 26.5:(a) Olwlapping oj colours in lhe region R' I' shows an impure spectntm. (b) Each c."olour is dislinC'rh, sqXlrcut.'. qil'{'S a pure speclnon.

.,

104 _PhyfI\css

26.15.2 Spectrometer
This Instrument consists essenttally of three components
(a) a coUimator to render a parallel beam of polychromatic ~t
(b)

a prism table on which prism is placed to disperse light and produce spectrum. and

(c) a telescope to receive and focus parallel beam of 1Ight (see figure 26.6).
Prism table

Collimator

.,.. 28.8: A spectrometer

All the t:1lreecomponents are mounted on a heavy metal base fitted With levelling screws and a circular scale moves concentric with the prism table. The ctrcular scale moves with the moveQii!nt ef the telescope. A Vernier scale moves with the movement ofprtsm table on the circular scale. TIle . hortzontal axis of the coll1matott'hortzontal axis of the telescope and the vert1caI axis of the prism table Intersect lit a single POint. In a no1'llll1I adjustment of the spectrometer this point Ues at the centre of the prfsrn One end of the colUmator csrr1es an adjuetable slit and the other a lens such that the sUt be kept at the focus of the lens with the help of adjust1Illit screw. The prtsm table has three levelling screws. It also has concentric clrcles and straight lines parallel to the line jotnlng two screws.The eyepiece (E) of the telescope may be adjusted with an adjusting screw to receive parallel rays (FIg. 26.7 (aJ; (b)) clamping and fine motion screws are pfovtded with the prtsm table and telescope In the base of the Instrument. Heavy base provides stability to the apparatus. It Is leveIl~ with the l~ screws and spirit level. An Intense monochromatic ot polychromatic beam of 1Ight is U8ed to illuminate the slit.

my

PIt. 28.7 : Une dlagrQrn oj spectrometer de/ermlnallon oj

(aJmfi1tmwn angle. oj deviation. (bJ angle qf prislTL

.'-1""- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Dispersion and Scattering of LIghts : lOS

26.5.3 Use Of Prl8m. Spectrometer

The prism spectrometer Is used for several types of measurements. It Is used to produce pure spectrum, determine refractive Index of the material . of the prism, fhid resolving power and to study the phenomenon of dlffraction.
(a) Production of Pale Spectrum: The polychromatic beam of light used to illuminate the slit Is rend~d parallel by collimator'lens ~. ThIs parallel beam Is dispersed by the prism placed on optically levelled prism table with its centre coinciding ~th the centre of the prism table. The dispersed parallel beam Is received by an adjusted telescope by directing it towards the second face AC of the prism (FIg. 26.7(a)) and pure spectrum can be seen through the telescope eyepiece.

(b)Determination of Refractive IndeJl:: The refractive index of the material of a prism (solid or hollow) may be determined for a given colour or monochromatic beam of light by measuring the angle of minimum deviation (Ilm ) for the given light and the angle of prism using the spectrometer.
The angle of prism is determined by placing the edge A of the prism COinciding with the centre of the prism table, The base (BC) of the prism is now perpendicular to the incident light from the collimator (Ftg.26.7(bll. The light Is Incident on both faces AB and AC of the prism. The reflected Images of the slit from the two faces are taken on the .cross-wlre of the telescope In positions T\ and T 2 , The angle between T\ and T2 position gives 2A. It can be proved geometrically that this angle between the reflected rays from AB and AC Is twice the angle of the prism A. Then by putting t4e.values of A and Ilm so using eq.(26.8) we can find the refractive Index of the material of the prism as .
_ sln(A~6m )

Il

sin(A/2)

...... (26.8)

Ezample 28. : For a prism of angle A, the minimum angle fJf deviation is A/2. FInd Its refractive index. when monochromatfc light Is used. Given

A=6d'.
= sin ( A~6m)

Solut\on:

The refractive index Is given by Il Now Ilm = A/2 so that

sln(A/2)

Sin(~X60)
60) sin ( 2 --12=1.4

\06

Physics"

INTEXT QUJ;!:STIONS 26.,~2_ _ _ _ _ _...,....-_ _ __

1. Calculate the refractive inf1ex oj an equilateral prism if the angle of minimum deviation is equal to the angle oJthe prism.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ao . . . . . . . ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. Using Jollowing data determine the angle oj incidence IJor an angle oj prism= A, e '" 90 and re.froctive index '" /1.
3.
4.

Why shDuld the slit be narrow in the spectrometer?

Can you study the spectrum with a spectrometer without coinciding the centre oj the prism table and the centre oJ the prism?

5.

Why a dense glass (Jlint glass) prism is used with a spectrometer? Distinguish between an impure and a pure speclrwn.
' ;. ".. l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.

7.

A 60 prism is placed in minimum deviation position on a spectrometer. if angle oj incidence is SOo, jiru1 angle oj deviation.

...................................... : ............................ ............................

.........

26.6

TYPES OF SPECTRA

We have gone through the definition of spectra earlier which may be stated as the cumulative band of colours recetved on a screen after dispersion of a polychromatic beam of light. An examination of the spectra produCed by different sources such as red and white hot iron, a candle flame, a gas or carbon are, a light bulb and sodium and mercury vapour lamps, reveal that the spectra are not similar In nature and colour dlstrtbution., The spectra are produced either by emission of light from 'a hot source or by absorption of light by a relatively cooler substance when light from' hot s~urce passes through It. The spectra are thus classified as emission and absorption spectra. Each, one of them are further classified into (a) continuous, (h) band and (c) line spectrum, according to their appearance., A brief description of the types of spectra is gtven below.

26.6.1

Emission Spectra

Hot incandescent subs\all.~ gtve emission spectra which are characteristic of the emitter. Same substances under varying physical conditions gtve a different spectrum which, in tum. reveals, ditferent characteristics of the subs;.ance; Even though some lines may be common yet no two spectra are alike. For example,soditim on bunsen flame and sodium spark produce different spe:ct m.

'!be emisslon spectra are of three types as stated below.

(II) CcmtIDU01UI Spectrum: A continuous emission spectrum contains all wavelengths from one end to the other without any perceptible demarcation

from one colour to another (Fig.26.8(a). These are produced by hot mcandescent matter In bulk such as white hot Iron. carbon arc. bunsen flame, electric bulb and tube light. Rot dense mass of gas also gives it. . These spectra are temperature dependent and give no specific charater of the emitter.

(b)

I mil 1111 ~m Ii III !!~II U II I i

Idl

I ! ' I ,

7000650060005500 5000 4500 4000 A'

lOll

I' . 'I

',1'1

PIt. 28.S: mw.1mtWe emission spectra (a)

(b). (cj.and absorption spectra (d). (e),UJ.

(b) Band or Molecular Spectrum: Such a spectrum is produced by substances In molecular state. Rere bands of colours Intense on one edge and fading at the other end are obtained (Fig. 26.8bll. Eah band is distinct from the other. A cloee look reveals that at o~e end lines of the colour are closely packed making this end more bright. Chemical compounds in vapourous Corm sUch as CO2 , RCL. 02' CO. AlO. N2 give molecular spectra provided these are not heated too much.
(0) Un. or Atomio 8pectra: As the name suggests these spectra are , emitted by substances In atomic state. For example sodium and mercury diilcbarge lamps produce line spectrum. Characteristlc isolated bright lines are observed In the spectrum. Each Une corresponds to a specific wavelength and is chracterisUc of the emitter (Fig. 26.8 (ell. These spectra are lmmensely useful In identlftcation of elements In mixture and in the atmosphere of stars.

28.8.2 Absorption Spectra

. Let us conduct an experiement with sodium vapours. With hot vapour. the spectrometer shows a bright line spectrum at wavelength positions .5890A and 5896 A. But,when llght from a hot carbon ~c passes through relatively cooler soulum vapours Interposed between the arc and AbsorptIon spectrum the spectrometer we get two dark lines exactly at the same postlon (Fig. 26.9) where two yellow lines were seen In the emission spectrum. The two lines tnus obtained are the absorption line spectrum of sodium produced by selective 5890 A5896 A< EmISSIon spedrum absorpUorl. The phenomenon In this case Is PI&. 28.8: AbsorlJtion "nd called reversal of lIOdlum lines. emission spectra q( Na Absorption spectrum. as pointed out earlier. Is. produced either by selective or whole absorption of white light from a source at a higher temperature by the substance at lower temperature. In addition to line absorption

tOB' Physic.. spectrum as discussed above and shown InFfg. 26.8 (d) [compare it w1th Fig. 2S.8(cll we also have absorption band spectra (Fig. 26.8(e)) and continuous or whole absorption spectra (Fig. 26.8' (f)). Light passing througl'l'lamp black is wholly absorbed and gives rise to the last type of spectra. LIne and band absorption spectra are charactertstlcof absorber. Cobalt $lsa. potassium salt. aniline dye etc. give absorption band I!lPecira wherea5 lamp black. blue glass etc. produce continuous absorption . spectrum. The absorption spectra. is widely used In chemical analy$ts.

26.6.3 Fraunhofer LlDel

The Absorption spectra are explained by Klnhoff'. law: which states .~ subs~LIIhIcIl~I!Ut.wapes oj dtdfrttte . Jrequende$Whtm heated to'trli:andescence. wUl.
sel~.abSorb ul/aw$ ~.samejrequencfes Sun. (colours] when cold and light.from a sowm at the lighter te'TlperatW'e Is made to pass through It. Sun bein!;! the hottest source of light. It is but

ttmo_

~~:1-,.~I_..,",

~__

natural that one expects absorption spectra when thc sunlight passes through its atmosphere which Is relatively cooler (see Fig. 2'3.10). Fraunhofer. while studying the spectrum ChromOlllGefa CorOnl of the chromosphere Qf the Sun during total IToeoDOK) 112000 km) solar eclipse In 1814. found many dark ltnes In I'fI. H.l0: ViIrlowr it. He measured the positions of 324 lines out ternperatww 1aiIe~ qllM.un of SOO counted by him. By comparing the . positions of these lines with the emission spectra of element. on the Earth. he was able to Identiy 60 of these lines. The more promlnent out of them were named bY him in alphabet. trable 26.11. A new element called heltum (after heliust.e. Sun) was discovered in solar atmosphere corresponding to a prominent absorption line. Major absorption of vl8ible light tAkes place In tbe chromosphere which contains large number of elements in atomic state. Table 26.1
Wcwclength
Line

(AI
7594 6867 6563
5859

Element

A
B

Atmospheric O2 At. Oxygen Hydrogen Sodium Sodium Hydrogen Hydrogen Calcium

C
DI D2

5890 4861 4341 3969

1
H

,
DIspersion and Scattering of Ugbta l~_

INTEXT QUESTIONS 28.3~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-:--_

1. Identify the type oj spectra produced byfollowing sources
(0 Hydrogen. (If) candle flame . (IU) electrfc bulb and (tv] men:ury lamp
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. Which law explains the absorption spectra?

.................... t

0,0, ..................................................... .

3. After passing through a bUrejllter what will be the colour oJyeUow light?

.................................................................................................................
4. .What type oj spectrum is produced by a window glass .when Sun light passes through It.
I .................... 0 ................................................................................... .

5. What are FraunhoJer lines? Give their Importance.

., .......................................................................................................
6. Can you get different types oj spectra with the same substance?

.........................................................................................................
28.7 SCATTBRING OF LIGHT IN' TIm ATMOSPHPllE
After the day break In the morning Ught reaches In our rooms even If no direct sunlight la coming inside the room: every thing becomes visible. During the clean day when we look towards the sky It appears blue. but clouds appear white why? Many other natural phenomenon (such as production of brtnrant colours when sUnlight passes through jewels and crystals) always attract our attention We want to know how It happens. The events cited above are explaL.led with the help of phenomenon of scattering oj liRht. A solution of duat or particle free' benzme expoe;ed to sUnlight gives brilltant blue colour when looked stdeway.

28.7.1 ScatteriDI of ught

ThIs phenomenon Involves Interaction of radiation with matter. ThlV oartlcletl lire present m the Earth's atmosphere like dust particles or carbon particles. When sunlight is incident on them It is dltTuaed In all directions. by these particles. This is why the light reaches even thole positions and comers where.mnnaUv it does not come directly from the source.
scat!ered bluelighl

--_ .. _--- --mlk

~

g... ~

na. 18.11: Sc:at/eI1ng oJltghlftom milk parUcu.s.

110 PbyaIaIa
We do a small experiment In our home. Take glass jar or a ~ugh. BUtt with water and add very qUantity of milk In it. Now allow a narrow beam of light from a milky bulk to fall on it. Observe the light at 90. you see bluish beam through the water. This experiment shows that after scattering the wavelength of light is peculiar In a given direction (Fig. 26.11) The phenomenon of scattering involves first .obsorption of light by the particle and Instantly re-emlssion In all possible direction. Thus. this phenomenon is different from reflection. TIle scattered light does noInbey' the laws ,of reflection. It is important to note that the size of the particle must be less than the wavelength of light incident on it. A bigger size of the particle wiIl'scatter all wavelengths equally. The intensity of scattered light is given by Rayleigh /Q.w of scattering. According to this law the intensity of scatte. eel light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength. Thus. out of white light incident on the scattering partile blue is scattered most and red the least.

Ia~ A,4
Here. I is the Intensity and A, the wavelength of the light scattered
EDmple 28.5 : waves oJuxwelength 3934A. 5890A and 6867A areJOWld in ttte scattered beam when sunlfght is tncidenton a thin layer oj chImeny smoke. Which one oJthese is scattered most intensely.

Sol1ItIoa : The intensity of scattered light is gtven by

I I a ~,.

~lnce 3934A is the smallest wavelength. hence it is scattered most intensely. '

28.7.2 Blue Colour of _

With the knowledge Qf scattering as described in the previous section we can now understand why the sky appears blue. The air molecules. water droplets and dust particles scatter the sunlight in according with the Ray1eips law. The shorter wavelengths are scattered more than the longer wavelengths. Thus. blue light is scattered 16 times more Intensely than the red as the wavelength of blue is half that of the red. The scattered light becomes rich in the shortest wavelength of violet. blue and green colours. On further sc:attering the violet does not reach observes eye as the eye is much less sensitive to violet than for blue and wavelengths in the neighbourhood or blue get lICattered Il108t Intensely. So when we look in the sky far away from the sun 1t appears blue. Pract1cally most of yellow l1gbt is scatteteci away.

Eumple 2e. : What w/U be the colour of sky for a passenger in a space Crqftj/yfng at high attitude. .
8olatl_: At high attitude. In the absence of particles like dust and air molecules. the sunlight 1& not:BCattered so. sky appears black.

DIspersion and Scatierfng ofUgI).fB 111

26.7.3 White colour of Clouds

The clouds are formed by the assembly. of small water droPs whose size becomes more than the average wavelength of the visible light (5OOOA). As pointed out in section 26.7.1 such objects will scatter all wavelengths with nearly equal intensity. The resultant scattered light will be white. so tbinlayer of clouds appears white. What about dense clouds?

26.7.4 Reddish colour of Sun at Sunrise and Sunset

We are now able to undeJ;"stand the reddish colour of Sun at sunrise aDd sunset. in the morning aDd evening when the Sun is near the horizon.

light has to travel a greater length of atmosphere containing scattering particle such as dust and air molecules. The violet and blue are scattered away at an angle of about 90. The sunlight thus becomes devoid of shorter wavelengths and the lon~er wavelength of red colour reaches the observer (Fig. 26.12) so. we see Soo of red color.
SUN at NOON

~ 12:

ReddIsh coIDur qf sun at sunset and sunrtse /blue Is scattered away.)

At noon the Sun is overhead. Its distance from ob~lVer Is less. The blue Is also scattered less. Thts results In the Sun appearing white tn fact crimson.

lNTEXT QUB8110NS 28.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1. Why dense cloud appear black ?
0 t

to

0 0

2. Why slcy appears

deep blue after rains on a

clear day?

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 0 '.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ,

3. Can you suggest an expertement to demonstrate the reddish coloUl'oj SUn at sunrise and sunset?
"0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4. The photographs takenjrom a satellite show the slcy darlc why?

.............................................................................................................

i 12 PbyaIcaa

26.S RAINBOW
The phenomenon .of dispersion and deviation of sunlight produce spectracular event in nature in the form of rainbow. Water drops hanging in the atmosphere disperse and deviate sunlight at certain deftnite angle and produce rainbow. With Sun at our back we can see a primary and a secondary. though weak. rainbows. The inner one is called the primary rainbow and the outer the secondary rainbow. Sometimes we see only one rambow. The bows are in the form of coloured arcs whose common centre lies at the line Joining the Sun and the observer's eye. Rainbow can be seen in a fountain of water in the evening_or morning when the sun rays are incident on water drops at a definite angle.

28.S.1 PriIlUU'y Rainbow

The primary rainbow is formed by two refraction and an internal reflection of sunlight in a water drop. (See FIg. 26.13(a). Descartes (1637) found that rainbow Is seen through .the rays which. have suffered minimum deviation. All rays of the same colour in the vicinity of the ray which has suffered mln1mum deviation will be reflected in the same direction close to the later and thus enhance the intensity of the beam of that colour. Parallel rays from the Sun suffering deviation of 137"29' or making angle of 4231' at the eye with the incident ray after emergtng from the water drop produce bright shinning colour in the bow. The rays below and above CL do not satisfy this condition hence will not be visible. All drops which lie on e. circle having angular radiUS 42"31' and centre lying oppoSite to the Sun appear strongly illuminated. Dispersion by water causes red to violet colours to make .their own arcs which l1e within cone of 43" for red and 41 for violet rays on the outer and Inner sides of the bow. (FIg. 26.13 (b)
SUnlight

B423.1C Q..
- 137"29'

.~

---=:L4~"' a. C .
ca)

Direction ~ Incidant light

-.

(b) Olfaction ~ incident beam----

PiI.26.13(1j: A ray suJJering two "'fractions and one InlerrW ~Ion In a drop ofwaler Mean angle cif minimum deviation Is J37'29'. (b)DlspersiDit by water drop and angles subtended by red and UIOIet lights at lhe eye.

28.8.2 Secondary Rainbow

The seoncdary rainbow Is formed by two refraction and two Internal reflections of the I1ght from water drop. The angles of minimum deviations for red and Violet colours are 231 0 and 2340 respectively. so they subtend a cone of 51 0 for red and 54 0 for Violet colour. From Fig. 26.14 It Is clear that red wlll be on the Inner and violet on the outerslde of the bow. The simultaneous appearance of the primary and secondary rainbows Is shown in Fig. 26.15. The space between the two bows Is relatively dark. It Is also clear that secondary rainbow lies above the primary bow.

Dtspendon snd Scattel1nj of Ughta

113

INTEX1' QUESTIONS 2 8 . 5 - - - - - - - - - 1. Why the space between prlrnaly and secondary ratnbows Is relatWely darIc? .

..................................................................................................................
2. Colours In rainbow make a pure or an Impure spectrum?

3.

.................................................................................................................. Can YOLI see a rainbow if your back Is rwt towards the Sun? .....................................................................,...........................................
";

4. Wrtte the order qf colours In primary and secondary rainbows .

..................................................................................................................
5. Can a pherwmenon like ratnbow be seen with light other than the sun light?

..................................................................................................................
6. Does the same set of raindropsform the rainbow

at an pk.It:es?

..................................................................... u .......................................... ..

114 - Phystcss
____

-_a~-

----- - - - ------,------_. 7. What is the effect on rainbow if the elevation oj (a) SWt is raised (b)
------

observer is raised .
' , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u

26.9 DEFECTS IN IMAGE FORMATION

As .you have seen in \he previouS lesson lenses and rnirros are Widely used in our daily life. It has been observed that these ordinary optical

components do not giVe point Image of a point object. This ('.an be seen by holding a lens against the Slin and observing its Image. We find it is not exactly circular on a paper. Mirrors too do not produce a perfect image. The defects in image formation are known as aberrations. The aberrations depend on (i). the quality of lens or mirror and (iI) the type of light used. Two major aberrations are observed in lenses and mirrors namely (a) Spherical aberration and (h) chromatic aberration (see Fig. 26.16 (a) to (d). The former is a monochromatic-error and later is an error due to polychromatic beam of Ught .. These errors produce serious defects in the images formed by camera. telescopes and miscroscopes.

Af
(e) .

Ceustic curve
(e)

(d)-+--~-\......

~ .If -r.-

....

_.:r

::::. ..... ...

(b)

.,..28.18:lal. n,l ,.,.1,. -,....;/ a!x'rraU"" I" ,..,; '01 and 1""0; 1<"1. Idl Chl"QllUlUc """omlt""i"
k"~C'~

26.9.1 Spherical Aberration

1111s monochromatic defect In Image formation artses due to the sphericity and aperture of the refractthg ai: reflecttng surfaces. The paraxial (I.e. rays

DIspersion and Scattertng of Ugbts 115 _ near the axis) rays and the marginal rays form images at different points even by a moderate aperture of the surface. (Fig. 26.16 and 26: I7/. These are represented by ~ and I.n respectively. When'laws of reflection and refraction are used to form the image of a. point object we find that the rays fail to arrive at a stngle POint after reflection or refraction. A Caus~ Curve can be clearly seen with a large aperture concave mlrror (Fig.26.16(AJ. You can see yourself such a curve In a cup of tea or a bowl of mllk when light is incident on them from abmre. In case of lenses we get a circle of minimum diameter. called the cirele of least COItfUsfon between circular images formed at Ip and r"...

(a)~

nc. 26.17: Splrerlcal aberratfon In mirrors CAJ & (BI and lens (e). Iv image by paraxial rays
and 1m by marginal rays

To eliminate or reduce spherical alJeJTation, the cause of aberration has to be kept in mind. Both in mlITors and lenses the sphelical aberration can be reduced by alloWing only the paraxial rays to be incident on the surface. It Is done by using stops or narrow apertures .lSee Fig. 26.18 (a)
~

0.

stop

<al

(bl

_ _ _ _-+)_ _

-----+--.......!E:-'f---t-P
F--""r~'(:

Ie)

(eI)

I'IJ. 26.18: Removal ojSpherW/aberraIionby useojslcps (a) & fbI and usingelliplica/ (el
and parabolic mirror (d).

it6 Phya1cea
ElIlpUcal and parabolic mbTors are very widely used due to their apecIa1 properttea. The image of a point object at one focus of an ellipse wOl be formed at the other focus (Fig. 26.18(e). Simllarly paraDel rays incident on a parabolic mirror are always focussed at a stngle point which Is Its focus. Such reflectors are widely used In torches. head lights of motor vehicles and the flood lights In a sports stadium (Fig. 26.18(d). Spherical aberration In lenses Is reduced by ntany methods. In addition to the use of stops. One principle Is that more convex: surface filces more parallel rays (Fig. 26.19 (b). Another way Is to use planeconvex lenses (Fig. 26.19) (a). The third method Involves dMdtng total deviation on a number of surfaces (Fig. 26.19 (c). Since convergent lens converges rays and concave lens diverges them so a combination of the two w1ll be free from spherical aberration (Fig. 26. 19(d)

/
,

~.--

~(c) I

--- -

PI&- 28.19: Removal of simerlcaZ abemzlfon In lenses.

26.9.2 Chromatic Aberration

A convex lens may be taken equivalent to two small angled prisms placed base to base and the conea'Ve lens equal to such prisms placed vertex to vertex. Thus. a polychromatic beam incident on a lens w1ll get dispersed. The parallel beam will be focussed at different coloured foeti. TIlis defect In image formation by lenses is calJed chromatic aberTatfon, It occurs . due to dispersion of a coloured incident beam (Fig. 26.20 (a). (b). Obviously

Disperalon IUld Scatta'tDi ofJ.:At.hm 117

is focussed away from the lens but In concave It 18 . focussed near the lens. (Recall the case of prism) on the other side.

In

convex lens red

.,,>,, , , . .
I

(a)

\ I

F,
(b)

Fv ........

F:Ig. 26.20: Chromatic aberration (extreem rays)

This is because of the fact that red deviates lesser than violet colour. The difference in focal lengths i.e. the coloured images ofextreem coloursfr-fv is th<; measure of linear chromatic aberration extended objects give transverse chromatic abenution.

Formation of colourless point image of a point object is called achromatfsm. The dispersioJ},.pOOduced by a convex: lens can be annuled by a concave lens ij$'shown L.. Fig. 26.21. Thus. a convergent lens of suitable material and focal length when combined with a divergent lens of suitable focal length and material may produce image free from chromatic aberr8.tion. Such a lens combination 18 called an achromatic doublet (Fig. 26.21 (b). The focal length of the concave lens can be found from the necessary condition for achromatism given by

or where
0)1

...... (26.11)

dis~

18 tpe dispersive power of convex lens (crown glass) and ~ the power of concave lens (Oint glasslf1 andJ2 are theirfocallengths. lh I > I.e. the focal length of concave lens must be more than the focal length of convex lens so that the doublet behaves like a convergent lens.

iii r

(b)
(a)

I,
F:Ig. 28.21(a}.1b1 : An achromatic doublet

12

There are several other defects found in Image fonnatton by lenses but these are beyond the scope of present course.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2 6 . 6 , - - - - - - _ - - 1. Why a convex lens does IlDt make a point image oj a monochromatfc

point SOW"Ce?
2. Explain how a caustic curoe isJormedin a cup q/"tea?
~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . u

3. Explain chromatic aberration. what is achromatism?

4 .. Do mirrors also produce chromatic aberration?
5. Discuss how spherical aberration can be minimised.

26.10 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

light has wave nature and each colour has a specific wavelength. light of one wavelength &r colour is called monochromatic but llghts 11ke sunllght. which have several colours or wavel!:Ilgth are called polychromatic Splitting of light into its constituent wavelengths on entering an optically denser medium is called dispersion . Prism is used to produce dispersed light which when taken on the screen forms spectrum. The angle of deviation is mlnimum if the angle of incidence and emergence become equal. In this situation the bea:m. is most intense for that colour The angle of dev1stlon and refractive index for small angled prism is given by S=(Il- I)A. Colours overlap in an impure sepctrum but they' are distinctly visible as separate in a pure spectrum. Spectrometer is used to produce pure spectrum. Spectra can be either emission or absorption spectra which are further classified into (a) continuous (b) band and (clline spectra. The emission spectrum is produced by hot substance and absorption spectra by a relatively coolet substance placed in the path of llght from a hot source according to Kirchoffs law. The absorption lines or emiSsion lines are highly characteristic of the absorber or emitter. They give us information about the internal constitution of the substarice.

Dispersion and Scatter\rlg-of Ughts I t 9

Absorption spectra ,of Sun. gIVes us cbal'IIcIenstlc FIlIIIIIhofer IiDes

'Ralnbow is formed by dispersion of sunllght by raiIldrops at certain definite angle for each colour so that condition of mlnlnnim deviation is satisfied. Ralnbows are of two types - primary and secondary rainbow. The outer side of primary rainbow Is red but inner side is violet. The remaining colours lie in between in order.1he sc;heme of colour is reverse in the secondary rainbow. The blue colour of sky. white colour of clouds and reddish colour of the Sun at' sunrise and sunset can be explained by the scattering of light. The intensity of scattered light Is inversely prpportional to the fourth power of the wavelength of lightI,a A,4 ThIs Is called Rayleigh law. So blue is scattered,IDOSt intensely.
The failure of a lens or a mIrrOr to produce point Image of a point object
1 '

is called abenation. Spherical aberration arises due to aperture or sphericity of the reflecting or refracting surface. Lenses also disperse light and thus coloured images having some dimension are formed by a lens when the incident light Is polychromatic. This defect IS called chromatic aberration. An achromatic doublet reduces this defect.

26.U, TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Show in a prism (+ e .. A+ 6-

2. Would you prefer a small angle or a large .angle prism to produce dispersion and why? 3. Differentiate between emission and absorption spectrum. 4. Under what condition the deviation caused by a prisIil Is directly proportional to its refractive index? 5. Define angular dispersion and diSpersive power of a prism. 6. 'Explain the function of collimator and telescope in a spectxometer. 7. How can you determine the refract:1ve index of glaas for yeliow light using a prism spectrometel't' 8. What information do you get liom Fnumhnfer lines? 9. '00 materials show same colour of light in reflected and transmitted
beams'?

10. Explain why sea water appears blUe at high seas. 11. To a,n astonaut the sky appears black whereas to us it Is blue. explain why Is it so? 12. Does the same water droP.produce all colour arches of the rainbow? 13. Why do we use parabolic reflectors in the car headlights?

120 PhysIcss
14. Explaln chromatic aberration. how will you remove it? 15. Distinguish between refraction and deviation. 16. Why moon appears yellow at night and white during the day? 17. The angle of minimum deviation for a glass prism of 60" is 39. Find the refractive index of the glass.
18. The deviation produced for red. yellow and violet colours by crown glass. are 2.84.,3.28 and 3.72 respectively. Find the dispersive power of the glass.

19. Claculate the dispersive power for fIlnt glass from the following data f.lc 1.6444. #D 1.6520 and IlF 1:6637. where C. D & Fare Fraunhofer nomenclatures.

20. A crown and a I1mt glass lenses placed in contact make an achromatic doublet offocallength 20 cm. Thetr dispersive powers are 0.016 and 0.032 respectively find their focal lengths.

CHECK. YOUR ANSWERS

IntextQuestions 26.1
1. Graphite and carbon are opaque to visible light but allow very short I wavelength radiations like x-rays to pass thrqugh. So. the dispersion can be shown by them With the use of x-rays. 2. The velocity of propagation of waves of different wavelengths of the, visible light is almost same in most ordinary gases. hence these donot disperse visible light. The refractiVe index is also nearly 1. 3. Violet beCause A, -2A u and the velocity of red ray is more than that of violet inside the optically denser medium.
4; No

5. 0.48". 0.193

6. (al Vacuum (h) Air (c) any optically densertranspai:ent medium

7. A suitable combination of two prisms. one of crown and another offllnt gla8s when placed in contact with the refracting edge of the second prism towards the base of the first can give dispersion without deviation or deviation without dispersion as A FIiIIt R shown in adjacent diagram. The angle of the second prism should satisfy the followil;lg conditions. (a)
crown

A' =(:.~II)A for dispersion without

deviation

A'

=( 11.,-11, ~., -II; )A

for deviation Without dispersion

FIg. 28.22:(a) Dispersion without deviation, fbi Deviation witlwut

di.sper~lon

Dispersion and Scattertng 0( LIghts 121

IntextQuestions 26.2
1.

Jl=.J3

2. i = {jl.A - 9O)D
3. To confine the incident beam in a narrow region and slit acts as a narrow source for collimatOr lens.

4. Yes

5. It causes greater dispersion

6. See section 26.5.1
7. 40

Intext Questions 26.3

1. (i) tine -Iii) band (iii) continuous (tv) line
2. Kirchoffs law.

3. Black

4:

No spectrum

5. See section 26.6.3 6. Yes

Intext Questions 26.4

1. It absorbs the Sunlight

2. It becomes clear of dust particles and bigger water molecules. The scattering now takes place strictly according to Rayleigh law.
3. We can take sodium thlosulphlde solution in a round bottmn ilask and mlx small amount of sulphuric acid in It. On illuminating this solution with a high power bulb one can see situation simllar to' the colour of sun at sunrtse and Sunset.

. 4. At very high altitudes no centres (Particles) of scattering of sunlight are

present so the sky appears dark.

Intext Questions 26.5

1. Ught dispersion from water drops in this region does not fulfill the

condition of minimum deviation between incident and emergent rays. So, the water drop, here do not shine and compared to the rainbows

this region appears dark.

2. Impure spectrum due tofinlte size of the Sun, the rays are not exactly parallel. Thus, there Is an overlapping due to which colours do not

produce pure spectrum.

3. No

4. Primary:

violent, indigo, blue. green, yellow. orange and red from inner to outer side.
----

--------------

122'~'

Secondary:red, orange, yellow, green, blue, Indigo and \Iiolet from Inner to outer side.
5. Any polycl1rolDjj1ic ,beam under certain conditions can show it. 6. No, different sets of drops give different colours.
7. (1) As the

devalion of SWl is ~ the,'part of visible JKimary IlIinbow

decreases. When the elevation is more then 42, the'primary rainbow disappears but part of secondary- rainbow is visible which also disappears when the elevation of the Sun e:xceeds' 54.
(ii) With increase in the elevation of observer, the common centre of

the bows is also raised and greater part of the rainbow becomes viSible. With Sun overhead and clouds down complete circular rainbow can be seen by observer at certain elevation.

Intext Questions 26.6

1. Due to spherical aberration 2. Walls of the cup reflect light. The curvature is large so spherical aberration gives rise to caustic curve. 3. See section 26.9.2
4. No, as they do not disperse light.

5. See section 26.9.1

TERMIN.AL 9UESTIONS
17.
j.l

= 1.52 = 0.268 0.02961

18. 19.'

0>

0>.

20.

1i =10 cm, k .. -20 em.

27
WAVE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

27.1 INTRODUCTION
In the prev/ou8 two lessons of this book, you studied about phenomena of

reflection,' refraction. dispersion and scattering of light.

While

explaining these phenomena. we talked about situations such as what would happen if a beam (a group of rays) of llght is retlected from a polished surface or if a beam of llght passes through an optically

transparent medium. Such statements do not give any Infonnation about what light is made of? In other words. tUl now In the book. we have not talked about the constttuents of ilght. Let us l~ about this aspect of light In the pluent lesson.
The question you may like to ask is: What carries the light - a fonn of energy? In other words. what transports light - matertal particles or waves. from' one point to another. "What are the basic prtnc1plesof the wave theoIY of light? Does. wave theDJY successfully predict the experimental obaervatlons pertaInIng to opt1cal phenomena such as reflection. refractlon, lnteI'ference etc.? In the present lesson. we w1ll attempt to answer these questions..

27.2 OBJECTIVES
. After studying this lesson, you s11ou\d be able to.

.give

brItif mx:ount of d!Iferent theories

of nature of light:

state Huygen's prlnctple and apply It to explain the .propagation of wave.front; ndlectIon dnd ~ of light: . '".
explain the phenDmenDn of ~ and df{fractIon of light:
explain

.dffJi'at:ttoit of light by a single-slit;

prOducing plane Poliuised
light.

define the terms polarisatt.on of light. plane of utbrotion. plane. of polar1sat.ton. angle of poIarisatfon .and plane poIarlsed light: and
describe Ii method for

124

Pb:ystcs

27.3 NATURE OF UGBT : WHAT CARRIES THE LIGHT?

Let us begin our discussion on the nature of llght with a seemingly smple question: What is light? On the basis of your everyday ~riences and observations, you will perhaps make one or more of the following statements in response to this question:

Ught travels in Iitralght line. Ught casts shadow of an object kept in'its path.
Light carries energy and enables us to

'see t:hingJ in

our surroundings.

In these statements, what you are saying essentlally refers to what light does. These statements do not say anything about the constituents

of light. The question, however, requires you to make a statement regarding what light is made oft To elaborate the question, let us consider an example. Suppose you are asked: what is sound made of? You are aware that sound is made of waves generated by vibmtions of material particles. In view of this example our question as regards light can be rephrased as: Is light made of material particles or waves? Or,in other words, what carries the llght - material particles or _ ? The answer to this question was obtained on the basis of a series of observations (such as those mentioned by you in the beginning of this sectionl) of optical phenomena. However. as you will learn in the following. the views about the nature of light were modified as new' infonnation and experimental observations accumulated.

27,3.1 Corpuscular Theory of Ltght

One of the earliest efforts to understand the nature of light .and. its behaviour was made by Isaac Newton in the . 17th century. The theory proposed by Newton is known as corpu8CUlar (or partfelB} theory. Accordlng to this theory. light ~ qf a 8tnIam.. qf tfnII, light In weight and elude parde'" called corpu8C.... These particles are emitted ~ a source of light such as an incandefl!:ent bulb or ..the Sun. After emission from the source. these particles travel with a very high. velocity. With these basic presumptions about the corpuscles constituting light. Newton could tentatively explain phenomena like rect1llnear propagation, reflection and refraction. However, this theory Is of only historical slgntflcance and It has been now completely discarded. KqIor lfmltatf.ou of the .corpuscular theory came to the fore when It could not .account for the experimental observations. about velocity of light in different media. According to the corpuscular theory. the velocity of l1ght should be high in a denser medium compared to its velocity in a rarer medium contrarY to theexperunentalfact. Further. experimental observations on interfexence of Hght obtained by Thomas Young. about which you w1ll learn later in this lesson. posed the greatest challenge to the corpuscular theory. Apart from other things. interference of llght refers to observation of points of darkness on a screei1 where two beams of light reach under certain conditions. Such

_ _~_~_ _ _ _~__________________W=ave~.:.Pro=pertles, of ught'125

a situation Is unthbtkable if light is supposed to be made of particles

because. two particles COming together. cannot destroy each other. Therefore. It was felt necessary to look for some other theory about the nature of light which could explain these experimental observations. These experimental findings regard with to the velocity of light In different media. Interference of light etc. could be understood on the basis of wave theory of light.

27.3.2 Wave Theory of light

Clnistian , Huygens. a contemporary of Newton. proposed the wave theory of light. His description of nature of light as a' wave was very much influenced by the concept of mechanical waves. particularly the sound waves. You may recall that one of the' prerequisites for propagation of sound waves is the exist('nce of a material medium. That flO why sound wave cannot travel in vacuum. Sec;'ndlv, sound waves in air ate longitudinal waves. Drawin!! pamllels from "nch a well established theory of mechanical waves. HUy,!!ens proposed that light also consists of longitudinal waves which travel through a hYPothetical medium called ether. This hypOthetical medium has the strange property of occupying all space - even the.. vacuum!' The vibrations from the source of light are propagated In the form of waves and the energy carried by them is distributed equally In all directions. However. it was only when Huygens propositions about the wave nature of light were considerably modified by Fresnel and others that optical phenomena like reflection, refraction. Interference. polartsatlon etc. could be explained,
One of th(I important mod(ficatlon made to Huygens theory was that If(lht _ _ lIN 'tran5verSe in nature and not a longitudinal

one. Further, Huygen'salso did not say anything about how light waves are produced. 'His theory essentially dealt with phenomena pertaining to propagation of light. J. Maxwell at the fag end of 19th century predicted theoretically that light waves' are electromagnetic waves which are generated by oscillatory motion of charged pnrtlc1es like electrons. And, as far as propagation of these electroma,!!netic waves is concerned. they do not require any material medium though they are capable of travelling In such media. Therefore. there was no need of an hypothetical medium-either-as proposed by Huygen. These theoretical predictions of Maxwell regarding the electromagnetic wa1le nature of light were subsequently observed expertmentally by Hertz. Many features of wave phenomenon, are similar for wave processes of different nature. Therefore. while studying the various optical phenomena. we shall use the Information about waves as discussed in the lesson on Waves and Oscillations. But, before we do that, Ie us complete this stoxy about the theories of nature of light.

27.3.3 guntum. Theory of light

The wave theoxy or the electromagnetic wave theory of light remained unchallenged until the !:leginning of the 20th century. A few

126 Hlystca
experimental observations on the interactlon 01 light With matter on

atomic scale could not

explained by the wave theory.

from a SOW"Ce in a continuous stream (Uke wave) such ~ tOOter j/DiDing from a large-dtameter pipe. Instead. it is emitted in discrete paCkets.

To account for such observations. quantum theory of light was proposed, According to the quantwn theory. ei1ergy and hence i(ght is tlo~ emitted

called quanta. something like Individual droplets of water' spraying from the nozzle of a garden hose. You might have noticed that when a large number of Individual droplets of water start cpmlng out of the nozzle, it is di1D.cult to distinguish it from a continuous flow of water. Similady, when a large number of quanta are Involved. they exhibit properties of a continuous wave. Deviations from the predictions of Maxwelfs electromagnetic theory or the cl8:ssical wave theory occur only when quanta (or photons) constituting light Interact fndfvfdual4l With atomic systems. However, you must note here. that the quantum theory of light does not take !-IS back to the corpuscular theory of light as proposed by Newton. It simply says that light, und... certain special cin:unwtances, do behcwe CIS particle puurving all its IIJClWi characteristics on a ~ t - l optfcal phenomenon.
For macroscopic level optical phenomena, Huygen's wave theory works .very well, Therefore, we will learn about Huygen's wave theory In the next section and With Its help. derive the well known laws of reflection and refraction of light. .

INTEXT QUESTIONS 27.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1) According to the corpuscular theory, velo(;tty of l(ght in a rarer medium is greater than its velocfty in a denser medlwn. (I'rue/
False)?

...............................................................................................................
2) . According

to the wave theory. how velOcity of light changes with

~

medIwn.

............................................................................................................. ...
3)

Can the.~ observations pertaining to interjereru:e qf light be explained on the basis qf corpuscular theory.?

...............................................................................................................,
4)

Does, Huygert's original propositiOn, that light is a longitudinal wave, contradict the polarfsatiDn of light obseroed experimentally. .

........................................................................................ ................... ...

~ ~

5) 6.

How does quantum theory of light d!lfer .from corpuscular theory"f

...............................................................................................................
Distinguish between the corpuscular and wave theories of l(ght.

............................................................................................. .............
~

Wave Properties of IJght

127

27.4 HUYGEN'S PRINCIPLES

According to Huygen's weave theory. every source of light emits waves which spread in all directions. The spreading out or the propagation of these .waves from the source of light follows a principle which is known as Buygen's principle. Let us first understand the concept of wave front. \ , - ~~ I , .... / ________ _

r ((-, ~\

-,'

-- -- ----------

-- --.---

Take a wide based trough full of water (Fig. 27.1) drop a small piece of stone in it. What do you n,. 27.1: CIrcular observe? You find that circular ripples due to up water IIIfWI!fi"onts and down motion of water particles spread out from the' point where stone touched the water surface. If you look carefully at these ripples. you will notice that each point on the circumference of any of these ripples is in the same state of motion (called in phase). That is. each point on the circumference of a ripple oscillates with the same amplitude and same phase. In other words. we can say that the circuniference oj a ripple is the locus oj the points which are in the same phase oj vibration. Such a locus oj points is known as waue front. Then:fore. the circular water ripples spreading out from the point of disturbance on the water sUrface represent a 'circular wave front. Obviously. the distance of every point on a wave front is the san;le from the point of disturbance on the water ~ace i.e. the source of waves. Similarly. for a point source of light emitting in an isotropiC. medium. the locus of points where the waves are in the same phase of motion will be a sphere. Thus. a point source of light emits spherical waue fronts. Also' a slit source of light will emit cylindrical waue fronts. The line perpendicular to the wave front represent the directiDn oj motion oj the wave front. This line is called the ray oj light and a bundle oj such rays is called a beam oj light. When the source of light is at a large distance. any small portion of the wave front c A can be considered to be . a plane wave front. a' After having discussed what a wave frunt is. let a us now come back to Buygen's prinCiple. According to this principle. any wave motion can b be described in tenns oj the motton oj wave fronts. To do so. every point on a wave front should be c c' considered as a source of secondary waves. These secondary waves' travel with the same d speed as the 'original wave. Envelop of these t=T secondary waves after a giVen time interval gives the secondary wave front at that instant. Thus. e if the initial. shape. position. direction of motion I) B alld .the speed of the wave front is known. Its t =0 position at a later time can be ascertained by (a) (b) geometrical constructions. In fact. Huygen's n,. 27.2: Construe. principle provides us a set of gUidelines for timt of a plane geometrical representation of propagation of light j'rrmt at time t T as waves. With the help of this principle. and the resulting geometrical construction, we can make predictions regarding the

.'

128

Physics motion of light waves. Note that the wave front does not travel II backward direction.

27.4.1 Propagation of Waves

Now, let us use Huygen's principle to describe the propagation of light waves in terms of the propagation of wave fronts. Fig. 27.2 shows the shape and location of a plane wave front AB at time t = O. You should notehele that the line AB lies in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the page. Dots represented by a, b, c .... on the wave front AB are the sources of secondary waves. All A' t = T ...-:""":--, these sources emit secondary waves at the same A ~ vT time and they all travel with the same speed along the direct jon of .motion of the Wave front AB. In v : Fig. 27.3 ,the Circular arcs represent the wavelets emitted from a, b, c, ...... These :wavelets " have been obtained by drawing arcs of radius, r = vt, where, v is the velocity of the wave front and 0' t is time at which we wish to obtain the wave Ft&27.3: Construr../iDn front, taking each point a, b, c ..... as centre. q{ circular wavefront The sunace tangent, CD, to all these wavelets, using Huygen's pri11 cfpIe represent the new wave front at time t.

G -.
tDO=OC'

~:

Let us take another example of Huygen's construction for an expanding cirCular wave front. Refer to. Fig. 27.3 which indicates a circular wave front, centred at 0, at time t o. A. B, C .... represent point sources on this wave front. Now to draw the wave front at a later time t = t. what would you do? You should draw arc;s, from each of secondary wave from the pomts A. B, C ... , of radius equal to the speed of the expanding wave front multiplied by t. These arcs will represent the wavelets emitted from the 80urcelets A. B, C ,..... The surface tangent to all these wavelets will give a cirCular wave front N, B', C', ...... This Is the shape and location of the expanding cirCular wave front at time t= t

We hope you have understood the technique of Huygen's construction after: going through above two examples. Now,you may like to ask what 15 the phl/sical sfgn(Jlcance qf HUlIgen's construction? By determlnlnglhe shape and location of a wave front at subsequent time with the help of Its shape and location at an earlier ins~t, we are f'ssentiaJly describing the p.opagation of the wave front. Since wave front Is simply a way of repi:esenting a wave. the propagation of wave w1ll be in accordance with the movement of its wavefront. Therefore, Huygen's construction enables us to desf'ribe the wave motion and hence the. propagation of light. Let us test this technique of describing the 0 propagation of light by using it to predict the laws of reflection and refraction in the folloWing. J't&,27.41_' Reflection oj
light jro", a plane mlmH:

Wave Propertie!\ of Ught . 129

27.4.2 Varlfication of Laws of Reflection

You have studied the well known law of reflection of light In lesson 25. When a beam of light AO falls on a flat. polished surface called a plane mirror. it is reflected along OR as shown in Fig. 27.4. The law of reflection says that Angle of Incidence Ii ) = Ant,,!e of Reflection Ir)
Let us see how this law can be predicted by Huygen's wave theory. To do so. we will Use Huygen's construction.

Refer to FJg. 27."hich shows a wave front pg Incident on a plane mirror AB. As you know. the direction of motion of this wave tront Is indicated by lines perpendicular to the wave front. Thus. the angle of incidence. t Is LNPP' which is equal to LQPR The Incident wave front pg touches the mirror surface at point P which will act like a source of secondary waves. During the line the wavelet from point Q reaches the mirror surface at R. the secondary wavelet from point P will travel a distance equal to QR Thus. to ftndout the ~tion of the reflected wave front. we draw an are of mdius QR from point P. The. tangent to this arc from point R. that is, the plane RS will represent the reflected wave front. Here, you may note that. by the time wave point from point P reachers the point S. point R has just begun to emit secondary wavelets; that Is. the wavelet emitted from point R has zero radius. Now. RS will be true l'Jill,ected wave }lQint If secondary wavelets from any pOint on PQ. Say M. reach the reflected wave Point at M in the same time during which secondary wave t from Preaches S. That ls.

MO + OM' = QR= PS
Let us draw

(27.1)

perpend1cular OH from point'O. on QR turn1ng to triangles pgR and PRS. we have .

.LPQR - LRSP .. fC/2.

QR - PS, and

PR Is common to both the triangles.

Hence, triangles pgR and PRS

are

congruent.
(27.2)

:. LQPR

= LSRP=.(

AgaIn. OH Is parallel to PQ

:. LQPR = LHOR

= Li
= Li

(27.3

Further. triangles HOR and M'RO are also congruent. because :. LHOR = LM'OR and OR is common. Hence. or' OM' = fIR gR = gH + HR LOHR = LRM' =.1t/2

= MO

+ OM'

1bis proves that RM'S is the true reflected wave front. Now. the angIe of reflection r is. LN'RR', and But. from eqn (27.1)
LSRP =Li .. Li =Lr

LN'RR' " LSRP = Lr

angIe of incldence = angle of reflection. Thus. law of reflection fonows from Huygens l'dnciple. Thus, Huygen's construction do pred1ctcorrectly the law of reflection. Now. let us see whether Huygen's construction predicts the law of refraction or not. .

27.4.3 VariftcatiOD of Law of RefraCtiOD

You have studied that refraction of llght refers to the phenomenon when a bea,mof light experiences bending after N entering from one optically transparent A . medium to another. This bending of light beam Is shown schematically in Fig. 27.5. You may note from the figure that as the light beam enters from a rarer. medium (air) to a denser mediUm fgIass),. it bends towards the normal to the plane separating these two Refraction occurs because of llght the velocity of light Is differ.ent in different medium. However. you niust remember that in no: medium. the velocity or light can be .,.. 27.5: RIifrodImt qf a ~ beam of light incident at greater than Its velocity in vacuwn. bDundaIy qf two medI4 .

media..

Since the velocity of light is different in different media, th~ corresponding wave fronts will also move with different velocities in different media. Does this have any effect on the shape of the wave fronts incident at the boundary separating two media? Let us investigate it with the help of Huygen's construction. To do so. let us consider a light beam AO incident from air medium (refractive index JI,l on to a surface of an opticany transparent material

waVe Properties C)f Ught 131

medium (With refractive Index fJo). Let the angIe of Incidence be i" and angIe of refraction be r as shown In Ftg. 27.5. The incident wave fronts are the lines PerPendicular to' the Incident bearil AO. similarly, the refracted wave fronts are the lines perpendicular to, the refracted beam ,OR You may recall that to construct any of these wave fronts using Huygen's construction, we only neeCl to know the shape, location, and the speed of the p~ceedIng wave front.

The velocity of light In any medium depends ,ts upon the refractive, Index of the medium and the expression isgtven as,

= c'!}!

....... (27.4)

where, v c and }! are the velocity of light In the medium, velocity of light In Vacuum and refractive Index of the medium respectively. 'The path travelled by light In tiIlle t with velocity v can be expressed as
1 = vt

= t (c !}!)

Thus. for our present case indicated In Fig. '27.6, we have,

I, ;" path travelled by light In the medium of refractive Index /J, durtng time t

(27.5) and I, path travelled by light irrthe medium With refractive index fJo during the same time, t '

I, = t

(c !/J,)

(27.6)

Now. let /J2 > PI' that is. medium with refractive Index fJo Is denser than the medium With refractive Index p,.This condition. alongwith Eqns. (27.5) and (27.6) leads us to the conclusion that

I, < I,
ThIs relation is of utmost significance for us when we try to understand the phenomenon of refraction using Huygen's construction. Now let us again refer to Fig. 27.6 and construct the wave front P'Q' with the help of, preceding wave front PQ. Let P. M and Q represent sources of secondary waves on the wave front PQ. The wavelets emitted from points P and Medi...;u_m_1_-"'I<~ """~i-=----' M will have radius I, - the path travelled medium 2 by them in the medium With refractive R Index P, in time t. Whereas. the wavelet eniltted from point Q will have radius I, path travelled by the wave front In the medium with refractive index /J 2 during the _same time t. Now. it Is obvious that PI" > QQ' and hence the wave front P'Q' FIg. 27.6 : Huygen's construction for ""fmc/ion ,of light: 1', > 1', will not be parallel to PQ. Rather. P'Q'

132 PhysIcs

will be sl1ghtly tllted. towards point Q. The line normal. to the wave front In medium 2 will be tllted towards the normal NN'. Thus .you
have explalned refraction of I1ght by Huygen's construction.

To obtaln an expression relating the angle of Incidence and the angle of refraction with the refractive Indlces of the two media. let us consider angles PQO and PON. ~ce line PQ is perpendicular to line PO and line .QO is perpendicuIaT to line ON. we can write.
LPQO = LPON = Li = angle of Incidence.

Similarly. you should conVince yourself that

LQOR = Lr = angle of refraction.From right tr1angles PQO and gOR. we can write. .

sin i = and sin i sin r

PO

og

gR
slnr'=--

og

PO

og

--= gR

OQ

PO

gR

(27.7)

Now. from the geometry of the figure 27.6 PO is equal to I) multiplied by an Integer (3 In present case) and gR is equal to l,. multiplied by the same Integer. Hence
PO II --=--

QR

l,.

Using eqns (27.5) and 127.6), we have.

--. = JL
QR IL,

PO

(27.8)

From eqns (27.7) and (27.8). we can write. sin i

sin r'

=~
IL,

II, sin i =

JJ.. sin r

(27.9)

Equation (27.9) is the mathematical representation of the Snell's law of refraction. Therefore. we have correctly predicted the law of refractioJl using Huygen's wave theory.
After haVing predicted some of the laws of optical phenomena using geometrical construction based on Huygen's wave theory, we w1lI now discuss a few more optical phenomena which find an explanation only In the domain of the wave theory of I1ght. One such phenomenon is called the interference of light which you will study now.

Wave Properttes of Ught 133

INTEXT QUESTIONS 27.2 _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ __

1)

\.\'hat

is the mutual orientation oj a wave front and the direction oj

propagationnf the waue?

2)

.i\ sbw;ce of secondary waves is emitting wavelets at an instant t = Os. CalCulate the ratio of the radii of wavelets at t = 35 and t =
6s.?

.................................................................................................................
27.5 . INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
Let us frrst do a few home-experiments. Prepare a soap solution by some detergent powder in water. Dip a wire loop into the soap solution and shake it. When you take out the wire loop. you will find a thin mm on it. Bring this soap mm near a light bulb and pOSition yourself along the dlrectioq, ilf the reflected light from the mm. What do you observe? You will ob's~IVe beautiful colours. In the above experiment, why was the reflected light from the soap ftlm coloured? To answer this question. we will have to understand the phenomenon of interference of light. In simple terms, interference of light refers to superposition of light coming.from. two dW"erent sources. The phenomenon of Interference of light was first observed experimentally by Thomas Young in 1802 In his famous two-slit experiment. This experimental observation playe!1 a significant role In establishing the wave theory of light. The basic theoretical principle Involved in the phenomenon of interference as well as diffraction of light is the superposition principle. This you have studied In details In lesson 23.

27.5.1

Young's Experiment

The Young's experimental set-up is shown schematically In 'Fig. 27.7. In the experiment. the sunlight was allowed to pass thro~gh a pin hole S and then, at some distance away,. through two pin holes S, and S2' S, and S2 are equidistant from S and are close to each other. As you learnt In Huygen's wave theory of light, spherical wave fronts would spread out from pin hole S which is' further divided into two wavefronts by S, and S2 which would superpose with each other. As a consequence of superposition of two set of dentica1 waves from S, and S2' an Interference pattern consisting of alternate. bright and dark fringes are produced on the screen P. The explanation of the observed fringe pattern in Young's Interference experiment, as per the wave theory is as follows.

(al Constructive Interference: You may recall from the previous sub-section on superposition principle that the points such as A on the screen P will have maximum displacement (or amplitude) because the crest due to one set of waves coincide with the crest due to another

134 .Physlcs set of waves. In other words, at this point, the waves are arrtvingin phase with each other and hence the total amplitude is much higher than the ampUtude of the A ,I individual waves.' The same ,'\ I holds true for points where , B trough of one set of waves coincides with the trough of another set of waves. Hence such . points are also represented by A. Such p pOints will appear bright because intensity of light wave FIg. 27.7: Schematic ammgement of Young's is proportional to the square doubIe-slit expertment. of the amplitude. Superposition of waves at these points leads to what is known as constructive inteiference. On the other hand, points such as B, where crest due to one set of waves coincide with the trough of the other set of waves and vice-versa, the total amplitude will be zero. It is so because the two waves reach these points completely out of phase. A. a re!rult !lUCh ooints will have almost zero amplitqde and zero intensitj ana WIll appear dark on the observation screen. These points represen the destnu:tive interference,
(b) Destructive (c) Coherent Sources: The pinholes S, and S. ,represent two special
Interfe~ce:

type of light sources. To' obtain observable fringe pattern on the screen, these two pinholes must send waves' of nearly equal amplitude and with a constant phase difference between them. Such sources of light. as mentioned e8rlier. are called coherent $OIIJ"llI8II. In Young's interference experlinent. this condition was ensured bY. illumiililtlng the. pInhules S, and S. by light coming from a narrow pinhole S and by keeping the separation between S, and S. very .sman (of the. order of one tenth of . a mUlimeter). S is illuminated by a monochromatic source of light such as sodium vapour lamp.
(cI)lnten8lty of lriDIeII: Let us now recall the expressiun for the .intensity of the bright and dark fringes in the interference pattern for harmonic waves. The concept underlying the' phenomenon of interference is the superposition of two harmontc waves which you have already studied in lesson 23 un Elastic Waves. Let the phase difference between these.. two. waves be p. We can write II, and II." the displacements at point P due to the two. waves as.
II, =

a sin

rot

and,

y.

=a

sin (rot + Ii)

where p is the phaSe difference between them. The intensity of the resultant wave at POint P can be expressed as,

Wave Properties of Ught 131

I = A' .. 4' cos' 8/2

(27.10) between

To see the dependence of intensity on the phase difference the two waves. let us consider the following two cases. Cuel: When the phase difference. Ii = O. 2lt 4lt ... n2lt
1= 4' cos 0

= 4a' (bright fringes)

CUe 2 : When. Ii
I

=
= 0

It.

3lt. 5lt....... (2n+I)

It

= 4a 2 cos' (1i/2) (dark fringes)

Case (1) representing the phase difference equal to integral multiple of 2lt corresponds to the situation when the two waves arrive at the observation screen 'in-phase' and hence the resultant intensity (or the brightness at those points is more than due to individual wave (which is equal to a 2). Case (2). where phase difference between two superposing waves is an odd multiple of It, correspond to the situation when the two superposJng waves arrive on the screen 'out of phase'. Thus. such points have zero intensity and will appear dark on the screen.
(e) Phase Difference _d Path DIfference
It is obvious from above that to know whether a point on the observation screen will be bright or dark. we need to know the phase difference between the waves arriving at that point. The phase difference can be expressed in terms of the path difference between the waves during their journey from the sources to a point on the observation screen. You know that when waves begin their journey from 5, and 52 they are in phase. Thus. whatever phase 'difference is observed between them at point P is because of different path lengths travelled by them upto P from 5, and 5 ., From Fig. 27.8. we can Write the path difference. A= (S2P S,P)

Now. the path difference of one wavelength i$ equivalent to phase difference of 2lt. Thus. we may write the relation between the phase difference (8) and the path difference (A) as.
A

= ~Ii
2lt

(27.11)

From Eqn. (27.10). bright fringes (or constructive .interference) are observed when the phase difference is li=n2lt Substituting this in Eqn. (27.Il) the path difference for observing bright fringes is . (A)

=~.2nlt=nA

(27.12)

-' 2lt Where n = O. I. 2 .........

136

PhysicS

Slmllarly. for dark fringes. from Eqn. (27.11) we get

. I (A)..... = (A/21t). [(2n +1)1t) = (2n +1) A/2 = (n +

2") A.

(27.13)

Where. n

= O.

1 . 2 ......... .

After having derived expressions for bright and dark fringes in tenns of path difference and the wavelength of the llght used. let us find an expression for. path difference in terms of distance between source and the screen (D I. separation between the pin holes (d 1 and location of the point P on the screen (x I.
since

A = S2 P -

S,P

S,.A

=d

sin 6

Assuming that is very small. we may write.

sin 6 =tan6= 9

sin 9 .. x /D
A=dsin9= d D

Hence. the path differences

.A= -

l' ~- ---- ---S2 1,

A

l(

dx
D

D-------i\J
27.8: Calculation offringe width

(27.141

Substituting Eqn. (27.14) in Eqn. (27.12) and (27.13) we have

dx = n~ D

lI'tt.

() x bri&b'
and or

..

.nAD

d;

n .. O. 1. 2 ...

(27.15)

dx 1 = (n + -) D 2

(x)_ .. (n + 2)

AD 7;

n .. 0.1.2.......

(27.16)

Expressions (27.15)" and (27.16) give the posltions of bright and dark fringes on the qbservation screen.You may I].ow ask : How wide is a bright or a dark fringe? To find out, what'We should do Is to calculate the location of two conseeu~t (or dark) fringes and take their difference. Let us do. it for bright fringes.
(x)n o .=3

AD
d

Wave

PropertIes of LIght

131

and

(x )".,. '" 2

~.
p =' (x)_
.
- (x)_

Therefore the fringe width.

= AD
d

(27.17)

You should convlnce yourself that.fringe width qf an ~ pattern remains the same ftw any two ccm-tfve _ _ of n.
Now. let us talk about the Intensity of bright and dark: fringes In the

Interference patteJn.

When two Ught

waves arrive at a point on the

dark fringes. You may ask : Does not this phenomenon violate the law of conservation of energy because energy carried by two light waves seem to be destroyed? It is not so; the energy conservatlori principle is not violated In the Interference pattern. Actually. the energy which disappears at dark fringes reappears at bright fringe. You may note from Eqn. (27.10) that the Intensity at bright fringes is four times the Intensity due to IndlvlduaI wave. Therefore. In an interference fringe pattern. shown In Fig. (27.8). the energy 18 redlstrtbuted and It vades between 4d' and zero. Each beam. acting Independently. will contribute d'- and hence. In the absence of Interference. the screen will be uniformly illumtnated with an Intensity 2' due to llght from two sJmtlar soUrces. This 18 the average intensity shown by the broken line In the Fig. 27.8.
screen out of phase. they Interfere destructively and givt'

..I , I
I

-+~

- ---- .... ..x .... c....

PIt. 27.9 :

lntensfty dlstrIbutfon Is

an fnteIjerence.

You have seen that observed Interference pattern In the Young's experiment can be understood quaIttattvely as well as quantitatively. with the help of Wave theory of Ught.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 27.3,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1)

When two waves superpose. on what factors does the resultant displacement at any pofnt in the region of overlap depend ?
.................................................................. u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

21 In Young's

experfment. how the constructtve interference Is produced on the observatfon SClI!eI1? .

n

3)

Can ,we Qbsen1e an inte/jbence fringe pattern when the Ught is coming.from two bulbs?

....................................................................................................................

138 Physics

4)

if we replace pin holes

S, and S. by two incandescent light bulbs. can we stilt observe the bright & dark fringes on the screen?

5)

What are coherent sources?

27.6 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

In an earlier lesson of this book. you were told that rectilinear propagation is one of the characteristics of light. The most obvious manifestation of the rectilinear propagation of light is the formation of shadow. But. if you examine the phenomenon of formation of shadow carefully. you find that. as such. these are not sharp at the edges. For example. the law of rectilinear propagation is voilated when light passes through very narrow aperture or falls on an obstacle of very very small dimensions. At the edges of the aperture or the obstacle. light bends into the shadow region and does not propagate along a straight line. This bending of light around the edges of an obstacle is known as dWTaction. Before further discussing the phenomenon of diffraction of light. you may like to observe diffraction of light yourself. Here are a few simple situations where you can observe diffraction of light. Look at street light at night and nearly close your eye lashes. How do you find the street light? You will obsen:e that light appears to be streaking out from the bulb. This happens due to diffraction (bending) of light round the corners of your eyelids. In the above situations. you will notice that the dimensions of the diffracting obstacle/aperture were very-very small. To observe diffraction effect, either of the following conditions must be obtained :
a)

The size oj [he obstacle or the aperture should be of the order oj the wavelength oj the incident wave. or
The separation between the obstacle or aperture and the observation screen should be considerably larger (a Jew thousand times) than the Size oj the obstacle or aperture.

b)

On the basis of above experiment (done by youl) and the resulting conclusion. 'it is easy to understand why we normally do not observe diffraction of light and light appear to travel in straight line. You know that the wavelength of light is of the order of 10-6 m. Therefore. to observe diffraction oj light. we need to have obstacles or aper lure harJtng dimensions oj this order!

27.6.1 Interference and D!ffraction

Interference and diffraction of light are basically similar phenomena. In both these phenomena the waves after passing through' a small circular aperture. spread out in the form of spherical waves. And beyond the aperture. thes~ spherical waves spread out and superpose in accordance with the Huygen's principle and superposition principle.

Wave Properties of LIght 139 However. while discussing the Interference phenomenon In the light of Huygen's wave theory. the two slits or the pinholes were pressumed to be very narrow such that each may be considered as accommodating only one source of secondary waves. Whereas. In case of diffraction. as you will learn In the following subsection. the aperture Is considered to be of appreciable width so that it may accommodate many sources of secondary waves. Therefore. we may say that intelf'" ellce is the superpositfon of secondary waues emanating from two d(ffenmt secondary sources whereas d([ITaction is the phenomenon of superposition of 'secondary waves emanating from the same aperture. However. the fact of the matter rertlains that both these phenomena are the consequences of the way the wave spread ana the way they superpose. You will also see In the follow1ng sectlon that Interference between secondary wavelets gives diffraction.

27.6.2 Diffraction at a Single Slit

After having studied about the phenomenon of diffraCtion. It Is time to study one of the simplest diffraCtion pattern. Such a diffraction pattern Is produced by what is known as single sllt. When a beam of light 111 Incident on a barrier with a narrow ellt. the light beyond the barrier deviates from its rectiQ linear path. Dtffractton of light produces p R a pattern of bright and dark fringes of Q varying Intensities on an observation screen beyond. The queaUon il : How Ught gets diffracted and how these fringel are produced? Let us attempt to answer these questions with the help of Huygen's wave theory and luperposltion lncidCIl PIIne diffemll wave Croat. of waves. Way. frail Refer to Flg.27.10(a)WhICh shows plane / wave fronts incident on the barrier n..~%"!~~~N~ containing the slit. AIJ these wave fronts frOm Cl narrow slit. fall on the barrier, only that part of the wave front will pass through which Is Inctdent on the sllt. This part of the wave front continue to propagate to the right of the barrier. However, the shape of the wave front does not remain plane beyond the sUt. It is 110 because according to Huygen's principle. the shape of wave front Is determined by the way wavelets. spread. For example, in the central part of the wave front to the right of the barrier. the wavelet emitted from point P spread because of the presence of wavelets on its both sides emitted from Q and R. Since the shape of the wave front. is determined by the surface tangent to these wavelets. the central pari of the wave front remains plane as It propagates. On the other hand. for the wavelets emitted from the pOints Q. Q' near the edges of the slit. there are no wavelets beyond the edges with which It may superpose. Since superposltion results In keeping the shape of the

140 : PbysIca
wave front as (dane. absence of such superposing wavelets for wavelets emitted from points near the edges allows them to deviate from. plaDmess In other words. the behaviOur of the wavelets at the edges is governed by the tendency of the wavelets to spread. As a result, the plane wave front of restricted extent bend around its p, edges. nterefore. the plane wave front, pl after passing _through the slit in the P barrier no longer lliaiulmns. its plane
~~.
%

A single slit diffraction apparatus is shown schematically in Fig. 27.10(b)After

alSO

51 passing through the slit. light gets 100 )J2 diffracted into a .-... ""''''e of directions and 9IIrTios obseIwtion produce a diffraction pattern on the containing alit observation, screen. A typical intensity distribution of the diffraction pattern is shown in Fig. 27.11. You may notice in Fig. 27.11 that the central maximum is Jt&.2T.l.'~ ..."...,senta. too bright (indicated by high value of !Ion oj a sfngle slit intensity) as well as Wide. ~. there d!t/Tact!on. are maxima. called HCODduy mn'm . of lesser intensity. distributed systematically With respect to central maximum.

To understand the fnten.sttu df8trfbutfon of the single slit diffraction pattern. we should find out the nature of superposition of waves reaching the observation screen. In order to1lPPly > Huygen's prinCiple. let us divide the Width ct of the slit into. say. 100 equal parts. Each of these can be considered as a sources of secondary waves. The wavelets emana.un:gIrom these points spread into the region to the right of the s11t. SinCe the part of the plane wave front incident on the s11t arrive at the Intensity slit simultaneously. points all the points are ostJllatJng in phaSe. Therefore. the wavelets emitted by these points are all in phase a.t the. tlme-of lesving the slit. Now \let. us c~nsider the effect of superppsttion of these wavelets at point -L~C'!....l.'---.J_..l....;:::::::)'c~_ o p' p p, o on the screen. The symmetry of the Fig. 27.10 shows that wavelets emitted from source 1 and 100 will arrive in f'II. 17.11: Intensfty dIstrlbutIIln oj a single slit d!IJiw:tfon pattern phase at point O. It is so because both the wavelets travel equal path length in arriving at O. And. when they started their journey from res~ve points on the slit. they were in phase. Hence. they arrive at 0 in phase and su~rpose in such, a

_-,-_ _ _ _ _ _-'-___-'---_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..:..-------=:wave PropertIes of LIght 141

way to give resultant amplitude much more than that due to any of the Individual wavelets from source 1 and 100. Similarly. for each wavelet from source 2 to 50. we have a corresponding wavelet from sour-::e 99 to 51 which will produce constructive interference (enhancement In intensity) at point O. Thus. point 0 will appear bright on the observation screen. Now let us consider an off-axis point P on the obseJvation screen. Suppose point P is such that the path difference between the source at edges i.e. sources 1 and 100 is equal to A.. Thus. the path difference between the wavelets from source 1 and 51 will be nearly equal to ')..f 2; You' inay recall from Interference of light that the wavelets coming from source=l and 51 will arnve at P out of phase and give dseto destructive interference. Similarly. wavelets from source 2 and 52 and all such pair' of wavelets will give rise to destructive Interference at point P. Therefore. we will have intensity minimum at POint P. Slmllarly. at point PI for wbich the path difference between the sources at edges is equal to 2:\' we will again get a minimum.
Lastly. let us consider a point P' between P and PI for wbich the path d!fference is 3M2.. To find out Intensity at such a point, we divide the wave front at the slit Into 3 equal parts. In such a situation. wavelets from the corresponding sources of two parts will have a path difference :\,/2 when they reach p. Thus they will cancel each other and produce destructive Interference. However. wavelets from third portion of the wave front will all contribute construcUvely (pressumlng that practlca1ly the path difference for wavelets from this part 18 zero) and produce brightness at 1". Since only one third of the wavefront is contributing towards the Intensity at I" as compared to 0 where the whole wavefront is contributing. the Intensity at I" will be roughly one third of that of the Intensity at O. Points P' and all other similar points are known as secondary maxima. A typ1cal lntens1ty dilItrlblltion pattern for a single slit is shown In Fig. 27.11.

However. you must note here that this is only a qualitative and a rather slmpllfled explanation of dlffractlon at a single slit. You will study more rigorous analysis of this phenomena if you pursue higher studies In physics.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2 7 . 4 - - - - - - - - - 1.
Does the phenomenon of d!lfractfDn show-.that light does not travel

along a stmlght line path?

................................................................................................................
2. Distinguish between Inteljerence and
~

d!lfracttDn oj light.

.................................. ..............................................................................
3.

Why Intensity of the principal maxfmum and secondary maxima of a single slit dYfi'actIDn are no~ same?

............................................................,. ... ............................... .

'" '"

142

Phys1c8

27.7 POLARISATION OF LIGHT

In the previous two sections of this lesson. you learnt about the phenomena of Interference and diffraction of llght. While discussing the phenomena of Interference and difJractie>D. we did not need to know whether the llght waves are longitudinal or transverse wave. Instead. polarisation of llght Indicated that llght is a transverse wave. Let us learn about this phenomenon now. The first thing which might be bothering you Is : What Is the polarisation of wave? PoJarlsatloll Is a PI Opel ty of ~ _ which refers to the situllllon when the oscilllltions of the pllrticles 01.11 medium lire Illong II fixed pillne perpendiculllr to the direction of motion of the mechllniclli wave. In the. context of polarisation of light. there are electric field vector and magnetic Ileld vector which oscillate and constitute light wave. Polarisation of light refers ttl a situation when electrlc.field vector (or the magnetic.field vectDr) oscillates only along a jbred plane perpendicular ttl the direction of propagatiDn of
light. '

27.7.1 Mechanical Model To Show Polarisation

To dlustrate what 1s meant by polarisation consider a mechanical wave on a rope. Refer to Fig. 27.12 which shows a rope whose one end 1s fixed and the other end 1s held by the hand. You know that moving the rope up and down by hand. transverse wave can be generated in the rope. You also know that unlike longitudinal wave. In the tranaverse wave on the rope. the direction of 08clllatlon of the particles on the rope 1s perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave. In Fig. 27.12. OA repreleAts the directlon of 08cl11atlon of rope partlclea and 08 represent8 directlon of wave motton. Now let the rope pass throulh two wooden plates with vertical sllts In each of them. The sUts are aUg ned along OA. Let the free end of the rope be moved up and down and transverse waves be generated. When the vertical sUts 51 and 52 (whose width Is (I) slightly more than A the thickness of the rope)both are parallel to OA. the direction of oscillation of the (b) rope. t~e wave on the rope passes FIll. 27 2: Transuerse walle on a rope through both the passing through slit fllIts as shown In

Wave Propert1e8 of LIght 143

part (8) of the figure. Now let us keep 5, in the same position and rotate the slit 5. in such a way .that 5, and S. are at right angles to each other. as shown in part (b) of FIg. 27.12. Once again. let us generate transverse wave by mdvlng the free end of the rope up and down. In this case. we find that the wave on the rope passes through 5, but is stopped at slit S.. As a result. there is no wave beyond the slit 5.. Why has it happened? Once the wave passes through 5,. only those oscillations are present which are parallel to OA. Once this wave reaches 52' which can only allow oscillations perpendicular not only to OB but also to OA (i.e. along the direction perpendicular to the plane of the page). it is stopped because component of OA along S. will be zero. Transverse wave beyond slit 5,. in which the direction of ofbratfon of particles is not only JleipomdfcuW to the dfnrcdon of wave motion but also along a jixed line lOA) ant called polarised wave. Now let us see what may happen if we keep the above experimental set up unaltered and generate longitudinal waves In the rope. In that situation. the direction of oscillation and direction of wave motion both will be along OB. Therefore, whatever may be the orientation of slits S, and Sa. the longttuclinal wave will pus through both the slits. From the above experiment with rope and slits we conclude that CUlII
U/CIIIe

wa:ue.

modon MGwtnII

po~

Nhautour maut N

CI Cr'IIn.IIIeIW

Now let U8 consider light which il allO a kind of wave motion. Therefore, if it IIhow8 polarilation behaviour, we can wely conclude that light 18 a transverse wave. LIght Ihows polarilation or not? To Investigate polar1Iation of light. we use certain mater1als. In crystalline form, which act as sUte of atomic dimension I appropriate for light waves. One 8uch material i8 called A 8crtenP

III

tourmalln .

~ 11111~
Ao (s)

Tourmaline crystal has the characteristic of allowtng the incident light to pass through only when the electric field vector oscillates along the transmission axis of the crystal. Let U8 do an experiment wtth an ordinary source of Ught and tourmaline crystal.

AI.

Scr..,P

144 PhysIcs .' , Fig. 27.13 (a), (h), (c) S is a source of light in front of which a tourmaline crystal A and a screen P are placed. When light passes through the crystal a bright spot is observed on the screen. As the crystal A Is rotated around the axis SS', no change in the brightness of the light spot is observed on the. screen. Let us place another tourrna1ine crystal B between A and the screen P as shown in 27.13(h). Let its transmission axis be B,B.. When the transmission axes A,A.,. and BB, are parallel to each other the intensity of the spot of light on the screen remains the same as when only crystal A was present. Now, keeping A fixed, let us rotate crystal B slowly around the axis
SS'. We will observe that the Intensity of the light spot on the screen

diminishes gradually. Finally, when the transmission axes of crystals A and B are in a crossed poSition, as shown in Fig. 27.13(cJ, the light spot on the screen disappears. The question Is : How do we explain this disappearance of the spot of light on the screen?
Above experimental observations can be understood If we consider light to be a transverse wave - something like th~ transverse wave on the rope discussed earlier. Any natural source of light such as the Sun or an Incandescent bulb ~ I1ght whose electric field vibrations take all possible" orientations perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light. Such a source Is represented by S In FIg. 27.13 and ~e light emitted by them Is known as unpolarised light. When such an unpolarlsed beam of light coming from the source S falls on tourmaline crystal A. only the electric field vibrations parallel to the transmission axis A,A., are allowed to pass through. Hence, the light beyond A has only those electric field vibrations which are parallel to A,A,. hence are polarised. When this beam of light falls on another crystal B. its passage through B will depend on the relative orientation or the transmisSion axes of crystals A and B. When the transmission: axes of A and B are parallel as In part (h) of Fig. 27.13, the ~t beam will pass through B undiminished and we observe a bright spOt on the screen. When the transmission axis of B Is at right angles to that of A. the electric field vibrations of the light falling on B Is at right angles to I Its transmission axes. Thus, the electric field vibration will have no compoI\ent along B,B. and 1)0 light Is transmitted through B. as shown In part (c) of the FIg. 27~ 13. 11rls results In disappearance of the spot of light on the' screen. Thus, you have seen that polarisation of light can be understood If light be considered as transverse wave.
It Is Interesting to note here that human eye cannot distinguish between

polarised and unpolarised light. We can only register the Intensity of light. As you have learnt above, when an unpolarlsed light Is passed through a tourmaline crystal, It becomes plane polarised. (See FIg. 27.13) The intensity of this plane polarised light also gets reduced because all electric field vibrations. except the one, of the unpolarised light are blocked by the crystal. Therefore. you may appreciate, that sunglasses made of such materials can be very comfortable for our eyes in summer. One polarising material Is herpathite which when embedded In a sheet of Inirocellulose gives a plastic material called

Wave Properties of Ugbt 145

polaroUl. Polaroid sunglasses have this property of cutting off the Intensity of light falling on our eye without affecting the colour of the Incident light. Let us now learn about some of the terminologies related to phenomenon of polarlsation in general and polarisation of Ught In particular. Cry$tal A which polarises theincldent light is called polariser. The second crystal B. which analyses whether the Uwoli.&ag lftIht is polarfsecI or not is called an araalyser: In fact, it is just a matter of convention to call these two. crystals by two dlfJerent names. Both are basically polar1sers having the property to allow only that light to. pass through whose electric fteld vibrations are parallel to their transmission axes. Further. the plane containing the d1rection of motion of the wave and the direction of vibration of the particles of the rope or the electric field In light is known as plane qf 1Ifbration. The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration is known as plane 'of polarlsation. Further. as mentioned earlier. ordinary source of light emi1s . unpolarised light In which electric field vibrations take all possible 0I1IUati00s' perpendicular to the d1rection of the light propagation. From elementary trigonometry. you know that' any direction In a plane can be resolved Into two mutually perpendicular directio~. For example. electric fteld vector represented by OA In FIg. 27.14 can be resolved Into OA sin 9 along oy and OA cos 9 along ox. S1mllarly any vector In the plane of the paper can be resolved along ox and oy. Therefore. an unpolar1sed light wave can be conSidered as a superposition of two waves whose electric field vectors are mutually perpendicular. Thus. unpolarised llght beam can be represented by two mutually perpendicular electric fteld vibration. The most common way to denote an unpolarised light beam is by theslgn In which the arrow Indicates the vibration parallel to the plane of the page and the dot Indicates the vibration perpendicular to the plane of the page. With this background information about geometrtcal representation of unpolarlsed and polarlsed light beams. let us learn about the way polarised light is produced.
/

FIC.

27.14:

Resolutfon of

-along two mtuaIIy

27.7.2 Production of Polarised Light

One of the slmplest method of polarlsmg light is its reflection from a polished surface. This phenomenon of polarisation by reflection was first discovered by Malus In 1808. He discovered that if a beam of light is incident at certain angle on the polished surface of a gJass plate. the reflected beam was plane polarised. Refer to Fig. 27.15(a) shows a beal:n of unpolarised light. AO. Ineldent on a glass plate. The reflected beam is shown by OR and the transmitted beam is shown by 01'. When the reflected beam was Investigated with the help of an analyser. it was found that the beam was partially plane polarised. However. for certain angle of Ineldence. called the polarising angle. t. the reflected beam was found to be completely plane polarised as p

146

PhyIItcs

shown In Fig. 27.15{b}. Later on, It was discovered by Brewster that when the Ught beam Is Incident at polari,a) (b) sing angle, the R A reflected and transmitted (or refracted) beams are not only polarised but are also normal T to each other. This discovery Indicated that polarlsation by reflection of Ught from glass or other l'tf. 27.15: PoIarfsat1on of rejlected. and refracted. light dielectric material Is Intimately related to the refractive Index of the materlal, To find the dependence of polarlsing angle on the refractive Index of the materlal, we use Snell's law, line of angle of Incidence Po sine of angle of refraction From the geometry of Fig, For,
t.~, 27,f~{b',

.lin ,
lin r

we have,

ROT. 900 ; lin r sin (90 - t,) cos

sin te tan t cost,. ,.

t,

IPo

tant,.

This Is lmow~ as Brwwater'. law and Indlcates that the polarillng angle I,:depends on the refractive Index of the materlal. You may ask : why the unpolarlsed Ught gets plane polarlsed after reflection? Well, to understand this, you need to lmow how I1ght or the electromagnetic waves are generated as well as reflected and refracted by a materlal. You wlll learn about these when you study physlCI In hlgher classes.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2 7 . 1 5 - - - - - - - - - 1. Can you observe the polarisation oj light if It we71I a longItUdInal
waue? &plain your

.................................................................................................................

answer.

2.

Is It correct to say that the direction oj motion qf a wave may not lie In the plane oj polartsatfon?

...............,................................................................................................

Wave Properties of Ught 147

3.

Suppose a beam qf unpolarlsed light ts Incident on a set of two polwolds. if you want to block the light completely, with the help of these polarotds, what should be the angle between the transmission axes of these polarolds?

................................................................................................................
4.

Does sound in air exhibit polarization?

0 ........................................ .

27.9 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

Light is a form of energy and it has dual nature. Accon:ling to Newton's CO!'j>uscular theol)', the light is made up of tiny particles whereas Huygen's wave theel)' suggests light as a wave. The Corpuscular theory can not explain the phenomena of interference, diffraction etc. According to Plank's quantum theel)', light is maue up of qUllnta of energy called Photons. According to Huygen's wave theal)', light energy flows out of the source in the form of wave-fronts. The continuous locus of all particles of the medium vibrating in the same phase at one instant of time ts called the wave-front. If iwo light sources emit light waves of same frequ("ncy, same amplitude and move along the same path maintaining cOl.<;tant phase difference beiween them, they are said to be coherent. When iwo coherent waves superpose each other, redistribution of energy takes place at different points, this is called the

interference of light. For conf>~ructive interference, phase difference = 2n It and for distructlve interference, phase difference = (2n - 1)1t. The bending of light near the bounda!)' of the obstacle or the aperture and encroching into the shadow region is called dfDi'action of light. The phenomenon in which the direction of vibrations of light get confined in one particular plane containing the direction of propagation is called the polarisation of light.

27.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1.

Explain in brief the theories describing the nature of light.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

State the Huygen's wave theaI)'. With the help of Huygen's wave theol)' the propagation of light waves. Predict the laws of reflection on the basts of Huygen's wave theaI)'. What is principle of superposition of waves? Explain the interference of light. How would you demonstrate that the light waves are transverse in nature? State and explain Brewster's law.

148' Physics

7.
8.

Describe Young's double slit experiment to produce Interference. Deduce an expression for the width of the Interference fringes. What would happen to the Interference pattern obtained In Young's double slit experiment when, ' (1) one of the slits is closed. (ii) the experiment is performed in water Instead of air, (ill) the source of yellow light is used In place of green light source. (iv) the separation between the two slits Is gradually Increased. (v) white light 1s used in place of monochromatic light. (vi) the separation between the slits and the screen is Increased. (vii) two slits are slightly moved closer. (viii) each slit width is Increased. The polarising angIe for a med1um 1s 60. What will be the crttical angIe for this medium? What is a wavefront? What is the direction of a beam of light with respect to the associated wavefront? In young's experimental set-up, the slit separation is 2 mm and the distance between the slits and the observation screen is 100 em. Calculate the path difference between the waves arriving at a point 5 cm away from the point where the line dividing the slits touches the screen. With the help of Huygens construction. explain the phenomenon of diffraction. For a material of refractive Index 1.42, calculate the polarising angle for a beam of unpolarised light Incldent on it. Dtsttngutsh between polarized and unpolarized lights.

9. 10.

11.

12. 13. 14.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Intext Questions 27.1

1. 2.
3.

False
It Is more In vacuum or air than In other media

No

4. 5.

Yes (1) In its basic assumption (ii) in constituents of light (iii) In' propagation of light.

Intext Questions 27.2

1. Perpendicular to each other (9 = 11:/2)
1

2.

Wave Propert1es of LIght

149

Intext Questions 27.3

1.

2.

3.

a) Relative phase b) Crest c) Incoherent d) Energy No, it is so becatISe two independent sources of light will emit light waves with different wavelengths 'liIXlplitudes and the two set of waves will not have any constant phase relationship. Suc.'l sources of light are called incoherent sources. And as told earlier, for observing interference of light, the sources of light must be coherent. When light waves are coming from two incoherent sources, the points on the screen where two crests or two troughs superpose at one instant to produce brightness may receive" at other instant, the crest of the wave from one source and trough . from the other an~oduce darkness .. Thus, the whole screen appears uniformly illuminated if pinholes S. and S. are replaced by two incandescent light bulbs. Two sources emitting light (a) of same frequency and wavelength (h) in phase or having constant phase difference (c) same ampolitude and period. (d) from very close angle

Intext Question 27.4

1. 2.

Yes Interference is the superpOSition of secondaIy waves emanating from two different secondary sources whereas diffraction is the ,superposition of secondary waves emanating from the same
aperture.

. 3.

Due to increasing path difference betweeh wavelets.

Intext Question 27.5

No. Because, in a longitudinal wave, the direction of vibrations is the same as the direction of motion of the wave. 2. No. 3. '900 or 2700 4. No.
1.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

Refer to section 27.4 0.1 mm Refer to section 27.6 From' Brewster's law, we have ip = 54 See Section 27.7

28
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

28.1 INTRODUCTION
At several places on one hand, you would have learnt abOut very minute

particles like electron, proton, atom or molecules, bacteria, vIruses etc., and on the other hand about very huge objects Ul(e stars, planets etc. In both the cases it is not possible to see the particle/objects clearly With the necked eyes. In such situations we need to have some special devices which could help us in thts regard.
In the previous lesson 26,you have studied about a very important optical

instrument i.e. the spectrometer and its uses. There are several other instruments used in optics. In this lesson you Will study about two of them. They are microscope aI}.!;l telescope; The knowledge about the image formation by mirrors and lenses, which you have learnt in the lesson 25, will help us understand the working of these optical instruments like the microscope and the telescope.

28.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading thts lesson, you should be able to :

explain the principle. working and use of simple and compound microscopes;
derive ~sstonsjor magn!ficatlon and magnifytilg power ofrnicroscope; dtstingutsh between linear and angular magntjicatton;

explain the principle. working and uses of refracting and reflecting telescopes;

dI:fine and explain the resolving powers of eye. telescope and microsoope.

OpUcallnstruments lSI

In your previous class yOu would have studied about the general description of microscopes. An ordinary double convex lens serves as a simple microscope. This microscope Is satisfactory for magnifying upto about twenty times. However. for large magnification. a compound microscope Is used. A compound microscope Is a combination of basically two lenses.

28.3 MICROSCOPE -

28.3.1 Simple Microscope

When an object AB is placed between the focus and optical centre 0 of a convex lens. a'virtual. erect and magntfted Al Blimage of this object. Is formed on the same side of the lens: (See Figure 28.1) ,
B,

FiI. 28.1: Simple microscope

The distance of the lens from the object is so adjusted that its iamge is formed at the least distance of distinct vision from the lens. (that Is at about 25 cm). The image should be distinctly visible without any strain
to the eye,

It should he remembered that the a.1gle subtended at the eye by the object should be as great as possible to have distinct vision. This Is because the apparent size of an object depends upon the angle which that object substends at the eyes. The angle subtended by the object at the human eye is called as the
~'isual angle.

In Fig. 28.1. the angle subtended at the eye by the object AB and Its image A(B( are the same. But in the absence of the lens. the object would not have been distinctly visible. if placed at AB. Thus. to be visible it should havf: been placed at the near point of the eye. that Is. the least distance of distict vision. In Fig. 28.1 it is at the position of the image A( B( and Is shown as A(", . Consider. the ray diagram in Fig 28.2. .
B,
Eye

f'--

~.

28.2: Visual angle

152' Physics
~

..

---~-.------~-~.~--~~-

~.

--.~~--.-~--.-----

The objects AIB I. ~B2 subtend the same angle 81 at the eye though they are of different sizes. Their images formed at the retir!a are also of the same size. hi' if x is the distance between the lens of the eye and the retina. then.

(Q Angle- Arc )
\ radius
If the object A3B3 Is of the same size as thai: of ~B2.the visll,lil angle for this object 112 , would be more since It is nearer to the eye. The corresponding image would be hz. So

hz a 112
and tpe eye can see the objects In more details if they are nearer to the eye. ,But the objects cannot be placed very near to the eye. The eye can not accommodate for short distances. That is why a near point is defined as the nearest Point of the eye at which ifthe, object is placed it would be distinctly visible.

Magnification: The angular magnification

m,..

of a microscope is defined

as the ratio of the angles subtended by the image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object when both are placed at the near point or the least diStance of diStinct viSion.

The Hne..- magnification. mi' is defmed as the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object. The angular 'magnification

m,.. can be written as.

fJ a

(refer figure 28.1)

m _ LAlOBI

"-

LApB2

If these angles are very small and expressed In radians then they can be replaced by their tangents. Hence.

m = tanfJ AlB,lOA I AlBI a tana AlB. 10~1 AlB. _ size of the Image -ml _ (By d e tlnition ) size of the object Hence. In case of a small microscope. the angular magnification magnifilcatlon m, Hence. m = - for a small microscope.
u
u

m,.= linear

Now. from the lens formula

u- u= f
--+-=1 1 I

In this case u = D = least distance of distinct vision and is negative. u is also negative as per the sign convention followed). So we get

Optl..,al Instruml;nts 153_

.

Multiplying both sides by D we get

-.

D D -1+-=f
U.

or

D =D +l=m
U

Hence magnlfication or Ihagnif'ying power m Is given by

!m=l+DI

(28.1)

In case the eye Is' placed behind the lens at a distance a. the above relation is modified to
(28.2)

For a normal eye D .. 25 em

Ezample 28.1: Find the magnifying power of a simple miscroscope halting thefocallength equal to 2.q em . .

Solution: We know for a simple microscope.

m .

= 1 + -

where D .. least dlatnce of distinct vision.

=; 25

em (normally) and

f= .2.5 cm (given)

Sub stitutlng for D andj. we get

m: ..

1 + 25 2.5 =11

= 1 + 10 .

28.3.2 Compound MicroSCOpe

In a compound microscope unlike the simple m1scroscope die magnlflcattori takes place In two stages.Theeyeplece and objective are of short focal lengths. But the focal length of the obJctlve is shorter compared to that of the eyepelce.

Consider Fig. 28;3 of a compound mlcro,scope. The object AS Is placed at a distance slightly greater than the foc'3llength of the objective Ll' A real Inverted and magrufied lInage .-t,B, ts formed by the lens on Its other side. The eyepiece. ~ is so adjusted that this Image A,B, Is within its focal legnth. The Image A,B, acts lJke ~ .object. for the eyepiece which produces a virtual, erect and enlarged final Image ~B2' Wbcin the microscope is m nonna! adjustment the final image A,B, is

154 Phy8Ice
fonne<! at the "near point" (at a distance 1)) of the eye as shown in the FIg. 28.3. It Is invert image of the object. Letu1 ~ distance of the object AB: 1>1 .. distance of the image from the object lens ~; ~ = distance of Al Bl from the eyepelce 1.;1>2 or D = the distance of its image ~ from ~. 1.1 ,
-r---''--,"",ff:;=''''':::--'~-7 q---:::~...-~ I
~~

.Fz

II.

: I I
I I

-ur" - V I
... ;

~, ......

,.. ... s,

~~~;-~ __

---;.

-...uc.---

,.. ..' ... , .. .. ,~_;-:___ - " , _ .......-: ... _

.....;-:;-:.;.;::.-:.......

..u,.?...

~,.,...-~

,B2

PIg. 28.3: CompoUnd MicrQscope'

Now. with, the eye placed very close to the eyepiece. the magnliying power of the compound microscope is giVen by the ratio of. the angIe subtended by the fip.al image ~~ at the eye piece to the angIe substended by the . object AB placed at the "near point (te.D).)

Le.

m=

JL=~
AB
D

A~B:z

AB

To show In II:l t~rms of m" and or

m. (multipylng and dividing by AIBI)

m =' AlB" x AIBI AIBlx AB'

~~

But~ '~

.. m,. .. magniftcatton of Qie eye piece

, ,

=~ Uz
and
AB . ' lei =m,,= magntll.catton of the objective

=~
ul

Therefore.

1m =m.xm.l

(28.3)

Since the eyepiece acts like a Simple micro!lCOpe so Its magnifying power

Is

m = 1 + .Q. where J., = focalJength of the eye pelce.

1.. ' ,

0ptIcal1natrumentll155

(28.4)

(28.5)

Thus. it is clea,r that the magni(y!ng power of the compound microscope . is greater than that of a simple microscope. From this equation It is. clear that the magnjfylng power of the compound microscope can be Increased
if.
(1)

u is small. that is the object AB is placed very near to the objective. it is possible only when the focal length of the objective is very small

since the object is to be placed beyond the focus to give real. Inverted and magnlfted image.
(ii)' VI

is greater. that is. the distance between the image and the objective is large. AgaIn the object has to be placed near the focus of the objective. So the length of the microscope should be large.

(iii) II!' the focal length of the eyepiece is very small .

. For practlcal considerations and the conclusions drawn from the above ment1onedcondit1ons. VI can be :.-placed by the length of the tube. Ll of the microscope and u l by the focal length. 10. of the objective. Hence. the magnifying power of compound microscope is

m= 10 1+

L( fDJ W . .. 101.

(:.Df.J

(28.6)

Bumpl_ 28.11: A microscope. has an of!jecttve of focal length :2 em, an eyepiece qf.focollength 5 ern and the distance between the centres of two lenses is :2Ocm. if the ./mQge Is formed 30 em away.frotn. the eyepeice. jIru:l the magnf/lcatIon qfthe rntcrosoope. 8oIatioD:'
In FIg 28.3.
~ =-30cm

f.=5cm
11 1 -"'--fe ~ Ua

--= "-5cm 30cm u a 1 1 1 or - - - - +

or
Th~

-1

6+1 Us 5cm 30cm 30 -30 us"'Tcm

--=-cm

7 30

distance of image Al BI fromtbe object lens.

I.e;,

30 vl ="0 ... cm--CM

, 7 ' 140-30 llO cm=-c.n

'The focal length of the o:"'.iectlve 10 = 2 cm

, !=2-_12 110 u1
,~

-=-+2 llO

-1

1 -55+7 -48 -~ = 110 =110

-110 ul=-cm

or'

48

The magnUytng power of the objective.

u -110 -48 -48 m=.::l=--x-=u1 7 110 7

The magnllleatlon due to the eyepiece

rn" =~=- -30x-7 =7

~

,30

Therefore. the magniflcatlbn of the microscope.

-48 m;=mo xm'=T x7
m=,-48

INTEXT QUESTION 2 8 . J . . l - - - - - - - - - 1) How does the nature oj the image formed by (I) a simple microscope (II) Compound mtcroscope d!fTer? "

...........................................................................................................
2) D!fT~lJ?TJttate between magnifying power and I7ICJ(p1jftcatfn?

..................................................................................................................

___.,.___________O=p:::ti=c~
:'I) 1he

l:;~!:':~m"ms

157

magnifying power of a simple microscope is 11. What is its.Jocal

'ength?
4)

if you

have two lenses of focal length 100 cm and 4 cm respectiveiy. which one would you choose as the eyepiece of your compound microscope? State why?

28.4 TELESCOPES
I

Telescope are used to see the distant objects. Some of these objects may not even be visible .to the naked .eye. .1l1e visual angie subtended by the distant object at the -eye Is so small that the object cannot be perceived by the unaided eye. The use of the'-telel'cope Is to Increase the visllal anl!k. It produces the Image of the object which subte.llls larger visual alll!k :1\ the eye and the object appears to be nearer to the eye, Therefore. tdC'~n)pes are used to observe the celestial and terrestrial borlles. Mainly Iwo lypt'S ' of telescopes are In common use (a) refractng telescopes and (b) reflecting telescopes

28.4.1 Refracting Telescope

Ti1l' refracting telescopes are also of two kinds.

UJ Astronomical telescope used to observe astronomical

bodies and
(11)

01'

heauenly

Galilean telescope used to observe terTl!strial bodies. We will r('acl about the astronomical telescope only In this lesson.

The astronomical telescope consists of two convex lenses L\ and L.r u'ns L\ which focuses the object Is called the objective and ~ is C'aUC'cI tlw eyepiece, Like a compound microscope, L; has ~ are rlXccl at the ('od" 01 a tube whose length can be adjusted, The obje('tlve 1'1 has it larl!l' HJll'rllll"(, and 'long focal length,

P
Q

II

o.
"~ ,~
8,
objectIve
~D--)

,,"e,

eyepleee

Fl" 28,4:Aslronomical telescope selJor illlar/<' (l/ l('n~1

<liswl1CC '!f'd"'illci I'isioll.

158 PbyaIcs
Let us suppose that the object to bevtewed. llke a heavenly body.ts very far. The rays from thts body .cap be co~sfdered as forming a beam of parallel rays. Parallel rays from a distant object. not shown In Fig. 28.4. after refraction through the objective ~. are focussed at the focal plane of ~ to give Image AIBI of the object. Theposft1on of the eyepiece ts 80 adjusted that .the image AIBI falls within its. focal length. Then the eyepeI.ece magnifies AIBI to give its image ~ at the near point of the eye as In the case of a simple microscope. [See Fig. 28.4). It helps In ftndmg details of the object. .

objective

.....aa.l: AstrononUcal telescope setjor normal a4/ustment If the focal planes of ~ and .~coInc1de. the final image is formed at Inftnity. [See Fig. 28.5. In this case the telescope is said to be focussed for Infinity or In DOnul a4'utmeJIt.
As we know lateral lIlapUICaUoD has been defined as the ratio of the heildlt of an image to the height of its object. There are occasions, however. this can be misleading. For example. it is possible for the Image to be bigger than its Object yet It appears smaller because it is farther away and subteDds a smaller lUJile at the eye.than does the object. Thull. lateral magnifl.cation does not necessar:Uy pnWIde a measure of the raUo of the apparent size of an tmsge to that of the o~'

MagnlfytD.g Power:

A useful concept Is that of: UIp1u maptflcat10D or JDIIIIdf1baI pow. . The magnifying power of the telescope ts defined as
(28.7)

when both the object and the image are at inftn1ty. It is obvious that the size of the telescope is negllglble compared to the distsnce of the object from the eye. Therefore. the angIe'subtended by the object at the eye can be ta}ten to be equal to that subteDded at the object1w ~. SimilarlY. since the eye is close to the eyepiece ~ the angle subtended by the Jmage at the eyepiece can be taken to be equal to that subtended at the eye. So

---'--"

---------------------'----------

Opt1callnetrumentll

159

m-

_ angle eubtended by the Image at La . . angle subtended qythe Image at LJ _ 4AaO,B,

.LPOJQ

(refer wJlgure 28.4~

m 4AP2Bt 4APIBt .[SlnceL~02Ba=4AI02Bt=ah,.. ~~ ..1. and LI'OJQ =4APIBt y ..ey are,vert!cally opposite "''6'e8:

=p

(If the angles are small ~d measured In radians 6 can be written as tan 6) :. m=-=--

a tana p tanp

= AIBt. OIAI = OIAI O,AI AIBt 0liAI distance .of AJBt from Lt (I.e. focal length of L, .. . c:llstallce of AJBJ from La

f.)

If the telescope is adjusted for Inftnity, then AlB} falls at .the focal plane of the eyepiece ~. In this case .

f. (focal length of the eyepiea: L / ) r-..-fo-' 1.-.-" m

m=~~~~~~~~~~

.f. (focallengtb of the objective L/ )

(2M)

The magnifying power of the telescope can be Increaaed by choIdng the objective to be of a large focal length and the eyepiece to be of a amall focal length.

28.4.2. ReflectlDg Teleacope

The objective of this type of telescope til a spherical concavemtrror of large focal length, Instread. of a cOnverging lena u In the cue of refracting telescope. FIg. 28.6 shows a reflectlJlg tele8cope, paraJlell'8J8 from a distant object fall on the concave mirror. Before ~ focuaaed at the fOcua the rays are Intercepted by a small convex mirror, MIM:! inclined at 45 with the axis of the. objective mirror. Thu8 the image is ah1fted towards the eyepiece. The eyeptecemagn1flea ,the Image u uaual. ,The mirror Ml~ is so small that It does not obstruct much of the incI.dent Ugbt. . Hence the brightness of the image is not atYected. 'l11e minor Ml~ can be replaced by a totslly reflecUng right angled I-.clea priam. 'l11e telescope shown In FIg. 28.6 is called Newton'8 telescope after the IICieqtIat who Invented it. The magnifying power of this type of utronOmiCal telescope is gIftn by.

160 Physl,--cs,-._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
.=.foc:..:..:al::-:l::-:en=gth'7'-'0::..:f,.:t::-:he.=..=.ob==1",ec.=.ti::.ve~J.7-. m-, ;'ocallength of the eyepiece, f.

(28.9)

In order to form a bright image with fine' details: the objective of the telescope should have a large aperture. But it is very dlfficult to make. an objective of very large aperture. Further, to remove spherical aberration paraboloidal mirrors are used. 1hrerefore, the objective In large telescope is a paraboloidal mirror Instead of a spherical mirror. The Newton's telescope conSists of paraboloidal mirror. . -There are .'other. forms of refleoting telescope. The reflecting telescope designed by Cassegniin is shown in Fig. 28.7

convex

objective

eyepiece

I'll, 28.8: Newton's Telescope The objectives has a small opening 0 at Its centre, Th~ rays from the distant
star are reflected by the objective. These rays form an Image at Al at a point which Ues between the focus and the centre of curvature of the concave mirror, O. These rays after reflection from C form the final iamge A:, which is vI~d by the. eyepiece [;.. There are several advantages ofa refiecting telescope over the refracting telescope. Main points are as follows:

(a) Advantages of a Reflecting Telescope

(I) -

The mirrors are free from chromatic aberration. It means that .the rays of different colouI'!l are fopussed at the same point after reflection. of light.

(11) There Is negligible. absOrption

(Ill) The spherical aberration can be avoided by using a .paraboloidal mirror. (iv)Mlrrors of large diameter c.ompared to lenses can be

I'll. 28.71

Cassegrain's Telescope

OpUcallnstrumen~.J!!.c

constructed easily. (v) Mirrors can be easily meunted whereas lenses can be mounted only on the edges or rim. .

(b) Magnifying Power: The magnifying power of a reflecttng teIC:scope, as in astronomlcal telescope" is defined to be:
m

focal length of the objecti,ve. fo focal length of the eyepiece, fe

INTEXT QUEStiONS 28.~2-:-.---_._....,-_ _~

(I)

How would the magnificatiDn .of a telescope be affected by increasing the focal length oj:
(a). the obJecttve

(bJ the eyepiece

~

.............................
,

............................. ....................................................................................
(2) if thefocallength of the oQjecttve of a telescope is 50 cm and that of the eyepiece is 2 em. What is the magnification?

..........................................................................................................
(3) State one difference between the rEifracttng and reflecting telescope.

......................................... ............ ...... .... .......... ................. ...... . ....... .

,

28.5 RESOLVING POWJJ:R

In the earlier lessons you have seen that the image of a point source is not a point, but has a definite size and Is surrounded by a diffraction pattern. Similarly, If there are two point sources very close to each other, the two. diffraction patterns formed by the two sources.may overlap and hence It may be difficult to distinguish them as separately by the naked eyes, An optial instrwnent like a microscope or telescope is said to have resolved the two potnt .sources when the two d!ffractton patterns a,:e su.fllclently separtlted from each other or are su.fllclently smaU so that in both the cases two images are disttngutshedfrom each other:
The abflfty of an optical instrument to Jut resolve the Images two neaTIIll point sources f.s called its resollllng power.

of

If we assume that the pupil of our eye Is about 2mm in .diameter, two ~lnts . can be seen distinctly separate, If they subtend at the eye an angle equal to about one minute of arc. The reciprocal of thf.s angle :.s known as the resolving pt1fIJfIf' of eye. Now let us study the resolving power of a telescope.

28.5.1 Resolving Power of a Telescope

TIle resolvlng power of a telescope is its ability to form separate Images of two distant. point objects situated close to each other. It is measured in

162 Physics objects whose Images are just resolved by the objective of the telescope. ,This angle is called the Umlt of _IUtiOD of the telescope. If the angle subtended by two distant objects is less than this angle. the l.n1ages of the o~ects cannnot be resolved by the telescope. The smaller is the value of this angle the higher is the resolving power of telescope. 1his means that the reciprocal of the limit of raolutfon is called the resolWrg power of the telescope.
If J.. is the wavelength of llght. a Is the diaIp.eter of the telescope objective and e is the angle subtended by the point object at the objective. then the

terms of the angle subtended at Its objective by two close but distant

limit of resolution of the telescope Is given by. (Rayleigh.' Ii ,,.'iterlon)

8= 1.22.t a

Hence. the resolving power of the telescope.

1 a RPT =-=-, e 1.22J..
(28.10)

From the equation (28;10). it is clear that to get a high resolving power. a , telescope with large aperture objective has to be used or light of lower wavelength has to be used.
Ezample 28.3: A telescope oj aperture 3 em. is Jocused on a window at 80 metre distancejlited with a wlremesh oj spacing 2 mm. Will the telescope be able to observe the wire mesh? {Mean wavelenth oj light .iI. 5.5 X 10-7
~.

'

Solution: Given. J.. = 5.5 X 10-7 m. a Therefore. the limit of resOlution.

8=1.22.i1.

=3cm 3 x 10-2 m.

_1.22X55~1O-7 =2.236 X10-6 radians

3xlO

the telescope will be able to resolve the wiremesh. if the angle a subtended by It on the objective Is equal to or greater than 9. the llmit of resolution, The angle subtended by the wiremesh on the objective. a= spllC1ng of wiremesh distance of objective from wIremesh
80m

'

a=~=2.5xlO-6 radians
As angle 2.5 x 10-& radian is greater than the limit of resolution (9 2.236 x 10-& radian) the telescope will be able to observe the wlremesh.

28.5.2 Resolving P.ower of a Microscope

The resoltlng power of a microscope represents its abllity to forin separate images of two objects situated very close to'each other. The resolving power of a mlq-oscope is measured In terms of the smallest 'linear separation between the two objects whose Images appear just resolved. 1hls smallest linear separation between two objects is called the Umlt of rellOlutioD 0"

Opttclil instruments

163

the IDicmacope. The smaller Is the value of l1near-separation, the higher Is the resolving power of the microscope. Thls means, the reciprocal qf the limit q/ resolution Is called the resoWing power qf the microscope. If I.. is the wavelenth of the light used to illuminate the object, e is the half 'angle of the cone of 11ght from the POint object at the eye and I! Is the refractive index of the medium between the object and the objective; then the llmj,t of resolution of the miscrocope Is given by
d

21! sine

... (28.11)

rhus the resolving power of microscope will be,

R.P.
m

21!sine I..

... (28.12)

The expression /l sin 8 Is called numerical aperture (N.A.). The highest value of N.A of the objective obtainable in practice is 1.6. and for eye its value is 0.004. lIt is clear from equation (28.12) that the resolving power of microscope can be lilcreased by increasing the numercial aperture and decreasing the wavelength of the light used to illuminate the object. This Is the reason why ultraviolet light is used in ultra microscopes and electron beam (I.. = 1O.,12m) in electron microscopes which have a very high resolving power.

, ~UESTION 28.3 _ _-''_--,.'- - - - - - ' ,I. How the reSolving power ofa telescope can be improved?
0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0'" ......................... 0 .............. 0

2. What Is relationship between thti lfm!t ofresolutiDn and resolving power of the eye?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3. if the wavelenth of the light used to illuminate the ol?/ect Is Increa.sed, what wUl be the e1fecton the limit of reso4dWn of the microscope?
0 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28.6 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

The angle subtended by an object at the human eye is called as the visual angle. The angular magnlfication or magn:lfy1ngpower of a miscrocope Is the ratio, of the angle subtended by the image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object when both are placed at the near point. Unear magnification Is defined as the ratio of the size ofthe Image to theslze of the object. The magnifying power of a simple microscope is

164

Physjc'"

D m=l+ f;

where D = Least distance of distinct vision; and J = focal length of the . lens.
In a compound microscope, unlike the simple microscope, magnification

takes place at two stages. There is an eyepiece and an objective both having short focal' lengths. But the focal length of the objective is comparatively shorter than the eyepiece. The magnifYing power of a compound microscope Is given as

m = mo x me' But m. = 1 + DII. therefore, m = vilul (1 + Dlf,); where VI =distance between the lInage and the objective,ul = object distance from the objective, D = Least distance of distinct vision which is 25 cm. andJ;. = focal length of the eyepeiece.
Telescope is used to see distant obejcts which subtend very small visual angle at the eye. The use oftelescope increases the. visual angle at the eye. The far-off object appears to be closer to the eye and can be seen easily TWo types of teles,~opes are there
(1)

Refracting (ii) Reflecting

The objective of the refracting telescope is a converging lens. But the objective in a reflecting telescope is a spherical mirror of large focal length. There ar, several advantages of reflecting telescope over a' refracting teJesc<'pe. . The magnifying power of a telescope is m := 101fe where; 10 = focal length of the objective; and 1. := foCJlllength of the eYepiece. .

2.8.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1, What is the difference between simple and compound rilicroscopes? Derive an: expression for the magniflcRtion of a compound microscope. . 2. Distinguish between refracting and reflecting telescope. Draw ray diagram for Newton's telescope. 3. Derive an equation for the magnifying power of a refracting telescope.. 4. What do you mean by the least distance of distinct vision? What is Its value for a normal eye? 5. Can we photograph the image formed by a compound microscope? ExplaIn your asnwer. 6. Define resolving' power of an optical instrument. What is the value of limit of resolut\on far a normal eye? 7. What are the main differences in the design of a compotmd microscope and a terrestrial telescope?
~--

--~~~~-

..

-~---

..

-----~---.~------

between the objective and eye piece is 2.1 m.What is the angular magnification ofthe telesc9pe? 9. The image formed by a microscope objective of focal length 4 mm Is 18 cm from Its second focal point. The eye piece has a focal length of 3.125 cm. What is the magnification fo the microscope? 10. The objective of one telescope has a diameter three times that of the objectives of second telescope. How much greater amount of light is gathered by first telescope as compared to the second?

CHECK YOUR' ANSWERS

Intext Questions 28.1

1. Image formed by a simple.microscope is virtual, erect and magnified.

Whereas the image formed by a compound microscope is real. inverted and magnified. 2.
Mag~g power is the ratio of the angle subtended by the Image at the eye piece to the angle subtended by the object placed at the near point. Magnification Is the ratio of the. size of image to the size of object.

3. m

= II.

1 + f' putting D = 25 cm f = 2.5cm

\. <l. If you choose the lens with 4 cm focal length. then the"magnif)r!ng power

I.

will be high because we know.

m = fa

f.

ilntext

Qu~stions 28.2
.

1 la) Objective oflarge focal length Increases the magnifying power of the

telescope"

(b) Magmficatlon is reduced by Increasing the focal length of eyepiece.

2, Magnification m

1. = = :!L
fo

50 cm 20cm

= 25

"p.

The objectives of a telescope is a spherical mirror of large focal length Instead of converging lens as In a refracting telescope.

mtext Questions 28.3

1. By taking a large aperture or by using a light of lower wavelength.

2. "The limit of resolution of an eye is Inversely proportional to its resolving power" 3. Limit of resolution will also be Increased.

29
STRUCTURE OF ATOM

29.1 INTRODUCfION
In our earlier lessons we have studied abolit different properties of matter like mechanical, thermal, electrical and magnetic properties. In order to study the microl~vel details of such

properties of the matter, it becomes imperative to know the inner strocture of the atom which IS primarily responsible for such properties and other effects. Therefore to understand the structure of atoma, we have taken the different atomic models for discussion in ibis iesson. Starting with the Rutherford's scattering experiment and its shortcomings, ibis lesson includes Bohr's theory of atomic model to explain the first . electrouic structure of the .smallest and lightest atom i.c. hydrogen .
In this lesson you will also study about the energy of the electrons in different orbits

specially in the case of hydrogen atom. A brief introduction of the quantum numbers and Pauli's exclusion principle will also be discussed in ibis bisson.

29.2 OBJECfIVES
After studying ibis lesson, you should be able to : explain. Rutherford:r scat.Jering experiment and state the Ruther ford's atomic model; state the short comings ofRutherford's model ofan atom; state the postulates of Bohr's model ofthe atom. in mathematical form; compute the radillS and velocity ofan electron in the first orbit ofhydrogen atom; deriVe the expression fo~ the energy of the electron in the first orbit of a hydrogen atom; represent the ellergy ofthe electrons in an energy level diagram; - list the four quantum nimJbe~s and Pauli:r exclusion principle;

"PhysicS

29.3 RUTHERFORD'S ATOMIC MODEL

you might have studied earlier. the first man who talked about the atom was John Dalton. an Jinglish chemist. He described atom as the smallest indivisible particle of elements which have alJ the properties of element and takes part in all chemical reactions. Later in 1907. 1.J 1bomson while studying discharge of electricity through gases discovered that all mailer contains negatively charged particle called electron. Because the atom as a "rhol. is neutral. it must carry equal and opposite charges. On the basis of this he suggested plum ?"tltling model of atom according to which the otom is spherical in shape and it consisted " u unijiJrmly charged positive ball in which a suitable number of electrons are embedded JI difforem. places 10 make it neutral. By this time the phenomena of radioactivity was dis:overed by Henry Becquere/. It was found that the. radio active atom emitted energeti, radiations consisting of a -particle, 13 -particles and y-radiations. While performing a.. .experiment with a-particles in 1899, Lord Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand born Physicist ,)hsen:ed large angle scattering of a particles frorrrthe ioils of Gold. Which could not- be expl.lillcd by the plum-pudding model of the atom. Further it led him to the discovery of the nucleus also. The first correct description of the distribution of positive and negative charges within the atom was presented by Lord Ernest Rutherford (1871"- 1937). His mod!,,1 was based on experiments oftbe scattering of a-particles (alpha particles) from thin metal foiis. Let us ;tudy about Rutherford's Scattering Experiment

As

29.3.1 Rutherford's Scattering Experiment

The apparatus (experimental arrangement) used by Rutherford for carrying out scattering experiment was very simple and is shown in Fig. 29.1. A lead diaphragm P a1l9ws a thin pencIl of::t-particlest:mittedbythepo!onitunsourceatStopassthrougtit. ThisbeamJhlls on larget T. which is an extremely thin film of gold. The fluorescent screen (zinc sulphide) produced 0 tiny flashes oflight or scintillation when a -particles strike it. Scintillation can be observed through a low power microscope M. The whole apparatus was placed in an evacuated clujmber to avoid collisions of a- particles with the air moIecuies.

~
S u.rays
P
T

,(...
~

;:J
M

of,0:tlrF

Fig.29.1: Rutherford' Scattering of a

- Pamcles

Rutherford was curious to know the angle of deflection suffered by the a-particles on passing through the foil. He believed that this kind of study might lead 10 some important; information regarding the structure of atom. He observed thai most of the scattered aparticles passed strnighl through the target foil T or suffered oIIIy small deflections as e'peeled. A few scattered a-particles were, however, observed to have been 'deflected through large angles (0'f90") and some of them were even deflected.backwards.lowards the

170

Structure of Atom

source (making an mgle of almost 180'). Scattering of a -particles by a small angle was expected but this large angle scattering. particularly back along the direction from which the particles came, was very surprising. E"pla.atioDS & Conelusio!, : The large angle scattering of a-particles indicated the presence of some hard core insid" the atoms. In order to produce large angle scattering. a sufficiently strong electrostatic repulsion between the positive charge of the bombarding particles and the positive charge of bombarded target atoms was necessary. Such a strong field could only be provided by all the positive charge concentrated at a point. Thus, he concluded that,
AU tlte positive charges and most ofthe mass ofthe atom must be concentrated in a very slNlll central region inside the atom. This region HI'IS named by Rutherford a.' nucleus. He, also estimated that the size of the nudeus was of the ceder of 1O"'m i.e. 10" times \ . the size of the atom. Tlte nucleus issurroufCded by a cloud of electrons whose total Itt!gatil'1! c/,urge i.. equal to tlte total positive charge "f the nucleus so that the atom as a whole is electrically lIelliraL PosSible paths of a particles scapered by an atom are shown in Fig.29.2

Fig Z9.2.~ Ruther/ord's experiment ofscattering of a -particles. An approaching a particle (carrying positive charge) faces a Coulombian repulsive force due to the positive charge on the nucleus. An a-particle passing through the atom at a large
distance from the nucleus experiences small repulsive force so it
Pi.1S!'CS

almost

undeflected as indicated by a-particle I in Fig. 29.2. But another particle passing dose to the nucleus experienCfs a strong repulsive force and so it deflects through a large angle as indicated by a-particle 2 in the same figure. It is very rare that an a-particle aims ju." at the nucleus. In this rare case the repulsive force will slow down the CL-partide which will finally slop and then will be repelled back along the direction of its approach as shown by the a -particle 4 in the figure.

29.2.2 Drawbacks of Rutberford's Model

The atomic model proposed by Rutherford offered some difficulties. Some of the consequences of Rutherford'S,jllomic model was in contradiction \\1th the experimental observation as discussed here.

(i) Stability of the Atom: According to Rutherlord's model. electrons in the atom revolve arclIIl'd the nucleus in various orbits (like the planets of out sol"r system rcmlving around the slin).lfthe electrons were stationary they would at once be attracted towards the nudeus and fail into it: It was thougi1t that it was the centri fugal r;"ce "hieh prevcntctlthc electrons from falling into the nucleus.
171

Physics

This model was also found to be unsatisfactory. In accordance with electronmagnetic theory, all accelerated electrons emit electromagnetic radiations continuously. This is because electrons revolving in orbitsaround the nucleus l!l"e continuously accelerated th~y will emit radiation and lose. energy.
J

I I \

--' Electron

Thus, all electron in tJH{Rutherford's model must orbit alo~spiralpathofdecreasing radius lilt it ll6ilapses into the nucleus as shown inlg. 29.3.

"-

......

FJ"f1fn Fig 29.3 we see that the orbital motion of the planetary electrons is short. lived . (about 10e s) and is not Stable. This is in contradiction with experimental results.

(ii)Frequency Electromagnetic Radiation: According to Rutherford's model electrons can rotate in any<orbit ofimy f!ldius and thus must emit electromagiletlc radiatklns of all frequencies. This is contradictory to the experimental re~ Expcnmentally, it was found that atoms emit radiations of certain well de.fined frequenCies only and not of all frequencies. . Thus. this model faced some difficulties which could not be explained and. thus it reqUIl'et an improvement. Now it Is time to allesl your prognsl and therefore try to lolvi the roOowins questionl.

"r

INTEXT QUESTIONS 29.1 _ _- - . -_ _-

_ __

I. ChoosetM correct anSWers: (a) In RutMrford'l scattering experiment, the thl1lfilm targe"t war bombani,d with. (I) pparticle (11) yrap (lIt) aparticle
(b)

The nucleus 13 sUlTounded by a cloud 0/ (i) .Electrons (II) Prottins (iii) a particles. The large angle scattering of partiel., indicated thepriienc. 0/ (/) Some positively charged I!m"d core Inside the atoms (lij80me pdtous core inside tM atoms (lit) Negatively charged core.
........................ _ " , .... w . . . . . . ."M
.................................................... _ ... _ ...... _ . . 'O

(c)

2. What was tM draw bile! of Thomson's plum pudding model ofatom?

. . . . . _. _
~

. . . . ..

29.4 BOHR'S MODEL OF THE Al'OM

A satisfactory model ofan atom was suggested by Neils Bohr in the year 1913 . Rutherford's experiment on the scatterittg of Cl -particles led. Bohr to the COnClusion that the atom consists of a positively charged nucleus at its center with electrons revolvitlg around it in circular orbits. Moreover, Bohr applied the quantum thcory of radiation as developed by Plank and Einstein to the Rutherford's model to overcome the difficulties faced by this mociel. Bohr dealt nuiinly with the simplest of atoms i.e. the hydrogen atom with atomic nUQIber Z= I

171

----------1
,revolvine; arounda"tlUcleus, IMlich is positiVely charged . It is called, the nucleus IMlith
~onsisi of a pbSinvely charged particls called proton and, is about 2000 times heavier than an electron. The charge of a' proton is exactly equal to that oftheelectroos. Bohr' s theory is based on the following postulates :

S~ofAtom

19.4.1 Bobr's Tb~ryofHydrogeD Atom ~t is alsO ,referred' 10' 8$ the planetary model. of the arum. It consists of a single, ele~1I'OI\

Postalates c,tfBohr'.s Model of the Atom

Bohr formulated the following postulates to account for the stability of the hydrogen atom and for the,series of spectral lines emittedbyit. (lI)Tk . " , co,isIs of _ positioely ~ "lICIeus III its celllre. If Z be the atomi~ number; the charge Oft the nucleus is equal to Ze, where e is the l1lll8IIitude of electronic

dwge. The negatively charged electrons revolve only in a few ~tted circular orbits around the nuCleus. ~Ie revolving in!hese circular orbits, an electron does nol radiate energy. These ~O!'hits are called stati.~ orbits. (6), De ,... '1 '6le orbitsm ","lcfl,eI:trtHI CIIII ~ lIlY! diose for ",hlch 1 . " " " I."," eItrtm;sa brIIqI'III-'1tipleofhl2'1t, where h is Plank's ~onstant. Thits for these orbits.

ling.
(29.1)

lIIPrinom;entum (It) -

"'va~

;:,

Where m and yare IIIe IIIISS and speed orllle electron, ail the radius of the permitted orbit IDd nis _positive iDteger (n .. 1,2,3... ,)WIed lllepr6lc:lplrl f""';" "lIIItHr.
M .........

(e) To rJqIIIIiIt ... ., 'III u-.IIoIIr,fl'tltltrt 'rt.iIIIIt "'p"," of tIIm'IY 1lIk,. pilla

tUce ttmen an cleelrOJljlllllpf &om )0_10 hi&ber orbit. ThUs iCE. iD.d E, are the energies IIIIOCiateci with two perllliued orbi~ the ~,vofthe ndia'tion emitted or absorbed
is ai~ by the ' reIaIioJL'

. . . . .i.ctnMJ-tMftwMd.,."..,..t-.triII,wbilubsorptionofenetgyta!w

EI E, -1r~

(29.2)

29.4.2 Radii or the PermitteCl Orbit

Considl:r Figure 29.4. Let the clecuon (IIIISS m)
in the hydrogen atom rWoivc'..-ound the auclrJus
~ its IfIh orbit.

~-4!1=.....

riecJron (m)

orbit of
(Procon)

. '. _1ft.
Thc,IJIdi~

Let a and 'VI be the r.tius and the IpCCii of the

electror.

elcctron in its nih orbit trouDd the proton of

a ismcuurcci'&omthecentcrofthe

nucleus.

173

Physics

To keep lIIe dtron moving ill tile nlll omit with vdtJdty ".' tile ~ be prrwlded by lIIe dectmst1ldc /01'Ct! 0/ _dUm beIwn tile deer".. I11III tile ".....

to- -

mv.2
As we know the centripetal force is given by" = - Q.

(29.l)'

The electrostatic force of attraction between the electron and the nucleus

/.=-where k is a constant given by

1

(29,4)

k=

(29.5)

Here, t. is the pennittivity of free space = 8.8S418x 10" Faradlm and Z the atomic number of the nucleus. The value of constant k is 9 )( 10' mF" From equations (29.3) and (29.4) we havef. = J.
Le,

mv'"

=-~.
kZe'

A:U-

a. = mv.'

.(29.6)

From Bohr's sel;ond postulate given earlier, we will recall that the angular momentum (=mv. aJ of the electron in the nth. orbit is an integral multiple of hl2x

mv.a..=2x

nh

Thus.

a..

nh
=
(29.7)

Equating eqns. (29.6) and (29.7), we get

J;Ze'

mv.2
~

.=

nh
2xmv.

= nh

21lkZe2
(29.1)

114

"tructure of Atom

Sllbsiilllting this value olv. in eql!lltion.(29.T, we get, radii ofpermillecforbit as.

a..=---

(29.9)

4,rmA:Ze'

The abo"e equation gives radii of the permitted orbits in which the electron revolves around the nucleus. n is called the principle quanlum number. In elISe of Hydrogen alolll Z=I Substituting Z =1 and n= I in eqn. (29.8). we getlhe speed of electron i.. the first omil of the h: drogen alom as 2de' (29.10) v, = - - -

On subslilUling the value of the constan~ h,e and 1, the value of speed (v.) comes out to be a value which is of the order of 1/137 of~ velocity oflight, and from eqn. (29.9wt gel radius of the first orbit as

(29.11)

SubstilUling the values m.k.eand h in eqn (29.11). we get the radius of the first permitted orbit .
0, ;. 0.53A".

(lAO ="10' m),

Similarly for n = 2

a1 =(2')0I
and so on.
0
u

=40 -,

= (n') ".

29.4.3 Energy of tbe Electro. Let us first calculate the energy of the electron in the

nth orbit. Let E. be the total energy ofthe e\ec1roR in the nIh orbit. It is equal to ; = Kinelic Energy. + Polential Energy

or E.

=K. E . .,. P.E.

I ,')

(29.12)

TheK.E. of the electron in nth orbit is given by

I.E. =- m (v.),,"
2

(29.13)

Fror'l. equn (29.6) we get.

1 kZe' K.B.: - - 2 a"

175

The potentiafenergy of the eleclron is gives by

kZe'

P.E.a"

(29.15)

Therefore,' Ihe tolal enel'f- E. is

E;

I
=

kZr
all

kZe'
(29:16) ,

-----~

12

a,
. (29.17)

1 JcZe' E.=- - - -

a"

Substitutinglhe value of a" fOrin eqn. (29.9), we get

2lt'/i'Z' e' E. =- ' - - - - m

(29.1"8)

The negative sign of the total energy indicates that the c;leclron is boUnd to the nuclew; For hydrogen atom the energy of the eIectronin the first orbit is obWDed by putting Z =1 8Ild n = }in eqn(29.18) as

2n2.t2e4 m

E,=-- -------Ii'

(29.19)

This is the lowest energy level and is'calIed the ground state ofatom. On ~bstitutillj the Values of the constants, in the equation 29.19 ,the value cifE, COUleS. out~l(lbel 13.6 eV: Therefare, E. = -13.6,( eV. Energy IC'o'els E" lis. comsponding to quantwn numbers 2,3""",,,,, are 'called excited stili.. For 1F Q: E =' (l It means thai the electron is no longer bound to the nucleus and gecomes ftee. We all know that when the excited electron jumps from a higher orbit to lower orbit it emits radiation (photon) Letlhe electron jumps from the orbit n, to iIr and let E; and E, be the corresponding energies of the electrons !hen ., hv =. E,- Ef (29.20) Where v is Ihe frequency oflhe photon or racliarioo emiatCd. we ca,p. MitJ:.it as. E; -E,
v= ,

h Using eqn (29.18), we get

v=

2lt li' [I 1 J --/i'----n: - n;'

2
4

Z'e m

(29.21)

"It is customary to write the result in terms of a wave. number . A wave numbe1'('f;) is defIned

as Ihe number ofwaves per meIer. y = vic,

176

51ruClUrc of AtQm

Here c is the velocity of Iighl AlsO we kri~)\V that c = v l . ..t being the wavelength of the radiat'''n

"=--= }.. c
tOr ~'1n. (29.2 i )

v=-----

(29.22)

(29.23}

or

(29.24)

Here. R" is aoonstant called lydw, .:wnutat.and is equal to

2w' Ii ,'",
RII .'
-'----

cJri

- 1.09'1 )( 10' m"

19.4.4 Spech.... of Hydrogen

Th= sPccInml ofhydn!gen as obtained ftom.eqn. (29.24) C9IIIiIII of aeverall!Jrilisof IiDes as ~Wnin Fi.l29.S They are as given below. (I) LaY"a. Series: Bohr showed that Jfthe electxonjumps from CIlI'I'ID' levels 2,3,4 (ie '11, - n, ..ii,~ 1I.i...........) to energy level 1 i e 11," I, ot the ground. state, a.series of spectral lines are obtained and are called Lyma,; Serie;, 'J,1iese lie in the IIllra wole,
regioll.
(II-) Balmer Series: If the elcctJonjumps Iiom higher orbits levels II, - M.s ........... to ~ne~' Io:wl 2 (n,= 2) a series of spcctrallincs II1W obtained and are known as BaI_ Seria. 'fItae lie in lhe u/lr/lI1iolet and visible ..eglon:
(Iii) Pascben Serlei:

arenergy

When electron jumps from hiper energy levels II, = 4,5.6 ......... to 11,- 3. the ~ries of spectral lines are obtained arc called PasCMII SlIrils. 'I'bII!Ie lie in the
injrured region.

(Iv)Bni~tt Series: 'this jsobtained when electron jumps from /I; == 5.6.7.......... energy

level to energy level 4(i.e IIff 4). These lie itt the illfrOred regiOll. (v) Pfund Series:
region.

In this case 11;'= 6.7, ......... and 11, = 5. These lie in the for infrared
Here 11, = 7.8 .......... and 11,,:,6. These lie injar infrandregioll.

(iv) HumphreeSeries:

177

Pri.'lCipaI quantum Number

Energy in eV

Free
State

N=8-----------------,------------------------- 0
N=6

N=7 N=5
N=4

~~
Bmcbet
Series

-0.28 -0.38

Pfund .Series -0.54

-0.85

Excited
State

N=3
N=

-1.51 Paschen Series

-3.4

...
1 L)'IlIan Series

Balmer Series
13.6

Ground
State

Fig. 295; enerSY lel't~I.~ of1r..vdr(Wfm IIIUrN.

Till! I!nergy required to rl!move an electron from It = 1 ground state to n .='fX) orbit is c.,IIt!l1 ionization energy Or ioniz4tionpolentiai for the hydrogen atom. The . ~alue o.r i'mi7.ation potential fer hydtogen atom in 13.6 V,

29.4.5 Limitations of Bohr's Th~ory

Though Dohr's theory had overcOlne several shoncomings of Rutherford's atomic model; if had some limitations. These were, 'i)' The orbits were considered to be cin:ular where as elliotical od>its were alSO possib\
It means Bohr's theory was not general. (ii) Some spectral lines of hydrogen were not single lines. They consisted of closely

pucl.ed lin", with slightly ditlerent frequencies. This them) could not account for such Jine feaHu'cs of lines in the hydmgen atom. Because of the limitations "f the Uohr's moJel. "tUms were made tl,lind proper atomic "h"kl which could .overcome all the drawhacks. At present the most satisfactory alomic lII<>d.:/ is' wave mechanical atom m"dd bascO on quantun theory. About which y.ou will have an Oppoinmity .to study in higher classes.

29.5 ELECTRONICCONFlGURATlONS IN ATOMS

nuhr and Stoner showed thaI all dectrons in an atom'do nlll ~cupy the same orbit, The} . ga\ C "'1 empirical nde acc'lTding to which the maximwll number of electrons in an orbit .is !,/ where II is Principal orlotal qllimtwllllllmber;nlUs.lhe lDa.~imllm numberofeleetTOllS . in di!lcrenl orbits are as follows: \ (1/'= I) =2(1)'=2 electrons First ()rhit ~ClIlld lIrbit (1/=2) = 2 (2)'= 8 ele.ctrons ThirJ orbil (II =3) =2 (3.)' = 18 .ek'Ctrons (II = 4) ~ 2 (4)' =32 electrons F"unl1 orbit

178

.Str.lCtUre of Atom

The orbits corresponding to n = 1,2,3.4 ............. etc. are refenedas K; L; M; N ............. shells. respectively..

The ekctrons in Ihe oUJermost shelb, not compktely filled (Le. having elt!ctrons It then lUe called wdence electrons.

2'"

29.5.1Qaantum Numbers
Bohr considered the ~rbit of the electron as circular and introduced the principlll qllantum : number n. to detentline the total energy of an electron in an 8tom. Later Sommerfield extended Boltr'!I theory to solve die problem in which cirCuia. as wen as elliptical orbits were pennissible for electrons in an atom: He introduced a rew quamum numbers as given below.

Azimutbal Quantum Number

.Sommerfield retained the princiPal quantum number n. He introduced another qt.antum number: called the aumnthalh orbital qllanlum nlUllber, t. For a given value of n, t can take any positive values fr0!D 0 to (n-/) i.e. 0,1.<1.3 ............ no t Thus for n=1 the allo"ed value . of (is only O. For higher orbits,say for n= S it can . assume. the values 0.1 ,2.3,4. and so on. Quantwn number of t is associated with orbital angular momentum. Maglletie Quantum Nuinber . With ihe development of high resolution spectroscopy it W<IS discovered that lines of the Balmer series. for example, were not single. It consisted of six lines, separate and distinct. 'but all of very nearly the same frequency. To explain this. another quantum nwnber /I. called that magneticqllantiim nllm.berwasintroduced. For a given value oft, it can take . integral values from - tto +ti.e, values t, (1-1), O,(t -l),f(i.e (2IH) possible values in all). For example for 1=2, m, has five values -2.-1.0,1,2,.

/Spin Quantum Number

Finally 10 acc9Unt for the fine structure of some of the spectral lines. it became necessary to imagine' each electron as a sphere spinning about an axis. while moving in its orbit around thenucllius. There is angular' momentum 80S0Ciated with Ii spinning particle and the magnitude of this i~ .~ified by another quantum number. _, called the spin ofthe particle, For an electron s = t12. Like an orbiting electron, 8 spinning electron i& also associated "ith a magnetic moment. Yet another quantum nlimber corresponding to the spin magnetic moment of the quantum number was introduced. For a given, _ it can take the valuess, s-l,s-2, ............... ~. For the electronm. takconlytwovalues+} oro}.

m;.

Thus. there are four quantum numbers n. t, In, and necessary to completely specifY the state of an electron in an atom, ( s. is fixed and e<;,ual To SUIIIJDarize. the different quantum numbers and the values they are permilted to take are given below:

m.

to! ).

QuaDtDm DnmDer

(i)

n ( principle quan!Ul!l

Qaantized valaes 1,2.3.........n

0.1.2.3.4..(114) -1.-(1-1), O. (I-l),t

number) (ii) ~ orbit q\lllDtUlll. number) (iii)' mt (magheti quantum number) (iv) m, (spin magnetic quantum nwnber)

_1 +1
2' 2

179

Physi

INTEXT QUESTIONS 29.2

.1 . Who suggested the Jirst most successful model ofthe atom?
.. .. ;".- . . . . . . . . .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;. - ' . . . . . . . . . . . . -.:- - - - -yo ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,..

2.
J.

I" case ofhydrogm atom wlrat is the radius ofthe first permined 0~6jt (n= I) ?
Let a I and a, be the radii of the jir:st and second permitted OT:bits ;,; the .hydrogen mom. respectively. What is the value ofa interma ofa ?
:1.

, ............................................. -'_ ......

ChOO8e the answer -I . In case ofhydrogen atom the radius ofthe electron In its nth orbit is proportional to (lj lin (ii) 1/n'. (iii) n(tv) n' 5 . The total energy E. ofthe electron in tlJe. nth orbit ofhydrogen atom is propOrtional to (i) e' (ii) tI (iii) e' (tv) e

eorrect

-_ ............................................................... ..
I

29.6 WHAT YOUHAVE LEARNT

.

Rutherford's scattering. ~periment indicated the presence ofsma1I central region inside .the atom where all the positive charge and most ofthe mass ofthe atOm is concentrated. The region was Il~ed as the nucleus. Tbe nucleus is surroWlded bya cloud ofelectrons whose tot!li negativecbarge is equal . to the total positive charge of the nucleus. .Rutherford's model of atom could not explain satisfactorily the observed stability cif the atom and the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the atoms. A satisfactory model ofanatoni wasSlJ88CSled by Neils Bohr based On somepostulateS whicli. are as follows: (i) The atom consists' oCa positively charge ,a nucleus at its centre; (ti) Electrons revolve only in few permitted orbits arouad the nucleus;. . (iii) E*lrOns do not ~te energy when revolvins in pemiitted orj,its. 1'bcse orbits are called stationary orbits. . Coulomb's law of electrostatic force and Newton's law of motion apply in the domain ofthe atom. . . .' Petmissible orbits for electrons are those for which an$Ular IIlOIJIeIltum (III}) =nhI2fC Emission orabfOrption of energy talr.es place when electronjumpsfromB hiF to a lower orbit or froma lower to Bhigher permitted orbits. . . The radii of the permitted orbitS in which the eleCtron is free to revolve around' the nucleus are given by
a,. ..

n'1i' 4R'mlrZtr
.,!

In case of hydrogen atom, the radii offirst permitted orbit is a, The energy of the electron in the nth orbit is given by

O.S3ft'

E. =

_2i'li'P~'m n'li'

Tbenegative sign of the total energy indicates that the electron is bovIId to tbe.n~ Wave nUmber (17) is defined as the number of 'waves per meter. Wave Jll,lDlber is .related to energy levels as follow.

V"

. L nt' JJ

RJ-.:. - .:J

Bohr'sthcol)' bas somelimitatioos. -Tiley are as fellow : (i) Orbits ueconsidered 10 be circular, but 1heY maY be eJIipticeJ aim. (ii)lThe theory could not account fur the observed closely packed lines with' slightl) different frequencies in the spectrum of hydrogen. . ~ fuUr .quantUm oumben Jllllllely (i) -.m.:iple qwmtumnumber,1l

(ii) OrtIitsl quannim number, t (iii) MaljDOtil: quannm number, m,

.(iv) Spin magnetic qll8DlliJn number, m,

,:; . !

.'

29/1 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

l. In Rutherford's scatterini experiinent why ao most of the a - particle! not.... through the target foil ? .. ..--:-

sinught

2. Bistinguish befween Thomson's plwn pudding model and RutbeifOidli planetary .model

ofalom.

3. Why'did 'Rutherford assume hat electrons revolve in circular orbits around the nucleu<:'J 4. . What is the ratio of the energies of the hydrogen atom in its first exdtea state 10 that in it second excited state? :5_ What is Ihe Slunit of-Rydberg's conslllnt? 6. In Rudlerford's 0. --particle scaitering experiment,what obSl!!'V8tion led him 10 predict' the~1IIaDCe ofAuelaus ? 7. 'lbeRydberg cortJIantfor hydrogen in 1696700 m-' calculJte the !Ibort aud long wa~ . lengthJimits ofLymim'lleries. S. HowllllUl)' times d0es the electron ofll-atom go mUDd the first orbit in Is? 9. Deeclibe.Rlllherford's<SC&uering exPeriment aud discuss its ~ .10. DiIcass 1be shortcomiDgs ofRulherford's model. . 11. DeIaibe . . postuIMFs of Bohr's model of the atom. 12. Deriwthee)[lJmSiOllof the energy of the electron in the nth orbitofhydrogen atom.. 13. Chooelllewrrect_as: (.) Pauli', excluSion prbu:iple IIaIeiJ that . (i) No two electroDS ill an atom can bave the same set of quantum. numbers. (ii) TWo electroDScan.bave the same set of quantum numben. (iii) All the electrons can bave same set of quantum nuniber . (1v) NooeoCthesbove (b) In case of hydrogen slom the radius oCthe electron in its.nIh orbit is proportiOnal to (i) lle(ii) e (iii) 11 e' (iv) e' (e) The 1otslena:gyE. oflhl? electron.in thenthorbit ofhydrogen atom is proportional 10. li) lin' (ii)lIn' (iii) II';' (iv) lfn (!I) The energy required to remoyc! an electron from n" I tll n ~. in the I;8Se of hydrogen atom is (i) 13.6eV (ii) 13.6eV (iii) 13.6 MeV (iv) 13.6 keY (e: For hydrogen atom when the electron jl!mps from higher energy level n = 5.6.7, ....... etc: to. the energy level n = 4. a set of' soectral lines sre obtained. These sre cslled (i) Balmer S!mes (ii) Bracket S!mes (iii) Paschen Series (iv) Lyman S!mes 14.. CalcUlate the nidius ofthe third and fourth permitted orbits of elecl!On in the hy4rogen

atom.
15. Discuss tile limitations ofBobr's theory oftbe atom.

-------------------------------------18 I

"l

16. The energy IrilDUtion in H-atom KGUfs ftpm IF 3 10 n = 2 energy levei Gi\cn 'j), '7 =1.097 )( 10" mol. (i) Wbatisthe_vdengIh Gflbeemiued~1 (ii) Will this radiation lie in the range of visible ligbt l' (iii) To which speettal sene>: cines this transition belong 1 17. The ionisation potential ofhydrogen is "13.6 volt. WI\8t is \he -s.Y oftlie aIOIain /1;0 2 state?

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

latext Q_tiou19,l I a (iii), b (ii) c (i) d (i) 2 It could not explair. the large angle' scaIlering of
particles from the gold foils

as

obsofved bv Rutherford.

Iittext Qaestiou19.l 1. Neils Bobr

2. 3. 4.

5.3 )( lO.um 40 (iv$ (5)(i) (6)(ii) ,

Terminal Qaestiou 7. A. =91I.4A~, A =1215 A 8. 6.57 x10 u Hz I 13. a (i), b (iii), c (ill), d (i),e (il) 16. (i) 6S63A, (ii) Visible, (iii) Balmer series 17. o3.4eV

182

"

30
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECf AND MATTER WAVES

3O.1INTRODucnON,
All of you must have seen4iIms in cinema haIIs.:1be picture on the. screen is produced by light passing t!u"ough !lims which have the SeeDes 'short on them. But, have you ever wondered how the Sounds are reproduced in the cinema? On the fitm in the balb ,the SOUDd is also recorded on one side of the screen as a sound track. 1'IJe light bQam ~ through this sound track falls on a device known as photocell which convert it into electrical pulses. These electrical pulSes are converted t!l produce actual sound. In this leison you will study the effect on which the working of a photocell is based. The same effeet is used in burgulllr alarm to detect thieves and in ~ other areas. In the same lesson you will also sl!Idy about the wave ploperties of matter.

a..na

'30.;2 OBJECfJVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to : explilin photoelectric effect and diatinguiah between thermionic emission and pIIotoemission; describe the experimental arrangement to study the photo electric effect; " draw with labels a diagram ofaphotoelectric ,;;,be; explain the gropII between photocurrent a;uf the vo/tag( between ;he electrodes of a photo- tube'; , ' 8tok the /Qws ofphotoelectric emission; Interpret the graph between frequency ofradiation and retarding potential; l!XJ'Iain Einstein's theory/ot' phtJloeiectrie effect and cite some uses ofphtJloelec;"ic cells. explain the dual 1I4ture ofmatter; .' ' explain de-Broglie waves and state the relation between the wave length 'of matter 'waves and the moIPWntum ofmalter; describe the experimental arrangementfor the verification ofde-Broglie waves;and give some applications ofde-Broglie waves.

183

30.3 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND THERMIONIC EMISSION

Suppose we have a SOUIV oflight which elDits radiation over a wide frequency range. Let us further assume that we have means of selecting light of one fixed liequency. Let usnow allow this monochromatic light to fallon a sheet of metal. It is obser\Ied. that above B certain liequency, the metal plate starts emitting electrons. This phenomenon is called photoelectric effect and the electrons so emitted are called photoeledroas.
! .

The emis.rion ofeleClrons from metals "When light of a frequency gre~ thana certain characteristic frequency falls on it, is called photoelectrk effector ph _ _iml.

This phenomenon was first established experimentally in 1900 by LeIW"\l and Sit: U. Thomson. Eleclrons can come out oca conductor by absoi-bing sufficient c:oergy. In the
photoelectric effect this energy is obtsined from the incident light. Thermionic emission: Suppose we take.a sheet of conductor and start beating it. The temperature of conductor would then start rising and therefore the kinetic c:oergy of the electrons inside the conductor would also start increasing. A stage would come when the electrons would have sufficient energy to come out of the conductor. This type ofemission of electrons is, therefore, called thermionic emission. Thus,

Electrons gaill enety from light in photoelectric emmlo" (lIfdfrom heot ill Ihermlolfic _'-ioIL
3O~3.1 Experimental Study of Phojoeleetric Effect Let Us now learn the essential pari of an experimental arrangement which demonstrates the photoelectric effect and also allows us to study this phenomenon. Such an.expel'imemal set up is shown in Figure 3 0 . 1 . .

Vessel

Light

~
A B

V~

GaiVllnometer

Battery
"Fig. 30.1: Experimental set up for observing the plwtoelectric effect
184

I'hoI""lectric Effect and Maner Waves

fhe set up consists ofruetal plate A called photo cathode inside a sealed vessel along with a metal cup Bwhich is used to collect the photoelectrons emitted by A. These elements'are connected to a battery and galvanometer circuit as shown in Fig.30.1. The battery bas been so connected.that the voltage on cup B is ofpositive polarity with respect to the plate A. If the battery tenninals are reversed. than the metal voltage become positive relativ,eto the cups.

Cue-I: PlllteA -~rellllivetoB

Let lis now consider ihe case when the plate A is at a negative potential relative to the cUP!l. If light of proper &equency falls on the metal plate, then the metal plate starts emitting elecirops. Because the cup is at a positive potential relative to . the plate therefore the eleclr(ins emitted by the platellxperience an altr;lctive force which drive them towanls the cup. Electrons trapped by the cup give rise to a clUTent in the external circujt and this clUTent is detected by the galvanometer placed in the circuit. When we increase the voltage, ' the attractive force experienced by the electrons inc" ases. This in tum increases the kinetic energy of the photoell);trons., The c~ce of an electron reachmg 'the cup B also IItcrease;; with .increasing kinetic energy. Further;nore, the current shown by the galvanometer depend. UP.9n tbe number of electrons collected by the cup.1berefore, the current shown by the galvanometer increases. with increasing voltage. As we keep on increasing the voltage, a stage comes when all the electrons v, emitted by the plate get collected by the cup. The + v ) clUTent is said to have satw'llted at this stage. If the (Vo1tage OD the cup) voltage on the cup is increased further, the current remains constant in magnitude. The above mentioned dependence ofCUO'!mI on voltage is graphically Flg.:3o.Z: Dependtmce of t:'JIJ'1Ynl on voltage in Figure 30.2. Vs is CtIIJed the SIIIurating l1Ouage.

ilhQwn

Cue-D : Plllle A

~ rellllive to

Let US study. what woitld happen if the plate A is at a positive potential relative to the cup B. Iflight ofa proper frequency falls.on the plate A,photoelectrons are emitted These electro~ then find a retarding potential which impMes their movement towards the cup B. Some of the electrons emitted from the plate are able to reach the cup giving rise to a CUrren~ which is registered by the galvanometer. W!lat does this mean? If the only force which moved the electrons towards the cup was due to the potential difference the plate aJId the cup, ihen none of the electrons would be able to reach the cup. AtkraIl electrons bave to move against a retarding potential in order to reach the cup, the electrons WouIdhav. Some I,lhancC of reaching the cup only if they are initially emitted with'some ldnetic.enagy.ExpCrimentaIly alSO)l c\lR'eDt is observed ifthe cup is at a negative potential with ~ to the plate. If for any particular incident ligllt frequency, the retarding pormtial is graduallY iIM:reased in mapitude, a stage would ultimately be reached when bODe oftbe .electrons Would be able to reach the cup because their kinetic energy would DOt'be sufficient to enable them to oveicome the retarding force .

between

7Ilr nIIIrtIiIig ~ wll_ the pilotoclDTtltlt beco_ UI'O for /I jNVtIcllillr ilrciMlrt ligll, freq_cy iB called the stopping poteati8/, V.
fordulJfreq-cy.
185

Against the stOpping potential v the work done by an elec1ron = e V. where e is .the charge \If electron. This work is done at the expense of the KE of the electrOn i.e.

(30.1)
This experiment v"as performed by R.A. Millikan. Millikan also did a lot of other experimental and the theoretical work on the photoelectric effect. For this workhe';"'s award~-d the Nobel prize in 1923. The stopping potential V.. was found by him to be dependent upon the frequency of the incident light. A plot ofthe stopping potential versus the frequency Of the incident light is shown in Figure ]0.3.

... VI

.. ~

;>

~ lie CI CI.
.~

. ~

CI

0 <1'1

...

CI.

f0

Frequency, (Hl!1
Fig.30.3: Stopping potential vers"" frequency
From the figure yoil should note the following two observations:

The stopping potential increases with increasing frequency of the incident light Further more. the dependence is linear. 2. There is a.frequency, j. belriw which no phptoelectric effect takes place L~no current is observed It is called the iliresholdfreqllellCY. These two observations are important for understanding the physicallaWl> governing the photoelectric effect. .
J.

30.4 LAWS OF PHOTOELEcrRlC EMISSION

In the last section, you have learnt about the results ofthe experimental study ofphotoelectrii: emission. These results can be SUlIUIUlI'ized in the following law of photoelectric emis~on:

The maximum. velocity ofthe photoelectrons increases with increasingfrequeney uf the incident light and depends upon the nature of the sul?stance emitting tlu; photoelectrons.. . (ii) The maximum velocity of the photoelectrons is fndependent of the intensity oflhe incident light. (iii}, For every subs/once, a theresholdfrequency,f. exists below whi(fh no photoelectrons are emitted. . ' (iv) For a particlilar frequency, the number ofphotoelectrons emittedptrunflarra'Q/ the emitting surface is proportional to the intensity 'a/the incideni light.
(i)

186

1'hotoeIec:i1iC Effect and Matter Waves

.30.4.1 Einstein's Theory

Mtuijr of you nlllSl have read about Alben Einstein' s life and work. He provided us deep
insights into many scientific. phenomena and photoeleclric.effect was one of them. For his . theory of photoelectric effect he was awarded the Noble prize in 1905. Many ;cientists believed at thaI ime that light consiSl,d lof waves moving in space. This approach was called die wave dleoryol light. Suppose we increase the intensity ofibe light incident upon a metal plate and we start expecting die result on die basis of die wavedleOry:What should happen? Increasing the intensity would imply more energy being imparted to the electrons ofibe nietaJ plate and hence should increase die energy ofthe emitted photoelectric electrons. But does this happen? You have already iearnt die laws of photoelectric emission and you Imow that this does not happen. Einstein assumed light to consist ofenergetic bllltdies called photons.

E of 8 single photon is given by

Einstein: 5 assumption, dlerefore, iritparted a particle like characteristic to light. Th" energy

E=hf

(30.2)

wbere,fis the frequency of die light and h is.the Planck's constant. Let us now assume that a photon of energy E is incident upon die metal surfaCe. Suppose En is the energy needed tor an electron to come out of the metal surface. As you have studied earlier, this energy is al$O called die work function of die conductor. The work function of II conductor is the _'-lit mergy "''lUlled/or IIIJ electron to come out 0/tire conduct,>, OUr/liCe. You are aware that energy is measUred in units of joule and denoted by the symbol 'J' Joule is however a very large unit for specifYing die work function of a conductor. Suppose 'we take an electron and accelerate it ihrouglt potential difference of I volt. Obviously die

kinetic. energyof ibe elections increases.

What is the amount of energy gained by an electron on being accelerated through 1 volt called? Well it is called one electron volt (eV). Therefore, write do\\n die value of 1 eV
injoules.
1 eY'" (chargeofan electron)x a volt = ........................................................... joules

Very often. die work funcQon of conductors is given inunilS ofeV. Table 30.1 showsE. of some metals along widl the corresponding frequency ofligltt which can impart an energy, eqUai to the work function, io the electrons in the metal.

Table 30.1: Workfunction ofsome IlU!ttzls

Metal ,
E.(eY)

Sodium

Potassium 2.3
5.58xlO"

Zinc
3.4 8.25 x 10"

Iron 4:8

Nickel
5.9

2.S
6.07 x 10"

. f(if,z)

11.65 x 10"

14.32 x 10"

187

Pbysks

Looking at table 30. 1what do you think would happen wbenmch a pboIon slrike~ the metal sur(ace ? Out of the total energy E, an amount E. wOuld be needed to fm:ce ~ . electron to come out of the metal surface. The difference amount, i.e ..( E -E,) ,,"'Ouldiben be imparted to the emitted electron in the form of kinetic energy. Of course, not all of the energy difference would be imparted to the electron as kinetic energy because the electron would loose some energy by internal collisions befure it from the metal surface. But. (E -E.) would definitely give the maximum kinetic energy, K_ which the photoelectrons can have. This physical idea can be .written down in the fuUowing mathematical fonn:

escapes

(30.3) Increasing the intensity would increase the number ofphotons per unit area but would not increase .the energy of each photon. Therefore the K";' and hence ingenerai1he velocity of the photoelectrons would not increase with increasing intensity. Thus you can see that the second law of photoelectric emission can be explained on the basis of Einstein's theo<y of photoelectric effect. Let us now see whether all the other laws are aho explainable on the basis of this theory. What do you th,!nk would happen if the 'frequency of the incident radiation-is increased? En would remain constant because it is a property ofthe material emitting the pbotoelectrons. Therefore increasingfin eqUlltion (30.3) 'would result in an incr~d value of K..;, and hence to a higher maximum velocity. This is exactly What the law (i) States. Suppose we put K_ =0 then equation (30.3) reduces to
(311:4)

Where.r. denotes the particular frequency at which the product ofthe Planck's constam and frequency becomes exactly equal to E;.1t is the thr.esltoldfretJIU!/ICJI. What happens wIIm light .of a freqUCllC)' t. is incident upon a me1ll plate? The metaJ does emit electrons but these electrons would have no kinetic energy. Suppose we reduce the frequency ofi:be light below and let it fall on tlie same metal plate. Obviously, the electrons inside the plaie would not receive enoughenergy to come out ofit. Hence there would beJio photoelecaic effect. You should now note that law (ii) states this precisely. .

f"

Now let us keep the frequency of the light fixed and increase its intensity. What will happen? Increasing the intensity increases the n\lll1ber .of photons striking any partiCular ar.a of the pl!lte. All these photons have energy .equal to hf where f is the Constant freql\ency. For each photons, an equation identical to (30.2) is valid. Thus each pootoh results in one emitted electron. Therefore. when 1I1e JIUDlber of photonS striking any par_. ticular area increases, the DlOber of photoelectrons et:tted from this area also increases proportionally. We have now seen lhat law (iv) can also thus be expiainecron!he1iI!sis of Eintein's theory. Einlein's photoelectric effect can be to be a great success fur explaining the physical origin of photoelectric effect.

seen

Example 30.1: Sodium has aworkfimction of2.3eY. Calculate (i) its threshold frequency , (ii) the maximum velocity ofthe photoelectrons produced when the sodium is iIIuminot.d by light ofwavelength 5x I (Ym (iii) the stopping potential with light ofthis waveldiRtIl
(G,ven h

= 6.6x 10-" Js, ,.= 3x/Oms' leV = 1.6x/0-" J;mass oje/lleu-on m = 9.1x lo-JI kgi.
188

",OIOeleclti!; EffeCt and Maner Waves

Solutio.: (i)

1be threshold frequency' is given as hI. = EO'

Here, -h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js, E. = 2.3e\l = 2.3 x 1.6 x 10'" J

:. I"

~.

E...

2.3 x i.(; x 100"j = 5 6

6:6 x 11l""ls

10" Hz
x

(ii) By EinSt~in's photoelectric equation hf=Eo + K.... =E0 +1 2 mv'ilia'

Or h=-= E,,+-m (v'
~

Sincef

=-A.

) 2-

-when: c = velocity of light, A. = wavelength of light 6.6 x 10'" x3 x 10'

or

=
5 X 10"
3.% x 10
~19

= 2.3 x = 3.68
x 10
-19

1.6 ><10'" +

1 mv'
2

.or

1 ., +"2mv-_
2 x 0;28 x 10'"
9.1
X

:. V"'mIlL

2 x 0.28 X 10'"

10'"

:. v

0.56 X 10'"

= 2.5 x 10' ms"

9.1 x 10'"

(iii) The stQpping pofeniial V. is given as

eV

III.

= 1mv' 2 .w:

0.28 X 10'"
:. V.
1.6 x 10-"
It INTEXT QUESTIONS 30.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

=0.18 V.

I.

ra)
(b)
(c)

2;

...... .. .. -- ...... -

State whether the following statements are true orfal~e: In thermionic emusion, electrons gain energy from photons. The -Maximiun velocity of the photoelectron is independent of the-frequency of the incidelft radiation. tlrere exuts afrequencyJ. above which no photoelectric effect takes place. Lighl' offrequency 6.0 x IOU Hz incident on a metal surface ejects photoelectrons -1IaviJg a kinetic energy 2.0 x 10-" J. Calculate the energy needed to remove an electron from the metal.

.. - .. - ........ - ................ - .......................... ..

189

30.4 PHOTOELECfRIC TUBE

We have. studied the photoelectric effect in detail in the last section. By now, we mow that when light of a freqaency above1. is ittcident a material , electrons are emitted. We also know from earlier studies that the flow of electrons constitutes a curre:nL Furthermore, we \Jave also seen that the photoelectrons are eamtted with certain kilM)tic; energies. The effect of changing accelerating voltage on the IIUIgDitude of the currem wis. also studied by us. In fact, Fig. (30.2) depicted thistlependence schematically. Pbotoeleclric' tube is one such arrangemeDI which converts light energy into electrical eIlIq)'. They are of various types.

upon

The photoenuss. ive type of phototube is based on. the phcmomeoon of _photoeJectric efft. \ .

. ....

Construction

Let us understand the essent:ial.parts of the photoelectric tube. It consisIs of a glass vessel which has been. evacuated. 1liis gI8ss vesscl contains a semi-eylindrical cathode and an anode in the from of a straight wire. The cathode is coated with a suitable metal to ensI:ft the emissiOll af photoelectrons when light <if a pre-decided frequency falls on it T~
threshold ~ above which a phototube responds deteillunesthe choice ofthiscottlDg

~~_ Yacuum Centajner LIgbt~. _ .y .vv v~,

~-ot-"

Anode

Cathode

J--fo----.

Battery

.-----{G

Galvanometer
Fig. 3fU : Photoelectric tube

The anode is usually made of nickel or platim Jm Electrical conbeciions P J andP. are brought out on to the surface oftbe glass vessel A battery and. galVllllOlDeter are co.tmected. between the anode and the cathode to provide the accelerating voltage. The arrow .OD. the batteJy indicatesthe fact that the voltage applied by it can. be varied. You mvst have seen this symbol being used with resistances also. A variable resistance is shoWli by an arrow c'uIling acrosSthe uorma1resism""", symbol. The ga1vanometerp1aced in the cUcint~ the cm;rent P"ssjog Ihroitgli. it Worldac Now suppose 1ight of ftequeacy bigher than the tbi-csbOlcl frequencyf.. ' is iueident upClIl the cadJode. Some photoelectrons are emitted. Let.us tUi1hQr that the acceleraIiDa .. potential between the cathode and the anode is zero. As you know the elecInIIJB COllie out of the cathode with ca1IIiD velocities and hence reach the anode. 1bese electrons give . . to a current as indicatccl by the galvanometer. Let us now apply some ac:celuatiDg voltage . and seewbatbappeus. Obviouslymore electrons would oow be abletoreadlthe...Dde and hIlnce the current would increase. This is shown in Figure 30.S

_11M

190

. - - -..........- - ( I J

-------(11)

Jntensity (IJ > lJatcnsi(y (II)

~---------------AcceJaioating Voltage
F;'.30.5: Yariation ofcurrelll and QCCeleralion voltage
As we keep on inaeasingthe voltage betM:eri the 9""""'e mel the mode ofthe pbOtocIectric tube current alSo increases.. Finally at very bigh voltages the cummt saturates to a fixed value as shown in Figure 30..5 TIle sllllll"tllio" cunettt is 1 , raliMtl by tile btteIuity (I) oftlte incidelllliglrt.The magnitude of satmation current is the order of JI8IIO amperes. It is seen that if tlte intensity of tlte fight is in~ tIte1I tile 6IIIIInIIitnr cwr.t (I/so
in~es /16 sho.."

in tlteF;'. 30.5.

30.4.1 Application
Let us now try to UIIde:ntand some important applications"of pbotoeleclri.c: cells. You can appreciate that where ever ligbt enet8Y has to be traDsiimPed into equivalent electric current, photoelectric cells would find usc. (i) Reproducoou of sowut in films: One of the important application of photoelectric cells is in the reproduction ofsound in films. A sound crack is a track on the rum ofuniform width whose capacity varies in accordance with the audio frequency variations oflhe sound waves. Ligilt is made to pass through this film and is then I;IUIde to fiill on the c:atbode of a photoelectric cell. The current developed in lhe ciroidt of the photoeleclric cell is then proportional to tbC audio freq~ and the variatiollS in current ue aisQ in aceordance with the variations in lhe audio frequency. This cUmm is then IIIIIIIc to pass through a resistance. The. voltage developed across the ~ is.then ~ IDIplified 8IId then fed to a loudspeaka'. The loudspe~ rqJIOduces the SOUDd IS was ~n:c:orded em. -lhe soun,ftrack. (ii) Transmittiac piet1lns over great distuees : Photoelectric tubes ue aisQ used in systems that lranslirit pictures over great distances. You must be a~ that the transmission of information fi:om one place to another place is called teieglaphy. Likewise the transmission of picture is called photo telegraphy.
(iii) Otber Uses: Many types. of system used for MIIMng articles or

/ivins being ue b&sed on photoelectric tubes. Photoelectric tubes ue also used in bmJlar aIamis md other thieve detecting sy.stems. These ue also used in fire alarms.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 30.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
"J. State whether the followillg stalemmt.J are trw or fo1&e. (a) The catltode in a phototube is bitDedpOt/lively ..ilh respect to the tIhotk. . (b) The lalllration. CII1'mII in a photohlbe is depelltklll"""" the frequency of the

. incisorrdation. (c) 17ruatril"tllitm CJII'Tflnt in aphotodioi;k iltcreas" wilh tlte fnl_ity of. i1Icide1JI light. 2. Aklllion tIru applil:atiotts ofphoto electric tube.

-_ ...................................... -_ ............................ - ................. _.... -.- -............ _. -.- -_ ........ 191

30.S de - BROGLIE WAYES

In the last section. you studied the Einstein's theory of photoelectric effect. In that theory light was considered to consist of particles. But light is also known to be a Wnd ofenerg)'~ Therefore Einstc:il!'s a&IUIllption also-means anoth.... important tbing,i.e. radian! energy can be associate,d with material particles. You will recollect that light consists of partic:l~s called photons! Each of these Photons contain an energy E given. by equation E = /if. Therefore, as the frequency of the light increases, the-energy CODtent of each ofthe pboton particles increases. But light also has a wave like behaviour ~ the concept offrequelli!y

is applicable to waves only. What does the above mean? The ab9ve discussionfinally means that energy transmitting in 'the form of waves also exhibits particle like behaviour. What aboUt the opposite situaIioo, would moving particles also exJn"bit,wave like behaviour?, The answer to the very interesting question was provided by de-Brogtie in 1924. ~ postulated thal the ptIII1kJes in nwtion do exhibit wave like cillU'lICterisIics. The theory, of de-Broglie is often termed wave-particle dualism. The waves associated with moving matter are called by different names such as matter waves, de-BllIglie waves. Many of you would be wondering why de-Broglie's assumption is being projected a theory. Actually, de Broglie started with this assumption and then went on to derive a' relation between the momentum ofthe moving particles and the wavelength ofthe associated waves. His theory has since been tested experimentally also. Let us study about this in this section.

as

The wave particle dualism :an be understood in another way. Particles constitute matter and radiant energy travel as waves, therefore the relationship between'matter and energy is dual in nature. This means that matter can be thought in terms ofenergy and vice versa. The matter-energy duality is a very important concept in Physics.

30.5.1 Wave-length and Momentum

We have learnt that waves can be associated with particles in motion. Two q1ll!IlIities thst characterize a particle in motion are (i) its velocity and (ij) its mass. Can you think. of a parameter that depends on both and therefore canalone be used to charscterize the part\cle in ",otion?

'.
~

...

One such parameter is momentum, p .Let us now think of a quantity that best characterizes a wave. 'One of the best examples is the wavelength ofthe wave. Let this be denoted by the symbol A. If matter has waves associated with it then there must be a relationship between the momentum of the material particles and the wavelength of the asaoclated waves. S1K;h a relationship was indeed derived by de-Broglie and is given in the following equation, h
A'= (30.5)
p

where h is the Planck's c()lJSlant = 6.62 x 10"'" joule sec. Let us get familiar with the above equation without deriving it. What does the above eciuation.imply? If we increase the momentum of a particle then ~ wavelength of the associated matter waves decreases. Therefore, a faster particle would have sborter waves associated with it. Also we note that for the same speed, a heavier plll'ticle will have /I shorter wavelength. '

192

PhOtoeleclric Effect and Malter Waves

Earlier, in tbi& Iosson you have learIlt that the -zy pined by an electron on being
acceierated through I volfis 1e V e

where, 1 e:V = q Joules.

whcn:, q is:the IIIIIpitudc ~f the CbaqvJeof an electron.
de- ~Wav...gtII

Let usederive a relation for. the de-BlOgiie waveleagIh a~ with an elec:tron that has been accelerated through a voltage 'Y'. Iflhe velocity of tile electron aftel"lcce1eration is denoted by mass oflhe electron is deuotedby 'm'theDtilekineticeaergy oftile

electtoo.~ust be
2

'Y'-t ..

to q Y Joules 'Ibo:Rfore; (30.6)

mv2 -qV

or
or

v=./ ~V , em mv=p=j2qmv
(30.7)

The dc-Broglie wavelength, A, from.equation (30.5) is Ihoreforegiven by

A=

12:mv

(30.8~

The variOUS'coostanl$ is equation (30.8) have tile foUowing evalucs:

h =6.625 x 10-" Joule-second q = 1.602 xlO-" Coulombs m = 9.11 x 10'" kg.
Putting these vuues in (30.8) we obtain

,....

~.

.
e

'.'

6.625 x 10'"
, e

A=----------------~--2 x 1.602)( fO-" lI. 9.11 x 10 -~ x$

12J -I' or.A= - x 10 m
e

JV

12.3 or,A= - - A

(30.9)

193

30.5.2 Experimental Verification of Existenceofde-Brogl~Waves:

Earlier , in this section, it was mentioned that the existeru." of de-8rogIie waves can be verified experimentally. Let us understand one such experimental artangement. This experimental set up is shown in Fig.JO.6 where B = Banery, Y = Variable potential difference F = FiIaIIlent, /) ~ MabiIIic DilIpbrapr. N= Nickel Single Crystal, and DT = Detector. The set up consists of a fi1aJnent F, which serves as a source of eleclroDs. The eleettoos emiUed from !his filaIIlent _ then made to pass throush iI set of meta1 diaplJrapli; "Fbe electrons eJniUed by thefilamcint CODlC out in various directions. The'metaldiaphragms ofelectrons. Only the electrons which are able serve the purpose of collilMring the _ to pass tbrough the slits in the various diaphragJns _ able to CODlC out of the metallit: diaphragms. But this is not the only purpose being served by .the diapbragIns. B

V
D

_---'"~
F

Electron Beam

Fig. 30.6: Erpeiimental set up t01)erify the existence ofde-Broglie WQ\I4!S

You would notice in Figure 30.6 that an arrangeDlent exists ~ch allows the applicati~ of different voltages between the filament and the diapbragJns. FW1hermore. the polarity of the voltage is such as to accelerate the eJniUed elec1rons. The energy of the collimated SIreaIIl of electrans can therefore he controlled by coutrolling the magnitude of the accelerating voltage. The beam of electrons then falls ~uW to the face on a single crystal of nickel. The set-up also contains a detector DT which can be placed at any particular angle with respect to the normal to the nickel sin&le crystal. This detector can determine the intensity of the reflected beam. The set-up descn"bed above waS used by Davisson and Qenner. You must understand that there is nothing special in the choice of nickel. In fact, Davissmon and .Germ er used this particular crystal. Figure 30.7 shows the plot of detector currentversus'tbe kinetic energy of incident electrons for = 50, as obtained by Davisson and Genner.

You should note :that the detector current shows a maxima for electron kinetic energy of 54 eV: Suppose the electrons ofK.E. = 54 eV can be thought ofas waves with a waveiength given by equation (30.5). Let us try and calculate this wavelength. We need to first calculate the molllentUm of these electrons. You know that the K.E. of :!.'lY particle is given by

K.E. = 1_'
2

I+ = 50

(30.10)

eV

IIIc 30.7: Plot ofdetIOI"' _ _, ........ "'" ki_.-y,

194

We bow that K.E '-al)le of54eY is equal to (54xq)' joules where, q is the charge carried by an eli:clron.

Themagnitude of q.js 1.6", 10" coulombs_ . -. " ~9 ThaefOle, 54 eV= 54 x 1.6 x.IO joules. The 1IUIIlS, .... ut~)ecttonis 9.1 x 10" kg. The wIoc:ity of the electrrins accordirIg to equation (30.IO) is then given by

v~~
1'IIIUng'1be values of the various parameters we ~et,
19

(30.H)

... 2x$4 x 1.6 X 10- = 4 4 \I 9.1 iclO .1I.

x v IDS

1'"

-,

The :IIlQinentum of the electrons is therefore , p'e'IIfII=9.1 x 10' x4.4xtO

. -]1

=4 x10'"
h

kgms./

TheWIJvclength oflbe associated do:BrogIiewaves is tha-efore,

A=--p'
=

6.6 x 10 ls

lO

,-

4x10.... ....-'

l.6s x 10-- m ~USA".

.

~:IA

-I x 10 I!L

-10,

._'s
This

waveIeusth lies in lbermae of Xn.ys wave1eagth Itd is the !ltteratqmic: plane 'pilig' tballbe ioIIinSity of die ieflccted 1"11)' sbouId eiidu"bit niQbuas acconima to die
rUle,viz.

r-Im-:'''-,"'~2d:-:':-:6i11""::e~l: ". 1,2,3, .

E

(3'1.12)

........ n6ietedtioal dlelllOmic:;.l""'of1be ":'~Dil:keI--ITiliilg~"'"' X -raysget1iil8 . '. __ "'"'6'~ w~_ "'&-~ sbouidbe IIsecl to ~ the VllII~ ofe for ;= Sll". . .
IIJrideoit .
x~

Where, e is qIe between Ibe .dlec:ted my IUld the Inteiatomicp1anes F p ;l0.8 shows

Reftected
~

FIa'.JAI: R~ecJkJn ofX-IVlJIS fr- . atomic pianls of"Idel '" Jstal

195

Physics

You should note that accordiDg to figllre 30.8

9=90-*
.' 2

(30.13)

Therefore.

For m = I,equation (30.12) takes the form

1=2dsin 9
"

Now, we have already seen that A.,;, 1.65 A and

A. '"

9 =6S therefore

2 x sin 65

1.6.

0.91 AD

,. 1ben

~erefore,.ifelectrons ~f ~ equal.to 54 eVare indeed behavi~'iike wa~es tile mter-atonuc plane spacmg In SIngle mckel ~ must be 0.91 A . From ~t _ studies it is well documented that the interatomic placing. d;is indeed 0.91 A' for nickel single crystal. Theretore, Davisson and Germer concluded that de-Broglie waves are a reality and are n,pt mere theOte'tical identities.
In the allove .section We studied about the. reflected,beam from a sidgle crystal ,of nickel when energetic electrons are incident on it. We saw that the ~ of energetic electrons hav.e wave like properties ilnd these waves exhibit Bragg reflec!ions at the crystal planes.
(i) Crystal Structure: In our example one experiment was describeQ to prove ihe validity of de-Broglie relation [i.e. equation (30.5)}. ' However, tlUs experiment can be usedjo determine the crystal structure of any material replacing the Dickel crystal. lbis'~ an

30,5.3 Applications of de-Broglie W.ves

important application of de-Broglie waves.

(ii) Nelitro. Spertroseopy : You would agree that not pniy electrons but IIlI other particles would also show wave-like behavior. Another application of de-Broglje waves lies lit ~, IlU ofslow neulTOIIS obtained from nuclear reactors, to ilrwstiglll4 the IIIomic structure of solid. This kind of study is very 'useful at places wheie nuclear reactors have; beeri'instaIled

because this allows us to use the facility for some nOvel spec:tromlllry. Infact, this technique is now called ....troll spectrometrY. Aboul the uuclCarIeacto.r-OIi will study in tile cOming leSSPns.
(lU) EiectroD MicI'olcoP: From equation (30J I) with a particular kinetic eneIlY is givcin by

we Can _ that the velOcity of electrons

v~2?
The momimtum of these eleclrODlJ ~s t1Iaefore.
p" (KE) The wavelength of the associated de -Broglie waves is given by.

""'d2m

(30.14)

1=.!!...=
p

h J2m(KE)
196

(30.1 S)

Photoelectric Effect and Matter Waves From equation (3'1.14) we find tliatvery small valuesofwavelength~be achieved by increasing the kinetic energy of the electrons. We know that the resolving power of an optical microscope depends upon the wavelength ofligbt used.Infact, the resolution increases . with decreasing wavelength. Can you guess wl13t would happen if a steam ofvery energetic electrons are used in a microscope instead of photons? Well, obviously you could obtain very high resolution and. oiagnificalion by lowering the de-Broglie wavelength associated with the electrons. This technique is used in electron microscopes. lbis is yet another useful application of de- Broglie waves. Example 30.2 : An electron is .accelerated through a potential difference of 182 V. How large is its associQted wavelength? .

We know ,A = Here V
=

12.3 A which is the expression for de-Broglie wavelength. V

182V 12.3 12.3 AO = =0.91 AO

:. A=

Ji82

13.5

Note : This is of the same order of magnitude as X-ray wavelengths. It is therefore c\pSI why electrons show diffraction effects similar to X-rays.

INTEXT QUE,STIONS 30.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.

State w~ther the following state1Mnt an trueor false. (a) According to de-Broglie. stationary partkle exhibit wave like characteristics. (b) Miltter waves are the same thing as de-Broglie waves. (c) V<iY poor. resolution can be obtained in a microscope using energetic electrons . by iowering the de-Broglie wavelengths associated with the electrons. A 50 g bat! rolls along a lable with a speed oj 20 cms'. How large is its associated wavelength? Given h = 6.625 \X Ur" Joule Second Hint, ..t ;.;

3. Why can.not we observe de.Broglill wavelengths.ofa big ball of size 0/ cricket ball? - -_ .................... _........................................................ .. ........"" ...... ................. ..

-----------------._.------------------------------------

--

---

... --

Example 30.3 :Calculate the maximum kinetic energy ofthe emittedphotoelectrons when light offreqlM!ncyf= 10"Hz i1 Incident on a Zinc plare. The work junction of zinc is 3.'"
eV.

SolutiOD : The above numerical is a direct application of Einstein' 5 relation hf=E.+K...

\97

In. this problem the various puametas Jike h./. E. have the

foIiowiDs vm-:

f = IO"Hz 19 E. = 3.4eV =3.4" f.602 ,,10 .joulea

From (30.17) _
get,

h ~ 6.625 " 10'" joule -sec

K.. =hf-!~..
-(6.625x 19-"x !OI'I(3_4x 1.602 x 10-")

= 6.625 " = 1.178 "

10" -5.447 " 10-" 10 10. JoUles .

Example 30.4: CalcJtUw 'Md.-Broglie watielagth ~widt.~_/taw ""en accelerated 'hrough 10 kf': .

r-

Solutio.: We know,
12.3

A.= - - A" Putting the value of V to be equal to 10 kV or 10' VM get,

. 12.3 12.3
= - =0.123 A

JY

.fi04
"
.

100

30.6 WJlAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

Emission of electrOas from metaI.1Wcm Iigbt ofproper ~ falls _it is called pootoemission; In photoemission. elecllOnlJ pill CIIeIK1' from ligbt wbeteas t!IeY pill CDC!IY fiom heat in thermionic emissiOD._ The stopping potential incr~ res with inaeasingincident HgIIt frequeDcy. . . . -' there . . a frequency f fix overy malerial,below which no'pbotoClectric effect . takes place. Ibe maximum velocity of the photoelectronS iDcreaseswith inaeasiDg frequency of (hI; incidentligkt but is independent of the intensity of the incident lisbt The number of photOelectrons -emitted from each sqlllnl centimeter of the emitting. surface for any particular frequency, is proportional to the intensity of~ident light. Einstein assumed light to consist of bundles of energy called photons, each of them having an cDe!'&Y of hf, wherelis the 6-equaICy 'and h is the Planck's constant. PhotOinissive type of phototube is based on the photoelectric effect. the saturation current of a pho~ iDcreases with increasing intensity of the incident light. Particles in motion hlive waves associated with them wi.th a wavelength given by hlp, where.p is the momentum and h is the Planck's constant.

msts

..

198

30.7 TtRMISALQUESTIONS
I. .In photo electric emission what hapPens.to the incident photons ?2. What is difference between a photon particle and a matter particle? 3. .Why is the wave natl/reof matter not apparent to our ~ observations ? 4. Wb8t is the eft'ect on the velocity ofpb.oicHlectroos. ifthe wavelength ofinc:ident light
is~'l

is 5 x 10" Hz , can. photon of wavelength 6000 N mtit on C1WIgetiC photo-electron ? .6.. .vbat is workfunction ofametal? Uoes it depend upon the temperature? 7. does the ~pping potential help indeleni1ining the work fwx:tion of the metal ? 8,- .Does the tIve8shold frequency for a metal depen4 on the incident radiatiQJlS"l9. \Vimtare the various uses of photocell ? 10.. What ~ ~e aim ofDavisson and Germets experiment ? 0 .. what principle does it depend? 1 L J;lxplain Why the-phpto electrons are not ej~ out oCa pbolo-sensitivemetal surface, by all photOnS what ever may be their energy ? 12.. What is the difference between photoelectric emi!lSionend Ihennonic emission. . i3; Describe an experimental setup for studying the photoelectric effect. . 14. Explain the following terms: <a) Sanll'liting v~ltage ; (b) Stopping potential. IS ..State the laws of photoelctric eniission, 16.. J)escribe the salient features ofEinstein's theory of photoelectric effect 17, Explain Einstein's reiation:

S. The 1hn:sbold frequency of a metal

How

.1(=E.+~.

18.Descll'be thtl. constructiOn of a photoelectric tube and outline its working. 19.. Calcul,ate the wavelength associated with electrons mov~wi1h a velocity v
10' mis.

Ix

(mass of electron =9.1 x 10 kg, h=6.6 x 10

..)1,

34

J.s).

20. pescribe 3n experiment which verifies the existence of de-Broglie wave" 21. :;ta,,, some appliCauon of d~Broglie Waves. .22. Show that tht.: de-:Broglie WI: 'clength assoclllted with electrons accelerated .thrOugh a pot:ntial. Y is given by the relation:

'A.

= .[V -A

12.3

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Intex Questions 30.1
I.

(a) False (b) False .

(c) False

199,

Physics

'" e kno":, hi'" E. + KE where p. is the energy required \0 remove .00 ettrun from the m e t a l . ' . Hereh
1(
=6.62S~10
f'
J+

2 '" 10 . J
x 10
.J.I

.,.

Js. /=6 ><10 Hz

J~

I~

E.

~6.62~

x 6 x 10 - 2 x 10 . J

I.

.It

=39,7~x 10'''' J = 1.9756 x 10

Intex Question 30.2
(I) (2)

2 x 10'" J

= 10'" (3.9756 - 2) J

.,.

.1= 1.98x 1Q-'9J

(i:) True (b) False <a> False (i) Reproduction of sound in films, . (ii)1tanSmisting pictures over great distances. (iii) Thieve detecting systems.

, Intex Question 30.3

I 2, (a) False (b)True
p=mvand A.

(c) True

= li.

3,

p . .., ., Here m =50g '" .05kg, v = 20 ems = 0.02 ms A. '" 6,6 x lo-"m. From equation 30.15 it is elear iCmass m is large, the value oCA. will be verj 1IIIlID,: ,Same is the case with cricket ball.

Terminal QuestiODJ
8. 7.25 A

.
~_t

<

,
(

200

31
NUCLEI AND RADIOACTIVITY

31.1

INTRODUCTION

You must have heard about the destructive powers of atom bombs. II) the second world war, two big cities of Japan - Hiroshima and Nagasaki were completely destroyed by the effects of only one atom bomb falling on each cities. Can you imagine that such large amount of energy was released by breaking of nuclei of atoms. The atoms arc: themsel.es microscop'ic while the nuclei of atoms are still smaller about hundred thousandth part (1/100,000) of the size o(an atom. Is it not surprising to know that such tiny masses have such large energies hidden in them? In an atom bomb. the breaking of the nuclei of atoms is a continuous, quick and' uncontrolled process and hence vast amount of energy is released sudd~nly in a fraction of a second and causes destruction. However, the scientists have found a technique to release this nuclear energy in a controlled manner and convert it into useful forms of energy like heat and . electricity etc.

The by-products of atom bomb and atomic reactors are also radioactive nuclei which emit

certain radiations. 1bese radiation can cause damage to human body. However. scientist
have discovered S<?me important uses of these radioactive sources of radiations. Do you know that the only available medical treatment of the fatal disease cancer is the exposure of the aff~cted part to the (gamma) radiations from radioactive cobalt -60? In agriculture also, the fruits and v~getables can be preserved for years after exposure to gamma radiations. Not only this. radioactivity has been used in de~rmining the age of old rocks and fossilS. Would it not be interesting to know more about such nuclei and the property of radioactivity? For this let us study this leS$Ol1.

31.2 OBJECfIVES
After ~tudying this lesson, you should be able to,

_determine the number ofprotons and neutrons in the nuclei ofdifferent a/oms: .. know about lhe nature ofthe nuclear forces; explain the mass defect and the binding energy; .. explain radioactivlty"q!Jd to distinguish between the three types ofradiations - i. e. a,I1 and r radiations. .. caicu/ate the holf life and average life and to measure lhe activity of a radiO(/clive element; and \ . _ explain the uses ofradioactivity in various /ields.

. Physics

31.3 ATOMIC NUCLEI

The discovery of the presence of positively charged nucleus containing protons inside the atom was made by Rutherford. It was later discovered by Chadwick (1932) that the nucleus also contains uncharged neutrons. Thus basic constituents of nucleus of every atom are protons and neutrons(except in the case ofhydrogen atom VIoirlch does not have any neutrons in its nucleus). Atoms of different elements are found to have different number of protons in their nuclei. It is this number which distinguishes one type of atom from the other. Each elements has been assigned a number - called atomic number according to which they are arranged in . the periodic table (for details of periodic table see chemistry book).
-The number ofprotons in the nucleus of an atom of an element is called the 'atomiC number' of that element. Atomic number is usually denoJed by capital letter Z. Thus hydrogen atom having only one proton in its. nucleus has Z = I; sodium is given atomic. number Z = 11 because it has 11 protons in its nucleus: No two different elements co hlWe the same atomic number. The protons and neutrons together are called by the single name nucleons as they are the only constituents of the nucleus,

The total mmibet ofnucleotts (i.e. the sum of the numbet of protonS and neutrons) in the nucleus of an atom of an element is called the mass number ofthat element. Mass number is usually denoted by capital letter A. Thus the mass n)ll1lberofLithium i_s.A = 7, because the nucleus of every Lithium atom contains 3 protons and 4 neutrons i.e. a total of7 nucleoos. The different elements can have same mass number though they ~ay have different number of protons. For example, the mass number of some atoms of element Calcium (with Z = 20) and that of Argon a~oms (withZ= 18) isA = 40 each. Such pair of atoms having same mass number (A-value) are called lsobirs or IsolHlric (lao = equally; baric = heavy). Since Isobaric atoms belong to different elements (Le. with different Z - values), they show different chemical properties but may resemble in some of their physical properties.

31;3.1 Atomic Mass Unit (a.m.n.)

The mass of proton (mp) = 1836 times the mass of an elec1rOOtm~) or = 1836 mi and the mass of a neutron (mn) = 1840 me' . Since the mass of an electron is negligibly sm.a1I iIi comparison to the mass of a nucIeori, the Wbole-.mass of an atom is effectively due to the total mass of its nucleOns. But tiIeneutron is slightly heavier than the proton. It is, therefore, required to choose some average mass as the atomic mass unit or a standard mass-unit in terms of VIoirlch the masses of all atoms (and also that ofpfotons and neutrons) can be expressed. It is decided that the mass ofa carbon-atom containing equal numbers ofprotons andnculroDll in its nuclei (i.e. six-protons and six neutrons) with mass number 12, be taken equal to 12 atomic mass units. (Carbon is chosen because it is available everywhere on e8rthwithsame properties)..

202

Nuclei and Radioctivity

Thus. .value of one atomic mass unit is defined as the /f12th of the mass oj" carbon atom with Z = 6 and A = 12.
Known value o(the mass ofa carbon atom = 1.99267 x 10- 26 kg. Now. since, mass of a "arbon (A = 12) atom = 12 a.m.u. Therefore,

1 a.m.u. = 1112 x mass of one carbon atom with A = 12 = 1/12 x 1.99267 x 10-26 kg

I a.m.u. = 1.66 0565 x 10- 27 kg _ = 1.66 x 10-27 kg approximately. mass of a proton = mp = 1.67264 x 10-27 kg mass ofa neutron = mn = 1.67493 x 10-27 kg

On this scale of measurement of mass for subatomic particles, we have,

1.67264 x 10-27

m= p

1.660565 x 10-27

a.m.u.

i.e.
Similarly,

mp = 1.00727 a.m.u. mn ",

1.67493 x 10-27 1.660565 x 10-27 a.m.u.

i:e.

mn = 1.00865 a.m.u.

Clin you now e~ss the mass ofan electron (me = 9.1 x 10-31 kg) in a.m.u.? Since, we
will be using nuclear masses in a.m.u., therefore. it will be quite useful to know an energy - equivalent of .1 a.m.u., which can be round by using Einsleins mass-energy equivalence relation. Energy = mass x c2

Wh~ c is velocity oflight in vaCuum .

Therefore, 1 a.m.u. = 1.66 x 10-27 x (3 x 108)2

1".492 '" 10- 10Joule

. 1.492 x 10- 10 - - - - - M e V = 9 3 1 MeV 1.602 x 10- 13

31.3.1 Representation of an element by its atomic number and mass number

The elements are syinbolically represented by writing its atomic number (Z) as lower prefix,

8Iid the mass - number (Al as upper superfix with its chemical symbol. For example. sOdiwnhaving chemical symbol Na, atomic number Z = II and mass number A = 23 is symbolically represented as IINa" More generally any element with chemical symbol ;< . can .. be-->..d as X" .~I"'~~. Z

203

Ph~sic.

31.3.3 Isotopes and Isotones

It has been observed that some elements have the same atomic number but different mass '

number in their mass spectrograph studies. Such atams of the same element i.e. having same Z - value but different mass-numbers (i.e. different A-valuesl are called Isotopes. For example, hydrogen is found to have three, isotopic forms I H , I H2; and I H3 called as h:rdrogen, deuterium and tritium. Similarly _ chlorine has two Isotopes -17CI35 and l-rC1 7. Thus. Isotopes of an element are atoms which have the'same number of protons but different number ofneutrons. Isotopes have identical chemical properties since they have the same number of electrons (equal to the number of protons in the nuclei) and occupy the same place in the periodic table. (In Greek - Iso means same, topes m~ace). Few elements consisf of only one isotope; most are mixtures of isotopes. However. two different atoms (i.e. with different Z - values) can have same number of neutrons in their nuclei. These are called Isotones. For example, nuclei of IlNa23 and l2Mg24 atoms have 12 neutrons each.

"

7'he atom. of different elements having same number of neutrons In their nucl"l aN called Is%nes. '
Example 31.1: Mass ofa Boron atom (5BIO) Is 10.811 a.m.u. What is its mass In kB? Solutloa: Since I a.m.u. - 1.660565 " 10-27 kg Th~fore 10.811 a.m.u. "" 10.811x 1.660565 x 10-27 kg = 11.952368 x 10-27 kg Example 31.2: Find the number ofelectrons. protoltS, neutrons and nuci,oltS ilian atolli of element 91u2J8 ' Solutioa: This is symbol-for Uranium. Its atomic number Z =92; Mass number A =238 Therefore the number of protons =92 . The numlier of electrons = the number of protons =.92 , The tot~ number ofnucleoDS =238 =Sum of the no. of protons and neutrons. Therefore the number of neutrons = 238 - 92 = 146. Example 31.3: 'select the pairs ofIsotopes, Isobars and lsotones in the following list. tP11 ]JA117, I~J9, 1.sS;18, J:zGe76'loCttlO, J.sSe 76. tP/4 sOladoa : lsotopes- (Same Z - value) - are 6Cl2 and 6CI4 Isotones - [Same (A-Z) values]- are [13Al27 &; 14Si281'lgK39.&; 20C,4Oj Isobars- (same A values) - are )-130'" and "seio
'204

Nuclei and Radioc:tivity

INTEXT QUESTIONS 31.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I) Mala!, groups of the Isotopes. Isobars and Isotones from the following collection of different atoms ;
-16 .P '07 pl2 _~40 ~ L,7 76 76 3 40 7 J BU" . Br 11" 0- 111"- . Itt"'. 3 I 32Ge . 3.pe ~e 20Ca 4Be . Itt"', p14 '35 .P '06 . rJB '39 'HI N. '3 '7 11..24 2B ~7 0- 92!r Br 11" 8" 92!r . I 'll a- '/yfr 1l"'K . l.pl . l.,cl"' .
1.,cp5
2) . Fill in the. blanks :

Neut/'Onia - - - - - -- - --- - -- -- - - - - thanprotOll. The total number ofprotons and neutrons In atom ia called the- - - - -- - - - - number ofth4t atom. tii) The protons and neutrons together are called by the name - - - ~ - - - - - - - Iv~ The number ofneutJ'Ons In 1yfp7 ia =- --- ----- ----v) . The numherO/protons In ].ppB is = --- - __ - - - ---. vi) 7Wo atoms are said to belong to different elements iftheir - - - - - - - - - -numbers are dlff,,,nt. 3) Which numb,r cannot b, dIjfe"nt /11 two atoms of same elemellt - /1IQ8S lIumber. atomic number. neutron number? .......................................................... - ........ _ .--. ...... ............................... .
i)

ii)

The size of the nucleus is about 1O- 1S m which is about 10-S times the size of the atom. You have studied in the previous sections that tho nucleus accomodates similarly charged (positively) protons in a small apace. The similarly charged bodies repel oach other with a fONe which is inversely proportional to the square of the distanco between them. (Coulombian law in electrostatics). Thus very large repulsive force acting between the protons is not able to separate them ap8rt or push them out of the nucleus. The nucleus is stable in all atoms of all elements (except radio active elements). The question arises 'what is that force which keeps aI/ the protOIlS together In a small spac, ago/lISt such strong "pulsiVII Coulomblan forces?

31.4 NUCLEAR FORCES

Wiu it not be' ihteresting to guess abollt the reason of stability of nucleus and think about the inlmna1 forces acting between the nucleons with the help ofllur imagination? It is aSSllmed that the IUWlcons are kept bound together with chilracteristic nuclear forces which are IIltI'tICtIw III lIat_ and dominate over the repulsive Coulombian electrostatic forces. Since they do not pull the exterior (i.e. orbital) electrons into the nucleus, they are asSllmed,to be .IIon ,..",. f - operative within the nucleus only. Also since same forces_ operative between ~ the typoS of nucleons i.e. be it a pair of protons or a pair of neuIroDS or a pair consimna of I proton and a neutron, the nuclear forces are assumed not to depend IIpOD the charges. We CIIl now say that,

lOS

Physics

Nuclear forces"are one of the strongest attractive forces available in nature. They are short range forces operative within the nucleus only. They are charge indc;pendent forces.

Later studies regarding the'nature of nuclear forces have revealed following more information about them :

Nuclear forces have the property of saturation This means that in the nucleus, because of short 'range order of nuclear forces. anyone nucleon interacts with only a limited number of other nucleohs nearest to it. This is apparent from the fact that their binding energy is proportional to the mass number 'A' [i.e. binding energy per nucleon is nearly constant over a large J1U1ge of values of mass number. See Fig. (3 I. I) on page3!]. When a fresh nucleon is added to the nucleus. it interacts ~th a limited number of nearest nucleons, and so adds a constant amount ofthe bindihg energy. Therefore, the binding energy per nucll'on does not change wi~ a C~ang~ in th~ nUmber of nucleons.

31.4.1 Mass Defect

The mass of the. nucleus of an atom of any element is "always found to be less than the sum of the masses of its nucleons. This difference in mass is called 1tUISS.defect. For example, let us consider an atom denoted by ( ;XA). This has Z - protons and (A'-Z) neutrons inthe nucleus. Now let the mass of the nucleus be = M Also. the sum of the masses of the nucleons = Z "'P + (A-Z) "'u Therefore, Mass defect = Il m = {[Z''''P + (A-Z)"'u]- M} kg

31.4.2 Binding Energy of NucleoJls

The decrease in mass Il m (mass defect) of the nucleus, made of Z - protons and (AZ) neutrons, is converted into energy and is liberated. This much energy must be supplied to the compound nuCleus to break it into its constituent particles, hence it is called binding energy of the n u c l e u S . " " Binding Energy of the nucleons = Am r? Joules. Therefore, Binding Energy per nucleon B = Il m or

r?IA
Mj.r?
Joules per nucleon

[Zmp + (A - Z) mn B=
".

For Example. in the case of 6Cl2 Z= 6,A = 12, Therefore (A - Z) = 12 - 6 = 6

Also

M= 12 a.m.u.; (1 a.m.u. = 931.5 MeV)

Therefore, B

[6 mp + 6 mn - 12] x 931.5

MeV per nucleon

12

= 7.41474 MeV-pernucicon IUsing, mp = 1.00727 a.m.iL and mn = 1.00865 a.m.u.]

11, thus, suggests that on breaking the nucleus of any atom, this much energy can bereloased which can be used for various purposes. This is obtained in nuclear fission of a l!eavy atom like 92U235 about which you will stndy in the next lesson. This is the source of energy in an atom-bomb.

206

Nuclei and Radioctivity

The value of B is found to be increasing rapidly to about 8.8 MeV per nucleon as we move from Helium (A = 4) to Iron (A = 56); thereafter it remains practically constant over a large range upto A = 170 and then it is found to d~crease to about 7.6 MeV per nucleon for the heaviest nuclei 92 U238 . Figure (31.1) shows the variation of B with A (mass number).
9
8 I ,He'

'"
II

Tii
'

~
..,J<r"2
sB'O

02lf'" ,

Pd"

1\
nI PT'98

~
~

....

."

::J

5 !!...:, ,u"

Q.

~ i

>- 4

3 2
1

~.

'-2~.

.... ,H,~
20

40

60

80

100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

Mass number

Fig. 31.1: The variallon o/binding energy per " ..cleon with mass number

The light nuclei with A < 20 are the least stable. For example, the value of B for hea1 hydrOge~_uH2) is only l.l MeV per nucleon. The subsidiary peaks occurring at 2He , 6C I2. 80 (even-even nuclei i.e. nuclei ba~ even number of protons and even number of neutrons). indicate that these nuclei are more stable than their immediate neighbours.

31.4.3 Nuclear Radius

The radius of the nuCleus is found to depend upon the mass, which in tum depends on the total number of nucleons, or the mass nwhber (A). The radii (r) of most of the nuclei are fairly represented by . r = r 0 (A) 1/3 . 15 where, r 0 is an empirical constant = 1.2 x 10- m - the same for all nuclei. Since the .volume of a nucleus is proportional to A. (or the total mass), therefore, the mass per unit ;volume (AI,3 =ro -3) is the same fot all the nuclei, i.e. all nuclei have approximately the same density which is of the order of2.4 )( 10 17 kg m-3 (i.e. 240 million metric tonnes per c.c.)

INTEXT QUESTIONS 31. 2 - - - - - - - - -_ _

I). What are lhe chiuaclerisricfeatilres ofnuclear forces?

2)

~",,;;s; ~jlhe ~",;:(~;; ~i;i/i ;;;;~ is6.015i'j ~~,;" ~/IPhaJ is lhe radius oflllB nucleus ofalom of lie ? IHintr = roA1I3; TO = 1.2x.Ur1Sm] _...... - '" '" '" "' ................................... .. -_ ........

c;;cu/;;;;,; ~; 'dej;c; ;;;'d

m,. = 1.008665
..
.......

also lhe binding energy per nucleon. Given. mp = 1.007276 a.m.u.; a.m.u..and 1 a.m.u. =931 MeV
3)

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - B- - - - - - - - - - - - - - _. - - - - - --

-_

",

................ -

.......... ..

207

Physics
(

31.5 RADIO ACTiVITY

What is the age of our earth? How do the geologists estimate the age of rocks and fossils ("md Juring excavlltions? What is radio-therapy which is used tOlreat a cancer patient? rhe answers to all these interesting and useful questions can be found if you study about radioactivity.

31.5.1 Discovery of the Radioactivity

The discovery of radioactivity was purely accidental. The story of its discovery is quite interesting. In 1896. the French physicist A.H. Becqueral was working on the phenome.lon urtluorescence. This is the property of certain substanc,es to transform ultraviolet radiation that tails on them into visible light. In one of the drawers.of his desk. Becqueral kept a , collection of various minerals. besides several unopened boxes of photographic plates. Somehow. the collection of materials remained untouched for a considerable period of time, One day Becqueral used one of the boxes of photographic plates in order to photograph something. When he developed the plate. he was disappointed to find that they were badly fogged as if previously exposed to light. He tried the other boxes of photographic plates and found them also to be in the same poor condition. He was puzzled to understand this hecause all the boxes were sealed and the plates inside were wrapped With thick black paper. Being confused. Becqueral. investigated the situation. He found that uranium ore placed in his drawer had the ability to fog photographic plates through a thick cardboard box and a Ift)'cr of black paper. So he concluded that there must be a new type of radiation originating from uranium ore. Becqueral found that these rays. like X-rays pass through many opaque, substances. 1bereafter.these rays were known as Becqueral rays. Thus the new phenomenon called radioactivity was discovered. The ele:nents exhibiting this phenomena were called radioactive elements. Soon after this discovery it was found that thourium also emitted these rays. In 1898. the Polish-born Madame Marie Curie alongwith her husband Pierre Cqrie (French Physicist) isolated an element from uranium ore by a painstaking method known as chemical Iractioning. This new element which is million times richer in the mysterious rays' than uranium was given the name Radium. Another radioactive element discovered by Madam Curie was even more active than radium and she named it polonium in honoUr of her native country.
In 1899. Lord Ernest Rutherford a British physicist. analysed the Becqueral rays. emitted by the radioactive elements. He found that in every case. the atoms of these radioactive element contained two different kinds of rays.

TM nuclei of atom contains positively charged protons which repel each other strongly due to electrostatic repulsion. To overcome this repulsion. nature has added neutrons to increase the nuclear force and make the nuclei stable. But in cUe of nuclei with higher atomic nuJllber this electrostatic repulsion is so strong that in some casei even the addition of neutron is not able to keep the nucleus ltable. To achieve the state stability. the heavy nuclei disintegrate spontaneously by emitting excess positive charge or excess mass by a and ~ particles along with y rays as shown fig. 31.2

208

Nuctei and lWIioctlvity

/

This prOCGS ofemission of (l particle or p piR1Icle followed by 'y - ray emission from " IUldflllS In the grolUld Slllte by itself is CI!lIkd

radio<lctivil:y or "lIIural radiolJctivil:y. This type of tendency of emission can also be induced in the nucleus artificially by irradiatingthe stable nuclei with neutrons or particles etc. It is .then called tu1ijiciol radio-activil:y.
The characteristic features ofthis phenomenon are that it is spontanl:lous and in the case of (l or 13 emission, a new nucleus belonging to a new element

-4
Fill.

is formed. Thus one element gets converted into another eleMent by radioactivity. This is thus III nuclear disintegration phenomenon. Let us study in details about a 13. and Y radiations.

31.', Emission of a; Po and r

NdioJicm

(i) a" Partieles a - Particles have been found to be a helium nuclei (2He4)++ consisting of Ii group of 2 protons (having two units ofpositive clwges) and 2 neutrons. Further studies of a particles . have revealed following properties : Being charged particles they get deflected in electric and magnetic fields. They produce fluorescence in substances !ike zinc sulphide and barium platino cyanide; affect a photographic plate; can induce radio-activity in certain elements and produce nuclear reactions.. They have great ionizing power. A siDgle particle in its journey through a gas can ionize thouaands of gas atoms before being absorbed. They have little penetration power through solid substance. and get scattered by thin . foils of metals. They can be stopped by 0.02 mm thick alnminnmsheet. The eneigy of the particles emitted from a radioactive element is a characteristic ofthe emitlingnucleus andranges from 4.19 MeV to 6.78 MeV. This corresponds to a variation in velocity from 1.4)( 107 ms-! to.2.05 )( 10' ms-I. . Depending upon their initial kinetic energies their range of normaIpi'essure in air varies from 3 cm to 8 em.
.(ii) Ii Particles

--------------"!'""---------'209 .

They have been identified as electrons. Though the elections are not present initially inside the nucleus. they are supposed to be created by the decay of a neutron into a proton and an electron inside the nucliius. That electron is emitted as a particle. Further studies of 13 particles have revealed following properties. ' Being negatively charged. they get deflected by electric and magnetic fields. They produce fluorescence in fluorescent materials like zinc-sulphide and b~rium platinocyanide; affcctphotographic plates. They aI59 have ionizing power of gas atoms but much smaller than those of a r~:1ic1e~ They can pass through few mm pf aluminium sheets. They are about 100 tin .. '. n 'n' penetrating than a particles.. Theiraverage energies vary between 2 MeV to 3 MeV. Due to theirsmsllm; .s, their velocities vary in a large range from 0.33 c to 0.998 c. where c z velocity ot light.

13 Particles have been found to possess unit negative charge:

Physi~s

(iii) y-rays

y-rays are electro-magnetic waves of high frequency and hence are also called high energy photons. These are characterized with the following properties : They do not get deflected by electric or magnetic fields. They travel with velocity of light in free space. They have highest penetration power (i.e. more than a and J3 particles) and can penetrate through several centimeters of iron and lead sheets. They have ionizing power but smalles ljS compared to a and J3 particles. They can produce fluoresceneem materials like willemite, affeet a photographic plate and can produce nuclear. reactions. They knock out electrons from the metal surfaces on which they fall and heat up the . surfaces. Hard y-rays (i.e. high energy y-rays) are used in radio therapy of cancer.

31.5.2 Laws of Radioactive Decay

Rutherford and Soddy togetherrliade an exhaustive study of the phenomenon ofradioactivity and summed up their conclusions in the form of following two laws tiamed as laws of radioactive decays:

(i) 1st Law or Disp\acemtnt Law

In any radioactive decay, spontaneous emission consista of either a singiea particle or a J3
particle but never both. The emission of an a particle from a .r8dioactive parent nucleus changes it into a new daughter nucleus (new element) with its atomic number decreased by two and its tnlJss. number decfllased by four. Also, the emission of a J3 particle changes the parent nucleus into a daughter nuc!eus with its atomic number increased by unity but its mass number remains unchanged. The emission of y-rays does not change the atomic number or the mass number ofthe parent nucleus and hence no newnucleus is furmed. The above statements can be summarized as follows :

In a nuclear disintegratiOn, the charge number (Z) and the mass number are always conserved. Since in a decay or Pdecay the position ofthe decayed nuclellS of aJom of tiny element gets d.isplaced by two backwards (in .case of.a decay) or by one forward (ur ciise of a . decay) in the periodic table ofelements, this law is named as disphzcement Illw. It-should
be remembered that a and J3 emission are always followed by y-emission. Thus, since a. particle = _2He4, and f3partic1e= _leO; we can. write followingnucJear equations for the a decay and f3 decay of any radioactive nucleus deI!0ted by ZXA ,. . ZXA a deca~

(0[. ,..,1idL)

2He4 + Z.2yA-4 + y; where Y is the daugbternucleus

,

ZXA f3~ _leO +v +Z+lyA +y; where y'isthe daugbterilucleus <zXA )' y-decu ZXA + y ~ted nucleus (y-rays)

210

Nuclei and Radioctivity

(ii) 2nd law or Law of Decay

The rafe <if disintegration is independent of externalliu:tors like temperature. pressure eiC. and.depends only on the law of chance. which states that the number o/radioactive oWms disintegrating per second is proportional to the number 0/ radioactive atoms presen, "' that instant 0/disintegration. This is called law 0/ decay or statistical law. Let N. = Initial nUJ]lber of radioactive atoms i.e. at t = 0 N = Number of radioactive atoms at time 'I'. If dN = Small number of atoms decayed in small time dt. i.e. N - dN = Number of radioactive atoms at time' t + dt' then. according to the law of decay Rate of decay = -{dNldt) or = AN Where, A = decaY,constant, which is characteristic of the radioactive element undergoing decay. A = (- dNldt)lN

Thus, decay constant ( A.) may be defmed as the ratio 0/ the instantaneous rate 0/ disintegration to the number o/radioactive atoms o/the parel1l ell!ment at that instant.
It is measured in units ofper second. The activity of a radioactive substance at any instant of time is measured by its rate of disintegration at that instant. Its practical unit has been named as Becquerel after 'Becquerel'. I Becquerel = I disintegration per second; Its another unit is Curie, after the name 6fMadam Curie, a pioneer worker in the field of artificial radioactivity, I Curie = 3.7 x 10 10 disintegrations per second. which is the rate of disintegration of radium (Ra) measured per second per gram. To honour the scientist "Rutherford n, the rate of disintegration i.e. activity is also sometimes measured in 'rutherford' (rd); where 1 rd = 106 disintegrations per second. The law of decay is sometimes expressed in exponential fonn and is also called as law of exponential decay. The expOnential form can be deduced as follows. According to law of decay, Since, - dNldt = AN. On solving it; we get N =N e->.!

N.

or it can be written in exponential form also, as given t>.=lciw

N=N. A exp (A-TII,)

which is the law of exponential decay.

The most important conclusion from this 'law is !hatNwill become zero only when
t.= <c. Thus, no radioactive parent element will disapperar completely even after very long time.

TN.!--!---"I....
I

TN.
OL-~T~m~----~2T~,.--~~m--,.-m~---

Fig. 31.3 : RDdioiu:tive decay co,...,.

211

Physics Figure (31.3) showS the shape of the N vers", t curve drawn on the law of exponential decay. The figure (31.3) shows that radioactive atoms of all elements having ditrerent values of 1... will take infinite time for, complete diSintegration of all their radioactive atoms, whate, er may be their initial number No' However, starting withlhe same N ,different radioactive elements will have different value o of N at the same instant due to different values oftheir decay constants ( I..s). They will th)lS show different rates of disintegration. This is determined'by their halflife (TIll) and average lives (Ta)'

31.5.3 Half Life Period (Tin)

"'.

The half life period (TId of any radioactive element is defined as the period (time) in which the number ofradioactive parent atom is reduced to halfofits original number. Since, N = N o exp (-I.. I); where N = N. at I =0 Therefore, by definition, at I = ,N = Ni2, This gives NI2=Nexp(-A1L ) D . 2 or exp (- -tTl) = 1/2

(>

or or

1..11 ,
1i ,

= log,2 =
10g,2

-r2.303 x log,;

= I.. = 2303 x 0.301M.

or

11 =0.693 2

1&

Thus,llalflife of any radioactive element is inveraely proportional to its decay constant (A) and is a characteristic property ofthe radioactive nucleus 'which cannot be altered by any method. For example, the half life of 6C14 (~oactive' carbon) is 5730 years. This means, that. 1 gram of 6Cl4 will be ,reduced to 0.5 gram in 5730 years, which will be further reducedlo 0.512 = 0.25 gram in another 5730 years i.e. ina total ofJ 1460 years.

,1.5.4, Average Life Period

(fa>

"

is defined as the sum of the tlJ:luaI Ufe periods of aN the radioactive atoms (which is
'Qerentf9r each atom) divided by their total number i.e.]
~ a =Sum of the actuallifcperiods of all the (N.) radioactive atoms/No Using integral calculus, it can be shown that 'Ta = 1/A =Reciprocal of decay constant ' It is also obvious that 1,; '= 0.693/A =0.693 Ta
2

J:umple 31.4: An animal fossil obtained in lhe Mohanjodaro - excavation shows an 'ivity of9 decay per minute,per gram ofcarbon. Estimate the age of th. Indus Valley . "iIi8ation., Given the activity ofcarbon (14) in living specim8n ofsimilar ll1!imalls IS
_caylperrrlinUle per gramlmd halflife ofcarbon (14}is S730yearl. '.

212

Nuclei and Radioclivilt'

.--------------------------~----Solution: Carbon (14) 1S the radioactive isotope of carbon. It remainS m fixed perc~lItag.c in !lie livmg species. However. on death, the percel)tage of carbon (14) starts decreasing due to radioactive decay. (The formation of carbon (14) takes place only in the Ii \ ing bodies to keep its percentage at constant level in the carbon content of the living body). Since -dNldt = AN = activity at time 't'. Therefore Activity at present/Original activity when the specimen was alive = NI No ~ <l.' 15 (given)

But Therefore, or or This gives. But

Till

N =N.. exp(-At) NIN = exp( -At) =exp(-At) 911S log(9/15) = - At or log (IS/9) = At

t = 11 A [log(lS/9)]

=0.693/A = 5730 years given.

I

Therefore 11 A = 573010.(13 Herice = 2.303 x S730/0.693 [log10 IS-lagIO 9] years = 2.303 x 5730/0.693 [1.l761-0.9542)years ",; 4225.IS years.

Thus, the specimen contairied carbon (14) - (the living carbon) 4225.15 years ago. Hence . Indus valley civilisation existed about 4225 years ago.

31.5.5 Applications of Radioactivity

Radioactivity fmds great many applications m our clay to day life. Some of them are as given below. . (i)

I" medical treatment for example m the treatinent of cancer by using a Cobalt-source
of y-rays called radiotherapy.

(ii) I" agriclllture-by exposing the seeds to controlled Yradiation to improve their quality. ji:uits and vegetables to radiations before their storage for saving them from decay. (iii) 1" geology in estimating the age of old fossils. The decay of single radioactive atom can be registered by an instrument ata remote location ontside a contairier, wall,. This high sensitivity is utilized in tracer-technique as an important research tool in medical . diagnostics, like deleCtion of Ulcer in any part of the body by mjecting radioactIve atoms of harmless elements'( 11 Na24) m very small amounts into theb04Y of the patient, whose movement can then be recorded. The affected part absorbs the. radiOactive atoms whose motion is, therefore, stopped and the diseased part of the body is easily located before operation. (iv) 1" iltdll$tria the y-radiations are used to find the flow or imperfections in the inner structure of solid iron girders. For example, ifthere is an air bubble inSide. then penetration of y-rays will be more at that point. The most important of these is the

carbo" dating.
Carboa dating. .
The normal activity ofliving carbon containing matter is found to be about 15 'decays per minute for every gram ofcarbon. This activity arises from the smaJJ proportion ofradioactive carbon (14) isOtope present m the atmosphere with the ordi'lllty carbon (12). This isotop~

213

Physics

(C 14) is taken by plants fi:.om atmosphere and in consequence in animals that eat the plants. Thus, aboUt one part in 108 is radioactive in carbon present in ail living being (all animals and plants). When the organism is dead, its interaction with the atmosphere (i.e. absorption, which maintains the-above equilibrium activity) ceases and its activity begins to thll from the brown halflife (= 5730 years) ofCI4 and the measured activity, the age of the specimen can be approximately estimated. This is called carbon-dllling and is the principle of determining age of old fossils by archeologists. The same technique has been nsed in estimating the age of earth from measurements of relative amounts of U238 and pt,206 in geological specimens containing Uranium ore. Assumthat the specimen ofore contained only Uraninm and no lead at the time of birth of the earth with the passage oftime uranium decayed into lead. T!:: present age of the earth has tieen estimated to be about 4 billion years.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 31.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.,..--_ _

I. How can you say that radioactivity is a nuclear disintegration phenomenon? Compare the ionizing power, penetration power of a, Pand r - radiations.
.----------------------------------------------------~

2.
3.

Appfythe law ofconservation ofcharge and mass numbers to find the values t;Jfa, and b in the following decay - equations.
i)

----.-------------.------------.--------------------.

~~
4.

__

~=2He'+ay6+r

~_=--!:~_ ~~_a~_+_~ ________________________________ _

The halflife ofa radioactive substance is 5 years. In how much time 10 gramS ofthis substance will reduce to 2.5 grams?

31.6 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

The ~ntral hard core of about 10" 1~m radius,of the atom is called its nuCleus. The nucleus contains nucleons i.e. positively charged protons and Uncharged neutrons. The number of proton.s inside the nuCleus of an atom of any element is called the atomic number ofthat element (Z). Dift"enmt elements have different number ofprotons in their mM:lei. . The sum of the number of protons and ~ns in any nucleus of an atmn is called its mass number. ;.

,.

The atoms with same atomic i1umbc;r but different mass numbers are called is!JtOpes of 4;IICh other .; The atOms with same mass number but different atOmic numbers are called isobars of . each other. . The &toms 'with Same number ofnemrons are called isotones ofeach other. The mM:leons inside the mM:leus ofevery atom are bbundcd togeIher by SIroDgattractive mM:lcar forces which are short I'IIIIgC and charge ~ . The mass of the atom is found to be always less than the sum of tbtrmasses of its nucleons. This cIi1ference in mass is called mass-defect (A m) which gets converted .into binding energy in accordanco to Einstein's mss-cnergy equivalence formula. The size (volume) of the nucleus depends upon the total mass of the nUCleons.' . The spontaneous emission of a particle 01' pparticle followed by y-emission from any nucleus is called radioactivity. The a particles have been ideDlified as helium nuclel while p paiticles have been jc!cqifled as fast moviDg electroJIs. The y-rays are electromagnetic waves of extremely short wave leogtb.

214

Nuclei and Radioctivity

Accru:ding to 1st law ofradioactive decay in a nuclear disintegration, the cbargenumber and mass numbers are always conserved. According to'2nd law of radioactive decay - the number of radioactive stolOS' disintegratingper second is proportional to the number of radioactive atoms presattat that instant. The balf life period of. a radioactive element is the time in which the '!lumber of radioactive atoms reduces to balf of its original number. The average life period of a radioactive element is the average life time of all the radioactive atoms taken together. The law of exponential decay is N = N. e'" The radioactivity finds varied applications in medicine, engineering, agriculture ant! geology etc. .

31.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

I. What happens to the average life ofthe radio-active sample, when itS mass decreases ?l

Whatis difference between isotopes and isobars? Explain the characteristics of binding energy pernucleon versus mass num!ler curve. What is the nature of nuclear forces? Give their characteristics. Explain how decay constant is related to balf half and average life. of a radio!lCtive element? 6. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. i) The atoms having the same number of neutrons in 'their nuclei'are ciIlIed---. ii) ---~-------------forces are one ofthe strongest attractive forces available in nature. iii) The mass of an atom is slighily -----~--than the sum of masses of the nucleons in its nucleus. iv) The radius of the nucleus is proportional to - - - - power ofits mass number. 7. .Defme the following terms : .. (i) Atomic number; (ii) Mass number; (iii) Mass defect; (iv) Binding energy ofnucleons (v) Half life period; (vi) Average life period; (vii) Decay constant 8. Differentiate between the following: . i) Isotopes and Isobars ii) a. particles and helium atom iii) ~-particle and electron. 9. State the laws of radioactive decay. '\0. What is carbon dating? What is its importance? II. Find the number of neutrons;protons and electrons in the following atoms. .(i)1 INa23 ; (ii) IH2.; (iii) 92U238; (iv) 1.,<:135 . .12. Calculate the mass defect and total binding energy of the nucleons for the following nuclei of atoms of different elements. (i) 2He4; (Ii) 3Li7; (iii) 7N 14 Given; 1 amu = 1.660566 x 10-27 kg =931 MeV, Mass oCa proton = 1.007276 amu. Mass of a neutron = 1.008665 .;m.n., Mass of 2He4 atom.'" 4.00260 a.m.n. .. Mass of3Li7 atom =7.01601 a.m.u, Mass of 7NI4 atom = 14.00307 a.m.n. 13. Using the ixesern day abundance of the two main Uranium isotopes and assuming that the abundance fmo could never have been greater than unity, estimate the maximum possible age of the earth's crust Given that the present day ratio ofU23~ and U235 is 137.8: 1; Halflife periods ofU238 is =4.5 x 109 year; and ofU235 is 7.13 x lQII years.
,

2. 3. 4. 5.

215

14. Calculate the weight ofRaB (p\)214)showillgthe radioactivity oft Curie. Thebalflif" of RaB is 26.S minutes. 15. If the activity of a radioactive sample drops to 1/16th ofits initial valUe in I hr. and 20 min. What is its halflife? . 16. Calculate the weight in gram of one curie ofPb214 from its half life of26.8 minute. (Hint: I Curie ofP))2,14 - means that number ofP~14 ~bas rate of disintegration as I Curie. Avagodro's NumberN=6.i2 x l023atoma).

CHECKY01JR' ANSWERS
lntext Questions 31.1
II
Isotopes 6CI2 and6C14

" '
Isobars 32Ge76 & 34Se16 18AIl0 & 20Ca40 32Ge76 & 34Se76 Isotones

IH2&2~
6C14 & 8016

IHi, IH2& IH3

8016, SOl8 l7CI3S & l7CI37 82Pb206 & 82Pb207
92U235 & 92 U239

II Na23 & I2Mg24

13Al27 &; 14Si28

IH3 &2He3

3Li7 &4Be7

2) (i) heavier; (ii) mass; (iii) nucleons; (iv) 14; (v) 14; (vi) atomic. 3) Atomic number.

Intext Question 31.2

I ) Attractive, short range,.str6ngest charge independent, mass independent,spin dependent. 2) &n = 1.041358 a.m.u.; 969.5 Mev. 3) 2.4 x 10- 15 m.
lntext QueStions 31.3 I. Nuclear disintegration usually involves a emission or 13 emission which results in the change of atomic number of the parent eleQ1ent. This shows that there is a change in the number of protons of the atom which are present in the nucleus only. Hence this is a nuclear disintegration phenomenolL 2. Ionizing power of .

P~tion power

a>13 >y

ot

1;1<I3<y
3. i) Q=,Z-2andb=A-4 ii) Q=Z+ I andb=A .. 4. Two half life times are required- one for reduction from 10 to 5 IJI'8IIIS and the other from 5 to 2.5 grams i.e. 2 TII2 = 10 years. . Terminal Questions 13.6 x 10'rears 14.3.1 xlO g 15.20 min 16. 30.52 xIO" g

32
NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION

32.1 INTRODUCfION
You know that the sun is continuously emitting an enonnous amount of energy. It has been doing it for the last several billions of years and will continue to do so for billions of years to come. The source of this huge amount of energy emitted by the sun has ever puzzled human mind. On August 6. t 945 an atomic bomb was exploded over Hiroshima, a large city of Japan. This explosion destroyed almost the entire city completely in a span of few seconds and lacs oflives. were lost. It released an energy equivalent to that released by the explosion of a 20.000 ton 1NT(tri nitro tolue~ bomb. Much more powerful hydrogen bombs have been 'Dade whose'destructive power is equivalent to several Mega tons of1NT. America, Russia and China have stockpiled large number of such bombs. The destructive power of their stoc~ is so enonnous that they can destroy the entire earth several times over. The source of such colossal amount of energy are nuclear fission and fusion ptocesses. The nuclear energy can also be used for production of cheaper electricity, which will improve the quality of human life. It will be interesting to know that the fission of I gm. ofUraruum can supply t Mega Watt of power for 24 hours. where as a conventional thennal powetpIant will have to burn approximately 3 tons of coal for the production of this much electricity. In this lesson we will learn about the Nl,IClear Fission and Nuclear Fusion.

32.2 OBJECfIVES
After studying this lesson, you si)ould be able to

dtfferfntiate between chemical and nuclear reactions; state the conservation laws as applied to nuclear and chemical reactions; write and ~ance nriclear If/tICtlon eqllallon; explain t~ critical nlflSS offissile material; explain nuclear c.hain reaction; explain IDIcontrolled and controlled nuclear fission; explain moderator and ilsfonclion;. explain construction.and working ofa nuclear reactor; and explain the production ofenergy in stars;

Physics

32.3 CHEMICAL AND NUCLEAR REACTIONS

(l) ClJemical Reaction We Know that all substances are made up ofatoms. These have suitable number ofelectrons whicb 31'e arranged in different orbits so as to possess the minimum potential energy. The outennllst electrons in the atom are called valence eleclfOns. The atoms combine with other atoms or molecules (a gr9llP of atoms) and rearrange their . valence electrons to furtber reduce their P.E. This change in P.E. is given out

This process of interaction of atoms. and molecules in w"iell t"eu VtJIllftce electrons rearrange to form a new compound molecule with the release or absorption ofenergy is coHed chemical reactioll.ln this process the nucleus is nOt atall affected. Even thee/eclrons in the inner orbits remain unaffected.
For example, the carbon atom reacts with oxygen as shown below by a chemical equation.
C+~ ~C02 +4.08 eV

(32.1)

In this chemical reaction 4.08 e Venergy is releasedfor eaell reactilJg C atom. It is called the binding energy (B.E.) of CO, molecule. Such reactions in which energy is given out are called exothermic reactions.
This reaction can also be made to proceed in the reverse direction, if 4.08 eV of energy the B.E. ofC~ molecule, is given to C~ under suitable conditions. The C02 molecule will break up into its constituents according to the following equation. C02 + 4.08 eV~C + 02 (32.2) Such reactions, which take place only when energy is supplied from outside are called endothermic reactions. As shown in equation (32.1), 4.08 eV energy leaves the system to formC~ gas. Therefore, mass of CCz molecule will be less than the total m .... of C and 02 by mass equivalent of 4.08 eV. Therefore, the loss of mass Am is 4.08 x 1.602 x 10- 19 LIm = - - - - - , - - 7.26 x 10-36 kg 9 x 10 16

(32.3)

Such a small change in mass can not be detected, hence we say that the mass is conserved in chemical reactions, though change of mass dO!'S ~ur. Alcohol undergoes chemical reaction with oxygen according to chemical equation given below. . C,H.o+30, -+ 3H",O+2CO, + 14.17 eV

(324)

.2.18

SIlUCIUre of Atom

Here we see that 14.17 eV of energy is released per molecule of alcohol. The important points to be noted in chemical reactions are
i) iiJ

iii)

Energy ofthe order of 10 e V is involved in these reactions. The energies ofthis order res~/t in the change ofmass ofthe order of 10'" kg. which is extre1ll1lly sma/I and can not be detected. Hence we say that mass is conse"rved in chemical reactions. The total number ofatoms ofeach type on the left hond side ofthe chemical eqllQ/ion is alway.. equal to the total number ofatoms ofeach type on right hand side.

(2) Nuclear Reactions

In nuclear reactions, it is the nuclei of the reactants which interact with each other and not t1te electrons. They result in the formation of new elements. So, they are also called the lTansmutation of nuclei. In these reactions energies of the order of MeV are involved.

Wt: know that atomic nucleus carry the entire positive charge of the atom. It is confin~ in an extremely small space. Hence the nucleus is surrounded by a strong electrostatic potential b;irrier also called the coulomb barrier as shown in fig (32.1). The coulomb barrier is about 3 MeV in height for carbon nuclei and 20 MeV for lead nuclei.

vt /

)=.
I

I _ _ p_n potential
'C

energy

V==O-==-=- - - - - - - ,

- - - - - - .... - -

"'neutron potential

,
L __ ........

,
_I

nucleus

Fig. 32.1 : Proton and neutron potential energy near a nucleus.

Evidently, a charged projectile aimed at a nucleus is repelled back strongly by the coulom.b barrier of the target nucleus. If the kinetic energy of projectile is not strong enough 10 cross over the barrier, it will come. back with out producing any nuclear reaction. For a proton to enter the carbon nucleus and produce transmutation, it's energy should be 3 MeV or more. It is because of the large amount of energy involved in nuclear reactions that we do not observe these reactions in everyday life at ordinary temperatures and pressures. The phenomenon of nudear trlllfSmUlation or nuclear reaction was discovered by Lord Rutherford in the year 1919. He was the first person to transform nitrogen into oxygen in the laboratory.. He bombarded nitrogen gas with.high energy tt- particles obtained from a
radioactive ;ource. In this process new part,Cles which were more penetrating tnan
t6e~incident ci- particles were produced. These were established to be IUgb energy protons. ThelTansmutation is sho~ by the symbolic ~uation given below.
-

~---~--

(32.5)

219

Phyoics

In this equation we see that the nuclei of two elements helium and nitrogen react to fonn oxygen and hydrogen nuclei. 1be energy Ql of incident a" particles was 7.7 MeV, 1be energy (h released in reaction was 6.5 MeV which was carried away by 0 and H nuclei.
Clearly this reaction required 1.2 MeV energy to be supplied from outside to take place. Therefore. it was an endothermic nuclear reaction. Exothermic nuclear reactions also take place. For example when aluminum is bombarded by energetic alpha particies from radioactIve source . The following nuclear reaction laKes place and Iii.:; Me V energy Isreieased. "" (32.6) Here we sec that more energy is released than the input energy hence it is an exOthermic reaction. There is a gain of nearly 3 MeV energy per reaction which is approximately 700,000 times the energy released in burning of one carbon atom. But this reaction can't be used for production of energy because out of 115,000 incident alpha particles only one succeeds in producing the reaction. Hence on the whole there is much more energy spent than produced. Nuclear reaction ean also be produced by protons, deuterons and neutrons. Out of these

" neutrons are the best projectiles for producing nuclear reactions because they are neutrnl particles and they don't hove toface the coulombian potential barrier. Hence,even(hermal
neutrons can enter the larget nucleus and produce nuclear reaction. Some of the examples of nuclear reactions produced by these particles are given below. 3Li6 + lHI ~"2He3 + 2He4 5810 + IH2 5810 +

(32.7) (32.8) (32.9)

-+ 32Ht4 -+ 3Li7 + 2He4

on l

Nuclear reactions also follow ecrtain conservation laws {ike chemical reactions. which arC given below.

The conservation laws for the nudar reactions are

J.

2. 3.

4.

The sum of the maJlS numbers of the reactants is a1wQ)<J equal to the sum of mass numbers ofthe products. Refer eqlllllion (32.7) above, we 'see that 6 + I =4 + 3. The sum ofatomic numbers ofthe reactants is always equal to the sum of atomic numbers ofthe products. Refereqlllllion (j2.7) above, we see that 3 + I ="2 + 2. Nuclear reactions follow the laW ofconservation of energy. We know that _ is also a form ofenergy, therefore the sum ofiIIput kinetic energy pillS the II/QSS ofthe reactants is equal to the output kinetic energy pillS the mass ofthe products." Nuclear reactions al.ro follow the law ofconservation ofmom,enrum. which results in the distribution of kinetic energy among variOIlS product nuclei.

220

SInII:Iure of Atom

Now, try to solve the foDowing questions.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 32.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

/; Complete thejollowing nuclear reaction equations aj fJFl9 + lHJ b) JjAJ27 + (jill c) 90rJi234
d) ]~u63 +
~ ~ ~

p6

+ ? ? + 2He4. 9JPa234 +.

Jo2

3oZn64 + ?

2.

Calculate the energy released in the nuclear reaction given below.

Given tl;.]l nuclear masses of; Boron = 10.01294 amu; Deuterium = 2.014103 amu, and Helium = 4.002604 amu 3. 7N14 nucleus On bolitbardingwith alpha particle produces sOl7. Write the reaction equation. andfind the e1!Brgy released. Given that: Nitrogen mass- = 14. 003014 amu; Oxygen mass = 16.999138 amu; Helium mass = 4:002604 amu; Hydrogen mass = 1.007825 amu, and Energy of a particle = 7.7 MeV.
----~------------------------------------------------- --.

32.4 NUCLEAR FISSION

In the year 1938. Enrico Fenni. Otto Hahn and others itradiated uranium nuclei with neutrons to produce transuranic elements having Z greater than 92, which do not occur in nature. The incident DeUIrons were captured by thC: uranium nuclei and the neutron protO!1 ratio increased in them. In reduceing Ibis ratio, it became /3 active. A neutron changed into a proton and a /3 particle with few MeV energy was released according to equation:
(32.10)

In this process a new transuranic element having atomic number 93 was preduced as
ex~.

: In the same year Otto Hahn. Meitner and Strassmann observed that sometimes elements of iniermediate mass numbers were also produced followed by the release of nearly 200 MeV ofenergy. They were astonisl1edto see the release of such a huge amount of energy. because in normal nuclear reaction few MeV energy is involved .. To ~ this observation they suggested that on absorbing a l!Cutroo, the uranium nucleus splitS up iDIo two parts of iDteImediate masses. And as the B.E. per nucleon of nuclei of intermedi.... masses is nearly 0.9 MeV more than that of heavy nuclei lilIe uranium. the energy releaaed eomes out to be nearly 200 MeV.

221

000

oo
time -)

.;:0 Qc()

00

Fig. 32.2: Nuclear flSs ion according to the liquid drop model

This process ofsplitting ofatomic nucleus into parts ofnearly eqlllll masses with the release of large amount of energy is called nuclear flS$ion.The nomenclature 'rlSSion' was adopted from biology where division of a living cell into two parts isca1led fission of a ceiL

""0

Mechanism of Nuclear Fission

In the year 1939 Bohr and Wheeler gave the mechanism of nuclear fission and said that it was the U235 isotope of uraniunl which had undergone fission by the!inaI neutrons as .. shown by .the nuclear reaction equation given below.
I

(32.11)
The neutrons emitted have energy in the range of I MeV and are caIledfast neutrons. The fast neutrons, because of their high velocities, stay in the vicinity of uranium nucleus for a . very short time. hence they are not as effective in producing fission ~ U235 1\11 thermal ~neutrons whose energy is .03 eV. Fast neutrons having energy in excess of LI MeV can .. .. however induce fission in U238 but to a very small extent. The equation above gives only one of the several possible modes of fission of uranium nucleus. Different pairs of nuclei of intermediate maSses are V:xiuced in fission ofU235 . The numbeiof neutrons emitted is also not always 3, sometimes it is less. The average number of neutrons produced per fission ofU235 is 2.3. Bohr and.others explained this process of nuclear fission with the heip of the liquid drop model of atomic nucleus. According to them, the atomic nucleus behaves like a liquid drop and has spherical shape. When a thermal neutron is captured by it, the RE. of this neutron, which is 6.8 MeV for U235, is released. This energy excites oscillations in the nucleus, which oscillates between spherical and dumb bell shape as shown in fig. (32.2). When the amplitude ofihese oscillations is large enough, the nuclear attraction, being short ranged, is reduced between the ends of the dumb bell. The repulsion between two positively charged ends of the dumb bell overcomes the weaklUfd nuclear attraction and results in fission of the nucleus.

A sllbstance which undergoes fISSion by therllUll Millrons I/ke U235 is CtIIIed a fissile material Other fissile materials are Th233, U 233 U239 and Pu239. All these !)ave oddeven nuclei (odd Mass No. and even Atomic No.).

>

<

222

Stnicture ofAIom

The energy released in the fiSsion of U235 can be calculated by finding the mass defect produced by fission of nucleus as fullows. From the mass tables we have Tabld2.1: Reactanls mass ofU235 mass orn l Products IIM= 140.9139'amu 8a 141 Kr92 = 91.8973 amu 3 x n1 = 3.025995 amu Total

= 235.0439 amu = 1.008665 amu

Total

=236.052565 amu

=235.837195,amu

Thus, mass defect Energy relC{lSCd

= .2154 amu = .2154" 931:: 200 MeV

32.4.1 Chain Reaetion

As we have seen above that when one neutron, called the parent neutron, is captured by U235 the nUJ:leus splits up into two parts with the release of more than two neutrons called the dtlughter ne/lJJ'ons. When the amount of uranium taken is smaIl, the daughter neutrons escape the sys~ and the reaction stop~ till another neutron from outside is captured. When the mass of fissile material is increased, some of the daughter neutrons fail to escape and induce fission. On increasing the mass still fuqber, a self sustained nuclear chain reaction

occurs. In II chain relICtion the number offissions produced by dtllllfhter ne/lJJ'ons in any generation is equal to or IlUJre than the number offISSions produced by parent ne/lJJ'ons in the previous generation. I The minimum IIIIlSS of II flSSUe nratuilll required to produce II self sustained chain reaction without any supply of ne/lJJ'ons from outside is called the critical mass. When the mass of fissile material is more ,than the critical mass such that 2 secondary neutrons
emitted by each nucleus undergoing fission induce fission in next generation, a rapidly growing chain reaction is prQduced. It is shown in fig. (32.3).

F~. 32,3 :

Nuclear Chain reaction

The rlllio ofthe nUmber ofdtllllfhter neutrons inducing fISSion in IIny generation to the numbu ofparent neutrons ilJprevious generation is...called 'neutron multiplication ratio I. If" < I. then the fission reaction dies away. If It = 1. then the fission reaction continues indefinitely at a c;onsiant power level. If It> I. then the reaCtion groWS exponentially till the
system explodes. The cfiain reaction can be controlled as well as un controlled:

223

Physic,

i) Controlled Chain Reaction In a controlled chain reaction multiplication ratio Ie is controlled by changing the number of daughter neutrons avmlable in any generation. In this case we can change the power level, keep it constant or stop the reaction as desired. 1ms is achieved in a nuclear reactor about which we will study below. ii) U neontrolled Chai" Reaction In an uncontrolled chain reaction the value of Ie is kept as much above one as possible. The reaction grows exponentially to the explosive level. It is achieved for making a nuclear bomb.

32.4.2 Nuclear Reactor

A nuclear reactor or atomic pile is a device to produce controlled chain reaction. The first nuclear reactor was made by E. Fermi at the l:1niversity of Chicago USA. Chain reaction was realized in it on Dec. 2. 1942.
conlrol rod.

It was a huge structure assembled from

rectangular blocks of extremely pure graphite. Large number of cylindrical rods of natural uranium encaSed in aluminum tUbes called fwl rods were inserted in the holes in structure in a element 00IItainm '. regular pattern as shown in fig.32.4. The graphite blocks slow down the fast secondary neutrons by collision and reduce their energy to Fig 3M: Urmriwn /1f1e 'IfCi#boIr bhJcla rued to J'TOduce plnt""iu", -]39 tmd thermal level between emis,sion and next 235 """.I' oil,.,.'vadio active atomic """lei collision with U to produce fis~on. It requires nearly 110 collisions with carbon nuclei to get slowed down to thermal level. The graphite used is called a moderator. A moderator Is a materilll used in a ftucletir rellCUll' to slow down the fast neutrons. Some cadmium rods were also inserted at diffetent points. These are called conlroi rods. Cadmium absorbs large number-of neutrons. When the rods are fulJy inserted they absorball neutrons and fission stops. When they are slowly pulled out the number of neutrons producing fission increases and we say the p,wer 'level of pile rises. When the required power level is reached the control rods are slowly inserted so that only one secondary neutron per atom undergoing fission is able to produce fission in e8clt.generation; Under this condition the fission will neither grow nor die. The pile runs at constant power level and emit huge amount of energy and radiation consisting of mainly neutrons and gamma rays. The whole assembly was enclosed by a thick concrete wall on all.sides to stop radiation from escaping the pile. The control rods and fuel rods are moved by remote control. Other substances used as moderator in later piles are heavy water and ordinary water. In India we produce heavy water at Nanga! in Panjab for use in pur reactors. Our first research reactor named APSRA was set up at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay. It used enriched uranium as a fuel and water as moderator. It was used for research purposes. Our second research reactor was Canada-India Reactor. It was also set up at Trombay. The\ other Indian Reactors at Tarapur, KalpakkaJ1l. KOla &: Narot'lI set tip for p()weJ" generation use heavy water as moderator.

224

Iatel:t questions 32. 2 ______________

I.
2.

_ __

In a nuclear fission i) Atomic nucleus breaks into two parts. ii) Proton breaks into two parts. iii) NeUlron breaks ;"to two parts. Iv) Electron breaks into two parts. 3. Select the fissile material
i) u238

------------------------------------------------------ ---

JIY1ry a u238 nucleus becomes p active qfter absorbing a neutron!

ii) JJtl41

iii)N39

Iv)

el2

4. 5.

6.

A_t ojenergy re/emed in a nuclearfission is i) I MeY ii) IOeY iii) 200MeY Iv) JOkeY 35 'nfission oju2 i) a particles are emitted Ii) pporticle:J are emitted iii) Protons are emitted Iv) Nuclei oj intmnediate _ are emitted Power level oja reactor is J watt.FInd the number oju235 nuclei lItldergoingjission
~rsecond.

7.

F~~;'; ;;;'~t ~i~jjc:~;;'; ~ ~~~ ~;,,~ ~;;,;;ai;';~. tons a/TNT. Given that J gm. 0/ TNT gives Jk cal. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. -....... - ............. - ...... - .............................. - .... - .. ..

;d,;;m "

32.5 NUCLEAR FUSION

Let usbave a look at the nuclear BElAtinding energy per nucleoJ98raph fig. 31.1 of the previous lesson once again. We observe that BElA of heavy nucleiis less than that of infermedlate mass nuclei by nearly 0.9 MeV/A. This difference provided the 200 MeV .e.ncrgy released in fission reaction. At the other end of this graph again we find a 1arge ditrmence in BElA .
The BElA of some light nuclei are given below.

Table 32.2 : BFJA of some miclei

Nucleus
H'
D'

MDs,inamu

BE in MeY

BElA MeV/A
0

1.007825 . 2.014103 3.016049

3.016029

0 2.22 8.482 7.718 28.295 31.991 39.244

1.11 2.127 2.573

T
He-'
He'

4.002603

Li'
Li'

6.015126 7.015982

1.074 5.332
6.541

225

,PhySics

From the difference in BElA we conclude that tremendous amount ofenergy can be released if medium weight nuclei are synthesized from lighter nuclei, One such example would. be

The total BE of reactants The Total BE of product

= BEl = 2 x 2.22 = 4.44 MeV

= BE2 = 28.295 MeV

Hence, Q=

(B~

- BEl)

_ 24MeV

Thus, we see 1hat energy released per nucleon in this reaction is 24/4 that is 6 MeV is nearly 7 times the energy released in nnclear fission.

which

But the ~offusion isnot that simple because both the deuterons are positively cbaIged. When we try to bring them together to fuse into one nucleus they MICI each other very strongly and the reaction is ordinarily impossible. To achieve this reaction the deuterons have to be heated to nearly IOmillion degree K so that they can collide with each other with suflicientkinetic energy to overcome the repulsion and get fused into a helium nucleus.
The fJI'OC#S offusing two light nuclei 10 form II hNVler IfllCkll$ witIr the nIeae of trenwulous IUlWIIIft ofenergy is CIIIJed the nuclear fusion or tIu!ntIoniicletu readioll.
The gaseous reactants can be.heated to such high temperatures eithei by nuclear fission or !>y passing very high electric Currtlnt discharge through the gas~ But the problem of maintaining this tCmpersture continuously and containing it has not yet been solved fully . ." The controlled thermonuclear reaction necessary for exploiting this source of energy has not been achiev~ so far. The research laboratories the world over are busy to tackle 1heSe

problems.

Almost inelChaustible IlmOUIIt ofdeuterium is present in the ocean. Ifthis process is harnessed our energy problem will be solved forever. We will get an endless supply ofcheap electiieity . without any pollution.

32.S.1 Energy in the Sun and Stars .

The stars like our sun are very uuissive objects. They have been continuously emitting tremendous amount of energy for the last billions of years. The mass equivalent of energy emitted by the sun is approximately 3 million tons per second. Such a huge amount of energy can't be obtained by tbe burning of conventional fuels like coal. Nuclear fission can aJSo not I the SO\IICCI of this energy because heavy elements do not exist on the sun in large quantity. The sunmainJy consists of hydrogen and helium

gases. Huge mass of 8lDl produces exlrelllely stroag gravitational field. The gravitational pill compI_ its cooSIituent gases to enormous pressure resulting in the rise of tempersture to millions ofdegrees K at its center. It has been estimated tiult the temperature at the \:enter

226

Structure of Atom

of sun is 20 million degree K. At such high temperatures and pressures thet'lllOllfIdear reaction sets in resulting in the release oflarge amount of energy Bethe proposed that fusion ofhydrogen into helium progresses through the Carbon-Nitrogen . 6C l2 + IHI ~ 7N13* ~ 6C13 + +le + Q 6 CI3 + IHI -+ 7NI4 + Q 7Nl4 + IHI -+ 8015* -+ 7NI5 + +Ie + Q 7NI5 + IHI -+ 8016* -+ 6C l2 + 2He4 + Q
Nuclei marked ' are in excited state.

cycle given below.

From these equations we see that 6C l2 atom which was used during the first reaction has . been regenerated in the last reaction of the C-N cycle. It acts only as a catalyst The net effect of the cycle is

The overall result of this cycle is fusing of four hydrogen nuclei into a helium nucleus with the release oflWo positrons and 26.8 MeV of energy. The tremendous amount 0/ energy reltased in the thermonuclear nuclear reaction is the source 0/ energy 0/ stan. The c-quantity of hydrogen in sun is sufficient to keep it shining for nearly 8 billion years. Bethe's C-N cycle does explain the enormous amount of energy emitted by the sun but this is not the only process going on there. Other possible thermonuclear nuclear processes must also be taking, there.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 32. 3, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ . /; 200 MeV enerf!ll is released onfissio;' 0/ one rJ35 nucleus & 26,8 Me V energy is released infUsion 0/ 4 protons. Which process releases more energy per 'Illil
mass?
"'''''''

-_ ... -- ................. -................... --_ .. --- -.................. --- -_ ......... -- .. _........ -_ .................. . .

----------------------------------------------------------Find the mass o/Tritium. ........................... ....................... ...... _ .............................. -_ ..................................................... . .

,
"''''''''''''

32.6 APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY

As you know the Energy released in nuclear fission ~d fussion is called nuclear energy. The amount of energy released in these processes is so enormous that even nature has used . this energy to provide eternal shine to stars. Man needs energy for all economic ,*"tivities in life. The amount of energy consumed per

227

Physics'

capita is a measure of advancement of a nation. The conventional soun:es of energy are depleting very fast and may exhaust completely in next 50 years. So the nuclear energy is the only important substitute for this imp<)rtant commodity. The nuclear energy can be employed both for const\'UCtive as as destructive purposes as any other boon of nature. We shall discusS both these applications.

wen

32.6.1 Peaceful Applications

One ofthe most important peaceful application ofthis energy is the generation ofelectricity for feeding the energy starved homes and industry of today. For this purpose the nuclear reactor deScribed earlier is modified to run at higher power level. In India 235 MW pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWR) are adopted for use at various Nuclear Power Plants. In these reactors natural uranium is used as a fuel and heavy water as moderator. The heat generated is extracted from the reactor by circulating either the low melting point metal like sodium or high bailing point hydrocarbon through the reactor core. The heated liquid is passed through a heat exchanger where it generates steam at high pressure. The steam is used to run steam turbines which are coupled to the electricalgenerators to produce electricity. The steam after running the turbines is condensed back to water by COQling i .. condenser and .re-circn1ated in the heat exchanger for continuous running of the generator as shown in fig. (32.5). One of the main advantage of nuclear power plant is that the fuelis not required to be Ted continuously like gas or coal in a thermal plant. It does not discharge smoke or mh in the atmosphere like the conventional power houses. On the other hand the fuel once loaded in a reactor runs for nearly 6 months at a stretch. Because of this property nuclear power plants have been used to power huge ships and submarines. They produce electrical energy at a much cheaper rate of nearly Rs. 0.70 P per kwh where as in a thermal power plant it costs more than Rs. 1 per kwh.

power reactor

Fig. 32.5: ScMmoticdi_ ofOIIB typo ofnuclOlU _ ' " p1_

228

Structure of Atom

The used fuel of a reactor is highly radioactive because a large number of radio isotopes including 94Pu239 are produced in it. India has developed its own facility to treal this used fuel and extract from it 94Pu293 and other radio isot'!!:.., which find wide application in agriculture, medicine, industry and research 94P';3 is a fissile material and is used as a fuel in making new reactors. The left over part of the used fuel is highly radio active and dangerous. To avoid its spreading in atmosphere and water sources, it is converted into glass and embedded deep in the earth. At present India has nuclear power plants at Kalpakkam, Kota, Narora and Tarapur. The fuel elements are prepared at Jadugoda in Orisa. The heavy water is also produced in oW" own country at various fertiliser plants. India has a plan to produce 10,000 MW nuclear power by the end of this century.

32.6.2 Destructive Applications

(i). Atom Bomb
,The making of an atom bomb is an example of the destructive,lIPplication of nuclear energy. During the times of world war- II the pressing need to make an atom bomb is responsible for the rapid development of nuclear energy technique which would have U-235 Target U235 Projectile otherwise taken a much longer time. An atom bomb is made of a very thick walled strong steel tubular vessel. The <I working of an atom bomb is based on nuclear fission reaction. Two sub critical pieces of a fissile material like Uranium - Large mass neutron source 235 or Plutonium -239 are fixed inside the tube at the two ends. A highly explosive material is filled behind one of the two Fig. 31,6: Adiagram ofsuggested atomic bomb mechanism pieces of the fissile material. A neutron source is fixed near the other piece as shown in fig.32.6. Normally the assembly is sub critical and no explosive nuclear fission can takes place. When we want to explode it, the explosive material is ignited. This explodes and the piece of fissile material on this side strike the other piece with an immense force and a block of super critical fissile material is formed. In this block the fission reaction starts which grows very rapidly in. an exponential manner. The container is very strong and it takes a few micro seconds to explode. During this time nearly one kilogram of fissile maierial undergoes fission thereby releasing a tremendous amount of energy and creating an immense explosion. For a few micro seconds center of the sun comes near the site of explosion and every thing bums. Due to the immense explosion a huge shock wave spreads which wipes out every thing in an area of few km radius around the center of explosion. Every thing around the center of explosion is irradiated with an immense flux of gamma rays, neutrons and particles of strongly radio active substances created during fission. Nothing is left to be killed ,or destroyed.

(0) Hydrogen Bomb

The:hydrogen bomb is another destructive application 9f nuclear energy. The working ofa hydrogen bomb is based upon nuclear fusion reaction. We know that nuclear fusion reaction can only be achieved if the reactants are heated to nearly 10 million degree K. Such a high
L

229

PhYSics

temperature is producl'd in an atomic explosion. Tnerefore an atomic explosion is exploil~ for making a hydrogen bomb.
An atomic bomb is made as described earlier. It is surrounded by a thick layer ofSQme substance like 'LiD' which contains heavy hydrogen' Dt;uterium. Then the whole assem,bly is enclosed in another strong bomb made of extremely strong steel. The atom bomb is .ignited from oulside by electrical device. TI1is' explosion raise the temperature of heavy hydrogen and other constituents of the covering layer of the alOm bomb to several million degrees k. At this temperature deuterium and lithium are fully ionized and get converted intO plasma. Their nuclei start hitting each others with immense kinetic energy and thereby; getting fused with each other as shown in the equalions below. . 102 + 102 ~ 2He4 + 24 MeV

102 + 3Li7 ~ 22He4 +

on l

+ 15 MeV

From the equations we see that tremendous amQllllt ofenergy is released in these reactions, Both these reactions and the fission reaction proceeds.at extremely fast rate and grow to full strength within a span of few micro~. The energy equiValent totliaf released OJ. the burning of I million Ton of TNT is produced resulting in an eXplosion oftremendoU$ intensity. TI1is type of bomb has vet)' large destructive power, but it is cleaner than the atomic (fission) bomb of same intensity. Thermonuclear bomb doesn't spread that much harmful radio activity in the swroiinding.

INTEX QUESTIONS -32.4 ..... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I.
2.

What is-lhe r e r ofreaclors l18edfor power genero1ion in our COII1Ih'y? What substances are used 10 extracI heat from reactor?

'3..
4.

------.----------------------------------------------- --_.. . ---.---------------------------------------------------.-

What type ofreaclors are lIlIedin Indiafor power generaJion ?

H~ -';':U:i;ijiH ;;;;e;~~fts;i~~ i,;. ~ ~';;i~ i:o""d, -;'in~i. ~;ie-;:';' :~;;;--"equivalent 10 20,000 tons of TNT. (Given lhat 1 gm of TNT gives out 1000 calorie ofheat).

~---~----------------------------------------------~---~~

3,2.7 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

. It is the valence electrons which take part in chemical reaction '1!Dd not the lIW;leus and the energy fuvolved in a chemical reaction is of the order or" 10" eV . . ., Total number ofatoms ofeach type onLHS ofa chemical equation E the total number ofatoms ofeach typeAl RHS ofthe equation. .Change ofmass in a chemical reaction is negligible. In a nuclear reaction the atoJiiic nuclei intenict and a DeW element is formed. The phenomenonoftrasmutation was discovered by Lord Rutherford in 1919. Energy involved in nuclear reaction is of the order of MeV. Bec_ the enefIY involved in a nuclClll' reaction is of the order of MeV 1JleII$III"Bble. change of mass takes place. The sum of atOmic numbers on LHS of a nuclear reaction equation z the sum of

230

SttucIure of Atom

o
o o
o

o o
o o

o o

o o o o

o
o o

o o o

o o
,0

o o
o

atomic numbers on RHS of equation. The sum of mass numbers on LHS of a nuclear reaction equation = the sum of mass numbers on RHS of equation. The splitting of heavy nuclei into two nearly equal parts is called nuclear fission and Energy involved in a fission reaction is _ 200 Me V . Transuranic element is produced when a heavy nucleus ahsorbs a neutron and emits J3 particle. BE of extra neutron absorbed by U'" nucleus IS released & excites oscillations in it. which result in fission. Energy of fast neutrons - I MeV and that of thennal neutrons is - .03 eV. Neutrons don't face coulombian repulsion while hitting a nucleus. On the average 2.3 neutrons are emitted on fission of U235 Fast neutrons pass through the neighbourhood ofU235 in a very short time therefore they fail to induce fission in it. Neutrons of energy> l.l MeV induce fission in U238. Substances that undergo fission are called fissile substaus. Th233, U233, U235, U239 & Pu239 are fissile materials. Chain reaction occurs when more than I daughter neutron induce fissiQn for each fission induced by a parent neutron in previous generation. Neutron multiplication ratio 'k' is equal to the ratio of number of neutrons inducing fission in a generation to the No. of neutrons which induced fission in previous generation. For a chain reaction to take place k> or = I . For a controlled chain reaction k = I. for an uncontrolled chain reaction k> I, and For an atomic explosion k I. Nuclear reactor is a device to produce controlled chain reaction. Moderator is the material which reduces the kinetic energy of fast neutron by collision. Carbon, water and heavy water are used as moderators. India's first research reactor at Trombay was 'APSRA'. In a nuclear fusion two light nuclei are fused into one. For producing nuclear fusion the reacting nuclei must be heated to nearly 20 million degree K to gain sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the coulombian potential barrier. In stars energy is produced by nuclear fusion reaction. In C-N cycle 4 H atoms fuse to form I He atom & emit 2 positrons + 26.8 MeV energy. C only acts as" catalyst. Mass equivalent of energy emitted per second by the sun is 3 million Tons per second. Amount ofH consumed in the sun is nearly 400 x \06 m Ton per second. Fusion reaction was started at the centre of the sun because of intense heating of gases due to immense compression under its own weight. Electrical energy generated in nuclear power plant is cheaper. Indian power reactors are PHWR' type They use heavy water as moderator and natural uranium as fuel. U238 in fuel changes into Pu239 which is as good a fissile material as uranium 235. From nuclear reactor's burnt fuel we get a large number of radio ~topes which find application in agriculture, medicine and industry. Heavy water is produced in our fertilizer plants. In an Atomic Bomb two sub-critical masses of fissile material are kept apart. For exploding it the two pieces are pressed against each other to make it super critical. On exploding an atomic bomb the temperature at its centre rises'to approximately 100 million degree K.

231

Pbysics The amount of U235 undergoing fission in a 20,000 Ton TNT capacity bomb is nearly I kg. The energy released by the first Hydrogen Bomb was equivalmt to that released by I Mega Ton of TNT.

32. 8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

I.

1:
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. II.

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

How does a nuclear reaction differ from a chemical reacnon ? What is the use of moderator and absorber in a fission reactor? On the basis of BE per nucleon versus mass number curve explain nuclear fission and nuclear fusion reactions as the source of energy. What is a nuclear reaction? State the conservation laws obeyed in nuclear reactions. Give 3 examples of nuclear reactions. What are endothermic and exothermic nuclear reactions? Illustrate your answer with one example of each. What is a nuclear fission? Give an example to illustrate your answer. What is critical mass of a fissile material? What is neutron multiplication factor? How is it defined? What is a moderator? How does it function? How many collisions a fast neutron has to undergo to get thermalized in graphite? Find the mass ofU23 5 consumed to generate 100 mega watts of power for 30 days. Heavyhydro!en undergoes th~ the following fusion reaction 102 + 10 ~ ZHe4 + 24 MeV. Find the amount of heavy hydrogen used in producing the same energy as above. Compare the two results. What is nuclear fusion? Write an equation ofnuciear fussion to support your answer. What is the source of energy in the sun? How is it generated? Illustrate with an example. Describe the construction ofan atomic reactor. Describe the construction and working of an atom bomb-. Describe the construction and working of hydrogen bomb. Calculate the energy released in a fusion reaction 3 (2He') P' Given, the mass of on a-particle = 4.00263 amu.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

Intext Questions 32.1
I. a. 9FI9 + IHI ~ 8016 + 2He4; l ~ llNa24 + 2He4 nAI27 +

~ 91Pa234 + _leO; d. 29Cu63 + I 02 ~ 3oZn64 + I

b. c. 9OTh234

on

on

2. 17.9MeV 3 7NI4 + 2He4 ~ 8017 + IHI ,6.5MeV.

232

SIniCIUl'e of Atom

Intext Questions 32.2

1.

2.

Due to increase ofnip ratio above 1he natural ratio its stability decreases. To decrease 1he ratio to attain more stability it emits a B particle. i 3: iii 4. 200 MeV. 5. iv. 6. LOI Mev.

Intext Questions 32.3

(I) 0.84 MeV, 6.7. MeV
(2). 17MeV (3) 2.0LMeV.

Intext Questions 32. 4

1.

235 MW;
Reactor,

2. Sodium metal & Hydrocarbon;

. 4; nearly. I kg.

3. Pressurized Heavy Water

233

..

.. l.t

33
BASICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS

33.1 INTRODUCTION
Electronics is one of the most important branch ofphysics which has its impact very obvious in our daily life. All of us are aware of electronic entertaimnent systems like television. video, tape recorder etc.; communication systems like telephone, pager, satel1it~ communication etc.; medical diagonstic systems like electrocardiogram, various scanners etc. and other systems. All these systems use devices like transistors. diodes,light emitting diodes, integ!ated circuits. chips etc. These are all made up of a material called semiconductor. As is obvious from its name itself, its conductivity will lie in between that of a conductor and an insulator. In order to understand the various aspects of semiconductors, let us study about these semiconductors, their types and behavior in this lesson.

33.2 OBJECfIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

'" ., '" '" '" '"

'" '"
'"

explain energy levels, energy bands and band gaps; differentiate between a conduction band and a valence band; explain the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors with their energy level diagr!;lms.distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors; explain the concept of a 'hole', its location in the crystal lattice and difference from an electron; understand the 'hole current' and 'electron current' in semiconductors: differentiate between n-type and p-type semiconductors; define the terms 'mobility' and 'conductivity '; and
explain tire effect of temperature on mobility and conductMIY .. explain the effect 0( dopi~ in semiconductors.

234

Basics of Semiconductors

33.3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

: L

39

As you have already learnt, all DllIterialS are made up of atoms. An atom consists of a small nucleus in the centre. It contains protons and neutrons. Protons are positively charged particles. Neutrons have no charge at all. Outside the nucleus, there are electrons. These.are lIegatively charged particles. You have read about Bohr's postulates; so you can recall that the electrons revolve around the nucleus in well defined orbits, as shown Fig.33.r

iJ'

Copper

FIg.

J~.I

: DistribuJiOll ofeI"flrtHu in different a10ms

Atoms of difRrent elements have different number of electrons. The negative charge of an electron is exactly equal and opposite to the positive charge of the protons. In a neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.

The electrons in the orbits close to the nucleus are tighdy bound. As compared to these. the electrons in the outennost orbit an: loosely bound. These electrons. located in the outermost orbit an: called the valence eleclrons. The electrical and chemical properties of an element an: largely determined by these electrons. .

33.4 ENERGY LEVELS

The different orbits of electrons have different but fixed energies. These energies depend
upon their distance from the central nucleus and are governed by specific quantum numbers. These can be represented as first energy level (n = I), second energy level (n = 2) and so on (Fig.33.2 and Fig.33.3).

rJ
f8 r2 . ~

3rd energy level n= 3 t-------2nd energy level

nl'" 2

r1

1st energy level t------=--n=

edge of nucleus

F 33.1: pomiltod orbit. of electron

Fig. 33.3 : Energy /';';'/ dlDgtrun of"" 01010 .

Electrons can have energies correspondillg to these levels only. No other energy wIue is permitted. The energy teoIels of hydrogen atom Ire shoWn in Fig.33.4. '

'n

0.0

-1.5 '0 ;. .!! -3.4

> ~ .,

-0.85

11 = !Xl n=4 11=3 n=2

n=i

"

@ .,
u.l

.: -13.6

Fig. 33.4: Energy level, of hydropn

1II_

Hydrogen alom has only one electron. Ithas the tendency to occupy' a lowest or minimum energy state. So. the electron tends to remain in the n = 1 principal quantum state. This state of electron is calIed the ground state and the atom is most stable in this state. The electron can however jump to the nexl higher state i.e. 11 = 2 state, if it receives energy equal 10 the difierence of energies of the 11 = 2 and 11 = 1 state. II is then said to be-in 811' excited state. The excited state is not stable and the cHectron can fall back to the ground state (11 = I state). In Ihis process it will give out or emit the energy agaiJ:I equal to the difference of energy of the two states. The energy possessed by electrons in atoms is a very smaJI amoID:ll It is measured in the units of electron volt (eV) which is a smaJI unit of energy. . J eV is ti,e Energy acquired by an electron when it is acalerated through a potelllW difference of J volt and its Wllue in joules is 1.602 x 10- 19 Joule

33.4_1 Energy Bands

We talk of energy levels in'the case of isolated atoms. You know that in a crystal of some element, there are a very large number of atolllS (of the order of 1023 ). Also, these atoms are very close together. As the atoms are brought closer, they interact with each other. As a result of this interatomic interaction, there is a splitting ofeaclJ.. individual energy level into multiple levels, in order to acc<immodate all the electrons which were originally in the similar atomic level. The net result is that each energy I~I of IIIJ isolated alom now spreads inlo a btutd of energy. These bands contain large number oj discrete but closely spaced energy levels and can be considered as essentially contiriuous. An electron in the crystal can possess only that energy which falls within one of these bands. A group of a large number of very closely S]HICt!d energy /evils in a definite slfUl/l energy range is ctllUd .. ...., 6tuuI. The energy levels of the inner-shell electrons ~ less affected as they are tightly bound 10 the nuclei. The splitting is,lherefore,less forthe inner energy levels. The outermost electrons are the most affected. The width of the band is the Iaqest for the wtermost electro~.

236

Basics of Semiconductors

bdw"" ..,0

These energy bands are separated by regicms of energy m which no energy level eXlSI. Therelore. no electron can be found in these energy regions. These regions are. therefore . lorbt4llen energy regions called band gap or energy gap. A range ojforbidden energte. oJIowed bands. oj eurgy is /urown Q5 Band gap or Energy gDp . Let us consider this process of the formation of energy' bands with the help of an example. In thec~ ofNa atom. there are II electrons. Their distribution IS represented as 1,2,252 2p6.3s .(Fi.33.5).Accof(ling to Pauli's exclusIOn principle. 10 ofthese are accomrnolted in the first two completely filled levels. The third level has only one eleclron.

..'

-'

As N atoms of sodium are brought together. the individual energy le~el are transformed into respective energy bands (as seen from Fig.33.61.

Only one electron

II)

3s

---------- ------- ~ 21

..

"2

t
-\~

3s

2:s_=~::.:---'-..:.::~:~-~ - ~~_---~~------~-----------::
1s ____~.e_~.~

~ ~g

__-__

_~-+--_ _ _
10

1S

15

Fig. 31.5: Eleclron distribulion in

isolated Na atom

Fig. 33.6: FonnOlion ofenergy bands

when N a/oms are broughllogether

The equilibrium separation, r 0' for the sodium atoms in the crystal is 33.6 N. It can be seen from the Fig.33.6 that at this separation, the width of the various bands keeps increasing with the increasing order of the energy level. According to the Pauli's exclusion principle. the inner-bands upto 2 p level are completely filled. These inner completely filled bands are not ofmuch importance. Since, the 35 level has only one electron whereas it can acconunodate two electrons; the 35 energy band Will remain half filled. It is this band which is important in controlling the properties of the element. Now. the outermost filled band occupied by vaience electrons is called the valence band. This ~ts the riuige of energies that can be possessed by valence electrons. This is the band formed by the valence levels of individual atoms. This is the highest occupied band. It may be. either completely filled or partially filled with electrons. but can never be empty. A." ~ IHmd ocs:Mpied by valence electrollS is called Valellce band. The next higher band to the valence balld is called the conduction band. It is generally empty or partially filled. It may also be defmed as the lowest unfilled energy band. On acquiring sufficient energy. valence electrons may leave the valence band and come to the

237

PAysic.

conduction barui. They are then almost free or are only weakly held to the nucleus and are called the conduction electrons. Thcse electrons can move freely in the IXInduction band and conduct electriG current. That is why they are called conduction electrons. An """11Y band occupied by conduction electrons which clln move freely i" a solid;' callell Conduction band. . As shown in Fig.33. 7. the valence band and conduction band are separated by the forbidden energy gap. Eg. This much energy is required to lift an electron from the valem:e band to the conduction band.

Empty or partially filled

l'
Energy Fully or partially filled

'" Completely filled inner band

Fig. 31. 7 : Energy band diagram ofa crystal

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3 3 . 1 - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - 1

2

3.

---- - - -- - .......... --_ ...... -_ .... - -_ ...... .,..---"--" --- .... -_ ..... -- --- ':""----'Fm i; ;h~ bi~h -;;i;h-~;"~;r~t~ -"~~d~j --- ------'" ----------- ----Differentiate between a conduction electron and a valence electron. Define 1 eY.
i) The eler:tro1l/J in the atom ofan element which determine its electrical and chemical

properties rue called-------------- electrons. ii) Whereas single isolated atoms have energy levels. solids have energy - - iii) Each energy band 0/a small piece ofa solid containing 10" aJoms wlil consist of

- - - - - - - - - closely spaced energy levels.

iv) Electrons in the conduction band

in the valence band.

have------- -- energy than those

33.5 CONDUcrORS, INSULATORS AND SEMI-CONDUcrORS

In this section, we will discuss about three types of materials in terms of the occupancy of valence and conduction bands. The electrical conduction properties of these different materials can also be explained in terms of the electrons baving energies in the vaiCDCe and conduction bands. The electrons lying in the lower energy baD.ds. Which are normally completely filled, play no part in the conduction process.

238

Basics of Semiconductors

l'

~~?~~~

~ t->-................L-.....-......
(a)
<

(b)

Fit. 33.1/: Energy band diagrtBfU of(a) Conduc'",. (6) lrandaton. and (c) _kondllClan

.n fact, there is no physical distinction between the valence and Conduction band. Hence, there is an availability of a large number of conduction efectrons. 1be application of a small arnoWlt ofvoltage results in a large amount of current. Theseare, therefore, good conductors of electricity. It can also be said that these materials offer very small resistance to the flow of current and their resistivity is very small.

All metals, like silver, copper, gold, aluminium etc. are good conductors ofelectricity. Out cf these, silver is the best and copper is the second best. The resistivity ofcopper is 1.7 x 10-8 ohm-metre and that of aluminium is 2.6 x 10-8 ohm-metre.

(b) Insulators
Insulators are those materials in which the valence electrons are very tightly bound to their parent atoms. In terms of energy bands, it means that insulators have
CompIeIeIv valence band ; an empry conQucnon Dand, and

a large energy gap (of several eV) between them. This is shown in Fig.33.8 (b). For conduction to take place, electrons must be given sufficient energy to jump from the valence band to the conduction band. This energy is not available at the room temperature. Increase in temperature enables some electrons to go to the conduction band. 1bese matenals are, therefore, bad conductors of electricity and have very high electrical resistivity.
Wood, ptII'CdIIin. hlUd rube. g/IIss etc. an extUIIples o/insubdors. The resistivity of porcehUn is 3.0 x 109 ohm 1MIU IIIId tIud 0/liard ru";' is 1.0 x 1016 ohm-metre,

(e) Semi-ceaductors A semiconiIuetormateriaI is one WhOse electrical properties lie iit between those of insulators and good conc!uctois. In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those materials which at room temperature have partially-filled conduction band; . partially - empty valence band, and a small energy gap (of the order of leV) between them.

239

Physics .

This is shown in Fig.33.8(c). At 0 K. there are no electrons in the conduction band of . semiconductors and their v<tience band is completely fiIled.lt means that at absolute temperature. a semiconductor acts like an insulator. However. With increase in temperature. some electrons are liberated into the conduction band. Thus, a small current flows with the application of a voltage and these materials have a resistivity mid-Way between those of conductors and insulators. '
,,"

zer,:; ,

Silicon and Germanium are the commonly usedsemiconductors. Theirresistivity and energy gap are given in the following table.
,

Material
Silicon

Resistivity 2.0 x 103 ohm-metre 6.5 x 10- 1 ohm-metre

E.ergypp
U4eV
.-

Germanium

0.61eV

INTEXT QUESTIONS 33.2

J.

Give the order ofthe values ofenergies ofenergy band gaps in the case ofC<Jnduclors. insulators and semiconductors. Give some examples ofconductors. insulators and semiconductors. Pill in the blanks with appropriate word(s) i) Theforbidden energy gap ofsilicon crystal at 0 K ii) Resistivity ofwood is -----,,-,--,-----thail that ofcopper. iii) There are plenty offree electrons available In - - - ------------ivY afull valence band and an empty conduction band. v) Pure semiconductor at absolute zero acts as an -------------

2. 3.

is--,-------------,-- .

------------------have

33.6 CHARGE CARRIERS IN SEMICONDUCTORSELECTRONS AND HOLES

In this section, we will study about the details of the ctystaistrUcture of semiconductors.
The semiconductors - Silicon and Germanium, are group IV elements. It means that the atoms of these elements have four electrons in their outermost orbit According to the octet-rule of stable - configuration, every atom requires 8 electrons in its outermost orbit. Hence, every atom makes covalent - bonds with fourneighbouring atoms (as shown in Fig.33.9). These bonds are formed by sharing of a pair of electrons between two Si atoms. Thus, a regular Si .Si "i Si '. repetitive structure of a pure Si (or Ge) crystal is ~ fonned. The bonds so formed, are very strong eI I!t.. and directional in nature. The outmnostelectrons ~ ~ it.. ~ Si~ Si involved in these bonds are bound-electrOns s (which are bound to the nuclei of two sharing lL atoms). These eleetrons lie in the valence band or Si ~ .Ii! ~ and do not contribute to the conduction of ". current. This case corresponds to the completely . ! filled valence band at the absolute zero FI,. J3.9: C-.JmJ bond/,...,.,., temperature. The substance behaves as a perfect in " lilicOlf cryslQ/ insulator at absolute zero.

.I:L

'

..

t-v

If: It.V

.0

240

Basics of Semiconductors

At a higher temperature(room temperature), some of the electrons acquire sufficient energy to break the covalent bond. In other words, the} are able to overcome the band gap and come to the conduction band. Now, these are free eleclrons and can move easily in the conduction Si Si Sl band. (These free electrons are shown by dots ....!side the COYlIIent bonds in (Fig. 33.10) This is el!:!l imponant to note that as an electron leaves a Si Si Sil!. covalent bond al)d becomes nee, it leaves free behind a 'vacancy' of electron in the IA. I.t. J', corresponding energy state. This vacant Si Si Loll"'" .: Si electron energy state in the valence band behaves as though it were a positively charged particle. This vacancy is known as a hole. It also acts as a charge carrier, like the free Fig. 33.10: Electronhole poir electJ:on. A vacancy in the valence band which creation in pure Si crystal acts as a poSitively charged carrier is known

e'r'

fil eler:" ,,10

/.

ashote.

Now, it can be seen that every liberated electron becomes 'conduction eiectron' and leaves a 'hole' in the valence band. A combination of such a free electron and a hole is knownas electron-hole pair. This process is known as Thermal generation ofetectronhole pairs. If an electron falls back from the conduction band and combines with (or fills) the 'hole', then the process is called recombination ofelectron-hole pair. in this process. both the free electron and hole disappear. Occurrence of holes is a particular feature of semiconductors. Since holes are present only in the valence band; they are not found in conductors, as conductors have overlapping valence and conduction bands. Both the electrons (in the conduction band) and the holes (in the valence band) act as charge carriers in semiconductors.

33.6.1 Mechanism of Current Flow in Semiconductors

_Under the influence of an applied electric field, both types of charge carriers (the free / electrons as well as holes), move and constitute electric current. Let us consider these two contributions separately.

a) Electron Current
Let us consider a semiconductor bar AB made of pure germanium. The dots in it represent the free electrons (Fig.33.ll). An electric field is applied to the bar by connecting it to a battery of voltage V. Conduction electrons are attracted towards end A and travel through the connecting wires into the positive terminal of the battery. At the same time, additional electrons leave the negative terminal {lfthe battery and enter the semiconductor at B. This flow of electrons in the counter-clockwise direction, both within the semiconductors as well through the outer connecting wires, constitutes the electron current. This process is similar to the process of current flow in conductors.

241

Physics

~. ~.

'f-.
~

.U

.....M

.w

ULIIN[;J

.t
.-7

l'

.t ..
.-7
2

hole

0-7
~

electron

.1'

11/'I
V
conducter

.-7

Iq:
V
conduct.

.-7

Fig. 33 J J: Electron ClIITWrt in a $";-

Fig. 33.12: Hoi. _

in as'''';

b) Hole Current Again we consider a gennanium bar AB connected to a baUeJ)' V as shown in Fig.33.12. Let us consider the crystal structure within the bar with a hole at the locationL ofa covale.D.t . bond. The hole is a strong centre of attraction for the electron. Under the action of the applied electric field. a valence electron (say at M) from a nearby covalent bond comes to fill in the hole at L (by recombination process taking place there) and the creation of a new hole at M. Another valence electron (say at N) in tum may leave its bond to fill the hole at M, thus creating a hole at N. Thus. the hol~baving a positive charge has moved from L to M to N. i.e. towards the negative battery terminal. This constitutes Itple cll17'e1fl. This process of hole movement continues till the hole reaches the end B. There it meets an electron supplied by the negative baUeJ)' terminal and disappears. This recombination at end B is associated with a generation process at end A where a new covalent bond breaks. an electron to move in the outer circuit and a hole to again move inside towards the end B. This process continues.

prodw;mg

It is important to note that the hole current within the semiconductorfrom left to right is due to the movement ofvalence electronsfrom one bond to another bondfrom the right to left.
But we still call it a hole current because the conduction by valence electrons is basically due to the presence of holes in the covalent bonds. Thus, we see that the electrons and hole move in the opposite directions within the semiconductor. Both ofthese movements add-lIP to give the total conventional current in the direction of movement of holes. However. the current in the outer circuit is only the electron current.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 33.3~----------1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate word(s) i) Covalent bonds are formed by --------ofelectrons between two atoma. ii) When a covalent bond breaks. usually one electron and one are produced iii) Free lectrons move in-------bandwhereas holes move in -----band. iv) A sing/I! silicon atom is bolHld to otheratoms in its crystal structwe. State whether 'True' or 'False'. i) Ionic bonds provide bindingforce in semiconductors. ii) Ifgiven sufficient energy. holes can be liftedfrom valence bandto the conduction band iii) No new hole is created when an existing hole isfilled by afree 01' excess eIe-. iv) TIle missing valence electron is called a hole.

2.

242

Basics of Semiconductors

J.

Select one, ofthe items lettered a, b, c or d that correctly completes the statemenl. i) Silicon has Z = 14; its outermost orbit is (a) partially filled (b) half-filled (d) empty (cj completely filled iij Electrons involved in covalent bonds ofsemiconductors aj act ar free electrons bj have higher energy thai. the conduction elecirons. cj are bound to the nuclei ofsharing atoms d) have higher energy than the conduction electrons.

4.

Fill in the blanks with appropriate word(sj - - - - charge carriers. ij In semiconductors, currentflow is due to--" ii) The direction ofmovement ofa hole in a semiconductor is ------------------____ _ to the direction ofmovement ofan electron. -------from one bond to iii) The hole current is due to, the shifting ofanother.

33.7 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors can be divided into two calegories:

33.7.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is mode of the semiconductor material in its
extremely pure form. 1be c.:>mmon examples are pure silicon and gennanium.

As discussed in a previous section., pure silicon and germanium have electron-hole pairs'as cbarge caniers (Fig33.10) at room temperature. The rate of thermal generation of pair caniers depends upon two factors: The temperature of semiconductor (higher temperature means larger number of pair carriers). The band gap of semiconductor (smaller band-gap means larger number of pair carriers). Since, the band gap in Si is larger than that in Ge; the number of electron-hole pairs in Si at a particular temperature will be less than that in Ge. But, it should be noted that in intrinsic semiconductors the charge carriers are produced or gel!-eraled only in pairs of opposite type. Hence, I" 1111 illtrisic semico"ductor, the "umber (Ifconduction electrons is e1CIlCIIy equal . , CODtuct ion Band III IM"1unJ- (lfh~ in lite wde,,~ band.

.. . . ,
o
0 0 0 0 0

. This is represented in the energy-band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature (Fig.33.13). In other words, we can also say that the ' concentration 'n', of the free electrons (Le. lIUJDberof electrons/cm 3 ) is equal the concentration 'p' of the holes (i.e. niunber of holes/cm 3 ). Each of these intrinsic carrier

Volence Band

"Ji
FIg. JJ.l J :

to

ofDII i",rinsic".",icondllClur tAl

room l~rallUY

E~ btmd diagram

243

Phyai~.
&

concentration is commonly denoted by IIi. Thus, for an intrinsic semiconductor, concentration offree electrons, 11 = concentration ofholes,p = intrinsic carrier concentration, IIi
It shonld he npted at this stage that this carrier concentration (either 11 or p) in intrinsic semiconductor is quite sma1l at room temperature. However, it increases with temperature, but still, the conductivity ofintrinsic semiconductor is negligible. Therefore, it is not of any practical significance.

33.7.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors In order to make the intrinsic semiconductors useful, small amounts of some suitable impurity atoms are added to them. The resnlting semiconduetors are called impure or extrinsic semiconduetors. This process ofadding impllrity IItoms to tU illlrillsic ~
is knowlllIS doping.

The impurity that is added is called the dopant. The amount ofimpurity added.is extremely sma1l (generally about 1 part in 108 of the intrinsic semiconductor atoms). The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number offree electrons or holes in a semiconductor. Usually, the impurity atoms are taken either from group V elements (having S valence electrons) or from group ill elements (having 3 valence electrons). Since the percentage of impurity atoms is vcry small, it does not change either the crystal structure or the cbemical properties of the semiconductor. Depending on the type of dopant used, ex1rittsic semiconductors can he further suhdivided illfl} two classes: n-type semiconductor and p-type semiconductor.

a) n-type Semiconductor
This type ofsemiconductor is obtained when pentavalent impurity atoms (i.e. atoms containing 5 valence electrons) are added to pure germanium or silicon ~rystal. The examples of ~h impurities are elements from group V like antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), phosphorus (P) and bismuth (Bi).
When a pentavelent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it displaces some ofits atoms. Fig.33.14 shows the structure of a silicon crystal containing an antimony atom Fig. 33.14:".0_ tIt_ ,."u.:.J by,., at the central position. It may be noted tbai BDIimony (Sb) tit"", .. " cry&tIlIl_ out of S valence electrons, 4 elecIroIIS will form covalent bonds by sharing one electroD each with the electroDs offour DCighhouring Si atoms. The fifth electron is an em. electron, and is looaely bound with the antimony atom. Hmce; it can be easily excited to theCOllllUl:tioo band (becomes free) by supplying an ~ of eoergy which is much IIDIIIler than that required for breaking s covalent bond. Thus each impurity Idomcontributes one &eoelectroo

244

- Basicsof Semiconductors

to the semIconductor ,without creating a positive hole. As the impurity that is added ,contributes ftce electrons, it is called a iJDnor impurity or donor dopant. The group JI impurity elemelUS ",hich supplyfree electrons to tuJ intrinsic semicolldllctor are known asdolWr. After the donation, the il1!purity atom becomes a positively charged ion and is known as a donor ion. This ion is oounded by four covalent bonds in the crystal lattice and therefore cannot take part in coillluction. The energy state of the fifth valence electron is in the forbidden gap and is just ,below the conduction band. TIIis energy level is indicated by a dashed line in Fig.33.l5. and is called the donor 1t!J1eI. Usually, the donor level is 0.01 eV below condUction bond for Oe and 0.05 eV for Si.

-. -. e.1 Cooou..:tion Band

-I

k-=-_..-~f"~::;;- donor level

6'il

0 0

Volence Band

Fig. 33.15: Enel'gy band diagram ofn-type semicouductor'

The electrons in this donor level will have no difficulty in absorbing sufficient thernial energy at room temperature to move into \he conduction band and contribute to electric current. The semiconductor containing donor type of impurity is called n-type semiconductor. At a given temperature. the number of electrons ai.d holes generated thermally will be equal whether the material is intrinsic or extrinsic. But in extrinsic material I\lere will be additional carriers of charge due to doping. In the n-type material, therefore, the number of free ele!;trons will be much more than the num~ of holes. Hence. a major part of the cwrent flows due to the movement of electrons. The electrons are thus called llUljorily crurien. The holes being much less in number. are called 'minority curios. As lIB aid to JDl!IIlOry. you can associate the letter 'n' in 'n-type semiconductor' with the 'n' in'negative charge carrier' (i.e. electron) or in 'donor'.

b) p-typeSemieoDdactors
TIIis type ofsemiconductor is obtained when trivalent impurity atoll\S (i.e. atoms having 3 valence electrons) added to pure germanium or silicon. The examples of such , impurities are, elements from group m like gallium (Ga). in~um (In). aluminium (AI) and boron (B).

'are

In this case, the three valence electrons of the trivalent impurity atom (say indium) form covalenl bonds wilh four surrounding FIr. U.16:A .ilic... atom replaced by a germanium atoms (say germanium). boron (B) atom in Q crystal/ai/ice However. the fourth covalent bond is iiIeonIpIcte and hasa of electron or a hole (as shown in F~.33.16). Thus, every group ill impurity atom produces,. hole in the valence band of Msemiconductor. The indium atom being short ofone elec1ron to complete the covalent bonds, has a strong tendency

v8c:ancr

245

.Physics

10 capture or accept an electron. Hence, the

/nqHIriIy

tJt'

grtnlp III impllrlly _ _ nn ~ eqfD. nccqtilr dOJHInl wbich SIIPP/Y holn ( Dr IICCqItdtrtlllS) tf1 till iIIIrlIrsIc

smdelmlillctf1r.

After accepting an electron. the indium atom becomes a negatively charged ion called

acceptor ion. lbis iol), is immobile and do not contribute to conduction.

The result of the acceptor doping is that a discrete energy level appears in the forbidden energy gap just above the valence band. This level is called an acceptor level (as shown in Fig.33.171. 1bis acceptor level is usually 0.01 eV above the valence baud for Ge and 0.05 eV above the valence band for Si.

C.B.
acceptor level

,r
_

----- ../

Electrons from the valence band can therefore be readily agitated therrna1ly to move into the vacant acceptor level. In doing so, they produce holes in the valence Fig. 33.17: E1Wrgy band diagram band and make the trivalent atom negatively ofp-type Sl!IIIicanduclor charged ion. These holes are mobile and contribute to electric current. The semiconductor containing acceptor type impurity is called a p-type semiconductor. Now, it is clear that the number of impurity generated holes in p-type semicolllluClorwill be far more than the number of therma1lygenerated electrOns. Thus, in this case, holes are the majority carriers and electrons the minority carriers. As an aid to memory, you can associate the letter 'p' in 'p-type semiconductor' with the letter 'p' in 'positive charge carrier' (i.e. hole) or in 'acceptor'. . Itshould be understood at this stage, that the majority carriers (e}eclrOlU) intl!e n-type

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 V.B. 00000000 000000

semiconductor are available ill the teonduction band ofthe crystalline lattice ofthe solid; whereas, the majority carriers (holes) in the p-type semiconductor are available in the valence band. Also. that the p-type or n-type semiconduct()rs are not positively or negatively
charged. These electrically neutral as a whole. In the p-type semiconductor, there are equai number of negative acceptor ions as there are holes. Similarly; in the II-type semiconduetor, there are equal number of the donor ions there are li-ee electrons.

are

as

INTEXT QUESTIONS 33.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~_ _

I. Fill in the b1anlr8 with appropriate word(8) I) A pure semiconductor is called il) Elements added to semiconductors to Increase the conductivity are called
iii) The process ofadding impurity to a semiconductor is called--", . iv) Intrinsic selll;conducton.have .....; number ofholelJ and electrons.

---,-----.

246

Basics of Semiconductors

2.
3.
4.

Explain the term 'impurity atoms' in reference to semiconductors. Name the elements used to prepare p-type and n-type semiconductors. What causes current in fa) p-type semiconductor. (b) n-rype semiconductor' State whether theiol/owing statements are 'True' or 'False' ;1 n- type germanium can be ballened b"v doping intrinsic germanium with Aluminium. ii) p-rype germanium crystal is positively charged. iii) The donor rype impurities must have jive valence electrons. iv) Trivalent impurities produce hales in the conduction band.

5.

33.8 ELECfRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCfORS

As explained earlier, two types of charge carriers i.e. electrcns and holes are available in intrinsic as well as extrinsic semiconductolS. These are oppositely charged carriers. Both of these contribute to the flow of current in a semiconductor. In this section, we intend to obtain mathematical expressions for drift velocity, current density and electrical conductivity for semiconductolS. We start with the simpler case of conduction in metals. We will use the relations in the case of metals to develop simill\,l' relations for semiconductors. .

33.8.1 Conduction in Metals

We know that the conduction electrons in a metal move continuously at random. During their movement, they collide with other electrons and stationary ions. After each collision, the direction of their movement is changed. The average distance between collisions is lqwwn as mean free path. Since. the motion of electrons is at random, there will be as many electrons passing through a unit area in the metal in any direction as in the opposite direction in a given time. Thus, the average value of the current is zero. Now, if an electric field is applied to a metal, the electrons will aceelerate and suffer multiple colli silins. At each collision they will loose some energy and will accelerate again. The electric field does not stop collision and random motion, but it does not cause the electrons to drift in a resultant ditectioD opposite to that of the applied eleclric field A steady ~ate condition is reached, where the electrons gain an average directed value of drift velocity which is proportional to the applied eleclric field. 'This transport of electrons constitutes drift current
Let, E = Strength of the applied electric field, F = Force experienced by an electron due to the applied eleclric field, a = acceleration, which the eleclron obtains due to the force experienced by it., I =average time between two consecutive collisions, v = drift velocity, q = charge of an electron, and m = mass of an electron

We know that the force experienced by an electron due to applied field is given by F

= qE
(33.1)

and acceleration, a = ForcelMass = Flm = qElm Therefore drift velocity, v = a.1

= qEtlm = pE

where 11 is equal to qtlm and is known as IIUIbUity of an electron. The /IVel'tII/e drift velocity
9/a cllllJ7le carrier per IInit electric jield is kn9wn as Mobility

247

Physics The mobility is expre:;sed in m 2/(volt-sec). Such a directed flow of electrons constitutes the drift current. As you have read in lesson 16 the value of drift current through a conductor of length L and of uniform cross-sectional area i. given I

as

the drift current, 1= qnvA

(33.2)

Where. n is the concentration of electrons per unit volUme. and the currentper unit area called current density.

J=qnv
Substituting the value ofv from equation (33.1)

(33.3)

J =qn (p.E)

aE

(33.4)

~ere a = q.n.p is known as conductivity ofthe metal. The above relation indicates that the current density (J) within a metal is directly proportional to the applied electric field (E). Conductivity of a metal is defined as the eJectrk current density of a material per unit

electric field.
The. conductivity is expressed in Amp/(Volt-m) or Siemens/m. Now, we know that the resi~tivity of a metal is reciprocal to its conductivity, i.e.

1\

I/a

l/q.n.p

(33.5)

33.8.2 Conduction in Intrinsic Semiconductor

Based 0.:1 the above treatment; we can now find the expression for ele,ctrical conductivity in intrinsic semiconductor. We take the following parameters for the semiconductor tel q be the charge of an electron, as well as charge of a hole; n. concentration ofelectrons in an intrinsic semi conductor ; p, concentration of holes in an intrinsic semi conductor; J.In, mobility of electrons ; !!p. = mobility of holes ; and E is the applied electric field .1rength .
Using the relBtion 03.4), the current density due- to the movement of electrons only, is given by

In

=q.n.J.In.E
. -=q,p,ppE

A sintilar expression can be written for cUrrent density due to holes and is given by

Jp

The total current density within intrinsic semiconductor,

=In+J p

= q.n.J.In E + q,p.ppE
=q(nJ.ln+PPpE

= aE

(33.6)

248

Basics of Semiconductors

where!! equal to q(n. + p.,tp) is called the electrictd ooll,bu:tMIy ofa selDlconduc\or.lt is evident from equation (33.6) that the current density within a semicond~or IS dtrectly proportional to the applied electric field.

.un

We know that for an intrinsic semiconductor. n = p = nj where nj is called the intrinsic carrier concentration. Substituting this in equation (33.6)

= q.nj

(.un + II? E
(33.7)

and conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor,

=q.ni (.un+ II?

It is evident from the above relation that the electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor depends upon the following factors:

ntrinsic concentration (II;) mobility ofelectrons (p,,). and mobility ofholes (pt)

The electrical conductivity is diri:ctIy proportional to these three factors. Hence, the increase in anyone of the above factors will increase the electrical conductivity of the semiconductor and vice-versa. It should be noted that in a pure semiconductor. under the influence of an electric field. electrons move in a nearly empty conduction band, whereas holes move in a nearly filled valence band. Therefore, an electron in conduction band is subjected to different conditions compared to a bole (or a valence electron) in the valence band. A hole in the valence band will suffer more collision and will have smaller mean free time than a conduction electron. Thus, mobility ofa hole is smaller than that of a conduction electron (eqn.33.1).

33.S.3 EfI'eet of Temperature on Semiconductor Parameters

Most of the semiconductors operate on a wide range of temperature. Therefore, study of variations of semiconductorparameters with temperature are very important In this section, we discuss the effect of tempelature on some of the parameters of semiconductors.

a) I.triuie Concentration In an inirinsic semiconductor, the concentration (1Ij) increases with the increase in temperature. The depeodl!!lM of intrinsic concenIraIion on tbc temperature is given by the relation,

11.2

T Ao.T3.e'''oJi

=Enet'8Y gap at 0 K (ineY), and

b) Mobility

where, Ao isa constant indepcDdcnt oftbc k.n\ure ;1, temperature (in K); Eo. lis the Boll.... ann's constant(ineVIK).

The mobUily of till intriIIsic lIemiCOlldllctor decreases with the incrUl3c in temperature, because at higher temperatures, the num1l!:r of carriers is more and they are more energctk

249

l'"nyslcs

also. This causes an increased nwnber of collisions with the atoms and thus the mobility decreases. lbe ~obilil) Jl of an inninsic semiconductor varies as ]'"m over a temperature range of 100 -IOu K. For silicon. m = 2.5 for electrons and 2.7 for holes. Similarly, lor germanitjOi, m o l.b6 tl>r electrons and 2.33 for holes.
to

c) Conductivity

We have seen that the conductivity ofan intrinsic semiconductor depends upon the number orelectron-hole pairs and mobility. The number ofelectron-hole pairs increases with the illcrease in temperalW'e. whereas the mobility of electrons and holes decreases. However. [h~ increase in electron-hole pairs is greater than the deerease in their mobility. Therefore, I/Ie conductivity ofIlII intrinsic semiconductor increfBe3 with the incretlSe in lemperature. The conductivity at any temperature (1)in Kelvin is given by the relation.

where. cr 0 is conductivity at 0 K; a is the temperature coefficient. i.e. the rate at which conductivity increases per degree kelvin, and A T is the rise in temperature (= T - To) .rhe conductivity of extrinsic semiconductors decreases with the increase in temperature. This is because of the fact that with the increase in temperature, the nwnber of majority carriers is nearly constant. but mobility decreases. This causes the conductivity to decrease.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3 3 . 5 - - - - - - - - - - I.

Select one oflhe items lettered a. b. cor d thaI correclly compleles the statement. i) Conduction electrons have ."ore mobility Ihan holes because they aJ. are lighter bJ have negative charge cJ experience collisions more frequently d) need less energy to move
ii)

Mobility ofa charged particle does not depend upon aJ the applied electric field b) the charge ofthe parlicle c) the mass ofthe partie/e d) the time between the collisions

Eumple 33.1 : .A/room temperature. copper has free electron density of8.4 x /02 8 per 11/3. Find eleclron drift velOCity in a copper conductor having a cross-section .of 10-6",2 alld carrying a cu"ent of5,4 Amp. Solution: Given. we know.
/

= =
=

qnvA
5.4 Amp.. q = 1.16 x 10- 19 C. 8.4 x I0281m3 A = H)-6 m2

Therefore 5.4 = v x 1.6 x 10- 19 x 8.4 x 1028 x 10-6

Hence. v

=4 x 10-4 mls

= 0.4 mmls

250

Ba'iIC5 of Semiconductors

Example 33.2 : Mobilities 0,( electrons and holes i1l a sample of inlri1lSIc germanium 01 room remperature are 0.36 m2/V-s and 0./7 ".2!V-s respecr;veZ,. Ifrhe elecrron al1d hole de1lSities are each 'equal ro 2.5 K /019,,,,3 calculate the conductivlIy ofgermal1ium Solution:
cr' 1

We know.
=

qni (~n + I-Lp)

Given. q

=1.6xlO- 19 C.

~n
Therefore,

= 0.36 m 2r Vs,

0';

2.12. Siemenslm

33.9 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

EleclTons in isolalo:d atoms revolve in definite orbits or energy levels. The electrons in the outermost orbit are called valence electrons. In crystal structure. large number of energy levels confmed within a certain small energy range are known as allowed band of energy or energy band. There are forbidden regions of energy between two allowed energy bands. These are called band gaps or energy gaps. The outermost filled band occupied by valence electrons is called the valence band. The next higher band to the valence band is called the conduction band. It accommodates free electrons or conduction electrons. Solids may be classified into conductors, insulators and semicoD(\uctors. Semiconductors have small energy gap and show small conductivity at room temperature. Semiconductors have two types of charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes; both of which contribute to the conduction of current. There are two types of semiconductors - intrinsic semiconductors. which are pure forms of semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors, wbich are formed by selected impurities added to intrinsic semiconductor. Extrinsic semiconductors are further of two types, n-type or p-type depending on the type of impurity added. n-type semiconductor has 'donor' impurity added, wbich provides a large number of free electrons as charge carriers. p-type semiconductor has 'acceptor' impurity added, wbich provides a large number of holes as charge carriers. Electrons and holes have different mobilities, wbich is a measure of the average drift velocity acquired by them in a unit electric field. Conductivity of a semiconductor measures its electric current density in a unit electric field. The intrinsic charge concentration, mobility and conductivity, all are affected by the change in temperature.

251

Physics

33.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

I. 2. 3. 4. What is difference between the hole current and electron flow? Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. What are donors and acceptors in regard to extrinsic semiconductors? Name the charge carriers in case of electric conduction in (i) an intrinsic semiconductor. (ii) p-type semiconductors. (iii) n-type semiconductors. What is the order of magnitode of energy l!IlP in case of semiconductors? Differentiate between energy level and ~nergy band. . Distinguish between conductors, insulators and semiconductors OIl the basis ofenergy bands. . State two points of similarities and dissimilarities between a free electron and a hole.. Explain the movement of holes in the crystalline structure of a semiconductor. What ate intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors? Give examples of each. Distinguish between n-type and p-type semiC()nductors with examples. Define mobility, Give its units. What are the factors on whichthe mobility ofa hole . depends? . State the factors which can affect the conductivity of a semiconductor. Explain the effect of temperature on the charge carrier concentratioDS in a semiconductor. Why is there no hole current in a good conductor?

5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. II. 12.

13. 14.
15.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

luted Qurestion 33.1
3. (i) valence

(ii) bands

(iii) 100

(iv) more

Intext Questions 33.2

3.

(i) 1.14 eV (iv) insulators

(i) sharing (iv) four (i) False (i) b (i) two types of

(ii) more (v) insulator

(ii) hole

(iii) Conductors

Inted Questions 33.3

I.
2. 3.

(iii) conduction, valence (iii) True

(iv) True

4.

(ii) False (ii) c (ii) opposite

(iii) valence electron

Intext Questions 33.4

1.
2. (i) intrinsic semiconductor (ii) dopants (iv) equal (a) holes (b) electrons (i) False (ii) False (iii)True

(iii) doping

3.

(iv) False

Inted Ques~ons33.5 I. (i) c (ii) a

252

34
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

34.1 INTRODUCfION
In the previous lesson, you have learnt about the p-type and the n-type semiconductors. Now, the most obvious question, what will happen if we join the p-type and the n-type semiconductor under different conditions. A p-njunction diode is the result which may be applied forward and reverse biasing. Some special diodes like Zener diode. light emitting diode (LED), photo diode, solar cell etc. are also semiconductor devices with llWly applications in electronics.

If we join another p-type or n-type semiconductor to a n-p junction or a p-n junclion resw:ctively, then what we get is a revolutionary semiconductor device, known as transistor. Thejunction p-n-p or n-p-n traosistors form the key element in computers. space vehicles' and satellites and in all modem communication and power sYStems..In this lesson you will 'learn about mechanism ofcurrent flow in a traosistor. You will also learn about chMacteristics of a transistor in different configurations.

34.2 OBJECfIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to,

explain the formation of a p-n jrmction and define the terms 'depletion region' and 'Potential barrier'; , explain the terms forward biasing' and 'reverse biasing' ofa p-njunction; draw the current-voltage characteristics for the forward and reverse biasing ofa p-n junction diode; explain the functioning ofZener diode, LED. photo diode and a solar cell,' describe the structure ofa trOlUistor and differentiate between p-n-p and n-p-n trOlUistor~ and represent them by their schematic symbols; reasons for making the base ofa transistor very thin and lightly doped" distinguish between the three different transistor configurations, i.e. common base (CB). common emitter (CE) and common collector (CC) and draw their characteristics; and explain the working ofp-n-p and n-p-n transistors.

give

Physics

34.3 p-n JUNCTION

Y011 have learnt about the p-type and n-type semiconductors in the previous lesson. As a matter of lact. the p-type and n-type semiconductors. taken separately, are of little use in aCUial practice. If we join a p-type semiconductor suitably to n-type semiconductor such that the crystal strocture remains continuous at the boundary as shown in Fig.34.1. a p-n Juncion is lonned. The p-n junction is of great importance in modem electronic applications. It !"rms the basis of semiconductor devices like Wodes. trimsistors etc.

.-I----,._n---'
t

Junction
Fig. 14.1 : p-n june/ion

34.3.1 Formation ofp-n Junction

It should be noted that a useful p-njunction cannot be funned by simply joining or welding the p-type and n-type pieces together because it will produce a discontinuouS crystal struclW'e. Special fabrication techniques are used to prepare p-n junctions. We will not go into the details of various techniques. In short, you can understand the formation of a p-njunction as follows: A small block of a trivalent impurity, say indium, is placed on n-type germanium slab. The combination is heated to a high temperalW'e of about 5000C for a short duration. During this process. indium melts and gets into some of the germanium. The temperalW'e is then lowered. Under proper conditions, the atoms of indium will be suitably adjusted in a portion of the molten gennanium to form a single crystal. The. addition of indium overomes the excess of electrons in the n-type germanium to such an extent that it creates a p-type region over a portion of the semiconductor and fonns a p-n junction.

34.3.2 Properties of p-n junction

To understand the properties of a p-n junction, we start with the two types of materials ptype and n-type separately, as shown in Fig.34.2.

p-type

n-type
0

hok C+)!.,.
o
negative acceptor ion

\,Jeee
0 0

free electron

~9.o~~
electron

e0ee
hole (minority - carrier)
FIg. :u.2 : Charge distribution in p-type ond n-type regiOlt

(minority-carrier)

254

Semiconductor Devices

As explained earlier. p-type material contains negative acceptor ions and positively charged holes. These holes are large in number and are majority carriers. In addition. there is a small number of thermally generated electron-hole pairs (as shown in the Fig.34.2). These electrons are the minority carriers. Similarly, in the n-type material: there are equal number of positive donor ions and free electrons. These free electrons are large in number and act as the majority carriers. whereas. a few of the thermally generated holes act as minority carriers. It should be noted that both the p-Iype and n-type materials are electrically neutral on the whole. No... suppose that ap-n jlUlctioli has just been formed. At that instant. boles are still in pregion and electrons in the n-region. However. there is greater concentration ofholes in the p-region than in the n-region and similarly. there is a greater concentration of electrons in the n-region than in the p-region. TIris difference in concentration estahlishes a densi~ gradient across the junction. Therefore. there is a tendency for holes to cross the junction and move to the n-region and for the electrons to move towards the p-region. TIris process is called the diffusion of charge carriers across the jlUlction of the movement of charge

CQ"iers from a region of higher concentration to a region of lowe!' concentration.

Depletion Layer As the electrons and hole move across the junction. they meet and recombine on both sides ofthejunction.lnthe. process of recombination, th.fiee electrons filltheholes in the valence band and both ttie charge carners disappear. As a result of this. the negative acceptor ions on the p-side of the junction are left IUlcovered. i.e . they are robbed of holes. Similarly. the positive donor ions on the n-side of the junction are Imcovered; or robbed of free VB n p electrons. Hence. a positive charge is + built on the n-side of the junction and a 000 negative chilrge on the p-side. Note that o 0 0 0. 0 these uncovered ions are immobile and + .0 hence remain where they were. When a o 0 0 sumeient number of donor and acceptor 1 ~(j(j " ions are uncovered. further diffusion of depletion tree charge carriers is prevented. It is I 1 1 layer because now positive charge on n-side repels holes to cross from p-type to nJ Barrier 1 type and the negative charge on p-side ,B Potential repels the electrons to diffuse from n1 1_", ~ Width ~ type to p-type. The region containing the (W.) uncovered acceptor and donor ions, in the vicinity of the junction. is ~a1led Fig. 14.3; Formation ofdopletion layer in p-n junction depletion layer (Fig.34.3). It is called so because the mobile charge carriers (i.e. free electrons and holes) have been depleted. (i.e, emptied) in this region. The region in the

eGe ek~) (j0-() (j eGe e:0 0J 0J GeG 0 0

-=Vi'4.

junction containing no mobile charge carriers, but only immobile charges ofopposite kind on its two sides is known depletion hryer
The width of the depletion layer depends on the doping level. For heavy doping, depletion layer is thin because the p-n jlUlction contains a large number of free electrons and holes and a diffusing charge carrier has not to travel far across the junction for.recombination.

255

Pbysics

Opposite is case for light doping. But. generally, the of depletion the order of a lew J.I in (10-6 m). It sbould be noted that outside this layer, on each the junction. th!! material is still neutral.

th~

wi~th ~e

laye~ i/of . ;le ~f

Potential Barrier
The depletion layer thus sets up a barrier against further diffusion of charge carriers. lbis is caIled potential barrier or junction-barrier. The magnitude of this electric potential is represented as VB. At room temperature. VB is about 0.3 V for gennaniwn and 0.7 V for Si. Its value depends on doping density. electronic charge and temperilture. The potelfliaJ in a regioll where theforce exerted all a carrier is such as to oppose tire passage ofthe carrrer through the regioll is kllowlI as Potential barrier. It sbould be noted that the barrier potential V. ill ClIIablisbed across the junction automatically, as sooil as the p-n junction is formed, eVe!i when the junction is not connected to any external source ofe.m.f(Fig.34.3).

INTEXTQUESTIONS 34.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
1. Fill ill the blanJrs willi suitable word(s} or lIumerical valuers): i) A--------'--potential is developed across a p-njunctiOIl whose value for

silicoll is-------~--.
ii) DepJetion region exists on ---------~------ sides ofa p-n junctioll.

iii)DepJetion layer has no --------- charge carriers, but only immobile - - - .

ivY The width ofthe depletion-layer in an unbiasedp-njunction depends on -----------level. v) The process of transfor ofmobile charge carriers aaoss the p-n junction when no external voltage is applied to it is called - - ' - process. 2. Select one ofthe ite1W lettered a,b,c or d that correctly completes the statement: i) When a }Wle dijfosesfrom p-region to n-region, it a) becomes a majority carrier in the n-region b) becomes a minority carrier in the n-region c). lowers the potential barrier (:I)" raises the potential barrier ii) Depletion layer is aJ positively charged b) negatively charged c) completely neutral and has no charge d) a charged region ofpositive and negative ions. iii) In an unbiased p-n junction, the junction current at equilibrium is a) due dijfosion ofmqjority carriers only b) due to dijfosion ofminority carriers only c) zero, because no charges are aossing the junction d) zero, because equal but opposite currents Ore crossing the junciion.

to

256

Semiconductor Devices

34.4 BIASING OF p-II' JUNCfION

We have seen that as a p-n jWlction is fonned, a barrier potential is set up wbich does not permit the current to flow across the jWlctiOn. Such a p-n .iWlCtion is called Wlbiased junction and is of no use in actual practice. A p-n jWlction. connected to an external voltage source (i.e. battery) is called a biased p-njunction. Such a p-njunction finds a variety of applications
in semiconductor devices.

There are two ways of applying external voltage to a p-n junction:

34.4.1 Forward Biasing

In this case, positive terminal of the b,!ttery is connected to the p-side and negative terminal to the n-side (fig.34.4). This type of biasing permits easy flow of current across the junction.

As soon as battery connection is made. holes in the p-region are repelled by the positive battery terminal and electrons in the n-region are repelled by the negative battery terminal. As a result, both holes and eiectrons move towards the junction. Because of their acquired energy (from the voltage source), they enter the depletion region and recombine. This reduces the width as well as height of the potential ba"ier (V.Jas shuwn in Fig.34.4. As VB is very small, a small forward voltage is sufficient to completely eliminate the barrier. In other words, the forward bias establishes a low resistance path (called forward resistance, Rf) and as a result a large current flows through the junction. This is called forward current. The magnitude of cUrrent depends upon the applied forward voltage, In forward ,,;asingthe extertral voltage is applied to the junction in such a direction that it cfltlcels the potential barrkr, thus pomitting curuntflow.
p

o~1
of-

I~e

0--+1
O~I

I+-e
1

-l~

i~e
~

+ I.
V

1
i
1 ,-

------

1/

t
v.
(Without external biBS) (Without external bias)

---jrl~ (W.)

1 1
Width (W,)

w: lowered
257

v.

decreased

Fig. 34.4: Forward biasing in p~njunclion

Physics The mechanism of current flow in a forward bias can be understood as follow,s: i) The free electrons in the n-region move towards the junction and more electrons frolh the negative battery tenninal enter the n-regiolL ii) The electrons travel through the n-region as free-electrons. iii) When these electrons rea'l::h the junction, they combine with holes and become valence electrons. iv) The electrons travel through the p-region as valence electrons, ve. current in p-region is by holes. v) When these valence electrons reach the left end ofthe ctystaI, they flow into the positive terminal of battery {creating new holes which will move towards the junction}. It can be now understood that the current within the junction is the sum of the electron current (in the n-region) and the hole current {in the p-region. The current tIirougb the external circuit is due to tile movement of electrons only. This current continueS to flow as long as the battery is prese/ll in the circuit.

34.4.2 Reverse Biasing

In this case, positive tenninaI ofthe battery is connected to the n-side and negative tenuinal
to the p-side (Fig.34.5). This type of biasing prevents the easy current flow across the . \ junctiolL

+-0: I +-0 I I +-01 I

I I.~ I . !.~ I

l.~

- d+ I I

! i
~

! i
:I

, I :I ,I ' I '. I :: I ~ '...... ' J

( with
negab.""

bias)

w: increased

(w.)

Width without bias (W.) (Width with naptive bias)

FIg. 3M Revtne bi<lslng in~" jlulclion

With the reverse,bias, the holes in the p-region are attracted towan\IJ the negative battery terminal and elettrons in the n-region are attracted towards the positive battery terminal. Thus the majority caniers are drawn away from the junctiOlL TIIi8 widens 1M tiqletW,. layer and increases 1M height (I/IM poIetIIilIl btzrrIei as Shown in Fig.34.S. The increased potential barrier makes it very di1llcult for the majority-caniers to diffuse across the junction. Thus a high resistance (called reverse resistance, R r) path is established and

(V;

258

SL'miconduclor D..:-vices

hence current dOes not flow. In reverse biasing the external voltage applied to the junction is il1 such a direction that it increases tile potential harrier. thus preventing the current
I10w

34.5 SEMICONDUcrOR DIODE

It has already been disCussed in the previous section that a p-n junction conducts current easily when forward biased and practically no current flows when it is reverse biased. This unilateral conduction characteristic of p-n junction is simiJar to that of a vacuum diode. Further. it also consists of two electrodes (the contact points to the p and n-regions) just as a vacuum diode has. Thus, p-n junction is called a semiconductor diode. 11 may also be called a junction diode or a crystal diode.

An~'----~[::>>--C-mh-~de
Fig. 34.6(a): p-n junction

Flg.34.6(b): Symbolic resresentation

ofp-n junction

Thus. a p-n junction diode consists of a p-njunction, formed either in germanium or silicon crystal [Fig.34.6(a)]. It has two terminals, namely anode and cathode. The p-type region is referred to as anode and the n-type region as cathA A ode. The circuit symbol is "",own in Fig.[34.6(b)J. The arrow-head in the circuit symbol points in the direction of conventional current flow, when the Red diode is forward biased. It is the same direction in which hole flow takes place. Blue Semiconductor diodes are generally small in size (about 3 nun long) with a colour-band towards cathK ode end or symbol of diode painted on the body; or K K colour dots representing the anode and cathode of Fig. :u. 7: IdentifictltUm ofdiode terminals the diode (Fig.34.7).

34.5.1 Characteristics of p-n Junction Diode

We have seen that the current flow through the p-n jnnction diode is different in forward and reverse bias. Also, the current will be different for difterent external bias. A curve representing the variation of cw-rent with the applied external bias is called the V-I characteristics of the p-il junction diode. Fig.34.S shows the circuit Vi -- Rh arrangement for determining the V-I characteristics of the diode. The characteristics can be studied in two parts _ under the forward bias and the revmse bias. When the extctnal bias is zero the "". XI: CimdtdillgnlmpforwanJ potential barrier at the jW1ction does not chGract_ of" IN' jJmctiOlf diode. permit current flow. Therefore, ~ circ~t . . . current is = 0 as indicated by pomt 0 m the characteristic curves oIFlg.34.9.

259

Physics

(i) Forward Bias: Forward bias can he applied to thii diode as shown in Fig.34.8. The diode is connected to a d.c. battery (Vf) through a rheostat (R.,). The rheostat ltelps in varying the voltage applied across the diode. The resistance R is included in the circuit so as to limit the current through the diode. Voltmeter (V) and milliammeter (rnA) measure the .voltage and current respectively.

I (mA)

1rt~==~~~~.t.IV~~) 7 02 0.4 0.6 0.1

Let us now increase the voltage in 60 small steps of about 0.1 V and 80 record the corresponding values of I,(mA) diode current. If a graph is plotted with volta~ across the diode along the hopzontal axis and diode FIg. 34.!I: I-V characterisJics ofa ~n jrurctioo diode cUrrent along the vertical axis, a curveOAB. shown in Fig.34.9, will he obtained. This is the forward cJrarllClerlstic curve of the diode. It can be seen that at first (region OA). the current increases very slowly and the curve is non-linear. It is because the external voltage is used up in overcoming the potential barrier_ However, once the externa1 voltage exceeds the barrier potential, the p-nj1Dlction hehsve. like an ordinary conductor. Therefore. the current rises very sharply with increase in extem8I voltage (region AB of the curve). Th.e curve is almost linear in this pOrtion. The voltage corresponding to point A of the forward characteristic curve is known as voltage. It is defmed lIS the forward voltage III Which the clll7ellt throllglr the JlIIICIion star16 to increase rapidly.

KDee

It may be added here that in order to get useful current through a p-n junction, the applied voltage 1l\ust be more than the knee v o l t a g e .

It has been observed that a voltage of about I Volt produces a forward current of about 50.rnA to 100 rnA. Hence. the forward resistance of the diode (Rf) is quite small. It is of the order of 10 to 100 ohms. The applied forward voltage should not be increased beyond a certain safe limit, otherwise the diode will bum out.

Ii) Revene DiM: For the reverse bias to be applied to the diode, the circuit ccmnectiOll will remain the same as in Fig.34.8 except.thatthe diodeknnina1s (i.e. the lIIlOdeand the cathode) are to be. interchanged. Moreover, the milliameter will have to be changed by a microammeter. As aireadY. discussed in Sectioo 34.4(b), the majority carriers IIR DOt able to cross the junction due to the increased barrier'patentiaJ.. So, practically no current flows through the circuit. However, in practice, a very small current (ofthe order ofllA) flows in the circuit. It is due to the minority carriers and is called leakage current orreversc satutatioo current (Ir ). It may be recalled that there are a few free electrons in p-type mataial aDd a few holes in Ii-type mataial. To these minority carriers, the applied ~ bias appears IS forward bias. Therefore, a very small reverse current flows in !hi' ~ direction (IS shown by the curve OC in the negative voltage region ofFig.34.9. This small cummt can generally be regarded as negligible over the working range of voltages.

260

Semiconductru Devices

If reverse voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of the minQJity electrons may become high enough to knock out electrons from the semiconductor atoms. The neWly liberated electrons in torn free other valence electrons. In this way. we get an avalanche (i.e. flood) of free electrons. This is called breakdown of the junction. Due to' this, the reverse current rises suddenly with a sudden fall of the resistance of the barrier region. This voltage corresponding to the point C of the reverse characteristic curve is called the Breakdown voltage. It is the reverse voltage til which the p-n jllllCtion breaks down witA swlden rise ill reverse current. Breakdown of the junction may be due to an another effect also. This effect is different from the.avalanche effect. In a general purpose diode, the doping is light. This results in a 'high breakdown voltage which is due to the avalanche effect. If the p and n regions in a diode are heavily doped, the breakdown voltage can be reduced. Heavy doping reduces the width of the depletion region and the electric field at the barrier will be very high even for low voltage. The field is so strong that the electrons in the covalent bond can break away from the bonds. This effect is known as Zener effect. ibis also leads to the sudden fall of junction resistance and a sharp rise in reverse current. Once the breakdown voltage is reached, the high reverse current may damage the junction. Therefore, cafeshould be taken that reverse voltage across a p-n junction is always less than the breakdown voltage.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 34.2_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I. Fill in the blanks by appropriate word(s): i) When reverse bias ofa junction diode is increased beyond a certain limit, a ------------ occurs.
ii)

When a junction is forward biasedfor majority carriers, it is -------- biased

f(Jr---..----carrieTs.
iii) Revel'se saJuration current consists of--------------- carriers.

iv) Ajunction offers almost------resistance in the breakdown region. v) Avalanche breakdown is inititlled

by------------ carriers.
doped and have

vi) Zener breakdown occurs injunctions which are - - - - ------- depletion layer.

vii) Zener breakdown involves - - - - - - - - - - - of covalent bonds under the i1IfIuence ofa electric field.

34.6 SPECIAL DIODES

In the last sections, you studied about an ordinary p-n junction diode. Now, we will discuss some special semiconductor diodes, which are used for specific applio;ations.

(a) Zener Diode It is a reverse billsed heavily doped silicon (or germanium) p-njunction diode which is operated in the breakdown region. The reverse current is limited by the external resistance in the circuit and power dissipation ofthe diode. Silicon is preferred to germanium because ofits higher lemperatore stability and current capability.

261

Pbysics

At reverse voltage.!ess than 6 V, Zener effect predominates whereas above 6V. avalaucbe effect is predominant. But, in both the cases, the diode is called a Zener diode. ZenIltdiodes are designed to operate at voltages ranging from a few volts to few hundred volts. The voltage across the di04e remains practically constant at the Zener breakdown voltage Yz. Hence it is also called a breakdown diode or voltage regulator diode. The Zener voltage Yzcan be set by carefully controlling the doping level of p and n regions during manufacturing. V-I Charaeteristics: The reverse current due to minority carriers remains negligibly small upto the knee point (K). At this point (K). the breakdown voltage (Zener voltage Y remains practically constant over a range of Zener cwrent values (Fig.34.1O).

""...--.b!ee (K)

V.(VoIts)

z>

1beseare:

Fig. 34.10: Reverse chane/_ oj'Q Z<Mr diode

i) lz,min - The minidrilm value oj Zenu current which mll.Jt be maintained to keep the diode in the breakdown region. ii) Iz,max - The maximwn value ojZener Clr"'ent above which the diode may be damaged.
The value of this current is given
by the maximum powurating(provided
A

by the manufacturer), and can be

controlled by suitable externa1load. As

K voltage below V z. The schematic FIg. 34.11 symbol of a Zener diode is represented (a) :SyrnboIic ~1Iti"" (b):kiMIJ JWiwII."t ci1'Cllits in Fig.34.11(a). It is similar to that ofa oj'z_diod. for:U-diode. normal diode except that the line representing cathode is bentat both ends to look like the letter Z. It has an equivalent circuit like that in Fig.34.II(b), where it looks like a battery ofVz volts.

long as this limit is not crossed, the diode is oot damaged and comes out of the breakdown region on reducing the

Uses: Zenel diodes have a number of applications in semiconductor circuits. Some of their common uses are:
i) As voltage regulators; ii) As a fixed reference voltage for biasing; iii) For pro1ec1ins meters against damage from accidental applicati:m of high vohage.

(b) LiPt EmlttiD& Diode (LED) It is ajorwll1'd bUued p-njunction which emit& IIBllt when energised. You have learnt that forward biasing of a p-n junction gives forward cunent due to recombination of electrons.

262

Semiconductor Devices

and holes. When a conduction electron combines with a hole in the valence band, it falls from the rugljer energy level to a lower energy level. The difference of energy is released out. 1'1' In the ordinary diodes (Si and Ge) greater AO'---i>l---o K percentage of this energy is given up in the fonn of heat: There are some other semiconductors which are tnter-metallic compounds of group Fig. M.12 : Symbolic reprisenlecrion of LED mlhid group V elements. like gallium arsenide (GaA.s). gallium phosphide (GaP), Gallium l)itride (GaN) etc. In the diodes made from these semiconductors, a greater percentage of energy released during recombination is in the form of light. If the semiconductor material is trans1uscent.light is emitted out ofit. The colour of the light emitted depends on the type of material. used. The Schematic symbol of a light emitting diode is shown in Fig.34.12. The arrows represent the light emitted by the diode. Uses: LED is a very important electronic device and finds widespread applications. A few of them are: i) In 7-segmeni display used in calculators. digital clocks, stereo tuners etc.; ii) For indicating power ON/OFF;conditions in many instruments; iii) In burgler alarm systems; iv) In solid state video display,s; v) In the field of optical coinmunication. e) Photo - diode It is a rt!Verse biased p-n jW1ction diode wruch gives useful current when light falls on it. The current produced varies almost linearly with the light intensity. It is made from light sensitive semiconductor with a very thin and transparent p~ region which allows incident light to reach the A 0 1-----'1/1>1---- 0 K junction easily. The incident light carries photons Fig. 34.13 : Symbolic repri.enleclion having energy E = hv where.h is the Planck's ofa photo diode constant and v is the frequency oflighllfthis energy is greater than the forbidden gap energy. the valence electrons will absorb this energy and jump to the conduction band, producing electron-hole pain. The number of such ~pfOduced depends upon the intensity of the incident light. These carriers are minority carriers and produce current called photo-current when the junction is reverse biased. This photo-current is much larger than the reverse-saturation current which is much smaller in the ordinary p-n junction diode. A photodiode can torn its current ON arid OFF in nano (10-9) seconds. The schematic symbol for the photo-diode is shown in Fig.34.13. The inward arrows represent the light falling on the diode. . Uses: Some of the important applications of photo-diodes are: i) In detection oflight (both visible and invisible) ii) In light operated switches iii) In reading of computer punched cards and tapes iv) In optical communication systems.

'263

Pbysic~

d) Solar Cell It is a type of photo-voltaic cell which is used to COIIVert Ji8ht energy of die SlID to die electric energy. It is basically a photo-diode which is in open circuit. It is geoeraIIy made of silicon or germanium with an exlremelythin p-!ayeronn-!ayer, to allow the incident photons reach the junction easily. It is designed to have more exposed area to get IIIOle of incide.ut light. The minority - carriers are produced as in the photo-diode. These move dQwn,the hill [Fig.34.14(a)] formed by a barrier - potential (electrons in p-side move to~ Ir/Iide ,and holes in the n-side move towards the p-side). In theopencircult, this leads to the ~ of electrons on n-side and of holes on p-side (Fig.34.14b) giving riso to an open-clrc1lil voltage Yoc (against the potential barrier). This is called photo-voltaic: e.m.f. and is ofdle order of 0.5 V for a silicon cell and 0.1 V for a germanium cell. The sehemati<.: symbol of the so1ar-cell is shown in Fig.34.-lS. It basically tepJesents a cell operated by ligilt.

p
, hv
~

~
hv
~

+ + + + + +

,-

".::::::::
(a)

-+

V ..

(b)

n,. :U.U: (aj Gmuadon tmd m _ ofclu1rge carriNs by photons. (b) lm cin:uit voltage _ tire jlmction <f photo. voIttdc 'coil

o~--r~~ r.i~,~,------o

FIg. JUS: Symbolic I'OptWtmtation ofa solar coil.

tJ. .: Solar cells are extensively used, to power the instruments of satellites and spKC J vehicles. They III'e also used in other simi1ar purpolleS such as in Immanned radio $taboos,
light houses and telephone repeaters.

'

,
~XT

QUESTIONS 34.3-----,_ _.-,;..._ _ _ __

1. Fill in the blanb with auitable word(s). , i) A semiconthtctor diode designed to operate in the breakdown reiton i.r called a ------diode. ii) LEDs emit light only when bwed. iii) Devices which convert light tlnergy directly into electric energy are ca/led---devices. iv) The optn circuit voltage ofa silicon solar cel111 i.r -----~' _than thlll ofa germanium solar cell. v) Ziner diodes are commonly used as regulators.

264

Semiconductor Devices

2. Write 'True' or 'False' againSt the following statements: . i) Once in breakdown, a Zener diode keeps its voltage p'actically constant. iii Light emission by LED is due to recombination ofelectrons and holes. iii) Aphotodiode is ajunction devf.e needingforward bias. iv) .Higher the illumination level, greater the reverse current ofa photodiode. v) Solar cell converts 'wI'S heat energy directly into electric energy. 3. Select one ofthe items lettered a,b,c or d that correctly completes the statement:
i) The colour of light emitted by 0 LED depends on 0) itsforward bias b) irs reverse bios c) the amount offorward current d) the type ofsemiconductor material used ii) A p-njunction photo-diode is

a) operated in forward direction c) a very fast photo-detector

b) encased in an opaque package d) depending on thermally-generated minority carrien

34.7 TRANSISTOR - STRUCfURE AND TYPES

This device was invented in 1948 by W.J.Brattain and J,Bardeen of Bell Telephone Laboratories, USA. They gave it the name transistor (transfer-resistor) and demonstrated its important amplitying action.

Transistor
The transistor is a semiconductor crystal which bas dIree doped regions and two p-njW1Ctions . . It bas Ii very thin n-type or p-type region sandwiched between a pair ofopposite type regiollSt' Accordingly, there are two types of transistors, namely (i) p-n-p transistor and (ii) n-p-il transistor.

>

Fig. 34.16 (a): p-n-p transistor

FIg. 34.16 (b): n-p-n transistor

A p-n-p transistor is composed of two p-type semiconductors separated by a very thin ntype section [Fig.34.I6(a)], whereas, a n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin p-type section [Fig.34.16(b).

In practice, a transistor is created by growing three different regions in the same semiconductor crystal by using special processes of adding conesponding imourities in tum. A transistor. thus , may be consi,dered as consisting of two p-n jW1Ctions connected ~k-to-back. But, it should be noted that twO discrete diodes connected back to back cannot act like a transistor because it will have four sections instead of three and the middle region
will not be very thin, as required for a transistor.

The following points may be noted about the strllCture and func1iooing of a transistor:
i) ii)

There are three sections and three termina1s are taken out from them. The middle section is very thin (10-6 m) and is called the base. .

\\ I
265

Physics

iii)

The sec lion on one side of the base the supplies the charge carriers (electrons or. holes) is called the emitter..For proper fimctioning of a transistor. the emitter is "'ways forward biased with respecllo the base (Fig.34.l7).
E
Enuttel' p

,&.__,
n

CoIlt:cmr p

r-:,---r-.-:,.."..--,
Bnuner n Colla:wrn

Fig. 34.11.' (a) Biusinf{ ofp-n~p transistor (b) Bia.fing ofn-p-n transinor

The section on the other sid~ of the base that collects the charge carriers is called the coUector. The collector is always reverse biased with respect to the base (Fig.34.17). v) The emitter is heavily ~oped, so that it supplies a iarge number of charge carriers to the base. The base is very highly doped, so that it does not offer much carriers to combine with the carriers from the emitter. 1be collector is moderately doped. vi) 1be junction between emitter and base is called emitter - base diode whereas, the junction between collector and base is called the collector - baSe diode. vii) Th\; resistance offered by til<! emitter diode is low, as it is forward biased. The resistance oftered by the collector diode is high, as it is reverse biased. viii) The forward bias applied to the emitter diode is very small whereas reverse bias applied to the collector diode is much higher. ix) The collector region is larger than the emitter region becaUSe it is required to dissipate more heat generated. But it is customary to show emitter and collector to be of equal size. Because of this difference, there is no possibility ofinverting the transistor, i.e. making its collector the emitter and vice-versa.
iv)

Transistor Symbols
The schematic symbols of the two types of transistors are shown in Fig.34.l8. Emitter Collector

(p-n-p)

(n-p-n)
Fig. 34.18: Symbolic "'I"""enlDlion qflransi:llfN

Note that there is an arrow on the emitter leg. The direction. of this arrow indicates the conventioual current flow with forward bias. The conventional current flows into the emitter (towards the base) in the p-n-p transistor, represented by the inward arrow.lnthe n-p-n transistor, electrons will flow towards the base from the n-type emitter under forward bias. Hence, the conventional curre~t flows OUI ofthe emitter, as indicated by the outward arrow.

266

Semicondt;ctor Devices

Meaning of the word 'Transistor'

Amplification is the important basic function of a transistor (you will learn about this in detail in the next chapten. For this purpose. a weak sig.'1lI1 is introduced in the input circuit of the transistor which is forward biased and has a low resistance. The oulput is taken from the output circuit. which is reverse biased and has high resistance. Therefore. a transistor trans}ers a signal from a low resistance 10 high resistance. Moreover. transistor is a solid element in the same general family with resistors. Hence the name transistor. made from the combination of the prefix 'trans and the suffix 'iSIOT' from these two words.
~4.7.1 Working

ora transistor

It has already been said that the emitter-base junction is forward biased. It is so. since the fmIction of emitter is to supply charge carriers to the base. This will be possible only under forward - bias which makes the charge carriers move towards the junction. Similarly, the collector base junction is reverse-biased. since collectors function is to receive the supply of charge carriers coming from the emitter, through the base. Hence. it needs to remove the charge from its junction with the base. i.e. away from the junction. It should be noted that the current in the collector terminal is not because of the flow of charges either of the collector or the base region (as this junction is reverse-biased); but it is mainly because of the carriers coming from the emitter junction (as this junction is forward-biased). That is. the emitter current almost entirely flows into the collector circuit. This is the basic transistor action. Let US examine this action for the two types of transistors ..

a) Working of n-p-n transistor

Fig.34.19 shows the n-p-n transistor with the battery VEB supplying forward bias to the emitter-base jlutction and the battery YcBsupplying reverse billS to the collector-base junction. Under the action of the forward biaS, the electrons in the n-type emitter move towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current h. As these electrons flow through the base. they tend to combine with the holes. But. since the base is very lightly doped and very thin, only a small fraction of electrons (less than 5%) are

p
~ ~ ~ ~ ~

n
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

IE
/

t
1
~.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Ie
/

~
18
I

~!
~lld I I,
+-"

.l.

vi
ED

~.

Fig. 34.19: Worldng ojn-p-n Iron,islor

able to combine with the holes in the base region. These electroDS move through the holes 10 the outer circuit and constitute base current 18 . The majority of electrons (more than

267

Physics

95%) injettedinto the base from the emitter are able to cross the base-coJlector junction. This is because they have not combined with the holes in the base region and the reverse bias on collector js quite high and exerts an attractive force on these electrons. Hence. these electrons flow into the collector terminal and constitute collector current Ic. In thisW!lY. almost entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It is clear that the emitter current . i~ the sum of collector and base currents. i.e.

'E =1. + Ie
The electrons from the collector end move in the outer circuit towards the positive battery terminal Vco. At the same tinte. more electrons flow into the emitter terminal from the .negative terminal of the battery VEB. Hence. the current will keep flowing in the circuit as long as the two batteries are connected in the cIrcuit. It should be noted that the conventional currents are in the opposite direction to the flow of electrons; i.e .. the collector current and base current flow into the respective regions whereas the emitter current flows out of the emitter region.

b) Working OfP-D-P transistor

Fig.34.20 shows the p-n~p transistor with the forward biasing battery VEO connected to the emitter-basejunction and reverse biasing battery VCB connected to the cOllector-base junction. Here. under the action of the forward bias, holes in the p-type emitter region move to~ the n-type base. Their flow constitutes the emitter current IE" As they reach the base region, most of them (more than 95%) cross the base-collector junction and reach the collector under the action of the reverse biased collector junction and a few of them (Ie5s than 5%) recombine with free electrons in the very lightly doped and very thin base region. This recombination constitutes a small base current I B which flows out of the base terminal. The holes which move towards the collector terminal. constitute collector current Ie. As a hole reaches the collector electrode. an electron comes from the negative battery.terminaI Vca and recombines with it. For each recombination

n
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

P
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

IE

f
!

'-

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Ie

"

I.

I't

t
--+ --+1 I 1.1 II

--+

J
I

--+

Fig. 34.10: Worlri"II ofp-n-p lramjslilf'

ta\<ing place at the collector electrode, a covalent bond is broken at the emitter electrode, the electron produced moves in the outer circuit towards the positive battery terminal VEB and the hole again moves towards the base. In this way, emitter current flows into the emitter terminal and collector and base currents out of the respective regions. Again IE =IB+lc

268

Semic:<Jnductor Devices

INTEXT QUESTIONS 34.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

~

I. State whether the fol/owing statements are 'True' or 'False ': i) . A transistor has two leads. ii) .A transistor has three ~njunctions iii) Two discrete diodes connected back to back cannot act like a transistor. iv) In n-~n transistor, collector is positive with respect to the base.
2. Select one ofthe items' littered a.b.c or d that correctly completes the statement. i) In n-~n trtu)Sistor. the electrons flow aj into the transistor at the emitter and base leads b) into the transistor at the collector and base lead5 c) out ofthe traJlSistor at the emitter and base leads d) out ofthe transistor at the collector and base leads. ii) In a properlybiased n-~n transistor, most ofthe electronsfromthe emitter aJ recombine with holes in the base b) rewcombine in the emitter itself c) are stopped by the junction barrier d) pass through the base to the collector

iii) In a properly biased n-~n transistor. most of the electrons from the emilter. (0) recombine with holes in the base (b) Fe combine in the emitter itself (c) are stopped by the junction barrier (d) pass through the base to the collector 3. In ~n-p transi.!tor, name the i) majority carriers in the emitter ii) majority carriers in the collector iii) minority carriers in the emmer iv) minority carriers in the base

34.8 TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS AND CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

We know that a transistor has three tenninals or leads namely emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C). However, when a transistor is connected in a circuit, we require four tenninals. i.e. two terminals for input and two for output. 'This difficulty is overcome by using one of the three circuits. Anyone of the three terminals can be used as a common tenninal. Hence, the tranSistor can operate under anyone of the three different types of circuit connections a) Common-base (eB) configuration b) eommon-emitter (eEl configuraticm c) Common-collector (eel configuration

Let us now consider these circuit configurations one by one and discuss some of the features
about them.

34.8.1 Common-Base (CB) Configuration

In this configuration, the transistor is' connected with the base as a common tenninal as shown in Figs.34.21 (a) and 34.2 I(b) for the p-n-p and n-p-n transistor respectively. The input is applied between the emitter and base tenninals. The output is taken between the collector and base terminals.
269.

Physics

IE

I(

IE
Signal

Ie

S\gnal

VES

r
Is

RI.

'"

V.B IB

VCB

'id
VEE

Vee

" " EE
(a) n-p-n

v~c

I,ll

(a) p-n-p

Fig. 34.21 :Common base circuits qta transistor

In this configuration, emitter current IE is the input current and collector current Ie is the output current. A d.c. voltage source VEE is connected to the input circuit Which provides I\mvard bias to the emitter with respect to the base. An a.c. signal source may also be connected to the input circuit (for the purpose of amplification). The voltage drop between the emitter and baseterrninals is designated as VEB. Similarly. a d.c. voltage source V';' is connected in the output circuit, to make the collector reverse biased with respect to the base. Here a load resistance RL is connected across which output can be taken. The voltage' drop between the collector and base terminals is designated as VCO' Thus VEo is the input voltage and VCB is the output voltage.

v.

_,--

D
I

JI V ED

Fig. 34.22 Circuil arrag.men/ chartle/_tic cu""" ofQ lrtJIIaill/or in commOll base CtJlffigratfOlU

Cbaracteristic Curves The different d.c. voltage and currents in.. transistor circuit are related to one-another. The curves which represent relationship between different d.c. voltage and currents of a transiSlOr are known as characteristics of transistor. The complete electrical behaviour of a transistor can be described by these graphical representations. The circuit arrangement shown' hi Fig.34.22 is used to obtain the characteristic curves for the common base configut'ltion for a n-p-n transistor. If the transistor is p-n-p, the tmninals of input and outp\ll d.c. volll\ge :sources will have to be interchanged. The two potentiometer resistors RJ and R2 supply variable voltages from the collector and emitter d.c. supplies. Voltmeters are connected between E and B to measure voltage VEiJ and between C and B to measure voltage Vca. Milliammeters are included in series with the emitter and collector circuits to measure IE
" <i_l.:,(";.'_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

270

SemlcondulOr Devices

There are two important sets of characteristic curves: i) .IDput characteristics: These are the curves which show the relationship between the Input current and Input voltage for a given output voltage. For the common base cbllfl~tion, these cl!fVes are obtained by Ge Se plotting corresponding values of input voltage i.e. emitter-base voltage VEB and ~Ul s:urrent i.e. emitter current IE along the x and y axis respectively. First, the 12 . collector-base voltage VCB is I!'ijusted to a suitable. yalue with the help of R 1 ~ 10 (Fig.34.22). Next, voltage VBE is increased ~8 in small steps (i.e. of the order of 0.1 Vor -'" 6 so) and the corresponding values of ~ are noted from the milliammeter connected in 4 the emitter circuit. When plotted, we get the 2 input characteristics shown in Fig.34.23, one for Ge and the other for Si. Both the curves are exactly similar to the forward 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 characteristics of a p-n diode (what ..... V EB (V) eventually the emitter-base junction is). The Fig. 14.11: Input ChQFQClerislics ofa presence of knee voltage VK can be seen, tralUistor in common base configuralion below which the emitter current is negligibly small. It is approximately 0.2 V . for Ge and 0.5 V for Si transistors. Beyond the knee voltage, IE increases rapidly with a small increase in V EB It means tbatillpldrai.mmce(R;)ofa transistor inCB configuration is very small. Its value is given by the reciprocal of the slope of the input characteristic curve.
~

Its value over linear part of the characteristic is about SO n . The in!Iut characteristic curve is hardly affected by changes eithedn Vf'A or in temperature.

ii) Output characteristics: These are the curves which show the relationship between the output voltage and output current for a given ~ut current. These curves are thus obtained ereakcloWn region by plotting the corresponding values of output voltage i.e. collector-base voltage VCB.and output ~ current i.e. collector current Ic along the x- and y-axis respectively. The circuit of Fig.34.22 is le= 10 rnA again used. First movable contact on R2 is changed IE= 8 rnA to get a suitable value of YBE and hence IE. While IE= 6 rnA keeping IE constantat thi.~ value, VCB is increased from zero in a number of steps and the le=4 rnA corresponding collector current Ic is noted. Next IE=~ rnA VCB is redm:ed to zero, IE is increased to a value a 2 little bigber than befoie and the whole process is 1.=0 o 2 4 8 8 10 0 repeated. In this way, the whole family of the Vail.V)output characteristic curves is obtained (as shown FIg. Y.U: 0IItpuJ cllflracteristiC3 ofII in Fig.34.24). The following poirUs can be noted trans;'lor /11 c_",on /xu. _fipNtion &om these curves:

271

Pbysics

I.

It is seen that Icflows even when "CD = O. It is due to thefocr that thecltarge cwriers are injected into the base under the action offorward biased E-B junction and are being collectd by the collector under the action ofthe internal junction potefltial at CBjunction.

2. .A. small amount ofcollector current (lc = IleakiNeJ flows even when emitter ClllT8nt IE = O. As you know.fSection 34. 6(ij)1 it is the leakage current under the reverse b~ed:. CBjunction.
3. IC is practically independent of "CD over the working range of the transistor. Yet, if "CD is increased beyond a certain value. IC increases due to avalanche breakdown as shown in Fig.34.24. .
4.
The output resistance (RaJ ofthe transistor in CB configuration is very high (as Ic is almost constant with respect to "cnJ. Its value is given by the reciprocal ofthe slope of the horizontal part ofthe characteristics i.e.

Ra

= (A

"cd

Ie) - IEconstant
.

Its value is very high, of the order of 500 k Q

34.8.2 Common Emitter (eE) Configuration

In this configuration, the transistor is conneCted with the emitter as a common termfual as shoWn in Fig.34.25(a) and Fig.34.2S(b), for the p-n-p and n-p-n transistors respectively. 'file iI!}lut is applied between the base and emitterterminals and the output is taken between the .col~tor and emitter terminals.

Fig. 34.25 (Common

_itt.,. cin:J1it8 ofa Il'rIIriIimJr (er) P"""P (b)

n-p-II)

In this configuration, base current IB is the input current and collector current Ie is the output current. D.C. voltage sourees "BB and are used to forward bias the input circuit (B-E circuit) and reverse bias the output circuit (C-E circuit) respectively. "BE and "CE are the respective input and output voltages.

"cc

Characteristic Curves As stated earlier. these are the curves lepresenting the relationship between difi'enmt d.c. voltages and currents of the input'and output circuits. The circuit 8Il"'I8""'ent shown in Fig.34.26 is used to obtain the characteristi" curves for a n-p-n transistor in the CE configuration. For the p-n-p transittor. the Polarities oftbe twO Voltage sounies VaB ad Vee will have to be interchanged. A microammeter is c:onnected in the input circUit and milliammeter in the output circuit to measure the input and output currents. The d.c. vol. .

272

Semioonductor Devices

. in the input and output circuits can be varied by cbangipg the positions of the potentiometers RI and !:tl respectively and can be measured by the voltmeters connected in the respecli'te "'cuits.

V ...

R,

R,

Fig. 34.16: Circuit arrangement for charateristics curves ofa transistor it; Common emitler Config~rOl;on

Again. we Will study the two important se!s of characteristic curves for this circuit configuration. These are i) laput Characteristics: These curves give the relationship between the base current (IB) and the base-to-emitter voltage (VBE) for a constant collector-to-emitter voltage (VeE)' To obtain these curves. voltage VeE is maintained constant at a convenient value and then VBE is 80 increased in small steps. The procedure is then repeated for a different but constant value of VCE. 60 Knee A typical input characteristic curve is shown in Fig.34.27 where the corresponding values of V BE _I:. 20 and IB are plotted along the x- and y-axis . respectively. Like the C-B conner.tion. the 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 overail slope resembles the forward characteristic of a p-n diode. Again, there exists VB. (V)--+ a knee voltage be~ow which the base current is negligibly small; Beyond the knee. the base Fig. 34.27: Input ,haracterUlic.v q/tl current IBincreases With the incre~ in VBE' ItransiStor in common em;lIer conjigur,,/ion However. the base current does not increase as rapidly as the input current in the CB transistor. It means that the input resistance of a CE configuration is higher as compared )0 the common base configuration. It is given as shown in fig. 34.27.

1-40
~

R;

It may be noted that the input characteristic is non-linear in the lower region. Hence. the input resistance varies with the location ofthe operating point.Its values ranges beteen 500 Q :0 SOIl!' U. There is a slight effect of the increase in VCE on lB. The curves shift downwards for higher values of VeE'

273

Physics

ii) Output eharacteristics: These are the curves which show the relationship between the collector current Ie and collector-eJllitter volrtage V CE at constant ...alue of base clllTCnt lB. For obtaining this characteristic, 8 Is 80 "" fIrst IBis set to a convenient value (using 6 resistance R1 it! Fig.34.26) and maintained Is 80 "" constant and then VCE is increased from zero Saluntian in suitable steps (using R2) and IC noted at ~ 4 .,..11ne Is 40 "" - ..... each step. Next, YCE is reduced to zero and ~ ~ V"" , IB increased to another convenient value and 2 I. 20 "" tJc the whole procedure repeated. In this way, a 1.= 0 family of curves (Fig.34.28,) is obtained by plotting the correspondingvaluesof VCEand 0 5 10 1, " 20 Ie along the x- and y-axis respectively. The V",,(V)~ following points can be noted from these curves: FIg_ 34.28: Output characteristics ofa trO'!8islor in common emitter co,g;gura/ion 1. As VCE increases from zero, Ic rapidly increases to a near saturation levelfor cifixed value ofiB ({or VCEsay upto 1 J? 2. When VCE is increused further, Ic increases slightly. This Implies a large output resistance for the circuit, however, it is smaller than the CO"esponding resistance in the CB configuration.I{ is given as the increase slope ofthe curve, i.e.

= = = -=

( VCD A Ie) at constant IB

3.

It rangesfrom 10 k n to 50 w.. When the base current is zerO,ll small collector current still flUW8. It is the leakage
current. .

4.

If VCN is increased beyond a certain limit, the junction will breakdown with large
collector current. This is alwOJl6 to be avoided

34.8.3 Common CoUector (cq Configuration

In this type of transistor cmmection, collector is common to both input aud output circuits.
Input is applied between base and collector while output is taken between emitter and collector..Fig.34.29(a) aDd Fig.34.29(b) sbowthe 00!!!I'!I!ln collectorp-n-ll ~p-n ttansistor
circuits respectively.

II

<a>
174

V.

(b)

Sl!miqmduc~or

De" ic~s

Her<!./B is the input current and IE is the output current. The voltage V EB forward-biases the emitter-hase Junction and Vee reverse-biases the collector-baselunction of the transistor. An external reSiSlan(;C is connected to the emitter. across which the output is taken.
rhi~ type "f circlIIt contiguratlOn is nO! of much practical imponance. It has very high input resistance (abotll 75() K) and very low output resistanc" '. about 25 n J. This circuit is. thus. primaril) used Ill[ impedance matchlllg. c.g.. tor driving a low resistance load from a high resistance SOUrce.

Both CB and CE circuits can be used tor amplificalton purpose. However. as you will stud)' in detail in the next chapter. the CE circuit is used III about 95% of the applications of the transistor.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 34.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I. Select one <ilthe items lettered a,b.c or d that corre.etly completes the statement: i)A transistor connected in common-base configuration has a) "high input resistance and a low output resistance b) "low inl'lIt resistance and a high outpllt resistance c) 010\1' il1pllt resistance and a law output resistance d) a high il1pllt resistance and a high output resistance ii) The ('olleclal' characteristics oja common-emitter connected transistor may be used to find its. a) il1put resist<Jllce b) outpllt resistance c) base current d) voltage gain iii) 1n common-col/ector circuit, input resistallce is b) very low a) velJ' high c) modaare d) =ero ivY A small increase in collector-base reverse bias will cause 'a) a large increase in emitter, current bl a large increase in col/ector current c) very little change in col/ector reverse saturation current dl a large decrease in collector current

34.9 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

The contact surface formed on joining p-type semiconductor suitably to n-type semiconductor. is called p-njunction. Diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction creates a depletion layer. A barrier potential is developed across the junction due 10 the accumulation ofimmobile charge in the depleti~n layer. External voltage can be applied to a p-njunction in two ways which are called forward biasing and reverse biasing. A p-n junction behaves differently under forward and reverse biasing. A p-n junction is called a semiconductor diode. Zener diode is a special diode which operates in the breakdown region. Light emitling diode (LED) emits light on recombination of electrons and holes. Photo-diode gives useful current when light falls on it. It acts as a very fast photodetector.

275

Physic~

Sol~ cell acts as source of electrical energy. using the light energy of sun . The transistor is a semiconductor crystal which has two p-n junctions'imd three dopcid tegions called emitter, base and collector In a transistor, emitter and collector are doped with the same type of impUrity. while the base is doped with the opposite type of impurity The emitter is hea';'il) doped, base is very lightly doped and the doping level of the collector lies between thaI of the base and emitter The base in the transistor is made very thin along with having very light doping, to reduce the base curren! (due to recombination of charge carriers) Transistors are of two types viz. n-p-n and p-n-p. There can be three types of configuration of a transistor in a circuit, viz. common base (CBI. common emitter (eE) and common collector (CC) The transislor shows different characteristics in different configurations.

34.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

I. What is a p-n junction and how is it formed? 2. What does the space charge at a p-njunction consist of! 3. What is the meaning of break-down ofa p-njunction? 4. With the help of diagram. discuss the current-voltsge characteristic of a p-n junction diode. 5. Discllss the effect of biasing on the height of the barrier potential at a p-njunction. 6. Why the p-njunction is called a diode? How its terminals are identified? 7. What is a Zener diode? Explain its functioning. 8. In what respect is a LED different from an ordinary p-n junction diode? State applications ofLEDs. 9. Draw the notstions of an ordinary p-n junction diode, Zener diode, LED, photo diode and solar cell. 10. Explain the functioning of a solar cell. II. What is a transistor? Why is it so called? 12. Describe the working of n-p-n transistor. 13. Name the three possible transistor connections. Draw the circuit diagrams for all the three types of connections in the case of n-p-n transistor. 14. How will you determine the input and output characteristics of CE cottQel)ti()n experirnentslly.

,.

15. i) a) c)
ii)

Select one of the items lettered a. b, c or d that correctly completes the statement: 'The emitter of' a transistor is generally doped the heaviest beclllSe it has to dissipate DlIIXiIpwn power b) has to supply the charge carriers is the first region of tlletransistor il) must possess low resistanu For proper functioning of the transistor its EIB junction is always forward biased and ClBjunction wverse biased. its BIB junction is always reverse biased and CIB junction. forward hissed. both the junctions are forward biased both the junctions are reverse biased,

a) b) c) il)

16. In a transistor name the region which is i) supplier of charge carriers ii) very lightly doped iii) largest of the three regions iv) very thin

276

"

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

IIIlCd fllle#ltNu - 3M I. (i) blnier, 0.7 V .2. (i) b I.I11C1C1 Qrnrsth". - 34.1. I. (i)'braIuIown
(v) minority (ii) both (ii) d
(iii) mobile, ions (iii) c

(iv) diffusion

1'*Irt qt _ - 34..3 I. (i) Ziner(ii) fonwud 2, (i) True (ii) True 3, (i) d (ii) c

a'

(ii) reverse. minority (iii) minority (vi) bcavUy,lIIIIiow (vii) breaking, bigh

(iv) zero

(iii)pboIo-voItaic (iii) False

(iv>more (iv) True

(v) voltage (v) False

4. (i) b

.,;L (i) I, (i) 3, (i) IIIICICI L (i)

lidat 0'-- -3M

S.'" (il

emiUer.
F_ d boles b

(ii) (ii)buc (ii) Faile (ii) (ii) bOles (ii) b

(iii)collector (ii) True (iii) d (iii)clectrons (iii).

(iv)lIuc

(iv) True (iv) holes

(iv) 0

fl-'" -

34..5

2n