GAS DYNAMICS AND am eye PR ra aga gg lad Pee eed SLABS, (CHENNAI, TRICHY & TIRt (erect LedGas Dynamics And | Jet Propulsion | (For V Semester Mechanical Engineering) S. SENTHIL, M-Tech (T -Madras), MBA. (Ph.D). ; “Assistant Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering Mailam Engineering College Mailam, Tindivanam (T.K), Villupuram (D.T) E-mail: senthil_jit@yahoo.com ‘ Author of: Heat and Mass Transfer Unconventional Machining Process | Applied Thermodynamics i S$. AGORAM avi FOUNDER LAKSHM! PUBLICATIONS ‘AR. PUBLICATIONS A.RS. PUBLICATIONS Arpakkam, Sirkali, Nagapattinam Dist. Pin - 609 111 @ Strength of Materials $ Introduction of Finite Element Analysis Engineering Economics and Cost Analysis, Entrepreneurship Development A.R.S, PUBLICATIONS ‘No.1L, Veerabathra Nager, Part-II, Mambakiam Road, Medavakkam, Chennai-601 100, Tamil Nadu, INDIA. Phone: 044-65397467, 04142-251098 Mobile: 98436 16861, 98400 25186, 90037 55174, 94433 51098First Edition: August 2004 Second Edition: June 2005 Third Revised Edition: June 2006 Fourth Edition: Fifth Revised Edition: June 2008 th Edition: June 2009 © All Rights Reserved by the Author No part of this publication can be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the author. Price: Rs. 270/- Published by and copies can be had from Head Office: ARS. PUBLICATIONS No.|, Veerabathra Nager, Part — Il Mambakkam Road, Medavakkam Chennai — 600 100, Tamil Nedu, INDIA. Phone: 044 ~ 65397467, Mobile: 98400 25186 e-mail: lak_pub@yahoo.com Branch Office: A.R.S, PUBLICATIONS Arpakkam (P.O), Sirkali (Taluk) Nagapattinam District Tamil Nadu - 609 111, INDIA. Phone : 04364 ~291130 Cell : 98436 16861, 9003755174, 94433 51098 Printed at: Sekar Oftset Printers, 168 Big Street, Triplicane, Chennai-600 005. Dedicated to my Beloved Students1am pleased to bring out my sth edtion of “Gas Dynamics. and Jet Propulsion” for Engineering and Technology students. This book is based om the latest Anna University Syllabus for ¥ Semester Mechanical Branch ofall Engineering Colleges. All universiy problems have beon added under each wit, which will enable the students to score high smarts inthe University examination. 1 am extremely grateful to my Honourable Chairman Thine N. Kesavan D.Com, MA, Beloved Director Thiru M. Dhanasekaran, MA, BEd, D.Ag, DIET, and Secretary Thiru, V. Subramanian for ‘his immediate approval and constant encouragement to bring out this book J thant my Principal Prof. ¥. Hangovan, M.Tech, Ph.D. for _ving me general suggestions and ideas while writing this book ‘My sincere thanks to Thiru. A. Durai, B.E., Thiru. A. Ramakrishnan and Thiru. A. Ramesh of “A.R.S. Publications” for their involvement to ‘make this publication suocessfu. Any errors, omissions and suggestions for the improvement of this book are most welcome. 5S. SENTHIL ANNA UNIVERSITY SYLLABUS. ME1303 : GAS DYNAMICS AND JET PROPULSION For V Semester Mechanical Engineering 1, COMPRESSIBLE FLOW ~ FUNDAMENTALS Energy and momentum equations for compressible fhuid lows, vatious regions of flows, reference velocities, stagnation state, velocity of sound, criticl states, Mack number, critical Mach number, types of waves, Mach cone, Mech angle effect of Mach number on compressibility 2, FLOW THROUGH VARIABLE AREA DUCTS Tsentropie flow through variable area ducts, T-s and h-s diagrams for nozzle tnd diffuser flows, area ratio as a function of Mech number, mass flow rate through nozates and ditfusers, effect of fection in ow through nozzles, 3. FLOW THROUGH CONSTANT AREA DUCTS Flow in constant area ducts with fiction (Faso flow) ~ Fenno curves and anno flow equation, variation of low properties, variation of Mach number with ut length, {sothermal flow wit fiction in constant ares ducts: Flow in constant area ducts with heat transfer (Rayleigh flow), Rayleigh line and Rayleigh flow equation, variation of flow properties, maximum heat transfer 4, NORMAL SHOCK Governing equations variation of flow parameters like slatic pressure, static ‘emperature, density, stagnation pressure and entropy across the neemal shock, Prandtl - Meyer equation, impossibility of shock in subsonic flows, flow in ‘convergent and divergent nozzle with shock, ormal shock in Faano and Rayleigh flows, flow with oblique shock (elementary treatment only), 5. PROPULSION Aircraft propulsion ~ types of jt engines ~ energy flow through jet engines, study of turbojet engine components — gifuser, compressor, combustion chamber, turbine and exhaust systems, performance of turbo jet engines ~ trust, thrust power, propulsive and overall efiiencies, thrust augmentation in turbo jet engine, ram jt and pulse jt engines Rocket propulsion ~ rocket engines thrust equation — effective jet velocity Specific impulse ~ cocket engine performance, solid and liquid propellant comparison of diferent propulsion systems. ooCONTENTS } UNIT ~1: COMPRESSIBLE FLOW- ____ FUNDAMENTALS. TA. Tntroduction sen 1 12, Gas Dynamics non 13. Types of Fluid Flow . 14 Steady Flow Energy Equation «0 15, Steady Flow Energy Equation for Turbo machines uc 1 1.6. Steady Flow Energy Equation for Nozzle and Diffuser..1.6 17. Velocity of Sound (2) 1.8. Derivation of Aceoustie Velocity (or) Sound Velocity (a) 19. Mach Number... 1.10, Stagnation State LIL. Stagnation Enthalpy (ig) 1.12. Stagnation Temperature (Tq) 13. Stagnation Pressure (9¢) oo 1.14, Stagnation Density (Pp)... 115. 1.16. LIT. Reference Velocities. 118. Characteristic Mach Number (or) Critica 149. Crocco Number (C,) 1.20. Bernoulli Equation. 1.21. Effect of Mach Number on Compressibiit 1.22, Mach Cone, Mach Angle, Mach Waves... 123. Formulae Used. 124. Solved Problems. 125. University Solved Problems.. 126. Solved Derivations. 1.27. Two Mark Questions and Answers. UNIT If ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH VARIABLE, AREA DUCTS. 2a. Introduction . 2.2, Adiabatie Process. {©2_Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion 2.3, Isentropie Process. 24 Comparison of Isentropie and Ad 2:5 Mach Number Variation for Variable Area. 2.6. Expansion in Nozzle 29. Diffuse 2:10, Critieal Temperature (*), Critica Critieal Density (9*) 241, Area Ratio as a Funetion of Mach Number.. 2112. Impulse Function (or) Wall Force Funetion.. 213, Mass Flow Rate in terms of Pressure Ratio.. 2.14, Mass Flow Rate in terms of Area Ratio. 215. Mass Flow Rate in terms of Mach Numbe 2.16. Flow Throngh Nozzles... seeeeses 20) 2.16.1. Convergent Nozze ..n- : 2.162. Convergent Divergent NozZl€ un 217. Flow through Diffuse ZA8. Formulae Used... 219. Solved Problems.. 221. Solved Derivations. 222, Two Mark Questions and Answer: FLOW THROUGH CONSTANT AREA DUCTS. 34-3253, With Heat Transfer UNIT- 1 Zi, Flow in Constant Area Ducts V (Rayleigh Flow).. 34 Introduction 1 Rayleigh Curve... Fundamental Equations .... semen 33 Continuity Equation. eB Momentum Equation 34 Mach Number 35 ENergY-cannnnsninennnnns 13.6 Impulse Function . 36 3.1.9, Stagnation Pressure. : By 3.1.10. Static Temperature.-11, Stagnation Temperature. 2. De sity nn . Change of Entropy. 4, Heat Transfer : 5. Variation of Flow Parameter and Maximum Heat Transfer 3.116, Solved Problems. 3.117. Solved University Problems. Solved Derivations mene . Two Mark Questions and Answers. 3.2. Flow in Constant Area Duets with Friction and Heat Transfer (anno Flow).. 3.2.1. Introduction 3.22. Fanno Line (0:) Curve 3.23. Fanno Flow Equations... 3.24, Solution of Fanno Flow Equ 3.2.5. Variation of Flow Properties. ‘Temperature. Stagnation Pressure. Impulse Function - ENITOPY sere . + Variation of Mach Number with Duet Length nnn 3148 2.14. Isothermal Flow with Friction 4 3.2.15. Solved Problems. saves BAST 3.2.16. University Solved Problems.. 3.184 3.2.17. Solved Derivations wn 3.246 3.2.18, Two Mark Questions and Answers. 3.248. “A, Normal Shock Waves. 4.1.1. Introduction 4.12. Prandtl — Mayer Relation.. 4.13. Down Stream Mach Number (M,). 4.14, Static Pressure Ratio aeross the Shock 4.1.5. Static Temperature Ratio across the Shock |. Supersonic Wind Tunnels... . Formulae Used. . Solved Problems. |. Solved University Problems. . Solved Derivations . Two Mark Questions and Answer . Diffuser, . Compressor, . Turbine... . Nozzle. Velocity of Sound across the Shock. Rankine ~ Hugoniot Equation, Stagnation Pressure Ratio across the Shock ‘Change in Entropy across the Shock Strength of Shock Wave... Oblique Shock Waves.. Intecduction Flow through Oblique Shock Waves... Formulae Used... Introduction Classification of Jet Propulsion. Classification of Air Breathing Engines Ramjet Engine i Pulsejet Engine Turbojet Engine . TurboProp Engine., ‘Turbofan Engine ‘Component Efficiencies ‘Combustion Chamber. ‘Thrust sone 5.28 Jet Thrust 5.28 Propeller Thrust. 529 3. Effective Speed Ratio... 530 Specific Thrust... sue 530 ‘Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSF)... 531contents CS gered sese te seeeeee ee seeeeceeeeneeC vere coe 531 531 Specific Impulse wenn Propulsive Efficiency 3. Thera Efficienc; Overall Efficiency. Solved Problems University Solved Problems. . Two Mark Questions & Answer 5. Review Questions. Rocket Propulsion. Introduction Classification of Rocket Engines. Liquid Propellant Rocket Engine. Liquid Propellant... Properties of Liquid Propellants Liguid Propellant Feed System Gas Pressure Feed System. ‘Turbo Pump Feed System. Combustion... i Solid Propeliant Rocke! Engine. Solid Propellants . Properties of Solid Propellants Hybrid Propellant Rocket Ensne. Hybrid Propellant... ‘Nuclear Rocket Engine Electrical Rocket Engine Are Plasma Rocket Engine . 3. Ton Rocket Engine ‘Magneto Plasma Rocket Engine . Solar Rocker Theory of Rocket Propulsion. Losses in Rocket Engine.. Efficiencies eonnnnen |. Rocket Applications... Formulae Used... Solved Problems University Solved Problems. Two Mark Questions & Answers. Review Question (1 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW - FUNDAMENTALS SS 4.4. INTRODUCTION [A fluids defined as a substance which continuously deforms und the action of shearing forces. Liquids and gases are termed as fluids. “The study of finids at rest is known as fluid staties. The study of fluids in motion where pressure forces are Mm considered, is known as fluid kinema ‘The study of fluids in motion where pressure forces are al: considered, is known as fluid dynamics. 4,2, GAS DYNAMICS Gas dynamics deals withthe sty of maton of gases and is effec It aiffers from fluid dynamics. Gas dynamies considers thermal or chemi cffects while Quid dynamics these effects are generally excluded. 4.3. TYPES OF FLUID FLOW “The fluid flow is classified as follows 1. Steady and Unsteady flows Uniform and Nonuniform flows Laminar and Turbutant flows 2 3 4, Compressible and incompressible flows 5. Rotational and Irotational flows 6. One dimensional flow, Two dimensional flow and Th dimensional flow. Are a :2 Gas Dynamies and Jet Propulsion 1. Steady and Unsteady flows ‘Steady flow is that type of flow, in which the uid characterisites like velocity, pressure and density at a point do not change with time. Unsteady flow is that type of low, in which the fuid characteristics like velocity, pressure and density at 2 point changes with respect to time. 2. Uniform and Non-uniform flows. Uniform flow is that type of flow, in which the velocity of fluid particles at all sections are equal Non-uniform flow is that type of flow, in which the velocity of fluid particles at all sections are not equal 3. Laminar and Turbulant flows Laminar flow is sometimes called stream line flow. In this type of | flow the uid moves in layers and each fluid particle follows a smooth and continuous path. Jn turbulant flow, the fuid particles move in very irregular paths, 4. Compressible and incompressible flows Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the ‘uid changes from point to point, ie. density is not constant forthe fluid. Density, p # constant Examples : Gases, vapours Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the ‘uid is constant Density, 9 = constant Example : Liquids 5, Rotational and irrotational flows Rotational flow is thet type of flow in which the fluid particles owing, along stream lines and also rotate about their own axis, Compressible Flow — Fundamentals 1 Irrotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles flowing along stream lines but do not rotate about their own axis, 6. One dimensional, Two dimensional and Three dimensional flows. ‘One dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the flow parameter such as velocity is function of time and one space co-ordinate (x) only. In tis type of flow the stream lines may be represented by straight lines “Two dimensional flow is thattype of flow in which the low parameter such as velocity isa function of time and two space e0-ordinates (x,y) onl. In tis type of flow the siream lines may be represented by a curve, ‘The flow of liquid whose stream lines may be represented in space slong three mutually perpendicular axis (x, y and 2) is called three dimensional flow. 4.4 STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION From first aw of Thermodynamics, we know that the total energy “entering the system is équal to total energy leaving the system. This law is, applicable to the steady flow systems. Outlet (2) Inet (1) 2 fe eee LEE 2 | Datum level Fig Ld1.4 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion ‘Consider an open system through which the working substance flows sa stosdy rate as shown in fig.1.1. The working substance entering the system at (1) and leaves the system at (2) Let, Py ~ Pressure of the working substance entering the system (vim?) yy — Specific volume of the working substance entering the system (m3/kg) oy — Velocity of the, working substance entering the system (ov) U, = Specifie internal energy of the working substance entering the system (kg) 2, = Height above the datum level for inlet in (m). bas ¥2s€ Uzand Z, ~ Corresponding values for the working substance leaving the system, Q ~ Heat supplied to the system (I/kg) W_ = Work delivered by the system (J/kg). ‘Total energy entering the system. = Potential energy (82) 2) Kinetic energy ( : Internal eneray (U) Flow energy (Py ¥1) Heat (Q) Compressible Flow = Fundamentals 15 “Total energy leaving the system = Potential energy (@22) 2 Kinotie energ of) #(§ intemal enerey (U9) Flow energy (P2 2) Work (W) From first law of Thermodynamics, ‘Tota energy entering the system = Total energy leaving the syste ei) aut (F}u +pimt@ 2) i +a, + [Spo renew | 3 [awe enso-wn [A= Use ‘Tie above equation is known as steady flow energy equation. 4,8 STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION FOR TURBO MACHINES. ‘Most of the compressible flow turbomachines such as turbines @ compressors are classified as adiabatic machines. In these machines the is no heat transfer takes place and change in potential energy (Z ~ 23} also nezligibe. So, apply Q-0, 2-2 = 0 in Equation (1.1).4.6 STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION FOR NOZZLE AND DIFFUSER Nozzle is a device which increases the velocity and decreases the pressure of working substance. Diffuser is a device which increases the pressure and decreases the velocity of the w forking substance. In these systems 1. There is no work is done by the system Le. W= 0 2. There is no heat transfer takes place 3. Change in potential energy is negligible ie. 22 = eZ Apply these conditions in Equation (1.1). ic. Qr0 apes 4.7 VELOCITY OF SOUND (a) ‘The velocity with which sound waves propagate in a medium is called velocity of sound (2), Sound waves are generated due to infinitesimally small pressure disturbances. ‘The velocity of sounds given by a= WRT ~3) Compressible Flow — Fundamentals 1.7 1.8 DERIVATION OF ACOUSTIC VELOCITY (or) SOUND VELOCITY (a) Sound waves are infinitely small pressure disturbances. The speed ‘with which sound propagates in a medium is called speed of sound and is denoted by‘. fan infinitesimal disturbance is created by the piston, as shown in fig 1.2, the wave propagates through the gas at the velocity of sound relative to the gas into which the disturbance is moving, | Distance P Pressure Distance Fig. 1.2 Propagation of an infinitesimal wave in a constant area duct In the case the stagnant gas at pressure ‘p’ on the right appears to flow towards the left with velocity a. When the flow has passed through the wave to the left its pressure is raised to p + dp and the velocity is lowered toa~ de,1.3 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion ‘Apply momentum equation for this process. Alp -(p+dp)} = m ((@-de)-a] = Aip~p=dp}=pAale-de-a] (1s me pAc, Heree™a = m= Aa} = [reac] ----(4) From continuity equation fr the two sides ofthe wave m= pAa= (p+ dp) (@-de)A => pAa= A fap —pde+ adp — dpde] = pa [pa~ pe +adp —dpde} The term dpde is negligible = pam pa-pde +adp Substituting Equation (B) in Equation (A) (A> dp lady) xa = aép peat rd - [8 For Isentropic flow ce ap” YT = |e on [E- vim ‘Sound velocity (or) accoustic velocity (2) = /7RT -@) 4.9 MACH NUMBER ‘The Mach number is an index ofthe ratio between inertia force and elastic force velocity of sound (a). ve ee K where P = Density of the fluid e- Velocit pad KA Tnertis force Elastic foree A= Flow area K — Bulk Modulus Compressible Flow ~ Fundamemals 1.9 ofthe fluid ‘This relation gives another important definition of Mach numbe i.e, the Mach number is defined as the ratio ofthe fluid velocity (e) 1 th: We know that rep Velocity of sound, a= /7RT > z May ViRT a4)1.10 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion 1.40 STAGNATION STATE Stagnation state is obtained by decelerating a gas isentropically to zero velocity at er0 elevation, The stagnation state of gas is often used as a reference state, 1.11 STAGNATION ENTHALPY (lig) ‘Stagnation enthalpy can be defined as the enthalpy ofa gas when it is iseatropically decelerated to zero velocity at zero elevation. Put hy =h cy=e for the initial stare, ‘hy= hy 0,0 for the final state, in Equation (1.3). ae Behe cee = | fps he & =(1.5) where ‘hg Stagnation enthalpy ‘hi Static enthalpy ¢~ Fluid velocity 4.12 STAGNATION TEMPERATURE (Ty) Stagnation temperature is the temperature of the gas when it is isenteopically decelerated to zero velocity at zero elevation, ‘We know that Stagnation enthalpy te he gt y= sted Compressible Flow ~ Fundamentals 1.1] Divided by ep 1 2 = Be [san VaR} a Y-1 Ty 2z [+ Mach Number M =] where, ‘Ty ~ Stagnation temperature T~ Static temperature M~Mach Number1.12. Gas Dynémies and Jét Propiilsion 4.43 STAGNATION PRESSURE (P,) ‘Stagnation pressure isthe pressure ofthe gas when itis isentropically decelerated to 2670 velocity at zero elev For isentropic flow y p(T) Yt pe Tt For stagnation condition, Put pope T27To Ty2T ears To T Where Pp~ Stagnation pressure p- Static pressure M~—Mach Number 4.14 STAGNATION DENSITY (P,) Stagnation density isthe density ofthe gas when itis sentropically 2 (Ae Me JeMP ane an [2 sqeyle ae = weet a oen 2 [2480-D]e ga > M [ oD) a+1 pea th = MSD Farewee -0.27) Compressible Flow ~ Fundamentals 1.25 = we- oD 2+M(V-1) This equation gives the relationship between M* and M From equation (1.28), we came to know Mt=1ifM=1 M*<1ifM LifM>1 eo ttl coal From that we know M* behaves in the same'manner as M, except when M goes to infinity. M ifMoo It is more inconvenient to use M* instead of M due to the following 1. Athigh velocities M approaches infinity but M* gives a finite seve FE)1.26 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion 2, M [Is proportional to the fluid velocity (c) and sound velocity (), but M* is proportional tothe fluid velocity alone. Mat 2 Mtoe S * Mr ¢ 4.49 CROCCO NUMBER (c,) Itis defined as the ratio between fluid velocity (¢) and its maximum fluid velocity (Cypax) [vera gee Mg ~---(1.29) fee = : & From Equation (1.24), we know that Se EEL FV YT fiat mae 111 z Substitute this value in Equation (1.29) (129) = eM x JP Compressible Flow — Fundamentals 1.27 ==-=(130) From Equation (1.28), we know that we. om Ee Multiply by 2 (right side terms) 2. + Me 2+0-DM Substitute M*?value in Equation (1.30) sheow * Me «Dd 240-1) Me 2, _M -D 2+q-) Me 6? 2+ (y= 1) MA] = My 1) 26g + 62¢4— 1) MP= MP (y=) 2g? = M2 (y-1)~ 6 1) M2 262 = M2 (y-1) [1-67]1.28 Gas Dynamies and Jet Propulsion 207 M+ {|———- ae) Yopu-< | reese “This equation gives the relationhip between Mach number and Crocco umber ‘Stagnation temperature ~ Mach number relation To T [From Equation no. (1.7)] From Equation (1.31), we know that 2 ec cree a-Dt-e ‘Substitue M? value in stagnation temperature equation 202 @-DT-eFl lao? (lea) + 62 (1.32) “This equation gives the relationship between stagnati tand Croceo number. temperature Compressible Flow ~ Fundamentals 1.29 4.20 BERNOULLI EQUATION From stagnation enthalpy equation, we know that 2 ign ht [From Equation (1.)] 2 = b+ $= iy = constant Differentiating this equation an 20 2 ah ede ~-~=(1.33) For isentropic flow a= SP P 4 (133) == Brede=o ‘Assuming flow is incompressible. So, p = constant, Integrating Equation (1.34) = (035) K constant) ‘Stagnation pressure is the pressure of the gas when its isentropically decelerated to zero velocity at zero elevation. Therefore when ¢~ 0, P= Pp and P~ Pp: Substitute these values in equation (1.35). (135) =1,30 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion Substitute K value in Equation (1.35) Py. Po aspo b+ $= For incompressible flow, p= constant -137) ‘This is Bernoulli equation and itis valid only when the flow is isentropic and incompressible. For Compressible flow, Stagnation enthalpy, fg ¢pTo =~==(138) Compressible Flow — Fundamentals 1.31 Substituting fy value in stagnation enthalpy equation ae fy= hee Po > ae = m, v1 2 she URE [ene IR [From Equation (1.12))1.32. Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion This is the Bernoulli Equation for isentropic compressible flow. 4.21 EFFECT OF MACH NUMBER ON COMPRESSIBILITY From Bernoulli equation, we know that stagnation pressure for incompressible flow is Po" p+ Yeo Po-P Yap? “1 ~(L4t) ‘This equation shows the value of pressure co-efficient, c, (sometimes referred to as compressibility factor) is unity. But for compressible flow the value of the pressure co-efficient deviates from unity Compressible Flow ~ Fundamentals 1.33 For isentropie compressible flow, the relationship between stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature is given by -- ~~ (1.42) iH {From Equation n0.(1.8)] Expanding this equation as Taylor series ie.,1.34 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion seas Lae Y yt. WO ys P 2 eM 48 1 Divided by ided ty Lot PoP Ma we know that, Mach umber, M=-£- we DA] 3 Oo 8 | Fundamentals 1.35 ViRT) (1.44) sabaintep« Zn ven Equation 1.4) Po-P_ OD yey stieee eee fee 2 M 7 Po - M w=] PoP a hee | 4 (eae anes seeauecuSee) This isthe pressure co-efficient equation for compressible flow.1.36 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion 4.22 MACH CONE, MACH ANGLE, MACH WAVES: Let us consider a solid body move in a straight line through a fluid which is stationary. The movement of the body will generate pressure waves in the fluid, These pressure waves are transmitted to other particles of the fluid in all the direetion with a velocity of sound (a). These sound pulses forms a spherical wave front as shown in figures 1.4, 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7, incompressible flow Inan incompressible flow, the source of disturbance velocity (<) is negligibly small eormpared to the sound velccity (a). In this ease infinitesinal sound waves (spherical waves) are generated as shown in fig.1.4 and travelled ata velocity (a) in all Sound waves Where § > source of disturbance > Sound velocity © Fluid velocity Fig.t.4 Incompressible flow Compressible Flow ~ Fundamentals 1.37 ‘Subsonic flow In subsonic flow, the source of disturbance velocity (c) is fess than the sound velocity (a). The spherical waves are generated as shown in fig 1.5. It is observed that the sound waves move ahead of the source of disturbance and the intensity is not symmetrical > Sound waves Fig 1.5 Subsonic flow Sonic flow In sonic flow, the source of disturbance velocity (c) is equal to the sound velocity (a). Under this condition the sound waves always exit atthe present position of the point source and cannot move ahead of it. Therefore, the zone lying on the left ofthe source of disturbance (s) is called zone of silence because the waves do not reach this zone ‘The zone lying on the right ofthe source of disturbance (s) is called zone of action. Because the waves reaches this zone.Zone of action \rsee waves Zone of silence Fig. 1.6 Sonie flow ‘Supersonic flow In supersonic flow, the source of disturbance velocity (c) is greater than the sound velocity (a) The spherical waves are generated as shown in fig1.7. It is observed thatthe point source is always ahead of the wave fronts Mach Cone ‘Tangents drawn from the point $ (Source of disturbance) on the spheres define a conical surface referred to as Mach Cone. The region inside the cone is called the zone of action, and the region outisde the cone is termed as the zone of silence. ‘Mach waves or Mach lines ‘The lines at which the pressure difference is concentrated and which ‘generate the cone are called Mach fines or Mach waves. Mach Angle The angle between the Mach line and the direction of motion of the body (Flow direction) is called the Mach angle, Mach angle a = sin! Compressible Flow Fundamentals 1.39 Fig. 1.7 Supersonic flow1.40 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propuision 4.23 FORMULAE USED 10. Nach number, M=& Velocity of sound, a= /7RT evs temperature ~ Mach number relation fo rs tet] P z ‘Stagnation density ~ stagnation pressure relation Static enthalpy, Stagnation enthalpy, hig = ¢ To Stagnation enthalpy equation 2 0 It Pt he = ertax YA Crocco Number eed Mass flow rate m=pAc= pyArey = PrArts- 2 YF Critical temperature, T* onpressible Flow ~ Fundamentals |.4? 7 12 Gasconstant, R= [1-4] cy Forair 1=1.46y= 1008 Ike R=287 Vagk 13, Mach angle, sin! (jy) 14, From Bernoulli equation, (For incompressible flow) ‘Stagnation pressure, Pp = p + ¥4 po? 15. For isentropic flow, Stagnation temperature remains constant, ie, Tq = Toy Stagnation pressure remains constant, i.e., By = Poy“ Poz 4.24 SOLVED PROLEMS Caleulate the velocity of sound and stagnation temperature of Jet «at 300 K, Assume Mach number = 1.2. Given T=300K, Mni2 To find |. Velocity of sound (a) 2. Stagnation temperature (Tp) Solution We know that Velocity of sound, a = /7RT i - fiat eae R=287 J/kg K}1.42 Gas Dynamies and Jet Propulsion Stagnation temperature ~ Mach number relation, {From equation 00.1.7) 1% is Bee le T nae 14-1 > ay = 1 cae Fp = 384K Result: 1, Velocity of sound, a= 347.18 m/s 2. Stagnation temperature, Ty = 386.4 K [By Am aft 300K has sont velocity, Determine the following: 1. Velocity of sound at 300K 2. Velocity of sound at stagnation conditions 3. Maximum velocity of the jet 4. Stagnation enthalpy $. Crocco number Take 7= 14, R= 287 Sikh. Given: T = 300K At sonic condition, Mach number, M = 1 > M= y= 14, R=287 JikgK Compressible Flow ~ Fundamentals 1.43 Tofind 1. Velocity of sound, « 2. Velocity of sound at stagnation condition, ag 3. Maximum velocity othe et, pox 4, Stagnation enthalpy, fy 5. Crocco number, ¢,, ‘Solution 1. We know that Velocity of sound, a = TRF = f1a* 2875300 me] 2. Stagnation temperature ~ Mach number relation, To qos At sonie condition, M= 1 To tt ia ‘ tH Ty = 360K, Velocity of sound at stagnation condition ay = V7RT51.44 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion RESTLESS) {80,32 mis | "0 43. We know, stagnation enthalpy equation 2 +2 Ydige = {From Equation n0.(1.16)] Maximum velocity enqx = 850.42 mvs. 4. From Stagnation enthalpy equation, we know that y= Ve Gnas” Ing = 2850.42)" hig= 361.6 * 10° kg 5. Crocco number, ¢, [At sonic condition ¢ = a} Resuit La=347.18 m/s 2. ay" 380.32 mis 3. Gyge'” 850.42 mis Achy = 361.6 « 103 Hg S.c,= 0.408 BI] Thejer ofa gos at $00 K has a Mach number of 1.2. Determine the {foltowing 1. Local velocity of sound 2, Stagnation velocity of sound 3, Static enthalpy 4, Stagnation enthalpy 5, Maxinum attainable velocity of this jet Take Y= 1.3, R= 469 Uke B. Given y=13 R= 469 2g K. Tofind 1. Local velocity a1.48 Gas Dynamies and Jet Propulsion 2, Stagnation velocity, ay 3, Stati enthalpy. 4, Stagnation enthalpy, hy 5. Maximum attainable velocity. eye Solution 1. Velocity of sound, a = /7RT = (iss aex 500 cli eea isis 2. Stagnation temperature ~ Mach number relation, Ty = 608K, stogation vlc of sound = ViRiy = (T3649 O08 [tons08in ] = opT Static enthalpy, Compressible Flow ~ Fundamentals 1.47 13469 13-1 f= 10.16% 103 kg 4, Stagnation enthalpy, hy = ¢pTy 500 oo 135409 13-1 iy = 12.3 * 105 kg ‘5. Stagnation enthalpy equation 608 ag ya A? Ychas : [From Equation no. 1.16) YeSniax 123x108» Yond, > [ns = 1568.44 mis Result 1a= 552.13 mis 2. ay 608.84 mis r= 10.16» 108 kg 4g 123 * 108.0kg 5. Cac 1568.44 mis148 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion “An airstream enters in to dict atu pressure of 1.2 bar tenperaure “Of 300 K and Mach number of 1.28. Ifthe Mach number at exit of the duct is 0.6, determine the following 1. Temperature of air atthe duet exit 2, Velocity of air at tte duct exit Assuming adiabatic flow. Given ye 12bar= 1.2% 105m? [Note for air 1,°300K YM, My=125 R=287 kg, M)=06 cp 1005 Hk} To find 1. Temperature of air atexit (T3) 2, Velocity of airat exit(e>) Solution Stagnation temperature ~ Mach number relation, At inlet, (Forairy 14, R= 287 kg KI _Compressible Flow — Fundamentals 1.49 For adiabatic flow, stagnation temperature remains constant, ie fiona Atoutlet Tey tt TT, 39375.) , 14-1 = BB. OL @ Ty 7 O8F 30375, = BB stor Ty 7 = 36730K Sound velocity at exit, ay = YTRT; = (TAR DTK BETO a) = 384.16 mis ‘Mach number at exit, Mp = ae Be ee ia 16 Result: 1.1,936730K 2.¢;=250.49 m/s.1,50 Gas Dynamies ond Jet Propulsion _Compressible flow -Fundamentals 1.51 ‘This problem can be solved by using ges tables Solution : At inlet Refer isentropic flow table. for Y= 1.4 and My = 1.25 eines [ From Gas tables,(S.M. Yahya To, Fifth Edition) - page n0.32) Ty a 01" S62 > = 00 = 393.7K ‘We know that for Isentropic flow, stagnation temperature remains constant > Ty = To, = To, 7393-7 K At outlet From Isentropie flow table for Y = 1.4 and M, = 0.6 + 2 =0.933 Th, [From Gas tables page no.29] > Ty Ty,% 0933 = 393.7% 0.933 Exit temperature, T = 367.32 K pees eee Sound velocity at exit, ag = PRT) = fTa 287 367SD ay = 384.17 mis Mach number tox, My = > > 06 se Air enters a straight duct at 2.5 bar and 30° C. The inlet Mach number is 1.5 and exit Mach number is 2.4. Assuming adiabatic flow, determine a) stagnation temperature 8) Temperature and velocity of air at exit. ©) The flow rate per square metre of the inlet cross section. Take Y = 14 R= 287 thy K. 5 bar=2.5 x 105 N/m? 10°C +273 = 303 K M,=15 M)=2.4 yeild, R=287JkgK. Tofind : 2 Stagnation temperature, Ty b. Temperature and velocity of ait at exit Ty, c2 «The flow rate per square metre of the inlet cross section,1.52 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion ‘Solution For adiabatic flow, stagnation temperature (Tp) remains constant = Ty=To, "Toy ‘Stagnation temperature ~ Mach number relation, At inlet, Tp, "439.35 K [ -:For adiabatic flow, stagnation temperature remains constant] At outlet, > Ty = 204.15K Compressible Flow ~ Fundamentals 1.53, % Mach number at exit, My = == & 24 = AR 2 2 rams > an a738 mi | [cid From contiolty equation, we krow tat mass low rat remains ie -mephe=p, Aver, Ante Sen a ne faa A Pye ee tee hy = 25x108_ 287 x 303, : = 2874, = 287M <0) 2.87» My» JRE =2,87% 1.5% /14™ 287 «303 r [B= 1502.10 Ky-0? ] eee te1.54 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion Result: Ty" To, © Ty, "439.35 K b.Ty = 204.15K 6. ¢, = 687.38 mis me fm? a 150210 ka This problem can be solved by using gas tables Solution : At inlet Refer Isentropic flow table for My = LS and Y= 1.4 ates [From Gas tables (S.M. Yahya, To Fifth Edition) - page no.32} % ee eeeiee 0” 589 fe = 303 0.689 Stagnation temperature, To, = 439.16 K For Isentropic flow stagnation temperature remains constant [Tye To, "Tog "439.76 K At outlet Refer Isentropie flow table for M, = 24 and oe noes [From Gas tables page no 35} iy Compressible Flow. = Tym To,» 0.468 439,76 «0.464 Mach number at exit, My = <2. be = se [a= VIR ViRT : 2 Jia 287% 204,04 ae 728633 = | Velocity ofairat exit, c= 687.18 mis Mass low rate,m= pAc=p, Ay ¢) =p, Arey = the p Ae, >is ale 2.5105 287303 =287% Myx V7RF, { =2.87%15% /14x 287303 *My Hay teM= Sy JiR}1,56 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion Result : 8) Ty =Tp, * Toy 439.76 K by Ty = 204.04 = 687.18 m/s 502.10 kgfs-m? G] he pressure, temperatnre and fad vetociy of ar atthe entry ofa {flow passuge are 2 bar, 280 K and 140 m/s, The pressure, emperature und velocity atthe exit of a flow passage are 2 bar 260 Kand 250 ms, The area of cross section at entry is 600 cm?, Determine for adiabatic flow, @) Stagnation temperature ») Maximum velocity ©) Mass flow rate @) Area of ross section at ext Tako Y= 14, R= 287 Ihe. Given py = 3 bar=3 x 109i? T,=280K y= HOw py= 2oar=2 x 105 Nim? 1)=260K 637250 Ay = 600 eri?= 600% 10-4? Yo 14, Ra2B7IkEK Compressible Flow ~ Fundamentals 1.57 Tofind a. Stagnation temperature Ty b. Maximum velocity, Cypae © mass low rate, m 4, Area of cross section at exit, Ay Sotution Sound velocity at exit ay = /7RT;, SALES TEST) a= 355.42 mus Mach number at entry M, = = % 140 335.42 0.417 > My = 0417 Stagnation temperature ~ Mach number relation, At inlet,Stagnation velocity of sound ay = Rig = [TAR DETR 2897 y= 341,18 mis ‘Substitute ag value in Equation (A) 2a GaF ex Je [nar ©7629 mis Result: Sotution Int Mach number my « £t Mass flow rate, m= pAc =p, Ay €1 py Az cy m=p Arey ET oes Pa * ary Ane 2x1 (287 x 260 fete 8) Ty= 289.70K ©) Cyrae = 762.9 nls ©) Ay = 0.0468 m2 4d) m=31.36ky’s This problem can be solved by using gas tables * 140 J TA IST BBO oat7 * 600% 10-4 x 1401.60. Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion At inlet Refer Isentropic flow table for Y= 1.4, and Mj = 0.417 ~ 0.42 For isentropic flow, stagnation temperature remains constant, = To To, = To, = 289.85 K From Stagnation enthalpy equation, we know Yt = Yocnox “Foy =---@) Compressible Flow ~ Fundamentals 1.61 ay = YTRTy = (TERT S TOES ag= 341.26 mis ‘Substitute ap value in Equation (A) dei [Pxon28! 14-1 Caz = 763.08 mis Mass flow rate, m= pAc™p, A, ¢) "Py Aze2 = m=, A.c PL = Aree 600% 10-4 140, From gas tables, we know that = 600% 10-4 1529 a 039)1,62 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion Mach number at exit, Mp Mz = 0.773 At outlet From Isentropie flow table for Y= |.4.and My = 0.773 = 0.77 [From Gas tables page 10.30] = A, = 1052*A* = 1,052 « 0.039 Exit area, Ay 0.0410 m? Result: a. Ty = 289.85 K bi Cmax * 763.08 mm/s ©.Ay= 0.0810 m? d. m=31.36 kels es Compressible Flow ~ Fundamencals 1.63 A gas flows in a duct of 40 cm diameter at inlet pressure of 3 bar, temperature of 450 K and a velocity of 180 ms, Caleulate at inlet, 1. Mass flow rate 2, Stagnation temperature 3. Mach Number 4. Stagnation pressure values assuming the flow as compressible ‘and incompressible. Take Y= 1.3, 6) 1.05 kU/hg K Given 4,=40cm=040m py 7 3bar=3 x 105 Nim? Ty 450K fe = 180 mis y 3, ¢p= LOS Kg. Tofind 1. Mass flow rate, m 2. Stagnation temperature, Ty 3. Mach Number, My 4, Stagnation pressure, po (compressible) Stagnation pressure, pp (Incompressile) Solution We know that Gas consis, R= (2 = 0242 Kirke K [Re242 hg]1.64 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion Compressible Flow ~ Fundamentals 1.65 4 aie eae Forcompresibletiow, 4 = m= pyArey Atinit i PL c 1 = Phx ay ee yee ! \ 3x105 Foray 7 MIP * 180 Danas 4 (A= Ee) 3x08 a 1 = S410, (0,40)? 180 i Pa xasy 4 O47 i = i me O23 kgs ji 4 180 Pomp + Yap [From Equation no.(1.37)] | Finer, Atiniet = 180 Po, = Prt Yapyc}? Ji3 22450 M, = 0.478 = 3% 19844 x2L Stagnation temperature ~Mach number relation, a = 3% 1054x3210, Ax seaxasy © OP 4 Poy = 344 «105 Nin | = | Po" Poy Pyg = 3.44 105 Ni® | 0 = t= 1034 Result | : Lm=62. t ‘Stagnation temperature, Tp, = 465.3K cite ij 2.Ty=465.3K1.66 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion 3 M,=0.478 4. pp [Compressibte low] =3.46 x 108 Ni? Pg [lncompressible flow} =3.44 * 105N/n2 This problem can be solved by using gas tables Solution We know that 6 cas onan, R= (53! “9 0.242 klikg K R= 242 skgkK Mags flow rate, m = pAC=p, Ay ¢) "py Ane > m =p, Arey Pr RT Ay Xe} 3x18 242 «450 Far * 180 = BeOS 242450 m=62.3 kgls Inet Mach number, My = x Zeo.aoy? « 180 * (oaoy Compressible Flow-Fundamenal 1.67 s1 vin, tt * Tiseaa ase M, = 0478 At inlet Refer Isentropie flow table for Y= 1.3 and My = 0.478 = 0.48, vy b= 0.967 in [From Gas tables page no.21] AO = 465,36 im To. F967” 0.967 Stagnation temperature, To, ~ 465.36 K We know that for isentropic flow stagnation temperature remains ‘constant = [T= To Toy= 46536K From tables TL = 0.863 Po; , = Por ~ 9863