The Magnetic Compass Card

A compass card usually has direction pointers consisting of 32 points. The four principal, or cardinal, points are north, east, south, and west. They are marked N, E, S, and W. Between these lie the intercardinal points, such as northeast (NE). Further division gives such points as north-northeast (NNE). A final division is by points, such as north by east (N by E). Naming all the points of a compass in their order is called boxing the compass.

Each point is eleven and a quarter degree (11.25deg) From North to East the points are as follows: N means North (000 or 360)
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 NxE means North by East (11.25 deg) NNE means North North East (22.5 deg) NExN means North East by North ( 33.75 deg) NE means North East (45 deg) NExE means North East by East (56.25 deg) ENE means East North East (67.5deg) ExN means East by North (78.75 deg) E means East (90 deg) ExS ESE. SExE SE. SExS.. SSE. SxE Complete the missing letters write the abbreviation and equivalent degrees. S Sx.. SSW. SWx SW SWx WSW.. WxS W
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 Box up from West to East.

Two types of Compass Cards

Dry Card Compass Wet Card Compass The Dry Card Compass
The dry-card compass used on ships consists of a system of magnetized needles, suspended by silk threads from a graduated compass card about 25 cm (10 in) in diameter. The magnetic axes of the needles are parallel to the card's north and south graduations.At the center of the card is fitted a cap with a jewel bearing. It rests on a hard,sharply pointed pivot. The point of support is above the system's center of gravity so that the card always assumes a horizontal plane. Painted on the bowl that accommodates the card is a lubber line against which the heading of the craft is read. The compass card is made of rice paper.
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Disadvantages of dry compass card: The dry card compass is too sensitive for steering purpose especially in bad weather. Even small disturbances cause the dry card to oscillate.

The Wet Compass Card.

In a liquid compass the card is mounted in a sealed bowl filled with a liquid which has the following properties low freezing point about -30 deg C small coefficient of expansion does not discolour the card low relative density about 0.93. The buoyancy of the card is adjusted so that it floats, thus ensuring the minimum possible friction between the cap and the pivot. Frictional force between the cap and the pivot reduces the sensitivity of the compass. In a wet card compass the oscillations are damped, without loss of accuracy, by immersing the card in a liquid. The card therefore has a dead beat.

The Compass Bowl

A-magnets, B-compass card, C-compass bowl, D-fluid, E-float, F-expansion bellows,

The Compass bowl containing the compass card with its needles mounted on a pivot and has a provision for illuminating the compass face from below. The bowl is filled with a nonfreezing liquid on which the card floats to reduce vibrations. The compass bowl is mounted in a system of double rings
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on bearings, known as gimbals, permitting the compass card to ride flat and steady no matter how the ship may roll. On the forward inside edge of the bowl is a vertical line called a lubber's line. This marks the "dead ahead" of the ship. In steering, the helmsman watches the mark for his course on the compass card, keeping it always opposite the lubber's line. The Compass Binnacle

The compass binnacle is a cylindrical container made of teak wood and brass. No magnetic materials are used in its construction. The compass bowl is slung inside the top portion of the binnacle. The middle portion is accessible by a door and contains an electric bulb. This bulb illuminates the compass card from below. The intensity of illumination is adjustable. Apart from the compass bowl the correctors magnets to nullify the magnetic deviation caused due to the hard and soft iron magnetic components are also located within the binnacle. Dangers of Magnetic materials in the vicinity of the compass A magnetic compass must be shielded as much as possible from extraneous magnetic fields (ex. Motors, relays, generators, or simply other magnets or magnetic materials, because it can cause the pointer(magnetic needle) to move, overpowering the Earth's magnetism.

 The case enclosing the device must be made of non-magnetic material such as brass, aluminum, special stainless-steel alloys, or plastic. A sufficiently strong magnet, or even a piece of non-magnetized iron brought near to even the best magnetic compass will cause the magnetic needle to move and will give erroneous directions. Hence care should be taken to ensure that all magnetic materials such as aerials, stays, electrical machinery, electric wires and others as mentioned above should be kept well away from the compass.

M notices relating to compasses

Marine Guidance Notices give significant advice and guidance relating to the improvement of the safety of shipping and of life at sea, and to prevent or minimise pollution from shipping.

MGN 279( This notice supersedes M.1199 and MSN 1199)

Certificate of Competency as Compass Adjuster: This notice details the new
requirements for experience prior to examination for a certificate of competency as a compass adjuster.

SOLAS chapter V/ Reg 19: provides details relevant to carriage requirements for ship borne navigational systems and equipment. Under Reg 19/Annex 13 provides details about the following:
OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND TESTING OF MAGNETIC COMPASSES Performance standards Responsibility for Maintenance Adjustment of Compasses Effects of Changes in Magnetism During the Life of a Ship Monitoring Compass Performance Adjustments and Repairs Portable Equipment that may interfere with Compasses

Spare Bowl Transmitting Magnetic Compasses (TMC) Emergency Steering position

Standard Compass: The standard compass is a magnetic compass used for navigation, mounted in a suitable binnacle containing the required correcting devices and equipped with a suitable azimuth reading device.

Steering Compass: The steering compass is a magnetic compass used for steering purposes mounted in a suitable binnacle containing the required correcting devices. Note: If the transmitted image of a sector of the standard compass card of at least 15 to each side of the lubber mark is clearly readable for steering purposes at the main steering position, both in daylight and artificial light according to 5.7.1(i.e., Primary and emergency
illumination shall be so that the card may be read at all times. Facilities for dimming shall be provided.)then the standard compass can also be

regarded as the steering compass. Projector or reflector compass: A magnetic compass in which the image of the compass card is viewed by direct reflection in a mirror adjacent to the helmsman's position

Transmitting magnetic compass - TMC A TMC system transmits ship's magnetic compass heading for display below decks. The basic system comprises.

Interface and distribution box. TAPE and DIGITAL REPEATER Retransmission units

Compass heading Repeater has a high contrast fluorescent display capable of indicating ships heading in both digital and tape repeater formats. A tactile keypad enables the helmsman to choose a series of displays to suit the moment. Screens display a tape width of 30 or 25 degrees, digital with rate of turn, or 41 mm high big digital figures.

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The instrument's high voltage display unit makes it unsuitable for mounting outside, unless it is in an environmental protective housing. Fluxgate compass

The basic fluxgate compass is a simple electromagnetic device that employs two or more small coils of wire around a core of highly permeable magnetic material, to directly sense the direction of the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field. The advantages of this mechanism over a magnetic compass are that the reading is in electronic form and can be digitized and transmitted easily, displayed remotely, and used by an electronic autopilot for course correction. To avoid inaccuracies created by the vertical component of the field, the fluxgate array must be kept as flat as possible by mounting it on gimbals or using a fluid suspension system. All the same, inertial errors are inevitable when the vessel is turning sharply or being tossed about by rough seas. Gyrocompass:

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The gyrocompass receives its directional information from a rapidly spinning gyroscope driven by electric motors. Its directive action is based on the mechanical laws governing the dynamics of rotating bodies. When any object is spinning it tends to keep its axis pointed in the same direction, and if a force is applied to deflect its orientation it responds by moving at right angles to the applied force. The gyrocompass consists of a gimbal-mounted spinning gyroscope made north-seeking by placing a weight below the axis. As the Earth rotates gravitational pull on the weight attempts to change the gyroscope's axis of rotation. The resulting motion of the axis of the gyroscope at right-angles to the applied force causes it to move so as to align itself with the Earth's axis of rotation. A few hours of operation is usually sufficient to align the gyrocompass with the Earth's axis.

All the practical applications of the gyroscope are based upon two fundamental characteristics, namely 'Gyroscopic Inertia' and 'Precession'. The first, 'Gyroscopic Inertia', or 'rigidity in space' as it is sometimes known, is the tendency of any rotating body to preserve its plane of rotation. The second, 'Precession', is that property which, when a couple is applied, causes the gyroscope to move, not in the direction of the couple, but in a direction at right angles to the axis of the applied couple, and also at right
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angles to the axis of the spinning wheel. With these two properties, and by the utilization of the Earth's two natural properties, rotation and gravity, the gyroscope can be made 'north-seeking', and once it has settled on the true meridian it will remain there indefinitely, so long as the ship's electrical supply remains constant, and no external forces are permitted to disturb it. Checking and comparing gyro compass with magnetic compass A gyro compass is an electronic/mechanical device with inherent error. Causes of Error Friction Ships Motion Electronic Malfunctions Power Fluctuations

In the event of gyro failure the magnetic compass can be used to know ships head.Then the magnetic heading can be converted to true bearing. Most oceangoing vessels, including all navy warships, have at least one gyro compass installed and use the magnetic compass as a backup in case of gyro failure, and as a primary means of checking gyrocompass accuracy while underway.Hence due to the above reasons it is imperative to check and compare the gyro and magnetic compass readings.

Compass alarms and off course alarms Gyro compass built - in alarms are: power failure : It is a audible and visual alarm which activates when the power supply to gyro unit is cut off or if there is any fluctuation gyro failure: It is a audible and visual alarm which activates when there is a failure/malfunction of any component of gyro unit

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 system failure: It is a audible and visual alarm which activates when there is a failure/malfunction of the gyro system(i.e master gyro and the repeaters) off course alarm: It is an audible and visual alarm which activates when course steered by the auto pilot exceeds the set heading by more than a specific angle* for a particular period of time(say 20sec). *(the angle can be set with respect to the prevailing weather conditions) Azimuth mirror. This is a nonmagnetic metal ring. It is sized to fit a 7 1/2-inch compass bowl or a gyro repeater. The inner lip is marked in degrees from 0 to 360 counterclockwise for measuring relative bearings. The azimuth circle is fitted with two sighting vanes. The forward or far vane has a vertical wire and the after or near vane has a peep sight. Two finger lugs are used to position the instrument while aligning the vanes. A hinged reflector vane mounted at the base and beyond the forward vane is used for reflecting stars and planets when observing azimuths. Beneath the forward vane are mounted a reflecting mirror and the extended vertical wire.

This lets the mate read the bearing or azimuth from the reflected portion of the compass card. For taking azimuths of the sun, an additional reflecting
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mirror and housing are mounted on the ring, each midway between the forward and after vanes. The suns rays are reflected by the mirror to the housing, where a vertical slit admits a line of light. This admitted light passes through a 45o reflecting prism and is projected on the compass card from which the azimuth is directly read. In observing both bearings and azimuths, two attached spirit levels are used to level the instrument. An azimuth circle without the housing and spare mirror is called a bearing circle. The Earths magnetic field and its changes with position and time - Some basic principles: A compass is a magnet which can align itself within the earth's magnetic field. A magnet contains a north-seeking pole (north pole) and a southseeking pole (south pole). Similar magnetic poles repel. Opposite magnetic poles attract. (Law of Magnetic Poles) A magnetic field is a region in space where a magnetic force can be detected. The magnetic field is strongest at the poles of a magnet. Magnetic lines of force are a way of representing a magnetic field. By convention, magnetic lines of force point from north to south outside a magnet (and from south to north inside a magnet). Magnetic lines of force form complete loops. They never cross.

A compasss basically is a magnetic needle that can rotate freely. The earth has a magnetic field. The magnetic north and south pole roughly correspond
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to the earth geographic North and South Pole. Since equal magnet poles repel and opposite magnet poles attract each other, our magnetic needle will align itself with the earth magnetic field: the south pole of the needle will point to the earth's north pole, the north pole of the needle will point to the earth's south pole. The angle of traveling with respect to the direction indicated by the needle (measured clockwise, always positive) is called magnetic azimuth. With a Compass Reading you measure this magnetic azimuth. The azimuth usually is measured in degrees (0-360). Direction is measured with respect to the North Pole. This is called the Geographic North or True North. Direction with respect to the True North is called the True Direction. Compasses do not exactly point to the True North. A Compass Reading exhibits Compass Error. Compass Error is due to following facts:

Magnetic Variation or Declination. The earth magnetic north pole is located near the northern islands of Canada, at approximately 78.9N latitude and 103.8W, about 1200 km from the geographic North Pole. A compass points to the magnetic north pole and not to the geographic North Pole. The difference between the True Direction and the compass heading is called Magnetic Variation. The amount of variation depends on the location on earth. It even changes in time, since the magnetic north pole moves a few km per year. Variation is expressed as e.g. 225' West. This means at this position the compass needle points 225' to the west with respect to true direction of the True North. Variations can be as large as 20

MagneticVariation

compassrose

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The variation for any given locality, together with the amount of annual increase or decrease, is shown on the compass rose of the chart for that particular locality. The "compass rose" (Figure 6-5) indicates that in 1964 there was a 14 45 westerly variation in that area, increasing 2 annually. To find the amount of variation in this specific locality, determine how many years have elapsed since 1964, multiply that number by the amount of annual increase, and add that sum to the variation in 1964. You add it in this example, because it is an annual increase. If it were decreasing, you would subtract it. Variation normally is rounded off to the nearest 0.5 . Variation remains the same for any heading of the ship at a given locality. No matter which direction the ship is heading, the magnetic compass, if affected by variation only, points steadily in the general direction of the magnetic north pole. Remember, always use the compass rose that is closest to the area in which you are located

Deviation. Ferrous (iron, steel) objects, magnets, flowing electrical current (magnetic field!) influence the reading of the compass. This results in an error in the compass readout. Ship magnetism is of two types:Permanent. Magnetism in steel or hard iron that acts as a permanent magnet. Induced. Magnetism of soft iron, which is only temporary and is constantly changing depending upon ships heading and latitude. This error depends on the compass heading. Most ships compasses can be adjusted to eliminate entirely or partly the compass deviation. Deviation left is documented on a deviation card. For various compass directions the deviation is documented (usually in a deviation vs. heading plot).

METHODS OF DETERMINING DEVIATION

The most convenient method of determining deviation, and the one most commonly used, is to check the compass on each 15o heading against a properly functioning gyrocompass. Because the ship must be on a magnetic heading when determining deviation, gyro error and local variation must be applied to each gyro heading. It is a simple process to station personnel at

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each magnetic compass and have them record the amount of deviation for each compass upon signal from an observer at the gyrocompass or repeaters.

DEVIATION CARD

SWINGING THE SHIP

DEVIATION GRAPH

Compare with a magnetic compass of known deviation. This method is similar to comparison with a gyrocompass except that it is not necessary to know the local variation. This method is used frequently by ships not equipped with gyrocompasses. Determine deviation of the magnetic compass by a range. Deviation is not the same on every heading. Therefore, the deviation that exists on the various headings must be recorded so the correction for compass error will be known. Use a process called "swinging ship" to determine and record the deviation your ship is headed through every 15 of the compass. The ship is steadied on each 15 . The navigator usually is stationed at the standard compass and ships personnel are stationed at the other magnetic compasses. As the ship steadies upon one of the 15 increments of the compass and the compasses settle down, the navigator gives the signal to record the deviation on that heading. When the process of swing ship is completed and the deviation for the 24 headings recorded, the deviations are transferred to a deviation card as shown. The deviation card contains important information that is necessary for future compass adjustment as well as for computing compass error.
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Before a final recording is posted on the deviation card, a simple graph is made to plot the recorded deviations. This graph will quickly show if the deviation found for each of the 24 headings is consistent. When each of the deviations is plotted on the graph, a line connecting the points should form a smooth curve. Do not expect all points to be on the smooth curve, but they should be close. If you find one heading way off (2 -1 or 3 ), go back and check the deviation on that heading again. To compute the deviation on any magnetic heading not given in the table, it is necessary to interpolate between the two nearest recorded readings. If the deviations recorded on each 15 heading do not vary by more than 1/2 from the adjacent readings, you may use the deviation for the heading nearest the one you are checking Limitations of Magnetic compass The following characteristics of the magnetic compass limit its directionfinding ability. Sensitive to any magnetic disturbance. Useless at the magnetic poles and is sluggish and unreliable in areas near the poles. Deviation (explained later) changes as a ships magnetic properties change. The magnetic properties also change with changes in the ships structure or magnetic cargo. Deviation changes with heading. The ship as well as the earth may be considered as a magnet. The effect of the ships magnetism upon the compass changes with the heading. Does not point to true north. Components of steering systems and their function The Wheel:

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The wheel of a ship is the modern method of changing the angle of the rudder to change the direction of the ship. It is also called the helm, together with the rest of the steering mechanism.The wheel is typically connected to a electric or electrohydraulic steering mechanism by which the order of the wheel is transmitted to the rudder. Helm indicators or rudder angle indicator

Rudder angle indicator displays the actual rudder position to the steering stand and control station of the ship. Transmission of the actual rudder position is carried out via a precision potentiometer (conductive plastic potentiometer) by the rudder angle transmitter. Steering motors:

These are permanent magnet electric motor which receives command signals from a manual helm or an automatic pilot or otherwise, and drives one of the moving members of the control valve in the hydraulic pump. Rudder

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Rudders have a generally symmetrical aerofoil shape in their cross section and steer the ship as water exerts more force on one side of the rudder than on the other. When the ship is going straight ahead the rudder is also more or less straight ahead with equal water pressure on both sides. When the rudder turns, say with the trailing edge rotating to the starboard side, there is greater water pressure on the starboard side of the rudder than there is on the port. This pushes the stern to port thus steering the ship to starboard. A rudder can only be as effective as the water that is passing over it. With a stationary ship, the rudder has no effect. Rate of turn indicators

The Rate-of-Turn Indicator equipment is an aid for steering and maneuvering vessels by measuring swing (rate-of-turn) in degrees/minute using the combination of gyro technology and a microprocessor unit. A vessel swinging under the influence of helm can be efficiently and effectively steadied on a desired heading by observing the rate of turn and by giving appropriate counter helm.

Emergency Steering Systems Change over procedures

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Emergency steering system takes over when there is a failure or malfunctioning of the main and auxillary steering system.The procedure for changeover to emergency steering system differs from ship to ship but the basic principle is as follows While trying out changeover the wheel from autopilot to handsteering Put the wheel to midships and put off the system from the bridge At emergency steering compartment change over pin as per procedures applicable to that particular type of ship so as to take local control of steering from the emergency steering platform.By doing this operation the control equipment which conveys the signal from bridge to steering flat is bypassed. Steer the v/l from emergency steering platform by using the compass at the steering flat and listening to the command from bridge either by phone or W/T. Regulations pertaining to emergency steering gear drills Emergency steering drills shall take place at least once every 3 months to practice emergency steering procedures. These drills shall include testing of direct control from the steering gear room, communications, and operation of any alternate power supplies. All officers concerned with the operation or maintenance of steering gear shall be familiar with the operation of the steering systems fitted on the ship, and with the procedures for changing from one system to another (see SOLAS 74/78). Within 12 hours of departure, or within 48 hours prior to entering U.S. waters, the ship's steering gear shall be checked and tested by the crew. The test procedure shall include, where applicable, operation of the following:

The main steering gear; The auxiliary steering gear; The remote steering gear control system; The steering positions located on the navigating bridge; The emergency power supply; All rudder angle indicators in relation to the actual position of the rudder; All steering gear control system power failure alarms.
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The steering gear power failure alarms.

Auto pilot system The auto pilot is basically used when a ship has to steer a set course for a long time without alteration because any deviation from the set course is controlled electronically and automatically. This is achieved by comparing the course to steer as set by the navigator with the ships heading obtained from gyro or magnetic compass, any difference between the two wil cause an error and correcting helm is applied to the rudder such that the heading is brought to the same value as the set course. Advantages of auto pilot system are: By using auto pilot over a long period of time, the average speed of the ship increases as the ship does not zig zag across. Ensures steering gear operates to a minimum. It reduces the fuel consumption.

wheel

contol unit

telemotor

Steering gear

As shown in the above figure the output from a gyro compass is coupled to the comparator in the control unit along with the input signal from manual course setting control. Any difference between the two signals causes an
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output error signal whose magnitude is propotional to the difference between the two signals.

nfu button

follow up amplifier

wheel
.

servomotor

actuator

steering mode selector switch

Proportional control : This causes the rudder to move by an amount proportional to the off course error from the course to steer and the ship will oscillate on either side of the required course Basic Systems Dual Follow-up (Dual FU)The required rudder angle is selected on the mechanical rudder position indicator at the follow-up handwheel or tiller. The servo mechanism of the steering gear is operated by one amplifier (1 amplifier per pump or valve according to IMO or SOLAS) and the rudder is moved until it reaches the required angle. The actual rudder position is transmitted by the feedback unit.

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Dual Non-Follow-up (Dual NFU) To command a rudder, electrical movement contacts are made by moving the NFU tiller. The rudder position is changed as long as the contact is held. The steering gear is controlled according to IMO or SOLAS (1 contact set per pump or valve). During the steering process, the actual rudder angle should be checked on the rudder position indicator. FU/Dual NFU Depending on the type of steering selector at the steering mode selector switch, the steering gear is controlled by the follow-up or the non-follow-up control system. Each of the two steering systems is able to control both pumps of the steering gear. Due to the redundant (dual) design of the non-follow-up controls, this system is the main steering control in this configuration according to IMO or SOLAS. Auto pilot Controls Course selector knob this is the primary control of the auto pilot system and the course to be steered is selected with the help of this knob. Rudder control This control determines the amount of rudder to be used to correct the slightest amount of deviation from the set course.More the settings more rudder angle is used to correct the deviation and viceversa. Counter rudder This control determines the amount of counter actionby the rudder to be used to steady the ship on the set course keeping the overshoot to a minimum. Yaw The setting of the yaw control depends on the wind and weather condition and their effect on the course keeping ability of the ship. Permanent helm This control is used when the ship is being driven off course by cross winds. Rudder angle used should be just sufficient to offset this drift

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 Speed The speed of the ship determines effectiveness of the rudder. The lower the speed, less effective is the rudder and viceversa. Speed input is usually given from the log and in case of log not working manual speed can be fed. Rudder limit This control specifies the maximum amount of rudder to be used, when correcting the ships head or when altering course on auto-pilot itself. Off course alarm This alarm is activated if the ship deviates from the set course by a pre-decided limit which is fed into the equipment. Synchronisation control This control temporarily disconnects the gyro repeater from the main gyro so that the heading of the repeater can be synchronized with the master gyro. This is usually not required to be done except when the gyro is switched off and restarted or for exceptional reasons the repeater has drifted off. Dimmer This is panel illumination switch and must be set so that the panel and controls are clearly visible at night without affecting the night vision of the OOW. Auto/Follow up/Non follow up This switch allows the navigator to choose between automatic steering or manual steering and in case of manual steering failure non follow system may also be chosen. Changeover procedure from manual steering to auto pilot Steady the vessel on the desired heading Put the wheel to midships Set the autopilot heading indicator on to the desired heading Turn the knob on the steering panel from hand steering to auto pilot check and confirm if auto pilot is steering the desired heading Helm orders exercises Command: At full sea speed, while on a northeasterly heading, when hearing the command in English, Steer 342.

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Action to be taken:Turn the helm to bring the vessel to the new course and steady on the course of 342. How to do:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Repeat order. Turn the helm in the direction of the fewest degrees to the ordered course using no more than 15 of rudder. Reduce the rudder angle as the vessel approaches the course. Steady on the course of 342 with less than 5 of overshoot. State: shes steady on three four two.

Command: In a sea state of 4 or less, when hearing the command in English, Steer 342. Action to be taken: Use the gyrocompass to steer the course of 342. How to do:
1. 2. 3.

Repeat order. When steady on course state: steering three four two. Steer the course ordered within 3 (open ocean), and 2 (near coastal) for 15 minutes.

Command: In a sea state of 4 or less, when hearing the command in English, Steer 342. Action to be taken: Use the magnetic compass to steer the course of 342. How to do
1. 2. 3.

Repeat order. When steady on course state: steering three four two. Steer the course ordered within 5 (open ocean), and 3 (near coastal) for 15 minutes.

Command: When hearing the command in English, Starboard 10. Action to be taken: Turn the helm until the rudder is right (starboard) 10.
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How to do:
1. 2. 3.

Repeat order. Immediately turn helm to starboard. Stop turning the helm when the rudder angle indicator reads starboard 10. State: the wheel on starboard 10 sir,

4.

Command: When hearing the command in English, Port 20. Action to be taken: Turn the helm until the rudder is port 20. How to do:
1. 2. 3. 4.

Repeat order. Immediately turn helm to port. Stop turning the helm when the rudder angle indicator reads port 20. State: the wheel on port 20, sir,

Command: When hearing the command in English, Hard Starboard. Action to be taken: Turn the helm to the starboard until the rudder is at maximum starboard rudder (say 35 deg).

How to do:
1. 2. 3. 4.

Repeat order Immediately turn helm to starboard. Stop turning the helm when the rudder angle indicator reads the rudder is at maximum starboard rudder (i.e.35deg). State: the wheel on hard starboard,sir, or

PERFORMANCE CONDITION: When the rudder is more than 5 right (starboard) or left (port), when hearing the command in English, Ease to 5.
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PERFORMANCE BEHAVIOR: Turn the helm to reduce the angle of the rudder until the indicator shows the rudder angle is right (starboard) or left (port) 5. PERFORMANCE STANDARD:
1. 2. 3. 4.

Repeat order. Immediately turn helm to reduce the rudder angle. Stop turning the helm when the rudder angle indicator shows the rudder angle is right (starboard) or left (port) 5. State: the wheel on starboard or port 5.

Command: When hearing the command in English, Midships. Action to be taken: Turn the helm to reduce the angle of the rudder until the rudder angle indicator shows the rudder angle is zero. How to do:
1. 2. 3. 4.

Repeat order. Immediately turn helm to reduce the rudder angle. Stop turning the helm when the rudder angle indicator shows the rudder angle is zero. State: the wheel midships,sir

Command: During a turn, when hearing the command in English, Meet Her, or Check Her. Action to be taken: Turn the helm to reduce the angle of the rudder and apply counter rudder until the vessel stops turning. Action to be taken:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Repeat order. Immediately turn helm to reduce the rudder angle. Apply counter rudder until the vessel stops turning. Ease the wheel to midships. State: the vessels heading is ____.
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Command: When hearing the command in English, Steady as She Goes. Action to be taken: Note the heading of the vessel, stop any swing of the ship, and steer in the direction noted when the command was given. How to do:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Repeat order. Note the heading when the command was given. Immediately apply rudder to stop any swing of the ship. Steer in the direction noted. State: shes steady as she goes.

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Command: When hearing the command in English, Nothing to the right (Starboard) [nothing to the left (port) may also be used]. Action to be taken: Keep the vessel from swinging to the right (starboard) and the vessels heading from increasing (or decreasing). Action to be taken:
1. 2.

The vessel does not swing to the right (starboard). The vessels heading does not increase for 5 minutes.

Command: At sea speed, when hearing the command to put the steering into hand steering. Action to be taken: Change the steering mode from auto pilot to hand steering. How to do:
1. 2. 3. 4.

Repeat order. Switch the steering mode from autopilot to hand. Test that the new steering mode is responding. State, Shes in hand steering.

Command: At sea speed, when hearing the command to put the steering into auto pilot. Action to be taken: Change the steering mode from hand steering to auto pilot. How to do:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Repeat order. Put wheel amidships. Verify the course dialed into the auto pilot is the same as the course to be steered. Switch the steering mode from hand to auto pilot. Verify that the autopilot is responding properly. State, v/l on auto pilot,sir
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Importance of correct communication between OOW(officer on watch) and helmsman Correct communication ensures that there is no misunderstanding of the verbal order given. Repeating the verbal order ensures and eliminates the error due to misunderstanding before execution of the order. Communication between OOW and helmsman should be loud and clear. Correct understanding of communication and execution of same is vital inorder to safely steer a ship otherwise it will lead to accidents resulting in loss of human life, loss of marine property and damage to the marine environment by pollution. Checks that must be made to the auto pilot and steering system As per paragraph 3.1 of performance standard laid down by IMO The following checks to be carried out The gyro repeater is synchronized with the master repeater The settings of the controls are optimum and adjust if required The off course alarm Try out hand atleast once a watch If a close quarter situation is developing, the ship should not be left on autopilot and instead manual steering should be usedtill the ship overcomes the close quarter situation. Maintenance should be carried out as specified in the manual Auto pilot should not be used under the following conditions: In narrow channel At slow speeds During manoeuvring or in pilotage waters In areas of heavy traffic During heavy weather conditions While carrying out large alterations of course In areas of poor visibility.

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An autopilot automatically adjusts the sensitivity of a ship's steering system to accommodate changes in speed as well as sea and wind conditions. The autopilot utilizes heading error, speed and speed squared signals to produce a rudder order signal for controlling rudder position. The rudder order signal is developed in a heading keeping circuit unless a heading change greater than a predetermined threshold is commanded, in which event a programmer substitutes a heading change circuit for the heading keeping circuit. The sensitivity of the heading change circuit is automatically adjusted as an inverse function of vessel speed squared, and automatic rudder order limits are established in the same circuit as an inverse function of speed. The sensitivity of the heading keeping circuit is adjusted in accordance with a signal from an automatic gain control circuit which derives a performance index J from ship's speed, heading error and rudder order signals occurring during a given measurement interval. The performance index derived during a given measurement interval is compared with the index derived in the previous interval and a counter register is set according to the results of this comparison. The heading keeping circuit receives heading error signals which are processed in a first proportional channel and also differentiated and processed in a second or rate channel. The attenuation in each channel is adjusted in accordance with the value stored in the counter register. The attenuation in the rate channel is made equal to the square root of the attenuation in the proportional channel. The modified rate and proportional signals are added to obtain the final rudder order signal.

43

A compass is an extremely simple device. A magnetic compass (as opposed to a gyroscopic compass) consists of a small, lightweight magnet balanced on a nearly frictionless pivot point. The magnet is generally called a needle. One end of the needle is often marked "N," for north, or colored in some way to indicate that it points toward north. On the surface, that's all there is to a compass. The reason why a compass works is more interesting. It turns out that you can think of the Earth as having a gigantic bar magnet buried inside. In order for the north end of the compass to point toward the North Pole, you have to assume that the buried bar magnet has its south end at the North Pole, as shown in the diagram at the right. If you think of the world this way, then you can see that the normal "opposites attract" rule of magnets would cause the north end of the compass needle to point toward the south end of the buried bar magnet. So the compass points toward the North Pole.

To be completely accurate, the bar magnet does not run exactly along the Earth's rotational axis. It is skewed slightly off center. This skew is called the declination, and most good maps indicate what the declination is in different areas (since it changes a little depending on where you are on the planet). The magnetic field of the Earth is fairly weak on the surface. After all, the planet Earth is almost 8,000 miles in diameter, so the magnetic field has to travel a long way to affect your compass. That is why a compass needs to have a lightweight magnet and a frictionless bearing. Otherwise, there just isn't enough strength in the Earth's magnetic field to turn the needle.

The "big bar magnet buried in the core" analogy works to explain why the Earth has a magnetic field, but obviously that is not what is really happening. So what is really happening?

44

No one knows for sure, but there is a working theory currently making the rounds. As seen on the above, the Earth's core is thought to consist largely of molten iron (red). But at the very core, the pressure is so great that this superhot iron crystallizes into a solid. Convection caused by heat radiating from the core, along with the rotation of the Earth, causes the liquid iron to move in a rotational pattern. It is believed that these rotational forces in the liquid iron layer lead to weak magnetic forces around the axis of spin. It turns out that because the Earth's magnetic field is so weak, a compass is nothing but a detector for very slight magnetic fields created by anything. That is why we can use a compass to detect the small magnetic field produced by a wire carrying a current (see How Electromagnets Work). Now let's look at how you can create your own compass.

Gyrocompass:
The gyrocompass receives its directional information from a rapidly spinning gyroscope driven by electric motors. Its directive action is based on the mechanical laws governing the dynamics of rotating bodies. When any object is spinning it tends to keep its axis pointed in the same direction, and if a force is applied to deflect its orientation it responds by moving at right angles to the applied force. The gyrocompass consists of a gimbalmounted spinning gyroscope made north-seeking by placing a weight below the axis. As the Earth rotates gravitational pull on the weight attempts to change the gyroscope's axis of rotation. The resulting motion of the axis of the gyroscope at right-angles to the applied force causes it to move so as to align itself with the Earth's axis of rotation. A few hours of operation is usually sufficient to align the gyrocompass with the Earth's axis. Errors that would be introduced by changing latitudes as when the submarine is steaming towards the north or south are eliminated through periodic adjustments to compensating systems within the gyrocompass by the Navigator. An electrical servo mechanism and dial mechanically connected to the gyrocompass has the points of the mariner's compass marked on it and indicates the submarine's true course. Repeaters connected to the servo mechanism are located throughout the submarine to provide true course information where needed. Precession
If you have ever played with toy gyroscopes, you know that they can perform all sorts of interesting tricks. They can balance on string or a finger; they can resist motion about the spin axis in very odd ways; but the most interesting effect is called precession. This is the gravity-defying part of a gyroscope. The following video shows you the effects of precession using a bicycle wheel as a gyro This mysterious effect is precession. In the general case, precession works like this: If you have a spinning gyroscope and you try to rotate its spin axis, the gyroscope will instead try to rotate about an axis at right angles to your force axis, like this:

45

In figure 1, the gyroscope is spinning on its axis. In figure 2, a force is applied to try to rotate the spin axis. In figure 3, the gyroscope is reacting to the input force along an axis perpendicular to the input force

The Cause of Precession

Why should a gyroscope display this behavior? It seems totally nonsensical that the bicycle wheel's axle can hang in the air like that. If you think about what is actually happening to the different sections of the gyroscope as it rotates, however, you can see that this behavior is completely normal! Let's look at two small sections of the gyroscope as it is rotating -- the top and the bottom, like this:

As forces are applied to the axle, the two points identified will attempt to move in the indicated directions.

46

When the force is applied to the axle, the section at the top of the gyroscope will try to move to the left, and the section at the bottom of the gyroscope will try to move to the right, as shown. If the gyroscope is not spinning, then the wheel flops over, as shown in the video on the previous page. If the gyroscope is spinning, think about what happens to these two sections of the gyroscope: Newton's first law of motion states that a body in motion continues to move at a constant speed along a straight line unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. So the top point on the gyroscope is acted on by the force applied to the axle and begins to move toward the left. It continues trying to move leftward because of Newton's first law of motion, but the gyro's spinning rotates it, like this:

As the two points rotate, they continue their motion.

This effect is the cause of precession. The different sections of the gyroscope receive forces at one point but then rotate to new positions! When the section at the top of the gyro rotates 90 degrees to the side, it continues in its desire to move to the left. The same holds true for the section at the bottom -- it rotates 90 degrees to the side and it continues in its desire to move to the right. These forces rotate the wheel in the precession direction. As the identified points continue to rotate 90 more degrees, their original motions are cancelled. So the gyroscope's axle hangs in the air and precesses. When you look at it this way you can see that precession isn't mysterious at all -- it is totally in keeping with the laws of physics!

Uses of Gyroscopes
The effect of all this is that, once you spin a gyroscope, its axle wants to keep pointing in the same direction. If you mount the gyroscope in a set of gimbals so that it can continue pointing in the same direction, it will. This is the basis of the gyro-compass. If you mount two gyroscopes with their axles at right angles to one another on a platform, and place the platform inside a set of gimbals, the platform will remain completely rigid as the gimbals rotate in any way they please. This is this basis of inertial navigation systems (INS). In an INS, sensors on the gimbals' axles detect when the platform rotates. The INS uses those signals to understand the vehicle's rotations relative to the platform. If you add to the platform a set of three sensitive accelerometers, you can tell exactly where the vehicle is heading and how its motion is changing in all three directions. With this information, an airplane's autopilot can keep the plane on course, and a rocket's guidance system can insert the rocket into a desired orbit!

Substances which can be induced to become magnetized in a magnetic field are called ferromagnetic. Soft ferromagnetic materials become demagnetized spontaneously 47

when removed from a magnetic field. Hard ferromagnetic materials can retain their magnetism, making them useful in the production of permanent magnets. The magnetic poles of the earth are not located at the geographic poles. The angle between the geographic North Pole and the magnetic "north" pole is called the magnetic declination. The angle of declination depends on one's location on earth. The earth's magnetic field does not run parallel to the earth's surface. The angle of magnetic dip is the measure from the horizontal plane to the magnetic lines of force. This also varies depending on one's position on the surface of the earth. The angle of magnetic dip is very large in the vicinity of the earth's magnetic poles, making navigation difficult. The earth's magnetic field moves very slightly over long periods of time. Plate tectonics may help to account for this phenomenon. Ore bodies in the Earth can influence the strength of the Earth's magnetic field. The units for magnetic field strength are the weber/m2, called the tesla. More familiar units representing the same thing are N/(A.m)

See also: How to apply the Compass Error Before the development of sophisticated electronic and sound detection systems, navigators calculated directions from objects in the sky the sun, the North Star, and the moon. A much more reliable guide for finding direction is a magnetic compass, which works at all times and in most places. When a piece of magnetized iron is placed on a splinter of wood and floated in a bowl of water, the wood will swing until the iron is pointing north and south. Any other direction can be found. In China and Europe the magnetized iron found in the lodestone, a naturally occurring magnetic ore, was used to make a floating compass in the 12th century. Soon 48

afterward it was discovered that an iron or steel needle touched long enough by a lodestone also had the tendency to align itself in a north-south direction. A small pocket compass works on the same principle as the first crude compass: instead of a lodestone and a wood splinter, it has a magnetized needle that swings on a pivot to indicate north. Larger compasses have two or more parallel needles attached to the underside of a disk called a compass card. The compass works because the Earth itself is a huge magnet. Its magnetic poles are oval areas about 1,300 miles (2,100 kilometers) from the geographic North and South poles. Irregular lines of force connect the magnetic poles, and the compass needle simply aligns itself with these lines of force. In a few places, where lines of force happen to lie along meridians (that is, where magnetic north and true north coincide), the compass points to true north. Near the magnetic pole the magnetic compass is useless because there the lines of force are vertical straight down into the Earth. In other areas iron ore deposits affect the compass's accuracy. Generally, however, the magnetic compass points a little east or west of true north. The angle between true north and magnetic north is called variation or declination. A compass rose, or graduated circle, is used to measure this angle on charts. A compass card usually has direction pointers consisting of 32 points. The four principal, or cardinal, points are north, east, south, and west. They are marked N, E, S, and W. Between these lie the intercardinal points, such as northeast (NE). Further division gives such points as north-northeast (NNE). A final division is by points, such as north by east (N by E). Naming all the points of a compass in their order is called boxing the compass. Surveyors, navigators, and similar technicians need more exact directions they use degrees. The compass card has 360 degrees marked on it. North is 000 (or 360); East, 090 ; South, 180 ; and West, 270. On ships the magnetic compass is usually carried in a stand called a binnacle. It holds a bowl containing the compass card with its needles mounted on a pivot and has a provision for illuminating the compass face from below. The bowl is filled with a nonfreezing liquid on which the card floats to reduce vibrations. On the forward inside edge of the bowl is a vertical line called a lubber's line. This marks the "dead ahead" of the ship. In steering, the helmsman watches the mark for his course on the compass card, keeping it always opposite the lubber's line. A compass aboard a ship is affected by the magnetic force of the ship itself, which acts like a huge magnet. The effect of this magnetism on the compass is called deviation. It is measured by the angle between compass north and magnetic north. Variation and deviation together pull the compass away from true north by an amount called compass error. Navigators remove most of the deviation by compensating the compass. They take the ship to a range where they line it up with markers indicating the four cardinal points. Then they "swing ship" by pivoting the craft so that the bow points in turn to each of the markers. They remove the deviation on each heading by placing counteracting magnets in the binnacle these magnets serve to cancel the magnetic effects of the 49

metal in the ship. In an effort to develop a navigational instrument whose accuracy would be unaffected by stray magnetic fields, the gyrocompass, which does not use magnetism, was developed. Gyrocompasses are often used in modern navigation systems because they can be set to point to true north rather than to magnetic north. Today large ships carry both magnetic compasses and gyrocompasses. Special compasses have also been developed for airplanes. Gyroscopic systems are especially useful in such applications because, unlike magnetic compasses, their accuracy is not affected by rapid alterations of course or speed. The aperiodic compass is a magnetic compass whose needle is extremely stable under most flying conditions for aircraft. The magnesyn compass is a remote-indicating magnetic compass. Readings from its pickup coil are transmitted to repeaters in other parts of the airplane. Both the gyro flux gate compass and the gyrosyn compass are remote-indicating, gyrostabilized compasses. For its indications, the obsolete Earth-inductor compass used current generated in a coil revolving in the Earth's magnetic field. The astrocompass is an astronomical instrument by which the air or sea navigator finds the true heading by sighting a celestial body. A form of astrocompass is the sun compass, which utilizes the shadow of a pin.

Local Magnetic Anomalies

In various parts of the world, magnetic ores on or just below the seabed may give rise to local magnetic anomalies resulting in the temporary deflection of the magnetic compass needle when a ship passes over them. The areas of disturbance are usually small unless there are many anomalies close together. The amount of the deflection will depend on the depth of water and the strength of the magnetic force generated by the magnetic ores. However, the magnetic force will seldom be strong enough to deflect the compass needle in depths greater than about 1500 m. Similarly, a ship would have to be within 8 cables of a nearby land mass containing magnetic ores for a deflection of the needle to occur. Deflections may also be due to wrecks lying on the bottom in moderate depths, but investigations have proved that, while deflections of unpredictable amount may be expected when very close to such wrecks, it is unlikely that deflections in excess of 7 will be experienced, nor should the disturbance be felt beyond a distance of 250 m. Greater deflections may be experienced when in close quarters with a ship carrying a large cargo such as iron ore, which readily reacts to induced magnetism. Power cables carrying direct current can cause deflection of the compass needle. The amount of the deflection depends on the magnitude of the electric current and the angle the cable makes with the magnetic meridian. Small vessels with an auto-pilot 50

dependent upon a magnetic sensor may experience steering difficulties if crossing such a cable.

The Effect of Magnetic and Ionospheric Storms on the Compass Needle

Disturbances on the sun may cause disturbances of the magnetic compass needle and interference with radio communications. At the time of an intense solar flare or eruption, a flash of ultra-violet light and a stream of charged particles are emitted from the sun. The flash of ultra-violet light takes only 8 minutes to reach the Earth, where it produces great ionisation (electrification) at abnormally low layers of the upper atmosphere. Short radio waves which travel round the Earth by being reflected from a higher layer of the upper atmosphere cannot penetrate this barrier of ionisation and a radio 'fade-out' is experienced. Long radio waves however may be reflected more strongly from the base of the lower layer of ionisation. Since these short range radio fade-outs and long wave enhancements are caused by the effects of ultra-violet light from the sun, they are confined to the sunlit side of the Earth and are almost simultaneous with the flare, lasting on the average for about 20 minutes. The stream of charged particles, travelling much more slowly than light, arrives at the Earth, if it is suitably directed, at from 1 to about 3 days after it leaves the sun; it visibly signals its arrival by producing a bright and active aurora. It too causes great ionisation in the upper atmosphere, which is much more prolonged than that caused by the ultra-violet light. There is again deterioration in short wave radio communications, which may be a complete 'black-out' in higher latitudes. At this time currents of the order of a million amperes may circulate in the upper atmosphere. The magnetic field of the fluctuating currents is appreciable at the Earth's surface and may deflect a compass needle noticeably from its normal position. The effects on these socalled magnetic and ionospheric storms, which may persist with varying intensity for several days, are usually greatest in higher latitudes. Radio 'black-outs' and simultaneous deviations of the magnetic compass needle by several degrees are not uncommon in and near auroral zones. When a great aurora is seen in abnormally low latitudes, it is invariably accompanied by a magnetic and ionospheric storm. Unlike the fade-out which occurs only on the sunlit side of Earth, the interference with radio communications which accompanies an aurora and magnetic storm may occur by day and at night. All these effects occur most frequently and in most intense forms at the time of sunspot maximum; maxima are likely to occur in 2001-02.

Contents 51

B O Y' M A N U AL O SE A M A N HI A N D G U N N ER

O M AS IN ST R U CT IO N

52

PA RT I Q. Wh at is a com pass card ? A. A circ ular card , by whi ch a ship' s cour se is den oted : it is divi ded into 32 equ al part s, call ed poin ts ; agai n divi ded into 32 53

equ al part s, call ed half poin ts ; and agai n divi ded into 64 equ al part s, call ed quar terpoin ts, each poin t bein g disti ngui shed by a lette r or lette rs.

A. N. S. E. 54

and W. stan d for Nort h, Sout h, East , and Wes t; thes e are call ed the card inal poin ts ; any two or thre e of thes e lette rs, add ed toge ther, repr esen t the inter med iate poin ts, as in the 55

foll owi ng exa mpl e: RE PE AT TH E CO MP AS S. N. S. Sta by nds W., for So No uth rth. by We st. N. S. by S. E., W., No So rth uth by So Eas uth t. We st. N. S. N. W. E., by No S., rth So No uth 56

rth- Eas We t. st by So uth . N. S. E. W., by So N., uth No rth- We Eas st. t by No rth, N . S. E., W, No by rt- W., Eas So t. uth We st by We st. N. W. E. S. by W., E., We No st rth- So Eas uth t by We Eas st. t. 57

E. W. N. by E., S., Eas We t st No by rth- So Eas uth t. . E. W., by We N., st. Eas t by No rth. E., W. Eas by t. N. We st by No rth. E. W. by N. S., W., Eas We t st by No So rthuth We . st. E. N. S. W. E., by Eas W., 58

t No So rthuth We - st Eas by t. We st S. N. E. W., by No E., rthSo We uth st. Eas t by Eas t. S. N. E., W. So by uth N., - No Eas rtht. We st by No rth. S. N. E. N. by W., S., No So rth uth No - rthEas We t st. by So 59

uth . S. N, S. by E., W., So No uth rth So by uth We - st. Eas t. S. N., by No E. rth. So uth by Eas t. S., So uth .

Repeat it the reverse way. S. W. by W.

S. W. by S.

60

S. E. by S.

S. E, by E. To ans we r Op pos ite Poi nts , or wh at is cal led Bo xin g the Co mp ass . Q. Wh at 61

is the op pos ite poi nt. to N. E. ? A. S. W. Wit ha ver y littl e atte nti on to the que stio n, the yo un g beg inn er wil l be abl e to ans wer any op pos ite 62

poi nts mo st rea dil y, alw ays bea rin g in mi nd that the lett er N. is op pos ite to S., and E, to W., and re me mb eri ng that tw o or thr ee of the se lett ers 63

add ed tog eth er rep res ent all the poi nts of the co mp ass. For inst anc e: E. N. E. is the op pos ite poi nt to W. S. W. | S. S. E. to N. N. W. | N. E. by E. 64

to S. W. by W. | N. W. by N. to S.E . by S. | N. E. by N. . N. | S. W. by S. S. | W. N. to E. S. | N. E. to S. W., and so on, to any poi 65

nt of the co mp ass.

TH E C O M PA SS M AD E EA SY . Ca rdi nal Poi nts . Th e co mp ass is co mp ose d of fou r lett ers onl y66

N. S. E. and W., wh ich rep res ent the fou r car din al poi nts viz. , No rth, Mo uth , Eas t, and We st. Ha lfCa rdi nal Poi nts . So call ed bec aus e 67

the y co me hal fwa y bet we en tw o car din al poi nts fro m wh ich the y der ive thei r na me s. Th us, N. E. co me s bet we en No rth and Eas t, and by 68

add ing the tw o lett ers tog eth er, N. E. is pro duc ed; in like ma nne r the oth er hal fcar din al poi nts are for me dviz. , N. W., S.E ., and S. W. Th ere are 69

fou r hal fcar din al poi nts. Fal se Poi nts . So call ed bec aus e the y bor ro w thei r na me s fro m the tw o poi nts bet we en wh ich the y co 70

me. Th us, N. N. E. co me s bet we en No rth and N. E., and by put tin g the se tw o poi nts tog eth er, taki ng car e to put the lett er of the nea rest car din al poi 71

nt firs t, N. N. E. is pro duc ed ; in like ma nne r are all the oth er fals e poi nts for me d: the y are as foll ow s: E. N. E., E.S .E., S.S .E., S.S .W. , W. S. W., 72

W. N. W., and N. N. W. Th ere are eig ht fals e poi nts. Th e ByPoi nts . So call ed bec aus e the y der ive thei r na me s fro m the nea rest car din al 73

or hal fcar din al poi nts the y are nea r or by. Th us ; N. by E. is by or nea r No rth, and taki ng a dir ecti on to war ds Las t bec om es N. by E. N. E. 74

by N. is by or nea r N. E., but bei ng nea rer No rth tha n Eas t it bec om es N. E. by N.; in like ma nne r all the oth er bypoi nts der ive thei r na me: the y 75

are the foll ow ing : N. E. by E., E. by N., E, by S., S.E . by E., S.E . by S., S. by E., S. by W., S. W. by S., S. W. by W., W. by S., W. by N., N. W. by 76

W., N. W. by, N., and N. by W. 16 in nu mb er. Hal fcar din al poi nts are alw ays fou r poi nts fro ma car din al poi nt ; if a shi p's hea d ma rks a car din 77

al poi nt, suc h, for inst anc e, as No rth, her ster n and eith er bea m wil l als o ma rk a car din al poi nt : hal fcar din al poi nts ma rki ng the tw o bo ws 78

and qua rter s: Fo r Ex am ple . Shi p's hea d is No rth, or ster n is So uth , por tbea m We st, star boa rdbea m Eas t, por tbo w N. W., star boa rd bo 79

w N. E., por t qua rter S. W., star boa rd qua rter S.E . PA RT II. Q. Ho w are the poi nts of the co mp ass rec ko ned ? A. Fro m No rth and So uth , to 80

Eas t and We st. N. by E. | N. by W. | S. by E. | S. by W. .. . On e poi nt. N. N. E. | N. N. W. | S. S. E. | S. S. W.. ...... Tw o poi 81

nts. N. E. by N. | N. W. by N. | S.E . by S. | S. W. by S. Thr ee poi nts N. E. | N. W. | S. E. | S. W.. ...... .... Fo ur poi nts. N. E. by E. | N. 82

W. by W. | S.E . by E. | S. W. by W.. ..Fi ve poi nts E. N. E. | W. N. W. | E. S. E. | W. S. W.. ... Six poi nts. E. by N. | W. by N. | E. by S. | 83

W. by S... ... Se ven poi nts. Eas t and We st .. Eig ht poi nts. Q. Ho w clo se to the wi nd wil la shi p lay ? A. Wh 84

en the sail s are wel l set, a shi p is sup pos ed to lay fiv e poi nts fro m the wi nd, but in mo st cas es it is six poi nts. Q. Su pp osi ng a shi p to lay fiv 85

e poi nts fro m the wi nd, ho w ma ny wil l she tac k in ? A. Te n poi nts. Q. Ho w ma ny wil l she we ar in ? A. Tw ent ytw o poi nts. Q. 86

Wh at do yo u me an by tac kin ga shi p? A. Su pp osi ng a shi p to be sail ing clo se to the wi nd on the star boa rd tac k, layi ng S. E. by E., the wi 87

nd wo uld he So uth . By ma noe uvr ing the hel m and sail s, she is bro ug ht hea d to wi nd, and pai d off on the por t tac k, unt il the sail s are aga in full 88

, or her hea d is S. W. by W. ; she wo uld the n lie on the por t tac k, sup pos ing the wi nd to be ste ady , and the shi p wo uld wo rk in ten poi nts or lie fiv 89

e poi nts fro m the wi nd. Q. Wh at is the me ani ng of a shi p bei ng on the por t or star boa rd tac k? A. It is sai da shi p is on the por t tac k wh 90

en she has her por t tac ks on boa rd, or the wi nd is blo wi ng fiv e poi nts on the por t bo w, wh ich is call ed the we ath er bo w. Q. Wh at do yo u 91

me an by the we ath er and lee bo w, and ho w are the y dist ing uis hed ? A. Th e we ath er bo w or sid e of a shi p is the sid e on wh ich the wi nd 92

blo ws. Th e lee bo w or sid e wil l, of cou rse, be the op pos ite to that fro m wh ich the wi nd blo ws. Th e she ets of for e and aft sail s are hau led aft on 93

the lee sid e. Q. Wh at is the me ani ng of we ari ng a shi p? A. To run her off bef ore the wi nd, and bri ng her to the wi nd on the oth er tac k. Q. 94

Wh at do yo u me an by ste eri ng a shi p? A. To mo ve her hea d in any par ticu lar dir ecti on, or kee p her on any giv en cou rse. Q. Ho w is a shi p's 95

hea d mo ved or kep t in any par ticu lar dir ecti on ? A. By me ans of the hel m, wh ich is co mp ose d of the rud der , till er, or yo ke, till er rop es, and wh 96

eel. All shi ps are fitt ed wit h till ers, wit h the exc epti on of scr ew shi ps, wh ich are, acc ord ing to the spa ce aba ft the scr ew cha mb er, fitt ed eith er wit ha 97

till er or yo ke. A sin gle blo ck is sei zed on the for em ost end of the till er, wh en shi ppe d bef ore the rud der hea d, and on the afte r end of the till er wh en 98

shi ppe d aba ft the rud der hea d; yo kes hav e gen eral ly tw o met al she ave s fitt ed at eac h end . Till er rop es are rov e the sa me wa y in all shi 99

ps, wh eth er fitt ed wit ha till er or yo ke, so the mo ve me nt of the wh eel wil l be alik e in all shi ps. Q. Ho w do yo u kn ow in wh at dir ecti on a shi 100

p is ste eri ng ? A, By me ans of lub ber' s poi nt and the co mp ass car d. Q. Wh at is lub ber' s poi nt? A. A bla ck line dra wn do wn the cen tre of 101

the met al bo wl in wh ich the co mp ass car d is shi ppe d, in a dir ect line wit h the shi p's hea d, and as the shi p's hea d mo ves to the rig ht or the left , the co 102

mp ass car d rev olv es pas t the line call ed lub ber' s poi nt, wh ate ver poi nt of the co mp ass cut s this line , den ote s the cou rse the shi p is ste eri ng. Q. 103

Wh at is the me ani ng of luff , or giv ing a shi p lee hel m, or put tin g the hel m do wn ? A. To bri ng the shi p's hea d nea rer the wi nd. Q. Wh at 104

is the me ani ng of " kee p her aw ay, " or "gi ve her we ath er hel m," or " put tin g the hel m up" ? A. To run the shi p's hea d off the wi nd. Q. Wh at is 105

the me ani ng of " ver y wel l thu s," " thu s and no hig her "? A. Her hea d is in a ver y go od dir ecti on, but yo u are not to bri ng her any clo ser the wi 106

nd. PA RT III. Q. Wh at is the me ani ng of " not hin g off "? A. To kee p the shi p's hea d as clo se to the wi nd as pos sibl e wit ho ut sha kin g 107

the sail . Q. If a shi p's hea d is S.E ., and she is on the star boa rd tac k, layi ng fiv e poi nts fro m the wi nd, ho w is the wi nd ? A. S. by W. Q. 108

If she wa s on the por t tac k, ho w wo uld the wi nd be ? A. E. by N. Q. If her hea d is Eas t, and she is on the por t tac k, ho w is the wi nd 109

? A. N. E. by N. Q. If she wa s on the star boa rd tac k wit h her hea d Eas t? A. S.E . by S. Q. If her hea d wa s W. S. W. on the por 110

t tac k, and the shi p wa s clo se to the wi nd, wh ich wo uld be S. by W., and yo u wer e on the loo k out at the ma sth ead , and sa wa shi p bea rin g 111

We st, or on any of the foll ow ing bea rin gs, ho w wo uld yo u rep ort her ? A. If bea rin g W., tw o. poi nts on the lee bo w. If she bor e W. N. W., 112

fou r poi nts on the lee bo w. If she bor e S.S .E., on the we ath er bea m. If she bor e N. E., on the lee qua rter . If she bor e E. N. E., rig ht ast 113

ern . If she bor e S.E ., tw o poi nts aba ft the we ath er bea m. If she bor e S.S .W. , fou r poi nts on the we ath er bo w. Q. Wh at do yo u 114

call rig ht abe am ? A. Eig ht poi nts fro m rig ht ahe ad ; for inst anc e, if a shi p's hea d is No rth, Eas t and We st is rig ht abe am. Q. If a shi p is lyi ng N. 115

W. on the star boa rd tac k, and yo u are ord ere d to kee p her aw ay fou r poi nts, ho w wil l her hea d be wh en kep t aw ay as ord ere d? A. We 116

st. Q. Su pp osi ng a shi p is ste eri ng We st, or any of the foll ow ing cou rse s: N. W. | E. N. E. | S.S .E. | N. E. by N. | S. by W. W. | E. N. | W. 117

 S., ho w ma ny poi nts is she ste eri ng fro m No rth or So uth ? A. If W., 8 poi nts | N. W., 4 poi nts | E. N. E., 6 poi nts | S.S .E., 2 poi nts 118

| N. E. by N., 3 poi nts | S, by W. W., 1 poi nts | E. N., 7 poi nts | W. S., 7 poi nts. Q. Yo u say a shi p's cou rse is den ote d in any dir ecti 119

on she ma y be ste ere d by the co mp ass, wh ich is a circ ula r car d: exp lain ho w this is do ne ? A. A co mp ass car d, mo unt ed on a ma gne tic bar 120

of ste el, afte r bei ng pro per ly adj ust ed, is pla ced on a piv ot in the cen tre of a met al bo wl, the insi de of wh ich is pai nte d wh ite, a bla ck line bei 121

ng ma rke d do wn fro m top to bot to m of the bo wl: and exa ctly in the line of the shi p's hea d or bo ws, wh ich is call ed the lub ber' s poi nts ; the car d is 122

sup pos ed, wh en 'on the piv ot, to poi nt to the ma gne tic No rth and So uth , wit ho ut it is attr act ed by any loc al cau se, wh ich is call ed dev iati on. Th e bo 123

wl con tain ing the co mp ass is hu ng on jim ble s, in a wo ode n fra me call ed bin nac le ; and by mo vin g the rud der by me ans of the till er or wh eel, a shi p's 124

hea d is put in any dir ecti on des ire d.

TE C H NI CA L TE R M S US ED BY TH E OF FI CE R O R Q UA RT ER M AS TE R OF TH E W 125

AT C H IN DI RE CT IN G TH E C O NN IN G OF TH E SH IP. Co nni ng. An y per son dir ecti ng the per son dir ecti ng the hel ms ma n ho w to 126

put the hel m, is sai d to be con nin g the shi p. Sta rbo ard Ta ck. A shi p sail ing wit h the wi nd blo wi ng aga inst the star boa rd sid e, wit h her star 127

boa rd tac ks hau led on boa rd, and her por t she ets hau led aft, is sai d to be on the star boa rd tac k. Po rt Ta ck. Ev ery thi ng bei ng the exa ct op pos 128

ite to the star boa rd tac k. Ta cki ng. Sta yin g. Go ing Ab out . Is an evo luti on per for me d by ma noe uvr ing the sail s and hel m, by wh ich me ans a 129

shi p is ma de to pas s rou nd hea d to wi nd fro m one tac k to the oth er. Wo rki ng or Be ati ng to Wi nd wa rd. Ta ck an d Ha lfTa ck. Ma kin ga 130

Lo ng an d Sh ort Bo ard . Ma kin ga Lo ng an d Sh ort Le g. Sig nifi es a ves sel pro cee din g as nea rly as pos sibl e in the dir ecti on fro m wh ich the 131

wi nd blo ws by con sta ntl y tac kin g. On a Wi nd. By a Wi nd. Cl ose Ha ule d. Ful l an d By. On a Bo wli ne. Tri m mi ng the sail s wit h the 132

yar ds bra ced up sha rp, and the bo wli nes hau led, to ena ble the shi p to sail as clo se the wi nd as pos sibl e. Ha uli ng to the Wi nd. Bri ngi ng a shi p's 133

hea d as clo se to the wi nd as pos sibl e, by bra cin g the yar ds up, &c. , and giv ing her lee hel m. Luf f. Gi ve her Le e He lm. Put the He lm do wn 134

. To bri ng a shi p's hea d clo se to the wi nd. [I sus pec t tha t2 pa ges ma y be mi ssi ng her e ie pp 20 720 8] Po rt the He lm. If sta 135

ndi ng the por t sid e of the wh eel, tur n it fro m yo u, if on the star boa rd sid e, pul l it to war ds yo u, the till er goi ng to por t, the rud der to star boa rd, 136

a shi p wit h hea dw ay wil l pay off to star boa rd. A shi p hav ing ster nw ay the hel m has the op pos ite eff ect to hea dw ay ; the ref ore her hea d pay s 137

off in the sa me dir ecti on as the till er, and a con trar y dir ecti on to that in wh ich the rud der is pla ced . Rig ht the He lm. Put the He lm Am ids hip s. 138

Is an ord er giv en wh en the hel m is eith er to star boa rd or por t, and the rud der is req uir ed at onc e to be pla ced in a line wit h the shi p's kee l. ^ bac 139

k to top ^

Standard and Steering Compasses Compasses The

Chief of Naval Operations requires that each self-propelled ship and are service craft of the United States Navy be equipped with one or more REQUIRED magnetic compasses suitable for navigation. Except for modern nuclear-powered submarines, all ships and craft, regardless of size or classification, must have a magnetic steering compass at the primary steering station. Steering Compass Many ships carry more than one magnetic compass. The primary magnetic compass is called the steering compass. It is normally located on the centerline in the ships pilothouse (except aboard aircraft carriers), where it can best be seen by the helmsman. The readings from the steering compass are labeled "per steering compass" (PSTGC). Standard Compass If a ship has two magnetic compasses, the second compass is called the standard compass. The ships standard compass is normally located on the ships centerline at the secondary conning station. The readings from the standard compass are expressed as "per standard compass" (PSC). Note The readings from the ships gyrocompass are "per gyrocompass" (PGC). Courses and bearings by these compasses must be carefully differentiated by the abbreviations. Cautions A magnetic compass cannot be expected to give reliable service unless it is properly installed and protected from disturbing magnetic influences. Certain precautions must be observed in the vicinity of the magnetic compass. If possible, a compass should not be placed near iron or steel equipment that will be moved frequently. Thus, a location near a gun, boat davit, or boat crane is not desirable. The immediate vicinity should be kept free of sources of magnetism, particularly those of a changing nature. When possible, no source of magnetism should be permitted within a radius of several feet of the magnetic compass. 2-6
Bac Up Nex k Qua t Sta rter Mag nda mas neti rd ter c and 3 & Co Ste 2 - mpa erin Milit ss g ary Op Co man erati mpa ual on sse for and s the Co Qua mpo rter nent mas s, ter Co rate ntin ued

Magnetic Compass Operation and Components Operation The

operation of a magnetic compass is very simple and can be stated as follows: "A small bar magnet

freely suspended in the magnetic field of Earth will always align itself parallel to the lines of force of that field and thus will establish a direction." Components Use the following table,

140

figure 2-6, and figure 2-7 to learn the parts of a magnetic compass. Part Card Bowl Magnets Gimbals Binnacle Function The card is an aluminum disk graduated in degrees from 0 to 359. It has a jeweled bearing that rides on a hard, sharp pivot point. The card is supported by the bowl. A lubbers line is marked on the bowl and is used as visible index. The bowl is filled with Varsol to dampen overswings by the card. An expansion bellows in the lower bowl serves to allow expansion of the liquid with temperature changes. Several bar magnets are used to correct and align the compass. The bowl has two pivots that rest in a metal ring, which also has two pivots resting in the binnacle. This arrangement (gimbals) permits the compass to remain level despite the motion of the ship. The binnacle serves as a housing for the compass. It is made of a non- magnetic material. It also serves as a housing for the compasses correctors: magnets, flinders bar, and quadrantal spheres. A lighting system is normally Figure 2-6. Compass binnacle installed. 2-7
Bac Up Nex k Qua t Mag rter Mag neti mas neti c ter c Co 3 & Co mpa 2 - mpa ss Milit ss Op ary Err erati man or on ual and for Co the mpo Qua nent rter s mas ter rate

Magnetic Compass Operation and Components,

Continued Components The following illustrations should help you visualize the working parts of a basic magnetic compass. Figure 2-7. Parts of a magnetic compass. 2-8

(navigation) A compass by which a craft is steered; it sometimes refers to a gyro repeater, which is used for the same purpose as the steering compass; the term steering repeater is preferable

navigation) A magnetic compass in which the image of the compass card is viewed by direct reflection in a mirror adjacent to the helmsman's position.

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