A General Summary of Organizational Behavior

08 
 
Fall 
Organizational Behavior 
Kerem Koseoglu 
Bu dökümanda, OB yeterlilik sınavına yönelik çıkartılmış notlar bulunmaktadır. 
Yeditepe Üniversitesi 
2   
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Science In General................................................................................................................................................... 6 
OB In General .......................................................................................................................................................... 6 
OB Basics ............................................................................................................................................................. 6 
Basic Business Functions and Principles ............................................................................................................. 6 
Approaches of OB ............................................................................................................................................... 6 
Historical Development Of OB ............................................................................................................................ 6 
Classical Theories (traditional) ........................................................................................................................ 7 
Neo Classical Theory ....................................................................................................................................... 7 
Modern Theories............................................................................................................................................. 7 
Values, Attitudes..................................................................................................................................................... 8 
Values.................................................................................................................................................................. 8 
Attitudes ............................................................................................................................................................. 8 
Job Satisfaction ............................................................................................................................................... 9 
Job Involvement.............................................................................................................................................. 9 
Organizational Commitment........................................................................................................................... 9 
Organizational Citizenship............................................................................................................................... 9 
Personality & Emotions........................................................................................................................................... 9 
Personality .......................................................................................................................................................... 9 
Personality Traits .......................................................................................................................................... 10 
Self Esteem.................................................................................................................................................... 10 
Person – Job Fit ............................................................................................................................................. 11 
Psychological Capital..................................................................................................................................... 11 
Emotions ........................................................................................................................................................... 12 
Perception & Decision Making.............................................................................................................................. 12 
Perception......................................................................................................................................................... 12 
Decision Making................................................................................................................................................ 13 
Motivation ............................................................................................................................................................ 14 

3   
 
Motivation Theories.......................................................................................................................................... 14 
Content Theories........................................................................................................................................... 14 
Process Theories ........................................................................................................................................... 15 
Applications of motivation theories.................................................................................................................. 15 
Behavior Modification....................................................................................................................................... 16 
Groups................................................................................................................................................................... 16 
Roles.................................................................................................................................................................. 17 
Group Dynamics................................................................................................................................................ 18 
Teams................................................................................................................................................................ 18 
Communication..................................................................................................................................................... 19 
The Process of Human Communication ............................................................................................................ 19 
The Message ..................................................................................................................................................... 20 
Listening ............................................................................................................................................................ 21 
Leadership............................................................................................................................................................. 21 
Leadership Theories .......................................................................................................................................... 22 
Trait vs Behavioral Theories .......................................................................................................................... 22 
Contingency Theories.................................................................................................................................... 22 
Contemporary Theories ................................................................................................................................ 24 
LMX Theory ................................................................................................................................................... 24 
X – Y Theory .................................................................................................................................................. 25 
Management Philosophy .................................................................................................................................. 25 
Ancient World ............................................................................................................................................... 25 
Calvinism, Protestant Ethic, Max Weber....................................................................................................... 25 
Capitalism, Marxism...................................................................................................................................... 25 
Christianity .................................................................................................................................................... 25 
Culture .......................................................................................................................................................... 26 
Ethics............................................................................................................................................................. 26 
Contemporary Issues of leadership .................................................................................................................. 26 
Trust .............................................................................................................................................................. 26 

4   
Power & Politics .................................................................................................................................................... 27 
Power ................................................................................................................................................................ 27 
Politics ............................................................................................................................................................... 28 
Conflict & Negotiation .......................................................................................................................................... 28 
Conflict .............................................................................................................................................................. 28 
Negotiation ....................................................................................................................................................... 30 
Organization Structure.......................................................................................................................................... 30 
Corporate Governance...................................................................................................................................... 30 
Organizational Culture .......................................................................................................................................... 30 
Culture in General ............................................................................................................................................. 30 
Culture vs Climate ............................................................................................................................................. 31 
Culture Theories................................................................................................................................................ 31 
Hofstede........................................................................................................................................................ 32 
Schein............................................................................................................................................................ 32 
Denison ......................................................................................................................................................... 32 
Queen............................................................................................................................................................ 32 
GLOBE Project ............................................................................................................................................... 33 
HR Policies and Practices ...................................................................................................................................... 34 
Recruitment ...................................................................................................................................................... 34 
Job Analysis & Evaluation.................................................................................................................................. 35 
Compansation Systems ..................................................................................................................................... 36 
Training & Development ................................................................................................................................... 36 
Performance Appraisal...................................................................................................................................... 37 
Organizational Change & Stress Management ..................................................................................................... 38 
Organizational Change & Development............................................................................................................ 38 
Organizational Change .................................................................................................................................. 38 
Change Models ............................................................................................................................................. 38 
Organizational Development ........................................................................................................................ 39 
Stress Management .......................................................................................................................................... 39 

5   
 
Learning Organizations ......................................................................................................................................... 40 
 
6   
BASICS 
SCIENCE IN GENERAL 
Bilimsel bir çalışmada 4 özellik aranır: 
• Measurement 
• Repeatability 
• Observability 
• Testability 
OB IN GENERAL 
OB BASICS 
OB, örgüt içinde insan davranışını inceler. Input (emek + toprak + yatırım + girişim)  üretim  output vardır. 
OB, emek ile ilgilenir. 
BASIC BUSINESS FUNCTIONS AND PRINCIPLES 
Basic business functions: 
• Accusation (satınalma): Input’larıtoplar 
• Production 
• Marketing 
• Finance & Accounting 
• Management 
o Planning 
o Organizing 
o Directing 
o Controlling 
Business principles: 
• Economy (Elimination of waste) 
• Productivity (output / input) 
• Efficienct (our prod. / ideal prod.)  
• Profitability (profit / capital) 
• Effectiveness (extent of reaching business goals) 
• Rationality 
APPROACHES OF OB 
Systems approach (open system), Contingency approach 
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF OB 
7   
 
CLASSICAL THEORIES (TRADITIONAL) 
Friedrick Taylor 
Invented productivity: Max output, minimum cost 
Founder of scientific management. Before him, methods were transferred from father to son. He brought 
scientific approach to management. For example, “How heavy should a shovel be?”. 
Span of control. Bir organizasyon ağacında, her bir pozisyonun altında en fazla 6 pozisyon olmalı, yoksa kontrol 
azalır ve conflict artar. 
Specialization. Herkes belli bir işte uzmanlaşıp hep onu yapmalı. Bu fikir departmanları ve job description’ları 
doğurdu ve ortaya training kavramı çıktı. 
Motivation. Job satisfaction = High performance so workers should be motivated with money. 
Training’I ilk kez gündeme getirdi. Conflict’I kaldır dedi. 
Today, Taylor is being critisized because he evaluates human beings like machines. Because of him, syndicates 
exist today. 
Fayol 
Functions of managers: Planning, organizing, yürütme, koordinasyon, kontrol. 
Weber 
Bürokrasi gereklidir. Boreacracy = standardization & rules, no exceptions. Red tape değil. 3 kinds of power – 
lgeitimacy relations: Traditional (kral güneşin oğlu), Charismatic (üstün özellikler), Legal (bürokrasi). 
İdeal bürokrasi: Specialization, hierarhical authority, impersonal relationships, strict procedural rules, 
recruitment on the basis of ability, differentaiation of private and official income, written communication & 
documentation 
NEO CLASSICAL THEORY 
Hawtorn Studies 
Bir elektrik firmasında yapılan “İş şartlarını iyileştirirsek performans artar mı?” araştırması sonucunda ortaya 
çıkmıştır. İki grup çalışanın biri aydınlık, bir karanlık odalarda çalıştırılmıştır; aydınlık grubun daha iyi çalışması 
bekleniyordu. Ne var ki, sonuçlar öyle olmadı: Karanlık grup daha iyi çalışıyordu. Sonradan; bunun sebebinin, 
karanlık odadaki araştırma görevlilerinin çalışanlara daha iyi davranması olduğu ortaya çıktı. 
Bunun sonucunda yeni Leadership fikirleri ortaya çıktı; farklı bir lider modeli: Humanistic management 
approach. Conclusions: 
• Work is a social activity as well as physical 
• Informal social organization creates its own norms, helps define the status of members and determine 
behavior, helps  fulfill the needs of members for recognition & self esteem & belonging. 
Hawtorn Effect: Biri seni izliyorsa başta işini daha iyi yaparsın, sonradan alışıp tekrar yaymaya başlarsın. 
MODERN THEORIES 
8   
(Post)Modern Age 
Eski çağlarda conflict’in engellenemeyeceği görüşü hakimdi. Group dynamics: İnsanlar grupların parçasıdır 
dendi ve grup çalışmaları araştırılmaya başlandı. Şimdi ise, yeni yeni yöntemler ve yaklaşımlar var. “Conflict is 
good, as long as you know how to manage it”. 
• Total Quality Management 
• Downsizing 
• Delayering 
• Network Organizations 
• Learning Organizations 
• Outsourcing 
THE INDIVIDUAL 
VALUES, ATTITUDES 
VALUES 
Values  Attitude  Behavior 
Sağlık  “Sağlık önemlidir”  Spor yapmak (Positive behavior) 
Namus  “Namus önemlidir”  Namus cinayeti (Negative behavior) 
Özgürlük  “İsteyen sigara içebilir”  Sigara içenlere karışmamak 
Aile  “Ailem sağlıklı olmalıdır”  Sigara içen oğluna karışmak 
Bu gibi durumlarda, Cognitive Dissonance adı verilen çatışmalar ortaya çıkar. İnsan bünyesi, bu gibi çatışmaları 
çözümlendirip kendi içinde çelişmeme yönünde eğilim gösterir. Çözüm: Change attitude, or change behavior. 
Çalışanlar arasındaki değer farklılıkları organizasyonun hedeflerine zarar veriyorsa, değiştirilmelidir. Aksi 
takdirde bırak kalsınlar. 
Convivence: Living together. Management should know how to live with differences and get +’s out of them. 
Workforce Diversity: Şirketlerin farklı ırk, din, dilden insanları bir araya toplaması. 
Self fulfilling prophecy. Bir insana akıllıymış gibi davranırsan bir süre sonra hakikaten akıllıca davranmaya 
başlar. Aptalmış gibi davranırsan, bir süre sonra aptallaşır. 
• Zencilerden çok suçlu çıkması 
• Köpeğe ısıracakmış gibi davranırsan ısırır 
• Elemana tembelmiş gibi davranırsan tembellik yapar (X) 
• Elemana güvenip sorumluluk verirsen sorumlu olur (Y) 
ATTITUDES 
Evaluative statements or judgements concerning objects, people or events 
9   
 
Degree of (un)pleasurable feelings toward job. 
Socio‐Technical Systems: İnsanın adapte olabileceği yapılar kurup, job design içinde participative 
management’ı yapabiliyor olmalı. Örnek: Volvo, takım kararlarına ödül veriyor. 
JOB SATISFACTION 
Satisfaction  performance goes in both ways. Ama bazı çalışmalarda bu ikisi arasında hiçbir bağlantı 
bulunamadığı da olmuş. Çünkü; 
Performance =   motivation     x   
      Capacity     x  (ability, training, technology, etc) 
      Opportunity   x  (loc. educ. Backg, connect., etc) 
      Environment    (Supervision, culture, etc) 
Affects: Productivity (vice versa da olabilir), absenteeism, Turnover 
JOB INVOLVEMENT 
The degree to which a person identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her 
performance important to self‐worth. 
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT 
Belief in the goal and values of the organization. Results in extra effort and desire to stay in organization. 3 
types of commitments (according to Meyer): 
• Affective. Şirketi aile gibi görmek. Sevgi. 
• Normative. “Şirketim bana çok şey verdi ben de kalıp karşılığını vermeliyim”. Minnet. 
• Continuance. Dışarıda iş yok veya istifa tazminatı var diye kalmak. Korku. 
ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP 
İş sorumlulukları dışında da şirketi desteklemek. Dimensions: 
 
• Helping behavior: Başkalarına yardım etmek 
• Sportsmanship: Kendi istediği olmayınca huysuzlanmamak 
• Organizational loyalty: Spreading goodwill, defending organizational objectives 
• Organizational compliance: Kimse bakmıyorken de kurallara uymak 
• Individual initiative: Volunteering on extra responsibilities and encouraging others to do the same 
• Civic virtue: Participating actively in fovernance, monitor environment, look best interest 
• Self development: Kendini isteyerek geliştirmek 
PERSONALITY & EMOTIONS 
PERSONALITY 
Personality: The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others. 
10   
Why is OB interested in personality? Because Person – Job match is needed. You have to be careful about this 
when recruiting and promoting someone. Personality is a relatively set of characteristics that define our 
behaviour. Determined by 2 factor sets: 
• Nature. Heredit specs of us which come by birth. 
• Nurture. Specs which were gained from the environment. 
PERSONALITY TRAITS 
Enduting characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior 
Machiavelists: The Noble adlı romandan almıştır adını. Mach Type’lar, etraflarındaki insanları amaçları 
doğrultusunda “Herşey mübahtır” diyerek kullanırlar. İkna kabiliyetleri yüksektir ve iyi pazarlık ederler, politik 
oyunlarda başarılıdırlar. 
Self‐Monitoring: Nabza göre şerbet verirler, çevreleri ile uyumludurlar. 
Big Five: Bu modele göre, 5 kişilik özelliği vardır. 
• Extraversion 
• Agreeableness 
• Conscientiousness 
• Emotional stability 
• Openness to experience 
 
Type A vs Type B 
• Type A is aggressive, struggle to achieve more in less time 
• Type B never suffer from sense of urgency, can relax without guilt 
Locus Of Control: İki tür insan vardır. Internalizer, olayları kendisinin idare edebileceğini düşünür. Externalizer, 
olayların dış faktörler tarafından kontrol edildiğini ve kendisinin pek etki edemediğini düşünür. Internalizer: 
• Tasks requiring complex analysis 
• High motivation 
• Piece‐rate workers 
• More freedom from supervision 
Mobbing: Organizasyon içi duygusal terör. In a mobbing situation, the ringleader incites supporters, cohorts, 
copycats and unenlightened, inexperienced, immature or emotionally needy individuals with poor values to 
engage in adversarial interaction with the selected target. 
Bullying: Organizasyon içi fiziksel terör. Bullying is persistent unwelcome behaviour, mostly using unwarranted 
or invalid criticism, nit‐picking, fault‐finding, also exclusion, isolation, being singled out and treated differently, 
being shouted at, humiliated, excessive monitoring, having verbal and written warnings imposed, and much 
more.  
Role conflict: Rol çatışması. Sınıf öğretmeninin öğrencisi olan oğlunu sınıfta bırakamaması. 
Rol bulaşması: Bir öğretmenin, tanımadığı bir çocuğa sokakta “İn bakayım o duvardan” demesi. 
SELF ESTEEM 
Self Concept kavramının daraltılmış halidir. Self concept, insanın kendisini bir nesne olarak ne kadar değerli 
bulduğudur. Self esteem ise, kendini ne kadar sevdiği ve kendinden ne kadar memnun olduğuyla ilgilidir. 
11   
 
Low Self Esteem’e sahip birine yöneticiler çok dikkatli yaklaşmalıdır. Böyle birine doğrudan eleştiri yaparsan 
herşeyi kendine yıkıp kendini kötü hissedebilir. Negative Feedback verirken dikkatli, Positive Feedback verirken 
cömert davranmak gerekir. High Self Esteem’e sahip birine hatasını söyleyince kabul eder ve bunu kendini 
geliştirmek için bir fırsat olarak kabul eder. 
Self Esteem’i; Heredity’den ziyade çevre şekillendirir. 
İnsanlarda Self Esteem’in Low hale gelmesini önlemek için savunma mekanizmaları çalışmaktadır. 
• Rationalization: Bir olayı akla uydurmak, genelleştirmek. Bu şekilde suçu kendi üzerine almamak, veya 
genelleştirmek. 
 
• Negativism. Patrona kırıp, gizlice bir ofis eşyasını kırmak. Bir nevi intikam. 
 
• Replacement. Patron sana kızıyor, sen de eşine kızıyorsun, o da çocuğa kızıyor, vs. 
 
• Withdrawal: Olaydan uzaklaşma. İstifa, kendi içine çekilme gibi yansımaları vardır. 
 
• Compensation. Terk edilen birinin beste yaparak duygularını ifade etmesi ve rahatlaması. 
 
• Projection. Kendi zayıf yönünü herkeste görmek. 
PERSON – JOB FIT 
Holland’s typology of personality: 
• Realistic: Prefers activities that require physical skills. Mechanic, farmer, etc. 
• Investigative: Prefers activities that involves thinking and understanding. Mathematician, reporter, 
etc. 
• Social: Prefers activities that involve helping others. Social worker, teacher, etc. 
• Conventional: Prefers rule‐regulated activities. Accountant, corporate manager, etc. 
• Enterprising: Prefers verbal activities and opportunities for power. Lawyer, public relations specialist, 
etc. 
• Artistic: Prefers ambiguous activities that allow creative expression. Painter, musicial, writer, etc. 
PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPITAL 
1
Psychological capital  has its roots in positive psychology (Larson & Luthans, 2006). It is defined as the positive 
and developmental state of an individual as characterized by four constructs: (Wikipedia, 2008) 
• Hope  is  defined  as  a  positive  motivational  state  where  two  basic  elements  interact.  These  elements 
are successful feeling of agency (or goal oriented determination) and pathways (or planning to achieve 
those goals). 
• Self  efficacy  is  defined  as  people's  confidence  in  their  ability  to  achieve  a  specific  goal  in  a  specific 
situation. 
• Optimism  was  defined  by  Attribution  Theory  (Manusov  &  Spitzberg,  2008).  An  Optimistic  person  is 
defined as one that makes internal attributions (West Virginia University, 1996) for positive events and 
external  attributions  (West  Virginia  University,  1996)  to  negative  events.  Optimism  in  Psycap  is 
thought as a realistic construct that regards what an employee can or cannot do, as such, optimism 
reinforces self efficacy and hope. 
                                                                    
1
 Also mentioned as Psycap 
12   
• Resiliency is a positive way of coping with danger or distress. In organizational aspect, it is defined as 
an ability to recuperate from stress, conflict, failure, change or increase in responsibility. 
To improve psychap in an organization, HRM should work on selection, training and performance evaluation.  
EMOTIONS 
Emotions: Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. Moods are efelings that are less intense 
than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus. 
Felt vs displayed emotions. Çatışırsa: Emotional dissonance 
Emotional dimensions: Variety, intensity, frequency & duration 
External constraings on emotions: Organizational, cultural 
Affective Events Theory: Theory that employees react emotionally to things that happen to them at work. This 
influences their job performance and satisfaction. 
EI (Emotional Intelligence): The ability to detect and manage emotional cues and information. 
• Self awareness: Being aware of what you are feeling. 
• Self management: The ability to manage own emotions and impulses. 
• Self motivation: The ability to persist in the face of failures. 
• Empathy: The ability to sense how others are feeling. 
• Social skills: The ability to handle emotions of others. 
OB Applications: Decision making, motivation, leadership, conflict, customer service, deviant workspace 
behavior 
PERCEPTION & DECISION MAKING 
PERCEPTION 
Perception: A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions to give meaning to 
their environment. 
Perception Process 
• Selective Perception 
• Organization 
• Interpretation 
Attribution Theory 
When  individuals  observe  behavior,  they  attempt  to  determine  whether  it  is  internally  or  externally  caused. 
The determination of whether the cause is internal or external depends on three factors: 
• Distinctiveness  refers  to  whether  an  individual  displays  different  behaviors  in  different  situations 
(Robbins, 2005). If the person being observed exhibits the same behavior in a variety of contexts, then 
distinctiveness is low; if they have different behavior depending on the context, then distinctiveness is 
high (Simmering, 2006). 
13   
 
• If everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the behavior 
show  consensus  (Robbins,  2005).  If  the  observer  sees  others  acting  the  same  way  that  the  person 
being  perceived  acts,  then  consensus  is  high.  However,  if  others  behave  differently  in  the  type  of 
situation, then consensus is low (Simmering, 2006). 
• Consistency describes whether the person being observed behaves the same way when faced with the 
same  set  of  circumstances.  If  the  person  being  observed  acts  the  same  way  in  the  same  type  of 
situation,  consistency  is  high;  if  they  act  differently  each  time,  then  consistency  is  low  (Simmering, 
2006). 
Usually;  external  attribution  is  caused  by  high  distinctiveness,  high  consensus  and  low  consistency.  On  the 
other hand, internal attribution is caused by low distinctiveness, low consensus and high consistency.  
Fundamental  attribution  error:  The  tendency  to  underestimate  the  influence  of  external  factors  and 
overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgements. 
Self Serving Bias: The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting 
blame for failures on external factors. 
Common Perception Errors 
• Stereotyping 
• Halo Effect 
• Primacy Effect  
• Selective Perception 
• Contrast Effect 
• Projection: It is the tendency of attributing one’s own characteristics to other people 
• Self fulfilling prophecy 
Applications in OB: interview, performance expectations (self fulfilling prophecy), ethnic profiling, performance 
evaluation, employee effort. 
DECISION MAKING 
How individuals make decisions and quality of choices are influenced by perceptions. 
Steps to rational decision making: Define the problem, Identify the decision criteria, Allocate weights to the 
criteria, Develop the alternatives, Evaluate the alternatives, Select the best alternative 
Intuitive decision making: An unconscious process created out of distilled experience. 
Decision problems as person: 
• Overconfidence bias: İnsanlar %50 haklı olmasına rağmen %70 kararda Confident olur. 
• Anchoring bias: Tendency to fizate on initial information as starting point. 
• Conformation bias: We seek out information that reaffirms our past choices and disciont info that 
contradicts. 
• Availability bias: Tendency to base judgements on info that is already available 
• Representative bias: Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by trying to match it with a preexisting 
category 
• Escalation of commitment error: An increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative 
information 
14   
• Randomness error: Decision making becomes impaired when we try to create meaning out of random 
events 
• Hindsight bias: The tendency to believe falsely that we’d accurately predicted the outcome of an 
event, after that outcome is known 
Decision problems in groups: 
• Group Polarization Phenomenon: groups are more extreme in decisions. 
Çünkügrupiçindekilerbirbirinidestekleyipgazagelebilir. 
Meselagençgruplarıbiraradasaçmakararlarverebilir. 
• Groupthink: Grup olarak karar veriyorolmakbazençokkötükararlarayolaçar. Şudurumdaortayaçıkar: 
Grupkendiiçindebütün, karşıtgörüşhiçyok.  
• Persuasive Arguments Theory: Before meeting in a group, members of the group will develop 
arguments to support their positions. To sway others, the arguments will tend to be more extreme. In 
the end, one argument will win and the group will find itself supporting an extreme decision. 
• Risky Shift Phenomenon: groups take either more or less extreme risks. Grupiçindealınan risk 
üyelerarasındabölünüyorgibigözüktüğüiçin, tekbaşınaalacağındandahaçok risk alırsın 
2
OB Implications : Performance evaluation, reward systems, formal regulations, system‐imposed time 
constraints, historical precendents 
MOTIVATION 
Need  Drive  Behavior  Incentive  Satisfaction  Need  … 
Motivasyon = willingness x ability. 
MOTIVATION THEORIES 
Motivation: The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward 
attaining a goal. 
İki tür teori var: Content (needs) ve Process. Bu teorilerde Reward önemli bir yer tutar. Intrinsic Reward: İçsel 
ödül. Uzun vadelidir. Motivators of Hereberg / higher levels of Maslow. Extrinsic Reward: Dışsal ödül. Kısa 
vadelidir. Routine / Piece rate Task’lerde işe yarar. 
CONTENT THEORIES 
Maslow: İhtiyaç piramidi. Fizyolojik  Security  Social  Esteem  Self actualization. Üst seviyedeki bir 
Need’de başarısız olursan bir alt seviyeye düşebilirsin. Eleştiri: Çin’de sosyal ihtiyaçlar fizyolojik ihtiyaçların bile 
önünde. Bu sayılar hep aynı değildir ve yer bile değiştirebilir. 
APA: (McClelland) 3 tür ihtiyaç vardır: Power, Affiliation, Achievement. 
ERG: Aldorfer ortaya attı. 3 tür ihtiyaç vardır: Existence, Relatedness, Growth. Bu Maslow’unkini temel almıştır; 
ama farklı ihtiyaçlar paralel bir şekilde doyurulmaya çalışılabilir demektedir. 
XY: (McGregor) XY tipi liderlik. 
                                                                    
2
 Bunlar Decision Making’I etkileyen şeyler 
15   
 
Two Factors Theory: Herzberg ortaya attı. Dissatisfaction ve Satisfaction’u birbirinden ayırdı. Job Content: No 
Satisfaction  Satisfaction yaratabilir (Motivators). Job Context: Dissatisfaction  No Satisfaction yaratabilir 
(Hygene Factors). Eleştiri: Her kültürde farklı olabilir; bir kültürde Motivator olan bir diğer kültürde Hygene 
olabilir. 
Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically 
rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation. 
PROCESS THEORIES 
İnsanların düşünebildiğini ve belli bir şekilde motive olup olmamaya kendilerinin karar verdiğini savunur. 
Expectancy Theory: Beklenti teorisi. Motivation = Valance x expectancy. Expectancy: “If I show effect, will I be 
able to perform?” Valence: “Reward bana ne ifade ediyor?” Valence  Needs 
Goal Setting Theory: Elemanları serbest bırakıp “Çalışabildiğin kadar çalış” demek yerine belli hedefler koymak 
daha iyi sonuç verir. Ancak; 
Hedefler ulaşılabilir olmak zorunda. Goal çok yüksek olursa, ona ulaşmak için kaliteyi düşürebilir eleman. 
Fazla yüksek Goal, isteği ortadan kaldırır. 
Çalışanlara sonuçlarla ilgili Feedback vereceksin 
Hedefleri koyarken çalışanlarla birlikte karar vereceksin. “Söz verdim, yapmalıyım” diye düşünür o zaman. 
Equity Theory: İnsan, Input ve Output’larını başkalarıyla karşılaştırır sürekli. Eğer denge yoksa, kişi dengeyi 
sağlamaya çalışır. 
Eğer kendi Output’unu yüksek bulursa (Overcompansated), Input’larını arttırmaya çalışır. “Benim maaşım 
fazla yüksek” diyen birinin daha çok çalışması gibi. 
Eğer kendi Output’unu düşük bulursa (Undercompansated), Input’larını azaltmaya çalışır. “Benim maaşım 
çok düşük, bu kadar maaşa bu kadar iş” diyen birinin işi azaltması gibi. 
Consistency Theory: Self‐fulfilling prophecy. 
Job Design Theory: Job Characteristics Model  
• Skill variety: işi tamamlamak için ne kadar çeşitli aktivite gerekiyor 
• Task Identity: Tam ve tanımlanabilir bir işi tek başına mı yapıyor 
• Task significance: Diğer insanların hayatına ne kadar değer katıyor 
• Autonomy: Zamanlama & plan yapmak konusunda ne kadar özgür? 
• Feedback: Performansı hakkında ne kadar cevap alıyor? 
APPLICATIONS OF MOTIVATION THEORIES 
Management By Objectives: Goal Setting Theory’nin organizasyon içindeki uygulamasıdır. Individual Goal  
Department Goal  Division Goal  Organizational Goal şeklinde farklı hedefler vardır ve bu hedeflerin hepsi 
birden göz önünde bulundurulmalıdır. Ama pratikte hep böyle olmaz (Örnek: Satış – üretim çatışması). Goals 
should be specific. “Masrafları kısacağız” değil, “Herkes masrafını %7 kıssın” gibi. 
Employee Recognition Programs: Reinforcement Theory’nin uygulamasıdır. Employee of the month gibi. 
Employee Involvement Programs: İnsanları sürece dahil edip karar ve önerilerde onlardan da faydalanmak. 
İnsanları çok motive eder çünkü kendini firmaya ait hisseder. Özellikle Stock Option; Flexible Benefits. 
Job Redesign and Scheduling Programs 
16   
• Job Rotation: Birinin başka departman / görevlere kaydırılması.  
• Job Enlargement: Bir sorumluluğu varken, (muhtemelen aynı seviyede) 3‐4 işi daha oluyor. Başta 
motive eder, orta vadede etkisi zayıf. 
• Job Enrichment: Bir işin farklı boyutlarını da kapsamaya başlıyor kişi. Mesela verdiğin dersin 
planlamasının da sana verilmesi. Bir nevi Empowerment. 
• Flextime 
• Job Sharing 
Empowerment: İşiyle ilgili sorumluluk veriyorsun. Mesela Migros’taki manav, sebze reyonunun indirimlerini 
kendi ayarlayabiliyor. Eleştiri: Esas amacı gerçek güç vermek yerine daha çok çalıştırmak. Ama araştırmalarda 
Employee Engagement ve Well Being’I sağladığı ortaya çıkmış. 
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 
Reinforcement Theory: Pekiştirme teorisi. Davranışın sonucuna göre tekrarlatıl(ma)masına dayanır.  
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov. Otomatik öğrenme var. 
Operant Conditioning: Sonucu gözlemleyip kendin karar verme. Bilinçli öğrenme var. Stimulus  Organizm  
Outcome. 
Social Conditioning: Başkasının sonucuna bakarak öğrenme. 
Davranış modifikasyonunda 3 temel yöntem vardır: 
Positive reinforcement. İstenen davranış ödüllendirilir. 
Negative reinforcement. İstenmeyen davranış, ceza ile korkutulur. 
Punishment. Ceza verilir. Yan etkisi çoktur, mümkünse uygulama. 
Schedules of reinforcement: 
Continuous. Davranış her tekrarlandığında ödül verilir. Davranış yeni öğreniliyorken işe yarar. Kısa 
vadelidir. 
Intermittent. Ara sıra ödül verilir. Öğrenilmiş davranışın sürekliliğini sağlamak için işe yarar. Uzun vadelidir. 
Ratio Based. Davranışı tekrarlama sayısına göre işler. 
Fix Ratio. Belli sayıda davranış ödüllendirilir. Piece‐rate gibi. 
Variable Ratio. Belirsiz sayıda davranış ödüllendirilir. Slot makinasi veya balıkçı gibi. 
Interval Based. Süreye göre işler. 
Fix Interval. Belli sürede ödül verilir. Aylık maaş gibi. 
Variable Interval. Belirsiz sürede ödül verilir.  Pop‐Quiz gibi. 
 
THE GROUP 
GROUPS 
GROUP: A collection of individuals who have interaction with one another toward some common goal or 
purpose. They have some common bands that tend to develop from common like, dislike, interest and goal. 
Formal Work Groups. Üst‐ast ilişkisinin geçerli olduğu gruplar. Standart işyeri grupları; 
departmanlar gibi. 
17   
 
Ad‐Hoc Work Groups. People throughout the organization who have an interest or a topic or 
problem forms task forces or comities to make recommendations or take action as ad hoc work 
group. 
Informal Work Groups. Based on friendship and common interest or location. Friendship cliques. 
Cohesiveness      Grupa bağlılık.  
Group Norms +    Cohesiveness iyidir 
Group Norms ‐    Cohesiveness kötüdür 
3
Group Think    Cohesiveness kötüdür 
 
Stages Of Groups 
Forming. Kişilerin meseleye ısınması, “Gruba girsem mi girmesem mi?” gibi soruları sorması. Statü & 
güç değerlendirmeleri yapılır, kimin nasıl biri olduğu araştırılır. 
 
Storming. Kim lider? Kim ne yapacak? Roller & işler nasıl dağıtılacak? 
 
Norming. Statüler ve normlar oturur. 
 
Performing. İş aktif ve düzenli bir biçimde yapılmaya başlanır. En verimli aşamadır. 
 
Adjourning. Group yapısı dağılır / değişir. 
 
ROLES 
A role is a set of expectations believed by the individual or the group to be associated with a person who 
occupies a given position in the group or organization. 
Task Roles 
Initiator (Contributor). Sorunu ortaya atan, veya ilk adımı atan. 
Information Seeker. Araştırmacı. Seeking facts, searching for data, researching sources, 
asking experts for clarification. 
Information Giver. Offering authoritative facts or relevant experience providing examples, 
and help the group to understand issues by interpreting ideas, defining terms and clairifying 
the issues. 
Evaluator. Devils advocate. Questioning the practicarity, logic or procedures. 
Summarizer. Putting together everything, checking group by proposing alternatives. 
 
Maintenance Roles 
Harmonizer. Üyeler arasında farklılıkları ve gerilimi azaltır. 
Encourager. Praising and providing encouragement to other group members. 
Gate Keeper. Sessiz oturanlara “Senin fikrin ne?” diye sorar. 
 
Blocking Roles 
Dominator. Otorite veya büyük gözükme yoluyla grubu kontrol etmeye çalışır. 
Blocker. İnatla ve mantıksız bir şekilde grupla ters düşer, genelde kişisel sebepleri vardır. 
Aggressor. Taktiklerle başkalarının önerilerini kabul etmediğini ortaya koyar. 
Disruptor. Grubun hedeflerine sahip değildir ve genelde ilgisiz & alaycı bir tavır ortaya koyar. 
                                                                    
3
 Bir grubun Extreme kararlar verip “Evet en iyisi budur” diye birlik içinde olması. Bu esnada, “Ama şu açıdan da 
düşünmek lazım” deyip bu kararı bastırmak isteyebilecek küçük Subgroup’lar bastırılır. 
18   
GROUP DYNAMICS 
The Pressure To Conform 
• Social Norms: groups have rules that must be followed.   
• Epistemological Weighting Hypothesis: Grupisteklerine / kendiisteklerine ne kadarönemverdiğin, 
grupnormlarına ne kadaruyduğunubelirler 
• Group Locomotion Hypothesis: Kendi isteklerin yerine grup isteklerini koyarsın. 
• Normative Social Influence: basic group need forces us to conform. Collectivistlerde daha yaygın. 
Örnek: moda 
• Politeness Theory: Positive face: when others approve of us (Boss’akarşı), negative face: when we feel 
others cant constrain us (şirketteyenibaşlayanbirinekarşı).  
• Roles: Topluluktaki herkesin rolü vardır. İnsanlar oynadıkları rolü fazlasıyla sahiplenebilir ve kendi 
değerlerini unutabilir. Örnek: sahte elektro şok, guard & prisoner. 
• Social Impact Theory: conformance increases with importance, immediacy (yakınlık time & space) and 
number of others.  
• Pluralistic Ignorance: sometimes most people disagree with a group norm, but nobody speaks out. 
In‐Group vs Out‐Group 
• In‐Group Bias: we give group members preferential treatment.  
• Hostile Media Phenomenon: opposed groups see neutral people as biased. (hakemleri o yüzden kimse 
sevmez) 
• Linguistic Inter‐group Bias: Varying abstraction in communication. Grup içi iyi & grup dışı kötü 
davranışlar, grup içi kötü & grup dışı iyi davranışlardan daha çok konuşulur. 
• Minority Influence: groups tolerate minorities, who should stick together.  
• Out‐Group Homogeneity: seeing non‐group people as 'all the same'. 
Decision Making (bkz: Decision Making) 
Other Group Behavior 
• Deindividuation: losing our sense of self in the crowd. (örnek: riots, yağma) 
• Group Attribution Error: Grubun verdiği karar, gruptaki herkesin bireysel kararı olmayabilir. Bu, 
gruptaki insanları aslında olmadıkları kadar benzer sanmamıza yol açabilir. 
• Minimum Group Theory: when in any group, people use group behavior. Önemsiz gruplara üye 
hissederse de önemli gruplardaki gibi gruba uyar. 
• Leader‐Member Exchange Theory: leaders and members create sözsüz agreements. (birazdan geliyor) 
• Social Loafing 
TEAMS 
Team: A group whose individual effort results in a performance that is greater than the sum of individual 
inputs. 
Types of Teams: Problem solving, self‐managed work teams, cross‐functional teams, virtual teams 
To build good teams:  
• Contextual factors (resources, performance eval, vs) 
• Composition (abilities, personality, diversity, size, etc) 
• Work design (autonomy, skill variety, task identity, task significance, etc) 
19   
 
• Process (common purpose, specific goals, team efficacy, etc) 
COMMUNICATION 
THE PROCESS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION 
Model of Human Communication 
Communication: “Process of creating meaning” 
SENDER  MESSAGE  CHANNEL  NOISE  RECEIVER 
Message types: 
• Verbal 
o Intentional 
o Unintentional 
• Non‐Verbal 
o Intentional 
o Unintentional 
Noise types: 
• Semantic (when the receiver does not attribute the same meaning to the signal that the sender does) 
o Physical 
o Psychological 
o Cultural 
Communication Contexts: Interpersonal, Intercultural, Interviewing, Small‐Group, Public, Organizational, Mass 
Goals of communication 
• Understanding: “Accurate reception of the content of the intended stimulus” 
• Pleasure 
• Attitude Influence (Coke Zero) 
• Improved Relationships 
• Action 
Channels Of Communication 
Formal 
Downward. Üstten asta. Job instructions, procedures, rules, feedback, vision, etc. 
Upward. Asttan üste.  
Horizontal. Aynı seviyede iletişim. 
Diagonal. Hierarşik yapının değişik bölgeleri arasında iletişim. 
Informal 
MBWA. Management By Wandering Around. Çok sık yapmamak lazım. Site’da az olmalı, 
yemekhanede filan yapılabilir. 
Open Door Policy. Çalışanlar istediği zaman istediği müdüre gelip konuşabilir. Kendi müdürünü 
atlayıp direkt genel müdüre giden bir işçinin cezalandırılmayacağı garanti edilmelidir. 
Grapevine. Rumor. Çok hızlıdır, %70‐90’ı işle ilgilidir, ve dolaşan lafların %70‐90’ı doğrudur. Akıllı 
bir yönetici bu yöntemi kullanarak nabız yoklayabilir. 
Non‐Verbal Communication. Sözsüz iletişimdir – beden dili. İletişimin %90’ını bu oluşturur. 
Mesela birşeyi beğenirsen Pupils büyür. Stresli vücut küçülür, rahat vücut genişler, vs. 
20   
Verbal Communication 
• Symbols & referants 
• Denotaion / connotation 
• Euphimism (memory garden) 
THE MESSAGE 
Verbal Message 
Words and Meaning 
• Symbols, Referants (Word, Object) 
• Denotation, Connotation (Main meaning, alternative meaning) 
• Private Meaning (personal), Shared Meaning (shared), Overlapping codes / Codeswitching (member of 
minority starts to talk different inbetween members) 
Language and Thought 
• Sapir‐Whorf Hypothesis: “The world is perceived differently by members of different communities and 
this perception is transmitted and sustained by language”. 
• Language Problems 
o Abstract language (don’t stay out late) 
o Inferences (conclusion derived from evidence or assumptions – when i sit, chair will carry me 
/ she is thinking about her upcoming date this weekend) 
o Dichtomies: “brilliany”, “stupid”, “winner”, “loser”. Using extreme words to label. 
o Euphemisms: “Passed away”, “Memory garden” 
o Equivocal language: One word means many things (peace, truth, drink, freedom) 
The Nonverbal Message 
Interaction with verbal messages: Replacement, Reinforcement, Contradiction 
Spatial and Temporal Cues 
Space 
• Personal 
• Interpersonal 
o Intimate Distance 
o Personal Distance 
o Social Distance 
o Public Distance 
High‐Low Contact 
Orientation 
Time: Monochronemic vs Polichronemic 
Visual Clues: Facial Expression, Oculesics (eye contact & behavior), Body Movements, Hand Gestures, Physical 
Appearance & Use Of Objects 
21   
 
Vocal Clues: Volume, Rate & Fluency, Pitch, Quality 
LISTENING 
What is meant by listening? 
• Hearing 
• Attention (like paying attention) 
• Understanding 
• Remembering 
Types of Listening 
• Pleasurable Listening 
• Discriminative Listening (matematikdersinidinlergibi) 
• Critical Listening (when we need to make a choice) 
o Analogy 
o Example 
o Statistics 
o Testimony / Quatations 
• Empathic Listening 
LEADERSHIP 
Leadership: the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals. 
Management: Implementing the vision and the strategy provided by leaders, coordinating and staffing the 
organization, and handling the day‐to‐day problems. 
Management skills: technical, human, conceptual (analiz) 
ETHICAL LEADERSHIP 
Diverse perspectives on ethical leadership: 
• Burns: Increasing awareness about ethical issues is a primary role of leadership. 
• Heifetz: Authority is not needed for ethical leadership. Non‐authority people can emerge for ethical 
leadership. 
• Greenleaf: “Servant leadership”. Service to followers is the essence of ethical leadership. Servant 
leader should stand for what is good and right, even if it’s financially not good. 
Criteria for evaluating ethical leadership 
Criteria  Ethical  Unethical 

Use of power  To serve followers  To satisfy personal needs 
Handling diverse interests of  Balance and integrate them  Favors partners who offer the most 
multiple stakeholders  personal gain 
Development of a vision  Vision that builds on follower input  Attempts to sell a personal vision 
about their needs, values and ideas  as the only way to succeed 
Integrity of leader behavior  Acts consistent with espoused  Does what is expedient for 
values  attaining personal objectives 
Risk taking  Willing to take personal risks to  Avoids decisions involving personal 
accomplish mission  risk 
22   
Communication  Makes disclosure of relevant info  Uses deception to bias follower 

about events, problems and  perception 
actions 
Response to criticsm  Encourages critical evaluation  Discourages criticism 
Development of follower skills  Coaching, mentoring, training to  Keeps followers weak and 
develop followers  dependent to the leader 
LEADERSHIP THEORIES 
TRAIT VS BEHAVIORAL THEORIES 
Trait Theories: Theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from 
nonleaders.That is, leaders are born rather than made. Most traits can be grouped under big five.  Eleştiri: 
Kültüre bağlı olarak değişebilir; teoriye uymayan başarılı liderler var, durumsallığı hesaba katmıyor. 
Behavioral Theories: If there are specific behaviors that identified leaders, then leadership can be taught.  
Eleştiri: Durumsallık yok. Which behaviors? 
• Iowa Studies: Authoritarian vs Democratic vs Laissez Fair. Vast majority preferred democratic. 
4 5
• Ohio Studies: Two dimensions: Consideration & Initiating Structure . First study to point out and 
emphasize task & human dimensions. But; validity & focus has been criticized. 
• Michigan Studies: Two dimensions: Employee‐oriented and Production‐oriented. Result: Supervisors 
of high‐productive groups are employee‐oriented; supervisors of low‐productive groups are 
production‐oriented.  
• Managerial Grid: Blake & Mouton. Liderler iş / insane ilişkisi Grid’inde bir yerlerdedir. 
CONTINGENCY THEORIES 
“It depends” 
LPC – Least Preferred Coworker Contingency (Fiedler): Şirkette en azsevdiğiçalışanı belli olumlu (yardımsever, 
arkadaşcanlısı, vs) veolumsuz (bencil, soğuk, vs) kriterlerbazındapuanlar. High LPC biryöneticigeneldeolumlu, 
Low LPC iseolumsuzpuanverecektir.High LPC’ler people‐oriented, Low’larise task‐oriented olacaktır. 
Situation’lar, favorable veya unfavorable olabilir. 
Leader – Mentor Relation   Good, Poor 
Task Structure     Structured, Unstructured 
Position Power       Strong, Weak 
                                                                    
4
 The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for 
subordinates’ ideas and regard for their feelings 
5
 The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his/her role and those of  subordinates in the 
search for goal attainment 
23   
 
Favorable ve Unfavorable Situation’larda Task Oriented yöneticiler iyi iş yapar. Moderate Situation’larda ise 
People Oriented yöneticiler iyi iş yapar. You should match the situation to the leader or match the leader to the 
situation. Eleştiri: İnsanları Task / People Oriented diye bu kadar kesin ayıramazsın. 
Path‐Goal Theory: Leaders clarify the path, remove roadblocks, and increase rewards. Styles: 
• Supportive: Considering the needs of the follower, showing concern for their welfare. Best when the 
work is stressful, boring or hazardous. 
• Directive: Telling followers what needs to be done and giving appropriate guidance along the way. This 
may be used when the task is unstructured and complex and the follower is inexperienced.  
• Participative: Consulting with followers and taking their ideas into account when making decisions. 
Best when the followers are expert. 
• Achievement‐Oriented: Setting challenging goals, both in work and in self‐improvement. This 
approach is best when the task is complex. 
Leadership Substitutes Theory: Herzamanliderlazımdiyebirşeyyok. Şudurumdalideregerekolmayabilir: 
• Follower characteristics: Expertise, Self‐driven 
• Task characteristics: Predictable, Feedback from task, Satisfying task 
6
• Organizational characteristics: Cohesive  team, Formal organization, Distributed team 
Hersey & Blanchart: Maturity Level – astların o yönetim biçimine ne kadar hazır olduğu.  
• Unable + Unwilling  Telling 
• Able + Unwilling  Participating 
• Unable + Willing  Selling (eğitimci gibi) 
• Able + Willing  Delegating 
                                                                    
6
 Birlikte iyi çalışabiliyorlarsa 
24   
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES 
İyi bir lider, ikisi de olabilmelidir. 
Charismatic Leadership: Vizyonu var, ve iyi bir hatip. Followers make attributions of heroic leadership abilities 
when they observe certain behaviors. Key characteristics: 
• Vision and articulation 
• Personal risk 
• Environmental sensitivity 
• Sensitivity to follower needs 
• Unconventional behavior 
Most experts believe that individuals can be trained to exhibit charismatic behaviors. But there is also a dark 
side of charisma (Hitler). 
Theories of charismatic leadership: 
• Attribution Theory: Charisma is attributional.Follower attribution of charismatic qualities to a leader is 
jointly determined by the leader’s behavior, skill, and aspects of the situation. 
• Self‐Concept Theory: Charisma is observable process, rather than folklore and mystique.  
Transformational Leadership: Değişim, gelişim, dönüştürücü lider. Charisma, inspiration, intellectual 
simulation, individual consideration. Charismatic’I kapsar bu, üzerine ilave eder. Idealized influence, 
individualized consideration, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation. Steps: 
• Articulate a clear and appaealing vision 
• Explain how the vision can be attained 
• Act confidently and optimistically 
• Express confidence in followers 
• Use dramatic, symbolic actions to emphasize key values 
• Lead by example 
• Empower people to achieve the vision 
7
Transactional Leadership: İş bitirici lider. Reward, management by active exception , management by passive 
8 9
exception , laissez‐faire .  
LMX THEORY 
Leaders in groups maintain their positions through a series of tacit exchange agreements. 
Liderlerinyakınçevresindekiinsanlar (asistan, danışman, vs) ileözelbirilişkisivardır.Onlaradahafazlasorumluluk, 
görev, kaynak, vsverirler.Bu grup, özelstatülerisebebiyledahaçokçalışarakbedelöder.Lidere tam sadakatbeklenir. 
Dış çemberise, dahaazyetkiyevssahipolur, dahaönemsizdir. Lider de, 
içgrubunfazlapalazlanıpyerinialmamasıiçindikkatliolur. 
The LMX Process: 
• Role taking: Birigrubayenikatıldığında; lider, onlarınyeteneklerinideğerlendirir. Zamaniçerisinde, 
yetenekleriniispatlayabilecekleriyenifırsatlarverebilir. İkitarafda, nasıldavranılmakistediğini belli eder 
                                                                    
7
 İstisna olunca müdahele ediyor 
8
 İstisna olunca müdahele etmiyor, standartlar yakalanamazsa müdahele ediyor 
9
 Çalışanlara hiç karışmaz 
25   
 
• Role making: Bu aşamada, liderile her birarasındasözsüzanlaşmalaroturur. Dedication & loyalty 
karşılığında benefit & power verilir. Lideringüveninikıranbiridışgrubaitilebilir.  
• Routinization: leader & members arasındakisosyalalışverişinmotifleriotururvebelirginleşir. 
Success factors: 
• Similiarity to leader 
• Seeing viewpoint of leader 
• Better when job challenge extreme (low or high) 
10
• Onwards & upwards  
X – Y THEORY 
X tipindeki liderler, Taylor tipindedir. İnsanların default olarak tembel ve sorumluluk almayan kişiliğe sahip 
olduklarını düşünürler; insanlar, ancak external force ile çalıştırılabilir. 
Y tipindeki liderler, insanların aslında tembel değil, sorumluluk almak isteyen varlıklar olduğunu ve insanları 
tembelleştiren şeyin sistem olduğunu savunur. İnsan davranışını hem dış, hem iç güçler etkiler. 
MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHY 
ANCIENT WORLD 
• Egyptians (~2000 B.C.) experimented with decentralized government and a form of participatory 
management 
• Babylonians (~1800 B.C.) Hammurabi’s Code made supervisor responsible for worker 
• Chinese (~1100 B.C.) ‐ Confucius and SunTzu (1st military text), system of grading workers into classes  
• Greeks (~400 B.C.) ‐ Participatory management; invented job rotation, division of labor, generic vs. 
distinct management, invented the staff principle 
• Romans (~200 B.C.) ‐ Diocletian system of central control, created job descriptions 
CALVINISM, PROTESTANT ETHIC, MAX WEBER 
• Calvinism: God chooses some to be saved and others have absolutely no opportunity for salvation 
• Max Weber: Religion  Economy. Calvinism influenced large numbers of people to engage in work in 
the secular world, developing their own enterprises and engaging in trade. Protestant ethic: 
Unplanned force behind movement that lead to capitalism. 
o Authority: Rational‐Legal, Traditional, Charismatic 
o Bureaucracy (not red tape) 
CAPITALISM, MARXISM 
• Capitalism found by Karl Marx. Land and capital privately owned. Buyers & sellers. Consumers free to 
spend income.  
• Adam Smith: “Wealth of Nations”. Free market looks chaotic, but is led by an invisible hand. 
CHRISTIANITY 
                                                                    
10
 Lider de (mesela) şirket sahibinin inner circle’ında ise; bu, liderin inner circle’ındaki insanlara da yansır. En alt 
seviyedeki biri, böyle bir zincir sayesinde muazzam güçlü olabilir. 
26   
11 12 13 14
• Christian Philosophy: Management functions , Management skills , Conceptual skills , Ethics  
• Christian Community: Rituals in Church 
CULTURE 
Managers have to learn about cultural differences. Managerial practices should be differentiated with respect 
to the cultures. 
ETHICS 
Theories 
• Cognitivism (objective moral truths) vs Non‐cognitivism (subjective moral truths) 
• Teleological (get to good result at any cost) 
o Ethical Egoism: Selfish acts 
o Utilitarianism: Act to maximize good of the majority 
o Machiavellianism: Do everything to get the job done 
• Deontological (get to good result, but not at any cost) 
o Kant: Good will 
o Locke: Inborn natural rights  Ground for any ethical decision 
• Virtue Ethics: “Nasıl bir insan olmalıyız, ne çeşit Virtue’larımız olmalı?” (courage, yardımsever, vs) 
Impacts: HR’sequiality of opportunity, Marketing’s advertising, Management’s whistle blowing, trade secrets, 
workplace privacy, social responsibility 
Corporate Social Responsibility (Corporate Citizenship) 
CSR Drivers: Societal, Employee, Shareholder, Consumer expectations 
CSR: that the corporation has not only economic and legal obligations, but also certain responsibilities to 
society that extend beyond these obligations. considers the impact of the company’s actions on society. 
Carroll’s Four Part Definition: Eonomic (be profitable), Legal (obey laws), Ethical (do what is right), Discretionary 
(be a good corporate citizen) 
Organizational Justice 
• Distributive Justice: Kaynak dağıtımının adaleti. Mesela maaş. 
• Procedural Justice: Yöntemin adil olup olmadığı. “3 ev satana 10.000 YTL” diyorsun ama bir bölge çok 
zor olabilir. 
• Relational Justice: Supervisor’lar nasıl davranıyor? Kayırma var mı? 
• Informational Justice: Şirkette olup bitenlerden herkesin adil bir şekilde haberi var mı? 
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES OF LEADERSHIP 
TRUST 
                                                                    
11
 Planning, Organizing (span of control), Leading, Controlling (benchmark – başkasıyla kıyasla) 
12
 Technical (iyi olan yönetsin), Human (conflict), Conceptional 
13
 Analysis, look for alternatives,  
14
 İşçi (show they can be trusted), işveren (tam para ver),  
27   
 
Trust: a positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically.  
Types of trust:  
• Deterrence based: Trust based on fear of reprisal if the trust is violated 
• Knowledge based trust: Trust based on behavioral predictability that comes from history 
• Identification based trust: Trust based on a mutual understanding of each others intentions 
15 16
Care and concern: Passive concern  vs active concern  
Reliability: Do what you say. Sözlerini tut. 
Honesty: Tell the whole truth. 
Creating trust in organizations: Values and culture, interdependence, role & process clarity, goal congruity, 
visibility, consequences of transgression 
POWER & POLITICS 
POWER 
Power  refers  to  a  capacity  that  A  has  to  influence  the  behavior  of  B,  so  that  B  acts  in  accordance  with  A’s 
wishes.  
• Sources of Power 
• Formal Power: It is based on an individual’s position in an organization. 
o Coercive  Power:  Coercive  power  is  the  power  that  comes  from  a  person’s  authority  to 
punish.  
o Reward Power: This is the opposite of coercive power. This type of power is based on the 
ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable (Robbins, 2005). This power is 
obvious but also ineffective if abused.  
o Legitimate  Power:  This  is  the  authority  delegated  to  the  holder  of  the  position 
(Wikipedia, 2008).  
o Information  Power: Information power comes as a result of possessing knowledge that 
others need or want. This power type also extends to the ability to get information not 
presently held such as a case with a librarian or data base manager (Petress).  
• Personal Power: It is based on an individual’s unique characteristics rather than a formal base. 
o Expert  Power:  It  is  an  individual's  power  deriving  from  the  skills  or  expertise  of  the 
person and the organization's needs for those skills and expertise (Wikipedia, 2008).  
o Referent Power: It is based on identification with a person who has desirable resources 
or  personal  traits.  It  develops  out  of  admiration  of  another  and  a  desire  to  be  like  that 
person (Robbins, 2005).  
o Charismatic Power: The sociologist Max Weber defined charismatic authority as "resting 
on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual 
person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him" (Wikipedia, 
2008). Power based upon charisma is an extension of referent power stemming from an 
individual’s personality and interpersonal style (Robbins, 2005).  
• Scope of Power: Üzerinde etkili olabileceğin insane sayısı. 
                                                                    
15
 doing no harm 
16
 preventing harm in general (from other sources) 
28   
• Field of Power: Hangi alanda etkili olabileceğin. Mesela OB hocası “sunum hazırla” derse yaparsın, 
ama “gece uyuma” derse yapmazsın. 
Sustaining power will require the audience to be dependent on the power holder: 
• Importance: As long as the source of power is important to the others, the power will be sustainable.  
• Scarcity: As long as the source of power is scarce, the power will be sustainable.  
• Nonsubstitutability: The less substituted the source of power has, the more sustainable the power will 
be. Less substitutable sources of power will relate to a higher level of power.  
POLITICS 
Politics: Power in action 
Political behavior: Activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, but that 
influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. 
Legitimate political behavior vs Illegitimate political behavior 
Perception of organizational politics: decreased satisfaction, increased stress, increased turnover, reduced 
performance 
Defenses: avoiding action, avoiding blame, avoiding change. 
Impression management: The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of 
them. Conformity (ona uymak), excuses (bahane uydurmak), apologies (özür dilemek), self‐promotion (kendini 
övmek), flattery (karşındakini övmek), favors (karşındakine iyilik yapmak), association (biz onunla aynı 
okuldanız) 
CONFLICT & NEGOTIATION 
CONFLICT 
Disagreement. İki farklı kişi / grup arasındaki amaç / fikir ayrılığı. 
Old: Conflict is bad and must be avoided 
Modern : Conflict is inevitable 
Postmodern  : Conflict is good if you can manage nature and amount  of conflict. 
Natures of Conflict 
Task conflict. Generally good. 
Relationship conflict. Generally bad. 
Task  Relationship conflict arasında genelde pozitif korelasyon vardır, o yüzden dikkat etmek gerekir. 
İkisinin arasında Moderating Variables da vardır; Trust, Communication, Conflict Style (win‐win) gibi. 
Amount Of Conflict 
Conflict ne çok az, ne de çok fazla olmalıdır. Az conflict, grubu tekdüzeliğe ve durağanlığa iter; Group Think’e 
bile yol açabilir. Çok Conflict ise, yönetilmesi zor bir duruma götürür. 
29   
 
Conflict Management 
Related with communication closely.  
Levels of conflict 
Intrapersonel. Kişinin kendi içinde olur ve çözülmesi zordur. Cognitive Dissonance.  
Approach conflict. İki pozitif seçenek arasında karar verme güçlüğü. 
Avoidence conflict. İki negatif seçenek arasında karar verme güçlüğü. 
Approach – avoidence conflict. Hem pozitif, hem negatif öğeler barındıran iki seçenek arasında 
karar verme güçlüğü. (Rejim yapan birinin “Şu keki yesem mi” demesi). 
Interpersonel. İki kişi arasında. 
Intragroup. Grup içinde. 
Intergroup. İki grup arasında. İnsanların gruba olan bağlılığını arttırır. 
Interorganizational. İki organizasyon arasında. Pepsi – Coca Cola arasındaki promosyon savaşı gibi. 
Lowering conflict levels 
Avoiding. Turtle Style. Herşeyi önlersin, Lose – Lose olur. Durum önemli değilse, veya hedefe 
ulaşılamıyorsa kullanılır. Karşı tarafı sakinleştirmek için geçici bir süre de uygulanabilir. 
Acommodation. Teddy Bear Style. “Senin dediğin olsun”. Haklı olmadığını anlarsan uygulanır; Harmony & 
Peace isteyen biri de uygulayabilir. Bir dahaki sefer için seni güçlü kılacaktır. 
Competing (Forcing). Shark Style. “Benim dediğim olsun”. I win – you lose. Çabuk karar gereken 
17
durumlarda uygulanabilir. Amygdala  insanı buna iter. 
Compromising. Fox Style. No lose, no win. Orta noktada buluşulur. Full utilization olmaz, iki taraf da biraz 
kazanıp biraz kaybeder. 
Collabration. Owl Style. Win – win. En iyi alternatiftir, ama uygulayabilmek için tarafların taleplerinin değil, 
daha derindeki Need’lerinin anlaşılması gerekir. 
Competition 
Aggression insan genlerinde vardır, bu yüzden Competition olur. Social programming de Competition’u 
körükler; yani doğduğumuzdan beri hep Competition’a itiliyoruz. Competition, genelde I Win – You Lose 
şeklinde yapılır. Sonuçları; 
Win – win. İki taraf da kazanır. Paylaşılan pasta büyür. Awareness, creativity, willingness gerektirir. 
                                                                    
17
 Hayvansal, saldırgan beyin. Bunu üst beynin (Rational) idare etmesi beklenir. 
30   
Lose – lose. İki taraf da kaybeder. Paylaşılmak istenen pasta küçülür. 
Win – Lose. Biri kazanıp biri kaybeder, pasta boyutu değişmez. 
Corporation + Competition = Coopetition. 
Transactional Analysis: Parent – Adult – Child ilişkisi karşılıklı olarak. 
NEGOTIATION 
Negotiation olabilmesi için: 
• Conflict 
• Interdependency 
• Utility (anlaştıktan sonra sonuçlar) 
Negotiation’da güçlü olmak için BATNA’nı bilmen gerekir 
THE ORGANIZATION SYSTEM 
ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE 
Organizational structure: How job tasks are formally divided, grouped and coordinated. 
• Works specializaition: To what degree are activities subdivided into separate jobs? 
• Departmentalization: On what basis will jobs be grouped together? 
• Chain of command: To whom do individuals and groups report? 
• Span of control: How many individuals can a manager efficiently direct? 
• (De)centralization: Where does decision‐making authority lie? 
• Formalization: To what degree will there be rules and regulations to direct employees and managers 
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE 
Deciding how corporations ought to be governed involves some answer to the question, “In whose interests 
should corporations be run?” 
• Property Rights Theory: views the corporation as a private entity. shareholders, as owners of the 
corporation, have a right that it be operated solely in their interests. It is argued that shareholders 
were no longer owners in any meaningful sense. 
• Social Institution Theory: regards the corporation as a public entity, in which the state grants 
individuals the right to do business in the corporate form in order to serve some social good. 
• Contractual Theory: the firm is a connection of contracts among all of its constituencies, in which 
groups deploy their economic assets for some return. 
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE 
CULTURE IN GENERAL 
Perspectives 
31   
 
• Traditional: Culture is a social heritage 
• Behavioral: Way of living 
• Structural: Forms, values, shared by members 
• Functional: Way of solving problems and dealing with adaptation issues in regard of human activieis 
• Mental: Cognitive process. Höfstede: “Mental program of human beings” = Culture. 
Dominant culture, subculture 
Strong vs weak culture 
Organizational vs national culture 
CULTURE VS CLIMATE 
Culture: A system of shared norms, rules, mores and ethics by the members of a given society. Learned and 
transmitted from generation to generation. Not static; culture changes very slowly over time. 
Climate: Climate portrays organizational environments as being rooted in the organization’s value system, but 
tends to present these social environments in relatively static terms, describing them in terms of a fixed set of 
dimensions. 
Point  Climate  Culture 

Reference  Refers to a situation  Refers to an evolved context 
Link  Links to thoughts, feelings,  Rooted in history 
behaviors 
Source  Growing out of Lewinian field  Growing out of social construction 
theory  framework 
Generalization  Possible  Not possible, each culture is 
unique 
Point of View  Etic – Describes concepts as part of  Emic – Describes concepts as part 
observer  of culture 
Methodology  Quantitative  Qualitative 
Temporal Orientation  Historical snapshot  Evolution over time 
Level of Analysis  Surface, observations  Deep, individual meanings 
LEADERSHIP & CULTURE 
Sources of culture: Beliefs & values & assumptions of founders, learning experiences of members, new beliefs 
& values & assumptions brought in by new members and leaders. 
Culture is rooted in the vision (means: culture) of the founder; and the leaders who sustain the vision. If leaders 
vision would be wrong, the group would be disbanded soon. 
How leaders embed & transmit culture 
• Specifying what they pay attention to; what they measure; and what they control 
• Reactions to critical incidents and organizational crises 
• Observed criteria for resource allocation 
• Role modeling, teaching, coaching 
• Observed criteria for Allocation of rewards or status 
• Observed criteria for Recruitment, selection, promotion, etc 
32   
CULTURE THEORIES 
HOFSTEDE 
Artifacts: Symbols, heroes, rituals, values 
Dimensions: Power distance, Individualism vs Collectivism, Masculenity vs Femininity, Uncertainty avoidance, 
Long Term vs Short Term orientation 
SCHEIN 
Artifacs: Heroes, Symbols, Rituals 
DENISON 
Dimensions: 
• Involvement 
o Empowerment 
o Team orientation 
o Capability development 
• Consistency 
o Core values: Set of values, creating a sense of identity 
o Agreement: employees capacity to reach an agreement on critical issues 
o Coordination & integration: Separate units able to work together towards goal 
• Adaptability 
o Creating change: Ability to develop alternative ways of meeting external & internal changing 
needs 
o Customer focus 
o Organizational learning: Lessons out of experience 
• Mission 
o Strategic direction: Strategic intentions towards goals 
o Goals & objectives: Operasyonel hedefler 
o Vision: Common vision enables eomployees to use their creativity 
QUEEN 
33   
 
GLOBE PROJECT 
examining the inter‐relationships between societal culture, organizational culture, and organizational 
leadership.  
Culturan Dimensions: 
• Performance Orientation: It is the degree to which a society encourages and rewards group embers 
for performance improvement. 
• Uncertainty  Avoidance:  This  dimension  is  the  society’s  reliance  on  social  norms  and  procedures  to 
alleviate the unpredictability of future events. 
• Humane Orientation: This is the degree to which a society encourages individuals to be fair, altruistic, 
generous, caring and kind to others. 
• Individualism  vs.  Collectivism:  It  is  the  degree  to  which  individuals  are  encouraged  by  social 
institutions to be integrated into groups within organizations and society. 
• Institutional Collectivism: It is the degree to which organizational and societal institutional practices 
encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action. 
• In‐Group  Collectivism:  It  is  the  extent  to  which  members  of  a  society  take  pride  in  membership  in 
small groups; such as families, circle of close friends and a company. 
• Assertiveness:  It  is  the  extent  to  which  a  society  encourages  people  to  be  tough,  assertive  and 
competitive.  
• Gender Egalitarianism: It is the extent to which a society maximizes gender role differences. 
• Future Orientation: It is the extent to which a society encourages future‐oriented behaviors, such as 
planning and investing in the future. 
• Power  Distance:  This  is  the  degree  to  which  members  of  a  society  expect  power  to  be  unequally 
shared. 
Leadership Attributes: 
• Universal  Positives:  There  are  22  attributes  universally  regarded  as  contributing  to  good  business 
leadership, including “trustworthy,” “motive arouser,” and “excellence oriented”. 
• Universal  Negatives:  There  are  8  attributes  universally  regarded  as  inhibiting  outstanding  business 
leadership, including “irritable” and “dictatorial”. 
• Culturally  Contingent: Most revealing are 35 attributes viewed in some societies as promoting good 
leadership,  and  in  other  societies  as  impeding  good  leadership.    This  list  includes  surprises  such  as 
“cunning,” “evasive,” “class conscious,” and even “sensitive”. 
Culturally endorsed leadership theory dimensions: 
• Charismatic  /  Value  Based: This CLT captures a leader’s ability to inspire, to motivate, and to expect 

high performance outcomes.  This CLT was associated with “self‐sacrifice,” “integrity,” “decisive,” and 
“performance  oriented”.  A  key  finding  is  that  all  cultures  saw  this  dimension  as  very  substantially 
contributing  to  outstanding  leadership  (Grove,  2007).    However,  being  charismatic  was  considered 
more relevant in cultures with a high performance orientation (Yukl, 2002). 
• Team  Oriented:  It  is  described  as  emphasizing  effective  team‐building  and  implementation  of  a 
common purpose or goal among team members. All cultures saw “team orientation” as contributing 
substantially to outstanding leadership (Grove, 2007).  However, this dimension was considered more 
relevant  for  leader  effectiveness  in  cultures  that  are  collectivistic  rather  than  individualistic  (Yukl, 
2002). 
• Participative:  This  CLT  reflects  the  degree  to  which  managers  involve  others  in  making  and 
implementing decisions. Germanic Europe most positively associated “participative” with outstanding 
34   
leadership.   The least positive association was in the Middle East, where its association was modestly 
above the mid‐point (Grove, 2007).  This means, being participative was considered more relevant for 
leadership effectiveness in cultures with low power distance and low avoidance of uncertainty (Yukl, 
2002). 
• Human  Oriented:  This  CLT  reflects  supportive  and  considerate  leadership,  but  also  includes 
compassion  and  generosity.    Worldwide,  this  CLT  was  viewed  as  only  moderately  contributing  to 
outstanding leadership (Grove, 2007).  
• Self‐Protective:  This dimension focuses on ensuring the safety and security of the individual or group. 
Worldwide, this CLT was viewed as not contributing to outstanding leadership.  The highest score, by 
South Asian cultures, was just below the mid‐point (Grove, 2007). 
• Autonomous: This CLT refers to independent and individualistic leadership (Grove, 2007).  
In the study of Paşa, Kabasakal and Bodur in 2001, GLOBE’s findings were tested empirically in a Turkish study. 
Here are some significant results: (Paşa, Kabasakal, & Bodur, 2001) 
• Collectivism has found to be the most dominant organizational value. Collectivistic values are found to 
influence leadership behaviors of “Paternalistic‐considerate” and “Laissez‐Faire”.  
• Being the second dominant organizational values, performance orientation and uncertainty avoidance 
were not found to influence observed leadership behaviors.  
• Values of self‐sacrificial, integrity, power distance and quality were found to influence the leadership 
behaviors of “Hierarchical‐Autocratic”, “Transactional‐Team Oriented” and “Laissez‐Faire”. 
• The most frequently observed leadership types were: 
o Hierarchical‐autocratic 
o Paternalistic‐considerate 
o Transactional‐team oriented 
o Laissez‐Faire 
HR POLICIES AND PRACTICES 
RECRUITMENT 
SELECTION 
Selection devices: Interview, written tests, performance‐simulation tests, work sample tests 
Recruitment & job hunting methods: Media ads (Newspaper ads, electronic media, situation‐wanted ads), 
point of purchase methods, campus recruitment, outside recruiters (employment agencies, executive search 
firms, public employment agencies), employee referrals, direct mail, computer databases, job fairs 
INTERVIEW 
Realistic Job Previews: Involves giving an applicant an honest assesment of a job. 
Reasons for lack of interview validity: Poor intuitive ability, lack of job relatedness, primacy effect, cotrast 
effect, negative‐information bias, interview‐interviewee similarity, appearance, nonverbal cues 
To improve interviews: Training, structured interviews, situational interviews 
REFERENCES 
35   
 
Reason to use references: Confirming resume, checking for discipline problems, discovering new information, 
predicting future performance 
Problems when using references: Leniency, knowledge of applicant, reliability, extraneous factors 
TESTS 
When choosing tests: Reliability & validity, cost & ease of use, potential for legal problems, scoring methods, 
speed vs power 
Types of tests:  
18 19
• Psychological tests : interest inventories , ability tests, job‐knowledge tests 
• Physical agility tests 
Assessment centers: In‐basket technique, simulations, work samples, leaderless group discussions, business 
games 
JOB ANALYSIS & EVALUATION 
JOB ANALYSIS 
Needed for: Job descriptions, employee selection, training, personpower planning, performance appraisal, job 
classification, job evaluation, job design 
Job description must include: Job title, DOT code, Brief summary, work activities, tools used, work context, 
performance standards, personal requirements 
Info is gathered through: Interviews, observation, task analysis, job praticipation 
Gathering Information: 
• Tasks & Activities 
o Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ). Cons: College level 
o Job Structure Profile (JSP). Revised version of PAQ 
o Job Elements Inventory (JEI). Less educated people can understand. 
o Functional Job Analysis (FJA). Used by federal government to analyse and compare thousands 
of jobs. 
• Tools & Equipment: Job Components Inventory (JCI) 
• Work Environment: Arbeitswissenscahftliches Erhebungsverfahren zur Tatigkeitsanalyse (AET). 
• KSAO’s 
o Critical Incident (CIT) 
o Job Components Inventory (JCI) 
o Treshold Traits Analysis (TTA). Like JCI. 
o Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F‐JAS).  Rate list of abilities, highly structured. 
o Job‐Element Approach 
JOB EVALUATION 
                                                                    
18
 Örnek: Big Five 
19
 Katılımcılara “do you like to repair electrical wiring?” gibi like / dislike sorular soruyorsun 
36   
Process of determining a jobs worth. Internal pay equity important: 
• Internal Equity 
o Ranking Method: İşleri önemine göre listele, üstteki alttakinden fazla alsın 
o Point Method: Faktörleri belirle, faktöleri puanla, kişiler özelliklerine göre puan (=para) alsın 
• External Equity: Salary Surveys 
COMPANSATION SYSTEMS 
Variable Pay Programs 
• Piece‐rate pay plans 
• Profit‐sharing plans (organization wide) 
• Gainsharing (group productivity) 
Skill Based Pay Plans 
Flexible Benefits 
TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT 
TRAINING 
Determining needs: 
• Organizational analysis 
• Task analysis 
• Person analysis: Performane appraisal, surveys, interviews, skill & knowledge tests, critical incidents 
Training types:  
20
• Classroom instruction: Seminars, programmed instruction , case studies, critical incidents 
21 22
• Sample Job Performance: Simulation, Role Playing, Modeling , Behavior Modeling , Job Rotation 
• Informal on‐the‐job training: Apprentice training, Coaching, Performance Appraisal 
Encouraging the user of training material: goal setting, feedback, incentives for learning 
LEARNING 
How do we learn?  
• Classical conditioning (Pavlov gibi). Satınalma davranışı – Shaving cream & pleasure 
• Operant conditioning: Eylemsel. Positive & negative reinforcement. 
• Social learning: Biri ödül veya ceza alıyor, sen ona bakıp örnek alıyorsun. 
Types of training: basic literacy skills, technical skills, interpersonal skills, problem‐solving skills 
Training methods: on‐the‐job, off‐the‐job 
                                                                    
20
 Booklet ver, kitap gibi okusun sonra sınavı çözsün 
21
 By watching other employees 
22
 Role playing gibi, ama örnek aldığın kişi gerçekçiden ziyade ideal davranışlar sergiliyor 
37   
 
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL 
Appraise performance, not effectiveness. What people do; observable, relevant to goals, measurable. Evaluate 
contextual performance as well. 
Requirements: Content must be objective, job‐related, behavior‐based, ratee control, relate to specific 
functios. Procedure must be standardized, formally declared, provide deficincies, provide suggestions, review 
allowed, input allowed, multiple trained raters, abuse detection. 
Sources of info:  
• Production data: Üretimden gelen veriler. Ama her zaman tam doğruyu göstermez, çevresel faktörler 
birini iyi kötü yaomış olabilir. 
• Personnel data: HR verileri. Kaç gün işe gelmemiş gibi. 
• Judgemental data. Değerlendiren kişinin yargısı. 
Techniques 
• Top – Down Evaluation 
o Graphical Rating Scales 
o Employee Comparison. Leniency & central tendency önler, halo’yu önlemez. 
 Rank order. İyi – kötü arasındaki farkın miktarı belli olmaz. 
 Paired comparison. Zayıf yanı, kalabalık şirketlerde çok vakit alması. 
 Forced distribution. Normal dağılım varmış gibi varsayp insanları oraya yerleştirmek. 
Herkes iyi veya herkes kötüyse bu göz ardı edilecektir. 
o Behavioral Checklists. Davranışa dayanır. 
 Critical incidents. Yıl içinde performansı arttıran veya azaltan davranışlar not edilir, 
ve sonra kişiler ona göre değerlendirilir. Olumsuz: Makinayı çalışır halde bıraktı. 
Olumlu: Hep baret giydi 
 BARS – Behaviorally anchored rating scale. Incident’ler 5‐10 dimension’da toplanır. 
Dimension’lar iyiden kötüye sıralanır. Üst sıradakileri yapanlar iyi, alt sıradakileri 
yapanlar kötü olarak belirlenir. 
 BOS – Behavioral observation scale. BARS gibi, farkı: o davranışı belli bir dönemde ne 
kadar tekrarladığına bağlı. 
23
• Self Assesment. Overevaluation ve leniency  olabilir. 
• Peer assessment. Zor tarafı, arkadaşlar birbirine kötü demek istemeyebilir veya birbirine puan vermek 
istemeyebilir. 
o Peer Nomination: Her bir üye, belli bir dimension’la göre en iyi (mesela) 3 üyeyi seçer. 
o Peer Rating: Her bir üye, diğerlerine belli dimension’lara göre puan verir 
o Peer Ranking: Her bir üye, diğerlerini belli bir dimension’a göre en iyiden en kötüye doğru 
dizer 
• 360 Degree Feedback. Manager’lar için herkesten Appraise etmesi beklenir. Increases self‐awareness. 
Rater Subjects 
• Common errors 
o Halo error 
o Leniency error 
o Central‐tendency error 
• Rater Training 
                                                                    
23
 yumuşakça. Mesela manager’lar kendilerini supervisor’larından daha az kırıcı değerlendiriyorlar 
38   
o Prevent errors 
o Prevention ~ accuracy? 
o Rater calibration 
• Rater Motivation 
o No reward 
o Help friends 
o Emp. Rating = Man. Rating 
o Prevent negavite reactions 
ORGANIZATIONAL DYNAMICS 
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE & STRESS MANAGEMENT 
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE & DEVELOPMENT 
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 
Organizational change is the movement of an organization away from its present state and toward some 
desired future state to increase its effectiveness 
• Reengineering 
• TQM 
• Innovation 
• Restructuring 
Need for Change: Proactive, Reactive, Crisis 
Dealing with resistance: 
• Negotiation: Güçlü biri değişim sonunda birşey kaybedecekse 
• Participation & Involvement: Bilgi eksikliği varsa ve güçlüyse 
• Communication & Education: Bilgi eksikliği varsa ve zayıfsa 
• Facilitation & Support: Altyapı eksikliği varsa 
• Coercion: Hızlı değişim gerekiyorsa 
CHANGE MODELS 
McKinsey /‐S Model 
There are seven factors working collectively, which are part of this model: (Cellars, 2007) 
1. Shared Values: Mission / vision of the company 
2. Strategy: How the company plans to react towards external changes 
3. Structure: Organizational structure of the company 
4. Systems: Procedures about how the work should be done 
5. Style: Organizational culture and management style 
6. Staff: Employees and their responsibilities 
39   
 
7. Skill: The abilities of the employees and the organization 
There are many benefits and disadvantages of the McKinsey model (Cellars, 2007). Advantages are: 
• It is an effective way to understand an organization 
• It is a guide for organizational change 
• All parts are interrelated; therefore, all portions must be addressed and focused on 
The  disadvantages  are;  when  one  part  is  changed,  all  parts  must  be  changed  as  well  because  of 
interdependency. There is evidence that after the five years, many of the companies using this model fell from 
the top. Therefore; except its usefulness to understand an organization, it is not wise to accept this model as 
the most useful one. 
Lewin’s Three Step Model 
Unfreezing, Movement, Freezing. 
Kotter’s Eight Step Plan 
Like Lewin’s, but more detailed. 
1. Establish a sense of urgency by creating a compelling reason for why change is needed. 
2. Form a coalition with enough power to lead change. 
3. Create a new vision to direct the change and strategies for achieving the vision. 
4. Communicate the vision throughout the organization. 
5. Empower others to act on the vision by removing barriers to change and encouraging risk taking and 
creative problem solving. 
6. Plan for, create, and reward short‐term “wins” that move the organization toward the new vision. 
7. Consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make necessary adjustments in the new programs. 
8. Reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship between new behaviors and organizational 
success. 
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 
Organizational development (OD) is the use of social science knowledge to improve organizational 
effectiveness. Organizational development is a special approach to organizational change in which the 
employees themselves formulate the change that’s required and implement it, often with the assistance of a 
trained consultant. Five steps: 
• Diagnosis: Collect data about group, organization, vs 
• Feedback: Give information to them 
• Planning: Plan future steps 
• Intervention 
• Follow‐up Evaluation 
STRESS MANAGEMENT 
Stress: A dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity, constraint, or demand 
related to what he or she desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important. 
Sources of stress: 
40   
• Environmental factors (economic / political / technological uncertainty) 
• Organizatioal factors (task / role / interpersonal demsnds, org. structure & leadership) 
• Individual factors (family / economic problems, personality) 
Consequences 
• Physiological symptoms (headache, high blood pressure, heart disease) 
• Psychological symptoms (anxiety, depression, decrease in job satisfaction) 
• Behavioral symtoms (prductivity, absenteeism, turnover) 
Managing stress: 
• Individual approaches. Time management training, physical exercise, relaxation techniques, social 
support networks. 
• Organizational approaches. Better selection & placement decisions, better goal setting, 
redesigning jobs, organizational communication. 
LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS 
Organization, which has developed the continous capacity to adopt and change.  
Single Loop vs Double Loop Learning 
Characteristics: 
• Shared vision 
• Discard old ways 
• Open systems approach 
• Open communication 
• Sublimate self interest 
Disciplines: 
• Systems thinking 
o Balance process with delay: shower 
o Self sustaining vs Self limiting growth: borsa iniş çıkış, neresinde satıyorsun 
o Shifting the burden: cure disease, not symptoms. Sample: don’t cure stress by drinking 
o Tragedy of Commons 
o Personal mastery: deepen one’s vision and sustaining lifelong learning. Hayaller yukarı 
çekerken gerçeklik aşağı çeker 
• Mental models: Kafamızdaki modeller gerçeklikten uzak olabilir. Önlem: Make reasoning explicit, 
define assumptions clearly, encourage others to find gaps, inquire into other views 
• Building a shared vision: Polariod – Instant Photography gibi. Vizyon, Personal Vision’lara da uymalı 
• Team Learning: Jazz grupları veya NBA takımları gibi. How? Sustain dialogue & discussion 
Learning Disabilities: 
• I am my position: Limits responsibility, blindness of interaction 
• The enemy is out there: Blaming others. Marketing  Production. Result of system blindness 
• Illusion of taking charge: Proactiveness is reactiveness in disguise. Örnek: Proje ucuz olsun diye ucuz 
ABAPçı alıyorsun ama üretim yanlış hesaplandığı için uzun vadede daha kötü oluyor. 
• Fixation on events: Kısa vadeye odaklanmak. 
• Parable of boiled frog 
41   
 
• Delusion of learning from experience: R&D daha hafif bir saç kurutma makinası yapıyor, ama müşteri 
dokunuşunu “Cheap” bulduğu için almıyor.  Must have feedback – hard in open systems 
• Myth of management team: Usually, solving an urgent problem is the subject of a management team 
meeting, and a good solution will be rewarded. On the other hand, questioning the company’s current 
policies will not 
Laws of learning organizations: 
• Today’s Problems Come From Yesterday’s Solutions: Ayakkabıcı günü kurtarmak için indirim yapıyor, 
ama sonar ucuz ayakkabılarla aynı seviyeye düşüyor imajı 
• The Harder You Push, The Harder The System Pushes Back. ¨Example: USA aid program 
• Behavior Will Grow Better Before It Will Grow Worse: Yazılımcı projeyi yetiştiremedi diyelim. Test 
sürecini zayıf tutup “gecikme” problemini çözdü diyelim. O anda aferin dendi. Ama uzun vadede 
yazılım patlayınca o kötü yazılımcı olarak bilinecek. 
• The Easy Way Out Usually Leads Back In: “Bigger Hammer”. carpenter who is trying different type of 
hammers to get a nail out of a cabinet. What he really needs is a pair of pincers. 
• The Cure Can Be Worse Than The Disease. ¨Example: Alcoholism 
• Faster is Slower. As a managerial principle, it is a better idea to remove the factors limiting growth 
instead of pushing growth. 
• Cause & Effect Are Not Closely Related. Sales bad? Wrong: Fire salespeople. Right: Inspect reasons. 
• Least Obvious Areas of Leverage: when school officials make the decision to introduce educational 
reforms, simply sitting down with teachers and easing their concerns about the impact these reforms 
will have on their lives can go a long way toward paving the way for a smooth transition  
• You Can Have Your Cake, and Eat It Too. But Not All At Once! This is an incorrect belief. Some items in 
Ikea’s catalogue of 2008 are cheaper than the catalogue of 2007. IKEA stated that this happened 
because they were able to decrease the price because of the high volume of sales and new production 
methods. 
• Dividing An Elephant In Two Doesn’t Produce 2 Elephants. Open systems have integrity.  
24 25
Leadership in LO: Leader as Designer , Leader as Teacher , Leader as Steward, Transformational Leadership 
                                                                    
24
 Sistemleri tasarlarken de bulunmalı yönetici. Mesela ERP projesi varsa, tasarım aşamasında olmalı 
25
 Create a space for learning & invite people into it 

A General Summary of Organizational Behavior

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08

Personality Traits .......................................................................................................................................... 10

Person – Job Fit ............................................................................................................................................. 11

Emotions ........................................................................................................................................................... 12

Motivation ............................................................................................................................................................ 14

Process Theories ........................................................................................................................................... 15

The Process of Human Communication ............................................................................................................ 19

The Message ..................................................................................................................................................... 20

Listening ............................................................................................................................................................ 21

Leadership Theories .......................................................................................................................................... 22

Trait vs Behavioral Theories .......................................................................................................................... 22

Contemporary Theories ................................................................................................................................ 24

LMX Theory ................................................................................................................................................... 24

X – Y Theory .................................................................................................................................................. 25

Management Philosophy .................................................................................................................................. 25

Ancient World ............................................................................................................................................... 25

Christianity .................................................................................................................................................... 25

Culture .......................................................................................................................................................... 26

Contemporary Issues of leadership .................................................................................................................. 26

Trust .............................................................................................................................................................. 26

Power & Politics .................................................................................................................................................... 27

Power ................................................................................................................................................................ 27

Politics ............................................................................................................................................................... 28

Conflict & Negotiation .......................................................................................................................................... 28

Conflict .............................................................................................................................................................. 28

Negotiation ....................................................................................................................................................... 30

Organizational Culture .......................................................................................................................................... 30

Culture in General ............................................................................................................................................. 30

Culture vs Climate ............................................................................................................................................. 31

Denison ......................................................................................................................................................... 32

GLOBE Project ............................................................................................................................................... 33

HR Policies and Practices ...................................................................................................................................... 34

Recruitment ...................................................................................................................................................... 34

Compansation Systems ..................................................................................................................................... 36

Training & Development ................................................................................................................................... 36

Organizational Change & Stress Management ..................................................................................................... 38

Organizational Change .................................................................................................................................. 38

Change Models ............................................................................................................................................. 38

Organizational Development ........................................................................................................................ 39

Stress Management .......................................................................................................................................... 39

Learning Organizations ......................................................................................................................................... 40

Criteria Ethical Unethical

Communication Makes disclosure of relevant info Uses deception to bias follower

Point Climate Culture

• Charismatic / Value Based: This CLT captures a leader’s ability to inspire, to motivate, and to expect

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08 

Personality Traits .......................................................................................................................................... 10 

Person – Job Fit ............................................................................................................................................. 11 

Emotions ........................................................................................................................................................... 12 

Motivation ............................................................................................................................................................ 14 

Process Theories ........................................................................................................................................... 15 

The Process of Human Communication ............................................................................................................ 19 

The Message ..................................................................................................................................................... 20 

Listening ............................................................................................................................................................ 21 

Leadership Theories .......................................................................................................................................... 22 

Trait vs Behavioral Theories .......................................................................................................................... 22 

Contemporary Theories ................................................................................................................................ 24 

LMX Theory ................................................................................................................................................... 24 

X – Y Theory .................................................................................................................................................. 25 

Management Philosophy .................................................................................................................................. 25 

Ancient World ............................................................................................................................................... 25 

Christianity .................................................................................................................................................... 25 

Culture .......................................................................................................................................................... 26 

Contemporary Issues of leadership .................................................................................................................. 26 

Trust .............................................................................................................................................................. 26 

Power & Politics .................................................................................................................................................... 27 

Power ................................................................................................................................................................ 27 

Politics ............................................................................................................................................................... 28 

Conflict & Negotiation .......................................................................................................................................... 28 

Conflict .............................................................................................................................................................. 28 

Negotiation ....................................................................................................................................................... 30 

Organizational Culture .......................................................................................................................................... 30 

Culture in General ............................................................................................................................................. 30 

Culture vs Climate ............................................................................................................................................. 31 

Denison ......................................................................................................................................................... 32 

GLOBE Project ............................................................................................................................................... 33 

HR Policies and Practices ...................................................................................................................................... 34 

Recruitment ...................................................................................................................................................... 34 

Compansation Systems ..................................................................................................................................... 36 

Training & Development ................................................................................................................................... 36 

Organizational Change & Stress Management ..................................................................................................... 38 

Organizational Change .................................................................................................................................. 38 

Change Models ............................................................................................................................................. 38 

Organizational Development ........................................................................................................................ 39 

Stress Management .......................................................................................................................................... 39 

Learning Organizations ......................................................................................................................................... 40 

Criteria  Ethical  Unethical 

Communication  Makes disclosure of relevant info  Uses deception to bias follower 

Point  Climate  Culture 

• Charismatic  /  Value  Based: This CLT captures a leader’s ability to inspire, to motivate, and to expect 