Methamphetamine is a hot topic in today's society.

Documentaries, newspapers, and websites abound with stories about meth labs, "meth heads," and the overall dangers of this notorious illegal drug. However, methamphetamine is more than just an illegal drug. In fact, you may have methamphetamine in your purse or in your medicine cabinet at this moment. This paper will explore the chemical and physical properties of methamphetamine, the forms in which it can be found, a history of methamphetamine, positive and negative effects of the drug, and safety, health, and environmental concerns stemming from its illegal use and production. BASIC CHEMISTRY OF METHAMPHETAMINE Methamphetamine is a synthetic organic compound belonging to a group of chemicals collectively known as phenylethylamines. As the name suggests, phenylethylamines are built upon a base chemical structure consisting of a phenyl group, an ethane backbone, and an amine group. The IUPAC nomenclature of basic phenylethylamine is 2phenylethanamine The chemical class of amphetamines consists of compounds with a phenylethylamine structure containing an additional methyl group bonded to the carbon-1 atom of phenylethylamine, which changes the ethane hydrocarbon backbone to a propane backbone. Thus, the IUPAC name of basic amphetamine is 1-phenylpropan-2amine. Methamphetamine is included in the amphetamine class of chemicals, and is composed of a basic amphetamine structure with a methyl group bonded to the nitrogen atom of the amine group. The IUPAC nomenclature of methamphetamine is N-methyl-1-phenylpropan-2-amine (Pavlova & Jovanovic, 2007; Chemical Information, n.d.). Methamphetamine is a slightly polar molecule. In its pure base form, it is a clear liquid that is only slightly soluble in water. Conversion of the methamphetamine base to a salt, methamphetamine hydrochloride, greatly increases its water solubility. Methamphetamine hydrochloride is a white solid that is commonly found in the form of powder, compressed into tablets, or large crystals. Methamphetamine has a melting point of 170-175 degrees Celsius. (EMCDDA, 2010; White, 2004). Because it contains one chiral carbon, methamphetamine occurs as two enantiomers. L-methamphetamine and Dmethamphetamine are mirror images of one another, but have vastly different biological properties (Logan, 2002). L-methamphetamine, also known as levomethamphetamine or levmetamfetamine, is the levorotatory form of methamphetamine. It can be found over the counter in the United States as the active decongestant ingredient in some nasal inhalers (Logan, 2002). L-methamphetamine in these inhalers acts as a vasoconstrictor, which causes dilated blood vessels in the nasal passages to constrict, increasing the ability of air to flow through the passages (Courseault, 2011). L-methamphetamine acts exclusively on the sympathetic portion of the central nervous system; it has no psychoactive effects and has been shown to have virtually no addictive properties (Navy, 2009; Molecule, 2011). The enantiomer most often implied when a person uses the word "methamphetamine" is D-methamphetamine, which is the dextrorotatory form of methamphetamine (Logan, 2002). For the sake of simplicity, the word "methamphetamine" in the remainder of this paper, unless otherwise noted, will refer to the D-methamphetamine enantiomer of the chemical in its salt form, methamphetamine hydrochloride. PHYSIOLOGY OF ILLICIT METHAMPHETAMINE Methamphetamine is commonly used as a street drug also known as meth, ice, crystal meth, or crank (EMCDDA, 2010). It can be swallowed, snorted through the nose, injected into veins, or smoked, and is done so in relatively large quantities; smoking or injecting the drug results in an instant rush followed by a prolonged sense of euphoria. Ingesting or snorting the drug delays the euphoric experience slightly, but the high can last for hours longer than injected or snorted meth (NIDA, 1998; PBS, n.d.). Methamphetamine affects the brain by increasing the amounts of the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and serotonin that are active within the user's body. The drug causes neurotransmitters to be released at greater volumes, while also extending the length of time during which the neurotransmitters are present in the synapse; this allows more of the neurotransmitters to be utilized by the body (DrugFacts, n.d.).

The increased levels of dopamine are responsible for most of the pleasurable effects experienced while using methamphetamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, motivation, and some motor function (NIDA, 1998). Some studies have shown that the dopamine level of a person who is high on meth is as much as twelve times that of someone who is experiencing a pleasurable activity without drugs (PBS, n.d.). For this reason, increased dopamine is thought to be the driving force behind meth addiction; meth users seek the feelings of euphoria, self-confidence, and increased energy associated with the drug (USDOJ, 1999; Logan, 2002). Other short-term effects of methamphetamine on increased neurotransmitter levels are less desirable. Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter associated with the sympathetic nervous system, the portion of the nervous system responsible for the "fight or flight" response, the adrenaline rush experienced when some sort of threat is perceived. Elevated levels of norepinephrine can cause increased heart rate, hypertension, sweating, decreased appetite, anxiety, obsessive behavior, and insomnia (NIDA, 1998; PBS, n.d.). Chronic use of methamphetamine can actually change the chemistry of the brain. Studies have shown that prolonged use of methamphetamine can damage up to half of the brains dopamine-producing cells (USDOJ, 1999); the decreased levels of dopamine make feelings of pleasure nearly impossible, and causing severe depression when the drug is no longer in the system (PBS, n.d.). Some laboratory studies have shown that, given unlimited access to methamphetamine, animals will self-administer the drug until they die from overdose (USDOJ, 1999). Many chronic meth users also show signs of cognitive impairment, including problems with memory, judgment, and motor coordination. These effects have been shown to continue for years after discontinuation of the drug (PBS, n.d.; NIDA, 1998). In many cases, psychosis similar to schizophrenia has been observed in binge methamphetamine users: after prolonged use of meth, the user can become extremely anxious, irritable, and paranoid. Hallucinations and delusions are common manifestations as the exhaustion from lack of sleep exacerbates the situation. Chronic meth users often demonstrate aggressive or violent episodes as a result of methamphetamine psychosis (Logan, 2002). Prolonged use of methamphetamine can cause a person to undergo striking changes in physical appearance, due to the continued effect of the drug on various neurotransmitters. The appetite suppression and an increase in metabolic rate due to sustained high levels of norepinephrine can result in dramatic weight loss; chronic vasoconstriction caused by the same neurotransmitter restricts the amount of blood reaching the skin, resulting in a dry and pallid complexion. Chronic meth users are often covered with scabs and lesions on the face and other parts of the body as a result of obsessive skin picking, in addition to meths interference with the bodys healing process (PBS, n.d.; Signs, n.d.). "Meth mouth" is a term used to describe the devastating effect that chronic meth use can impart on the teeth and gums; it is characterized by broken, stained, and decaying teeth that result from poor hygiene, persistent dry mouth, and teeth-grinding (ADA, 2005). HISTORY OF METHAMPHETAMINE AROUND THE WORLD AND IN THE UNITED STATES In the late 1800s, a Japanese chemist first created a form of amphetamine called ephedrine. Ephedrine was isolated from a group of shrubs called ephedra, or ma-huang; ephedra, extracted in the form of tea, has been used as a decongestant in various cultures for centuries. In the early 1900s, crystallized methamphetamine was first synthesized from ephedrine. During the time of original synthesis, neither amphetamine nor methamphetamine yet had a specific purpose (Scheve, n.d.). After some experimentation, methamphetamine began being marketed in the 1920s and 1930s as treatment for colds, narcolepsy, alcoholism, depression, asthma, and a variety of other maladies. It was also noted that methamphetamine acted as a strong stimulant (University, n.d.). During World War II, millions of doses of methamphetamine were distributed by Nazi leaders to their military, in hopes that the stimulant effects of the drug would help to produce an army of supersoldiers. At the same time, the drug was being sold over the counter to the German public (Scheve, n.d.). Germany was not the only country affected by methamphetamine during World War II. War-industry factory workers in Japan were given the drug in order to increase their production (Methamphetamine Origin, n.d.). When the war ended, a surplus of injectable methamphetamine was released over the counter to the Japanese public, eventually resulting in the worlds first methamphetamine epidemic. Over 2 million people in Japan were injecting the drug when the epidemic peaked in the mid-1950s (National, 2006).

By the 1950s, methamphetamine had become very popular in the United States, due to massive production and heavy marketing by pharmaceutical companies. Though methamphetamine pills were being marketed for specific medical purposes, such as treatment for narcolepsy and obesity, it was being used by truckers, students, housewives, and athletes to increase wakefulness and alertness (Vermont, n.d.). Despite wide abuse of the drug, it was not known to be exceptionally addictive in its pill form. However, in San Francisco in the 1960s, methamphetamine became available in an injectable form as a treatment for heroin addiction; methamphetamine abuse increased dramatically, marking the first methamphetamine epidemic in the United States as (Methamphetamine, 2001). This eventually led to the prohibition of injectable methamphetamine production and the classification of methamphetamine as a Schedule II controlled substance by the U.S. government in 1970 (National, 2006). As availability of methamphetamine decreased, people began experimenting with methods of producing the drug at home, and an alarming number of people were reported to have exhibited signs of amphetamine psychosis from excessive use of the drug (Methamphetamine, 2001). This promptly lead more restrictions on the precursor chemicals required to make methamphetamine. Throughout the 1970s, methamphetamine use declined; however, in the 1980s, methamphetamine began to surge again as it reemerged in Hawaii and California (National, 2006). San Diego was once called the meth capital of the world. Many factors led to San Diegos infamous meth title. During the 1960s, when methamphetamine became an epidemic in San Francisco, it was transported and distributed throughout California by the Hells Angels motorcycle gang, based in San Bernardino County. San Diegos proximity to Mexico made it easy to obtain precursor chemicals (the chemicals required to make methamphetamine) and illegal meth being produced across the border with little governmental interference. Several chemical distributing companies in the area saw a big potential for profit and began selling precursor chemicals directly to meth manufacturers. One of the companies was located on Palomar Airport Road in Carlsbad. (Warth, 2007). The government has implemented multiple laws regarding the regulation of methamphetamine precursors over the last few decades, but people still find ways to acquire them. In 2004, the Forensic Science Service of the United Kingdom conducted a quick Ebay search that yielded everything needed to make large quantities meth (White, 2004). Illegal meth producers are able to obtain precursor chemicals by developing ways to alter the recipe, or by smurfing, which is the process of going from store to store, buying small amounts at a time, in an attempt to go unnoticed. Also, meth production in Mexico is still an enormous business, and a source for many meth dealers (Bureau, 2012; Perera, 2012). In 2006 and 2009, Oregon and Mississippi, respectively, were the first two states to pass legislation requiring a prescription for pseudoephedrine-containing products (PBS, n.d.). The restrictions on these products are often frustrating to people who legitimately need the medication; in fact, a very realistic-looking journal article published on the Internet earlier this year details a (satirical, but scientifically sound) method for producing pseudoephedrine from the easier-to-obtain methamphetamine (Jardin, 2012). Despite tighter and tighter government restrictions on methamphetamine precursors over the years, illegal meth production remains a growing problem in the United States (White, 2012). CLANDESTINE METH LABS AND THE PRODUCTION OF ILLEGAL METH Illegal, or clandestine, manufacturing of methamphetamine is a fairly simple process. The internet is full of websites and videos detailing the steps of methamphetamine production at home (The Book, 2011). The most widely used procedures begin with a base of cold and allergy medication containing pseudoephedrine; other reactants always include metals, salts, acids, and bases. Individual recipes vary, though most methods involve the use of combustible and corrosive chemicals such as drain cleaner, acetone, red phosphorous (usually obtained from the ends of matches), ether, hydrochloric acid, iodine, anhydrous ammonia, and disassembled lithium batteries (EMCDDA, 2009). The process involves performing several chemical reactions that lead to the ultimate goal of reducing the pseudoephedrine molecules. Pseudoephedrine and methamphetamine are identical in chemical structure, with the exception of one hydroxyl group on the carbon-1 atom of the pseudoephedrine molecule, which is replaced with a single hydrogen atom in the formation of methamphetamine (Formulation, n.d.). The chemicals and reactions involved in the clandestine production of methamphetamine can be extremely dangerous. Some of the chemicals are caustic or produce noxious fumes; others are highly combustible. Illegal production of methamphetamine occurs in an uncontrolled environment and often involves crude, unrefined methods. Approximately 15% of meth labs are discovered because of fires or explosions (Cline, 2005; Dangers, n.d.).

The most popular methamphetamine production methods until recently were called the Birch reduction, or Nazi, method and the red, white, and blue method (Hamilton, 2010, Manufacturing, n.d.). In the Nazi method, pseudoephedrine is reduced with lithium metal in anhydrous ammonia: Tablets containing pseudoephedrine are crushed and added to a jar with liquid petroleum fuel; the fuel extracts the pseudoephedrine from the crushed tablets. Added to this mixture are anhydrous ammonia (farm fertilizer), engine starting fluid (a mixture of carbon dioxide, heptane and ethyl ether), and lithium strips from disassembled batteries. The mixture is cooked over an open flame. Hydrogen chloride gas is produced by combining sodium chloride and sulfuric acid, and the gas is bubbled through the ether mixture, resulting in precipitation of methamphetamine (Hamilton, 2010). The red, white, and blue method refers to red phosphorous, white pseudoephedrine, and hydroiodic acid, which are a small portion of a recipe that also includes brake fluid, lighter fluid, hydrochloric acid, liquid drain cleaner, engine starting fluid, and anhydrous ammonia. It involves cooking the mixture on the stove in a water bath for several hours, while the Birch reduction method requires no heating, and is sometimes called the cold cook method. The red, white, and blue method has a much higher yield per gram of pseudoephedrine than the Birch reduction method, but it is also more dangerous due to its heating requirements. One author remarked, ...that's sort of like saying juggling with kitchen knives is safer than using chain saws (Miss Fortune, 2011). Another method of methamphetamine production that has been gaining popularity is known as the shake and bake method. The entire process is performed in a plastic soda bottle, and is easily transportable. The process uses fewer pseudoephedrine tablets than other methods, which makes it attractive to clandestine meth producers. (Buddy, 2012). Pseudoephedrine, lithium strips, water, liquid petroleum fuel, and ammonium nitrate (usually obtained from chemical ice packs) are all added to the bottle at once. The subsequent reactions produce pressure inside the container, requiring the meth maker to release the pressure through the screw-top; this allows oxygen into the container, increasing the risk of explosion (Hamilton, 2010). This method is particularly dangerous, due to the risk of explosion and due to the fact that someone is usually holding the bottle when it explodes (Buddy, 2012). Although the explosions are less deadly, they are much more common and result in many more injuries than traditional meth lab explosions (Hamilton, 2010). Earlier this year, a woman was caught shoplifting at a Walmart store in St. Louis, MO. When police searched her, they found a 20-ounce shake and bake meth lab in her purse. The store was evacuated for three hours while units seized the materials and checked for harmful substances in the store (CBS, 2012). ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ILLEGAL METH LABS The most obvious environmental hazard of illegal meth labs is the potential for explosion due to the volatile chemicals used, unsophisticated technique, and improper control of ventilation and temperature. Meth labs commonly include open flames for cooking the product. A 40-year woman in Riverside, CA was convicted of second-degree murder after the flame cooking the meth on her stove ignited an explosion that killed her three very young children (USDOJ, 1999). Illegal meth labs in the United States consist of small labs that produce relatively small amounts of the drug, often called Mom and Pop labs, and larger super labs that can yield more than 10 pounds of meth with every production (National, 2006). Each pound of synthesized meth results in up to six pounds of chemical waste. Hazardous waste from the production of methamphetamine is usually not properly disposed; it is often flushed down toilets, buried in the yard, or thrown into dumpsters (USDOJ, 1999). Meth labs are often located in rural areas in agricultural areas and near forests, which can be significantly vulnerable to waste runoff. Suspicious eaths of trees, vegetation, and animals as large as deer have been reported in areas downstream from meth labs and in agricultural areas (National, 2006; Williams, 2011). In addition to the effects from improper waste disposal, meth-contaminated living spaces can be highly toxic environments. While the meth lab is active, inhalation and skin exposure to toxic byproducts are major health concerns; even when no chemicals are visible, exposure to fumes and airborne toxins can cause an array of health problems, including breathing difficulty, headaches, nausea, and dizziness. Methamphetamine itself can also be found in particulate form in the air inside the space. People who spend even a small amount of time in an active meth lab could be exposed to dangerous levels of harmful substances. 55% of children removed from residential meth labs test positive for toxic chemicals (Messina, Marinelli-Casey, West, and Rawson, 2007). A very unhealthy cat was rescued from an Oklahoma meth lab earlier this year and tested positive for meth; it was determined that the meth was ingested passively (Scripps, 2012).

Cleanup of seized meth labs is a painstaking, expensive, and time-consuming process which requires the work of skilled professionals with appropriate protection and equipment. The average cost of a typical cleanup is $5000, but the price can soar up to $150,000, depending on the size and accessibility of the space and the amount of contamination (EPA 2009). Currently, 28 states have laws requiring disclosure of real estate property that formerly housed a meth lab, although the laws can be fuzzy in the area of foreclosures; if the bank is not aware that the property was formerly used for meth production, the information may not be available to the buyer. Several states with disclosure laws do not require former meth lab disclosure if the owner has cleaned, or remediated, the property (Wade, 2012). The U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency has published a National Clandestine Laboratory Register which lists some of the addresses at which the DEA has found evidence of clandestine meth labs or dump sites since 2004. 25 addresses are listed for San Diego County: The cities of Boulevard, Fallbrook, La Puente, Lakeside, Oceanside, San Ysidro, Santee, and Valley Center all have one listing; Carlsbad has two listings; Escondido, Vista, and San Diego each have five listings. The database can be accessed at http://www.justice.gov/dea/clan-lab/index.shtml. PHARMACOLOGY AND BENEFITS OF LEGAL METHAMPHETAMINE Methamphetamine, when manufactured legally by pharmaceutical companies, is still thought to be beneficial in certain situations. It is available by prescription in pill form (Desoxyn, n.d.). Sold under the name Desoxyn (methamphetamine hydrochloride), the drug is described by the Food and Drug Administration (2007) as follows: DESOXYN is a central nervous system stimulant prescription medicine. It is used for the treatment of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder; (ADHD). DESOXYN may help increase attention and decrease impulsiveness and hyperactivity in patients with ADHD. DESOXYN should be used as a part of a total treatment program for ADHD that may include counseling or other therapies. DESOXYN is also used short-term, along with a low calorie diet, for weight loss in obese patients who have not been able to lose weight on other therapies. Some of the common side effects of Desoxyn are restlessness, headache, insomnia, dry mouth, hypertension, upset stomach, and increased heart rate, though most people tolerate the drug well at the proper dosage (FDA, 2007; Desoxyn, n.d.). When taken as prescribed, methamphetamine's benefits may outweigh the health risks involved. Due to high possibility of abuse, Desoxyn is rarely prescribed (Desoxyn Oral, n.d.), and extensive information regarding the extent of its beneficial qualities are difficult to obtain. CONCLUSION Methamphetamine continues to have significance as a compound that can be beneficial in its legal forms when manufactured, distributed, and used properly. However, the relative ease of illegally manufacturing and consuming the drug continues to take a toll on society and on the environment. Discontinuation of the production and prescription of legal methamphetamine would likely have no effect on the overall damage of the illicit consumption and manufacturing of the drug in clandestine labs. Steadily increased government control of the precursor chemicals involved in illegal production of meth have not seen great success in curtailing the problem. Illegal meth is accessible from Mexican meth labs, and as the regulations on precursors become tighter, illegal meth producers in the United States become more resourceful, substituting new chemicals in their recipes and often increasing the risk of the process. The overwhelming amount of information available on the Internet seems to be a catalyst in the everevolving production of illegal methamphetamine. Until there becomes a way to eliminate demand for the drug, it seems that the end of the meth problem in our country, and around the world, is nowhere in sight.

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